When fluid moves downward through a solid bed no relative movement between particles takes place Unless the

initial orientation of solids is disturbed Pressure drop increases by increasing the rate of flow

When fluid moves upwards the solid bed; pressure drop is same for downward flow for low flow rates When frictional drag on the particles becomes equal to their weight (actual weight less than the buoyancy force)
the particles get rearranged and bed starts to expand

If velocity is increased further; particles separate from each other and are freely supported in the fluid Fluidised.

Further increase in the velocity causes the particles to separate still further from one another In practice, the transition from the fixed to the fluidised bed condition is not uniform mainly due to irregularities in the packing over a range of velocities, fixed and fluidised bed regions may co-exist.

with gases, surface-related forces give rise to the formation of conglomerates of particles through which there is a minimal flow Resultantly, much of the gas may pass through the bed in channels. Regions of the bed may remain in an unfluidised state even though the overall superficial velocity may be much higher than the minimum fluidising velocity.

At high fluid velocities, there is usually a fairly sharp distinction between the behaviour of the liquid and gaseous systems. With a liquid, the bed continues to expand as the velocity is increased and it maintains its uniform character, with the degree of agitation of the particles increasing progressively. This type of fluidisation is known as particulate fluidisation.

With a gas, however, uniform fluidisation is frequently obtained only at low velocities. At higher velocities two separate phases may forma continuous phase, or dense or emulsion phase; and a discontinuous phase known as the lean or bubble phase. The fluidisation is then said to be aggregative.

At much higher velocities, the bubbles tend to break downa feature that leads to a much more chaotic structure. closely resembles a boiling liquid, with the lean phase corresponding to the vapour and the dense or continuous phase corresponding to the liquid. The bed is then often referred to as a boiling bed, as opposed to the quiescent bed usually formed at low flowrates.

At high flowrates in deep beds, coalescence of the bubbles takes place, and in narrow vessels, slugs of gas occupying the whole cross-section may be produced. These slugs of gas alternate with slugs of fluidised solids that are carried upwards and subsequently collapse, releasing the solids which fall back.

Froude number (u2mf /gd) umf is the minimum velocity of flow, calculated over the whole cross-section of the bed, at which fluidisation takes place, d is the diameter of the particles, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. At values of a Froude group of less than unity, particulate fluidisation normally occurs at higher values, aggregative fluidisation takes place

Extremely high surface area contact between fluid and solid per unit bed volume High relative velocities between the fluid and the dispersed solid phase. High levels of intermixing of the particulate phase. Frequent particle-particle and particle-wall collisions.

1.

2. 3.

4.

Fluidized bed reactors (types of chemical reactors Fluid catalytic cracking Fluidized bed combustion Heat or mass transfer

Fluidisation: a process similar to liquefaction whereby a granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) is passed up through the granular material. When a gas flow is introduced through the bottom of a bed of solid particles, it will move upwards through the bed via the empty spaces between the particles. At low gas velocities, drag on each particle is also low, and thus the bed remains in a fixed state.

Increasing the velocity, the drag forces will begin to counteract the gravitational forces, causing the bed to expand in volume as the particles move away from each other. Further increasing the velocity, it will reach a critical value at which the upward drag forces will exactly equal the downward gravitational forces, causing the particles to become suspended within the fluid. At this critical value, the bed is said to be fluidized and will exhibit fluidic behavior.

By further increasing gas velocity, the bulk density of the bed will continue to decrease, and its fluidization becomes more violent, until the particles no longer form a bed and are conveyed upwards by the gas flow.

When the velocity of the fluid through the solids becomes large enough, all the particles are entrained in the fluid and carried along with it to give continuous fluidisation Principal applications of continuous fluidisation are in transporting solids from point to point 1. Hydraulic conveying or slurry transport 2. Pneumatic conveying

Particles smaller than 50micro meter in dia settle very slowly and readily suspended and transported in liquid Larger particles are harder to suspend esp when dia is 0.25 mm or higher In that instance, a fairly large liquid velocity is needed to keep the particles from moving at all, esp in horizontal pipes The critical velocity Vc, below which particles will settle out is typically 1 and 5 m/s

Density difference b/n solids and liquid Particle diameter Slurry concentration and Size of pipe
Vc is larger in big pipe than in small pipe

Pressure drop may be found from equations for a homogeneous liquid

viscosity

with appropriate allowance for the increased density and

For settling velocities (when near critical velocity Vc), pressure drop is higher as compared to single phase liquid As velocity increases (> Vc) pressure drop approaches as that of a single phase liquid When velocity is 3Vc or greater, pressure drop in the slurry and that in the equivalent single phase liquid are equal. The velocity in a long slurry pipeline is nearly 1.5-2 times Vc.

A pneumatic conveying system transfers powders, granules and other dry bulk materials through an enclosed pipeline the motive force for this transfer comes from a combination of pressure differential and the flow of a gas, such as air or nitrogen. The systems basic elements include amotive air source (also called an airmover, such as a fan or blower), a feeder or similar material-introduction device, a conveying line, a termination vessel (such as an airmaterial receiver), and a dust collection system.

While some of the most common materials transferred by pneumatic conveying systems are flour, cement, sand, and plastic pellets, any of hundreds of chemicals, food products, and minerals can be pneumatically conveyed. These materials are usually fairly dry; materials in slurry or paste form typically arent suited to pneumatic conveying.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Gas (mostly air) Velocity b/n 15 30 m/s in pipes ranging from 50400 mm in dia 4 types -ve pressure (vacuum) systems, useful in transferring solids from multiple intake points +ve pressure systems, best for one intake point and one or more points of delivery Vacuum-pressure systems, which combine the advantages of the previous two Prefluidised systems, which require less air and consequently less power, than any other method

The air pressure in the conveying line is changed by the systems air mover, which generates pressure or vacuum. Where the air mover is located in the system determines whether it generates one or the other: When located at the systems start, the airmover pushes air through the system and the system operates under pressure. When located at the systems end, the air mover pulls air through the system and the system runs under vacuum. By controlling the pressure or vacuum and airflow inside the system, the system can successfully transfer materials.

Dilute Phase Dense Phase

Gravity Chute Belt Conveyors Screw Conveyors Bucket Elevators Vibrating Conveyors Pneumatic/Hydraulic Conveyors

Gravity Chute

A chute is a vertical or inclined plane, channel, or passage through which objects are moved by means of gravity. Or through which the solids fall under the action of gravity

Belt Conveyor

where the solids are conveyed horizontally, or at small angles to the horizontal, on a continuous moving belt

Screw Conveyor

Solids are moved along a pipe or channel by a rotating helical impeller

Bucket Elevators

Particles are carried upwards in buckets attached to a continuously moving vertical belt

Vibrating conveyor

Particles are subjected to an asymmetric vibration and travel in a series of steps over a table. During the forward stroke of the table the particles are carried forward in contact with it but the acceleration in the reverse stroke is so high that the table slips under the particles.
With fine powders, vibration of sufficient intensity results in a fluid-like behaviour

Discussed before.

Pneumatic and Hydraulic conveying

Many operations depend upon effective agitation and mixing of components Agitation: induced motion of a material Mixing: random distribution of two initially separate phases A single homogeneous material such as water in a tank can be agitated but not mixed until another material is added to tank

agitation is a means whereby mixing of phases can be accomplished and by which mass and heat transfer can be enhanced between phases or with external surfaces Mixing is concerned with all combinations of phases of which the most frequently occurring ones are
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. gases with gases gases into liquids: dispersion. gases with granular solids: fluidization, pneumatic conveying; drying liquids into gases: spraying. liquids with liquids: dissolution, emulsification, dispersion liquids with granular solids: suspension. pastes with each other and with solids. solids with solids: mixing of powders.

interaction of gases, liquids, and solids also may take place Example: hydrogenation of liquids in the presence of a slurried solid catalyst where the gas must be dispersed as bubbles and the solid particles must be kept in suspension

Suspending solid particles in a liquid Blending miscible liquids e.g. methanol-water Dispersing a gas through a liquid in the form of small bubbles Dispersing a second liquid, immiscible with first to form an emulsion or suspension of fine drops Promoting heat transfer between liquid and a coil or jacket.

Agitated Vessels
Round bottom to eliminate corners where fluid cannot penetrate Impeller is mounted on a shaft Shaft driven by a motor Flow patterns will be discussed later Baffles to reduce tangential motion of fluid

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Impellers
2.

2 types Generate currents parallel with the axis of impeller shaft Axial-flow impeller Generate currents in a radial or tangential direction Radial flow impellers Axial flow impellers impose essentially bulk motion, and are used on homogenization processes Radial flow impellers impose shear stress to the fluid, and are used to mix immiscible liquids

3 types used based upon lowto-moderate viscosity liquids

1. 2. 3.

Propellers Turbines High efficiency impellers

Axial flow, high speed impeller for liquids of low viscosity Its rotation forces liquid downward until deflected by the floor vessel Propeller blades cut or shear the liquid Produces a helix in the fluid

One revolution will move the liquid longitudinally a fixed distance

depending upon angle of inclination of impeller blades

Ration of this distance to propeller diameter is called pitch of impeller. (square pitch=1) 2 or more propellers may be used on a single shaft; directing liquid in same direction

Straight blade turbine impeller

Straight blade force liquid radially and tangentially with no vertical movement. Current moves outward to vessel wall and then either upward or downward Also called paddles

Turbines

Disk Turbine like straight blade turbine creates zones of high shear rate Dispersing a gas in a liquid

Pitched blade turbine is used when good overall circulation is important

High Efficiency Impellers

Designed to produce more uniform axial flow and better mixing Reduce power required Blades are sometimes crimped to decrease the blade angle near tip Used to mix low to moderate viscosity liquids but not for very viscous liquids or dispersing gases.

Helical ribbon impeller

Impellers for highly viscous liquids

Having diameter almost equal to inside dia of tank Promotes liquid motion all the way to the tank wall with very viscous liquids
Creates no vertical motion Less effective than helical Promotes better heat transfer

Anchor Impeller

Anchor

Helical ribbon

May have scrapers to remove liquid from tank wall

Depends upon Type of impeller Characteristics of the liquid (esp viscosity) Size and proportions of the tank, baffles and impeller

1.
2. 3.

Liquid velocity at any point has 3 components Radial perpendicular to shaft of impeller Longitudinal parallel with shaft Tangential or rotational tangent to a circular path around the shaft. Radial and longitudinal comp are useful in mixing When shaft is vertical and centrally located; tangential component is disadvantageous creates a vortex

Vortex formation and its disadvantages

If solid particles are present, they will be thrown at the outside by centrifugal force; and move downward and to the centre of the tank at bottom Instead of mixing; (reverse) concentration occurs Relative velocity b/n blades and liquid is reduced Hence power that can be absorbed by the liquid is limited

In small tanks, impeller can be mounted off centre In large tanks, agitator may be mounted in the side of the tank with an angle with the radius Installing baffles in large tanks (2,3 or 4)

When swirling is stopped; flow patterns depends on the type of impeller Propeller agitators drive the liquid down to the bottom of the tank, where stream spreads radially in all directions toward the wall and flows upward along the wall and returns to the suction of the propeller from top.
For keeping solid particles in suspensions

Axial flow impellers change their flow pattern from axial flow at low liq viscosity to radial at high viscosity.

Flat blade turbines give good radial flow Stream moves at the wall and divides One portion flows downward along the wall and back to the center of the impeller from below Another portion flows upward toward the surface and back to impeller from above

In unbaffled tank there are strong tangential flows and vortex formation at moderate stirrer speeds With baffles, vertical flows are increased and is more rapid mixing of liquid. 2 or more impellers can be mounted on single shaft for a long vertical cylindrical tank Lowest impeller is usually a radial flow impeller (straight blade turbine); the upper is axial flow Lowest impeller is about one impeller diameter above the bottom of the tank.

mixing is putting things together. Blending is the combination of things in a unified smoothed manner mixing is the combining of a number of dry ingredients which when combined with a liquid is blended to achieve a uniform (usually) processed product

Mixing is more difficult operation than agitation Criteria depends upon the experimenter Often good mixing is visual
Color change of an acid base indicator
Solid-liquid mixtures

Rate of decay of concentration or temperature fluctuations; variation in the analysis of small samples taken from various parts of the mix

Miscible liquids are blended in small process vessels by propellers, turbines or high efficiency impellers In large storage tank, the agitator may turned on only to blend the stratified layers of liquid that are formed as the tank is being filled Stratified blending if often very slow

Impeller in process vessel produces high velocity stream Liquid is well mixed in the region close to impeller bcos of intense turbulence There is probably little mixing in the direction of flow The fluid completes a circulation loop and returns to the eye of the impeller where vigorous mixing again occurs Calculations show that complete mixing (99%) is achieved if contents are circulated about 5 times

For efficient mixing, volume of fluid circulated by impeller must be great enough to sweep out the entire vessel in a reasonable time The velocity of the stream leaving the impeller must be enough to carry the currents to the remotest parts of the tank Circulation rate is not the only factor; turbulence in moving stream is often very imp Turbulence results from properly directed currents and large velocity gradients in the liquid

Circulation and turbulence both consume energy Flow rate and power dissipation increase with stirrer speed However selection of the type and size of impeller influences the relative values of flow rate and power dissipation Large impellers moving at medium speed promote flow Smaller impellers at high speed are used where intense turbulence is required.