The big picture

Aloms can join or 'bond' logelher. The purpose is lo gain an ouler shell ol
eleclrons like lhe noble gas aloms have, because lhal is a slable arrangemenl.
There are lhree lypes ol bonding. covalenl, ionic, and melallic.
The bonded aloms lorm a regular slruclure or lallice, in lhe solid slale.
The properlies ol a subslance are inluenced by bolh bonding and slruclure.
Bonding and structure
4
Bonding and structure
Elements, compounds and mixtures
Substance What is in it? Example
elemenl conlains only one lype ol alom.
compound conlains more lhan one lype ol alom,
held logelher by chemical bonds.

lhe aloms are always bonded in

lhe same ralio

you cannol separale lhem by

physical means.

mixlure can conlain any number ol dillerenl
subslances, in any ralio.

lhe subslances are jusl mixed, and

not joined by chemical bonds.

you can separale lhem using one ol

lhe separalion melhods in Seclion 2.
.
Atoms and ions
Aloms and ions are closely relaled. Whal is lhe dillerence belween lhem?
Atoms
conlain equal numbers ol prolons and
eleclrons, so have no charge.
Ions
are aloms or group ol aloms lhal carry a charge, because lhey have gained or losl
eleclrons.
Examples of atoms
A sodium atom has !! prolons and !!
eleclrons, so ils charge is.
lrom lhe prolons !!+
lrom lhe eleclrons !!
lolal 0
A chlorine atom has !7 prolons and
!7 eleclrons, so ils charge is.
lrom lhe prolons !7+
lrom lhe eleclrons !7
lolal 0
Example of a positive ion
A sodium ion is a sodium alom lhal
has lost an eleclron, so ils charge is.
lrom lhe prolons !!+
lrom lhe eleclrons !0
lolal !+
We show il as Na
+
.
ll is called a posilive ion because
il has a posilive charge.
Example of a negative ion
A chloride ion is a chlorine alom lhal
has gained an eleclron, so ils charge is.
lrom lhe prolons !7+
lrom lhe eleclrons !8
lolal !
We show il as Cl

.
ll is called a negalive ion because il has
a negalive charge.
C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C
O
O C
O
O
C
O
O
C O O
C
O
O
mixture of
salt and
sand
lhe elemenl carbon conlains
only carbon aloms
in lhe compound carbon dioxide,
each carbon alom is always
bonded lo lwo oxygen aloms
you can mix any amounls ol
sall and sand, and separale
lhem by adding waler lo
dissolve lhe sall, lhen lllering
4.1 First, a review of some basic ideas
22
Metals and non-metals
There are over !00 elemenls. They are all dillerenl. 8ul lhey can be divided inlo lwo groups.
metals and non-metals. As you will see laler, lhe dillerences belween lhe lwo groups are
due lo dillerences in bonding and slruclure.
Metals Non-metals
readily conducl eleclricily and heal do nol conducl eleclricily or heal
are moslly malleable (can be hammered inlo shape) and
duclile (can be drawn inlo wires)
are usually brillle when solid lhey break up when lhey are
hammered
lend lo be shiny look dull, when solid
lend lo have high densily (lhey are heavy) have low densily
usually have high melling poinls have low melling poinls (many are gases al room lemperalure)
lorm posilive ions, in reaclions when lhey lorm ions, lhese are negalive (excepl lor H
+
)
usually lorm basic oxides (see page 88) usually lorm acidic oxides (see page 88)
Some exceptions
The melal mercury is a liquid al room lemperalure.
Some melals, such as sodium and polassium, have low densily and low boiling poinls.
Hydrogen is a non-melal, bul il lorms posilive ions, H
+
.
Diamond and graphile are lwo lorms ol carbon, a non-melal. Craphile is a soll greasy
solid, and a good conduclor ol eleclricily. Diamond is very hard, wilh a very high
melling poinl. Craphile and diamond have special slruclures, as you will see laler.
Metals and alloys
Melals are elements so lhey conlain
only one lype ol alom.
Alloys are mixtures, where al leasl one
olher subslance is added lo lhe melal.
The added subslances in alloys can be olher melals, or non-melals such as carbon.
They are chosen lo improve on cerlain properlies ol a melal, and make il more uselul.
Examples of alloys
Alloy What is in it, and typical % Special properties Uses
brass copper 70
zinc 30
much harder lhan copper, and unlike
copper il does nol corrode
musical inslrumenls, ornamenls,
door knobs and olher lllings
slainless sleel iron 70
chromium 20
nickel !0
unlike iron, il does nol corrode car parls, kilchen sinks, cullery,
lanks in chemical laclories
Quick check for 4.1 (Answers start on page 164)
1 Why is iron sullde (leS) classed as a compound?
2 Cive lhree ways in which iron sullde dillers lrom a mixlure ol iron and sullur.
3 lron is a melal, and sullur is a non-melal. Cive lhree ways in which you expecl
lhem lo behave dillerenlly.
4 lron rusls (corrodes) easily. How would you improve on ils properlies?
Bonding and structure 4
23
8onding is aboul how aloms are joined logelher.
Slruclure is aboul how lhe bonded aloms are arranged.
Bonding
There are lhree lypes ol bonding. covalenl, ionic and melallic.
Type of bonding covalent ionic metallic
Description eleclrons are shared belween
aloms
eleclrons are lranslerred
lrom one alom lo anolher,
lorming ions
a lallice ol posilive ions in a
sea ol eleclrons
What kinds of atoms bond
together in this way?
non-melal aloms.

ol lhe same elemenl, or

ol dillerenl elemenls,
giving compounds
melal aloms bond wilh
non-melal aloms, lo give
compounds

only melal aloms

lhey are usually aloms ol

lhe same melal

bul an alloy has aloms ol

dillerenl melals
What holds the atoms
together?
lhe bonds crealed by sharing
eleclrons
lhe allraclion belween ions
ol opposile charge
lhe allraclion belween lhe
posilive ions and lhe eleclrons
Why do atoms bond?
Aloms bond lo olher aloms in order lo gain lhe same arrangemenl ol ouler-shell eleclrons
as a noble gas alom because lhal is a slable arrangemenl. (See page !9.)
Structure
ln lhe solid slale, lhe parlicles lorm a regular arrangemenl called a lattice.
There are lwo lypes ol slruclure.
Structure simple molecular giant
Description lhe lallice is buill up ol millions ol
separale small molecules
lhe lallice is buill up ol millions ol parlicles,
which can be.

posilive and negalive ions, joined by

ionic bonds, or

melal ions in a sea ol eleclrons, joined by

melallic bonds, or

non-melal aloms joined by covalenl bonds

Example in iodine (l
2
) lhe lallice is made up ol iodine
molecules, each conlaining lwo aloms
in sodium chloride (NaCl) lhe lallice is made
up ol sodium and chloride ions
What holds the structure
together?
slrong covalenl bonds wilhin molecules,
bul weak lorces belween molecules
parlicles held logelher by a nelwork ol slrong
bonds
One result of this
structure
lhe solid has a low melling poinl, since il
does nol lake much heal energy lo break
up lhe lallice lo lorm a liquid
lhe solid usually has a high melling poinl,
since il lakes a greal deal ol heal energy lo
break lhe bonds in lhe lallice
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Quick check for 4.2 (Answers on page 165)
1 Lxplain lhe dillerence belween bonding and structure.
2 Whal is lhe main dillerence belween an ionic bond and a covalenl bond?
3 Whal is a lattice?
4 Cive anolher name lor a small group ol aloms joined by covalenl bonds.
5 Using inlormalion given above, describe lhe bonding in silver.
4.2 An overview of bonding and structure
Remember
Outer shells of noble gas atoms:
helium - 2 electrons
neon 8 electrons
argon 8 electrons
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry
24
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
lonic bonds lorm only belween melal and non-melal aloms.
Lleclrons are lranslerred lrom lhe melal alom lo lhe non-melal alom, lo give ions ol
opposile charge.
The ions are slable, because lhey have lhe same arrangemenl ol ouler-shell eleclrons
as a noble gas alom does.
The ions are lhen allracled lo each olher. (Opposile charges allracl.)
Examples of ionic bonding
Sodium chloride
A sodium alom lranslers ils ouler eleclron lo a chlorine alom, giving a posilive sodium ion
and a negalive chloride ion. These ions are slable because lhey have 8 eleclrons in lheir
ouler shells, like neon and argon aloms.
Na
1 electron
transfers
sodium atom chlorine atom sodium ion, Na
+
chloride ion, Cl

giving
[2,8]
+
stable ion
[2,8,8]

stable ion
and 2,8,1 2,8,7
+
Na Cl Cl Na
The bonding is lhe same in any compound lormed belween an alkali melal (Croup l) and a
halogen (Croup Vll). lor example in lilhium bromide (Li8r), and polassium iodide (Kl).
The structure of sodium chloride
Millions ol ions group logelher lo lorm a lallice. The lallice is a regular arrangemenl
ol allernaling posilive and negalive ions. They are held logelher by lhe slrong ionic
bonds belween ions ol opposile charge.
sodium ion, Na
+
chloride ion, Cl

Magnesium oxide
two electrons transfer
magnesium atom oxygen atom magnesium ion, Mg
2+
oxide ion, O
2

giving
[2,8]
2+
[2,8]
2

and 2,8,2 2,6

2+ 2
Mg Mg O O
Bonding: lhe allraclion belween posilive magnesium ions and negalive oxide ions.
Structure: a lallice conlaining equal numbers ol magnesium and oxide ions.
4.3 Ionic bonding
Bonding and structure 4
25
Magnesium chloride
magnesium atom
2 chlorine atoms
2,8,2
each 2,8,7
2 electrons
transfer
magnesium
ion, Mg
2
+
two chloride ions, Cl

giving
[2,8]
2
+
each [2,8,8]

2+

Mg
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Mg
Cl
Cl
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Bonding: allraclion belween posilive magnesium ions and negalive chloride ions.
Structure: a lallice conlaining lwice as many chloride ions as magnesium ions.
The properties of ionic compounds
They have high melling and boiling poinls, because lhe bonds belween ions are slrong.
They conducl eleclricily when melled or dissolved in waler, because lhe charged ions
are lhen lree lo move.
They are usually soluble in waler.
Writing the formula for an ionic compound
An ionic compound has no overall charge.
So lhe lolal posilive charge musl balance lhe lolal negalive charge.
So you adjusl lhe number ol ions in lhe lormula, unlil lhe lolal charges on lhem balance.
Examples
Ionic compound positive ion negative ion balancing their charges so the formula is
magnesium oxide Mg
2+
O
2
lhey are balanced (2
+
and 2

) MgO
magnesium chloride Mg
2+
Cl

lwo Cl

ions are needed lo

balance one Mg
2+
ion
MgCl
2
sodium oxide Na
+
O
2
lwo Na
+
ions are needed lo
balance one O
2
ion
Na
2
O
aluminium hydroxide Al
3+
OH

lhree OH

ions are needed lo

balance one Al
3+
ion
Al(OH)
3
calcium nilrale Ca
2+
NO
3

lwo NO
3

ions are needed lo

balance one Ca
2+
ion
Ca(NO
3
)
2
Look al lhe lasl lwo lormulae above. They show how lo use brackels, il lhere is more lhan
one unil ol lhe compound ion. (A compound ion conlains aloms ol dillerenl elemenls.)
Quick check for 4.3 (Answers on page 165)
1 Lxplain how a sodium alom becomes a sodium ion, and why.
2 Draw a diagram lo show lhe eleclron lransler when a lilhium alom reacls wilh
a luorine alom.
3 Describe lhe slruclure ol a solid ionic compound.
4 Draw a diagram lo show lhe ionic bond lormed belween.
a calcium and oxygen aloms b calcium and chlorine aloms
5 Wrile lhe lormula lor. a sodium hydroxide b aluminium chloride
c magnesium hydroxide
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry
26
4.4 Covalent bonding: simple molecules
Covalenl bonds are lormed when aloms share eleclrons.
They are lormed.

belween lhe aloms in a non-melal elemenl

belween aloms ol dillerenl non-melals, lo give a compound.

The purpose is lo gain lhe same arrangemenl ol ouler-shell eleclrons as a noble
gas alom because lhal is a slable arrangemenl.
The bonded aloms lorm a unil called a molecule.
The molecules can be simple molecules wilh a small number ol aloms, or gianl molecules
(macromolecules), wilh millions ol aloms. ln lhis seclion we concenlrale on lhe simple
molecules. Nole lhal in lhe drawings below, only lhe ouler eleclron shells are shown.
Molecular elements
Lel's look lrsl al lhe bonding in some non-melal elemenls.
Hydrogen
A hydrogen alom has ! eleclron, bul needs 2 lor a lull shell, like a helium alom has.
So each shares ils eleclron wilh anolher hydrogen alom, lo lorm a hydrogen molecule, H
2
.
The covalenl bond is lhe allraclion belween lhe posilive nuclei and lhe shared eleclrons.
H H H H
a shared pair of electrons
two hydrogen atoms a hydrogen molecule, H
2
Chlorine
A chlorine alom shares an ouler eleclron wilh anolher chlorine alom, lo lorm a chlorine
molecule, Cl
2
. Lach alom oblains an ouler shell ol 8 eleclrons, like an argon alom has.
two chlorine atoms a chlorine molecule, Cl
2
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Oxygen
An oxygen alom shares lwo ouler eleclrons wilh anolher oxygen alom, lo lorm an oxygen
molecule, O
2
. Lach alom oblains a lull ouler shell ol eleclrons (8), like a neon alom has.
Since lwo aloms are shared, lhe bond is called a double covalenl bond (O O).
O O
two oxygen atoms
O O
an oxygen molecule, O
2
two shared pairs of electrons
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Remember
Outer-shell electrons in
the noble gases:
helium 2 electrons (full shell)
neon 8 electrons (full shell)
argon 8 electrons
Bonding and structure 4
27
Nitrogen
A nilrogen alom shares lhree ouler eleclrons wilh anolher nilrogen alom lo lorm a nilrogen
molecule, N
2
. Lach alom oblains a lull ouler shell ol eleclrons (8), like a neon alom has.
Since lhree aloms are shared, lhe bond is called a triple covalenl bond (NzN).
two nitrogen atoms
N N N N
a nitrogen molecule, N
2
three shared pairs of electrons
Molecular compounds
ln a molecular compound, aloms share ouler eleclrons wilh dillerenl aloms lo lorm
molecules. Lach alom oblains an ouler shell ol eleclrons like a noble gas alom has.
(Hydrogen oblains 2, olhers 8.) Look al lhese examples.
Water, H
2
O Methane, CH
4
Hydrogen chloride, HCl
O
H H

C
H H
H H

Cl H

Their shapes
Pairs ol eleclrons repel each olher, so lhey lry lo gel as lar aparl as possible. Thal inluences
lhe shape ol lhe molecule. Here are models ol lhe lhree molecules above.
Water Methane Hydrogen chloride

The aloms are nol in a slraighl line
because all lhe eleclron pairs (shared
and unshared) repel each olher.
The lour pairs ol shared eleclrons have
moved as lar aparl as possible, giving a
lelrahedral shape.
Here lhere are only lwo aloms, so
only one possible shape. lhey lie in a
slraighl line.
More examples of molecular compounds
Ethene, C
2
H
4
Carbon dioxide, CO
2
Methanol, CH
3
OH
H H
H H
C C
O O C
C O H H
H
H
The molecule has a mix ol single and
double bonds. You can show il as.
The molecule has lwo double bonds.
You can show il as.
The molecule has lhree dillerenl lypes
ol alom. You can show il as.
C C
H H
H H O C O
C H O
H
H
H
C H
H
H
H
or, in a shorl way. or or
Cl H
H H
O
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Remember
If an atom has 4 electrons
in its outer shell, they are
not paired. But each extra electron
after that pairs up.
(Look at a nitrogen atom.)
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry
28
Structure of simple molecular substances
ln lhe solid, lhe molecules are arranged in a lallice. Look al lhe lorces holding il logelher.
strong covalent
bonds within
molecules
weak attraction
between
molecules
Properties of simple molecular substances
Subslances wilh a simple molecular slruclure.
have low melling and boiling poinls. This is because lhe inlermolecular lorces are
weak. ll does nol lake much heal energy lo break up lhe lallice, and separale lhe
parlicles lrom each olher. (Thal is why many molecular subslances are gases al room
lemperalure.)
do nol conducl eleclricily, because lhey have no charge.
are usually insoluble in waler, bul soluble in organic solvenls (lor example propanone).
Comparing ionic and molecular compounds
Molecular compounds (such as methane, CH
4
) Ionic compounds (such as sodium chloride, NaCl)
have low melling and boiling poinls, many are gases
or liquids al room lemperalure
have high melling and boiling poinls, so lhey are
solids al room lemperalure
evaporale readily lhey are volalile are nol volalile
do nol conducl eleclricily conducl eleclricily
are insoluble in waler, bul dissolve in organic solvenls are usually soluble in waler
Quick check for 4.4 (Answers on page 165)
1 Lxplain how lwo hydrogen aloms become a hydrogen molecule.
2 Why are molecules slable?
3 Draw a diagram lo show whal happens lo lhe eleclrons when carbon reacls
wilh chlorine lo lorm lelrachloromelhane, CCl
4
. (Show ouler-shell
eleclrons only.)
4 ll you cool hydrogen gas down enough, il will become a liquid, and lhen lreeze
lo a solid. Describe lhe slruclure ol lhis solid.
5 Molecular compounds evaporale easily lhey are volatile. Why is lhis?
6 Draw a diagram lo show lhe covalenl bonding in.
a carbon dioxide b nilrogen
7 Ammonia (NH
3
) is a covalenl compound. Draw a diagram lo show lhe bonding
in an ammonia molecule. (Show ouler eleclrons only.)
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Bonding and structure 4
29
Some subslances wilh covalenl bonding lorm macromolecules. A macromolecule is
a gianl slruclure (or lallice) ol millions ol aloms, all held logelher by covalenl bonds.
Carbon: a macromolecular element
Carbon is a non-melal. ll occurs in lwo lorms or allotropes. diamond and graphile.
8olh are macromolecular. Compare lhem.
Form diamond graphite
8onding A carbon alom shares all four ol ils ouler
eleclrons wilh olher carbon aloms, lo lorm
a lhree-dimensional lallice.
A carbon alom shares three ol ils ouler eleclrons wilh
olher carbon aloms, lo lorm a layer slruclure.
The lourlh eleclron exisls belween lhe layers and is lree
lo move (like eleclrons in melals see page 3!).
Cianl
slruclure
strong
covalent
bonds
Lach carbon alom lorms a tetrahedron wilh
lour olher carbon aloms.
weak
forces
strong
covalent
bonds
Lach carbon alom becomes parl ol a at hexagonal ring.
lorces All lhe covalenl bonds are idenlical, and slrong.
There are no weak lorces.
The covalenl bonds within lhe layers are slrong.
8ul lhe layers are held logelher by weak lorces.
Properlies very high melling poinl, because all lhe
bonds are slrong
very hard, lor lhe same reason
non-conduclor ol eleclricily, because
lhere are no eleclrons lree lo move
insoluble in waler
very high melling poinl, because lhe covalenl bonds
are slrong
soll and slippery, because lhe layers slide over each
olher easily
good conduclor ol eleclricily, because lhe 'lree'
eleclrons belween lhe layers can move
insoluble in waler
Uses culling lools
jewellery
lubricanl lor engines and locks
eleclrodes lor eleclrolysis in lhe lab and in induslry
Silicon dioxide: a macromolecular compound
Silicon dioxide, SiO
2
, is a macromolecular compound. ll occurs nalurally as sand and quarlz.
each oxygen alom lorms covalenl bonds wilh lwo silicon
aloms
each silicon alom lorms covalenl bonds wilh lour oxygen aloms
lhe silicon and oxygen aloms lorm a lelrahedron (like lhe
carbon aloms in diamond)
The bonds are slrong, as in diamond. So silicon dioxide has similar properlies lo diamond.

il has a very high melling poinl, and is very hard

il is a non-conduclor ol eleclricily, and insoluble in waler.

ll is used in sandpaper, and lo line lurnaces. (Since il occurs widely in nalure, il is cheap.)
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
4.5 Covalent bonding: macromolecules
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry
30
Quick check for 4.5 (Answers on page 165)
1 Whal holds lhe aloms logelher, in a macromolecule?
2 ln which ways are molecules and macromolecules.
a lhe same? b dillerenl?
3 Craphile is soll and slippery, and a good conduclor ol eleclricily. Lxplain why il
has lhese properlies.
4 Silicon dioxide has similar properlies lo diamond bul nol lo graphile.
Lxplain why.
Melallic bonds are lhe bonds belween melal aloms, in a melal or melal alloy.
The ouler eleclrons leave lhe melal aloms, giving melal ions wilh lull ouler shells.
lor example, in silver.

silver ion free electron
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
The ouler eleclrons lorm a sea ol lree eleclrons around lhe melal ions, in a gianl lallice.
(They are called 'lree' eleclrons because lhey can move around lreely.)
Melallic bonds are lhe resull ol lhe allraclion belween lhe posilive melal ions, and lhe
lree eleclrons.
Melallic bonds are slrong.
Explaining the properties of metals
This lable shows how lhe bonding and slruclure in melals accounl lor some ol lheir
properlies.
Properties of metals Reasons
They usually have high melling and boiling poinls. They lorm a gianl lallice, wilh slrong bonds.
They conducl eleclricily, when solid and melled. The 'lree' eleclrons carry lhe eleclric charge lhrough
lhe melal.
They are malleable. lhey can be readily benl,
pressed, or hammered inlo shape.
The layers ol aloms can slide over each olher, while
lhe lree eleclrons can also move (so lhe melallic
bond is nol broken).
They are duclile. lhey can be drawn inlo wires. Same reason as above.
Quick check for 4.6 (Answers on page 165)
1 Describe lhe melallic bond.
2 Whal lype ol slruclure does a melal have?
3 All melals are good conduclors ol eleclricily. Why?
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
4.6 Metallic bonding
Bonding and structure 4
31
Answers for these questions are on page 165.
Core curriculum
1 a Complele lhe diagram lo show lhe eleclronic slruclure ol waler.
show hydrogen eleclrons by o
show oxygen eleclrons by

O

H H
b The slruclure ol phosphorus lrioxide is shown below.

O O
P
O
O
O
O
P
P
P
Wrile lhe simplesl lormula lor phosphorus lrioxide.
CIE 0620 November '07 Paper 2 Q1
2 The slruclures ol some elemenls and compounds are shown below.
S S
S
S
S
S
S
S

C C
H H
H H

C H
H
H
H
A 8 C

Na
+
Na
+
Na
+
Cl

Cl

Na
+
Na
+
Cl

Cl

Cl

Na
+
Na
+
Na
+
Cl

Cl

Na
+
Na
+
Cl

Cl

Cl

Pb Pb Pb Pb Pb
Pb Pb Pb Pb
Pb Pb Pb Pb Pb
D L l
Answer lhese queslions using lhe lellers A lo l.
i Which slruclure is melhane?
ii Which slruclure conlains ions?
iii Which slruclure is a melal?
iv Which slruclure is sodium chloride?
v Which slruclure is diamond?
vi Which slruclure conlains a double covalenl bond?
vii Which three slruclures are elemenls? CIE 0620 June '07 Paper 2 Q1
Questions on section 4
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry
32
3 Carbon exisls in lwo lorms, graphile and diamond.

strong bonds
weak forces
graphite
= carbon atom
diamond
Use ideas aboul slruclure and bonding lo suggesl.
a why graphile is used as a lubricanl,
b why diamond is very hard. CIE 0620 November '07 Paper 3 Q6
Extended curriculum
1 The slruclural lormula ol carbonyl chloride is given below.

C
Cl
Cl
O
Draw a diagram lhal shows lhe arrangemenl ol lhe valency eleclrons in one molecule
ol lhis covalenl compound.
Use x lor an eleclron lrom a chlorine alom.
Use o lor an eleclron lrom a carbon alom.
Use w lor an eleclron lrom an oxygen alom. CIE 0620 June '08 Paper 3 Q2
2 Complele lhe lollowing lable.
Type of
structure
Particles present Electrical
conductivity
of solid
Electrical
conductivity of
liquid
Example
ionic posilive and negalive ions poor i............................ ii...........................
macromolecular aloms ol lwo dillerenl
elemenls in a gianl
covalenl slruclure
poor poor iii...........................
melallic iv...........................
and
v............................
good vi........................... copper
CIE 0620 June '07 Paper 3 Q2
3 Magnesium reacls wilh bromine lo lorm magnesium bromide.
a Magnesium bromide is an ionic compound. Draw a diagram lhal shows lhe
lormula ol lhe compound, lhe charges on lhe ions, and lhe arrangemenl ol ouler
eleclrons around lhe negalive ion.
The eleclron dislribulion ol a bromine alom is 2, 8, !8, 7.
Use x lo represenl an eleclron lrom a magnesium alom.
Use o lo represenl an eleclron lrom a bromine alom.
b ln lhe lallice ol magnesium bromide, lhe ralio ol magnesium ions lo bromide ions
is !.2.
i Lxplain lhe lerm lattice.
ii Lxplain why lhe ralio ol lhe ions is !.2. CIE 0620 November '07 Paper 3 Q3
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Bonding and structure 4
33