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3. Outline of drawings should be clear, clean and continuous to show that the specimen drawn is functional. It should not be sketchy.
4. The overall drawing should be accurate, proportional and two-dimensional. Shading of any portion of the drawing to show depth is not allowed but dots and slashes could be used if necessary.
5. Drawings should be labelled as far as possible and done outside the drawings. Different parts of the specimen are indicated by label lines which should not be seen crossing each other as shown below. All labelling should be done in pencil.
6. Magnification of drawings should also be estimated and stated. Size of drawing Magnification of drawing = (= for example, 3x) Actual size of specimen
Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2013
or Magnification of eyepiece Magnification of objective Size of drawing Magnification of drawing = Apparent size of specimen 7. In the case of microscopic specimens, two types of drawing can be done : (i) plan drawing which is done when observing the specimen under the low or medium power objective of the microscope to see the overview of the specimen. Outline of the specimen is drawn which may contain layers to indicate the distribution of various tissues without showing any cells (iii) detailed drawing which is usually done under medium or high power objective of the microscope. Every single type of cell is drawn accurately in structure, position and proportion to each other. A sector of cells can be drawn to represent the whole structure of the specimen if students have time constraint. In the case of plant cells, double lines can be used to show the thickness of the cell wall. Cells should not be drawn overlapping.
8. Drawings may be done on specimens sectioned transversely, vertically or obliquely, in which case the shape of a particular cell should be done accordingly.
(t.s)
A specimen is sectioned transversely or horizontally
(v.s)
A specimen is sectioned vertically
9. Drawings of specimen should be drawn as seen with the naked eyes or as observed under a hand lens or examined under the microscope. No extra details should be drawn out of students own imagination. 10. Orientation of the drawing should be done according to the position of the specimen. The specimen may be viewed from the anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral or lateral position. When a specimen is seen from the dorsal view, the left and right position of the student corresponds to that of the specimen. When a specimen is placed on its dorsal side and the ventral view of the specimen is observed; then the left and right position of the student is opposite to that of the specimen (see following diagram).
Dissection of a rat
scalpels
scissors
forceps
magnifying glass
B. Graph
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Graphs should be drawn to occupy almost the full page of the graph paper. A title must be given to the graph drawn. Usually, the title is written above the graph. Appropriate scales should be used and the units stated. Label the axes. All points should be accurately plotted according to the tabulated results. Draw the best line graph to pass through as many points as possible.
A graph showing the correlation between the oxygen produced and light intensity in Hydrilla sp.
7. All experimental results should be tabulated. For example, the results of a photosynthetic experiment can be tabulated as follows: Light intensity (arbitrary units) No. of oxygen bubbles produced First attempt Second attempt
One eye looking into the eyepiece and another looking at the ruler placed beside the microscope
Placing your two fingers against the ruler to estimate the apparent size
Estimating the apparent size of the observed specimen as seen under an objective power Estimating the apparent size of a specimen Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2013
3 cm (apparent size)
Euglena
Amoeba
Hydra
The dimension on each specimen indicates the apparent size of the specimen as seen under high power
Eye piece magnification = 10 x Objective lens magnification = 40 x Microorganism Apparent object size Size of drawing Magnification of the drawing Actual size Euglena 3 cm 6 cm 3/(10 40 ) = 75 m Amoeba 2 cm 4 cm 2/(10 40 ) = 50 m Hydra 4 cm 8 cm 4/(10 40 ) = 100 m
Diameter of low power field of view = 3200 m Magnification of high power objective lens = 40 x 1 The diameter of a high power field of view is of the diameter of a low power field of view = 4 3200 = 800 m 4 Number of cells length-wise First count Second count Third count Average 3 4 3 3 Number of cells width-wise 7 8 7 7
* The figures given in the above table are meant as examples and should not be taken as true information.
Diameter of microscopes field of view (high power) 800 Average length of one onion scale cell = = = 267 m Number of cells length-wise 3 Diameter of microscopes field of view 800 Average width of one onion scale cell = = = 114 m Number of cells width-wise 7
Magnification of drawing = 2 x
Magnification of drawing = 2 x
Magnification of drawing = 2 x
The hepatocytes in the liver produce bile which is secreted into the duodenum which helps to emulsify fats to facilitate the lipase enzyme in digesting it. The pancreas produces and secretes pancreatic juices which contain digestive enzymes such as amylase, trypsin and lipase to hydrolyse food substances.
There are 7 pairs of ribs found in the rat. When the ribcage is raised upwards and forwards, the volume of the ribcage increases, lowering the pressure inside. Air is forced into the lungs through the nostrils, trachea and other respiratory tubes. This is inhalation. During exhalation, the ribcage falls downwards and inwards due to gravity, decreasing its volume but increasing its pressure. Air is then forced out. The diaphragm is a membranous structure with peripheral elastic muscles radiating from the centre forming a dome covering the base portion of the airtight ribcage. During inspiration, the radial muscle of the diaphragm contracts, flattening its dome-shaped structure. This causes the volume of the ribcage to increase. During expiration, the radial muscle relaxes, returning the diaphragm to its dome-shaped structure and the volume of the ribcage returns to its smaller capacity.
The left lung consists of a single lobe whereas the right lung has 4 lobes. When examined under a hand lens, a cut lung tissue looks soft and spongy. There are many thin structures with air spaces and blood capillaries in it. The length of the trachea when measured from the larynx to the point where it branches into two bronchi is about 2.5 cm.
Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T) 2013
xiphoid cartilage
stemum
ribcage
Magnification of drawing = 2 x
Magnification of drawing = 2 x
right ventricle
left ventricle
Magnification of drawing = 2 x
bile duct
intralobular vein - a tributary of hepatic vein
sinusoid
hepatocytes
Kupffer cell
glomerulus
The liver is fed with three types of blood vessels namely the hepatic artery, the hepatic vein and the hepatic portal vein. The liver performs many functions; one of which is the production of bile. The bile produced contains many substances and salts, sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate which can emulsify fats, that is, the salts are able to break the fats or oil into smaller droplets and separate them permanently to facilitate digestion. These salts are not enzymes because they do not break down the fats chemically. After digestion, simple food substances are absorbed. After assimilation and metabolism, excretary products (by-products of cell metabolism) especially, ammonia needs to be removed from the body as it is toxic and changes the pH of the internal environment of the body.