A History of China
By Anne Davison
()
About this ebook
Napoleon Bonaparte, when referring to China, famously said; “China is a sleeping giant. Let her sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world.” His words were prophetic. For centuries China slumbered. Then, about forty years ago she woke up and since that time has risen to become the world’s second largest economy by GDP with the world’s greatest purchasing power.
This book tells of China’s turbulent past. It is a story of famine and flood, invasion and occupation, revolution and renewal, world war and civil war.
Starting with the pre-historical Yellow Emperor, the earlier chapters trace the origins of the Great Wall, the discovery of the Terracotta Warriors and the opening up of the ancient Silk Road. Later chapters include the arrival of Buddhism, the period under the Mongol rule of Kublai Khan as well as the refinement of porcelain and the opening up of trade with the West under the Ming dynasty.
The final chapters cover the opium wars and the ‘hundred years of humiliation’ that led to the fall of the Qing dynasty. This is followed by the Republican era, Civil War and the arrival of Communism. The Epilogue looks at how China has succeeded in combining socialism with a market economy that has resulted in a dynamic and exciting country.
As with other books in the ‘In Brief’ series, this book is aimed at the general reader who wants to understand a particular historical topic but does not have the time or inclination to read a heavy academic tome. With this mind, footnotes have been omitted.
While there will inevitably be gaps in a book of this size, the intention is to cover the most significant events that moulded China’s history. Should the reader be inspired to further reading on the subject, a small selection of the main works that have been consulted is provided at the end.
Where possible, maps and charts are provided which should help the reader navigate through the text. A ‘Who’s Who and What’s What’ is included at the end.
Anne Davison
Canon Doctor Anne Davison has had a lifelong interest in history and the religions of the world. Her journey into understanding other cultures began in her early 20s when she lived in Lagos, Nigeria. Later, a job with British Airways gave her the chance to travel the world more widely.When she became aware of a global increase in religious intolerance she felt the need to better understand our world, past and present. She was particularly interested in how ‘religion’ interacts with politics. This led her to study for a Degree in History and Comparative religion, followed by a PhD in inter religious relations.Whilst living in Switzerland in the 1990s Anne took on the role of Vice Moderator of the World Council of Churches in Geneva, before moving back to London to work with the Church of England as an Adviser in Inter Religious Relations.In addition to organising pilgrim groups to Israel and Lebanon, Anne co-ordinated a Youth Exchange Programme for 16 to 18 year- old Jews, Christians and Muslims between Jerusalem and East London. In recognition of her work in inter-religious relations Anne was made a Lay Canon of the Church of England.Since retiring from the Church of England she has lectured on many cruise ships and in the UK for the Arts SocietyIt was in response to people asking for her lecture notes, that in 2013 Anne decided to write her first book: From the Medes to the Mullah: A History of Iran. She has just published her ninth book on A History of China.She remains convinced that many of the problems facing the world today are the result of an ignorance that can lead to intolerance at best and hatred at worst.She firmly believes that one way to combat this ignorance is to promote a better understanding of our diverse world. Anne likes to think that by offering lectures and writing short, accessible books, she is playing her part in a small way.
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A History of China - Anne Davison
A History of
CHINA
‘In Brief’: Books for Busy People
by Anne Davison
Copyright2019 Anne Davison
Smashwords Edition
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Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author
Cover Design by Karen Turner
OTHER BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR
A History of Central Asia
A History of Russia
Abraham’s Children: Jew, Christian, Muslim; Commonality and Conflict
From the Medes to the Mullahs: a History of Iran
Making Sense of Militant Islam
Paul of Tarsus: a First Century Radical
The Holy Roman Empire: Power Politics Papacy
The Mughal Empire
The Ottoman Empire
http://www.inbriefbooks.com
*****
CONTENTS
Preface
Chapter One: Ancient Period
Chapter Two: Early Dynasties
Chapter Three: The Tang
Chapter Four: The Mongols
Chapter Five: The Ming
Chapter Six: The Manchu Conquest
Chapter Seven: The Last Empire
Chapter Eight: Republican China
Chapter Nine: Communist China
Epilogue
Who’s Who and What’s What
Works Referred to
About the Author
MAPS
Map of China
The Five Deities
Battle of Banquan
The Five Emperors/First Dynasties
The Shang Dynasty
The Seven Warring States
The Xiongnu Empire
Emperor Gaozu
The Three Kingdoms
Major Chinese Empires
Spread of Buddhism
Tang Dynasty Family Tree
Tang Empire
Genghis Khan Family Tree
Mongol Empire
Qing Period Key Dates
Qing Family Tree
Republican China Key Dates
Communist China Key Dates
PREFACE
Napoleon Bonaparte, when referring to China, famously said; "China is a sleeping giant. Let her sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world." His words were prophetic. For centuries China slumbered. Then, about forty years ago she woke up and since that time has risen to become the world’s second largest economy by GDP, with the world’s greatest purchasing power.
This book tells the story of China’s long history. To attempt this in under 200 pages is admittedly ambitious. But this is the aim. In common with other titles in the ‘In Brief’ series, the book is written for the general reader who does not have the time, or inclination, to read a heavy academic tome. It gives an overview of China’s complex history in an accessible and informative style, with maps, charts and timelines to help the reader navigate through the text.
Starting with the pre-historical Yellow Emperor, the earlier chapters trace China’s major dynasties, including the Han, Tang and Ming. Twice during its long history, the country was ruled by non-Chinese dynasties: the Mongol Yuan between the 13th and 14th Centuries and the Manchu Qing, the last of the imperial dynasties, that ruled between the 17th and 20th Centuries. The later chapters cover the decline and fall of the Qing, the Republican era and finally Communist China.
Writing any history book is heavily dependent upon available sources. There are very few written records for the earlier period and they are not necessarily reliable. Very often the manuscripts have been written decades after the events occurred. Also, scholars have argued that facts have been inserted into the original text, perhaps for political reasons. This was particularly true during the earlier centuries of Imperial China when court historians were commissioned to write an ‘official’ history that generally portrayed the commissioning Emperor in a favourable light compared to the preceding ruler.
Unfortunately, some of the early written records of China’s history have been lost or destroyed. In about 200 BC, the first Emperor of the Qin Dynasty is said to have ordered the burning of ‘undesirable’ books and as late as the Cultural Revolution, between 1966 and 1976, certain historical books were banned and often destroyed.
An added disadvantage for this particular author is that while there is a wealth of material written for the Chinese reader, very little of the early material has been translated into English. However, with modern technology, we now have tools other than the written word. For example, with the help of drones and special cameras, we now have other tools for discovering the past. Of course, what we see, often on our television screens, is still open to interpretation by the ‘experts’, be they guides, academics or TV presenters.
Today we are overwhelmed with information. This presents a different challenge. We have to sift through vast amounts of material, much of which may be suspect. In today’s world of ‘fake news’, much of this may well be ‘fake history’.
In writing this book, my aim has been to use reliable sources wherever possible. Equally I hope that I have pointed out the need for a critical reading. For clarification, I have used BC and AD for the first two chapters. Thereafter, AD has been dropped unless needed.
An added confusion can arise with place names. For example, today’s Beijing was known as Khanbaliq in the Mongol Yuan period (1271-1368) and Peking at the time of the Qing (1644-1912). And today’s Xi’an was known as Chang’an during the Tang Dynasty (618-907).
While there will inevitably be gaps in a work of this size, it is hoped that the reader may be inspired to further reading on the subject. For those interested, a short selection of the main works that have been consulted is provided at the back.
Finally, I would like to thank those friends and colleagues who have given of their time to read through various chapters, to proof read the script, as well as to offer helpful comments.
*****
CHAPTER ONE
Ancient Period: 2698-256 BC
China, with thousands of years of continuous history, is one of the oldest civilisations in the world and is regarded as a cradle of civilisation. A well-known example of its early habitation is the discovery in 1923 of skeletal bones and stone tools near Beijing. These remains are estimated to be between 680,000 and 780,000 years old. In 1923, at the time of the discovery, Beijing was known as Peking, hence the find became known as Peking Man.
Carbon dating provides evidence of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River region as far back as 8,000 years and cliff carvings from the same period show scenes of hunting and fishing as well as a possible form of early writing. Archaeologists have also discovered remains of buildings and pottery along the Yellow River basin, which suggests that settlements existed as far back as 5,000 BC.
Ancient Texts
The first written records of Chinese history date back to around 300 BC in the form of chronicles that were recorded on bamboo or wooden panels. These panels were then bound together in bundles of about thirty. The best-known texts are the Bamboo Annals and the Records of the Grand Historian.
Although the Bamboo Annals were not written until around 300 BC, the author starts his history many centuries earlier with the legendary Yellow Emperor, who was said to have ruled between 2698 and 2598 BC. Since there were no written records going back so far, the author relied on oral folklore and myth. Consequently, the line between fact and fiction for this early period of history is blurred.
The Bamboo Annals relate the history of dynasties and events up to 299 BC, which was during the time of the Zhou Dynasty. The original text was buried with King Xiang of Wei in 296 BC. Over five centuries later, in 279AD, fragments of the Annals were discovered after a robber broke into the King’s tomb.
Today there are two versions of the Annals: an ‘ancient text’ that has been pieced together from the original text, and a ‘current text’ that was compiled in the 16th Century. Since that time, there has been ongoing debate regarding the authenticity of the ‘current text’. The majority view tends towards the reliability of the earlier version over the ‘current text’.
The Records of the Grand Historian, also known as Shiji, was started around 150 BC by Sima Tan, who was Court Astrologer and historian at the time of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-9AD). The work was completed in 94 BC by his son, Sima Qian. In common with the Annals, the Records start with the Yellow Emperor, but the manuscript covers a longer period, going up to the reign of Emperor Wu (141-87 BC).
The manuscript, which was longer than the Old Testament, was gathered into about 600 bamboo bundles. Consequently, they were heavy, making their circulation difficult. Writing on silk was possible at the time, but it was expensive. It was around this time that the Chinese began experimenting in the papermaking process and would eventually lead the way in the manufacture of paper.
The Records comprised 130 chapters, divided into five sections. Topics included accounts of the ancient rulers and dynasties, genealogical tables and treaties on ritual, music, astronomy, waterways and financial administration.
As Court Historians, both Sima Qian and his father had access to vast libraries. Qian also travelled extensively, asking ordinary people about their lives, experiences and especially memories of past events. A feature of ancient Chinese history is that the authors did not aim to provide an uninterrupted chronology. Rather, historians wrote about separate dynasties and events as distinct units. Consequently, there was a degree of overlap.
The earliest extant version of the Records, which was handwritten, dates back to around 450. Two copies have survived, both of which are held in libraries in Japan. Later versions were block printed and included commentaries.
The Records is considered to be the foundational text of Chinese history and has been in almost continuous publication since its inception. A recent version was published by the Zhonghua Book Company in Beijing, a company that specialises in the Twenty-Four Histories, which are China’s official historical books.
The Yellow Emperor: c 2697-2597 BC
Sima Qian, author of the Records, began his chronicle with the period of the Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch, or Yellow God. His Chinese name is Huang di and he is said to have lived from 2697 BC to 2597 BC. Given these dates, it is not surprising that there has been ongoing debate over his historicity.
According to Chinese tradition, the Yellow Emperor was among the group of ancient deities, or god-kings, known as ‘The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors’.
The role of the Three Sovereigns was to care for the people and promote their welfare, education and training. It is claimed that the Sovereigns taught the people how to use fire, to build houses and farm land. They introduced medicine, the calendar and writing. The Yellow Emperor’s wife is said to have introduced the production of silk.
The five Emperors, also referred to as the Five Deities, were five different manifestations of the one supreme god of heaven who resided in the North Celestial Pole. Each Deity was associated with a different colour, season, mineral and planet.
The Yellow Emperor was associated with the colour yellow and his planet was Saturn. Unlike the other Emperors, the Yellow Emperor did not represent a particular season. In Chinese theology, he holds the central position. He is said to have been the initiator of Chinese civilisation and crucially, the ancestor of the Han Chinese people.
Throughout most of early Chinese history, the Yellow Emperor was believed to have been a historical person. In common with divine figures of other cultures, he had a miraculous birth. According to tradition, his mother conceived after being hit by a bolt of lightning from the celestial Big Dipper.
During the 1920s, a group of academics known as the ‘Doubting Antiquity School’ questioned the historicity of the Yellow Emperor. The scholars were critical of all the ancient histories that were based on folklore and myth. In the case of the Yellow Emperor, the 1920s scholars postulated that he was originally a god who was later historicised.
Whatever the truth may be regarding the origins of the Yellow Emperor, his significance in Chinese culture has been profound. Towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), when China was facing instability and looking to rediscover her glorious past, the Yellow Emperor once more became a powerful national symbol.
With the collapse of the Qing Dynasty the Cult of the Yellow Emperor was suppressed by the new Republican Government. However, following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, the ancient Emperor/Deity was once more reinstated as the cultural ancestor of the Chinese people.
Battle of Banquan c 2500 BC
According to Sima Qian, author of the Records of the Grand Historian, (Shiji), a great battle took place between the Yellow Emperor (Huang di) of the Youxiong Tribe and the Flame Emperor (Yan di), of the Shennong Tribe.
Considered to be the first battle in Chinese history, both the location and date has been disputed. Most historians, however, have placed the battle in the 26th Century BC and the likely location being a plateau west of the Taihang Mountains, a range that runs from north to south through today’s Shanxi, Henan and Hebei provinces.
The Yellow Emperor defeated the forces of the Flame Emperor, who sued for peace. The Shennong and Youxiong Tribes then amalgamated and became known as the Hanhuang Tribe. Led by the Yellow Emperor, this new alliance began a process of expansion, incorporating surrounding towns and villages into Hanhuang territory.
The alliance of the Shennong and Youxiong under the Yellow Emperor marked the beginning of the Huaxia civilisation. To this day, the Chinese people refer to themselves as ‘descendants of Yan and Huang’.
The Great Flood
According to the Records, another event of significance in ancient Chinese history, was the Great Flood, which is thought to have occurred in the 3rd millennium BC, during the