Biblical Eschatology, Second Edition

Biblical Eschatology

Second Edition

Jonathan Menn

Forewords by Dr. Robert Yarbrough and

His Grace, The Most Reverend, Stanley Ntagali

Biblical Eschatology

Second Edition

Copyright ©

2018

Jonathan Menn. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers,

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paperback isbn: 978-1-5326-4317-0

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Table of Contents

Title Page

Permissions

Foreword by Dr. Robert Yarbrough

Foreword by His Grace, The Most Reverend, Stanley Ntagali

Preface

Preface to the second edition

List of Abbreviations

Introduction

Chapter 1: Eschatology: Introduction

Chapter 2: Interpreting Prophecy and Apocalyptic

Chapter 3: Old Testament Eschatological Expectations and the Significance of Christ’s First Coming

Chapter 4: Interpreting Biblical Eschatology in Light of its Overall Structure

Chapter 5: The Eschatological Significance of Christ’s Second Coming

Chapter 6: Historical Overview of Eschatological Thought

Chapter 7: The Millennium

Chapter 8: The Olivet Discourse: the Tribulation and the Second Coming

Chapter 9: The Rapture: Pretribulational or Part of the Second Coming?

Chapter 10: The Antichrist

Chapter 11: The Book of Revelation

Chapter 12: The Importance of Eschatology

Appendix 1: The Four Basic Millennial Views

Appendix 2: The Millennium: An Amillennial Synthesis of the Biblical Data

Appendix 3: Ezekiel 40–48 (Ezekiel’s vision of a new temple)

Appendix 4: Dan 9:24–27 (the seventy weeks)

Appendix 5: Zechariah 14 (its relation to Christ’s two advents)

Appendix 6: Rom 11:25–26 (and so all Israel will be saved)

Appendix 7: 1 Cor 15:20–57: The Resurrection, the Parousia, and the Millennium

Bibliography

To my wife Nancy—the love of my life, my best friend, and my partner in the journey through this life with Jesus.

Permissions

Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are taken from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.Lockman.org)

Scripture quotations marked RSV are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked ESV are from the ESV The Holy Bible, English Standard Version® (ESV®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NKJV are taken from the New King James Version®. Copyright © 1982 by Thomas Nelson, Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations marked NIV are taken from the THE HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®, NIV® Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Quotations taken from Triumph of the Lamb by Dennis Johnson, ISBN 978–0–87552–200–5 are used with permission of P&R Publishing Co P.O. Box 817, Phillipsburg N.J. 08865.

Quotations taken from Daniel by Iain Duguid, ISBN 978–1–59638–068–4 are used with permission of P&R Publishing Co P.O. Box 817, Phillipsburg N.J. 08865.

Quotations taken from The Israel of God by O. Palmer Robertson, ISBN 978–0–87552–398–9 are used with permission of P&R Publishing Co P.O. Box 817, Phillipsburg N.J. 08865.

Quotations taken from Old Testament Prophecy and the Future of Israel: A Study of the Teaching of Jesus by R. T. France, Tyndale Bulletin 26 (1975) 53–78 are used with permission of Tyndale House.

Quotations taken from the Lausanne Covenant© are used with permission of the Lausanne Movement.

Quotations taken from New American Commentary Zechariah by George Klein © 2008 B&H Publishing Group, are used with permission. 

Quotations taken from the article The Purpose of Symbolism in the Book of Revelation by G. K. Beale, Calvin Theological Journal 41 (2006) 53–66 are used with the permission of the Calvin Theological Journal.

Quotations taken from Daniel: An Introductory Commentary (TOTC), by Joyce Baldwin © 1978 Inter-Varsity Press, are used with permission.

Quotations taken from Daniel (AOTC 20), by Ernest Lucas © 2002 Apollos, are used with permission.

Quotations taken from The Millennial Maze by Stanley J. Grenz © 1992 by Stanley J. Grenz, are used by permission of InterVarsity Press, PO Box 1400, Downers Grove, IL 60515. www.ivpress.com.

Quotations taken from Collected Works, by John Murray © 1977, published at Edinburgh by Banner of Truth, are used with permission.

Quotations taken from The Abomination of Desolation in Biblical Eschatology, by Desmond Ford © 1979 University Press of America, are used with permission.

Quotations taken from A Case for Amillennialism, by Kim Riddlebarger © 2003 Baker Books, a division of Baker Publishing group, are used by permission.

Quotations taken from Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, edited by G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson © 2007 Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, are used by permission.

Quotations taken from Revelation (BECNT), by Grant Osborne © 2002 Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, are used by permission.

Quotations taken from The Revelation of John: A Narrative Commentary, by James Resseguie © 2009 Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, are used by permission.

Foreword

by Dr. Robert Yarbrough

It is a joy to commend this book, first of all, because of who the author is. Jonathan Menn spent much of his adult life as an attorney. But in his 50s he applied his trained mind to theological studies at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, graduating with a Master of Divinity degree in 2007. I was privileged to have him in class at the time. I recall a term paper he wrote on 1 Corinthians 15:20–28. It argued for an amillennial understanding of New Testament eschatology, a view I have not been persuaded to adopt. Yet the quality of the essay was undeniable. Here was an author who, already at the student level, was serious and knowledgeable about Scripture, investigating it with intelligence and zeal, and capable of articulating his ideas with logical order and rhetorical force.

Since that time Jonathan’s commitment to interpreting Scripture aright and spreading knowledge of its message has only grown. He is currently East Africa Director of Equipping Pastors International. In the first eleven months of 2012 alone, he conducted training seminars in Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Nearly 900 leaders were impacted by these seminars. Many times that number have been impacted through those whom Jonathan trained and equipped to take better knowledge of God’s Word back to their people in villages and other locations across numerous African nations. Nor is knowledge Jonathan’s only emphasis: action in keeping with the Bible’s teaching receives equal attention.

Jesus said that by their fruits we will know much about people. The fruit of Jonathan’s labor is this: To understand Scripture and then with eagerness and a self-sacrificial outlook to travel long distances and work hard hours to help others know and teach God’s Word better worldwide. This kind of pastoral and missionary commitment (and experience) is not strictly necessary for writing about a subject like biblical eschatology. But it may point to a writer who knows his Bible and is growing into the pastoral and missiological heartbeat of its authors. I believe in this case it does. Jonathan Menn’s take on biblical eschatology is worth pondering because he has credibility as a recognized student and international teacher of Scripture, especially in its end-times implications.

A second reason for commending this book is the contribution it makes. While there are many books on eschatology, this one has features that set it apart: (1) It is wide-ranging yet not superficial. Menn considers most major issues (e.g., the Antichrist, the Millennium, the rapture), all the major positions, and every major biblical passage directly relevant to eschatology in the course of his investigation. This includes detailed analyses of the Olivet Discourse and book of Revelation, plus overviews of Daniel 9, Ezekiel 40–48, Zechariah 14, and Romans 11. (2) The book includes a selective history of eschatological thought, from the first century to the present time, with an emphasis on the views of the apostolic and post-apostolic fathers (quotations from whom also recur throughout the book). (3) Menn also grounds eschatology in the overall biblical structure and storyline, which renders eschatology clearer than when it is treated merely as a separate topic of systematic theology. (4) The last chapter discusses the importance of eschatology practically—i.e., the question of What difference does it make? Menn’s research indicates that one’s views on eschatology are important not only theologically but also in terms of evangelism and social action.

These are all the more reasons for me to commend the book, and for readers to pay attention to it. True, no publication can say everything about this subject. Moreover, until the day when this world’s future is fully known because the Age to Come has arrived, none of us can say for sure just how some elements of the Bible’s end-time projections will play out. Also, there are specialized scholarly monographs covering most topics and passages that Menn treats in less detail in this book. But informative and provocative big picture reconstructions are no less important than micro-level technical analyses.

Despite limitations inherent in any synthesis of the eschatology found in the Bible—and therefore present in this book too—readers will find themselves challenged, informed, and most likely even energized by careful interaction with the exposition and argumentation found in the pages ahead. Revelation 1:1 pronounces a blessing on all who read, hear, and heed the prophecy that makes up the New Testament’s last book. I have no doubt that many a similar blessing will accrue to readers who wrestle with the presentation set before us in Jonathan Menn’s thorough, carefully reasoned, and at times passionate presentation.

Dr. Robert W. Yarbrough

Professor of New Testament

Covenant Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri

January 2013

Foreword

by His Grace, The Most Reverend, Stanley Ntagali

I first met Jonathan Menn in 2006 when he and his teaching team from Equipping Pastors International came to the Masindi-Katara Diocese, Church of Uganda (Anglican) of which I was Bishop. One of my concerns as Bishop was to provide sound biblical instruction and training for the pastors of my diocese. In the years he worked with the diocese, teaching such subjects as biblical counseling and through books such as 1 Corinthians, Jonathan’s teaching proved to be biblically sound, theologically deep, while at the same time being clear, practical, and challenging.

Since my election as Archbishop of The Church of the Province of Uganda, my concern over the theological education of both clergy and laity has increased. Perhaps the area where sound teaching is most needed is in the area of eschatology. It is a mystery to many, and is exploited and sensationalized by some. I was therefore excited to learn of this book, and to have been asked to write this foreword. Although many books on eschatology exist, Biblical Eschatology does several things that I have never before seen in one volume.

First, this book is comprehensive, but not superficial. It deals with every major position, issue, and passage of Scripture pertaining to eschatology: the millennium; the rapture; the Antichrist; and contains excellent analyses of the Olivet Discourse and the book of Revelation, as well as good overviews of Ezekiel 40–48, Daniel 9, Zechariah 14, and Romans 11. The scholars are allowed to speak for themselves. And, as an African, I am pleased to note that, in addition to drawing on the best of Western Evangelical and Reformed scholarship, Jonathan has also quoted from more than one African scholar.

Second, this book has the rare virtue of being not only biblically sound and theologically deep, but also being clear, logical, and readable. One important aspect of the clarity of which I speak is the chapter on how to interpret prophecy and apocalyptic. This helped me to understand the nature of prophecy much better and removed the veil that shrouds the subject for so many people. Many of today’s so-called prophecy experts would do well to read it.

Third, this book does something I very much applaud: it has a chapter on the history of eschatological thought, with particular attention to the apostolic and post-apostolic fathers. They also reappear throughout the book. We often tend to forget our spiritual forefathers and fail to see how our views are in continuity with, or depart from, theirs. My Anglican heritage attunes me to this, but my Pentecostal and Evangelical brothers and sisters who come from newer Christian traditions would, I think, appreciate this facet of the book.

Fourth, this book does something I do not see in most other works on eschatology: it firmly grounds eschatology in the larger biblical story and structure. This, to me, serves to make eschatology much more understandable than when (as is usually the case) it is treated apart from the rest of biblical theology. Since most Christians are interested in the end-times, seeing how eschatology fits into the Bible’s overall structure serves as a corrective to the speculative sensationalism that is rampant today.

Finally, this book is unique in that it talks about why eschatology matters. Most people think that one’s eschatological views have no real effect on their lives. Not only does the last chapter of the book dispel that notion, but the chapter on the book of Revelation demonstrates how that book is designed to affect our lives by again and again confronting us with the ultimate question of who is our real Lord.

In short, this book is like Jonathan’s teaching at my diocese years ago: biblically sound and theologically deep, yet clear, practical, and challenging. It is a book for clergy and laity alike. It is not slanted toward any particular denomination, but is for the whole church. I highly recommend it.

His Grace, The Most Reverend, Stanley Ntagali

The Archbishop of the Church of the Province of Uganda.

Preface

Every book represents the completion of a journey—indeed, sometimes of an odyssey. That is certainly true of this book.

In the mid-1980s, my wife and I began attending an evangelical church that took eschatology seriously. The pastor preached on the subject frequently. That, in itself, is quite rare. Although the pastor prided himself on teaching through the entire Bible, verse by verse, the more I listened to his sermons the more I realized that, regardless of what his text was, he always seemed to find a way to bring the pretribulational rapture into the picture. Something was amiss; but the realization that something was amiss was one of the factors that motivated me to begin studying eschatology on my own.

In 1988 Edgar Whisenant came out with his book 88 Reasons Why The Rapture Will Be In 1988. It created quite a stir in some circles, including among several people in the church we were attending. By then I knew enough to realize that Whisenant was wrong on several counts, so I told the pastor and others, I will bet you any sum of money that the rapture will not happen this year. I had no takers of my wager, particularly after I added, Honesty compels me to tell you that this is a bet I cannot lose: when the rapture doesn’t happen, I will have your money; if it were to happen, we would all be in a place where there is no money.

Ideas have consequences. I led home Bible studies for several years while attending that church. Although the specific eschatological view of the pastor was not listed as part of the church’s statement of faith, it nevertheless proved to be the litmus test of orthodoxy. I found that out while teaching through the book of Mark. When we got to the Olivet Discourse in Mark 13, I presented an alternative view of things, in line with the views of historic Christianity (and in line with the discussion of the Olivet Discourse in chapter 8 of this book). The historic exegesis of the Olivet Discourse was not, however, the view of the church I was attending, and such alternative views were not welcome. As a result, my family found that we would be happier in another church.

That proved to be a great blessing. We began attending a large church where I was able to teach through several books of the Bible in adult education Bible studies on Sunday mornings, and my wife and I have since joined an excellent small church where I have the opportunity to preach during the months I am at home.

After I had been practicing law for approximately 25 years, although my practice was successful, I desired to leave the practice of law and do something more directly to help advance Christ’s kingdom. I am grateful my wife, Nancy, had the good sense to say, If you don’t want to practice law anymore then quit. Go to seminary, and do what you want. Fortunately, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School has an extension campus in Milwaukee, WI, only about one hundred miles from our home in Appleton. Therefore, in the fall of 2003 I began pursuing an MDiv at night while continuing to practice law during the day. Dr. Steven Roy was my professor for a number of classes, including a NT Theology class that included eschatology. His presentation was not the propaganda of one narrow view but the presentation of the strengths and weaknesses of different views. His example is one of the important influences behind this book.

In Dr. Roy’s class I also did a lengthy paper that was the genesis of what, in this book, is Appendix 2—The Millennium: An Amillennial Synthesis of the Biblical Data. Even though I advocated the amillennial position while he has an historic premillennial view, Dr. Roy encouraged me, both by requesting to keep a copy of the paper for his files and by commenting that this is one of the best arguments for the amil position I’ve read, and it gives me much to think about. However, he also challenged me to pay greater attention to the NT’s revelation of the overlap of the two ages and the impact of the reality of the overlap of the ages for a possible millennium. Consequently, I have revised, expanded, and deepened that paper several times since it originally was prepared in December 2004 and have tried to meet Dr. Roy’s challenge, particularly in chapters 3–5 as well as in Appendix 2.

My time at Trinity proved crucial in other ways, both for my career and for this book. As a result of taking an introductory course on world missions, I began thinking seriously about teaching in the non-Western world. Through God’s providence, I got connected with Equipping Pastors International in early 2005, made my first trip to East Africa in May of that year, and realized that I had found my calling to teach and equip pastors and church leaders in East Africa. I have been doing that full time since I received my degree in May 2007. While studying under Dr. Robert Yarbrough at Trinity’s main campus (I had quit the practice of law completely at the end of 2005), I wrote a lengthy paper on 1 Cor 15:20–28, a small portion of which is incorporated in this book.

It truly has been said, If you want to learn, teach. That has been the case with respect to this book. The essential outline of this book was generated when I first taught biblical eschatology at the Mbarara Bible College, Mbarara, Uganda, in 2008. Appendix 6–Zechariah 14 (its relation to Christ’s two advents) was added as a result of a discussion I had with one of the pastors I work closely with in Kenya.

While every book represents the completion of a journey, no such journey is undertaken alone. In addition to Dr. Roy and Dr. Yarbrough, I also wish to acknowledge Dr. Eckhard Schnabel who was my professor for a number of classes at Trinity. His handout comparing the signs Jesus listed in the Olivet Discourse and the seals in Revelation was important. I highly respect Dr. Schnabel, and interact with him, particularly in chapter 7 (although I disagree with him on one important issue).

I would also like to acknowledge and thank the following people for their assistance in bringing this book to fruition. My friend Rev. John McFadden (author with his wife, Dr. Susan McFadden, of Aging Together: Dementia, Friendship, and Flourishing Communities) got me connected with Wipf & Stock. The helpful staff at Rolfing Library of Trinity International University, where I did much of my research, was invaluable. Mike Stratton assisted with some formatting issues. The proofing and suggestions of Chris Moran and Shari Klika have made this a better book. It is my hope that this book will contribute to the ongoing discussion of eschatology, to the end that our theology, our eschatology, and our praxis will all cohere to the glory of God and the advancement of Christ’s kingdom here on earth until he returns in glory.

Preface to the Second Edition

It has been over four years since Biblical Eschatology was originally published. I am happy that the book generally was well-received¹ and am grateful that Wipf & Stock Publishers have agreed to publish this second edition. The format and objectives of this edition remain the same as the original. It analyzes all of the major eschatological passages, issues, and positions in a fair, clear, but not superficial way. It tries to make understanding eschatology easier by including a history of eschatological thought and by showing how eschatology fits into the overall biblical storyline and structure. And it shows the importance of eschatology theologically and the relevance of eschatology for practical life. Nevertheless, I have endeavored to do four things in this edition:

• Correct some typographical and other errors and correct links in the bibliography to sources that are available online.

• Flesh out the discussion of a few areas; this augmented discussion is found particularly in chapters 4 and 5 and appendix 2.

• Delete appendix 3 (regarding the rapture), since I believe that issue is adequately covered in chapter 9, and add a new appendix 7 on 1 Cor 15:20–57 (regarding the resurrection, the parousia, and the millennium), since that passage is Paul’s longest discussion of the resurrection, and the passage has generated a fair amount of scholarly debate. It is therefore worthy of special attention.

• Interact more with different eschatological views, particularly with preterism (which I believe was unduly slighted in the first edition) and with J. Webb Mealy's new creation millennialism form of premillennialism. I also interact somewhat more with postmillennialsm and the pre-wrath rapture position.

Part of the impetus for this was J. Webb Mealy's contacting me, forwarding to me his written work, requesting my critique, and giving me his critique of portions of this book. While he has not persuaded me of the correctness of his position (nor have I persuaded him of the correctness of mine), our interchanges were in the highest tradition of scholarly give-and-take. Further, he forced me to consider some issues I had not previously thought much about and to go deeper with respect to some other issues. The result, I hope, is that this second edition has been improved and strengthened.

Finally, I would like to thank all those who pointed out to me various typographical errors or areas that could have been more clearly stated in the first edition. I also want to specifically thank Kim Riddlebarger and especially R. Fowler White and Sam Storms who were kind enough to respond to my unsolicited email, answer a number of questions that I had, and (in the case of Drs. White and Storms) even send me some material to review. Their consideration was both very kind and helpful.

I hope that this second edition will prove to be helpful to all those who are interested in developing a coherent position with respect to an important area of the Bible that, unfortunately, has often either been ignored or abused. I continue to believe what I said at the conclusion of the main text of the first edition (and this one): By understanding eschatology, we can have a well-integrated theology that enables us to live authentic Christian lives with confidence and hope. Such lives will demonstrate the present reality of the kingdom while we look forward to the final consummation in all its glory.

1. It was listed as the book of the year for

2013

by Michael Newnham (http://michaelnewnham.com/?s=biblical+eschatology), who also lists it among the top

10

books he recommends that every Christian should read (http://michaelnewnham.com/?p=

20063

). The book also was listed as the number

6

best book of

2014

by Sam Storms (http://www.crossmap.com/blogs/the-best-books-in-

2014

-part-two-

5782

).

List of Abbreviations

AB Anchor Bible

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary

ANF Ante-Nicene Fathers, 10 vols. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994

Ant. Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews

ANTC Abingdon New Testament Commentary

AOTC Apollos Old Testament Commentary

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

Barn. Epistle of Barnabas

BDAG Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, W. F. Arndt, and F. W. Gingrich. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000

BECNT Baker Evangelical Commentary on the New Testament

BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library

BNTC Black’s New Testament Commentary

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

Civ. Augustine, The City of God

Comm. Dan. Hippolytus, Commentary on Daniel

CTJ Calvin Theological Journal

CTR Criswell Theological Review

Dial. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho

ESV English Standard Version

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

Haer. Irenaeus, Against Heresies

HALOT The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, study edition. 2 vols. Edited by Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner. Revised by Walter Baumgartner and Johann Jakob Stamm. Translated and edited under the supervision of M. E. J. Richardson. Leiden: Brill, 2001

Hist. eccl. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History

HLD Harpers’ Latin Dictionary

HNTC Harper New Testament Commentary

ICC International Critical Commentary

Int Interpretation

Int Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching

IVPNTC InterVarsity Press New Testament Commentary

JATS Journal of the Adventist Theological Society

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement series

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

J.W. Josephus, The Wars of the Jews

MNTC Moffatt New Testament Commentary

MSJ The Master’s Seminary Journal

NAC New American Commentary

NASB New American Standard Bible

NCBC New Cambridge Bible Commentary

NIBC New International Biblical Commentary

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDNTTE New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, 2nd ed. Edited by Moisés Silva. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014

NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by Willem VanGemeren. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997

NIGTC New International Greek Testament Commentary

NIV New International Version

NIVAC NIV Application Commentary

NKJV New King James Version

NovT Novum Testamentum

NSBT New Studies in Biblical Theology

NT New Testament

NTC New Testament Commentary

NTS New Testament Studies

NTSup New Testament Supplement

OT Old Testament

PC Proclamation Commentaries

PNTC Pillar New Testament Commentary

REC Reformed Expository Commentary

Res. Tertullian, on the Resurrection of the Flesh

RevExp Review and Expositor

RSV Revised Standard Version

RTR Reformed Theological Review

SBJT Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

SC Sources Chrétiennes

SP Sacra Pagina

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. 10 vols. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76

TNTC Tyndale New Testament Commentary

TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentary

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

UBS4 The Greek New Testament, 4th rev. ed. Edited by Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Johannes Karavidopoulos, Carlo M. Martini, and Bruce Metzger. New York: United Bible Societies, 1993

USR Union Seminary Review

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WTJ Westminster Theological Journal

ZNW Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

Introduction

Eschatology—the study of the last things or end-times—is important. It is important because approximately 27 percent of the Bible contains prophetic or predictive elements.² Although not all prophecy relates to the end of history, lengthy and important passages in both the OT and NT concern the last things. Major OT prophets such as Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and Zechariah wrote about eschatology. Jesus spoke at length concerning eschatology in the Olivet Discourse, and the apostles Peter, Paul, and John all wrote in some detail regarding eschatology. Consequently, not to have a good grasp of eschatology means that much of the Bible will remain closed, or be a mystery, to us.

However, eschatology can be contentious. Several different schools of eschatological thought have arisen during the course of Christian history. Indeed, different schools of eschatological thought were present even in the first two centuries of the church. Eschatological views have proven to be the basis of major divisions among denominations and Christian traditions.

Eschatology also is a great fascination for most people. Much has been written, and continues to be written, on the subject. Most books on eschatology, however, tend to address only a particular aspect of the topic (e.g., the millennium), or they present only one viewpoint, or they treat eschatology as if it were a subject that stands on its own apart from the rest of biblical theology.

This book takes a different approach. What I endeavor to do is to study biblical eschatology comprehensively. While I, of course, have and clearly state my own views (see especially Appendix 2–The Millennium: An Amillennial Synthesis of the Biblical Data), I discuss and critique all of the major eschatological positions (see especially chapters 1–Eschatology: Introduction, 7–The Millennium, and 12–The Importance of Eschatology; the introductory portions of chapters 8–The Olivet Discourse: the Tribulation and the Second Coming and 11–The Book of Revelation; and Appendices 1–The Four Basic Millennial Views, 4–Dan 9:24–27 [the seventy weeks], 6–Rom 11:25–26 [and so all Israel will be saved], and 7–1 Cor 15:20–57: The Resurrection, the Parousia, and the Millennium). The book also deals with all of the major eschatological issues. These include the Antichrist (see especially chapter 10–The Antichrist); the second coming of Christ (see especially chapter 5–The Eschatological Significance of Christ’s Second Coming and much of chapters 8–The Olivet Discourse: the Tribulation and the Second Coming and 11–The Book of Revelation); the rapture (see especially chapter 9–The Rapture: Pretribulational or Part of the Second Coming?); and the millennium (see especially chapter 7–The Millennium and Appendices 2–The Millennium: An Amillennial Synthesis of the Biblical Data and 7–1 Cor 15:20–57: The Resurrection, the Parousia, and the Millennium).

In addition to being comprehensive, this book attempts to make eschatology understandable and clear. It does this in several ways. First, as an evangelical who has a high view of the Bible, I regard exegesis of Scripture as fundamental. Therefore, chapters 8 and 11 provide detailed analyses of the two primary eschatological texts—the Olivet Discourse and the book of Revelation. Other major eschatological texts are analyzed in connection with the discussions of particular issues, such as Christ’s parousia, the rapture, the millennium, or the Antichrist, or in appendices 3–Ezekiel 40–48 (Ezekiel’s vision of a new temple), 4–Dan 9:24–27 (the seventy weeks), 5–Zechariah 14 (its relation to Christ’s two advents), 6–Rom 11:25–26 (and so all Israel will be saved), and 7–1 Cor 15:20–57: The Resurrection, the Parousia, and the Millennium). Sound exegesis, however, can only take place within the domain of good hermeneutics. Consequently, chapter 2–Interpreting Prophecy and Apocalyptic and the beginning part of chapter 11–The Book of Revelation provide the hermeneutical tools to enable us to understand the genre of prophecy and apocalyptic and interpret such texts well.

Second, context is essential for sound interpretation of any text, particularly prophetic, apocalyptic, and other texts dealing with eschatology. Most other works concerning biblical eschatology treat it on its own as a subject of systematic theology. I believe that is a mistake. In fact, one reason eschatology is considered by many people to be so difficult to understand is that it usually is divorced from the broader context of biblical theology—both the broad biblical storyline and the Bible’s overall eschatological structure. I have endeavored to rectify that situation by including three chapters that discuss the biblical storyline and structure and show how eschatology coherently fits into that storyline and structure: chapters 3–Old Testament Eschatological Expectations and the Significance of Christ’s First Coming, 4–Interpreting Biblical Eschatology in Light of its Overall Structure, and 5–The Eschatological Significance of Christ’s Second Coming. When considered in light of the Bible’s overall storyline and eschatological structure, I think that eschatology actually is relatively easy to understand and fits coherently into the rest of the Bible.

Third, just as understanding eschatology is made easier by approaching it within the context of biblical theology, so understanding is augmented by considering historical theology. Although most books on eschatology treat it almost as if we were reinventing the wheel, the fact is that the apostolic and post-apostolic fathers of the church wrote a considerable amount on eschatology (as have theologians throughout the last two millennia). Understanding their views helps us critique our own views. C. S. Lewis pointed out that every age tends to have its own outlook and make its own mistakes and that all contemporary writers share to some extent the contemporary outlook.³ Consequently, each new book of theology has to be tested against the great body of Christian thought down the ages.⁴ I have therefore included chapter 6–Historical Overview of Eschatological Thought to help us put our eschatology in the context of historical theology. In that chapter, I pay particular attention to the apostolic and post-apostolic writers who also make their appearance from time to time throughout the book.

Finally, many people seem to be of the opinion that one’s eschatological views have no practical importance. They are pan-millennialists who think that everything will pan-out in the end. After all, we will not be able to absolutely confirm which view is correct until Christ comes again, and then, so the thinking goes, it won’t matter. That type of thinking, although probably not consciously articulated, may be behind the fact that most books on eschatology do not deal with the practical implications of one’s eschatological views. Such thinking, however, is contrary to the very nature of prophecy and apocalyptic prophecy such as the book of Revelation. All prophecy has an underlying moral or ethical purpose and is designed to confront and change people’s attitudes and behavior. That is seen again and again, particularly in the book of Revelation. I have therefore included chapter 12–The Importance of Eschatology to deal specifically with the issue of what difference our eschatological views make with respect to how we live. As that chapter makes clear, eschatology is important both theologically and practically. Indeed, historically, eschatological views have played a very important role—both for good and for bad—in people’s engagement with or withdrawal from the world.

In sum, the Bible tells a coherent story from beginning to end. It shows us that history is meaningful, and it points us to a bright consummation. Eschatology is the last act of the biblical drama and informs everything else that takes place throughout the Bible. To have a good understanding of the Bible as a whole, we need a good understanding of eschatology. When we do, the entire Bible becomes much more meaningful since we now can understand how it all fits together. Further, our general theology, our eschatology, and how we live our lives should all be coherent. Our beliefs—including the hope and perspective that sound eschatology imparts—should motivate us to live lives worthy of Jesus Christ our Lord. It is my hope that this book, by conveying a sound understanding of the many facets of eschatology, will assist that process to the glory of God and the furtherance of his kingdom.

2. Payne, Encyclopedia,

12

–

13

.

3. Lewis, Introduction,

5

.

4. Ibid.,

4

.

1

Eschatology: Introduction

The word eschatology comes from two Greek words, eschatos (farthest or last) and logos (word, instruction, teaching).¹ Eschatology, therefore, has been defined as: the word concerning, or the study of, what is ultimate or last, that is, what is final in the program of God;² or teaching about the end, i.e., any theology of history based upon a divinely revealed message about the last events;³ or the doctrine of the last things.⁴

Eschatology in the context of the overall biblical story

The overall biblical story

The basic biblical story may be summarized as follows: God created a beautiful world and human beings to live joyful, fulfilled lives in fellowship with him. Through our sin we lost that fellowship and brought evil and death into the world. However, God did not leave us in our sin and death. By means of a grand plan which involved calling Abraham and the nation of Israel, he prepared the way for his own coming to earth in the person of Jesus Christ to bring forgiveness of sin and to restore fellowship with him. He is coming again to utterly destroy sin and death without destroying us. He will consummate our restoration and our relationship with him. And he will renew the earth to be even more glorious than when it was first created. His goal is to live in a perfect, holy, loving, familial relationship with humanity, in a perfect environment, in which all relationships have been restored to perfection. God himself is both the author of the story and its primary character.⁵

Stanley Grenz summarizes the role of eschatology vis-à-vis the overall biblical storyline: Within the context of Christian doctrine the topic of eschatology provides an overarching vision of the faith. It seeks to set forth what is the ultimate goal toward which God’s work in the world is directed, how that work will be consummated and in what manner that goal is already in the process of being realized. . . . The Bible presents history as meaningful, in that it is directed toward a goal—namely, the reign of God or the presence of the will of God throughout the earth. . . . John’s vision [in Revelation] forms the climax to a long history of prophetic promise that stretches back to the Garden of Eden.⁶

Individual versus corporate eschatology

There are two main types or foci of eschatology: individual eschatology (i.e., what happens to individuals after death), and corporate eschatology (i.e., God’s overall plan for human beings and creation as a whole and how that plan is consummated). This book deals primarily with corporate eschatology rather than individual eschatology, although there is some overlap between them.

Major hermeneutical issues

The basic questions that people have to wrestle with as they try to understand what the Bible says about eschatology include: Do the second coming of Christ, the resurrection and judgment of all humanity, and the inauguration of the eternal kingdom, occur as aspects of one great event, or are they separated by a temporary messianic kingdom that lasts a thousand years? Are we able to predict when any of the the end-time events will occur by paying attention to the events transpiring in the Middle East or other geopolitical occurrences? What is the role of the church in all of this?

The major positions regarding eschatology differ over two main issues:

(1) The nature of the thousand years (Rev 20:2–7): Is the thousand years a discrete period of time distinct from the rest of history, or not? and What does it look like? (i.e., Is it a golden age on earth that can be experienced in the flesh, or can it be apprehended only by faith?); and

(2) The timing of the thousand years: Is the thousand years a past, present, or future period of time? and Does it occur before or after Christ comes again?

The different answers to the main eschatological issues tend to be based on different answers to three hermeneutical issues: (1) The role of the NT in interpreting the OT; (2) How to interpret the Bible’s symbolic language; and (3) The relationship between Israel and the church.

Brief definitions of major eschatological terms

On the simplest level . . . there are two basic schemes of prophecy: Premillennialism Versus Non-Premillennialism.⁷ In other words, the primary issue is whether Christ’s second coming (parousia) precedes (premillennialism) or follows (non-premillennialism) the thousand years of Rev 20:2–7. Two main camps hold that the parousia will precede the thousand years: historic premillennialism and dispensational premillennialism. Three main camps hold that Christ’s second coming will come after the thousand years: postmillennialism, amillennialism, and preterism.

• Millennium. The term is from the Latin for thousand years.⁸ The term thousand years occurs only in Rev 20:2–7. All standard Bible translations of Revelation 20 use the term thousand years. However, many writers who discuss eschatology in general and Revelation 20 specifically employ the term millennium. One problem with doing that is that the term millennium is loaded with connotations of a golden age, which may not at all be what the term thousand years as used in Revelation 20 suggests. Don Garlington therefore observes, It would be preferable not to speak of a ‘millennium’ at all in this sense, given the context-specific coloring of John’s ‘thousand years.’⁹ Since the term is so popular, however, there is little chance that Garlington’s prudence will be followed.

• Premillennialism. Premillennialism is any belief that Christ will come before the thousand years. Premillennialists believe that at his coming Christ will institute a thousand-year reign (golden age) on the earth, after which he will institute the eternal state. In older writings, premillennialism is often called chiliasm from the Greek chilioi which means thousand. Premillennialists are divided into two main camps: historic premillennialists and dispensational premillennialists.

(1) Historic Premillennialism. Historic premillennialists believe that any doctrine of the millennium must be based on the NT and be consistent with Christ’s present reign. They believe that there will be two bodily resurrections separated by the thousand years: the resurrection of the righteous when Christ comes again and then the resurrection of the unrighteous after the thousand years. After that, the eternal state will be instituted.¹⁰

(2) Dispensational Premillennialism. Dispensational premillennialists hold that there is a radical distinction between Israel and the church and that all prophecies must be interpreted literally: prophetic promises to OT Israel must literally be fulfilled in the physical nation of Israel, not in the church. They view the millennium as the climax of God’s dealings with Israel. They hold that Christ will actually have two second comings: the first one, which they call the pretribulational rapture, is only for his church (i.e., the church will leave the earth and meet Christ in the air and then go back with him to heaven). Later, after the great tribulation, Christ will physically come with his church to the earth and set up a thousand-year kingdom in which Israel is dominant.¹¹ They also believe that there will be three resurrections: the first for the righteous dead at the rapture; the second at the end of the tribulation for those saints who have died during the tribulation; and the third at the end of the millennium for the unbelievers.¹² After that there will be a great rebellion which Christ will overcome. He will then institute the eternal state.

• Postmillennialism. Technically, any belief that Christ will come after the thousand years is postmillennial. As popularly used, however, postmillennialism is the belief that the millennium is a future, discrete period of unprecedented Christian influence in the world (a golden age), based on the work of the church and the Holy Spirit in the world, that gradually emerges before Christ’s return. Christ will then come again, receive the kingdom, and initiate the eternal state.¹³

• Amillennialism. Amillennialists believe that the thousand years is a symbolic reference to the entire period between Christ’s resurrection until shortly before his return. That period will be characterized by the spread of the gospel but also by the spread of sin, i.e., there will be no golden age before Christ returns. Christ’s return will result in the general resurrection and judgment, and will usher in the eternal state.¹⁴

• Preterism. The term comes from the Latin praeter which means past or beyond.¹⁵ Preterism is divided into two main camps: full preterism and partial preterism. Full preterism holds that all significant events of prophecy, including the millennium and Christ’s second coming (which preterists see as a spiritual coming), took place in AD 70 when the Jewish temple was destroyed by the Romans. Partial preterism holds that most of the major eschatological events were fulfilled by AD 70 but that Christ will physically come again in the future and set up the eternal state.¹⁶

• Tribulation and Great Tribulation. Tribulation refers to the persecution of believers. Based on their interpretation of Dan 9:24–27, dispensationalists and some others think that there will be a seven-year tribulation, primarily directed against the nation of Israel, just before the parousia. The great tribulation is thought to be a time of even more intense persecution in the last half of the tribulation. Most historic premillennialists, amillennialists, and postmillennialists disagree with dispensationalists concerning the interpretation of Dan 9:24–27. They see tribulation as one of the things that characterizes the entire period between Christ’s first and second comings, although the intensity of persecution may increase shortly before Christ returns. Preterists hold that the tribulation was a past event related to the siege and overthrow of Jerusalem in AD 70.

• Pretribulationism, Midtribulationism, and Posttribulationism. Pretribulationism is a distinctively dispensationalist idea. Pretribulationists believe that before the tribulation Christ will come part-way from heaven to earth to rapture (take away to heaven) the church. A variant of this is midtribulationism which believes that Christ will rapture the church in the middle of a seven-year tribulation (i.e., just before the great tribulation).¹⁷ Both pre- and mid-tribulationists believe that after the tribulation Christ will come again, this time all the way to earth, to set up a thousand-year kingdom. After that he will establish the eternal state. On the other hand, posttribulationism holds that Christ will return only after the church goes through tribulation. Posttribulationists believe that the rapture of living believers will take place along with the resurrection of the dead when Christ returns.

Pretribulationism must not be confused with premillennialism. All pretribulationists and midtribulationists are also premillennialists. However, not all premillennialists are pretribulationists. Most historic premillennialists are posttribulationists. By definition, all amillennialists, postmillennialists, and preterists also are posttribulationists.

Resources to compare different eschatological systems

One good way to see the strengths and weaknesses of different eschatological systems is by reading books in which a proponent of one view makes his case and then is critiqued by advocates of other views. Such books include: Robert Clouse, ed., The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1977); Darrell Bock, Craig Blaising, Kenneth Gentry, and Robert Strimple, Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999); Gleason Archer, Paul Feinberg, Douglas Moo, and Richard Reiter, The Rapture: Pre-, Mid-, or Post-Tribulational? (Grand Rapids: Academie, 1984); Craig Blaising, Alan Hultberg, and Douglas Moo, Three Views on the Rapture: Pretribulation, Prewrath, or Posttribulation, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010); Thomas Ice and Kenneth Gentry, The Great Tribulation: Past or Future? Two Evangelicals Debate the Question (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1999); and C. Marvin Pate, Kenneth Gentry, Sam Hamstra, and Robert Thomas, Four Views on the Book of Revelation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998).

Books in which one author does a fair job of describing the different eschatological positions include: Millard Erickson, Contemporary Options in Eschatology: A Study of the Millennium (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977); Stanley Grenz, The Millennial Maze (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1992); C. Marvin Pate, Reading Revelation: A Comparison of Four Interpretive Translations of the Apocalypse (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2009); and Steve Gregg, ed., Revelation: Four Views: A Parallel Commentary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1997).

1. BDAG, eschatos,

397

; logos,

598

–

99

.

2. Grenz, Millennial Maze,

16

.

3. McGinn, Anti-Christ,

2

.

4. Vos, Pauline Eschatology,

1

.

5. Stephen Sykes puts it this way, "In Christian narrative, God’s world is the setting, the theme is the rescue of the fallen world and of humankind; the plots are the biblical narratives, from creation, election, to incarnation, crucifixion, resurrection and ascension; the resolution is the last judgement, heaven and hell." Sykes, Atonement,

14

.

6. Grenz, Millennial Maze,

16

,

27

,

28

; see also Vos, Pauline Eschatology,

1

.

7. Waldron, Structural Considerations, n.p.

8. Mille = thousand; annus = year. See Schnabel,

40

Questions,

267

.

9. Garlington, Reigning, n.p.

10. Ladd, Historic Premillennialism,

17

–

40

. A recently-developed variant of premillennialism called new creation millennialism will be discussed in chapter

7

–The Millennium.

11. Boyd, Dispensational Premillennial Analysis,

4

–

13

; Hoyt, Dispensational Premillennialism,

63

–

92

.

12. Erickson, Christian Theology,

1225

.

13. Boettner, Postmillennialism, 117

–

41

. Postmillennialist Greg Bahnsen states that it is more common today for postmillennialists to refer to the whole period, from the first advent to the second, as the millennium, but they contend that Christianity will become the dominant principle rather than the exception to the rule. Bahnsen, Victory,

34

,

92

; see also Kik, Eschatology,

17

.

14. Hoekema, Amillennialism,

155

–

87

.

15. See HLD, praeter,

1433

–

34

; Gentry, Dominion,

159

; Gentry, Foundation,

13

.

16. Sproul, Last Days,

24

–

25

.

17. A variant of this is the pre-wrath rapture position which contends that the rapture will take place during the great tribulation but before the wrath of God is poured out. See Marvin Rosenthal, Pre-Wrath, passim. Subsequent discussions of pre-tribulationism (see particularly chapter

9

–The Rapture: Pretribulational or Part of the second coming?) include the midtribulation and pre-wrath views even if they are not mentioned explicitly, since all are based on dispensationalist premises and the basic principles that pertain to pretibulationism pertain to its variants as well.

2

Interpreting Prophecy and Apocalyptic

Prophecy can be one of the most challenging areas of biblical interpretation. Three main reasons for that are: (1) failure to apply the basic principles of biblical interpretation; (2) misunderstanding the genre of prophecy; and (3) failing to understand basic biblical theology.¹⁸

The nature of biblical prophets and prophecy

God gave Israel his revelation and established his covenant. In this context, God instituted the prophets through Moses. The prophet was to be a man of God, a witness for God, a servant of God, and committed to God. He was to speak the voice of God, in contrast to listening to the voice of the people. Likewise, he served as a critic of the culture from a godly perspective.¹⁹

God’s prophets applied God’s word during crises in the covenant relation between God and his people. The main activity of OT prophets was not predicting the future. Rather, OT biblical prophecy was as interested in the present as in the future. The prophets all had essentially a two-fold message and ministry: (1) They warned God’s people of the consequences of disobedience to the Lord’s ways by oracles of judgment; and (2) They called God’s people back to faithfulness by oracles of salvation.²⁰ In other words, all OT prophets were concerned with changing people’s behavior.²¹ Their message was, if you do this, judgment will come; if you follow the Lord, blessings will come. As such, much of OT prophecy was conditional on people’s repentance and behavior, even when a prophecy appeared to be unconditional (e.g., Jonah 3).

The prophets primarily were oral communicators; the prophetic writings were secondary. Prophetic books often contain many collections of spoken oracles that are not always presented in chronological order. The metaphorical language they often use is grounded in imagery meaningful to their own culture.

General considerations for interpreting prophecy

Emphasis on God, not on specific events

Prophetic messages are more the "forth-telling" of God’s word, than the foretelling of specific, inevitable, future events. The fulfillment of prophecy lies in a person (God), and he may fulfill his word however and whenever he chooses. For example, the prophets spoke of David returning or his descendant coming to Israel (e.g., Isa 11:1; Jer 30:9; Ezek 37:24); God actually came in the flesh in the person of Jesus Christ, and the kingdom of God became manifested through Jesus in ways the OT prophets could not conceive (see Mark 1:15; Luke 17:21; Matt 16:19 [compare Isa 22:22]). Stephen Travis notes, It was the literalists of Jesus’s day who found it hard to recognise in him the fulfillment of their expectations. Those who looked for a military and political Messiah, the natural counterpart to David, failed to see that Jesus had more, not less, to offer. Those who accused him at his trial could not get beyond a literal understanding of his prediction that within three days he would rebuild the ruined Temple (Matthew 26:61; cf. John 2:18–22).²² In light of this, If we acknowledge that ancient prophecies may be fulfilled in ways we do not expect, it follows that we cannot employ prophecies as detailed blueprints of the future. We may see general parallels between the prophet’s situation and our own; however, we must leave room for unforeseen variations.²³

Emphasis on patterns and themes

Because of their two-fold message (judgment and salvation), even though the prophets spoke about specific crises, their underlying messages of judgment and salvation are relevant for many generations. Further, Old Testament end-time predictions commonly are connected by themes and key words rather than by a strict chronological order (for example, see Dan 7:8–27; 8:9–26; Rev 16–19).²⁴ Similar themes run throughout the prophets. Those themes include: God’s covenant with his people; the presence of God; God as king; God’s Messiah; the Day of the Lord; the kingdom of God; and the Spirit of the Lord. The NT writers saw the OT prophetic writings primarily as patterns that were fulfilled in the NT. Thus, just as Rachel wept when going into exile (the context of Jer 31:15), so Rachel weeps again when Herod killed the children (the context of Matt 2:18 in which Matthew quotes Jeremiah’s prophecy). We need to look for those themes and patterns. In them we begin to see the mind of God.

Contingency in prophecy

As oracles of judgment and salvation, prophecy has an underlying moral purpose. Prophecy is designed to change people’s behavior; it is not designed as something that is to be regarded with an attitude of fatalistic resignation. Desmond Ford observes that modern Western readers who have a fatalistic or predestinarian outlook often take as absolute, Semitic pronouncements which in their own day would have been considered as less than absolute. . . . The biblical view of prophecy is that a forecast is not necessarily a prediction to be fulfilled at all hazards. Rather a prediction of disaster is a hint in order that proper steps might be taken to avert the evil. Similarly a prediction of blessing is an encouragement, that there might be perseverance in the right course.²⁵

God is not a static, impersonal force. Rather, to use anthropomorphic language, God reacts to the choices made by people in response to his decrees which have been articulated by his prophets. We see this, for example, in God’s changing his mind in response to Moses’ intercession on behalf of Israel after God had threatened to destroy Israel (Exod 32:9–14) and in his not destroying Nineveh after it repented (Jonah 3:1–10). J. Barton Payne summarizes, Prophecy in particular has been designed by God for moral ends so as to motivate men into conformity with divine holiness. Should men, therefore, seek to take advantage of its holy assurances . . . change becomes then not only possible but inevitable.²⁶

God announced this principle of contingency in Jer 18:6–11; 26:12–13; 36:1–3; Ezek 18:1–32; 33:10–20. Sometimes the conditional nature of a prophecy is explicitly stated.²⁷ Sometimes a prophecy is unconditional on its face, but the character of God and the responses of people provide unstated conditionality to the prophecy.²⁸ Actions taken in response to a prophecy might either postpone or hasten its fulfillment.²⁹ In 1 Sam 23:10–14, David avoided entirely the consequences that God had revealed to him by taking prudent action. In Acts 21:10–14, Paul’s Christian friends did not regard the prophecy [of Agabus] as of inevitable fulfillment. Instead they treated it as a kindly warning whereby the disaster might be averted.³⁰

Prophets build on earlier prophecies

God’s covenants grow and develop through the prophets who develop and transform them through their proclamations of judgment and salvation. The following are two examples of prophetic development within the OT itself:

• The promise of the land in the Abrahamic Covenant (Gen 12:1–3). The land promised to Abraham initially was undefined (Gen 12:1). It was first defined as what Abram could see (Gen 13:14–15), then was geographically described (Gen 15:18–21; 17:8), and finally was included in the comprehensive statement that your seed shall possess the gates of their [lit., ‘his’] enemies (Gen 22:17). The OT indicates that the promise of land was physically fulfilled at least twice: in the days of Joshua (Josh 21:43–45), and during the reign of Solomon (1 Kgs 4:20–21). However, because of disobedience Israel was dispossessed from the land, so the promise was never ultimately fulfilled during the OT. The land was still longed for, and restoration was promised during the exile (see Ezek 20:1–44). The promise was again partially fulfilled physically after the exile.

• The Davidic Covenant (2 Sam 7:12–16). Jeremiah recalled Nathan’s promises to David concerning a Davidic king and Levitical priesthood in order to assure the exiles that God would restore them to their land (Jer 33:19–22). Jeremiah also built on Isaiah’s prophecy that a righteous branch would come from David’s line and added that the Levitical priests would never lack a man to offer sacrifices before the Lord (Jer 33:14–18; cf. Isa 11:1).

Prophetic idiom

The OT prophets spoke within the framework, and used terms, they were familiar with and that made sense to their hearers. The OT prophets spoke of Messiah’s eternal kingdom using the language and limited frame of reference of their own physical, Israelite context. E. F. Kevan correctly observes that in all of their statements about the kingdom of God, even when uttering the most spiritual and glorious truths regarding it, the vocabulary which the prophets employ is always that of the kingdom of God in the forms in which they knew it in their own day.³¹ Thus, the OT prophets used the imagery of the temple and Zion, and they spoke of the kingdom in terms of a literal king from the line of David sitting on a throne in a palace in Jerusalem. This is known as prophetic idiom.³²

Even in the NT, when God revealed the fulfillment of OT prophecy and when the NT writers point forward to the consummation of God’s plan, they use the language that their contemporaries would understand. As Steve Lehrer describes it, when God used the prophets to explain the spiritual fulfillment of God’s plan in the New Covenant era, God decided to use the language of types and shadows. He was describing the New Covenant in the language of the Old Covenant. He pointed toward the spiritual goal of God’s plan in the brightest and clearest way that the physical types and shadows would allow.³³ Examples of this include: Jesus describes his body as the temple (John 2:18–22); the church as a whole is called the temple or the tabernacle in 1 Cor 3:9, 16–17; 2 Cor 6:16—7:1; Eph 2:21; 1 Pet 2:5; Rev 3:12; Rev 13:6; Paul uses OT language of burnt offerings to describe money given to assist his