Compressor Performance: Aerodynamics for the User

Compressor Performance

Aerodynamics for the User

Third Edition

M. Theodore Gresh

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Symbols

Part I: Theory

Chapter 1: Introduction to Aerodynamics

Abstract

Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics

Firsts

Definition of Compressor

Types of Compressors

Relative Comparisons of Various Compressor Types

Chapter 2: Thermodynamics

Abstract

Gas Laws

Bernoulli's Equation

Thermodynamic Relations for a Perfect Gas

Head

Work and Efficiency

Flow Measurement, Orifice Meters

Gas Mixtures

Thermodynamic State Equations

Performance Coefficients

Chapter 3: Aerodynamic Components

Abstract

Axial Compressors

Centrifugal Compressors

Interstage Seals

Balance Piston Seal

Impeller Thrust

Efficiency Improvements

Chapter 4: Compressor Characteristics

Abstract

Centrifugal Compressors

Slope

Stonewall

Surge

Off-Design Operation

Adjustable Vanes

Axial Compressors

Part II: Application

Chapter 5: Equipment Selection

Abstract

New Equipment Selection

Selection Procedure

Rerates

Shop Test

Chapter 6: Operation

Abstract

Performance Curves

Start-Up

Mechanical Field Tests

Avoiding Surge

Liquids

Parallel Operation

Inlet Piping

Chapter 7: Field Performance Testing

Abstract

Gas Sampling

Instrumentation

Calculation Procedures

Trend Analysis

Chapter 8: Multisection Compressors

Abstract

Isocooled Compressors

Compressors With Economizer Nozzles

Sectional Performance of Sideload Compressors

Field Data Analysis

Chapter 9: Compressor String Analysis

Abstract

Gas Turbine Drivers

Natural Gas Centrifugal Compressor Performance

Gas Turbine Overall Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency of Air Compressor Section of Gas Turbine

Thermal Efficiency of Hot-Gas Expander Section of Gas Turbine

Motor Driver

Condensing Turbine

Liquid Ingestion

Chapter 10: Flow Meters

Abstract

Square-Edged Orifices

Flow Nozzles and Venturi Tubes

Recovery Factor

Pitot Tube

Annubar® Fluid Flow Meters

Chapter 11: Troubleshooting

Abstract

Common Sources of Test Error

Cleaning Axial and Centrifugal Compressors

Inspection of Compressor

Economics

Field Problems

Maintenance Checklist

Appendix A: Gas Properties

Thermodynamic State Equations

Appendix B: Mollier Diagrams

Appendix C: Conversion Tables

Appendix D: Permissible Deviations and Fluctuations

Appendix E: Thermal Expansion Factor

Appendix F: Surge Identification

Appendix G: Glossary of Terms

References

Compressor and Turbine Design Software Performance-Monitoring Software

Remote-Monitoring Services

Index

Copyright

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-814219-6

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisition Editor: Brian Guerin

Editorial Project Manager: Charlotte Rowley

Production Project Manager: Kamesh Ramajogi

Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert

Typeset by SPi Global, India

Dedication

In memory of my good friend Herman Zijlstra

Preface

M. Theodore Gresh

This text has been designed to be used primarily by equipment users, as a guide in selecting, monitoring, and enhancing the aerodynamic performance of various types of compressors. Some basic theory is included as an aid in helping field personnel to better understand the aerodynamics of compressors so that performance enhancements and trouble resolution can be more readily realized. As much as possible, I have attempted to stick to the business end of the applicable aerodynamic principles.

This book is the result of various books, articles, notes, seminars, and personal experience that I have collected over the years working in the field of compressor aerodynamics. As it is such a collection, references have been used extensively as noted.

The concepts and procedures presented in the following pages, while generally in line with Elliott Company Policy and Industry Standards, include opinions belonging solely to me. Conforming to guidelines in this text therefore does not mean compliance with Elliott Company, API, or other industry standards. The methods presented are meant to be guidelines used for day-to-day performance trending or as the first step in selection, troubleshooting, or retrofitting equipment. For potential warranty cases, customer and vendor must agree on a specific test procedure before proceeding. For an out-of-warranty problem, the field engineer is best advised to get some help from the equipment manufacturer or 3rd-party consultant, after some initial analysis is completed.

Acknowledgments

A special thanks to Elliott Company for the support in this endeavor and permission to print the various drawings and articles used throughout this book. Thanks also to GHH, Sulzer, Carrier, Dresser Rand, General Electric Co., Ebara, Demag, Ingersol Rand, DuPont, Gulf Publishing, General Engineering Solutions, Mechanical Solutions and Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Association for technical data provided.

Thanks also to all the people who have personally helped by offering their technical support and encouraging comments, with special thanks to Marc Sassos, Dave Galster, Don Rudisel, Ron Aungier, John Beaty, Bob Spigarelli, Paul Gallick, Bill Hohlweg, Katsuhiko Yamanaka, Dennis Maffessanti, Ross Hackel, Kathy Lazur, Bob DeMaria, James Sorokes, Steve Ross, and my wife, Lynn.

The talents of Frank Weidler, Gerry Brunson, Tom Humphrey, Pawel Kapelanczyk, John Holland, Mike Wieliczki, and Ed Bennett are displayed throughout this book in the various graphics they created for me.

Symbols

Symbols

A area, ft²

a speed of sound, ft/s

BHP brake or shaft horsepower

C discharge coefficient

cp specific heat at constant pressure, BTU/lb mole °R

cv specific heat at constant volume, BTU/lb mole °R

D pipe diameter, in.

d throat, or impeller diameter, in.

E voltage

E velocity of approach factor

Eff efficiency

Fa orifice meter thermal expansion factor

gc 

GHP gas horsepower

H 

HP horsepower

h enthalpy (BTU/lb mass)

hw differential pressure, inches water

I amperage

K flow meter flow coefficient

k adiabatic exponent (cp/cv)

MW molecular weight

Ṁ weight flow (lb/min)

M Mach number, V/a

N speed, RPM

Ns specific speed

n polytropic exponent

P static pressure (psia)

Pc critical pressure (psia)

Pr reduced pressure

PT total pressure, psia

P0 stagnation pressure, psia

Pv velocity pressure

PF power factor

Q flow rate, ft³/min

Qs flow rate, ft³/s

q heat transfer, ft-lb force/lb mass

R gas constant (1544/MW)

Re Reynolds number

rp pressure ratio (P2/P1)

s entropy, BTU/°F/lb

SHP shaft horsepower

T absolute temperature (°Rankine = °F + 459.6)

Tc critical temperature (°Rankine)

TR reduced temperature (T/Tc)

t temperature (°F)

U tip speed, FPS

u internal energy, ft-lb force/lb mass

V velocity (ft/s)

v specific volume (ft³/lb mass)

W 

Y flow meter expansion factor

Ya adiabatic expansion factor

Z compressibility factor

z vertical height

Greek Letters

β throat (or orifice) to pipe diameter ratio

η efficiency

γ work coefficient

μ head coefficient

μ′ absolute viscosity, lb-s/ft²

v′ kinematic viscosity, ft²/s

ρ density, lb/ft³

ϕ flow coefficient

Subscripts

ad adiabatic process (Had)

p polytropic process (Hp)

S standard conditions—usually 14.7 psia, 60°F, dry air

1 inlet conditions (P1)(Q1)(t1)

2 discharge conditions (T2)(P2)

Part I

Theory

Chapter 1

Introduction to Aerodynamics

Abstract

This chapter is an introduction to compressors and describes some history in the development of compressors, definition of a compressor and compares various kinds of compressors. Cross-sectional drawings are shown for several types of compressors.

Keywords

Compressor definition; Positive displacement compressor; Dynamic compressor; Axial compressor; Positive displacement compressor; Ejector; Centrifugal compressor; Barrel-type compressor; Efficiency; Pressure ratio; Operation; Characteristic curves; Relative comparison; Advantages; Disadvantages; Turbocharger

Down through the years, human needs and desires have required a continued evolution of more and more sophisticated fluid-handling apparatus. In general, fluid handling involves two problems, fluid transportation and fluid pressurization.

Ancient man was most concerned with liquid transport and storage. Of primary concern was irrigation for agricultural purposes and transport of water to cities.

The Bronze Age, which began about 3000 B.C., brought with it the requirement of mechanisms for enhancing air supply to hearth furnaces. Air was first introduced in hearths by crude drafts and simple fanning. With time, innovation brought improved air supply devices. Hearths were oriented to capture the prevailing winds, and chimneys were added to help draw more air to the furnaces.

With the advent of the Iron Age, which began around 1000 B.C., no longer were simple drafting techniques adequate. A much higher hearth temperature required a pressurized air blast. Small foot- and hand-operated bellows were used in the small hearths of the farrier and blacksmith. Five hundred years ago, immense bellows were used in Germany to supply the air required for large furnaces. These were ultimately supplemented by piston pumps. Today, rotary compressors are used for this purpose.

The Industrial Revolution and, most recently, the Space Age, have produced an exponential growth in the advancement of turbomachinery, from the simple squirrel cage fan in a car's heater to the liquid fuel pumps used on the space shuttle engines.

Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics

Little heed was paid to the various fluid properties in the design of compression devices until the 19th century. Until this period, only a slight density and temperature change was encountered at the reduced compression ratios used in air pumps. The designer had a large margin of error possible since he was at liberty to tinker and adjust the apparatus at the job site until it was perfected. In most instances, both the building and design were done at the job site.

Concepts of flow, energy, work, heat, and momentum, which eluded the grasp of the early Greek philosophers and later the Roman engineers, gradually began to be understood and interpreted under the impetus of the Renaissance scientists da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, Bernoulli, Euler, St. Venant, Stokes, and Navier. The mathematical tools to describe and solve problems were wrought by Liebniz, Newton, De Moivre, Descartes, Legendre, and others. Watt, Stephenson, Carnot, Clausins, and Thurston through their applied efforts on the steam locomotive developed technical, mechanical, and thermodynamic solutions, which have contributed to the compression equipment of our century. The science of heat transfer, thermodynamics, and energy conservation was developed by Maxwell, Thurston, Otto, Helmholtz, Steffan, Boltzmann, Rayleigh, Rankine, Mach, and Plank. In the wake of the Wright Brothers’ first flight at Kitty Hawk came the aerodynamic scientists Kutta, Joukowsky, Von Karman, Von Mises, Prandtl, Lamb, Struhal, Tiejens, Stodola, Dryden, Parsons, and Paulson. With the advent of flight, these men developed theories on boundary layer, vortex shedding, aeroelastic phenomena, and other necessary tools used in the design of present-day turbomachinery [1].

Firsts

In Alexandria, Egypt, about 130 A.D., a priest scientist named Hero employed aerothermo principles to generate steam and drive a small reaction turbine.

Although the fluid mechanics of a compressor and turbine are much the same, knowledge of fluid mechanics is much more crucial for the design of a compressor than for a turbine. A turbine, with its flow usually going from a high to a low pressure, will always work. With reasonable design, it will work at a respectable efficiency. A compressor, conversely, particularly an axial compressor, will not produce any pressure rise at all unless properly designed. Consequently, very little activity was seen in the field of compressor design until the 18th century.

In 1705, Denis Papin published full descriptions of the centrifugal blowers and pumps he had developed; however, the efficiency of these machines is unknown [2,3].

John Barber designed and patented a gas turbine engine in England in 1791. The engine was designed to operate on a constant pressure cycle using gas from wood or coal as fuel [4].

In 1851, Henry Gifford flew from Paris to Trappes in the first successful aircraft propulsion device, a propeller-driven dirigible balloon powered by a steam engine [5].

In 1872, Dr. Stolze patented a gas turbine, which was eventually built and operated. The engine employed a multistage axial-flow compressor and a multistage turbine with both mounted on the same shaft. Heat was supplied to the air by means of a furnace located between the compressor and turbine [4].

Around the same period, Parsons and Delaval developed a reaction steam turbine, for the purpose of driving blowers and generators. Although Parsons also used this device in reverse to serve as a compressor, the efficiency was low—around 60%. Sir Charles Parsons’ 1884 patent also made reference to the gas turbine engine and provided for cooling to the turbine blades [1–3].

The first United States patent covering a gas turbine was by Charles Curtis (inventor of the Curtis steam turbine) in June of 1895 [3].

In 1905, Dr. Alfred J. Buchi of Switzerland first suggested the turbocharger for enhancing the output of internal combustion engines. He later went on to patent his ideas in 1915 and to organize the Buchi Syndicate in 1927 for the purpose of developing his systems [3].

It was not until January 16, 1930, that Frank Wittle, an officer in Great Britain's Royal Airforce, developed and patented a practical design for an aircraft gas turbine engine. However, the British Air Ministry dismissed the design, finding it impractical [3,6].

A few years later in 1934, a German named Hans von Ohain began development of an engine of similar design. In 1936, he joined forces with Ernst Heinkel, an airplane manufacturer. Progress was good and an aircraft with von Ohain's engine was successfully flown in August 1939. Von Ohain's HES8A Engine had a centrifugal compressor and a mixed-flow expander [2,6].

Meanwhile, Wittle had obtained some money from the British Air Ministry to develop his engine. In May 1941, an aircraft with Wittle's jet engine was successfully flown. Wittle's W2/700 Turbojet Engine, which consisted of an axial compressor, a single-stage centrifugal compressor, and an axial expander, was eventually developed into the Rolls-Royce Welland in England and also the General Electric J33 in the United States [3,6].

Definition of Compressor

A compressor is a device that transfers energy to a gaseous fluid for the purpose of raising the pressure of the fluid as in the case where the compressor is the prime mover of the fluid through the process. The purpose may also include a desired temperature rise to enhance the chemical reaction in the process.

Devices that develop less than 5.0 psig, or that effect a 7% density increase from inlet to discharge, are classified as fans or blowers. Above this level, the devices are referred to as compressors. Due to the low density change, fan equations assume constant density, thus simplifying the calculations [7,8].

Pumps are very similar to compressors but deal primarily with incompressible hydraulic fluids, whereas compressors generally deal with compressible gaseous fluids.

Types of Compressors

The two basic types of compressors are positive displacement and dynamic.

Positive Displacement Compressor

The positive displacement compressor functions by means of entrapping a volume of gas and reducing that volume, as in the common bicycle pump, and the screw compressor shown in Fig. 1.1. The general characteristics of the positive displacement compressor are constant flow and variable pressure ratio (for a given speed).

Fig. 1.1 Positive displacement screw compressor. (Courtesy of MAN GHH.)

Positive displacement compressors include

•piston compressor

•screw compressor

•vane compressor

•lobe compressor

Dynamic Compressor

The dynamic compressor depends on motion to transfer energy from the compressor rotor to the process gas. The characteristics of compression vary depending on the type of dynamic compressor and on the type of gas being compressed. The flow is continuous. There are no valves and there is no containment of the gas, as in a positive displacement compressor. Compression depends on the dynamic interaction between the mechanism and the gas.

Dynamic compressors include

•ejector

•centrifugal compressor

•axial compressor

Ejector

An ejector is a very simple device, which uses a high-pressure jet stream to compress gas. The momentum of the high-pressure jet stream is transferred to the low-pressure process gas. This type of compressor is commonly used for vacuum applications.

Centrifugal Compressor

A centrifugal compressor acts on a gas by means of blades on a rotating impeller. The rotary motion of the gas results in an outward velocity due to centrifugal forces. The tangential component of this outward velocity is then transformed to pressure by means of a diffuser.

Fig. 1.2 is typical of a single-stage centrifugal compressor. A high-pressure multistage compressor is shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.2 Single-stage centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy of Ebara Corporation.)

Fig. 1.3 High-pressure barrel-type multistage centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy of Mannesmann Demag.)

Axial Compressor

An axial compressor imparts momentum to a gas by means of a cascade of airfoils. The lift and drag coefficients of the airfoil shape determine the compressor characteristics. Fig. 1.4 shows a typical axial compressor. An axial compressor incorporated in a turbocharger is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.4 Axial compressor. (Courtesy of General Electric Company.)

Fig. 1.5 Turbocharger with axial compressor. This unit was used to supply air to a steam boiler unit. (Reprinted with permission of Elliott Company, Jeannette, PA.)

Relative Comparisons of Various