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Never Done: A History of Women’s Work in Media Production
Never Done: A History of Women’s Work in Media Production
Never Done: A History of Women’s Work in Media Production
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Never Done: A History of Women’s Work in Media Production

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Winner of the 2018 Best First Book Award from the Society for Cinema and Media Studies (SCMS)​

Histories of women in Hollywood usually recount the contributions of female directors, screenwriters, designers, actresses, and other creative personnel whose names loom large in the credits. Yet, from its inception, the American film industry relied on the labor of thousands more women, workers whose vital contributions often went unrecognized.    Never Done introduces generations of women who worked behind the scenes in the film industry—from the employees’ wives who hand-colored the Edison Company’s films frame-by-frame, to the female immigrants who toiled in MGM’s backrooms to produce beautifully beaded and embroidered costumes. Challenging the dismissive characterization of these women as merely menial workers, media historian Erin Hill shows how their labor was essential to the industry and required considerable technical and interpersonal skills. Sketching a history of how Hollywood came to define certain occupations as lower-paid “women’s work,” or “feminized labor,” Hill also reveals how enterprising women eventually gained a foothold in more prestigious divisions like casting and publicity.      Poring through rare archives and integrating the firsthand accounts of women employed in the film industry, the book gives a voice to women whose work was indispensable yet largely invisible. As it traces this long history of women in Hollywood, Never Done reveals the persistence of sexist assumptions that, even today, leave women in the media industry underpraised and underpaid. 

For more information: http://erinhill.squarespace.com  
LanguageEnglish
Release dateOct 5, 2016
ISBN9780813574882
Never Done: A History of Women’s Work in Media Production

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    Never Done - Erin Hill

    Never Done

    Never Done

    A HISTORY OF WOMEN’S WORK IN MEDIA PRODUCTION

    Erin Hill

    RUTGERS UNIVERSITY PRESS

    New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

    Names: Hill, Erin, 1977– author.

    Title: Never done : a history of women’s work in media production / Erin Hill.

    Description: New Brunswick, New Jersey : Rutgers University Press, 2016. | Based on the author’s dissertation (doctoral)—University of California, Los Angeles. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

    Identifiers: LCCN 2016003236 | ISBN 9780813574875 (hardcover : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780813574868 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780813574882 (e-book (epub) | ISBN 9780813574899 (e-book (web pdf)

    Subjects: LCSH: Women in the motion picture industry—United States—History—20th century. | Motion picture industry—United States—Employees. | Sex discrimination in employment—United States. | Sex role in the work environment—United States.

    Classification: LCC PN1995.9.W6 H545 2016 | DDC 384/.80820973—dc23

    LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016003236

    A British Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

    Copyright © 2016 by Erin Hill

    All rights reserved

    No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press, 106 Somerset Street, New Brunswick, NJ 08901. The only exception to this prohibition is fair use as defined by U.S. copyright law.

    Visit our website: http://rutgerspress.rutgers.edu

    Manufactured in the United States of America

    For the studio girls

    CONTENTS

    Acknowledgments

    Introduction

    1. Paper Trail: Efficiency, Clerical Labor, and Women in the Early Film Industry

    2. Studio Tours: Feminized Labor in the Studio System

    3. The Girl Friday and How She Grew: Female Clerical Workers and the System

    4. His Acolyte on the Altar of Cinema: The Studio Secretary’s Creative Service

    5. Studio Girls: Women’s Professions in Media Production

    Epilogue: The Legacy of Women’s Work in Contemporary Hollywood

    Appendix: Work Roles Divided by Gender as Represented in Studio Tours Films

    Notes

    Selected Bibliography

    Index

    About the Author

    ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

    I thank all of the media professionals I’ve learned from over the past fifteen years in my hybrid role as media professional-academic. I’m particularly grateful to those friends and former colleagues who have sat for interviews, answered stray questions about union affiliations and interpersonal politics on the set, offered stories from their own careers, connected me with additional interview subjects, and in various other ways helped me understand different aspects of production, past and present.

    Thanks to John Caldwell for his mentorship and encouragement, as well as his own foundational research, which helped give form to many of my ideas about production cultures. From John, I learned it is possible to produce good work while remaining a compassionate, ethical, feminist scholar and teacher. Thanks as well to the other UCLA faculty who encouraged me to look at subjects of study from as many angles as possible and gave me to the tools necessary to ground interdisciplinary work. Special thanks to Kathleen McHugh, Stephen Mamber, and L. S. Kim for their invaluable assistance and support as members of my doctoral dissertation committee.

    I’m also very grateful to my editor, Leslie Mitchner, for her guidance and assistance over the past few years. I was still learning how to pitch myself to editors when we met and connected over this work. I feel very fortunate to have worked with an editor who got it right away. Thanks also to Annalisa Zox-Weaver for her editorial assistance.

    Thanks to the librarians and staff of the USC Warner Archive, the Margaret Herrick Library, and UCLA Special Collections. Special thanks to Haden Guest and Sandra Joy Lee, Ned Comstock, Barbara Hall, and Jenny Romero, who pointed me in the direction of much of the best archival material discussed within.

    I’m grateful to the many friends who have lent their support throughout this work. In particular, Jody Rosenzweig, Jessie Matekunas, Veronica Becker, David Lyons, Karyn Bosnack, Shannon Bates, Brett Fenzel, and Mike Stern. And a special thanks to those friends who are fellow academics and listened and read the most, particularly Maya Smuckler, Jonathan Cohn, Mary Samuelson, Jennifer Porst, and Lindsay Hogan. And to Miranda Banks, for offering encouragement and advice from her experiences publishing her own excellent book, The Writers, with Rutgers University Press. Thanks to other scholars working in this area who shared their insights through conference panels, workshops, and publications.

    Finally, thanks to my family. I’m especially grateful to my parents, Tony and Anne Hill, for their love and support over many years spent researching and writing this book. Thanks also to my aunt, Martha Hoppin, who served as one of my earliest readers, cheered me on, and was a resource on the subject of academic publishing. And to my uncle Terry Hill, who acts as unofficial publicist among my family members. Thanks to all the other Hills, Hoppins, Freemans, Johnsons, and Lees. Thanks to my grandfather, John Hoppin Jr., who demonstrates daily the importance of being inquisitive, progressive, and engaged with the world at any age. And finally, thanks to my grandmothers, Mary Ellen Hill and Lillian Hoppin, and all the women in my family, from whom I learned to value my own work and the work of other women.

    Never Done

    Fig. 1. Women film workers at the Selig Polyscope Company’s Chicago factory. (Motography, October 1915.)

    Introduction

    Though women had produced, directed, written, and acted in movies since 1910, by 1973 women did not make movies. They acted in them. Major female film stars did not have their own production companies. Women were not heads of networks. They did not run studios. From the 1920s to the 1970s, only a handful produced films. Almost no women directed, they did not run cameras or sound, they did not carry equipment or shout into walkie-talkies. No one said women couldn’t do these things. It was assumed. It was the way things were.

    —Mollie Gregory, writer/producer, 2002

    There’s a myth in Hollywood—reflected in both its cultural works and its own internal production culture—that women did not participate in much of film history except as actors or, more rarely, as screenwriters, because they were pushed out from behind the camera in the early years of filmmaking, managing to return decades later only amid nationwide equal rights activism. This oral history was recounted to me when I entered the film industry as a producer’s assistant in 1999, and was repeated by the casting directors I began interviewing about their work in 2004. The same narrative framed many of the industry-authored Women in Hollywood books or special issues of Variety or Vanity Fair published in the 2000s and early 2010s, referencing this bleak past only to dismiss it with a statement about women’s progress along the lines of Today women are working in every area of media production. And, until relatively recently, the focus of most scholarly work on the subject of women in production—on female writers, stars, and silent-era directors—rehearsed a similar story in what it left out.

    The Women Who Weren’t There

    Like many myths, this one is based in fact. With very few exceptions, women did not direct or produce films for major studios from the 1920s, when previous advances in elite creative fields were halted, until the 1970s, when a handful fought their way back to directors’ chairs, often under the banner of the women’s movement. And, to be sure, the powerful women who survived in the studio system—writers like Frances Marion and stars like Bette Davis—were powerful in spite of the structural inequities that undermined them throughout their careers. These female movie makers—the early, pushed-out pioneers and the rare, studio-era survivors—are important, and their achievements are worthy of all due recognition and attention. But they weren’t the only women working in Hollywood in the twentieth century. Their achievements, though remarkable, aren’t the sum total of women’s contributions to the first century of filmmaking in the United States. And, for better and worse, theirs isn’t the only professional line from which the generation of women currently at work in Hollywood descends.

    Fig. 2. Women working in the MGM editing room, circa 1921. (Courtesy of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.)

    When the earliest American films were produced in the mid-1890s, it was women—the wives of Thomas Edison’s male employees—who hand-colored them, frame by frame. Only a few years later, in 1897, a Scientific American feature depicted dozens of women bent over spools of film in the American Mutoscope Company’s drying and retouching room under the watchful eye of a male supervisor. Like other growing film companies in the 1910s, the Selig Polyscope Company employed hundreds and hundreds of deft-fingered girls in its Chicago laboratory to cut apart negatives and to patch, retouch, tint, and splice film. This practice was common at the film companies that were, by the 1920s, emerging as major studios in Los Angeles—such as Famous Players–Lasky (which would become Paramount Pictures)—where each film print was projected onto a tiny screen by a girl operator, and women did all the hand-splicing in the sample copy room where films were assembled.¹

    Other women’s sectors that sprang up at film studios followed a similar pattern of growth—from a few women working in ad hoc arrangements (which afforded them some professional mobility to nearby male-dominated jobs) to dozens or hundreds of workers in dedicated departments populated almost exclusively by women and often managed by men. A 1920s photograph of the Paramount costume department perfectly depicts the system of feminized labor that had, by then, developed to undergird studios’ factory-style production methods. Dozens of women in dark-colored dresses are hard at work, their eyes cast down at their sewing; at the center of the frame, their boss, production designer Howard Greer, looks directly at the camera. By the 1930s, an entire floor of the MGM costuming department was reportedly devoted to hand embroidery and beading alone and was populated largely by immigrant women, much like factories in the garment industry at the time. In the 1930s, it was women, working in a similar light manufacturing capacity, who made it possible for Walt Disney to produce his first feature-length animated film on a reasonable schedule and budget. He hired female workers for all of Snow White’s inking and painting—the stage of cel animation in which animators’ pencil sketches are drawn onto sheets of transparent celluloid with ink and then filled in with paint. Thereafter, the role was so associated with women that the new ink and paint department at Disney’s Buena Vista studio was nicknamed the nunnery.²

    Fig. 3. MGM negative cutters, 1950. (Courtesy of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.)

    Women worked in service professions all over studio lots in the 1930s and 1940s. They served meals at studio commissaries, were maids to studio personnel, taught and cared for child actors in studio schools, and provided medical care in studio hospitals and infirmaries. The women who produced and maintained the sea of paperwork on which each production floated formed the largest population of female workers and were arguably most important to the studios’ daily workflow. A predominantly female clerical workforce typed and distributed every treatment, outline, and draft of every film in production, as well as most of the notes, memos, and purchase orders that circulated around them. Women administered studio offices as secretaries and looked after the personal lives and emotional needs of executives and major creative personnel. They also filled many of the lower ranks of departments that guided production by means of paper planning; researching productions in studio reference libraries, processing incoming books and plays and evaluating their filmic potential in story departments, typing actor lists in casting departments; and mailing pictures and answering fan mail in publicity departments. Through their collective efforts, managing the flow of paper scripts, records, and other communications—and the details and noncreative work that swirled around creative endeavors—these women were the fuel of Hollywood’s large-scale, industrial production process.

    In the 1950s and 1960s, studios downsized planning departments by transforming executive-level positions to freelance, middle management, or crew jobs with reduced cachet and increased service components. Predictably, men abandoned these fields, and women streamed in to fill the void. And so, by the 1970s and 1980s, while women like Elaine May, Amy Heckerling, Paula Weinstein, and Sherry Lansing were (re)paving the way to elite creative fields, women who had begun as negative cutters, secretaries, script girls, and casting assistants were fighting their way into mid-level jobs as junior story executives, production coordinators, editors, casting directors, and publicists. However, because women in the professional sphere were still understood primarily in terms of their gender and only secondarily in terms of their individual talents, skills, and competencies, the low pay and gender stigma associated with their former sectors followed them into these new fields. So, just as script clerks in the studio era were redubbed script girls, in post-studio Hollywood, women who worked in development (the latter-day equivalent of the story department) were patronizingly nicknamed d-girls.

    On entering these fields, women faced the same implicit gender-related expectations they had faced in their old jobs, where it was presumed certain tasks came naturally to them as women: that on top of their official responsibilities, they add value by giving good phone, ordering the sandwiches at lunch time, charming and socializing with clients, cheering male colleagues and superiors on, and framing their own workplace contributions with acts of conspicuous, performed femininity so as not to be perceived as bossy, mannish, or bitchy—the worst possible sins for a woman. If women succeeded, it was as part of the team, and credit for their individual contributions was often assigned elsewhere. This was the price of entry into what had been male-dominated positions, paid in exchange for tolerance of women’s presence in a workplace that men understood (and often still do) as theirs.

    Women were never absent from film history; they often simply weren’t documented as part of it because they did women’s work, which was—by definition—insignificant, tedious, low status, and noncreative. In the golden age of Hollywood, women could be found in nearly every department of every studio, minding the details that might otherwise get in the way of more important, prestigious, or creative work (a.k.a. men’s work). If film historians consider the classical Hollywood era’s mode of production a system, we ought to consider women this system’s mainstay, because studios were built on their low-cost backs and scaled through their brush and keystrokes.

    In twenty-first-century film and television production, jobs in script supervision, casting, and publicity are still held by a predominantly female workforce and tacitly understood as women’s work. Other more gender-integrated jobs, such as producers’ or directors’ assistants, retain the stigma of having been women’s work in the past, an association that contributes to continued low pay and poor working conditions. The same de facto occupational segregation that links women to certain types of media production work effectively dissociates them from others, thereby perpetuating male domination in fields with the greatest prestige and power, the most creative status, and the highest incomes.

    There’s no such thing as The Truth, especially not in a place like film history, which exists in the mind of the historian. But some things are true for me as a woman, a media scholar, and a practitioner working in the industry I research. This history reveals one such truth not yet universally acknowledged in Hollywood: that women’s contributions to film history have been vast, important, and ongoing from inception to present, even when their names didn’t appear above the titles—or in the credits at all. Simply put: female workers, so often segregated and devalued under the studio system, should not suffer the same fate in media history by being considered only for what they could not do as casualties of unjust gender politics. Examining the types of work women could and did do in the wake of sex segregation reveals their agency—both in their own careers and in their industry’s history—and helps frame an understanding of contemporary gendered labor. The stakes—pay, credit, workplace identity, and so forth—are too high to leave the past in the past. And anyway, for women, the past is always present—a reality reflected in every chapter of this book.

    The Women Who Were: Feminized Labor as Women’s Work

    The feminization of labor is a process that has taken place, sometimes recurrently, in subsectors of most major American industries over the past two centuries. During such periods, women have served as a reserve army of labor, to be hired whenever shifting industrial circumstances demanded a workforce that would accept lower wages and poorer, more precarious working conditions than the existing one.³ They were hired for the so-called scutwork—the most routine, tedious, menial, and repetitive jobs in the factory or office, performing work often involving light machinery such as sewing machines and typewriters. Once women were on the job, the work and workplace changed further, replicating the era’s wider societal norms and tacitly demanding that women adapt to both the work and the norm-enforcing workplace culture. A full explanation of feminized media labor, or women’s work, as it is termed throughout this book, must therefore include not only the explicit, managerial motives for hiring women, but also these implicit, gender-based expectations and the shape the work took as women complied with them.

    As one study explains, whether directed at employers, clients, or in support of a business enterprise, the notion of a service relationship is central to female-dominated occupations, yet typically, the necessary skills or competencies for that service are not formalized in any way, such that it is even difficult to name them beyond reference to ‘soft,’ or ‘social’ or ‘non-objectifiable’ competencies.⁴ Frequently, service requirements for these female-dominated professions (for example, in hospitality or sales) include emotional labor, a category identified by the sociologist Arlie Hochschild, in which the job compels employees to display organizationally desired emotions while suppressing those not desired, in order to sustain the outward countenance that produces the proper state of mind in others (for example, a flight attendant’s service with a smile).⁵ Emotion work and service were—and still are—more often expected of women, based on a set of age-old assumptions about their natural qualities and skills as pleasers and domestic caregivers. As Vicki Mayer explains, emotion work is considered a gendered category of labor because when women do emotion work, they achieve membership in a group identity, while when men do it it is likely to be seen as an individual trait.

    Though personnel files characterized them primarily as typists, the secretaries who assisted studio moguls, executives, producers, and other high-ranking personnel did not succeed or fail on the basis of their typing skills; rather, their success on the job depended on such non-objectifiable skills as tact, charm, and interpersonal sensitivity, all of which they applied to defuse or manage the emotions of the workers around them, absorbing the anger of high-status employers, soothing the egos of their underlings, welcoming their guests, and, in many cases, fending off sexual advances with a smile. These women also displayed conspicuous acts of gendered performance, thus reinforcing cultural notions of static, polar genders.⁷ Workplace and larger cultural norms tacitly demanded that women dress and behave in overtly feminine ways. Even at higher levels, there was a narrow range of acceptable women’s behavior. A male director who operated in dictatorial fashion (as was the case with Cecil B. DeMille and Alfred Hitchcock, who consciously used personas to intimidate underlings) might be praised for his commanding presence, while a dictatorial female director, if one had existed, was more likely to be criticized for sacrificing her femininity.

    I am not the first scholar to incorporate concepts of emotional labor and performativity into the study of film production, but I am perhaps the first to apply them so broadly to reframe existing film history. Such an effort is not always easy or tidy; I wasn’t alive when most of my subjects were at work, and few of them are still around to discuss their experiences; yet I see many parallels in my own early experiences as a media industry intern, receptionist, and later executive assistant to film and television producers, writers, and talent managers. This sense of rapport, or, more precisely, over-rapport with my subjects is valuable in many regards. Such empathy can also be treacherous in its potential to lead one to narrativize the events of the women’s lives, accepting their memories as fact without taking into account the inevitable distortions that intervene between reality and the production of memory, or identifying with the women in question over their male colleagues. Yet acknowledging gender performativity, service, and emotional labor as compulsory components of women’s work is essential to accounting for female workers’ lived experiences and their significance to studios. Thus, mindful of my own biases and the fact that I am engaging in an act of performance myself, I attempt to, as Jane Gaines puts it, tell these women’s stories without telling them.

    Scope: A Transhistorical Approach

    Scholars both in and outside of media studies have characterized women’s work as invisible, for lack of a better descriptor.⁹ Yet it is perhaps more accurate to say that people overlook women’s work because of their own gender biases—conscious or unconscious. Most people can recognize inequality when they view it removed from their own personal context—their values and beliefs about privilege or lack thereof—as, say, in an episode of the television show Mad Men. After observing sexism writ large in that distant, 1960s setting, viewers may be more inclined to recognize subtler forms of inequality when they go to work the next day.

    History has the potential to provide readers a similar kind of critical distance. Laying out the entire, 120-year case of feminized labor in Hollywood reveals how conceptions of women’s work have organized and shaped women’s participation in media production at all levels, across film history. If we can recognize women’s work and notions thereof as essential structural elements of the film industry in the past, we—as scholars, producers, creators, viewers—can better identify their remnants today and better comprehend both women’s continued struggles and their significant achievements in contemporary Hollywood. For this reason, the intention of this work is transhistorical in nature—a study of a contemporary issue through historical roots. The aim is not to detail every historical era the book encompasses—many complete histories have been written about each decade discussed here—but rather to explore key moments within these eras in order to do justice both to the continuity and significance of women’s work throughout these 120 years, and to reveal how the logic surrounding the concept of women’s work continues to operate despite changing times and circumstances.

    Today, the term below-the-line is used to distinguish workers with fixed salaries, distinctly separate from creatively or managerial important above-the-line workers with negotiable salaries such as writers, directors, producers, and stars.¹⁰ However, making movies requires not only craft and technical labor (to build sets and run cameras), but also the work of developing film stories and planning production. Though many of the women in this book might be considered to have worked below the line, this classification overlooks many others, because, for example, secretaries were usually considered parts of studio overhead operations rather than members of any particular production. The same holds true for most of today’s development workers, who work on multiple productions at once, though only a few production executives may be credited on the finished film.

    Leo Rosten coined a more suitable label—movie workers—to describe the anonymous people who swarm over the sound stages, the lots and the offices wherever pictures are fabricated, and who lead ordinary lives away from the movie makers (directors, producers, writers, and stars), who were creatively powerful forces in their industry.¹¹ As with Rosten’s movie workers, most of the women in this book lived and worked in Hollywood, but were not of Hollywood—they were not members of its circles of power.¹² Much of the book focuses particularly on women in clerical fields, not only because the clerical branch of feminized labor was one of the largest at studios, but also because clerical workers were present in some capacity in nearly all departments and thus offer a variety of useful perspectives from which to view the system as a whole. Exploring this family of women’s professions provides a clearer sense of the industrial logic that underwrote all such sectors.

    This work owes a debt to the long history of research into women in Hollywood during the silent and early sound eras.¹³ Since I began my own inquiries, more excellent work has been produced on women in film history, and particularly women with some degree of creative power in the silent or studio eras. Scholars such as Cari Beauchamp, Jane Gaines, Shelley Stamp, Kay Armitage, Amelie Hastie, Hilary Hallett, and Lizzie Francke, to name just a few, have examined the lives and work of women in early film—from important individuals like Frances Marion, Lois Weber, and Alice Guy to groups of women directors, screenwriters, actors, as well as aspirants to those fields.¹⁴ Still more recently, the Women Film Pioneers Project has begun consolidating bibliographies of existing sources of women in early film and expanding inquiry into some of the very professions this work considers.¹⁵ Perhaps most significant for this project, recent books by Karen Ward Mahar and Mark Garrett Cooper trace the careers of women directors in the silent era and link the narrowing of their professional prospects to women in other areas of production.¹⁶ However, though these studies include feminized labor sectors in their explanations of women’s changing professional fortunes, they place primary emphasis on the masculinization of elite creative, technical, and managerial fields (for example, directing, cinematography, producing), and the resultant contraction of the ranks of high-status female directors, producers, and so forth. Taking a different tack, this book attends to the other side of the equation to show that as studios excluded women from certain work sectors, they inevitably allied them with others on the basis of gender. The scholarship of Cooper, Mahar, Beauchamp, Francke, and others serves as a foundation for this history of women in feminized sectors. Many chapters engage directly with these feminist film historians by reexamining their valuable scholarship to further demonstrate how the workplace fates and identities of these two groups were linked. Still, the focus here is on the female movie worker rather than the female movie maker.

    Materials and Methodology

    Media production is neither a rigid monolith nor a completely idiosyncratic, individualistic practice, but rather a soft system bound by interrelated action, whose component parts are often individual human beings with continually shifting frames of reference, continually co-constructing as they go.¹⁷ Women’s work within such soft systems was a collaboration between the workers themselves and the forces—industrial, economic, and sociocultural—that acted upon them. As such, women’s work must be viewed from the perspective of both the system—the structures that produced gendered understandings of labor—and the individual—the experiences of workers themselves and how they negotiated, resisted, and otherwise co-created their professional identities.¹⁸ Such a top-down-meets-bottom-up methodology requires analyses of a variety of historical and archival materials, industrial, cultural, and economic. Many of the methods John Caldwell and others have used to examine contemporary production are translated here, to aid to an analysis of historical subject matter.¹⁹ Triangulating among the various forms of disclosure offered by accounts of these workers—from their own statements to the way they were recorded in trade and corporate documents—begins to reveal the shop floor practices so often hidden within official or formal documents, or stories told after the fact for posterity or as professional self-representation.²⁰

    Because women movie workers’ contributions to production were generally deemed less important than those of their male and movie maker colleagues, studio archives seldom held on to materials relating primarily to these workers.²¹ Documents that do remain were usually preserved because they could help tell the story of an important actor, writer, director, producer, or film text. In Reevaluating Footnotes, Radha Vatsal argues for the excavation of footnotes as sidelined texts, for both their information and the contradictions and equivocations that are often discarded into them, pointing out the footnote’s potential for self-reflexivity and raising new questions about the writing of history.²² This work frequently seeks out subjects in peripheral ephemera documents and in the footnotes and margins of other people’s histories.²³ The location (or lack thereof) of evidence serves as evidence in itself, and helps to tell the story of women workers through the ways they were variously remembered, classified, and erased in archives. Like many lost or missing films of the silent era, much of this history may truly be gone, but there is also much that may be rediscovered.

    The map—literal and figurative—is an important part of this evidence. An ideologically loaded practice, mapping has commonly documented historical change through the eyes of that change’s chief architects: political leaders, military generals, and other major historical figures or great men. Maps (of geographic space, production hierarchy, and workflow) also played an important role in the scientific reorganization of labor practices after the industrial revolution, and they were much beloved by early studio managers, who used them to represent their own agendas and to declare their ownership. Such mapping schemas were means of women’s exclusion at studios, which were styled after modern cities, complete with cities’ gendered spaces. However, as Denis Wood explains, maps record not what was, but rather, the interests of the people who drew them, showing "this, but not that . . . this way . . . but not the other," and thus embodying their authors’ biases and values.²⁴ Maps and related discourse around the building of studio lots reveal studios’ interests through what they showed and left out. In indicating where and how female workers were (or, more often, were not) represented, such maps suggest where they were being (re)located in these developing organizations.

    Anecdotes of, by, and about female workers in their letters, studio newsletter columns, memoirs, and biographical accounts serve as correctives to the public, top-down modes of self-representation schematized in the studio maps other documents. Anecdotes connect the individual to the system, representing specific, local, and personal accounts that both complicate and contextualize those depictions of the various production systems as naturally occurring or the way things are. As such, the anecdote serves as both countermap and companion to the map, providing an unofficial vocational tour through the studio spaces maps purport to describe.

    Studio house organs, as well as memoirs, oral histories, and other after-the-fact writings, have been the main sources for such anecdotes. Such writings are subject to distortions. House organs—monthly newsletters written for and by employees—present a picture of studio life that is necessarily aligned with and shaped by management’s goals, and must be deciphered as such. Workers who wrote newsletter columns often did so in the interest not of accuracy or fact-based reporting, but of managing their disclosures about themselves, their departments, and their colleagues to serve their own occupational aims or to reinforce perceived socioprofessional boundaries and rules. The anecdotal bits and pieces newsletters collected are most useful when understood as evidence of their work culture’s values and norms—how workers framed their work for each other, under the eyes of their employers—rather than as ironclad evidence of particular practices. Because much of the work of this book concerns interpersonal interaction and socialized gender roles in the professional sphere, the gossip and inside jokes related through newsletter columns provide necessary context for the areas of women’s work under discussion. However, these newsletters occasionally include more descriptive reportage in larger features devoted to outlining studio organization or the structure of departments for the newsletters’ movie worker readership. Cross-referencing these accounts with those in trade papers, studio records, and other historical accounts helps elucidate studio structure and practices.

    Memoirs, oral histories, and other accounts written long after the events under consideration took place are subject to misrecollections and to authorial self-aggrandizement, especially in the case of former movie workers such as secretaries and script supervisors whose work was so often under-rewarded and overlooked. As Amelie Hastie explains in Cupboards of Curiosity, while women have been written into and out of media history, they have also written themselves in through memoirs and other works. Different chapters in this book attempt to balance the accounts these writers give of people and events long past (through corroborative primary and secondary resources) as well as to balance existing histories’ accounts of the women, typically in the biographies of their employers, through their reflections of how it felt to do such work and how they viewed their roles years later. Drawing on Walter Benjamin’s work, Hastie explains how a shock experience in the present lays groundwork for excavation of memory in future, in the way that a present moment reaches to the future, and the present that future becomes reaches back to the past.²⁵ In my interviews with women media workers, as well as my research into women’s history, I’ve been struck by how often women’s accounts of and feelings about the work they did and the conditions they accepted in feminized sectors change even a few years later, when the rewards implicitly promised for such work (acceptance, promotion, and so on) fail to materialize. Thus, interpreting these memoirs has meant engaging their inevitable embellishments not just to avoid reproducing historical inaccuracies, but also to better understand the subjective truths they often reveal about people who lived through and beyond film history and perceived themselves as being forgotten while those they served were remembered. These accounts are perhaps most valuable in their descriptions of work in feminized sectors: what such work consisted of, and what it felt like to the worker. Interpreting their descriptions of work on film sets often requires analysis not only of what is said but

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