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    Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Materials, Processing Technologies, and Safety Issues
    Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Materials, Processing Technologies, and Safety Issues
    Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Materials, Processing Technologies, and Safety Issues
    Ebook633 pages7 hours

    Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Materials, Processing Technologies, and Safety Issues

    By Jose Maria Lagaron

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    Nanotechnology for Food Packaging: Materials, Processing Technologies, and Safety Issues showcases the latest research in the use of nanotechnology in food packaging, providing an in-depth and interdisciplinary overview of the field. Nanoscale advances in materials science, processing technology and analytical techniques have led to the introduction of new, cheaper and safer packaging techniques. Simultaneously, the increasing use of renewable nanomaterials has made food packaging more sustainable. Chapters provide a comprehensive review on materials used, their structure–function relationship, and new processing technologies for the application and production of nanotechnology-based packaging materials.

    In addition, the book discusses the use of functional materials for the development of active, smart and intelligent packaging, possible migration and toxicity of nanomaterials for foods and regulatory aspects, and commercial applications.

    • Provides detailed information on the use of nanomaterials and methodologies in food packaging, possible applications and regulatory barriers to commercialization
    • Presents an interdisciplinary approach that brings together materials science, bioscience, and the industrial and regulatory aspects of the creation and uses of food packaging
    • Helps those undertaking research and development in food packaging gain a cogent understanding on how nanotechnology is leading to the emergence of new packaging technologies
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherElsevier Science
    Release dateMay 10, 2018
    ISBN9780323512725
    Nanomaterials for Food Packaging: Materials, Processing Technologies, and Safety Issues

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      Book preview

      Nanomaterials for Food Packaging - Miguel Angelo Parente Ribei Cerqueira

      introduction

      Chapter 1

      Nanotechnology in Food Packaging: Opportunities and Challenges

      Miguel A. Cerqueira⁎; António A. Vicente†; Lorenzo M. Pastrana⁎    ⁎ International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

      † Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

      Abstract

      The use of nanotechnology in the development of innovative packaging materials has had a remarkable growth in the last years and is expected to have an important impact on the food market in the near future. This growth is a consequence of the increasing knowledge about nanotechnology applications in food packaging, which brought to the academia and industry new tools for the development of new nanotechnology-based products with improved technological functionalities and properties, as well as the corresponding advances in materials science, processing technology, and analytical techniques. Simultaneously, the impact on sustainability and the interest on using renewable resources further contributed to reinforce growth perspectives in this area. This chapter provides an overview of the nanomaterials used in food packaging and new innovative solutions that have been presented by researchers in academia and industry. Also, the social and commercial acceptance of these systems and future perspectives are presented, providing a broad and comprehensive understanding of the use of nanotechnology in food packaging.

      Keywords

      Nanostructure; Food; Nanoscale; Nanotechnology; Packaging; Shelf life

      Acknowledgments

      This work was supported by Norte Regional Operational Program 2014-2020 (Norte2020) through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) Nanotechnology based functional solutions (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000019).

      1.1 Nanomaterials in Food Packaging

      Nanotechnology has a great potential to generate materials with unique properties and to produce innovative products for a great number of applications [1,2]. In a broad sense, nanotechnology involves the production, manipulation, use, and characterization of materials at nanoscale, being a nanomaterial defined as any material with one or more external dimensions in the size range 1–100 nm [3]. The definition of a nanomaterial will depend on the organization, agency, or committee by which it is presented, and once nanomaterials are provided for different purposes, different definitions can be found [4]. Nanomaterials’ definition is not limited to the nanoscale range but can also be classified based on the number of dimensions. This classification is based on the dimensions of their structural elements and can be zero-dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) nanomaterials. The 0D nanomaterials refer to materials where all dimensions are at nanoscale and include nanocluster materials, nanoparticles, and nanodispersions. 1D nanomaterials can be nanofibers and nanotubular materials with rod or tube length from 100 nm to few micrometers, and where one dimension is outside the nanoscale. 2D nanomaterials exhibit plate-like shape and can be films and coatings with nanometer thickness, and where two of the dimensions are not confined to the nanoscale. 3D nanomaterials are materials in which the 0D, 1D, and 2D structural elements can be present in close contact with each other and form interfaces [5–7].

      The interest of using nanomaterials is related to their unique characteristics, only possible due to their nanosize. The materials at nanoscale exhibit physical and chemical properties that are substantially different from their micro- and macroscopic counterparts, showing in several cases great advantages for packaging materials. The impact of the nanoscale in materials and systems is often related with their large surface area-to-volume ratio, leading to enhanced surface area, distinct optical behavior, chemical and kinetic stability, and low density versus high mechanical properties [6].

      These advantages over micro- and macroscale lead to a great interest from packaging industry in their use, once they can bring several advantages such as improved mechanical and barrier properties, thermal stability, and better optical properties. Recent studies involving the use of nanotechnology in food packaging showed a great potential to improve packaging materials’ main properties as well as adding new functionalities, such as active (e.g., antimicrobial) and intelligent (controlled release) features. Therefore nanotechnology can be used to overcome some of the main problems of conventional packaging (e.g., low gas barrier and controlled delivery of bioactive compounds). In the case of food packaging, the European Union has a specific regulation for materials and articles intended to come into contact with food, being given specifications to engineered nanomaterials [8].

      The use of nanotechnology in packaging has been explored in the last years showing a great number of possible commercial applications. Recently, a market analysis showed that the use of nanotechnology in packaging will increase in the next years in applications such as active, intelligent, and smart packaging and was foreseen that intelligent and smart packaging will grow at the highest Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 12.9% from 2016 to 2024 in terms of value [9].

      Polymers are the main materials used in food packaging. Properties of these materials can be improved by incorporating other compounds in the polymer matrix. The use of nanomaterials in polymer science was first presented by Okada et al. in 1988, where they showed that the presence of a silicate in a polymer matrix of polyamide lead to the formation of a nanocomposite material with high mechanical strength and excellent high-temperature characteristics [10]. In 1993 the use of nanomaterials in food packaging was presented by the company AlliedSignal (that joined Honeywell in 1999). They showed the possibility of obtaining extruded films and film laminates from a polymer nanocomposite formed by a melted polymer with an exfoliated layered material derivatized with reactive organo silanes [11]. The possibility of using metal ions (e.g., silver) at nanoscale in a resin to produce packaging materials with antibacterial properties was presented in 1997 by Mawatari, Hamazaki [11]. Later on, Bayer AG patented a thermoplastic molding material containing polyamide, a nanosized filler and elastomer useful in the preparation of mono- or multilayer films or hollow bodies, for packaging foodstuffs, such as meat sausages, cheese, and drinks [12]. Since then, several commercial products using polyamide with nanoclays appeared in the market. Some examples are Imperm from Nanocor [13] and Nanoblend from Polyone [14] that are available for several applications, such as food packaging. Also silver nanoparticles are presented in several plastic food containers, and companies such as Kinetic, Always Fresh, and FresherLonger are presenting packaging materials where the use of antimicrobial silver nanoparticles allows the extension of food shelf life [15].

      The incorporation of nanomaterials in packaging materials is supported by their influence in the mechanical (high strength and stiffness) and barrier (low permeability) properties. Both clays and silver nanoparticles are the most used nanomaterials in packaging, due to their capacity to improve barrier, thermal and mechanical properties but also due to their possible antimicrobial activity. In the last years, other metallic nanoparticles have been explored, and ZnO and TiO nanoparticles showed to be interesting alternatives when the aim is to improve barrier capacity and obtain antimicrobial properties. Fig. 1.1 shows the increasing number of works using metallic nanomaterials in packaging in the last 10 years.

      Fig. 1.1 Number of publications in the last 10 years for metallic nanoparticles in packaging. The keywords used were the combination of the silver, or zinc or titanium and packaging and nanoparticles. The source of information was Scopus database (keywords search in the title, abstract, and keywords).

      Other possibilities are the use of bio-based and biodegradable nanomaterials in nanocomposites for packaging applications. The use of those materials in the development of new materials that can self-assemble into well-ordered structures at the nanometer scale increased, and the efforts on investigating the use of biological molecules (e.g., polysaccharides, proteins, waxes) for nanotechnology applications are growing [16]. They present different characteristics from inorganic and metallic materials, but due to their nontoxicity, biodegradability, and responsive behavior can open the door for a great number of possibilities in this field. Nanotechnology can help developing unique bio-based and biodegradable nanomaterials that can be used in packaging applications.

      Some of these materials are starch and chitosan nanostructures that have been used for the reinforcement of packaging materials with success [17,18]. Other bio-based nanomaterials that showed to improve barrier, mechanical, and thermal properties are cellulose-based nanostructures. Both nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) have been used to reinforce packaging materials, obtaining packaging materials with multifunctional capabilities [19,20].

      1.2 Innovative Solutions in Food Packaging Using Nanomaterials

      Packaging has as main functions the transportation and storage of foods, while protecting it from microorganisms, chemicals, oxygen, moisture, and light aiming at maintaining its quality and safety, and thus increasing shelf life. Nowadays, this is possible with the use of different materials that are used as packaging in different forms (e.g., film, bottle, and tray), being plastic-, metal-, glass-, and cellulose-based materials the most used for that purpose. Packaging is also used as a way to communicate with the consumers and all food chain, to guarantee traceability, to provide ingredients and nutritional information, and also as a tool for the marketing of the product, being the packaging design one of the most important factors in consumers’ decision [21]. There are several aspects that influence innovation in food packaging, and besides the technological interest, they are ruled by the socioeconomic needs, which are related with the consumers’ lifestyle and also to the function and price of the packaging. These factors have a high influence in the development of more convenient products (e.g., microwavable foods, refrigerated meals, and on-the-go snacks) and the use of less materials and of high-speed manufacturing equipment aiming at the optimization of the production process (e.g., leading to the reduction of the price of packaging). Other driving forces that influence innovation in food packaging are food safety and biosecurity, environmental concerns and regulations [22].

      As mentioned before, nanotechnology can help industry in the development of innovative packaging materials, allowing the production of packaging systems with new features, and nanomaterials allow the production of nanocomposites leading to packaging materials with enhanced properties (i.e., high mechanical properties and high barrier capacity). Besides all these possibilities, it is also expected that packaging materials obtained through nanotechnology use less raw materials and allow the use of bio-based and biodegradable materials maintaining the main properties of a traditional packaging solution (i.e., mechanical and barrier properties similar to petroleum-based plastic, glass, and metal).

      Fig. 1.2 shows the possible applications of nanotechnology in food packaging, not only the actual applications but the ones that in a near future will be available on the shelves.

      Fig. 1.2 Applications of nanotechnology in food packaging and the corresponding properties.

      The use of nanostructures to encapsulate active compounds and include them in packaging materials, envisaging the development of active and smart packaging materials, is one of the actual fields of interest. The incorporation of these nanostructures (nanocapsules or nanofibers) in packaging materials will be possible during the production process (e.g., extrusion or solvent casting) but also through the formation of a layer (e.g., spray coating, electrospinning) leading to the formation of an active multilayer packaging. Encapsulation will allow protecting active compounds such as antifungal and antibacterial, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, thus contributing to maintain their (antioxidant and antimicrobial) properties for longer periods, while also allowing the combination of the properties of the material used for the production of the nanostructures with the properties of the packaging material itself. This will allow using biologically active molecules such as essential oils, peptides, and other molecules that normally cannot be added during packaging production. This will also allow to use responsive materials that when triggered by an external influence (e.g., pH and temperature) will release the active compound, and thus act as an intelligent material with active properties [23]. One example was developed using smart poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) nanohydrogels loaded with natamycin in polysaccharide films, where the release of natamycin showed to be temperature responsive (release only happens if a temperature abuse occurs during food storage) [24,25].

      Besides, adding nanoparticles to the polymeric matrix, also the use of multilayers has been explored in food packaging. Actually, multilayer packaging is widely explored in packaging materials, allowing to combine different materials and thus achieving unique barrier and mechanical properties. Following this trend, researchers and companies have explored the development of nanomultilayers in packaging surfaces to improve barrier properties, but also as a way to add active compounds to their surfaces. The type of adsorbing substances used to produce each layer, the total number of layers incorporated into the nanomultilayers, the sequence of the different layers, and the conditions used to prepare each layer will determine the functionality of the final multilayer material. Recently, Valentis Nanotech showed the possibility of coating different plastic films and improving polyethylene (PE), biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films’ tensile elasticity by 118%, 22%, and 14%, respectively [26]. This coating is composed of CNC and nanoparticles, which can be tailored according to the application. Cerqueira et al. [27] and Fabra et al. [28] showed the possibility of functionalizing bio-based packaging with antimicrobials and antioxidants loaded in electrospun fibers. Other of the interesting possibilities of using nanomaterials in surface functionalization is the development of self-cleaning surfaces, where the development of superhydrophobic surfaces will avoid the presence of microorganisms on the surface of the packaging [29,30].

      Another promising nanomaterial in packaging applications is carbon nanotubes (CNT). The use of CNT in several applications led to advances in production technologies and their mass production has greatly reduced their cost, opening diverse possibilities of application [31]. The presence of CNT in the polymer matrix forming a nanocomposite improves polymer properties in multiple aspects such as tensile strength, stiffness, toughness, thermal stability, electrical conductivity, and chemical resistance [32]. Also graphene has been pointed as one of the materials of interest for the development of packaging materials, once it can be used in the development of materials with improved physical, chemical, and biological (antimicrobial) properties [33–35]. Graphene may also be used for the development of sensors that can be applied for the development of intelligent packaging by using indicators to detect food spoilage (e.g., detecting the presence of a gas), thus informing the consumer about food quality [36]. Apart from aspects of quality, safety, and distribution, intelligent packaging also offers considerable potential as a marketing tool and the establishment of brand differentiation [37,38]. This kind of applications using nanotechnology just started to be explored, and a smart sticker for use with perishable foods [39] and a device for the detection of oxygen have been recently presented [40], together with printed electronics for the development of sensors [41].

      All these nanotechnological applications will trigger new market opportunities, with new and innovative products where their differentiation leads to economic gains.

      1.3 Social and Commercial Acceptance

      The use of nanomaterials for the development of active, smart, and intelligent packaging presents several advantages; however, their social and commercial acceptance is still not clear. This is related with doubts of the industry and consumers regarding nanotechnology. Those doubts are associated to the health and safety of workers, to possibly harmful environmental effects, and to potential human health effects such as oxidative damage, inflammation of the gastrointestinal system, cancers and lesions of liver and kidneys due to acute toxic responses [42]. In packaging, the possible migration of nanomaterials for foods is one of the main concerns, and when using nanomaterials in packaging that will be in contact with food products migration tests should be performed. These tests allow ensuring the safety of food products in contact with such packaging materials.

      Some works studied the awareness, trust, acceptability, and willingness of consumers to pay for food products where nanotechnology is used, being packaging on the systems evaluated. They give an insight in how the consumers look to the use of nanotechnology in the food industry. Roosen et al. [43] used online surveys and showed that the use of nanotechnology in the food products is a real concern for consumers. In other work and through a systematic review on consumer acceptance and willingness to pay for food nanotechnology, it has been showed that nanotechnology is more likely to be accepted by consumers when applied to development of novel packaging materials than when integrated directly into agri-food products [44].

      To change this mind-set it is important to increase the trust and confidence of consumers and industry in agri-food nanotechnology. This should be fostered in the next years by the scientific community, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and regulatory agencies through a transparent information and regulation regarding nanotechnology, in order to make clear the beneficial impacts of using nanotechnology in food industry and packaging. It is expected that this strategy will increase consumers’ acceptance and overall trust.

      As well as in all other industries [45], also in the case of food packaging it is important to create an innovation ecosystem that facilitates the collaboration between the different stakeholders, being therefore a driving force in the development of nanotechnology-based packaging solutions. Universities, researcher centers, industries, and governments should work together to increase interaction, collaboration, and information sharing. Regarding industry, it is important the involvement of all, from the packaging solution provider and processing equipment manufacturers to the food manufacturing companies; all should work together in the integration of innovation and overcome together the existing barriers. In this regard, the lack of trust and skepticism about new technologies continues to be the major barrier for collaboration, together with the requirements for a legal framework and difficulties in predicting future needs [46].

      The development of a framework that engages all the stakeholders in the development of new and innovative packaging solutions using nanotechnology should foster the innovation process. A good example of the investment in nanotechnology is the EU, where through EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation, Horizon 2020, it has been possible to invest in nanotechnology and support competitiveness of the European companies and research institutes by accelerating market acceptance of nano-labeled products [47].

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      Chapter 2

      Inorganic-Based Nanostructures and Their Use in Food Packaging

      Luis Cabedo; José Gamez-Pérez    Polymers and Advanced Materials Group (PIMA), Universitat Jaume I, Castelló de la Plana, Spain

      Abstract

      The main application of commodity polymers is at present the food packaging because of their good balance of processing, properties, and overall cost. Nowadays the market and the country regulations are claiming for higher performance of the food packages, such as longer shelf life, healthier ways of preserving the food in good conditions, and lower environmental impact. Some of the most promising approaches to overcome such challenges with success have been achieved by preparing nanocomposites, based on a polymer matrix and inorganic nanoparticles dispersed as additives or reinforcements. The high aspect ratio of these particles allows adding new functionalities to traditional packages, such as antimicrobial activity, controlled release of active substances, oxygen scavenging, and improved gas barrier properties. The main systems and applications of polymer nanocomposites are overviewed in this chapter, paying special attention to the description and applications of polymer-clay nanocomposites.

      Keywords

      Nanocomposites; Polymer-clay nanocomposites; Inorganic nanoparticles; Food packaging

      2.1 Introduction

      According to Rhim et al. [1], the main function of food package is to maintain the quality and safety of food products during storage and transportation, and to extend their shelf life by preventing unfavorable factors and conditions (e.g., spoilage due to microorganisms, chemical contaminants, oxygen, moisture, light, external forces,

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