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    Bioenergetics: A Novel Theory for Atp Synthesis
    Bioenergetics: A Novel Theory for Atp Synthesis
    Bioenergetics: A Novel Theory for Atp Synthesis
    Ebook173 pages1 hour

    Bioenergetics: A Novel Theory for Atp Synthesis

    By Baltazar D. Reynafarje

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    About this ebook

    This book is designed to provide new trends of thought concerning the transformation of free energy that occur in living cells and between living cells and their environment.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherTrafford Publishing
    Release dateOct 31, 2014
    ISBN9781490713816
    Bioenergetics: A Novel Theory for Atp Synthesis

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      Book preview

      Bioenergetics - Baltazar D. Reynafarje

      © Copyright 2014, 2015 Baltazar D. Reynafarje.

      All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written prior permission of the author.

      isbn: 978-1-4907-1380-9 (Softcover)

      isbn: 978-1-4907-1382-3 (Hardcover)

      isbn: 978-1-4907-5210-5 (Audio)

      isbn: 978-1-4907-1381-6 (e-Book)

      Library of Congress Control Number: 2013916420

      Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

      Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Thinkstock are models,

      and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

      Certain stock imagery © Thinkstock.

      Trafford rev. 01/08/2015

      59359.png    www.trafford.com

      North America & international

      toll-free: 1 888 232 4444 (USA & Canada)

      fax: 812 355 4082

      Contents

      SECTION I: ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

      I. 1. Introduction

      I. 2. Basic laws of thermodynamics

      I. 3. Endergonic, exergonic, and Gibbs free energy change in living organisms

      I. 4. Relationship between free-energy change and equilibrium constant

      I. 5. Enthalpy and Entropy

      SECTION II: THERMODYNAMICALLY FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE REACTIONS

      II. 1. Introduction

      II. 2. The active transport of ions and metabolites requires the input of free energy

      II. 3. Most important forms of metabolic energy

      II. 4. Electrons enter the mitochondria via specific shuttles

      II. 5. Acetyl CoA is the common entrance of electrons to the Krebs cycle

      SECTION III: KINETICS OF ENZYME CATALYZED REACTIONS

      III. 1. Introduction

      III. 2. Kinetic orders and steady-state conditions

      III. 3. The Michaelis-Menten constant of hyperbolical reactions

      III. 4. Turnover number and Hill coefficient of enzyme catalyzed reactions

      SECTION IV: TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN FROM AIR TO TISSUES

      IV. 1. Introduction

      IV. 2. Transport of oxygen by the cardiovascular system

      IV. 3. Physiological transport of O2 form blood

      to mitochondria

      SECTION V: THE RESPIRATORY ROCESS OF O2 CONSUMPTION

      V. 1. Introduction

      V. 2. Components of the mitochondrial membranes

      V. 3. Complexes of the respiratory chain

      V. 4. 1.14 volts drives the transfer of electrons from NADH to O2 via QH2

      V. 5. Cytochrome aa3 catalyzes the transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to O2

      V. 6. Metabolic states of mitochondria and the concept of respiratory control

      SECCTION VI: KINETICS AND THERMODYNAMICS OF OXYGEN CONSUMPTION

      VI. 1. Introduction

      VI. 2. The KM of Cytochrome Oxidase for Oxygen is close to 30 µM

      VI. 3. Effect of the O/cytochrome aa3 ratio on the extent of O2 consumption

      VI. 4. The vectorial ejection of H+ has no effect on the process of ATP synthesis

      SECTION VII: KINETICS AND THERMODYNAMICS OF ATP SYNTHESIS

      VII. 1. Introduction

      VII. 2. The synthesis of ATP depends more on O2 than on ADP concentration

      VII. 3. The efficiency of the mitochondrial process of ATP synthesis

      VII. 4. Net synthesis of ATP takes place in the absence of a protonmotive force

      VII. 5. Distinct mechanisms for the synthesis and hydrolysis of ATP

      This book is dedicated with much love to my youngest grandsons Wesley Salomon and Alberto Lorenzo

      PREFACE

      This book is designed to provide new trends of thought concerning the transformations of energy occurring in the life of humans, which in accordance with the basic laws of thermodynamics inexorably lead to a state of equilibrium and minimal potential energy. Under physiological conditions, life proceeds far from equilibrium maintaining a highly organized, structured and constrained state that apparently violates the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of the universe is constantly increasing. Life, however, is an ephemeral phenomenon that only exists due to the free energy that is brought into being by increasing the entropy of the environment so that the total energy of the universe remains constant. Thus, the energy utilized in the synthesis of ATP, which is the universal currency of free energy in living cells, begins not with a sudden increment in the level of ADP but with the binding of O2 to mitochondria already charged with both respiratory substrates and ADP. In fact, the provision of free energy that is involved in the traffic of ions and metabolites and the homeostasis of the cell is tightly regulated by the in vivo concentration of O2. Consequently, the reduction of O2 to water and the synthesis of ATP were described in this book by analyzing the kinetics and thermodynamics of O2 uptake and ATP synthesis that takes place from the beginning to the end of the process of oxidative phosphorylation. Pertinent aspects of general and comparative physiology are described to shed light on the mechanism of energy generation occurring under normal and pathological conditions. We hope that this book will help researchers to find alterations in energy metabolism not only by determining the genetic code of the cell but also by simply determining the processes of O2 consumption and ATP synthesis.

      SECTION I

      ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

      IN LIVING ORGANISMS

      I. 1. Introduction

      The central theme of bioenergetics has to do with the principles that govern the transformations of energy in living organisms. Energy, i.e. the ability of matter to perform work as the results of motion or position, exists in various forms, including mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, radiant, and atomic. All forms of energy, except entropy, may be converted to other forms of energy. Kinetic energy (the energy related with motion) and potential energy (the energy related to position) may be lost or gained, but the total of the two remains constant.

      The concept of equivalence between mass and energy refers to the physical principle establishing that a measured quantity of energy (E) is equivalent to a measured quantity of mass is expressed by the following Einstein’s equation:

      In this form of kinetic energy, m is the unified body of mass that occupies space, a is the acceleration applied to m, d is the distance through which a acts, and c is the speed of light. This concept, however, only holds true for events involving velocities equal to the velocity of light. For velocities lower than the speed of light the value of E can be derived from the following equation:

      where v² is the speed multiplied by itself. At higher velocities close to that of light energy and matter are interconvertible.

      Living organisms require a continual input and utilization of free energy for three main purposes: the performance of dynamical energy for cellular motion; the active transport of molecules and ions; and the synthesis of macromolecules from simple precursors. The free-energy that sustains life on both phototropic and chemotropic organisms, comes from solar energy. In plants and photosynthetic bacteria, the protein complexes in charge to make available the quanta of visible light are contained in chloroplasts. In aerobic organisms, the protein complexes in charge to make available the free energy of electron flow towards oxygen are contained in the mitochondria of eukaryotic organisms and the membranes of cyanobacteria and prokaryotic cells

      Although the number of protein-assemblies that exists inside the cell is overwhelmingly large, the number of assemblies involved in the synthesis of ATP, which is the universal form of free energy in living organisms, is relatively small. The essential elements that, together with O2, CO2, ADP and Pi, are involved in the oxidative phosphorylation process of ATP synthesis are the electrons and protons contained in highly reduced respiratory substrates. The protein complexes in charge to catalyze the downhill or exergonic flow of electrons towards O2 and the uphill or endergonic synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi are localized in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes.

      I. 2. Basic laws of thermodynamics

      All biological reactions that occur in nature are subject to the universal laws of thermodynamics. Although cells are open systems that are never at equilibrium, a description of the principles of equilibrium thermodynamics (as applied to ordinary chemical reactions) is necessary to understand that the work done by the cell always takes place under conditions that are far from equilibrium. Thermodynamics is the field of physics that deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of energy such as pressure, temperature and volume. Everything that happens in living organisms is subject to the laws of thermodynamics.

      The first law of

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