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The Bible Knowledge Commentary Minor Prophets
The Bible Knowledge Commentary Minor Prophets
The Bible Knowledge Commentary Minor Prophets
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The Bible Knowledge Commentary Minor Prophets

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God’s Love and Justice on Display
 
What do we know about the date of Joel’s ministry? How do the warnings of Malachi relate to the Book of Revelation? How did Amos’s profession as a rancher influence his prophetic voice?
 
Drawing on the research of internationally known Bible scholars, this detailed commentary looks at each verse of the final books of the Old Testament. The words of the minor prophets draw us closer to God by teaching us about His enduring love, His judgment to the unfaithful and mercy to the repentant, and His call to restoration for people who have suffered.
 
Covering every book from Hosea through Malachi, this commentary shows the meaning behind these powerful prophecies while reminding us how ordinary people spoke extraordinary truth on behalf of a loving and just God.
 
LanguageEnglish
PublisherDavid C Cook
Release dateMar 1, 2018
ISBN9780830772933
The Bible Knowledge Commentary Minor Prophets

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    The Bible Knowledge Commentary Minor Prophets - John F. Walvoord

    HOSEA

    Robert B. Chisholm, Jr.

    INTRODUCTION

    Authorship. According to Hosea 1:1 the author of this prophecy was Hosea, son of Beeri. But several commentators have attributed some of the material in the book to later editorial activity. According to these scholars, the present form of the book is the product of an evolutionary process whereby original material by Hosea was reworked and supplemented (cf., e.g., William Rainey Harper, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Amos and Hosea, pp. clix-clxii; Hans Walter Wolff, Hosea, pp. xxix-xxxii). In particular, references to Judah and parallels to the language and theology of Deuteronomy have been offered as examples of redactional additions. However, it is unnecessary to deny the Judean passages to Hosea. Though his main target was the Northern Kingdom, his message encompassed the entire people of God. Like Hosea, other eighth-century B.C. prophets spoke to both kingdoms in the course of their prophecies (for a detailed discussion of the Judean passages in Hosea, see R.K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1969, pp. 868-70). Hosea’s parallels to Deuteronomy cannot be labeled later additions if Deuteronomy is correctly dated before, not after, Hosea.

    Date. Hosea’s ministry spanned several decades, beginning near the end of the reigns of Uzziah of Judah (ca. 790-739 B.C.) and Jeroboam II of Israel (ca. 793--753 B.C.) and concluding in the early years of Hezekiah’s reign. The latter’s rule began around 715 B.C. after a period of vice-regency with his father Ahaz. Since Israel was Hosea’s primary audience, it seems strange that four Judean kings, but only one Israelite king, are mentioned in 1:1. The reason for the omission of the six Israelite kings who followed Jeroboam II is uncertain. Perhaps it suggests the legitimacy of the Davidic dynasty (cf. 3:5) in contrast with the instability and disintegration of the kingship in the North (cf. 7:3-7).

    Historical Background. The events in the reigns of the kings mentioned in 1:1 are recorded in 2 Chronicles 26--32. Hosea began his ministry near the end of a period of military success and prosperity for both Israel and Judah (cf. 2 Kings 14:25-28; 2 Chron. 26:2, 6-15). During the first half of the eighth century Assyrian influence in the West had declined, allowing the kingdoms of Jeroboam II and Uzziah to flourish. However, the situation soon changed. As foreseen by Hosea the Assyrians under Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 B.C.) revived their expansionist policy in the West. In 733-732 B.C. the Northern Kingdom was made a puppet state within the Assyrian Empire (2 Kings 15:29). After plotting revolt, Israel was defeated in 722 B.C. by the Assyrians and Israel’s people were deported (2 Kings 17:1-6; 18:10-12). Also Judah was incorporated as a vassal state into the Assyrian Empire during Hosea’s time (cf. 2 Kings 16:5-10).

    Purpose and Message. The primary purpose of Hosea’s prophecy, like that of his eighth-century contemporaries Amos, Isaiah, and Micah, must be understood against the background of the message and theology of Deuteronomy. The latter records the covenantal agreement between the Lord and Israel. Israel was to maintain loyalty to the Lord by worshiping Him alone and by obeying His commandments. Obedience to the covenant would result in blessing (cf. Deut. 28:1- 14). Disobedience would bring judgment and eventually exile (cf. the covenant curses listed in Deut. 28:15-68). Hosea’s role as a prophet was to expose the nation’s breach of covenant and announce God’s intention to implement the covenant curses. At the same time Hosea affirmed the Deuteronomic promise of Israel’s ultimate restoration (cf. Deut. 30:1-10).

    The major themes of Hosea’s message can be summarized in three words: sin, judgment, and salvation. In exposing Israel’s sin, Hosea emphasized its idolatry (e.g., Hosea 4:17; 8:4, 6; 10:5; 11:2; 13:2). He compared Israel’s covenant relationship to the Lord with marriage and accused Israel (the Lord’s wife) of spiritual adultery . She had turned to Baal, the Canaanite storm and fertility god (cf. 2:8, 13; 11:2; 13:1), in an effort to promote agricultural and human fertility. To illustrate Israel’s infidelity Hosea married a woman who would, like the nation, prove unfaithful to her husband. Many other sins are mentioned in the book, including social injustice (12:7), violent crime (4:2; 6:9; 12:1), religious hypocrisy (6:6), political revolt (7:3-7), for­eign alliances (7:11; 8:9), selfish arrogance (13:6), and spiritual ingratitude (7:15).

    Though Hosea’s prophecy contains some calls to repentance, he did not expect a positive response. Judgment was inescapable. In implementing the curses, the Lord would cause the nation to experience infertility, military invasion, and exile. Several times Hosea emphasized the justice of God by indicating that His divine punishment fit the crimes perfectly.

    However , the Lord would not abandon Israel totally. Despite its severity, each judgment was disciplinary and was intended to turn Israel back to God. Hosea’s own reconciliation with his wayward wife illustrated Israel’s ultimate restoration . The very structure of the book reflects this positive emphasis. One is able to discern five judgment-salvation cycles throughout the prophecy:

    OUTLINE

    I. Hosea ‘s Times (1:1)

    II. Hosea ‘s Experience: A Portrayal of God’s Dealings with Israel (1:2- 3:5)

    A. The symbolism of Hosea’s family (1:2-2:1)

    1. Hosea’s marriage: Israel’s unfaithfulness (l:2-3a)

    2. Hosea’s children: Israel’s judgment (l:3b-9)

    3. The symbolism reversed (1:10- 2:1)

    B. Restoration through punishment (2:2-23)

    1. The Lord’s punishment of Israel (2:2-13)

    2. The Lord’s restoration of Israel (2:14-23)

    C. The restoration of Hosea’s marriage (chap. 3)

    1. The divine command (3:1)

    2. Hosea’s obedient response (3:2-3)

    3. The illustration explained (3:4-5)

    III. Hosea’s Message: God’s Judgment and Restoration of Israel (chaps . 4-14)

    A. The Lord’s case against Israel (4:1-6:3)

    1. Israel’s guilt exposed (chap. 4)

    2. Israel’s judgment announced (5:1-14)

    3. Israel’s restoration envisioned (5:15-6:3)

    B. The Lord’s case against Israel expanded (6:4-11:11)

    1. Israel’s guilt and punishment (6:4-8:14)

    2. Israel’s guilt and punishment reiterated (9:1-11:7)

    3. The Lord’s compassion renewed (11:8-11)

    C. The Lord’s case against Israel concluded (11:12-14:9)

    1. A concluding indictment (11:12-13:16)

    2. A concluding exhortation (chap. 14)

    COMMENTARY

    I. Hosea’s Times (1:1)

    1:1. In Hebrew the name Hosea (salvation) is the same as Hoshea, Israel’s last king (2 Kings 17:1). Hoshea was also Joshua’s original name (Num. 13:8, 16). Nothing is known of Hosea’s family background except that he was a son of Beeri.

    Hosea’s ministry extended for a number of decades in the second half of the eighth century B.C. Four kings of Judah (Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah) reigned when Hosea prophesied. Only one king of the north Geroboam II), is mentioned though Hosea’s message was directed primarily to the Northern Kingdom. Six kings of Israel followed Jeroboam II during the reigns of the four Judean kings mentioned. Perhaps Hosea omitted those six (as stated under Date in the Introduction) to point up the legitimacy of the Davidic dynasty in Judah.

    II. Hosea’s Experience: A Portrayal of God’s Dealings with Israel (1:2-3:5)

    The message of the first three chapters (and of the entire book) osci11ates between judgment and salvation . Hosea’s marital experiences, which included the heartbreak caused by his wife’s unfaithfulness and the joy of their renewed relationship, provide the framework for this message.

    A. The symbolism of Hosea’s family (1:2-2:1)

    This opening section sets forth the major themes of the entire prophecy: Israel’s unfaithfulness, the certainty of judgment, and the ultimate restoration of the nation . These ideas are introduced within the context of the Lord’s command to Hosea to marry and have children .

    l. HOSEA’S MARRIAGE: ISRAEL’S UNFAITHFULNESS (l:2-3A)

    1:2-3a. At the outset of Hosea ‘s ministry the LORD instructed him to marry an adulterous woman. This relationship, characterized by infidelity on the wife’s part, was to portray Israel’s unfaithfulness to its covenant with the Lord (cf. 2:2-23). In response to the divine command Hosea. . . . married Gomer, a daughter of Diblaim.

    Much debate has centered on the circumstances of Hosea’s marriage . Some have held that the marriage was only visionary or allegorical, not literal. This proposal was motivated by a desire to sidestep the supposed moral difficulty of the holy God commanding His servant to marry a woman of disreputable character. However, the account is presented as a straightforward narrative, not as a report of a vision or as a purely symbolic act (cf. chap. 3). The Lord sometimes required His prophets to carry out orders that many would consider over and above the call of duty (e.g., Isa. 20:1-4; Ezek. 4:1-5:4).

    Those who hold to a literal marriage disagree over Gomer’s status at the beginning of her relationship with Hosea. Some argue that Gomer was a prostitute at the time she was married. A modification of this is the view that she was a typical young Israelite woman who had participated in a Canaanite rite of sexual initiation in preparation for marriage (Wolff, Hosea, pp. 14-5). Others contend that Gomer was sexually pure at the time of marriage and later became an adulteress. The Book of Hosea does not provide information concerning Gomer’s premarital sexual experience . The expression adulterous wife (lit., wife of adultery) does not describe her condition at the time of marriage, but anticipates what she proved to be, a wife characterized by unfaithfulness. Any knowledge of Gomer’s status at the time of marriage is thereby precluded.

    Both the language of Hosea 1:2 and the following context support this interpretation . The expression is similar to others in Hebrew that describe a married woman’s character (e.g ., wife of one’s youth, a quarrelsome wife [a wife of quarrelings ], a wife of noble character; for these and other examples see Francis I. Andersen and David Noel Freedman, Hosea: A New Translation, Introduction and Commentary, p. 159). The Hebrew word zenûnîm (trans. here adulterous) refers elsewhere in Hosea to the activity of Israel under the figure of a married woman (cf. 2:2, 4; 4:12; 5:4). Also the emphasis in the following context (l :2b; 2:2-3:5) is on the unfaithfulness that characterized both the Lord’s and Hosea’s marriages, not on the brides’ premarital experiences . Thus the Lord’s command should be understood as follows, Go, take to yourself a wife who will prove to be unfaithful.

    The Lord also told Hosea to take ... children of unfaithfulness. This does not refer to children born from another father before Comer’s marriage to Hosea. The Hebrew expression is elliptical with the second verb omitted. The command could be paraphrased, Go, take to yourself an adulterous wife and have (NASB) children of unfaithfulness. The children are those mentioned in 1:3-9. Unfaithfulness does not necessarily imply they were the products of Comer’s illicit relationships. The fact that Hosea is not specifically mentioned in verses 6 and 8 as the children’s father need not point to their illegitimacy. In Genesis 29:32-35 the same phrase which appears in Hosea 1:6, 8 (she conceived again and gave birth) is used with no mention of the father (Jacob) because he is identified in the preceding context (as in Hosea, v. 3; cf. Andersen and Freedman, Hosea, p. 168). Children of unfaithfulness may simply point to their being born in the context of (but not as a direct result of) Comer’s infidelity. Also the phrase emphasizes the mother’s character, not that of the children. Andersen and Freedman understand the phrase as elliptical: children of (a wife of) promiscuity (Hosea, p. 168). It is similar to other Hebrew expressions in which the descriptive term points primarily to a quality of the parent not of the offspring (cf. benê hanne’ûrîm, lit., sons of youth, i.e., sons born to a youthful parent, Ps. 127:4; and ben zeqūnîm, lit., son of old age, i.e., a son born to an aged parent, Gen. 37:3).

    In Hosea 1:2 the land, which stands for those living in it (cf. 4:1), is personified as a wife who is guilty of the vilest adultery. This Hebrew verbal expression is emphatic, highlighting the extent to which Israel had departed from the LORD.

    2. HOSEA’S CHILDREN: ISRAEL’S JUDGMENT (l:3B-9)

    The divinely chosen names for Hosea’s three children served as reminders of the broken relationship between the Lord and Israel and pointed ahead to judgment. Each section on the children (vv. 3b-5, 6-7, 8-9) contains a birth notice (vv. 3b, 6a, 8), a divine word of instruction concerning the child’s name (vv. 4a, 6b, 9a), and an explanation of the meaning of the name (vv. 4b-5, 6b, 9b). God’s words (v. 7) are unique in that they qualify the announcement of judgment given (v. 6).

    a. Jezreel (1:3b-5)

    1:3b. The first child (a son) was named Jezreel. At this point the significance of his name was not in its meaning (God sows), but in its association with past and future events at the place Jezreel (cf., however, v. 11; 2:22-23). Jezreel was the site of Jehu’s ruthless maśśācre of the house of Ahab (1:4; cf. 2 Kings 9-10). In the future it would be the scene of Israel’s military demise (Hosea 1:5).

    1:4. The reason for the Lord’s coming punishment on Jehu’s dynasty (lit., house) was the maśśācre (lit., bloodshed) at Jezreel (ca. 841 B.C.). Jehu’s slaughter of Jezebel and Ahab’s descendants had been prophesied by Elijah (1 Kings 21:21-24), commanded by Elisha (2 Kings 9:6-10), and commended by the Lord Himself (2 Kings 10:30). So many think the attitude expressed by the Lord (Hosea 1:4) contradicted that in the accounts in 1 and 2 Kings. But a closer examination of the historical record suggests a resolution to the problem. Jehu also killed Joram (2 Kings 9:24), Ahaziah, king of Judah (2 Kings 9:27-28), 42 of Ahaziah’s relatives (2 Kings 10:12-14), and several functionaries of the Baal cult (2 Kings 10:18-28). Though the execution of Baal’s servants was certainly in accord with the Lord’s will (cf. 1 Kings 18:40), Jehu’s attack on the house of David went too far. Despite the fact that Ahaziah’s assassination could be attributed to God’s providence (2 Chron. 22:7), it demonstrated an underlying lack of regard for the Lord’s commands. This disregard subsequently came to the surface in other ways (cf. 2 Kings 10:29-31). So Hosea 1:4 probably refers to the slaughter of Ahaziah and his relatives. Though their deaths did not actually occur in Jezreel (cf. 2 Kings 9:27; 10:12-14), they were associated with the wholesale slaughter at that place.

    The fulfillment of this prophecy came in 752 B.C. when Shallum assassinated Zechariah, the fourth of Jehu’s descendants to rule the Northern Kingdom (2 Kings 15:10), thereby cutting off Jehu’s dynasty forever.

    1:5. God told Hosea that the demise of Jehu’s dynasty was to be accompanied by the downfall of the Northern Kingdom. In a display of poetic justice the Lord would break Israel’s bow in the Valley of Jezreel, the site of Jehu’s sin. Breaking the bow refers to the destruction of the nation’s military might (cf. 1 Sam. 2:4; Ps. 46:9; Jer. 49:35).

    The general fulfillment of this prophecy came in 734-722 B.C. when the Assyrians overran Israel and reduced it to a province within their empire (2 Kings 15:29; 17:3-5). The Jezreel plain in particular was probably conquered in 733 B.C. by Tiglath-Pileser III. This valley, which had been the scene of a great military victory under Gideon (Jud. 6:33; 7), again became a symbol of national disgrace and defeat, as it had been after Saul’s death (1 Sam. 29:1, 11; 31).

    b. Lo-Ruhamah: Not loved (1:6-7)

    1:6. The second child received the name Lo-Ruhamah, which means she is not loved. Her name indicated that the Lord’s love for Israel would be cut off for a time. Ruhamah, from the verb rāḥam, describes tender feelings of compassion, such as those expressed by a parent for a child (cf. 1 Kings 3:26; Ps. 103:13; Isa. 49:15) or by a man for his younger brother (cf. Gen. 43:30). At Sinai the Lord described Himself (Ex. 34:6) as the compassionate ... God (‘ēl rāḥam) who is willing to forgive iniquity (Ex. 34:6). However, despite His gracious character, times come when He will no longer leave the guilty unpunished (Ex. 34:7). Such a time had come for the Northern Kingdom.

    1:7. The light of God’s grace shines through the gloom of impending judgment. Judah, the Southern Kingdom, in contrast with Israel, would experience the Lord’s love in the form of deliverance from the Assyrians. This would not be accomplished through human military might (symbolized by the bow, sword, etc.), but by the Lord’s intervention. This promise was fulfilled in 701 B.C. when God supernaturally annihilated 185,000 soldiers in the powerful Assyrian army in one night thereby ending its campaign against Judah (2 Kings 19:32-36).

    c. Lo-Ammi: Not My people (1:8-9)

    1:8-9. The third child, a son, was named Lo-Ammi, which means not My people. In the ancient covenant formula God declared, I will walk among you and be your God, and you will be My people (Lev. 26:12; cf. Ex. 6:7; Deut. 26:17-18). But now that relationship was to be severed. The last clause of Hosea 1:9 (I am not your God) is literally, "and I [am] not I AM (‘ehyeh) to you. The statement probably alludes to God’s words to Moses, I am (‘ehyeh) who I am (‘ehyeh). This is what you are to say to the Israelites: I AM (‘ehyeh) has sent me to you (Ex. 3:14). I AM," which is closely related to the divine name Yahweh, points to God as the covenant LORD of Israel who watches over and delivers His people (cf. Ex. 3:16-17). However, through Lo-Ammi the Lord announced that Israel would no longer experience His special saving presence.

    3. THE SYMBOLISM REVERSED (1:10-2:1)

    In a remarkable shift of tone the Lord declared that the effects of judgment would someday be reversed. He promised a time of rich blessing accompanied by restoration of the covenant relationship and national unity.

    1:10. Despite the demise of the Northern Kingdom (vv. 4-5), the Israelites will again be like the sand on the seashore in fulfillment of the Lord’s irrevocable promise to Abraham (Gen. 22:17; 32:12). In the same place where Israel heard the words not My people (cf. Hosea 1:9) they will be called sons of the living God. The sonship reference points to restoration of the covenant relationship, pictured under the figure of a family setting (cf. 2:1-5). The divine title living God was used in Joshua 3:10 in reference to the Lord’s mighty presence with Israel during the Conquest of the land. In the future Israel will again experience the benefits of a relationship with the living God as they reoccupy the Promised Land.

    1:11. At the time of national restora­tion the two kingdoms (Judah and ... Israel), which had divided under Solomon’s son Rehoboam (1 Kings 12), will be reunited under one Leader (cf. Ezek. 37:22), the ideal Davidic Ruler of the Kingdom Age (cf. Hosea 3:5; Isa. 9:6-7; Amos 9:11; Micah 5:2). The promise to David of an everlasting throne will be fulfilled (cf. 2 Sam. 7:11b-16).

    The united nation also will come up out of the land. This statement may refer to a return from exile, the land being Egypt (cf. Hosea 2:15), which serves as a symbol of the future place(s) of captivity (cf. 8:13; 9:3, 6; 11:5; Deut. 28:68). How­ ever, land (‘ereṣ) elsewhere in the Book of Hosea refers either to the land of Israel (cf. Hosea 1:2; 2:18, 23; 4:1, 3) or to the literal surface of the ground (cf. 2:21-22; 6:3) when used with the definite article and without a qualifying geographical term. The land of Egypt is specifically designated as such when mentioned in Hosea (2:15; 7:11, 16; 8:13; 9:3, 6; 11:1, 5, 11; 12:1, 9, 13; 13:4). So it is better to understand this as a comparison between Israel and a plant which grows up from the soil. Land can refer to the ground (as just noted), as come up (‘ālâh) is used elsewhere of plant life sprouting forth from the soil (cf. grow up, 10:8; growing Deut. 29:23). The following context also supports this view. According to Hosea 2:23, the Lord promised that He would plant (zāra’, the same word used in the name Jezreel) the nation in the land as one sows seed on the ground (cf. 2:22, where the name Jezreel, God sows, appears). Because the Lord Himself will be the One who sows, Israel will sprout forth and grow luxuriantly.

    The day of Jezreel probably alludes to this time when God will plant His people in the land. If so, the literal mean­ing of the name Jezreel (God sows) takes on significance at this point. It is also likely that it alludes to Gideon’s victory over the Midianites in the Valley of Jezreel (Jud. 7). The future day of restoration will be ushered in by a great military triumph like that of Gideon (cf. Isa. 9:4-7; see also Isa. 41:8-16; Amos 9:11-12; Joel 3:9-17). Those who oppose the Lord’s theocratic rule through the messianic King will be defeated (cf. Rev. 19:11-21). The greatness of this eschatological day of Jezreel will reverse the shame and defeat which Israel experienced there at the hands of the Assyrians (cf. Hosea 1:5). 2:1. These words were spoken to a segment of the restored nation of the future (cf. v. 23), viewed as a group of children (say and your are pl. in Heb.). They were told to proclaim to their brothers and sisters (other Israelites) that the nation’s relationship with the Lord had been reestablished. The Lord then addressed them as My people (‘ammî; cf. 1:9) and My loved one (rūḥāmâh; cf. 1:6). Long before Hosea, Moses had predicted such a change in the Lord’s attitude (Deut. 30:1-9). After describing the nation’s future exile (Deut. 30:1), Moses promised that their repentance would result in a renewal of the Lord’s compassion (Deut. 30:2-3, rāḥam) and a return to the land (Deut. 30:4-9). Long after Hosea, the Apostle Paul also foresaw this time of Israel’s restoration (Rom. 11:25-32).

    In summary, Hosea 1:10-2:1 contains a marvelous prophecy of Israel’s future restoration, in which the effects of the Lord’s judgment will be totally reversed. The nation that suffered defeat at Jezreel and was called not loved and not My people will take part in the great day of Jezreel and hear the Lord say, My people and [My] loved one. The covenant promises to Abraham (of numerous descendants) and David (of eternal kingship) will be fulfilled when the covenant ideal predicted by Moses will be realized.

    B. Restoration through punishment (2:2-23)

    Hosea’s relationship with Gomer was designed to reflect the Lord’s experience of being rejected by His covenant people Israel (cf. 1:2). In 2:2-23 the Lord described this rejection in detail, comparing Israel to an unfaithful wife who chased after lovers. In the process of confirming the nation’s guilt, the Lord announced coming punishment. This judgment, however, would not be final, for God intended to draw Israel back and restore the broken covenantal relationship. Thus this section, like the preceding one (1:2-2:1) progresses from judgment (2:2-13) to salvation (2:14-23, along with chap. 3).

    1. THE LORD’S PUNISHMENT OF ISRAEL (2:2-13)

    Included in this section are an introductory summons (v. 2a), an appeal for repentance (v. 2b) accompanied by a threat of punishment (vv. 3-4), and two judgmental speeches (vv. 5-7, 8-13), each containing an accusation (vv. 5, 8) and an announcement of punishment (vv. 6-7, 913).

    a. Punishment threatened (2:2-4)

    2:2. The section opens with the Lord calling for a formal accusation to be brought against Israel. The covenant relationship is likened to marriage, the Lord being the husband and Israel the wife . The children addressed (cf. your mother) need not represent any specific group within Israel. They are included for rhetorical effect and add to the realism of the figurative portrayal. The word translated rebuke (rîḇ) is used here of a formal legal accusation. A related noun often refers to a lawsuit (cf. Ex. 23:2-3, 6). In Hosea 4:1 this same noun is translated charge . The reason for the accusation was the disrupted relationship between the covenant partners. The Lord , speaking as the Husband who had been severely wronged, declared, She is not My wife, and I am not her Husband. Some have interpreted this statement as a formal declaration of divorce, which is unlikely in this context. The Lord’s ultimate purpose was to heal the relationship, not terminate it (cf. 2:2b, 6-7, 14-23). Thus the statement was probably an acknowledgment that no reality remained in the relationship (Derek Kidner, Love to the Loveless, p. 27). The Lord’s wife, by her unfaithful behavior, had for all practical purposes severed the relationship with her Husband.

    Rather than exercising His legal prerogative by having His wayward wife executed (cf. Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22), the Lord issued a call for repentance, urging the nation to abandon its adulterous activity (Hosea 2:2b).

    2:3. The Lord's appeal (v. 2b) was strengthened by a severe threat containing three solemn warnings to Israel (I will occurs three times in vv. 3-4). First, the Lord threatened to strip her naked, making her an object of shame and ridicule (cf: v. 10; Ezek. 16:35-43). The punishment fit the crime. She who had exposed her nakedness to her lovers would be exposed publicly for all to see. This public act apparently preceded the execution of an adulteress (cf. Ezek. 16:38-40). Second, the Lord threatened to make her like an arid desert, deprived of water (cf. slay her with thirst), incapable of producing or sustaining life . All her powers of fertility would be removed . Again the punishment fit the crime. She who had engaged in illicit sexual behavior would become incapable of repro­duction.

    2:4. The third threat involved the rejection of the wife’s children. The reason was that they were children of adultery.

    This may mean they were products of their mother’s illicit relationships, though probably it simply indicates they were covered with shame by reason of their association with such a mother (cf. v. 5 and comments on 1:2). At any rate, the Lord announced they would not receive His love (rāḥam; cf. 1:6-8; 2:1), implying they would be disowned and become orphans . In this way any reminder of the relationship with their mother would be eliminated.

    The harsh punishment threatened in verses 3-4 seems to imply complete termination of the marriage. The wayward wife would be executed and her children disowned. However, the context clearly demonstrates that this would not occur. This same anomaly occurs in Ezekiel 16 where Israel is executed as an adulteress (Ezek. 16:35-42) only to be eventually restored to favor (Ezek. 16:59-63). Apparently the harsh language was intended to emphasize the severity of the punishment without implying the absolute termination of the Lord’s relationship with Israel.

    b. Punishment initiated (2 :5-13 )

    The Lord ‘s judgment, instead of bringing His relationship with Israel to a complete end, was designed to effect restoration. The first step in this process was to deprive the nation of its false gods and the prosperity it erroneously attributed to them.

    (1) Israel deprived of her lovers. 2:57. In verse 5 Israel’s unfaithfulness is vividly pictured . She resolved to pursue her lovers (the Baals; cf. vv. 13, 17; 11:2) because she believed they supplied her physical nourishment (food ... water), protection (wool and ... linen; cf. 2:9), and pleasure (oil and ... drink). In response the Lord declared that He would soon eliminate all means of access to these lovers. Israel would find familiar paths blocked with thorns and stone walls (v. 6). Her frantic efforts to find her lovers would be thwarted (v. 7a). As a last resort, she would resolve to return to her Husband, the Lord, opening the way for restoration . The reality behind this figurative portrayal of judgment probably included drought, invasion, and exile (cf. vv. 9, 11-12; Lev . 26:18-22).

    (2) Israel deprived of the Lord’s blessings (2:8-13). 2:8. Israel’s guilt was established as the basis for her punishment. She had failed to acknowledge the Lord as the Source of her produce and wealth. Instead she used silver and gold to manufacture Baal idols (cf. 8:4; 13:2), for it was this Canaanite deity to whom she attributed her agricultural (grain ... new wine and oil) and economic prosperity (2:5, 12-13).

    Baal was the Canaanite god who supposedly controlled storms and was responsible for both agricultural and human fertility. The Canaanite Legend of Keret associated Baal’s rain with agricultural blessing in the form of grain, bread, wine, and oil (cf. J.C.L. Gibson, Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1978, p. 98). By looking to Baal for these things Israel broke the first of the Ten Commandments (cf. Ex. 20:3; Deut. 5:7), rejecting one of the main principles of the Mosaic legislation. Moses taught that the Lord provided grain, wine, and oil (Deut. 7:13; 11:14). Each Israelite, when presenting his firstfruits in the harvest festival, was to recite the following words in the presence of the priest, I bring the firstfruits of the soil that You,0 LORD, have given me (Deut. 26:10).

    2:9a. In response to Israel’s unfaithfulness, the Lord said He would deprive the nation of agricultural produce (grain and new wine), leaving it destitute. The Mosaic Law made agricultural prosperity dependent on loyalty to the Lord. Obedience to the covenant stipulations would result in the Lord’s blessing in the form of plentiful harvests, numerous offspring, and security (cf. Lev. 26:3-13; Deut. 28:1-14). Disobedience would bring drought, pestilence, war, death, and exile (Lev. 26:14-39; Deut. 28:15-68). Thus the announcement in Hosea 2:9 revealed the Lord’s intention to implement the covenant curses against Israel. Drought, blight, insect swarms, and invading armies would destroy the land’s produce (cf. Deut. 28:51; Joel 1:4-12; Amos 4:6-9; 7:1).

    2:9b-10. The figurative portrayal of Israel as the Lord’s wife is carried along in these verses. Without wool and linen (cf. v. 5), which were used to make clothing (Lev. 13:47, 59; Deut. 22:11; Prov. 31:13; Ezek. 44:17), she would have no means of covering her nakedness. Through this deprivation the Lord would expose her lewdness. Her shameful behavior would become known to all through this public demonstration (cf. Hosea 2:3; Ezek. 16:36-37). Lewdness (naḇlûṯ, which occurs only here in the OT) refers to a blatant breach of covenant which disgraces the entire community. A related term (neḇālâh) is used of Achan’s sin (Josh. 7:15), as well as various prohibited sexual acts, including fornication (Deut. 22:21), incest (2 Sam. 13:12), rape (Jud. 19:23; 20:6), and adultery (Jer. 29:23). During this exhibition Israel’s lovers would be forced to stand by helplessly, being unable to deliver her from the Lord’s powerful grip. Then the Lord’s superiority and the lovers’ weakness (or apathy) would become apparent to her. 2:11. The coming judgment would also bring the cessation of Israel’s joyous religious celebrations, including the great yearly festivals (Ex. 23:14-17), the monthly New Moons (i.e., New Moon sacrifices; Num. 10:10, 28:11-15), and the weekly Sabbath observances. These feasts had been corrupted by Baal worship (cf. Hosea 2:13) and were no longer desired by the Lord.

    2:12-13. The themes in verses 5-9 are repeated in verses 12-13. In implementing the covenant curses the Lord would destroy the produce (her vines and her fig trees; cf. Deut. 28:38-42; Joel 1:7; Amos 4:9), which Israel erroneously regarded as the pay given by her paramours in exchange for her services (cf. Hosea 9:1; Micah 1:7). The vineyards would be reduced to an overgrown thicket inhabited by wild animals. This would be an effect of the depopulation which would accompany the nation’s military defeat and exile (cf. Ps. 80:12-13; Isa. 5:5- 6; 7:23-25; 17:9; 32:9-14; Micah 3:12).

    In burning incense to the Baals Israel had, as it were, seductively chased after her lovers (cf. Hosea 2:5). The rings and jewelry, though sources of delight and signs of prestige in the proper context (cf. Prov. 25:12; Ezek. 16:12-14), here represent the unfaithful wife’s efforts to attract her lovers. The plural Baals (cf. also Hosea 2:17; 11:2; Jud. 2:11 [see com­ments there]; 1 Sam. 7:4; Jer. 2:23; 9:14) in this context probably refer to various local manifestations of the one Canaanite deity (cf. the singular Baal in Hosea 2:8; 13:1), who was represented by images in Baal shrines scattered throughout the land (cf. 13:1-2). The plurality of idols naturally suggested the comparison to many lovers (cf. James Luther Mays, Hosea: A Commentary, p. 43).

    The final statement in this section (2:2-13) summarizes Israel’s basic sin and the reason for the coming judgment: she had forgotten (salsa ) the LORD. The verb here does not refer to a mental lapse or loss of knowledge; it describes a refusal to acknowledge the Lord’s goodness and authority (cf. 8:14; 13:6). Moses had repeatedly urged the nation not to forget the Lord’s gracious deeds (Deut . 4:9; 8:11) and His demand for exclusive worship (Deut. 4:23; 6:12; 8:19; cf. 2 Kings 17:38). However, in fulfillment of Moses’ prediction (cf. Deut. 31:27-29 with Deut. 32:18) Israel throughout her history forgot the Lord and worshiped false gods (cf. Jud. 3:7; 1 Sam. 12:9-10; Ps. 78:9-11; Jer. 23:27).

    2. THE LORD ‘S RESTORATION OF ISRAEL (2:14-23)

    Having brought Israel to a place of desperation in which she would again look to Him (cf. v. 7), the Lord said He would take the next steps in restoring the relationship. Israel’s positive response would lead to covenant renewal and blessing.

    a. Renewed love (2:14-15)

    In these verses the Lord described His overtures of Jove and Israel’s future positive response.

    2:14. The Lord promised to initiate reconciliation with His wayward wife by alluring her. Allure refers here to tender, even seductive, speech. Elsewhere the term describes a man’s seduction of a virgin (Ex. 22:16) and a lover ‘s attempt to entice a man (Samson) into divulging confidential information (Jud. 14:15; 16:5). The Lord said He will lead Israel into the desert, where she will be completely separated from past lovers and will be able to concentrate totally on His advances . The reference to the desert recalls Israel’s 40 years of wandering in the wilderness after the Exodus . This was sometimes pictured as a time when Israel experienced the Lord’s care in a special way (cf. Hosea 13:5) and when she, in return, loved Him with the devotion of a new bride (Jer. 2:2-3). The allusion to the wilderness also represents a remarkable reversal in the use of the desert motif in this chapter. For the Lord had threatened to make Israel like a desert (Hosea 2:3). According to verse 14 the desert will become the site of His romantic overtures to her. There He will speak tenderly to her (lit., speak to her heart; cf. Isa. 40:2). This Hebrew idiom refers to gentle, encouraging words, such as a man speaks to his desired bride (cf. Gen. 34:3; Ruth 2:13). As Mays states , the boldly anthropomorphic language is astonishing especially in light of the Bible’s studied aversion for speaking of God in any sexual terms . He adds, it is in this daring kind of portrayal that the passion of God becomes visible-a passion that does not hesitate at any condescension or hold back from any act for the sake of the beloved elect ( Hosea , pp. 44-5).

    2:15. When the Lord leads Israel out of the desert back into the Promised Land, He will restore her vineyards. The words There I will give misinterpret the elliptical Hebrew text (which reads lit., from there) by implying that vineyards will grow in the wilderness where Israel had wandered. The agricultural prosperity envisioned here will be in Israel (cf. vv. 22-23; Deut. 30:4-5, 9; Amos 9:13-15), not in the desert. When Israel enters the land she will again pass through the Valley of Achor (lit., Valley of trouble), the site of Achan’s heinous sin which jeopardized the success of the Conquest (Josh. 7). However, this time the valley will be a symbol of better things to come, a door of hope leading to repossession of the Promised Land (cf. Isa. 65:10). The effects of the trouble caused by Israel’s past unfaithfulness will have disappeared. Instead she will respond favorably to the Lord as in the days immediately after the Exodus (cf. Jer. 2:2). Admittedly this earlier period is idealized here, as even a cursory reading of the narratives in Exodus and Numbers reveals.

    b. Renewed marriage (2:16-20)

    2:16-17. In that day, when Israel is restored to the land, she will acknowledge the LORD as her husband . She will address Him as ‘îšî my Husband, rather than ba’ ăli, my Master. These two Hebrew words are essentially synonymous. They are used interchangeably in 2 Samuel 11:26, "Now when the wife of Uriah heard that Uriah her husband (‘îš) was dead, she mourned for her husband (ba’al; NASB; cf. also Deut. 24:3-4). However, the word ba’al would be a reminder of Israel’s former Baal worship. Therefore God will prohibit its use, and Israel will no longer use the names of the Baals (cf. the pl. Baals in Hosea 2:13; 11:2).

    2:18. Israel’s return to the land will be accompanied by peace. The Lord will mediate a covenant between the nation and the animal kingdom. The harmful beasts of the field, which had earlier devoured the vines and fig trees (v. 12; cf. Lev. 26:22), will no longer be hostile (cf. Ezek. 34:25). Isaiah also portrayed the Kingdom Age as one of harmony between man and animals (Isa. 11:6-8; 65:25). The Lord will also cause war (symbolized by bow and sword and battle; cf. Hosea 1:7) to cease in the land of Israel. The nation will dwell safely, free from the threat of foreign invasion. This marks the reversal of an earlier judgment (cf. 1:5) and the return of covenant blessing (cf. Lev. 26:5-6, where the same expressions, lie down and in safety, are used).

    2:19-20. The restoration of the Lord’s marriage to Israel is described in terms of a betrothal. Kidner points out that the word betroth marks a new beginning, with all the freshness of first love, rather than the weary patching up of differences (Love for the Loveless, p. 34). It will be as though the Lord and Israel had returned to the days of courtship. Betrothal in ancient Israel was much more binding than engagement is in contemporary Western society. The Law treated a betrothed couple as though they were legally married (Deut. 20:7; 22:23-24). At the time of the betrothal the man would pay a price to seal the agreement (cf. 2 Sam. 3:14). The Lord’s price will consist of righteousness . . . justice . . . love. . . compassion, and faithfulness. These qualities will characterize His relationship with Israel, which will never again be disrupted (cf. Hosea 2:19).

    Righteousness (ṣeḏeq) and justice (mišpāṭ) refer here to the maintenance of Israel’s just cause, which includes vindication through deliverance. Love (ḥeseḏ) is an unswerving devotion which fulfills the responsibilities arising from a relationship. Compassion (raḥămîm, related to raḥam, used in 1:6-7; 2:1, 4) is tender feeling which motivates one to gracious action. Faithfulness (‘ěmûnâh) implies dependability and constant loyalty.

    In response to the divine love showered on her, Israel will acknowledge the LORD. In contrast with her former tendency to forget (cf. v. 13) she will recognize His authority by demonstrating loyalty to Him. Acknowledge (yāḏa’, to know) often occurs in covenantal contexts with the sense of recognize. For example, the Lord recognized (lit., knew) Israel’s special relationship to Him (cf. Amos 3:2, KJV). Israel in return was to recognize (lit., know) only the authority of her Lord (cf. Hosea 13:4). In Hebrew thought, such recognition was not a mere mental exercise; it implied action (cf. Jer. 22:16). In Israel’s case it meant obedience to the Lord’s commandments (cf. Hosea 8:1-2). In the future all Israel will know the Lord because, as Jeremiah wrote, He will put His Law in their minds and write it on their hearts Jer. 31:33). This is the promise of the New Covenant (Jer. 31:31-34), which corresponds to the new marriage pictured in Hosea 2:19-20.

    c. Renewed blessing (2:21-23)

    2:21-22. The promise of restored agricultural blessing, mentioned briefly in verse 15, is expanded here. A series of cries and responses is envisioned as different elements of the natural world are pesonified. Jezreel (the nation of Israel here) will cry out to the grain ... wine, and oil. They in turn will respond by calling to the earth from which they are produced. The earth in turn will look to the heavens, the source of the rain which makes the soil productive. The heavens will then call to the Lord, the One who ultimately controls the agricultural cycle. He will respond by providing the rain necessary for agricultural prosperity.

    2:23. The Lord Himself is pictured as engaging in agricultural endeavors. He will plant Israel in the land (cf. comments on 1:2), where she will grow under His protective care. The nation called Lo-Ruhamah (not ... loved; cf. 1:6) and Lo-Ammi (not My people; cf. 1:9) will experience God’s compassion and will be addressed as His people. They will acknowledge that He, not Baal, is their God. This passage is parallel to 1:10-2:1, where the same reversal in the significance of the symbolic names is seen.

    Hosea 2:23, along with 1:10, is quoted in Romans 9:25-26 and 1 Peter 2:10. Paul quoted those Hosea passages to say that both Jews and Gentiles will be converted during the Church Age (cf. Rom. 9:24). This does not mean, however, that he equated the Gentiles with Israel and regarded the conversion of Gentiles as a direct fulfillment of Hosea’s prophecy . Paul clearly taught that national Israel would be saved as well (Rom. 11). Rather, Paul extracted from Hosea’s prophecy a principle concerning God’s gracious activity (cf. F.F. Bruce, The Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Grand Rapids : Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1963, p . 196).

    According to Hosea, God will mercifully bring a previously rejected people into a relationship with Himself. Paul recognized this same pattern in God’s dealings with the Gentiles. In Romans 9:25 Paul, then, was applying Hosea 2:23 to the Gentiles; he was not reinterpreting the verse (cf. comments on Rom. 9:24- 26). Likewise Peter (1 Peter 2:10) saw the language of Hosea’s prophecy as applicable to New Testament believers, who by divine mercy have been brought into a relationship with God (cf. 1 Peter 1:3).

    C. The restoration of Hosea’s marriage (chap. 3)

    As Hosea’s experience with his unfaithful wife portrayed Israel’s

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