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    Foodborne Diseases
    Foodborne Diseases
    Foodborne Diseases
    Ebook1,212 pages47 hours

    Foodborne Diseases

    By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

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    About this ebook

    Foodborne Diseases, Volume Fifteen, is the latest release in the Handbook of Bioengineering series. This volume covers the ever-changing complex issues that have emerged in the food industry over the past decade. This is a solid reference with broad coverage to provide a foundation for a practical understanding of diseases and related industrial applications. It will help researchers and scientists manage foodborne diseases and prevent and control outbreaks. The book provides information on the most common and classical foodborne diseases, their emergence and inquiries, along with the most investigated and successful strategies developed to combat these health-threatening conditions.

    • Identifies the advances in biotechnology, emerging technologies, food safety and quality control that impact foodborne diseases
    • Explores advances in vaccines to fight foodborne illness
    • Addresses Campylobacter, Listeria, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella, Vibrio and Helicobacter
    • Discusses biosensor based methods for determining foodborne pathogens
    • Includes molecular typing of major foodborne pathogens
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateFeb 5, 2018
    ISBN9780128114964
    Foodborne Diseases

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      Book preview

      Foodborne Diseases - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Foodborne Diseases

      Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 15

      Edited by

      Alina Maria Holban

      Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title page

      Copyright

      List of Contributors

      Foreword

      Series Preface

      Preface for Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Chapter 1: Microbial Foodborne Diseases

      Abstract

      1. Section 1. Bacterial Foodborne Diseases

      2. Section 2. Parasitic Foodborne Diseases

      3. Section 3. Viral Foodborne Diseases

      4. Conclusions

      Chapter 2: Important Emerging and Reemerging Tropical Food-Borne Diseases

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Food-Borne Disease: Important Problem in Public Health

      3. Examples of Important Food-Borne Diseases

      4. Emerging Infectious Diseases and Emerging Food-Borne Diseases

      5. Tropical Food-Borne Diseases: Important Tropical Diseases

      6. Databases and Computational Online Tools for Emerging and Reemerging Tropical Food-Borne Diseases

      7. How to Use the New Technologies for Management of the Emerging and Reemerging Tropical Food-Borne Diseases

      8. Further Important Issues Relating to Emerging Food-Borne Diseases

      9. Conclusions

      Chapter 3: Foodborne Pathogen–Produced Toxins and Their Signal Transduction

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Foodborne Pathogens (Bacterial, Viral, Fungal, and Algal)

      3. Toxins That Target Signal Transduction

      4. Signal Transduction

      5. Recent Developments

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 4: Toxoplasmosis: Prevalence and New Detection Methods

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis in Animals in Ukraine

      3. Comparison of New Methods of Diagnostics

      4. Discussion and Conclusions

      Chapter 5: Campylobacteriosis: An Emerging Infectious Foodborne Disease

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Taxonomy

      3. Ecology and Transmission

      4. Clinical Relevance

      5. Epidemiology and Outbreak

      6. Isolation

      7. Typing

      8. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 6: Listeria monocytogenes: A Food-Borne Pathogen

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Conclusions

      Chapter 7: Bacillus spp. as Pathogens in the Dairy Industry

      Abstract

      1. Bacillus: General Information

      2. Bacillus in Clinical Settings (General)

      3. Bacillus in Food

      4. Quorum Sensing

      5. Quorum Sensing and Bacillus spp. Pathogenesis

      6. Summary and Future Work

      Chapter 8: Staphylococcus aureus, a Food Pathogen: Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Staphylococcus aureus—General Characteristics

      3. Occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus

      4. Staphylococcus aureus and Clinical Aspects: An Overview

      5. MRSA Strains

      6. Staphylococcal Food Poisoning—Outbreaks

      7. Presence of Virulence Factors in Staphylococcus aureus

      8. Biocontrol and Staphylococcus aureus

      9. Preventing Staphylococcus aureus—Other Than Antibiotics

      10. Conclusions

      Chapter 9: Food-Borne Mycotoxicoses: Pathologies and Public Health Impact

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Important Factors for Mycotoxin Production

      3. Aflatoxins

      4. Fumonisins

      5. Ochratoxin A

      6. Zearalenone

      7. Trichothecenes

      8. Citrinin

      9. Moniliformin

      10. Ergot Alkaloids

      11. Public Health and Economic Impact of Mycotoxins

      12. Conclusions

      Chapter 10: Foodborne Botulism From a Systems Biology Perspective

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Food Matrix System: Biophysical Properties

      3. Bacterial Neurotoxin-Producing System

      4. Gastrointestinal Tract System

      5. Vascular and Lymphatic Systems

      6. Peripheral Cholinergic Neuromuscular Junction System

      7. Systems Biology of Secondary Reactions

      8. Future Directions in Systems Biology of Foodborne Botulism

      9. Conclusions

      10. Disclaimer

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 11: Pathogenic Biofilm Formation in the Food Industry and Alternative Control Strategies

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Meat Industry

      3. Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Dairy Industry

      4. Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Fresh Produce Industry

      5. Pathogenic Bacterial Biofilms in the Seafood Industry

      6. Alternative Antibiofilm Strategies for Use in the Food Industry

      7. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 12: Biosensor-Based Methods for the Determination of Foodborne Pathogens

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Causes of Foodborne Diseases

      3. Detection of Foodborne Pathogens

      4. Conclusion

      Chapter 13: Molecular Typing of Major Foodborne Pathogens

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Listeria monocytogenes

      3. Salmonella

      4. Campylobacter spp.

      5. Escherichia coli O157:H7

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 14: Environmental Pollution and the Burden of Food-Borne Diseases

      Abstract

      1. Introduction: The Present Scenario

      2. Food-Borne Diseases

      3. The Most Common Microbe of Food-Borne Ailment, Salmonella sp.

      4. Climate Change

      5. Contaminated Water

      6. Pesticides and Other Chemicals

      7. Crops Contaminated With Antibiotics

      8. Polychlorinated and Polybrominated Biphenyls

      9. Heavy Metals in Air

      10. Poor Sanitation

      11. Undernourishment and Overnourishment

      12. Genetically Modified Foods

      13. Rare Earth Elements: A Future Concern

      14. Recommendations and Conclusions

      Chapter 15: Foodborne Illness: Threats and Control

      Abstract

      1. Foodborne Illness

      2. Foodborne Pathogens

      3. Common Foodborne Illnesses

      4. Pathology of Foodborne Illness

      5. Detection Techniques

      6. Impact on Human Health

      7. Prevention of Foodborne Illness

      8. Conclusions

      Index

      Copyright

      Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

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      Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

      No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      ISBN: 978-0-12-811444-5

      For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

      Publisher: Andre G. Wolff

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      Typeset by Thomson Digital

      List of Contributors

      Michael Adler,     US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, MD, United States

      Rajesh Kumar Asrani,     Dr. G.C. Negi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India

      Burcin Bozal-Palabiyik,     Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

      Ana Castro,     CBQF—Center for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, Portugal

      Papiya Deb,     SVKM’s Mithibai College, University of Mumbai, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

      Zygmunt F. Dembek,     Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States

      Eleftherios H. Drosinos,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

      Maryna Galat,     National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

      Vladyslav Galat,     National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

      Asit R. Ghosh,     Centre for Infectious Diseases & Control, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

      Efstathios E. Giaouris,     Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of the Aegean, Myrina, Lemnos, Greece

      Alyssa A. Grutsch,     Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United States

      Aysen Gumustas,     Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

      Agni Hadjilouka,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

      Ying-Hsin Hsieh,     US Food and Drug Administration, Atlanta, GA, United States

      Komal Javed,     National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

      Frank J. Lebeda

      Systems Biology Collaboration Center, US Army Center for Environmental Health Research, US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Frederick, MD

      Johns Hopkins University, Washington, DC, United States

      John L. McKillip,     Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United States

      Ayesha Nasir,     National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

      Pierre S. Nimmer,     Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United States

      Sibel A. Ozkan,     Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

      Spiros Paramithiotis,     Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

      Vikram Patial,     CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India

      Rachel H. Pittsley,     Ball State University, Muncie, IN, United States

      Mian K. Sharif,     National Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

      Joana Silva,     CBQF—Center for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, Portugal

      Manuel V. Simões,     LEPABE, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

      Nickolaj Starodub,     National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine

      Irshad M. Sulaiman,     US Food and Drug Administration, Atlanta, GA, United States

      Paula Teixeira,     CBQF—Center for Biotechnology and Fine Chemistry, Portuguese Catholic University, Porto, Portugal

      Meenakshi Thakur,     Dr. G.C. Negi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India

      Songül Ünüvar,     İnönü University, Malatya, Turkey

      Bengi Uslu,     Ankara University, Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

      Viroj Wiwanitkit

      Hainan Medical University, Hainan, China

      University of Niš, Niš, Serbia

      Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji, Osun, Nigeria

      Surin Rajabhat University, Surin, Thailand

      Dr. DY Patil Medical University, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

      Foreword

      In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

      The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

      Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

      Anton Ficai PhD (Eng)

      Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

      Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

      Bucharest, Romania

      Series Preface

      The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

      Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

      While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

      Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

      Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

      Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

      Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

      Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

      Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

      Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

      Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

      Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

      Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

      Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

      Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

      Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

      Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

      Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

      The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

      All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

      This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Preface for Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      The quality and amount of daily food intake represent one of the most important factors in balancing health and disease in humans. Along with the nutritional value of ingested food, other factors, such as contaminants, contribute to food quality and may determine foodborne diseases. These health-threatening conditions may occur as a result of various chemical and biological contaminants, which may also have a huge impact on the food quality. Biological contaminants include microorganisms, such as bacteria, microfungi, and protozoa; but also viruses and parasites and nonetheless their toxins. Infectious and parasitic foodborne diseases cause severe illness in consumers, and sometimes epidemiologic outbreaks. In this book, we aim to present and dissect basic and novel information on the types of food-associated risks, foodborne diseases, main contaminants, and their characteristics; but also current and future perspectives for the early detection and prevention of food contamination.

      The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Turkey, Greece, Thailand, USA, Ukraine, Portugal, India, and Pakistan.

      The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, microbiologists, medical doctors, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, industrial companies; and also for any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of foodborne diseases.

      Chapter 1, entitled Microbial Foodborne Diseases, prepared by Ünüvar, introduces the readers in the field of foodborne diseases, focusing on the classification, causes, clinical features, and new approaches to reduce/prevent the risk of microbial related foodborne diseases.

      Chapter 2, Important Emerging and Reemerging Tropical Foodborne Diseases, written by Wiwanitkit, reviews and discusses emerging and reemerging tropical foodborne diseases and ways to combat this public health problem.

      Chapter 3, entitled Foodborne Pathogens—Produced Toxins Acting on Signal Transduction, was prepared by Ghosh. This manuscript discusses dominant pathogens that produce one or more toxins targeting signal transduction of the host, which finally leads to pathophysiological changes and subsequently to disease. Some inhibit protein synthesis; some are neurotoxic or some other target different cellular functions.

      Chapter 4, Toxoplasmosis: Prevalence and New Detection Methods, written by Galat et al., describes toxoplasmosis, the causing parasite, as well as prevalence of this parasitic disease. It is currently believed that the use of advanced biosensors to detect contaminated products would decrease the rate of diseases and associated defects.

      Chapter 5, entitled Campylobacteriosis: An Emerging Infectious Foodborne Disease, prepared by Hsieh and Sulaiman, offers an overview regarding Campylobacter infections, the wide spread of this disease and currently investigated methods to early detect and avoid the occurrence of massive infections. Recovery of these emerging infectious bacteria from food is still a difficult task. Molecular typing has been effective in characterizing Campylobacter isolated from food, outbreak, sporadic cases, surveillance, and environmental samples. Currently, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and whole genome sequencing (WGS) is increasingly applied in epidemiologic investigations and transmission dynamics of bacteria causing foodborne diseases.

      Chapter 6, Listeria monocytogenes: A Foodborne Pathogen, prepared by Thakur et al., describes the most frequent illness produced by this foodborne pathogen, such as invasive listeriosis, gastroenteritis, septicemia, endocarditis, meningitis, rhombencephalitis, perinatal infections, ophthalmitis, and abortion. Various aspects of Listeria monocytogenes pathogenesis involving mechanisms of virulence, survival under adverse conditions, incidence and growth in food, methods of detection, and control measures so as to facilitate the development of better ways of disease prevention are presented here.

      Chapter 7, Bacillus spp. as Pathogens in the Dairy Industry, written by Grutsch et al., reveals the current status of knowledge with Bacillus spp. relevant to the dairy industry, virulence potential, and biofilm production from the perspective of food safety. This bacterial genus is capable of contaminating a wide range of food products, including rice, chicken, vegetables, spices, and dairy products, and causing many health-threatening conditions.

      Chapter 8, Staphylococcus aureus, a Food Pathogen: Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance, prepared by Castro et al., aims to show the main virulence determinants and issues related with Staphylococcus aureus food contamination, empathizing on the great risk of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics were widely used not only in human but also in animal husbandry and other agricultural activities. The occurrence of multiresistant strains in food has been increasing; contaminated food is considered as an important vehicle for antimicrobial resistance. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) commonly carry enterotoxin genes and antibiotic resistance associated to enterotoxins genes made S. aureus an evolving threat.

      In Chapter 9, Food-Borne Mycotoxicoses: Pathologies and Public Health Impact, Patial et al. present recent information regarding mycotoxins and the health-threatening conditions that they induce after the ingestion of contaminated food. This chapter discusses important food mycotoxins and the main diseases they produce, such as: aflatoxin, a liver damaging toxin; ochratoxin A, associated with kidney damage; fumonisins, causing liver damage, cancer, and developmental defects; moniliformin, causing acute cardiac damage; deoxynivalenol and zearalenone, causing immunotoxicity and gastroenteritis.

      Chapter 10, Foodborne Botulism From a Systems Biology Perspective, written by Lebeda et al., highlights the impact of a systems approach in helping scaling of the effectiveness of therapies and reduces the costs of hospitalizations in patients with botulism. Computational models describing Clostridium botulinum spore activation, bacterial growth, and neurotoxin production in food could be linked to risk assessments that help improve food safety procedures and public health policies. Combining experimental and clinical data is also critical in developing models designed to simulate illness onset times and durations.

      Chapter 11, entitled Pathogenic Biofilm Formation in the Food Industry and Alternative Control Strategies, was prepared by Giaouris and Simões. The ability of foodborne bacterial pathogens, such as Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, pathogenic Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Bacillus cereus, and Staphylococcus aureus, to attach to various surfaces and create biofilms on them is a worrying hygienic trouble for the food industry, as this may cause serious food contamination and diseases transmission. The purpose of this chapter is to review the current knowledge related to pathogenic biofilm formation in the main food industries (meat, dairy, fresh produce, and seafood) and also to provide up-to-date data on some potential alternative or supplementary antibiofilm strategies.

      Chapter 12, Biosensor-Based Methods for the Determination of Foodborne Pathogens, written by Bozal-Palabiyik et al., gives an overview regarding the main progress made for the development of rapid methods for the detection of foodborne pathogens. Early screening of foodborne pathogens in foods plays an important role in preventing and controlling the outbreaks of foodborne diseases. Biosensors design is one of the important methods for foodborne pathogen detection, which present sensitive, rapid, and low-cost technologies. This study focused on the methods of immobilization of biological component to generate biosensors, applications of mostly used electrochemical and optical biosensors, and recent prospects for foodborne pathogen detection and determination.

      Chapter 13, Molecular Typing of Major Foodborne Pathogens, prepared by Paramithiotis et al., presents accurate methods for the identification of the infection source and the transmission route for the effective implementation of preventive measures against microbial foodborne pathogens. Techniques, such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multilocus variable number of tandem repeats analysis (MLVA), and multilocus sequence typing (MLST) are dissected and examples on typing approaches in Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella serovars, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Campylobacter spp. are integrated and critically discussed.

      In Chapter 14, Environmental Pollution and the Burden of Food-Borne Diseases, Deb reveals the connection linking environmental contamination to foodborne ailments. Various types of environmental pollutions lead to distress, as they are often indirect and reliant on numerous adaptive forces. Numerous menaces to ecosystem directing to foodborne ailments comprise change in climate, contaminated water, use of excess fertilizers-pesticides, poor sanitation, etc. Climate change lays stress on agricultural production causing mass malnutrition and vulnerability to diseases. Furthermore, the dissemination and activity of carriers of food-borne pathogens as insects and rodents alter with changes in weather conditions; producing diseases. Atmospheric contaminants often migrate in food in small amounts causing life-threats. Environmental pollution causing foodborne diseases being an area of serious concern at all echelons, the chapter discusses each of these issues in detail with special reference to the developing countries.

      Chapter 15, Foodborne Illness: Threats and Control, prepared by Sharif et al., gives an overview of the current threats in foodborne diseases, types, pathology, symptoms, adverse effects, contributory factors, major foodborne pathogens, molecular detection methods, toxin synthesis, hazard and risk analysis, and control measures. Furthermore, current and future efforts to be made to comprehensively deliberate impact of food quality, storage, and preservation on human health, role of consumer toward ensuring food security will be also dissected.

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Chapter 1

      Microbial Foodborne Diseases

      Songül Ünüvar    İnönü University, Malatya, Turkey

      Abstract

      Nutrients are necessary to maintain healthy life. The main causes of many diseases are associated with nutritional imbalances; therefore, the daily intake of nutrients is important. Besides foodborne diseases caused by nutritional deficiencies, excessive amounts of nutrients can also lead to side effects and toxicity. Foodborne diseases may result from the consumption of natural food toxins or contaminants, such as pathogenic microorganisms, bacterial and nonbacterial toxins, chemicals, or other substances. Several foods contain potentially harmful, naturally acquired plant and animal toxins. Some plants contain toxic substances: cyanogens, hydrazines, glucosinolates, coumarins, alkaloids, biogenic amines, oxalates, mushroom toxins, and grayanotoxin. The animal toxins include ciguatoxin, shellfish toxin, scombrotoxin, and tetrodotoxin. Many chemical contaminants, such as toxic chemicals, pesticides, and fertilizers, as well as food additives and preservatives that are potentially toxic to humans, can be transferred to foods at many stages from production to consumption. These toxic substances are partly removed by technological processes. Infants, young children, pregnant women, the geriatric population, and immunocompromised persons are at high risk for foodborne diseases. While many diseases may be self-limiting, some of them can be very serious and even result in death.

      This chapter focuses on the classification, causes, and clinical features of microbial foodborne diseases and on risk reduction and prevention of these diseases.

      Keywords

      microbiological contamination

      food safety

      foodborne diseases

      pathogenic micoorganisms

      food poisoning

      This chapter reviews microbial foodborne diseases caused by bacteria, parasites, and viruses and their significance as a health concern. Microbial foodborne illnesses constitute the majority of foodborne diseases (Fig.1.1). Several pathogens cause serious microbial diseases in humans. Each year millions of people become sick or even die from food poisonings. Pathogen-induced foodborne diseases are a major health problem worldwide (Fig.1.2).

      Figure 1.1   Classification of Foodborne Diseases.

      Figure 1.2   Global Burden of Foodborne Diseases—2015 (WHO,2015).

      1. Section 1. Bacterial Foodborne Diseases

      This section focuses on the classification, causes, and clinical features of bacterial foodborne diseases and on risk reduction and prevention of these diseases (Table1.1).

      Table 1.1

      1.1. Aeromonas hydrophila–Induced Gastroenteritis

      Aeromonas hydrophila is a Gram-negative, motile, nonspore-forming, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that causes Aeromonas-induced gastroenteritis. Aeromonas species can be found in various concentrations in drinking water, aquatic environments, sewage, and foods, including seafoods, raw milk, chicken, vegetables, and meats, such as lamb, veal, pork, and ground beef (Janda and Abbott,2010; WHO, 2008a). The symptoms of infection include watery stools, abdominal cramps, mild fever, and vomiting. Bronchopneumonia and cholecystitis are observed in severe cases (Mossel etal.,1999). Aeromonas infections have been divided into four groups: (1) gastrointestinal tract syndromes, (2) wound infections and connective tissue infections, (3) bloodborne dyscrasias, and (4) a wide-ranging class that includes a myriad of less frequently encountered ailments and infectious processes (Janda and Abbott,2010). Rehydration therapy and antimicrobial treatment are recommended in cases of chronic dysentery (Farrar etal.,2014). A. hydrophila strains are resistant to most of the β-lactams, including ceftazidime, cefepime, imipenem, and piperacillin-tazobactam (Janda and Abbott,2010). Antimicrobials, such as fluoroquinolones may be effective (Farrar etal.,2014).

      1.2. Bacillus cereus–Induced Gastroenteritis

      Bacillus cereus is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, generally mesophilic, heat-resistant, spore-forming rod widely distributed in the environment. The natural environmental reservoir for B. cereus consists of decaying organic matter, fresh and marine waters, foods, such as boiled or fried rice, spices, dried foods, milk, dairy products, vegetable dishes, sauces, fomites, and the intestinal tracts of invertebrates (Bottone,2010; WHO, 2008a). The pathogenicity of B. cereus is associated with two toxins, namely diarrheal toxin and emetic toxin. Diarrheal toxin causes diarrheal syndrome characterized with acute diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain. Emetic toxin leads to emetic syndrome characterized with acute nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and rarely diarrhea (Ehling-Schulz etal.,2004). B. cereus strains have been generally resistant to penicillins, erythromycin, tetracycline, and carbapenem due to the consequence of β-lactamase production. Empiric antibiotic therapy is recommended in suspected B. cereus infections while awaiting the antibiotic susceptibility testing profile. Vancomycin and broad-spectrum cephalosporins and ticarcillin-clavulanate should be choices for the empirical therapy of patients with suspected B. cereus infection (Bottone,2010).

      1.3. Botulism

      Clostridium botulinum is a Gram-positive, spore-forming, anaerobic bacteria motile rod that produces potent neurotoxins. Seven types of toxins have been identified (A–G). F type has been associated with botulism. C. botulinum is responsible for four syndromes: foodborne botulism (due to ingestion of foods contaminated with toxin), infant botulism (intestinal infection, colonization, and toxin production), wound botulism (infection of a wound with C. botulinum), and adult intestinal toxemia botulism (intestinal colonization and toxin production in adults) (Sobel,2005). Foodborne botulism is caused by ingestion of foods, such as vegetables, condiments, fish and fish products, and meat and meat products contaminated with C. botulinum toxin. Honey consumption is a common vehicle of transmission of infant botulism (Fratamico etal.,2005). Botulism occurs by accidental or intentional exposure to botulinum toxins. Vomiting, abdominal pain, fatigue, muscle weakness, headache, dizziness, visual disturbance, constipation, dry mouth, difficulty in swallowing and speaking, and ultimately paralysis and respiratory or heart failure occur in foodborne botulism. Toxins are potentially lethal in very small doses, binding to the neuromuscular junction, blocking acetylcholine transmission, and causing neuromuscular blockade and flaccid paralysis. Persons with clinically suspected botulism should be admitted to an intensive care setting, with frequent monitoring of vital capacity and institution of mechanical ventilation if required. Paralysis from botulism is protracted, lasting weeks to months, and meticulous intensive care is required during this period of debilitation. The administration of antitoxin is the only specific therapy available for botulism. Antitoxin can arrest the progression of paralysis and decrease the duration of paralysis and dependence on mechanical ventilation (Sobel,2005).

      1.4. Brucellosis

      Brucellosis also known as undulant fever, Mediterranean fever, or Malta fever (Gul and Erdem,2015). Brucella abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis are the most common species that cause brucellosis in humans (Hossain etal.,2014). Characteristics of Brucella spp. are Gram-negative, aerobic, nonspore-forming, short, oval, nonmotile rods that grow optimally at 37°C and pH 6.6–7.4 and are heat-labile (Hui etal.,2001). Sources of Brucella spp. include common host species, especially cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, camels, yaks, buffaloes, and dogs, and consumption of raw or inadequately cooked milk or milk products, meat, and offal derived from these animals (WHO, 2006b). The clinical symptoms of brucellosis are nonspecific and include continuous, intermittent, or irregular fever, as well as lassitude, sweat, headache, chills, constipation, arthralgias, generalized aching, weight loss, and anorexia; symptoms may persist for weeks or months. Osteoarticular problems are the most frequent complications of brucellosis, occurring in 20%–60% of cases; also, sacroiliitis, genitourinary complications (including orchitis, epididymitis, or sexual impotence), cardiovascular and neurological conditions, insomnia, and depression have been reported (Hui etal.,2001). Effective antibiotics can contribute to the treatment of human brucellosis. A variety of antimicrobial drugs have in vitro antimicrobial activity against Brucella spp.; however, the results of routine susceptibility tests do not always correlate with clinical efficacy. Tetracyclines (doxycycline), aminoglycosides (streptomycin, gentamicin), rifampicin, fluoroquinolones (nalidixic acid), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and cotrimoxazole have been used to treat brucellosis (WHO, 2006b).

      1.5. Campylobacteriosis

      Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli are the two predominant species that cause gastrointestinal infections in humans. Campylobacter is an enteric, Gram-negative, nonspore-forming bacterium often found in domestic and wild animals; livestock, such as pigs, cattle, sheep, and birds; and contaminated water. Human transmissions occur by the ingestion of contaminated meat and raw milk, and chickens and turkeys are also considered important vehicles for foodborne campylobacteriosis. Campylobacteriosis typically develops 2–5days after exposure and is characterized by fever, severe abdominal pain, nausea, and watery and rarely bloody diarrhea. Campylobacteriosis is one of the most frequently reported foodborne diseases in industrialized countries, and is a cause of infant and traveler’s diarrhea, hemolytic uremic syndrome, meningitis, pancreatitis, cholecystitis, colitis, endocarditis, erythema nodosum, and reactive arthritis occurring in approximately 2%–10% of cases. Infection is sometimes misdiagnosed as appendicitis. Campylobacteriosis is usually asymptomatic, and antibiotic treatment is often not required except for infants and children (Williams etal.,2015; WHO, 2008a).

      1.6. Cholera

      Vibrio cholerae is a Gram-negative aerobic organism. The bacterium can ferment sucrose and is often found in the environment. V. cholerae spp. are divided into four serogroups as O1, O139, non-O1, and non-O139 (Chowdhury etal.,2016). V. cholerae O1 and O139 can lead to severe dehydration as a consequence of profuse watery diarrhea. Salt and fluid replacement help prevent collapse and death. The other two serogroups, namely non-O1 and non-O139, are associated with cholera-like diarrhea. Cholera infections are generally observed due to ingestion of seafood, vegetables, cooked rice, and ice contaminated with V. cholerae. Person-to-person transmission through the fecal-oral route is also an important mode of transmission (Finkelstein,1996). Antibiotics provide a beneficial complement to fluid replacement in cholera by substantially reducing the duration and volume of diarrhea and thereby lessening fluid requirements and shortening the duration of hospitalization. Tetracycline and derivatives have been reported as effective agents in the treatment of cholera (Greenough etal.,1964). Erythromycin can use as an alternative antibiotic to tetracycline in young children and during pregnancy. Both single-dose azithromycin and ciprofloxacin have also been used for treating cholera in adults (Saha etal.,2006).

      1.7. Clostridium perfringens–Induced Necrotic Enteritis

      Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive, nonmotile, anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium (Wells and Wilkins,1996). It can be found in many different environments but is most frequently found in the intestines of both sick and healthy animals (Lacey etal.,2016). The fecal-oral route of transmission is common, and other ways of transmission are contaminated feed, water, housing structures, and insects (Lee etal.,2011). C. perfringens causes several symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, rarely vomiting, fever, and a variety of diseases, such as gastrointestinal disorders, liver and kidney damage, dermatitis, and gas gangrene depending on the type of toxins produced by the microorganism (Lacey etal.,2016; WHO, 2008a). Morbidity is associated with these toxins. Food poisoning symptoms occur after ingestion of C. perfringens–contaminated foods (Omernik and Płusa,2015). Subclinical necrotic enteritis infection is associated with decreased feed intake, which adversely affects growth rate, feed conversion, and flock uniformity; hepatitis; or cholangiohepatitis (Lee etal.,2011). In the absence of early radical surgery, antibiotic therapy, and (if available) hyperbaric treatment, the toxins can easily spread throughout the body, causing shock and coma and resulting in death. Epsilon-toxin produced by type B and D strains of C. perfringens is the third most potent clostridial toxin (Omernik and Płusa,2015). Future studies that are focused on the immunobiology of host–pathogen interactions will contribute to novel control strategies against this disease, including second-generation recombinant vaccines, new delivery vectors, and novel adjuvants, as well as dietary immunomodulating agents, such as pre- or probiotics (Lee etal.,2011).

      1.8. Enterobacter sakazakii Infection

      Enterobacter sakazakii, recently reclassified as Cronobacter, is a Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped, nonsporulating pathogenic bacterium that can cause foodborne illness, primarily among infants and immunocompromised adults. Newborn infants are at high risk due to E. sakazakii contamination of dried foods, such as powdered infant formula. Ingestion of contaminated food is the primary route of exposure. But Cronobacter does not survive in powdered milk that is pasteurized. Cronobacter has been detected in some foods, such as bread, cereal, rice, fruit, vegetables, legume products, herbs, spices, milk, cheese, sausage meat, teas, and fish (FDA,2012; Hunter etal.,2008). Although the bacterium has also been found in a variety of other foods, only powdered infant formula has been linked to cases of illness. In 2002, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published a warning regarding the presence of E. sakazakii in baby formula (FDA,2002). Survival of E. sakazakii in dried infant formula for up to 2years of storage has been reported. Symptoms involve poor feeding, irritability, jaundice, grunting respirations, temperature changes, seizures, brain abscesses, hydrocephalus, and developmental delay (FDA,2012; Hunter etal.,2008) E. sakazakii infection generally has been treated with antibiotics, such as ampicillin and gentamicin. Carbapenems have also been recommended because of E. sakazakii’s resistance to narrow-spectrum antibiotics. Gamma radiation and E. sakazakii–targeted bacteriophage therapy have been used to reduce the E. sakazakii contamination of infant formula. The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods (ICMSF) has ranked E. sakazakii a severe hazard for restricted populations. Premature, low-birth-weight infants, immunocompromised adults, and geriatric populations are at high risk, and consumption of dairy products should be avoided in these populations (Hunter etal.,2008).

      1.9. Enterococcus faecalis Infection

      Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic Enterococcus faecalis is a catalase-negative, spherical, and ovoid bacterium. The cytolysin toxin that is produced by some E. faecalis strains has hemolytic and bactericidal activities. There is not much information about its role as a direct cause of foodborne illness. Examples of food sources have included sausage, evaporated milk, cheese, meat croquettes, meat pie, pudding, raw milk, and pasteurized milk. In some cases death can occur as a result of bacteremia; however, enterococcal infections generally do not lead to death. Symptoms that may include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, dizziness occur within 2–36h after contaminated food is eaten. The infection may produce a clinical syndrome similar to staphylococcal intoxication. Ampicillin, penicillin or vancomycin, ureidopenicillin, streptomycin, and gentamicin are used singly or in combination for treatment of various enterococcal infections (FDA,2012).

      1.10. Escherichia coli Infection

      Escherichia coli belongs to the Enterobacteriaceae family. The bacterium is a prokaryotic organism. Other features of E. coli can be specified as Gram-negative, not producing spores, and having capsules/microcapsules (Fratamico etal.,2005; Manning,2010; Riemann and Cliver,2006). E. coli can be found in the environment via fecal exposure of animals and humans. Foodborne transmission includes contaminated meat and drinking water (Riemann and Cliver,2006). Optimum growth temperature of E. coli is 37°C. There are six strains of E. coli: (I) entherohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), which causes hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome; (II) enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), which is responsible for traveler’s diarrhea; (III) enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), which is the main causative agent of watery diarrhea in infants and young children; (IV) enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), which can cause prolonged diarrhea in children; (V) enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), whose biochemical and genetic properties are similar to those of Shigella (as a result of this similarity, EIEC-associated symptoms are identical to those of Shigella infections); and (VI) diffusely adherent E. coli (DAEC), which causes diarrhea and adherence to mammalian cells (Fratamico etal.,2005; Riemann and Cliver,2006).

      EHEC infections cause nonbloody diarrhea, severe stomach cramps, and watery diarrhea that may develop into bloody diarrhea, fever, and vomiting, and can affect the central nervous system. Infections may result in life-threatening complications, such as hemolytic uremic syndrome, which is a type of kidney failure, and also hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia in infants, children, and elderly patients. Other sequelae include erythema nodosum and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (Fratamico etal.,2005).

      ETEC-produced toxins lead to watery diarrhea and abdominal pain. The symptoms of infection are characterized by tremor, vomiting, headache, anorexia, myalgia, and bloating. Target populations are infants and young children, especially in low-income countries for ETEC infections. The death rate can increase among children infected with ETEC due to serious dehydration and underfeeding. Traveler’s diarrhea usually lasts 1–5days in adults. Generally, antibiotics are not necessary for the treatment of traveler’s diarrhea. Antibiotic use may lead to resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and ampicillin. However, trimethoprim-sulfmethoxazole is recommended in cases of infection with serious and prolonged diarrhea. In addition to antibiotic therapy, rehydration therapy is also recommended. Antidiarrheal drugs can be used to decrease gastrointestinal motility. Antibiotics and antimotility drugs are not advised for use in children infected with ETEC.

      EPEC adheres to the mucosa and then causes significant deformation and changes in its absorption capacity, along with vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever (WHO, 2008a). EPEC infections cause severe dehydration and malnutrition in addition to diarrhea (Manning,2010; Riemann and Cliver,2006).

      EAEC-related persistent diarrhea is commonly observed among children in developing countries. On the other hand, EAEC-induced diarrhea is underreported and underdiagnosed in children in industrialized countries. EAEC binds to the intestinal mucosa and causes watery diarrhea without fever. Generally EAEC infections have a noninvasive character (Riemann and Cliver,2006).

      EIEC causes inflammatory disease of the mucosa and submucosa by invading and multiplying in the epithelial cells of the colon. This syndrome is identical to shigellosis, with profuse diarrhea and high fever. In some cases mucus and blood can be seen in stools.

      DAEC causes fever and vomiting, and stools can be watery and mucoid. DAEC is able to invade intestinal epithelial cells and replicate intracellularly. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and vomiting, sometimes leading to dehydration and shock. EPEC, ETEC, and EIEC infections are an underlying factor of malnutrition in infants and children in developing countries (WHO, 2008a).

      1.11. Listeriosis

      Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive, nonspore-forming, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that causes influenza-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, and occasionally gastrointestinal symptoms. The mortality rate of listeriosis is approximately 25% worldwide (Noordhout etal.,2014). L. monocytogenes is found in soil, water, plant material, sewage, decaying vegetables, silage, and feces of numerous wild and domestic animals, infected animals, and people. It also can be found in cooked foods if poor hygiene has been applied during food production and processing. Thus, it can be present in some foods, such as unpasteurized milk, raw milk, cheese, ice cream, raw vegetables, fermented meats and cooked sausages, raw and cooked poultry, raw meats, raw and smoked fish, and seafood (Allen etal.,2016; Leong etal.,2016). Using salt, detergents, and temperature to inactivate L. monocytogenes is not effective. Listeriosis can cross the feto–placental barrier and lead to spontaneous abortion or stillbirth during pregnancy and cause meningoencephalitis and septicemia in newborns. Pregnant women, fetuses, newborns, the elderly, and immunocompromised persons are at high risk for Listeria infections. The mortality rate of listeriosis varies from 20% to 30% and also may rise up to 70% in patients without adequate treatment (Leong etal.,2016; WHO, 2008a). Presence of L. monocytogenes in food-processing environments and foods may influence resistance to antimicrobials, such as ampicillin, penicillin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Food preservation contributes inhibition of microorganism development in foods and helps reduce transmission by the food chain (Allen etal.,2016).

      1.12. Mycobacterium bovis Infection

      Mycobacterium bovis is a Gram-positive, aerobic, nonmotile, straight or slightly curved, rod-shaped bacterium. M. bovis lacks an outer cell membrane that is known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. (Epstein,2015; FDA,2012). The Mycobacterium has a cell envelope that is classified as an acid-fast bacterium, not Gram-positive or Gram-negative. Human and animal tuberculosis are caused principally by both M. bovis and M. tuberculosis. M. bovis is also a causative agent of foodborne human tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is most commonly spread by inhalation of infected droplets, but also by consuming contaminated foods. Unpasteurized or raw cow’s milk and cheese or other food products made from them are causative agents of foodborne tuberculosis. Ingestion of contaminated milk is a significant way of infection. Consumption of unpasteurized milk increases the risk of foodborne tuberculosis in humans. Raw or undercooked meats from certain infected animals, including deer, also may cause tuberculosis. Generally, foodborne tuberculosis is asymptomatic, but in some cases symptoms occur for months or years. Typical symptoms include fever, night sweats, fatigue, loss of appetite, and weight loss. The part of the body that is affected by the infection plays a role in the manifestation of other symptoms; pulmonary tuberculosis manifests as chronic cough, weight loss, blood-stained sputum, fatigue, fever, night sweats, dyspnea, hemoptysis, anorexia, wasting, malaise, and chest pain. Diarrhea, abdominal pain, and swelling can be observed if the gastrointestinal tract is affected. Infections in humans also may be asymptomatic. M. bovis infections can cause death if they are left untreated. Children, elderly persons, and people with weakened immune system diseases (AIDS patients) are at higher risk of the disease than others are. The bacteria can develop resistance to the current antimicrobial drugs. Anti–tumor necrosis factor (TNF) therapy is recommended for treatment and should be started after standard drug therapy, including isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide (Ali etal.,2013; FDA,2012).

      1.13. Q Fever

      Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular, Gram-negative bacterial pathogen, and is the causative agent of Q fever. Breathing of aerosolized bacteria is the most common way that people become infected. Ingestion of nonpasteurized milk or dairy products is the main source of oral exposure. Ticks are also a reservoir and may transmit the bacteria directly via bite or indirectly via infected feces. The disease occurs in two stages: an acute stage that generally is less serious and a chronic stage in which severe complications and higher mortality rates can occur. Acute Q fever is characterized by flu-like symptoms, such as headaches, chills, and respiratory symptoms. Q fever signs and symptoms may differ from person to person, but common ones are high fever (105°F/40.6°C), severe headaches, muscle aches, chills, heavy sweating, nausea, vomiting or diarrhea, dry cough, and abdominal or chest pain. Chronic Q fever is more serious, and the patient may experience pneumonia, hepatitis, and myocarditis. Antibiotic treatment is required. Tetracycline and doxycycline have been used to reduce the symptomatic duration. Tetracyclines may cause gastric side effects, so fluoroquinolones may be used as an alternative to tetracyclines. But fluoroquinolones are not recommended for children and pregnant women. Instead, although cotrimoxazole does not prevent progression of the disease, it is recommended for pregnant women. Vaccination is also used for treatment of Q fever, as well as antibiotic therapy (FDA,2012; Lydyard etal.,2010). Due to C. burnetii’s aerosol exposure route, the environmental stability of the spore forms, and its high infectivity at low dose (fewer than 10 bacteria), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have declared it a Category B potential bioterrorism agent (CDC,2005). The FDA mandates that the level of pasteurization of milk for human consumption must be lethal to C. burnetii (FDA,2012).

      1.14. Salmonellosis

      Salmonellosis is one of the most frequently encountered foodborne diseases and is the leading cause of death worldwide. Some 93.8 million human cases and 155,000 deaths are reported each year caused by salmonella infections (Majowicz etal.,2010). There have been identified 2500 different salmonella strains and salmonellosis caused by the nontyphoid salmonella serotypes. Salmonella enterica and S. typhimurium are the two most important serotypes of salmonellosis transmitted from animals to humans in most parts of the world (Switt etal.,2009; WHO,2013). The bacterium is widely distributed in domestic and wild animals. Salmonellosis in humans is generally contracted through the consumption of contaminated food of animal origin, including milk, meat, eggs, and poultry, and other contaminated foods, such as condiments, green vegetables, chocolate, and drinking water (Reddy etal.,2016; Rey Matias etal.,2016; Switt etal.,2009). The transmission of salmonella infections to infants and young children from pet animals (cats, dogs, turtles, etc.) is important and needs careful supervision (WHO,2013). Symptoms of salmonellosis include acute onset of fever, headache, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and sometimes vomiting, enteritis, and systemic manifestations, including septicemia (Majowicz etal.,2010; Switt etal.,2009). The symptoms occur within 6–72h after ingestion and illness lasts 2–7days. Treatment of salmonellosis is generally symptomatic, including electrolyte replacement therapy and rehydration. Because antibiotic treatment contributes to the development of antimicrobial resistance, antimicrobial therapy is not necessary for mild or moderate cases (Eguale etal.,2015; Majowicz etal.,2010; WHO,2013). Drug-resistant Salmonella spp. have been a serious problem in many developing countries in the past few decades. However, elderly patients, infants, and immunocompromised patients may need to receive antimicrobial therapy. Salmonella spp. are resistant to one or more of the first-line drugs, such as chloramphenicol, cotrimoxazole, and ampicillin. For optimal antimicrobial treatment of salmonellosis, Salmonella spp. must be isolated from the individual patient (Begum etal.,2015; Switt etal.,2009). The World Health Organization (WHO) recommended that novel typhoid, paratyphoid, and invasive typhoid salmonella vaccines are further important steps that will play a major role in management and control of salmonella infections (Kariuki etal.,2015; WHO,2013).

      1.15. Shigellosis

      The prevalence of shigellosis was found to be 55.6% in patients 2–5-years old. In addition, over 1million deaths have been estimated yearly due to shigellosis worldwide. Shigella dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, and S. sonnei are able to cause shigellosis. The symptoms of shigellosis include watery diarrhea, dysentery with mucoid bloody stools, abdominal pain, vomiting, fever, and tenesmus (Niyogi,2005; Talebreza etal.,2015). Shigella spp. cause mucosal ulceration, inflammation, bleeding, and in 2%–3% of cases hemolytic uremic syndrome or erythema nodosum. Transmission occurs via food and water contaminated with fecal matter or through person-to-person contact. Food contamination can be caused by food handlers with poor personal hygiene in their preparation or by use of sewage/wastewater for fertilization. Foods, such as uncooked foods, salads, vegetables, water, or raw milk may be sources of shigellosis. It is the most common cause of diarrhea in infants and children under 5years of age. Among young children, especially under 5years of age, the morbidity and mortality incidence is high in developing countries. Elderly individuals may develop severe symptoms or even die due to malnutrition-induced shigellosis. Travelers are particularly at risk. Antimicrobial agents are used to treat cases of shigellosis (Niyogi,2005; WHO, 2008a). Due to Shigella spp. being resistant to antibiotics, such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, the choice of antimicrobial agents for treating shigellosis is limited. Generally, cotrimoxazole is a first-choice drug used for empirical therapy of diarrheal diseases; however, extensive use of cotrimoxazole has caused resistance in Shigella strains. Ampicillin and tetracycline are inexpensive, broad-spectrum, and widely used for prophylaxis and treating bacterial infections (Niyogi,2005; Talebreza etal.,2015).

      1.16. Staphylococcus aureus Intoxication

      Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, nonmotile, and nonspore-forming bacterium. S. aureus–related food poisoning is one of the most prevalent foodborne intoxication worldwide. It is caused by oral intake of S. aureus bacterial toxins in ham, chicken, and egg salads, as well as cream-filled products, ice cream, and cheese. Within 2–6h after ingestion of contaminated food, patients present with symptoms of severe nausea, cramps, vomiting, and prostration, sometimes accompanied by diarrhea or acute gastroenteritis. The food chain is an important factor for the development of antimicrobial resistance. Such transfers can occur by means of residues of antibiotics in foods, through the transfer of resistant foodborne pathogens, or through the ingestion of resistant strains of the original food microflora and resistance transfer to pathogenic microorganisms. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains were isolated from several food production animals, including pigs, cattle, chickens, and others. Some of these strains have been also resistant to penicillin and oxacillin (Hennekinne etal.,2012; Johler etal.,2015). Treatment failure rates and mortality rates remain high in patients with complicated S. aureus infections despite the introduction of newer antistaphylococcal antibiotics (Kaye etal.,2008).

      1.17. Tularemia

      Francisella tularensis is a pathogenic species of a small pleomorphic, Gram-negative rod bacterium and the causative agent of severe, life-threatening illness in humans. Infection with F. tularensis can occur by several routes (oral, respiratory, insect bite, direct contact with contaminated objects, or handling sick or dying wild animals) and causes a disease called tularemia (rabbit fever, deerfly fever, hare fever, and lemming fever). Human-to-human transmission of tularemia has not been shown (Busl and Bleck,2012; Evans and Brachman,1998). Vehicles for the transmission of F. tularensis are milk and undercooked meat from an infected animal (rabbits, hares) or drinking contaminated water. There are many forms of disease, including pneumonic, gastrointestinal, oropharyngeal, typhoidal, oculoglandular, and ulceroglandular tularemia. The type of tularemia depends on the infecting strain, dose, and route of inoculation. Oropharyngeal tularemia occurs after ingestion of contaminated food, leading to symptoms that include painful exudative pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and necrotic

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