Reptiles of Victoria: A Guide to Identification and Ecology

REPTILES

of VICTORIA

We should like to dedicate this book to the memories of two dear friends: Peter Rawlinson, an outstanding conservationist and herpetologist and

an inspiration to us both, who died on Anak Krakatau pursuing his passion; and Leigh Ahern, conservationist, gentleman, and the ideal field companion, who died in his beloved bush during the fires of February 2009.

REPTILES

of VICTORIA

A Guide to Identification and Ecology

Peter Robertson and A. John Coventry

© Peter Robertson and A. John Coventry 2019

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Front cover: (main image) Varanus rosenbergi (photo: Jordan de Jong); (top, left to right) Cyclodomorphus praealtus (photo: Nick Clemann), Strophurus intermedius (photo: Geoff Heard), Aprasia striolata (photo: Peter Robertson), Pogona barbata (photo: Rob Valentic)

Back cover: Emydura macquarii (photo: Damien Cook), Denisonia devisi (photo: Peter Robertson), Eulamprus kosciuskoi (photo: Peter Robertson)

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Foreword

Australia’s reptiles don’t always get the positive publicity that some of our other wildlife receives. While poems are written to the colours and songs of Australian birds, and the wildlife documentary makers extol the evolutionary oddities of our monotreme and marsupial mammals, the Australian reptile fauna often fails to attract the same level of interest. Worse, some of Australia’s venomous snakes will sometimes bite humans in self-defence, and attract entirely the wrong sort of publicity. This combination of neglect and occasional instances of bad press seems to predispose a lot of people to mistrust reptiles, and a minority find them truly frightening. Even so, reptiles do have enthusiastic supporters, and for good reason. Reptiles are beautiful, with colour schemes that include vivid hues on scales that may almost seem enamelled, with subtle camouflage schemes as effective as any in nature, and remarkable levels of diversity in shape, size and ornamentation. There are lots of them – across Australia there are now some 1000 species, and the process of discovery is not yet over: new species are being described every year. For those in other parts of the world, our reptiles are just as distinctive and evocative of Australia as are other members of our native animal life; an image of a bearded dragon or a stumpy-tailed lizard says ‘Australia’ just as emphatically as a kangaroo or emu.

The most fundamental bit of information that most people want to know about an animal is – what is it? With that one bit of information, the possibilities expand. Follow-up activities, such as web searches for more illustrations and library searches for more information, all rely on having a name. New resources that enable people to make that first step of identification are always welcome, and that is especially the case for this book, a comprehensive coverage of the reptile fauna of Australia’s most densely populated state.

The book represents a partnership between two generations of herpetological study, starting with John Coventry from the early 1950s. John, in his position as Curator of Reptiles at the National Museum of Victoria (now Melbourne Museum), was a powerful influence and mentor to a generation of budding herpetologists during the 1960s and 1970s, among them the young University of Melbourne student Peter Robertson, who soon became an expert on Victorian reptiles in his own right. Aside from his developing knowledge of the animals, Peter also worked on photography, and his vivid and detailed images are an outstanding feature of the book. Their collaboration endured for over three decades, and Peter continues their joint legacy today as one of Australia’s foremost authorities on the habits, habitats and conservation of the reptiles of south-eastern Australia.

This book aims to be more than just an identification guide. It is an information-packed introduction to the natural history of these animals, their preferred habitat, where they hide, where and how they find food, reproductive habits and conservation. Other parts of Australia may have more than Victoria’s 117 species, but often with very little to be said about many of them. Victoria is in many ways a microcosm of Australia, with habitats ranging from relatively semi-arid mallee to temperate rainforest, to alpine moorland, all within a day’s drive of Melbourne. As a result, its reptile fauna can act as a ‘sampler’, tasty highlights that give a good idea of the whole fauna.

The natural world is sometimes justified economically as a source of ecological economic ‘services’ to us, the dominant life form. A more intangible but, I think, profound service is the mental stimulation and sheer joy that comes from encountering the complex and astonishingly varied life forms that do their best to coexist with us. Humans must find a willingness to continue this coexistence and, for that to occur, understanding on our part is key. I have no doubt that this book will be a powerful means to enhance understanding, and I expect that for many people it will go further and make enthusiasts of them too.

Mark Hutchinson,

Head of Biological Sciences and Senior Researcher, Herpetology

South Australian Museum

Adelaide, May 2017

Contents

Foreword

Introduction

Biology of Reptiles

Biogeography, Victorian Habitats and Distribution

Classification

The Reptile Fauna of Victoria

Table 1. Reptile fauna of Victoria

Key 1. The orders of Victorian reptiles

Testudines – Turtles and Tortoises

Key 2. The families of Victorian Testudines

Sea Turtles

Family Cheloniidae (Hard-shelled Sea Turtles)

Family Dermochelyidae (Leather-backed Sea Turtles)

Freshwater Turtles

Family Chelidae (Side-necked Freshwater Turtles)

Family Emydidae (Pond Turtles or Sliders)

Squamata – Lizards and Snakes

Key 3. The Victorian Squamata

Lizards

Key 4. The families of Victorian lizards

Geckos

Family Gekkonidae (Typical Geckos)

Family Carphodactylidae (Odd-tailed Geckos)

Family Diplodactylidae (Australasian Geckos)

Legless Lizards

Family Pygopodidae (Legless Lizards)

Skinks

Family Scincidae (Skinks)

Dragons

Family Agamidae (Dragon Lizards)

Goannas

Family Varanidae (Goannas or Monitor Lizards)

Snakes

Key 5. The families of Victorian snakes

Blind Snakes

Family Typhlopidae (Blind Snakes)

Pythons

Family Pythonidae (Pythons)

Venomous Snakes

Family Elapidae (Front-fanged Venomous Snakes)

Other Species Possibly Occurring in Victoria

First Aid for Snake Bite

Victorian Wildlife Regulations

Glossary

Selected Bibliography

Acknowledgements

Index of common names and general terms

Index of scientific names and terms

Introduction

Reptiles have always played an important part in human emotions and folklore. Many people fear reptiles; indeed, large species such as crocodilians and the larger pythons have occasionally included humans in their diet, while venomous snakes have an undeserved reputation of just waiting to inflict a fatal bite on the unwary.

This is the first publication to include all of the reptiles known to occur within Victoria. Lucas and Frost dealt with lizards in their 1894 paper ‘The lizards indigenous to Victoria’. Subsequent contributions to volumes of the Victorian Year Book by Brazenor (1936) on reptiles, and by Littlejohn and Rawlinson (1971) on amphibians and reptiles, provided useful summaries at the time of their publication. They were, however, only overviews of our herpetological fauna, and are now well out of date. Coventry and Robertson in 1991 provided the handbook titled The Snakes of Victoria. Since that time, there have been many advances in our knowledge – these additions and revisions are included here.

This guide is intended primarily as a means of identifying any reptile occurring naturally within Victoria. For each species there are photographs and detailed descriptions, with the main distinguishing characteristics highlighted in bold. The distribution maps are a further aid. The dichotomous keys present an important systematic method of identification. They provide a two-option system of elimination of possibilities, and include illustrations of defining characteristics to further assist the reader. Some technical terms that may be new to some readers are explained in the glossary at the end of the book.

The habitats in which species are found often provide important clues, and habitats are discussed for each species. There is a separate section on the main habitat types in Victoria, with an indication of the species commonly or typically found therein.

Notes on various aspects of the biology and ecology of each species of Victorian reptile are included, and additional information may be obtained from the publications listed in the Selected Bibliography section. For each of the venomous snakes we give an indication of their danger to humans, and the modern recommended first aid treatment for snake bite is briefly described at the end of the book.

An alarmingly increasing proportion of Victoria’s reptiles are considered threatened in this state. The latest appraisal of these may be found in the publication Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria – 2013 (DSE 2013), with 46 of Victoria’s 117 species recognised as rare and/or threatened. We have included notes on our perceptions of the status of each species within the individual species accounts. The Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (FFG Act) and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) also have lists of threatened species recognised in legislation, and both have requirements for devising conservation plans for these listed species. Unfortunately, with scarce resources for conservation and a lack of political will for adequate implementation, these plans have proven largely ineffective in improving the status of most species. The inexorable pressures of an increasing human population and its demands for resources continue to threaten many of our reptiles, exacerbating other threats such as climate change and feral predators.

The statutory requirements of the Victorian Wildlife Act 1975 must be considered before studying or keeping Victorian reptiles. The Wildlife Regulations 2013, formulated in accordance with this Act, may be obtained from the relevant state government flora and fauna agency (currently the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning – DELWP). A brief explanation of these requirements is included herein.

Tree Goanna, Varanus varius, East Gippsland.

Biology of Reptiles

Reptiles have often been described as ‘cold-blooded’ because they generally lack the finely tuned internal mechanisms for maintaining constant body temperatures found in the ‘warm-blooded’ vertebrates (mammals and birds). However, when active, most reptiles have the ability to utilise behavioural means to raise and maintain optimal temperatures. This may be achieved by either basking in the sun to raise the body temperature and then sheltering if too hot (heliothermy), or by selecting microenvironments of a suitable temperature (thigmothermy), such as in decomposing vegetation or under warm rocks. Some thigmotherms may just conform to the temperatures of their microenvironments, having wide tolerances and/or being active only when temperatures are suitable. In some circumstances, a few species can raise their temperatures by muscle activity (e.g. brooding pythons), and others can regulate heat loss with insulating layers and by varying blood circulation to particular areas of the body (e.g. Leatherback Turtle). During extremely hot weather, reptiles retreat into cover to prevent overheating, while during colder periods they seek shelter and become inactive if suitable body temperatures cannot be maintained. Consequently, they can tolerate lower metabolic rates than warm-blooded vertebrates, surviving on a lower and less regular food intake. Reptiles are normally observed, and are most active, during the warmer seasons. However, some can and do emerge on warmer days during winter to bask. Reptile species may be diurnal (active by day) or nocturnal. Moreover, during warmer weather, some normally diurnal species may be active at night.

Reptiles were the first wholly terrestrial vertebrates. One of the most important adaptations enabling them to exploit a wide range of terrestrial environments was the evolution of a shelled (cleidoic) egg. The egg is enclosed in a shell that limits the exchange of anything but respiratory gases, thus inhibiting desiccation. Similarly, in contrast to the skin of most modern amphibians, the skin of most reptiles is relatively impermeable to water.

All turtles (testudines) are egg-layers (oviparous), but snakes and lizards (squamates) vary in their mode of reproduction. Most lay eggs in burrows dug by the female or under insulated ground cover, with incubation times ranging from 2–12 months. Some species are capable of producing more than one clutch in a season. A minority of snakes and lizards give birth (viviparous) to full-term young. In some viviparous species, all of the nutriment needed for development comes from the yolk, as in egg-laying species. In others, some nutrients (and in grass skinks, Pseudemoia, most nutrients) are supplied by the mother direct to the developing embryo via a placental connection. One obvious advantage of viviparity is that the females are able to thermoregulate, thus increasing the opportunities for maintaining the developing embryos at optimal temperatures for development.

In turtles, the male has a single copulatory organ, or penis, but male lizards and snakes have paired copulatory organs known as hemipenes (Fig. 1), one of which is everted through the vent during mating. In all Victorian breeding species, ovulation and fertilisation are thought to occur in spring, and most matings occur at this time. However, in a small number of species, mostly from cooler climates, mating takes place in the autumn, with females retaining sperm until fertilisation in the spring.

The lifespan of reptiles varies greatly. For example, the Mallee Dragon (Ctenophorus fordi) is regarded as an annual species; that is, the life span is generally only one year. Larger species may live for many years, such as the Stumpy-tailed Lizard (Tiliqua rugosa), which has been recorded living well in excess of 35 years in the wild.

Fig. 1. Everted hemipenes of Rosenberg’s Goanna, Varanus rosenbergi, ventral view.

Photograph courtesy of David Venn.

Biogeography, Victorian Habitats and Distribution

Reptiles occur in a wide variety of habitats. Some species are extremely widespread or ubiquitous, while others have very specific habitat requirements and hence limited, and often disjunct, distributions.

Sir Walter Baldwin Spencer in 1896 proposed dividing the Australian region into three faunal sub-regions, or zoogeographic zones – Bassian, Eyrean and Torresian (Fig. 2), based upon their broad ecological similarities and on the co-occurrences of species with similar distributions. Although variously refined and adapted since Spencer’s time, the concept is useful in attempting to explain patterns of reptile distribution within Victoria. Only the Eyrean and Bassian zones are present within Victoria.

Within Victoria, the Eyrean environment, typical of inland Australia, extends from the north-west to north-central regions. It supports such diverse semi-arid habitats as the jumbled dunefields of the Big Desert, with large sand dunes and swales variously supporting mallee (small multi-stemmed Eucalyptus), Broombush (Melaleuca uncinata) or heath; the east–west dunefields of the Sunset Country, with mallee and hummock grass (Triodia) habitats; and surrounding areas of larger mallee, cypress-pine (Callitris) and semi-arid woodlands, open grasslands and riverine chenopod shrublands. The Murray River corridor in the north-west of Victoria appears to represent an intrusion of temperate or perhaps even tropical influences into the semi-arid zone, with several northern reptile species, such as the Eastern Water Skink (Eulamprus quoyii), Red-naped Snake (Furina diadema) and DeVis’ Banded Snake (Denisonia devisi), occurring there but not found elsewhere in the state.

Fig. 2. Spencer’s 1896 concept of Australian zoogeographic zones. Source: Ebach (2012).

Several authors have refined Spencer’s overall concept. Peter Rawlinson (1969b) commented on zoogeography within Victoria, especially in relation to the temperate Bassian zone, which he divided into three sub-zones (Fig. 3): the cold temperate, which includes high-elevation areas with habitats dominated by Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora), sub-alpine meadows and sphagnum bogs and is usually covered by snow in winter; the cool temperate, which occurs across the lower elevations of the Great Dividing Range, including the Otway and Grampian ranges and supports a range of cooler forest types; and the warm temperate, which includes the plains to the west and south-west of the Great Dividing Range, much of the undulating foothills surrounding the ranges, and the low-elevation areas of East Gippsland, with habitats ranging from open grasslands, through woodlands and coastal forests to dense rainforest patches. This sub-zone intrudes into the cool temperate sub-zone along river valleys, such as those of the Tambo and Snowy rivers of Gippsland.

Fig. 3. Rawlinson’s 1969 concept of Victorian zoogeographic zones. Source: Rawlinson (1969b).

These zoogeographic zones and sub-zones are defined by their annual temperatures, rainfall patterns and elevation, which influence the vegetation, thermal environment and habitats for the reptiles that live there. Many of Victoria’s reptiles are confined to one zoogeographic zone, while others range across zones. Within Victorian temperate sub-zones are many species that are also more widespread along the Great Dividing Range of eastern Australia, while the semi-arid habitats of north-western Victoria support many reptiles closely related to Central Australian species.

Habitat types in Victoria – terrestrial ecosystems and vegetation

Ecosystems in Victoria are recognised by the vegetation they support. The structure of plant life forms and how they grow together are the things people recognise, and have given rise to ecosystem nomenclature and description. The Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning has created a nomenclature for Victorian ‘ecosystems’ using floristic survey data as a basis for classification; detailed floristic units called ‘communities’ have been amalgamated into units called ‘ecological vegetation classes’ (EVCs) based upon structural, floristic and geographic characteristics. Most of these units have been mapped and are available on the DELWP website (https://www.environment.vic.gov.au/biodiversity/bioregions-and-evc-benchmarks).

Here we take a step back from the detailed and formalised EVC classification to provide broader definitions of major ecosystems in Victoria that can be recognised by the non-professional, but which provide a useful characterisation of the variety of habitats used by reptiles. The ecosystem names and definitions used here were developed by Paul Gullan of Viridans Pty Ltd and are, for the most part, not those of the EVCs. Nevertheless, there is a consistency with the EVC classification, in that most ecosystems can be represented by several EVCs, and there are few EVC definitions that cross the boundaries between any of these ecosystems.

Various specific ecosystem components may be favoured or required by particular reptile species. One such example is rocky outcrops, which are the preferred habitat of some species. These may occur patchily within many of the ecosystems described, and hence are not discussed separately below. They are, however, mentioned in the text for the relevant species. Similarly, habitats within freshwater and marine environments are used by some reptiles; these also are indicated within the individual species accounts.

Some species persist and sometimes do well in disturbed or highly modified urban environments that do not clearly fit into the categories below, although they are also present in some of these recognised habitat types. Lizards such as the Garden Skink (Lampropholis guichenoti), Delicate Skink (L. delicata), Weasel Skink (Saproscincus mustelinus) and Boulenger’s Skink (Morethia boulengeri) will be familiar occupants of the gardens of many readers, as will the Blue-tongued Lizards (Tiliqua species). Less welcome perhaps, but nevertheless present in some suburbs, are the Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus) and Common Copperhead (Austrelaps superbus). A cryptic but widespread occupant of Melbourne’s suburbs is the nocturnal Marbled Gecko (Christinus marmoratus), which appears likely to have spread from individuals arriving in firewood from the north of the state. Other colonisers, now widespread in the city’s waterways (and elsewhere), and probably derived from the pet trade, are the Water Dragons (Intellagama lesueurii) and the three species of freshwater turtles.

Alpine

The alpine and sub-alpine ecosystems in Victoria are confined to the Eastern Highlands, mostly above 1300 m. The precipitation usually exceeds 1400 mm a year, much of which falls as snow in the winter when minimum temperatures regularly fall below zero degrees Celsius.

The vegetation of these regions includes Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora) woodlands, heathlands and grasslands, with mossy bogs in the wetter areas. Much of the woodland vegetation has an understorey of small-leafed shrubs, soft-leafed herbs and coarse tussock grasses. The grasslands are dominated by tussock grasses, small sedges and a wide range of herbs, particularly snow-daisies and trigger plants. The heathlands of dry shallow soils on exposed sites support shrubby peas, heaths, peppers, wattles, mint-bushes and members of the Proteaceae, while those of wet depressions are generally dominated by heaths, sedges, rushes and sphagnum.

Although at high elevation and subject to extremes of weather, this ecosystem has many microhabitats for reptiles able to withstand extended cold periods, and several specialised species may be observed. Sunlight penetration to the ground layer is extensive, providing ample opportunities for basking species, while the usually dense vegetation and debris on the ground layer afford abundant shelter sites. Exposed rocky sites are used by the Guthega Skink (Liopholis guthega), which constructs deep burrows for shelter. Low vegetation, logs and rocks in Snow Gum areas are favoured by the Southern Grass Skink (Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii), while its close relative the Tussock Skink (P. pagenstecheri) prefers grassy and sometimes low heathy areas, as does the Alpine She-oak Skink (Cyclodomorphus praealtus). Wetter heaths and sphagnum areas along drainage lines are home to the Alpine Bog Skink (P. cryodroma) and the Alpine Water Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi).

Alpine ecosystem

Alpine ecosystem distribution

Wet Sclerophyll Forest

Wet Sclerophyll Forest is found on deep loamy soils of sheltered hillsides, mostly between 600 and 1300 m above sea level and with rainfall above 1100 mm a year.

This is the tallest of all Victorian forest ecosystems, with trees that often reach 75 m or more in height over an understorey of climbers, broad-leafed shrubs, tree ferns, ground ferns, small herbs and coarse grass. The principal tree species of Wet Sclerophyll Forest is Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans) which often grows in single-species stands but is sometimes associated with or replaced by one or two others, such as Messmate (E. obliqua) and Mountain Grey-gum (E. cypellocarpa) in central and western Victoria, or by Cut-tail (E. fastigata) and Errinundra Shining-gum (E. denticulata) in eastern Victoria, or Alpine Ash (E. delegatensis) and Shining Gum (E. nitens) at higher elevations.

The dense canopy, low temperatures and cool, wet conditions in this ecosystem, with only sparse penetration of sunlight to the forest floor, favour only a small number of reptile species. Small clearings provide some opportunities for basking in the ground layer, where thick litter affords shelter for species such as Coventry’s Skink (Carinascincus coventryi), while the surface and interior of large logs are used by the Southern Water Skink (Eulamprus tympanum). One climbing species, Spencer’s Skink (Pseudemoia spenceri), common on logs and fallen timber, is able to climb large, dead trees into and above the canopy to attain basking opportunities. The widespread Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus) is able to tolerate the cooler conditions in this ecosystem.

Wet Sclerophyll Forest ecosystem

Wet Sclerophyll Forest distribution

Damp Sclerophyll Forest

Damp Sclerophyll Forest is the most widespread and variable forest ecosystem in the state. It is found on a range of loamy, clay-loam and sandy-loam soils of relatively sheltered hillsides, mostly between 200 and 1100 m above sea level, with rainfall between 750 and 1200 mm a year.

At the wetter end of Damp Sclerophyll Forest the trees may grow to 60 m or more, over an understorey of climbers, broad-leafed and small-leafed shrubs, occasional tree ferns, ground ferns, dense wire-grass and herbs. The principal tree species is Messmate (Eucalyptus obliqua), which grows in association with two or three other species, often Mountain Grey-gum (E. cypellocarpa) and Narrow-leaf Peppermint (E. radiata). This form of Damp Sclerophyll Forest usually grows next to and grades into Wet Sclerophyll Forest. At the drier end, the trees are smaller, usually less than 40 m tall, with an understorey of a few climbers and scramblers, wattles, small-leafed shrubs, tussock-forming and rhizomatous grasses, occasional ferns, and soft-leafed herbs. In this form the main trees are also Messmate and Narrow-leaf Peppermint, but Manna Gum (E. viminalis) and Broad-leafed Peppermint (Eucalyptus dives) become more common. Dry Sclerophyll Forest often borders and grades into Damp Sclerophyll Forest under these conditions. At lower elevations, Damp Sclerophyll Forest will often support Silvertop Ash (E. sieberi), White Stringybark (E. globoidea), Yertchuk (E. consideniana), Yellow Stringybark (E. muelleriana) and Brown Stringybark (E. baxteri).

The variable nature of this ecosystem, and the generally more open shrub layer with a dense ground layer and plentiful fallen logs, affords more opportunities for a diversity of reptile species than are present in Wet Sclerophyll Forest. Widespread, particularly along watercourses, is the Yellow-bellied Water Skink (Eulamprus heatwolei). The Black Rock Skink (Egernia saxatilis) utilises large fallen logs and sometimes rock outcrops. In wetter areas of the forest floor, under and in rotting timber and vegetation, are cryptic species such as the Weasel Skink (Saproscincus mustelinus) and McCoy’s Skink (Anepischetosia maccoyi). More obvious on the forest floor is the sun-loving Garden Skink (Lampropholis guichenoti) and its close relative the Delicate Skink (L. delicata). On drier ridges one might find the Mountain Dragon (Rankinia diemensis), and in similar open sites the Mountain Skink (Liopholis montana). Predatory species such as the Copperhead snakes (Austrelaps species) are widespread, able to exploit the plentiful lizard and frog prey.

Damp Sclerophyll Forest ecosystem

Damp Sclerophyll Forest distribution

Dry Sclerophyll Forest

Dry Sclerophyll Forest is found on a range of clay-loam, sandy-loam and shallow rocky soils of exposed hillsides, mostly between 200 and 1000 m above sea level, with rainfall between 550 and 1000 mm a year.

Dry Sclerophyll Forest is an ecosystem with relatively small, and often crooked, spreading trees, usually less than 25 m tall, over a normally sparse understorey of wattles and small-leafed shrubs, and a dense and species-rich ground cover of grasses and small herbs. The tree canopy is usually a mixture of stringybarks (commonly Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha), Messmate (E. obliqua) and White Stringybark (E. globoidea)), boxes (commonly Red Box (E. polyanthemos) and Long-leaf Box (E. goniocalyx)), peppermints (commonly Narrow-leaf Peppermint (E. radiata) and Broad-leaf Peppermint (E. dives)), and gum-barked species (commonly Manna Gum (E. viminalis), Mountain Grey-gum (E. cypellocarpa) and Yellow Box (E. melliodora)). The composition of the canopy varies from place to place, and sometimes according to the history of forest use, but in any area of forest there are seldom fewer than five eucalypt species.

The warmer, drier habitats and the open canopy of this ecosystem, with much sunlight penetration to the ground layer, often with thick grasses and litter, supports a wide range of reptiles able to utilise the variety of milder and more open microhabitats. Small basking skinks are obvious on the ground layer, with species such as the Garden Skink (Lampropholis guichenoti), Boulenger’s Skink (Morethia boulengeri) and Southern Rainbow Skink (Carlia tetradactyla) often using superficial shelter sites, while in moister litter the cryptic Three-toed Skinks (Hemiergis decresiensis and H. talbingoensis) may be found. Associated with rocky areas are the medium-sized striped skinks (Ctenotus spaldingi and C. taeniolatus), and occurring patchily is White’s Skink (Liopholis whitii). Widespread is the semi-arboreal Tree Dragon (Amphibolurus muricatus), often seen on low timber, while the large Tree Goanna (Varanus varius) is an adept climber. In northern areas, the nocturnal Marbled Gecko (Christinus marmoratus) utilises crevices under bark and rocks, and the Olive Legless Lizard (Delma inornata) slithers among thick grasses, while Gray’s Blind Snake (Anilios nigrescens) feeds upon ants in their subterranean galleries. The Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) takes advantage of the abundant reptile prey, as do the small, cryptic Small-eyed Snake (Cryptophis nigrescens) and Dwyer’s Snake (Parasuta dwyeri).

Dry Sclerophyll Forest ecosystem

Dry Sclerophyll Forest distribution

Riparian Forest

Riparian Forest is found in narrow strips along the sheltered banks of rivers over a wide elevation range, mostly between 100 and 1300 m above sea level, with rainfall between 800 and 1500 mm a year. In most areas, Riparian Forest is bordered by Damp Sclerophyll Forest or Dry Sclerophyll Forest ecosystems.

Riparian Forest is characterised by tall, straight trees, most commonly Manna Gum (Eucalyptus viminalis) but often replaced or associated with Narrow-leaf Peppermint (E. radiata), Mountain Grey-gum (E. cypellocarpa) or River Peppermint (E. elata) in eastern Victoria. The understorey consists of climbers, broad-leafed and narrow-leafed shrubs, ferns (including tree ferns), scrambling grasses and soft-leafed herbs.

The relatively dense nature of the canopy and tall shrubs of Riparian Forest often restricts the opportunities for reptiles to utilise this ecosystem, with those able to tolerate a cool, moist ground layer, such as Coventry’s Skink (Carinascincus coventryi) and McCoy’s Skink (Anepischetosia maccoyi) occurring patchily in the litter. In those lowland areas where there is a sparser overstorey, the Swamp Skink (Lissolepis coventryi) may utilise the thick, moist ground and low shrub microhabitats. Often, species more common in adjacent ecosystems may be present here. However, the stream itself often provides an opening in the canopy, and in warmer, sunlit areas streamsides and instream rocks can be used by the specialist semi-aquatic Gippsland Water Dragon (Intellagama lesueurii howittii), and by the more widespread Yellow-bellied Water Skink (Eulamprus heatwolei).

Riparian Forest ecosystem

Riparian Forest distribution

Rainforest

Rainforest is dominated by a dense canopy of non-eucalypt tree species with an understorey of climbers (which often climb well into the canopy and become part of it), broad-leafed shrubs, tree ferns, epiphytic ferns, ground ferns and small soft-leafed herbs. It is found on deep loamy soils of sheltered gullies at elevations ranging from ~200–1200 m above sea level and rainfalls between 800 and 1500 mm a year. There are two basic types of Rainforest in Victoria: Cool Temperate Rainforest, and Warm Temperate Rainforest.

Cool Temperate Rainforest is found in sheltered hills at higher elevations (700–1200 m) with higher rainfall (1100–1500 mm) and lower temperatures, in gullies surrounded by Wet Sclerophyll Forest. Its principal tree species is Myrtle Beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) in central and western Victoria, and Black Oliveberry (Elaeocarpus holopetalus) in the east, with Southern Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) and Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) commonly co-dominants in all areas. Mountain Ash (Eucalyptus regnans) is often present as an emergent, tall tree along the margins.

Warm Temperate Rainforest is found in eastern Victoria along steep creeklines at lower elevations (200–1000 m) with lower rainfall (700–1100 mm) and higher temperatures, in gullies surrounded by Damp Sclerophyll Forest. Its principal tree species is the broad-leafed Lilly Pilly (Syzygium smithii) with Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) as a common co-dominant.

The Cool Temperate Rainforest ecosystem in Victoria is often too dense, dark and cold to provide habitats for many reptiles, with only those few capable of exploiting the cool, wet conditions of the forest floor found here. Species occurring in Wet Sclerophyll Forest habitats may be present, such as McCoy’s Skink (Anepischetosia maccoyi). In Warm Temperate Rainforest, other species preferring moist habitats may also be present, such as the Weasel Skink (Saproscincus mustelinus) living within rotting timber.

Cool Temperate Rainforest ecosystem

Rainforest distribution

Box-Ironbark Forest

Box-Ironbark Forest is found on flat to undulating landscapes on rocky, auriferous (gold-bearing) soils, mainly in central Victoria. The elevation range is generally between 150 and 600 m above sea level and the rainfall varies from 500 to 800 mm a year. About 55% of all Box-Ironbark Forest has been permanently cleared for agriculture, urban development or mining. In most areas Box-Ironbark Forest is bordered by Dry Sclerophyll Forest, Red Gum or Grassland ecosystems.

Box-Ironbark Forest is characterised by a dense to sparse canopy of box, ironbark and gum-barked eucalypts to 25 m tall, over a sparse understorey of wattles and small-leafed shrubs, small and prostrate shrubs, and annual and perennial herbs and grasses. The principal trees are Grey Box (Eucalyptus microcarpa), Red Box (E. polyanthemos), with Red Ironbark (E. tricarpa) in the west and south or Mugga Ironbark (E. sideroxylon) in the north-east, Yellow Gum (E. leucoxylon) and Red Stringybark (E. macrorhyncha). In some areas these are replaced by or grow in association with Yellow Box (E. melliodora), White Box (E. albens), Long-leaf Box (E. goniocalyx) or Silver Bundy (E. nortonii).

Occurring mainly in drier areas of central northern Victoria, often on skeletal soils, the Box-Ironbark Forest ecosystem supports a variety of microhabitats for reptile species. The generally sparse canopy and shrub layers allow plentiful sunlight and warmth to the ground