• Memory- the persistence of learing over time through the storage and retrival of information

• Flashbuld memory- a clear memeory of aan emotionally significant moment of event

• Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system
• Storage- the retention of encoded information over time
• Retrieval- the process of getting information out of memory storage
• Sensory memory- the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
• Short-term memory- activated memory that holds few items briefly
• Long-term memory- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes
knowledge, skills, and experiences
• Working memory- a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and information retrieved from long-term memory
• Automatic processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and
of well-learned information, such as word meanings
• Effortful processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
• Rehersal0 the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
• Spacing effect- the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved
through cramming
• Serial position effect- our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
• Visual encoding- the encoding of picture images
• Acoustic encoding- the encoding of sound, especially the sound of waves
• Semantic encoding- the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
• Imagery- mental pictures
• Mnemonics- memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
• Chinking- organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
• Iconic memory- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting
no more than a few tenths of a second
• Echoic memory- a momentary stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with in 3 or
4 seconds
• Long-term potentiation (LTP)- an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after a brief, rapid stipulation
• Amnesia- the loss of memory
• Implicit memory- retention independent of conscious recollection (procedural memory)
• Explicit memory- memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (declarative
memory)
• Hippocampus- a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage
• Recall- a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
• Recognition- a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned
• Relearning- a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
• Priming- the activation, often unconsciously, of a particular associating in memory
• Déjá vu- that eerie sense of “I’ve experienced this before”
• Mood-congruent memory- the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad
mood
• Proactive interference- the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
• Retroactive interference- the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
• Repression- the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness, anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
• misinformation effect- incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
• source amnesia- attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or
imagined

Memory
I. Def of-
A. People
1. Ebbinghaus-did studies to find out what works best in remembering-found that learning meaningful info is
easier and that there is a forgetting curve; positive correlation between amount of time spent and amount
remembered
2. Kohler-coined the term “insight” or the aha experience-Sultan the chimp experiments

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 3. Tolman-father of the cognitive map principle
4. Loftus-misinformation effect
5. Tulving-3 types of memory-procedural, episodic, semantic
II. Information Processing-three steps:
A. Encoding-two types effortful and automatic (incidental information that you don’t even think about)
B. Storage-sensory; STM; LTM—gathering information and organizing it into a mental schemata to send it to memory
(file cabinet example)
C. Retrieval-pulling it back up—3 basic techniques-recall, recognition, and relearning
III. Types of Memory
A. Sensory memory-what we take in through our senses-just a sec or less-if you don’t send it to STM-quickly fades
The more senses you use the better to remember-semantic (attach a meaning); acoustic/echoic; iconic (especially if you
can make a mental picture-ex. nouns vs. verbs).
1. Selective attention-what we zoom into-cocktail party effect
2. Vision will win in a fight between the senses.
B. Short term memory-last about 15 secs. Sensory sends it here as “of possible interest”
1. Must be rehearsed or associated with something (cue dependent coding) to get it to LTM- ex. automobile
accident
2. Studies show we can hold about 7 items in STM-chucking can really help; hierarchy of related things.
C. Long term memory-practically unlimited in capacity.
1. Most memories are stored in more than one place-results in flashbulb memories.
2. Two memories systems in LTM that operate together.
a. Implicit memory-how to do something (cerebellum)
b. Explicit memory-declarative (words) memory (hippocampus)
IV. Retrieving Information
A. Memories can be mood congruent (whatever mood we are in tends to color the events.)--+/- attraction to a
particular teaching style can enhance learning.
B. De ja vu experiences-many similar context cues makes you think it has happened before.
C. Failure to retrieve information=forgetting
1. Interference
a. Proactive-new info isn’t easily stored because of what is already “in the folder”-new phone #,
driving in England
b. Retroactive-learning new info makes it hard to remember old info-your pre-school teacher’s
name, students I taught in 2000.
2. Positive transfer-not all new/old stuff interferes-some enhances—Latin to other languages, algebra II to
physics
A. Motivated forgetting
3. We tend to alter memories so they are better
4. Repression-a defense mechanism—bury things we don’t want to remember
5. State dependent forgetting-
a. smoking, caffeine, drugs
b. high anxiety (mood congruent)—stress hormones increase long term potentiation
c. place (in the desk, classroom, etc)
V. Mental Construction
A. Memories can sometimes be constructed to fit the mood or frame of mind we are in.
1. Loftus-misinformation effect-as memories fade, cues provided by a questioner can alter what people
think they saw or what happened—did lots of experiments on eye witness testimony. Many people
“remember things” that they don’t really remember based on what others have told us.
2. Confabulation
3. Best interviewers for eye witness testimony or in child abuse cases are those that do not ask direct
questions but instead try to reconstruct time of day, weather, etc. or ask for a demonstration of events on
a doll, etc.
4. Other tidbits of note:
a. Most psychologists consider memories prior to age 3 as unreliable=infantile amnesia
b. Memories recovered under hypnosis or with drugs tend to be unreliable
5. Source amnesia-choose not to remember things we don’t want to remember-nasty things we say to
friends or parents; tend to color them in our memories to make them more acceptable.
6. Memories tend to be colored by our attitudes of today-e.g. Ask a 25 year old their views on underage
drinking or what teens today are doing sexually….
VI. Improving Memory
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A. Concentration- remove all other stimuli
B. Organization- make chucks or hierarchies (outlines, flow charts)
C. Method of loci-visualization
D. Spacing effect-don’t cram study
E. Pegs, tunes, mnemonic techniques
F. Study in the recreation of the same state, mood, place, and setting.