PST202G/201/3/2012

Tutorial letter 201/3/2012

Teaching Natural Science

PST202G
Semester 1 and 2
EXAMINATION GUIDELINES

Department of Teacher Education

TABLE OF CONTENT

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1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

The examination
Admission to sit for the exam The exam paper; duration; marks and format Exam preparation In the examination hall

The exam - success or failure

Assignments

Conclusion

PST202G/201

Dear Student
Thank you for the hard work that you put in to the assignments. I hope that you will do well in the examinations.

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1.1

The examination
Admission to sit for the examination

If there are any problems with regard to your admission to the exam you should immediately contact the Examination Department via the Contact centre - 0861 670 411 - and NOT your lecturer.

1.2

The examination paper:, format duration, and marks.

Duration: Total marks: 2 hours 100

Format: The examination covers the whole module.

The exam can consist of short questions (multiple-choice, completion, pairing, true/false, etc) and paragraph and essay questions. The multiple-choice questions must be answered with an HB-pencil on the mark reading sheet that will be provided.

1.3

Exam preparation
You must study;

- the whole Study Guide - all the information given in Section 3 of this tutorial letter. Study and know all the subject content specified above. A few examples of possible exam questions are given in Study Unit 9 of the Study Guide. Look up the answers yourself in the Study Guide. By now you should be studying in real earnest and be well on your way with your preparation for the examination. When preparing for the examination you should ensure that your study program includes sufficient time for repetition and revision. Work according to your own timetabled goals. The secret of success in preparing for an examination is to study according to a fixed schedule. Allow yourself enough time for the work you find more difficult to understand. If you encounter any problems with your preparation for the examination, you should contact me, Mr. A.V. Mudau, 012 429 6353.

1.4

In the examination hall

First read the instructions on the examination paper. Divide the time available according to the marks allocated to each question. Analyse the question and underline key words in the question. Use simple, direct and grammatically correct language. KEEP CALM, RELAX AND ENJOY ANSWERING THE PAPER!

The exam - success or failure

Every student wants to pass his/her exams. Unfortunately, there are students who fail. One reason for exam failure is that the student simply has not committed the necessary information to memory. This in turn can be ascribed to the prevalent bias in education against memorisation. Memorisation - so the charge runs - stifles originality. Instead of memorising facts, it is said, true, meaningful learning depends on understanding. There is, of course, an element of truth in this. True, meaningful learning does depend on understanding. Understanding is, however, only the beginning of learning. Understanding something does not mean that one has learnt it, that is, that one knows it and has confidence in applying it. When one understands something one has taken the first step in learning; the next step is to commit it to memory, that is, to memorise it. Then, and only then when something has been committed to memory, has one learnt it. With only understanding, but without committing the subject content to memory, one is simply not prepared for an exam, and one is also insufficiently prepared for the profession for which one is studying. Not only in an exam but also in the everyday practise of ones profession, one needs a mass of detailed information (knowledge) stored in the mind. Furthermore, higher order thinking skills, such as independent, critical thinking and problem-solving, are always conjoined to relevant, domain-specific information, and therefore such skills cannot be gained and subsequently exercised without having committed the associated information to memory (Hirsch, 1996:254, 264). The denigration of memorisation is in fact a denigration of knowledge, and ultimately a defeat of the educational ideal of stimulating problem-solving and independent, critical thinking. As Hirsch (1996:247) points out: Independent-mindedness is always predicated on relevant knowledge: one cannot think critically unless one has a lot of knowledge of the issue at hand. Critical thinking is not merely giving ones opinion. In fact, common sense tells one that the person who can think critically and who can solve problems is, without exception, one who has sufficient knowledge of the relevant issue or problem. Thus, to attain success in an exam, both in questions that are straightforward and questions that require independent, critical thinking and problem-solving one must, first, understand the subject content and, second, one must commit the subject content to memory.

The assignments

NB: Before studying the following information concerning Assignment, study the whole of Study Units 1 TO 8 of the Study Guide. 3.1 The nature of natural science and scientific theorising.

To understand what a scientific theory is and what the difference between a valid and a speculative theory is, one must understand exactly what natural science involves, its purpose and its limits. Study the explanations in the study guide.

PST202G/201 Scientific theories are explanations of observed facts. Scientific theories tie the observed facts together, and the best theories are those which achieve this with the least number of inconsistencies. An example of a scientific theory is Newtons theory of gravity which explains why falling objects always fall towards the centre of the earth. Valid scientific theories give consistent results when tested in the laboratory and can be applied technologically. Valid theories, however, are open to modification and/or expansion if newly discovered factual data makes it necessary. For example, we know the theory of aerodynamics is valid because it is applied in aeroplanes. Additional information: If a theory is verified repeatedly, it is regarded as fixed and universally valid; in other words, it is a natural law. The laws of nature cannot change. Every technical construction and measuring apparatus is a practical application of the laws of nature. If the laws of nature changed, bridges and tower blocks, for example, calculated correctly taking the laws of nature into account, could collapse. As all physiological processes are also dependent on the laws of nature, a change in these laws would have catastrophic consequences. For these reasons no patent office will accept an invention that contradicts a natural law. A speculative theory is a theory which considers matters that (1) are not physically observable and/or measurable and/or (2) are not repeatable events. Such theories should not be taught as facts because the data on which they are based can be interpreted in a different but also logical way. The interpretations depend on the scientists presuppositions. In other words the presuppositions of the scientist determine the way in which data/facts are interpreted. Scientists always interpret evidence in terms of presuppositions and if such presuppositions of scientists differ then their interpretations of the evidence will also differ. Children must learn that presuppositions determine the path of reasoning. Only when one knows the undergirding presuppositions of an untestable, speculative theory can one evaluate it and weigh it up against another theory that is based on different presuppositions. By teaching children to delve into the presuppositions undergirding speculative theories, they will learn the importance of forming informed opinions rather than simply endorsing the accepted, majority opinion. True critical thinkers are people who strive to discover truth and they value truth above majority opinion and group acceptance. In particular with regard to the theory of evolution: The theory of evolution refers to macroevolution and not to microevolution. Microevolution is the observable and demonstrable evolutionary variations within a species lineage which occur both in nature and in the laboratory when a new breed of a plant or an animal species is bred, for example, a new rose or a new variety of dog. Microevolution is the result of amazing machinery within the living cell that can shuffle and recombine genetic information. Microevolution should be taught - adaptation, natural selection, mutations, genetic drift, Mendelian genetics and DNA structure and variability are facts that must be taught at the appropriate level of schooling. Unlike microevolution, macroevolution is not a fact but a hypothetical extrapolation from microevolution. Macroevolution is a theory of origins which posits that all the myriad forms of life evolved progressively from inert matter right up to humankind. It is speculative because it deals with unique events; the origin of the universe and life is not repeatable and cannot therefore be duplicated in a laboratory. Scientists do of course cite facts and observations in support of macroevolution, and one does not contest such facts. However, the explanatory theories, that is, the conclusions scientists draw from facts and observations, are not as a matter of course true. The presupposition undergirding evolution is that everything, including the origin of the universe and the life it contains, can be explained in purely naturalistic terms. However, the origin of the universe and the life it contains is a historical event that cannot, and never can be, replicated and tested in a laboratory. Even if scientists were to a succeed in creating life from nonlife in a laboratory it would still not prove that the first life originated by purely natural processes, the reason being that even in the laboratory it would not be natural processes by themselves that created the new living system, but the application of the natural processes by the intelligent mind of the scientist.

All non-speculative theories can be experimentally tested, but the only aspect of the theory of evolution which has received any experimental support over the past 150 years is where it applies to microevolutionary processes. The theory that all life on earth originated by a gradual successive accumulation of fortuitous mutations is still, as it was in Darwins time, a highly speculative hypothesis entirely without direct factual support and very far from that self-evident axiom some of its more aggressive advocates would have us believe. Macroevolution would require that the cell produce new genetic information, but molecular biologists have found that this cannot be done. Natural selection, genetic drift and laboratory-manipulation shuffle or deplete genetic information but do not add new information to the existing genetic code. With regard to the generation of life from inert matter, already in1864 Louis Pasteurs swan-neck jar experiments proved that biogenesis does not occur without mediation of previously existing life (as a canning factory also proves). 3.2 Hands-on activities are important in science.

However, they must be meaningful learning experiences and not meaningless recreation. The criteria for meaningful activities are the following: * * * * * * The activities should be appropriate to the age and grade of the learners and the knowledge and skills that they have already learnt. Only if it is relevant, can the scientific concepts be related to the childrens experiences and interests. The learners should have sufficient, and correct, prior knowledge to understand the activity. Such knowledge must be taught prior to the activity. The teacher must clearly explain the purpose of the activity. The teacher must control the whole class the whole time so that unproductive playing, towards which children are naturally inclined, is prevented. The teacher must explain what the learners must attend to. On their own, childrens investigations tend to be unsystematic and they often concentrate on trivial and/or irrelevant matters. Without the teachers guidance the children may not discover and learn what they should, and they may even make discoveries that are false!

(Hands-on activities are discussed in Study Units 1 and 7.) 3.3. Your lesson must adhere to the following criteria: This module is about natural science teaching. The lesson must therefore expand or reinforce the childrens scientific knowledge and/or skills. If the lesson does not cater for this or if it is too elementary or too advanced for the specified grade, you would not receive a pass mark for this question in an exam. All prerequisite and/or new scientific concepts must first be explained. Do not expect independent learning from children or that they re-invent the wheel. With regard to the latter: Good explanation of basic concepts by the teacher takes less time and is in any case more effective! With regard to the former: The ability to learn independently, ie to teach oneself, is not inborn and the acquirement thereof depends on good teaching and guidance by adults during childhood and adolescence. Do not expect the children to be able to teach themselves. The ability to learn independently on ones own, ie to teach oneself, does not come naturally. The acquirement thereof depends on good instruction and guidance from adults during ones childhood. Children need to be taught and it is your moral duty as teacher to purposefully teach them. Teaching is the means by which childrens minds are prepared for a learning activity and/or any research of which they are capable. Teachers must not assume that the children will learn academic subject matter in an

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PST202G/201 incidental, spontaneous manner. As I pointed out in tutorial letter 103, the ability to learn on ones own is usually the result of a good education and not the cause of it. In other words, people who can with ease learn independently, ie teach themselves, usually had during their childhood and adolescence good teachers who took their responsibility to teach - ie to structure lessons and learning activities, to explain, to question and to lead and guide childrens observations and enquiries - very seriously. It is simply not true that direct instruction (which necessarily includes verbal explanations) always results in passive learners. Some children even learn nothing or wrong things from a hands-on activity! Learning activities must not involve too much independent effort from the learners. They still lack the knowledge, research skills and/or perseverance to learn without a teachers guidance and help. Children and young adolescents still lack the knowledge, research skills and perseverance to do independent research. They still need much help and guidance from the teacher. If teachers do not provide such guidance the research, or even the whole task, is often done by parents! Clear instructions must be given to the learners. The learners must be guided and their attention focussed on the relevant matters.

3.4 Every person has a mental framework of ideas in his/her head. Each idea is the way one thinks something is, but what one thinks of something is not always the way it really is, ie ones idea of something may be wrong. Knowledge of something means that ones ideas of it correspond to how it really is. In other words, knowledge is limited to correct ideas while a mental framework consists of both correct ideas (knowledge) and incorrect ideas. A teachers task is to ensure that the learners construct mental frameworks that are also knowledge frameworks, ie that the learners ideas correspond to how things really are. 3.5Child science is childrens way of making sense of the natural world. Child science refers therefore to the explanatory ideas of natural phenomena that children construct for themselves. These ideas are often wrong. Child science may also include wrong information given by adults. It is the duty of the natural science teacher to correct such wrong ideas. Correcting misconceptions, ie transforming child science into true scientific understanding, is important for three reasons: * Learners who are not empowered with true scientific understanding are denied scientific literacy, and without scientific literacy they cannot succeed in contemporary society which relies heavily on science and technology. People who are not scientifically literate do not always see the need for environmental programmes. For example, children tend to believe that when something burns it simply disappears. If this misconception is not corrected, they will not understand the connection between combustion and air pollution, and, consequently, the need for smokeless zones. If child science is not transformed into true understanding,, childrens wrong ideas and the information they receive during science lessons will exist side by side in their minds. This will prevent the development of an orderly and integrated understanding of nature. What then occurs is the compartmentalisation of ideas where they think that nature can be explained one way at school and another way at home and/or out of school.

3.6 It is the teachers duty to create a disciplined atmosphere. Good behaviour is not natural child behaviour. Childrens natural lack of inhibitions means that they tend to be impulsive and act, often unwittingly, in a self-destructive or socially destructive way. Furthermore, children tend to be social beings. Thus, without discipline the classroom may soon be turned into chaos, which is not conducive to learning of subject matter or standards of decent behaviour (good character). Discipline is needed in all classrooms, but in a science class discipline is also necessary to prevent accidents and subsequent injuries and breakage of apparatus. A disciplined class can be achieved by the teacher standing for self-control, respect for older people and the work ethic. This means that the teacher must do the following: * * * * Foster an ethos of respect by being a model of courtesy, BUT at the same time do NOT tolerate any disrespect that any child may show towards an adult. Make it very clear to the children, by requiring each one to do his/her best, that they are in school to learn subject matter and standards of decent behaviour (good character). Model self-control, self-discipline and conscientiousness by being prepared for lessons, being punctual, not wasting time, demanding hard work from each learner, etc. Insist on correctness, with regard to the science learnt and with regard to matters such as spelling and grammar. This disciplines the mind and inculcates humility, responsibility and self-discipline, all of which are essential characteristics for professional and social success in later, adult life. Punish misbehaviour fairly and consistently. Children must learn that a civilised, democratic society can only exist within a system of prohibition, adjudication and punishment.

3.7. Lesson planning: * * gives direction to the lesson; unplanned lessons proceed haphazardly and, consequently, confuse the learners. enables the teacher to interpret the lesson content in such way that it meets the learners needs and is in accordance with their learning styles.

3.8. The educational value of involving learners in the making of apparatus is the following: It may increase interest and therefore motivation. It may enhance understanding. It may teach the values of thrift and productivity.

3.9. Explanatory skills refer to the teachers ability to give explanations that are scientifically correct but also at the childrens level of understanding. Explanatory skills are important and part of a teachers duty to TEACH. It is your duty as teacher to prepare the childrens mind for an activity and/or any research that they must do. A teachers job, and moral duty, is to TEACH. One must not assume that the children will learn academic subject matter in an incidental, spontaneous manner. It is important that teachers always bear in mind that academic subject matter is seldom mastered by children (and adolescents) without good teachers who take their responsibility to teach - ie to structure lessons and learning activities, to explain subject content, to question and to lead and guide childrens observations and enquiries - very seriously. It is simply not true that direct instruction (which, et al, includes verbal teaching) results in passive learners. Good explanations in natural science are not purely verbal but are accompanied with one or more of the following:

PST202G/201 practical activities (hands-on or demonstrations) so that the children can have the concrete experience which is usually necessary for them to grasp the underlying abstract ideas graphic organisers and/or summaries that indicate the key words and the relationships between the facts. references to real-life examples and practical and/or technological applications

When scientific explanations of natural phenomena are related to real-life examples and the practical, technological applications which the children know about and are familiar with, it helps the children to relate to the explanations and thus make sense of them. Such references to real-life examples and the practical, technological applications help to correct any misconceptions that the children may have had about the relevant natural phenomenon. However, it must be noted that children can relate to and also enjoy learning about new and unfamiliar topics. Furthermore, teachers need not, and often should not, cater for learners personal interests. Children and adolescents are not always interested in what they should be interested in and they seldom want to learn what they should learn in order to become worthy and productive persons. As Honig (1987:47) points out: Even when young people end up completely enthralled by a facet of the mature [that is, not youth pop-culture], it isnt unusual for them to have been dragged, kicking and screaming, to the initial encounter. 3.10 The functions of a schools subject policy are: * It serves as a working document for the schools science teachers so that the teaching of science in that school is well structured and coordinated. * It serves as a source of information for inspectors, the governing body and parents.

3.11 Diagnostic questions are questions which require learners to express their own ideas about a natural phenomenon. Such questions help the teacher to establish what wrong ideas the learners have. The learners could then be confronted with evidence (a demonstration or a hands-on experiment) that proves their ideas are wrong, called a discrepant event. Because they actually observe that the result of the experiment contradicts their ideas, it is hoped that they will change their views and accept the correct explanation of the relevant natural phenomenon. 3.12 Preceding remarks: This question asked for critical analysis of the given statement. Critical thinking/analysis is not merely giving ones opinion. It is predicated on knowledge of the issue at hand. Such knowledge enables the exercise of discernment (ie. distinguishing truth from error); deeper penetration into the exact implications of the relevant issue; logical reasoning; and evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of the relevant issue. With regard to the given statement, one notices that the statement is true but it nevertheless needs to be qualified. It is true that the agent of intellectual learning is the activity of the learners own mind and that knowledge gained during well-structured hands-on activities is better remembered than purely verbal explanations. It is also true that knowledge gained in a familiar, relevant and problem-solving context is better understood and integrated. There are, however, serious drawbacks to hands-on learning if it is not carefully structured and guided by the teacher. When done on their own, childrens observations and investigations are often superficial and unsystematic. The problem in hands-on activities is usually not one of getting the learners to attend but to get them to attend to the right things. The focus that the teacher intends is not always the one adopted by all the learners. Consequently, without teacher guidance, the learners may not make the discoveries that they are supposed to make; in fact, they may make discoveries that are not true! Furthermore, learners do not approach an activity with empty minds. They have often already constructed their own explanations regarding the subject matter - in this learning area, natural phenomena. If a child has wrong ideas in his/her mind and these are not corrected by the teacher prior to the activity, he/she cannot learn what he/she

should learn. He/she will link the activity to his/her wrong ideas and will, consequently, integrate the new concepts incorrectly and/or apply them incorrectly. 3.13 Successful learning during hands-on activities is therefore only promoted if the teacher fulfils the following duties: * * * He/she ensures that the learners have acquired the knowledge on which the activity is based so that they can understand the purpose of the activity. He/she must be in control of the whole class the whole time to prevent unproductive playing towards which children are naturally inclined. He/she must give the learners sufficient guidance in order to ensure that they attend to that which is relevant, and not on trivial and/or irrelevant matters.

3.14 Critical thinking/analysis is not merely giving ones opinion. It is predicated on knowledge of the issue at hand. Only if one has sufficient knowledge, can one do the following: * * * * exercise discernment, i.e. distinguish truth from error understand and penetrate deeper into the exact implications of the issue at hand reason logically weigh up and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the issue at hand

With regard to critical analysis of the statement given in Question 4, one can say that on a superficial level the statement is true. It does have the advantage of being an economical teaching method and it is a useful strategy for conveying direct information (eg. safety rules). However - and this is important - there is more to effective science teaching than simply imparting information. A good science teacher teaches in such a way that the learners minds are actively engaged. The aim is to develop understanding, especially of the basic concepts. In this regard chalk-and-talk has the following disadvantages: (consult the relevant section in Study Unit 7). After discussing the disadvantages of chalk-and-talk, you should point out that verbal explanations should not be branded as chalk-and-talk. Point out that verbal explanatory teaching which makes use of the blackboard is essential, but that it should be in conjunction with thought-provoking questions, practical demonstrations and hands-on activities. Finally you should end your analysis with a conclusion that summarises your discussion in a sentence or two. 3.15 Closed questions promote the learning of the base of information which is necessary for scientific literacy whilst open questions stimulate the application of such basic knowledge and thus problem solving. 3.16 The teachers role in promoting successful learning during hands-on activities. Hands-on activities are important in science. However, they must be meaningful learning experiences and not meaningless recreation. Activities must therefore make sense to the children. They must be appropriate to the age and grade of the learners, and the learners must have sufficient and correct prior knowledge to understand the purpose of the activity. Such knowledge must be taught prior to the activity. With regard to hands-on activities, a science teacher has the following duties: * He/she must ensure that the learners have acquired the necessary prior knowledge so that they can understand the purpose of the activity. It is your duty as teacher to prepare the childrens mind for the activity and/or any research that they must do. A teachers job, and moral duty, is to TEACH. One must not assume that the children will learn academic subject matter in an incidental, spontaneous manner. It is important that teachers always bear in mind that academic subject matter is seldom mastered by children (and adolescents) without good teachers who take their responsibility to teach ie, to structure lessons and learning activities, to explain subject content, to question and to

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PST202G/201 lead and guide childrens observations and enquiries - very seriously. It is simply not true that direct instruction (which, et al, includes verbal teaching) results in passive learners. * The teacher must help and guide the children. In other words, a learning activity must not involve too much independent effort from the learners. They still lack the knowledge, research skills and/or perseverance to learn without a teachers guidance and help. The teacher must give clear instructions to the learners. The teacher must carefully structure the lesson and the learning activities, guide the children and focus their attention on the relevant matters. On their own, without the teachers help and guidance the children may not discover and learn what they should, and they may even make discoveries that are false! On their own, childrens investigations tend to be unsystematic and they often concentrate on trivial and/or irrelevant matters. The teacher must be in control of the whole class the whole time in order to prevent unproductive playing around towards which children are naturally inclined.

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3.17 The interrelationship between learning objectives/outcomes, learning experiences and assessment/evaluation. In your answer you must discuss the following: * Discuss the following: The teacher must formulate specific learning outcomes for each lesson. The lesson outcomes must be precise and not vague statements. The lesson outcomes must not be broad, generic outcomes but must be based on the content of that specific lesson. They must specify exactly what scientific concepts should be learnt in that lesson. The lesson outcomes focus the teachers attention on what the learners should be learning and thus give direction to teaching. [See Study Unit 1, Sec 1.5 and Study Unit 5, Sec 5.3.1.] Discuss the following: The lesson outcomes determine the learning experiences, ie the teaching strategies and learner activities. Teaching strategies include verbal explanations, questioning and discussions whilst learner activities refer to hands-on activities, projects and field trips. (See Study Unit 7.) Discuss the following: The lesson outcomes determine the purpose and the strategies of assessment that occurs before, during and after teaching. (See Study Unit 8.)

Conclusion

I hope you have found your study of this course an enjoyable and enriching experience. Best wishes for the exam and may you pass with flying colours!

Mr. Awelani V. Mudau

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