Instructors Manual to Accompany

Organizational Behavior 5/e

emerging knowledge and practice for the real world

by Steven L. McShane and Mary Ann von Glinow

Chapter 2 Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Prepared by: Steven L. McShane, University of Western Australia

ThisInstructorsManual1ileispartoftheInstructorsResourceCDROMforOrganizationalBehavior: EmergingKnowledgeandPracticefortheRealWorld,5thedition 10digitISBN:0073364347 13digitISBN:9780073364346 PublishedbyMcGrawHill/Irwin,abusinessunitofTheMcGrawHillCompanies,Inc.,1221AvenueoftheAmericas,New York,NY,10020.Copyright2010,2008,2005,2003,2000byTheMcGrawHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved.No partofthispublicationmaybereproducedordistributedinanyformorbyanymeans,orstoredinadatabaseorretrieval system,withoutthepriorwrittenconsentofTheMcGrawHillCompanies,Inc.,including,butnotlimitedto,inanynetwork orotherelectronicstorageortransmission,orbroadcastfordistancelearning. Someancillaries,includingelectronicandprintcomponents,maynotbeavailabletocustomersoutsidetheUnitedStates.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Afterreadingthischapter,studentsshouldbeableto: 1. Describethefourfactorsthatdirectlyin1luencevoluntaryindividualbehaviorand performance. 2. De1inepersonalityanddiscusswhatdeterminesanindividualspersonalitycharacteristics. 3. Summarizethebig1ivepersonalitytraitsinthe1ivefactormodelanddiscusstheir in1luenceonorganizationalbehavior. 4. Describeselfconceptintermsofselfenhancement,selfveri1ication,andselfevaluation. 5. Explainhowsocialidentitytheoryrelatestoapersonsselfconcept. 6. Distinguishpersonal,shared,espoused,andenactedvalues,andexplainwhyvalues congruenceisimportant. 7. Summarize1ivevaluescommonlystudiedacrosscultures. 8. Explainhowmoralintensity,ethicalsensitivity,andthesituationin1luenceethical behavior.

CHAPTER GLOSSARY
Abilitythenaturalaptitudesandlearnedcapabilities requiredtosuccessfullycompleteatask achievementnurturingorientationacrosscultural valuedescribingthedegreetowhichpeopleinaculture emphasizecompetitiveversuscooperativerelations withotherpeople. collectivismacrossculturalvaluedescribingthe degreetowhichpeopleinacultureemphasizedutyto groupstowhichpeoplebelong,andtogroupharmony competenciesskills,knowledge,aptitudes,andother personalcharacteristicsthatleadtosuperior performance conscientiousnessapersonalitydimensiondescribing peoplewhoarecareful,dependable,andselfdisciplined. ethicalsensitivityapersonalcharacteristicthat enablespeopletorecognizethepresenceanddetermine therelativeimportanceofanethicalissue extroversionapersonalitydimensiondescribing peoplewhoareoutgoing,talkative,sociable,and assertive. 1ivefactormodel(FFM)The1iveabstractdimensions representingmostpersonalitytraits:conscientiousness, emotionalstability,opennesstoexperience, agreeablenessandextroversion. Individualismacrossculturalvaluedescribingthe degreetowhichpeopleinacultureemphasize independenceandpersonaluniqueness locusofcontrolapersonsgeneralbeliefaboutthe amountofcontrolheorshehasoverpersonallife events.
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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

moralintensitythedegreetowhichanissuedemands theapplicationofethicalprinciples. motivationtheforceswithinapersonthataffecthisor herdirection,intensity,andpersistenceofvoluntary behavior MyersBriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)Aninstrument designedtomeasuretheelementsofJungianpersonality theory,particularlypreferencesregardingperceiving andjudginginformation neuroticismapersonalitydimensiondescribingpeople withhighlevelsofanxiety,hostility,depression,andself consciousness personalitytherelativelyenduringpatternof thoughts,emotions,andbehaviorsthatcharacterizea person,alongwiththepsychologicalprocessesbehind thosecharacteristics powerdistanceacrossculturalvaluedescribingthe degreetowhichpeopleinacultureacceptunequal distributionofpowerinasociety

roleperceptionstheextenttowhichaperson accuratelyunderstandsthejobduties(roles)assignedto orareexpectedofhimorher. selfconceptanindividualsselfbeliefsandself evaluations selfef1icacyapersonsbeliefthatheorshehasthe ability,motivation,correctroleperceptions,and favorablesituationtocompleteatasksuccessfully socialidentitytheoryAtheorythatexplainsself conceptintermsofthepersonsuniquecharacteristics (personalidentity)andmembershipinvarioussocial groups(socialidentity) uncertaintyavoidanceacrossculturalvaluedescribing thedegreetowhichpeopleinaculturetolerate ambiguity(lowuncertaintyavoidance)orfeel threatenedbyambiguityanduncertainty(high uncertaintyavoidance).

CHAPTER SYNOPSIS
Individualbehaviorisin1luencedbymotivation,ability,roleperceptions,andsituationalfactors(MARS).Motivation consistsofinternalforcesthataffectthedirection,intensity,andpersistenceofapersonsvoluntarychoiceofbehavior. Abilityincludesboththenaturalaptitudesandlearnedcapabilitiesrequiredtosuccessfullycompleteatask.Role perceptionsareapersonsbeliefsaboutwhatbehaviorsareappropriateornecessaryinaparticularsituation. Situationalfactorsareenvironmentalconditionsthatconstrainorfacilitateemployeebehaviorandperformance. Personalityreferstotherelativelyenduringpatternofthoughts,emotions,andbehaviorsthatcharacterizeaperson, alongwiththepsychologicalprocessesbehindthosecharacteristics.Mostexpertsnowagreethatpersonalityisshaped bybothnatureandnurture.Mostpersonalitytraitsarerepresentedwithinthe1ivefactormodel,whichincludes conscientiousness,agreeableness,neuroticism,opennesstoexperience,andextroversion.Anothersetoftraits, measuredbytheMyersBriggsTypeIndicator,representhowpeopleprefertoperceiveandjudgeinformation. Conscientiousnessandemotionalstability(lowneuroticism)standoutasthepersonalitytraitsthatbestpredict individualperformanceinalmosteveryjobgroup.Theotherthreepersonalitydimensionspredictmorespeci1ictypes ofemployeebehaviorandperformance. Selfconceptreferstoanindividualsselfbeliefsandselfevaluations.Ithasthreestructuraldimensions:complexity, consistency,andclarity.Peopleareinherentlymotivatedtopromoteandprotecttheirselfconcept(calledself enhancement).Atthesametime,peoplearemotivatedtoverifyandmaintaintheirexistingselfconcept(calledself veri1ication). Selfevaluation,animportantaspectofselfconcept,consistsofselfesteem,selfef1icacy,andlocusofcontrol.Self esteemistheextenttowhichpeoplelike,respect,andaresatis1iedwiththemselves.Selfef1icacyreferstoapersons beliefthatheorshehastheability,motivation,correctroleperceptions,andfavorablesituationtocompleteatask successfully;generalselfef1icacyisaperceptionofonescompetencetoperformacrossavarietyofsituations.Locusof
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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

controlisde1inedasapersonsgeneralbeliefabouttheamountofcontrolheorshehasoverpersonallifeevents.Self conceptconsistsofbothpersonalityidentityandsocialidentity.Socialidentitytheoryexplainshowpeoplede1ine themselvesintermsofthegroupstowhichtheybelongorhaveanemotionalattachment. Valuesarestable,evaluativebeliefsthatguideourpreferencesforoutcomesorcoursesofactioninavarietyof situations.Peoplearrangevaluesintoahierarchyofpreferences,calledavaluesystem.Espousedvalueswhatwesay andthinkweuseasvaluesaredifferentfromenactedvalues,whicharevaluesevidentfromouractions.Valueshave beenorganizedintoacirclewithtenclusters.Valuescongruencereferstothesimilarityofvaluesystemsbetweentwo entities. Fivevaluesthatdifferacrossculturesareindividualism,collectivism,powerdistance,uncertaintyavoidance,and achievementnurturingorientation.Threevaluesthatguideethicalconductareutilitarianism,individualrights,and distributivejustice.Threefactorsthatin1luenceethicalconductaretheextentthatanissuedemandsethicalprinciples (moralintensity),thepersonsethicalsensitivitytothepresenceandimportanceofanethicaldilemma,andsituational factorsthatcausepeopletodeviatefromtheirmoralvalues.Companiesimproveethicalconductthroughacodeof ethics,ethicstraining,ethicshotlines,andtheconductofcorporateleaders.

POWERPOINT SLIDES
OrganizationalBehaviorFifthEditionincludesacompletesetofMicrosoftPowerPoint1ilesforeachchapter.(Please contactyourMcGrawHill/Irwinrepresentativeto1indouthowinstructorscanreceivethese1iles.)Inthelecture outlinethatfollows,athumbnailillustrationofeachPowerPointslideforthischapterisplacedbesidethe correspondinglecturematerial.Theslidenumberhelpsyoutoseeyourlocationintheslideshowsequenceandtoskip slidesthatyoudontwanttoshowtotheclass.(Tojumpaheadorbacktoaparticularslide,justtypetheslidenumber andhittheEnterorReturnkey.)

LECTURE OUTLINE
(WITH POWERPOINT SLIDE THUMBNAILS)
Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values Slide 1

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Opening Vignette: Values, Personality, and Self-Concept at Fairmont hotels & Resorts Fairmont Hotels & Resorts has excelled as North Americas largest luxury hotel operator by hiring people such as Yasmeen Youssef with the right values and personality and then nurturing their self-concept. According to Carolyn Clark, Fairmonts senior vice-president of human resources, People want to feel valued and they stay where they feel valued. MARS Model of Individual Behavior Individual behavior influenced by motivation, ability, role perceptions, and situational factors (M.A.R.S.) Need to understand all four factors to diagnose and change individual behavior Employee Motivation Internal forces that affect a persons voluntary choice of behavior direction -- directed by goals intensity -- amount of effort allocated persistence -- amount of time that effort is exerted Employee Ability Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task Aptitudes -- natural talents that help people learn more quickly and perform better Learned capabilities -- acquired skills and knowledge Competencies -- abilities, individual values, personality traits and other characteristics of people that lead to superior performance Person-job matching -- three ways to match people with jobs
select qualified people develop employee abilities through training redesign job to fit person's existing abilities

Values, Personality, and Self-Concept at Fairmont hotels & Resorts Slide 2

MARS Model of Individual Behavior Slide 3

Employee Motivation Slide 4

Employee Ability Slide 5

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Role Perceptions Beliefs about what behavior is required to achieve the desired results:
understanding what tasks to perform
Role Perceptions Slide 6

understanding relative importance of tasks understanding preferred behaviors to accomplish tasks

Clarifying role perceptions

Provide information about tasks and priorities Provide frequent and meaningful performance feedback. Provide training on preferred work processes

Situational Factors Environmental conditions beyond the individuals short-term control that constrain or facilitate behavior
time
Situational Factors Slide 7

people budget work facilities

Personality in Organizations Defining Personality

Defining Personality Slide 8

Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics
External traits observable behaviors Internal states thoughts, values and genetic characteristics inferred from behaviors Behavioral tendencies less apparent where environment constrains behavior

Behavior patterns reflect underlying stable traits Some variability, adjust to suit the situation

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Nature vs Nurture of Personality Influenced by Nature

Heredity explains about 50 percent of behavioral tendencies and 30 percent of temperament Minnesota studies twins had similar behavior patterns

Nature vs Nurture of Personality Slide 9

Influenced by Nurture
Socialization, life experiences, learning also affect personality Personality isnt stable at birth Stabilizes throughout adolescence Executive function steers using our self-concept as a guide

Five-Factor Model of Personality (CANOE) (Another acronym is OCEAN) Conscientiousness

Big Five Personality Dimensions (CANOE) Slide 10

careful, dependable and self-disciplined

Agreeableness (vs. non-compliant/hostile)

being courteous, good-natured, trusting, empathetic and caring

Neuroticism (vs. emotional stability)

high levels of anxiety, hostility, depressed, self-conscious

Openness to experience (vs. resistant to change)

sensitive, flexible and curious

Extroversion (vs. introversion)

outgoing, talkative, sociable and assertive

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Five Factor Personality & Organizational Behavior Conscientiousness and emotional stability (low neuroticism)
motivational components of personality
Five-Factor Personality & Organizational Behavior Slide 11

best predictors of individual performance in almost all jobs

Extroversion
higher performance in sales and management jobs

Agreeableness
higher performance in jobs requiring cooperation/helpfulness

Openness to experience
predicts creativity and adaptation to change

Personality influences how people cope with stress, and career paths that make them happy. MBTI at Southwest Airlines Southwest Airlines uses the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to help staff understand and respect co-workers different personalities and thinking styles. You can walk by and see someone's [MBTI type] posted up in their cube, says Elizabeth Bryant, Southwests leadership development director (shown here). Jungian Personality Theory and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung Personality theory identifies preferences for perceiving the environment and obtaining/processing information Commonly measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

MBTI at Southwest Airlines Slide 12

Jungian Personality Theory Slide 13

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality test that measures traits in Jungs model Extroversion versus introversion
general orientation
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Slide 14

Sensing versus intuition

collecting information through senses versus through intuition, inspiration or subjective sources

Thinking versus feeling

processing and evaluating information using rational logic versus personal values

Judging versus perceiving

orient themselves to the outer world order and structure or flexibility and spontaneity

Effectiveness of the MBTI Most widely used personality tests in work settings Poor predictor of job performance Generally not recommended for employment selection or promotion decisions. Feeling Valued and Johnson & Johnson Johnson & johnson is one of the most respected employers because it recognizes the value of supporting each employees self-concept
Feeling Valued and Johnson & Johnson Slide 15

Self-Concept: The I in Organizational Behavior Self-Concept Defined An individuals self-beliefs and self-evaluations
Self-Concept Defined Slide 16

It is the Who am I? and How do I feel about myself?

Guides individual decisions and behavior

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Three Cs of Self-Concept Complexity

People have multiple self-concepts
Three Cs of SelfConcept Slide 17

Consistency
Improved well-being when multiple self-concepts call for similar personality traits and values

Clarity
Self-concepts are clearly and confidently described, internally consistent, and stable across time. Self-concept clarity requires self-concept consistency

Three Selves of Self-Concept Self-enhancement

Promoting and protecting our positive self-view
Three Selves of SelfConcept Slide 18

Self-verification
Affirming our existing self-concept (good and bad elements)

Self-evaluation
Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control

Social self
Defining ourselves in terms of group membership

Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement An innate human drive to promote and protect a positive selfview of being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued
Self-Concept: SelfEnhancement Slide 19

Most evident in situations that are common and are important to us People with a positive self-concept
have better personal adjustment and mental/physical health tend to inflate personal causation and probability of success

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Self-Concept: Self-Verification Motivation to verify and maintain our existing self-concept Stabilizes our self-concept -- anchors our thoughts and actions
Self-Concept: SelfVerification Slide 20

People prefer feedback that is consistent with their self-concept Effects of self-verification
We ignore or reject info inconsistent with self-concept We interact more with those who affirm/reflect self-concept

Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation Self-evaluation defined mainly by self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control
Self-Concept: SelfEvaluation Slide 21

Self-esteem
Global self-evaluation High self-esteem -- less influenced, more persistent, more logical

Self-efficacy
Belief in ones ability, motivation, role perceptions, and situation to complete a task successfully (i.e. MARS analysis) General vs task-specific self-efficacy

Locus of control
General belief about the amount of personal control over life events Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control

The Social Self Personal identity

Defining ourself in terms of things that make us unique in a situation
The Social Self Slide 22

Social identity
Defining ourself in terms of groups to which we belong or have an emotional attachment We identify with groups that have high status -- aids selfenhancement

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Values in the Workplace Values Defined

Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences
Values in the Workplace Slide 23

Define right or wrong, good or bad Defines what we ought to do to achieve our needs

Values are important in OB

Influence perceptions, decision, leadership behavior and org. citizenship

Value system -- hierarchy of values Espoused vs. enacted values:

Espoused -- the values we say and often think we use Enacted -- values we actually rely on to guide our decisions and actions

Schwartzs Values Model Groups personal values into 10 domains and 2 bipolar dimensions
Schwartzs Values Model Slide 24

[NOTE: builds on and corrects problems with the older model of values by Rokeach] Also applies to organizations, professions, societies, etc Schwartzs Values Model Openness to change
motivation to pursue innovative ways Includes values of self-direction, stimulation, and hedonism

Schwartzs Values Model Slide 25

Conservation
motivation to preserve the status quo Includes values of conformity, tradition, and security

Self-enhancement
motivation to satisfy self-interest Includes values of power, achievement, and hedonism

Self-transcendence
motivation to promote the welfare of others and nature Includes values of universalism and benevolence

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Values and Behavior Habitual behavior usually consistent with values, but conscious behavior less so because values are abstract constructs
Values and Behavior Slide 26

Decisions and behaviors linked to values when:

Mindful of our values Have logical reasons to apply values in that situation Situation does not interfere

Values Congruence Values congruence

where two or more entities have similar value systems (e.g. employees and their organization)
Values Congruence Slide 27

Problems with values incongruence

Employee decisions incompatible with organizations goals Lower satisfaction and commitment Increased stress and turnover

Benefits of (some) incongruence

Better decision making due to diverse values and perspectives Conflict that can potentially enhance problem definition Too much congruence can undermine creativity, flexibility and business ethics (corporate cults)

Other Types of Values Congruence Espoused-enacted values congruence

It undermines a persons perceived integrity and reduces the trust between coworkers.

Organization-community values congruence

Affects relations in cross-cultural situations

Values Across Cultures Individualism-collectivism Degree that people value duty to their group (collectivism) versus independence and person uniqueness (individualism) Previously considered opposites, however, two concepts are now viewed as unrelated -- i.e. can value high individualism and high collectivism
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Values Across Cultures: IndividualismCollectivism Slide 28

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Individualists tend to: Value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over themselves, being appreciated for unique qualities
Individualism Slide 29

Collectivism Slide 30

Collectivists tend to: Identify themselves by group membership Value harmonious relationships with their groups Located within the conservation range of values (security, tradition and conformity) Power Distance Extent that people accept unequal distribution of power in a society

Power Distance Slide 31

High power distance cultures

value obedience to authority comfortable receiving commands from superiors Prefer to resolve conflicts through formal rules and authority

Low power distance cultures

expect relatively equal power sharing view relationship with boss as interdependence, not dependence

Uncertainty Avoidance Low uncertainty avoidance

tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty
Uncertainty Avoidance Slide 32

High uncertainty avoidance

feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty value structured situations and direct communication

Achievement-Nurturing Achievement
assertiveness, competitiveness, materialism
Achievement-Nurturing Slide 33

Nurturing
valuing relationships, others well-being

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Ethical Values and Behavior Ethics is the study of moral principles or values that determine whether certain actions are right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad. Three Ethical Principles Utilitarianism
Seek the greatest good for the greatest number
Three Ethical Principles Slide 34

Focuses on the consequences of actions problem: ignores morality of means to end

Individual rights principle

Personal entitlements to act in a certain way e.g. freedom of speech Problem of conflicting rights

Distributive justice principle

People who are similar in relevant ways should receive similar benefits and burdens e.g. two employees who contribute equally should receive similar rewards Inequalities are acceptable where they benefit the least well off in society

Influences on Ethical Conduct Moral intensity

degree that issue demands ethical principles
Influences on Ethical Conduct Slide 35

Ethical sensitivity
ability to recognize the presence and determine the relative importance of an ethical issue

Situational influences
competitive pressures and other conditions affect ethical behavior

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Supporting Ethical Behavior Ethical code of conduct

Establishes standards of behavior
Supporting Ethical Behavior Slide 36

Problem: Limited effect alone on ethical behavior

Ethics training
Awareness and clarification of ethics code Practice resolving ethical dilemmas

Ethics officers
Educate and counsel; hear about wrongdoing

Ethical leadership and culture

Demonstrate integrity and role model ethical conduct

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values Slide 37

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

SOLUTIONS TO CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

1. Aninsurancecompanyhashighlevelsofabsenteeismamongtheof8icestaff.Theheadofof8ice administrationarguesthatemployeesaremisusingthecompanyssickleavebene8its.However,someof themostlyfemalestaffmembershaveexplainedthatfamilyresponsibilitiesinterferewithwork.Usingthe MARSmodel,aswellasyourknowledgeofabsenteeismbehavior,discusssomeofthepossiblereasonsfor absenteeismhereandhowitmightbereduced. TheMARSmodelofindividualbehaviorstatesthatbehaviorisafunctionofmotivation,ability,roleperceptions, andsituationalfactors.Withrespecttoabsenteeism,employeesmaybeawayfromassignedworkbecausethey dontwanttoattendworkthatday(motivation),theydontrealizethatthisistheirworkday(roleperceptions), and/orenvironmentalconditionspreventthemfromattendingwork(situationalfactors). Inthisincident,situationalfactorsmayexplainmostlywhyfemaleemployeesareabsent.Speci1ically,family responsibilitiesinterferewiththeirworkattendance.However,someabsenteeismamongmenandwomenmaybe duetosickleavepolicies.Itisknownthatgeneroussickleavebene1itsreduceattendancemotivation. 2. Asthedistrictmanagerresponsibleforsixstoresinalargeelectronicsretailchain,youhavehaddif8iculty withtheperformanceofsomesalesstaff.Althoughtheyareinitiallymotivatedandgenerallyhavegood interpersonalskills,manyhavedif8icultywiththecomplexknowledgeofthediverserangeofstore products,rangingfromcomputerstohigh8idelitysoundsystems.Describethreestrategiesyoumight applytoimprovethematchbetweenthecompetenciesofnewsalesstaffandthejobrequirements. Thetextbookdescribesthreestrategiestomatchemployeecompetenciestojobrequirements.Onestrategyisto selectapplicantswhoseexistingcompetenciesbest1ittherequiredtasks.Thisincludescomparingeachapplicants competencieswiththerequirementsofthejoborworkunit.Therefore,oneanswertothisquestionistopreparea selectiontestthatidenti1iesapplicantswhoarequali1ied(i.e.haverequiredcompetencies). Asecondapproachistoprovidetrainingsoemployeesdeveloprequiredskillsandknowledge.Recentevidence suggeststhattraininghasastrongin1luenceonorganizationalperformance.Inansweringthisquestion,students shouldspeci1icallynotethattechnicalproproductdescriptiontrainingisthemostrelevanttraininginthisscenario. Thethirdwaytomatchpeoplewithjobrequirementsistoredesignthejobsoemployeesareonlygiventasks withintheircapabilities.Thisappearstobeanappropriatestrategyherebecauseofthediverseproductrange. Someemployeescanbegininelectronics,whilesotherbeginincomputers.Overtime,employeescandevelop knowledgeinmultipleproductgroups. 3. Researchhasfoundstrongevidencethatheredityhasastrongin8luenceonanindividualspersonality. Whataretheimplicationsofthisinorganizationalsettings? Thereareanumberofissuesthatstudentmightandshouldraiseinresponsetothisquestion.First,thestrong effectofhereditysuggeststhatapplicantselectionisanimportantwaytoimprovejobperformanceandemployee wellbeing(byensuringtheirworkmatchestheirpersonality).Althoughwemighttrytochangeanemployeesstyle ofbehavior,theirinherentstyleisstronglydeterminedalready.Thisiswhymanycompaniesrefertohireefor attitude,trainforskill Asecondimplicationisthattrainingforsometypesofbehavior(funoriented,detailed,talkative,etc.)mightbeless successfulthanemployerassume.Itwouldbebettertotransferpeopleintojobsthatmorecloselymatchtheir personality.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

4. Supposethatyougiveallcandidatesapplyingforamanagementtraineepositionapersonalitytestthat measuresthe8ivedimensionsinthe8ivefactormodel.Whichpersonalitytraitswouldyouconsidertobe themostimportantforthistypeofjob?Explainyouranswer. Thetextbookprovidessomeinformationtohelpstudentsanswerthisquestion.First,conscientiousnessand emotionalstability(lowneuroticism)areimportantbecausetheybestpredictindividualperformanceinalmost everyjobgroup.Botharemotivationalcomponentsofpersonalitybecausetheyenergizeawillingnesstoful1ill workobligationswithinestablishedrules(conscientiousness)andtoallocateresourcestoaccomplishthosetasks (emotionalstability).Variousstudieshavereportedthatconscientiousemployeessethigherpersonalgoalsfor themselves,aremoremotivated,andhavehigherperformanceexpectationsthandoemployeeswithlowlevelsof conscientiousness.Theyalsotendtohavehigherlevelsoforganizationalcitizenshipandworkbetterin organizationsthatgiveemployeesmorefreedomthanintraditionalcommandandcontrolworkplaces. Theotherimportantpersonalitydimensionisextroversion,becauseitisassociatedwithperformanceinsalesand managementjobs,whereemployeesmustinteractwithandin1luencepeople.Oneormoreotherpersonality dimensionsmightalsoberelevanttomanagementtrainees,butthesethreestandout. 5. Animportantaspectofselfconceptistheideathatalmosteveryoneengagesinselfenhancement.What problemstendtooccurinorganizationsasaresultofthisselfenhancementphenomenon?Whatcan organizationalleadersdotomakeuseofapersonsinherentdriveforselfenhancement? Selfenhancementreferstothenotionthathumanbeingsareinherentlymotivatedtopromoteandprotectaself viewofbeingcompetent,attractive,lucky,ethical,valued,etc.Thetextbookdescribesoneproblemwithself enhancement,namelythatitcanunderminedecisionmaking.Forexample,selfenhancementcausesmanagersto overestimatetheprobabilityofsuccessfulininvestmentdecisions,suchasacquiringanothercompany.Student mightalsoinferotherproblemswithselfenhancement,suchasperceptualbiases(lesslikelytonoticeproblems), competitionwithotheremployees,andmoraleandmotivationproblems(noteverybodyisaboveaverage!). Thesecondquestionoffersanopendiscussionofstrategiestoleveragethemotivationofselfconceptand,in particular,selfenhancement.Inotherwords,howcanwemakepeoplefeelgoodaboutthemselvesatworkinways thatmotivatesthemandimprovestheirwellbeing?Onesuggestionmightbepersonjob1itputemployeesinjobs forwhichtheyarequali1iedandenjoythetypeofworkactivity.Anotherideaistofocusontheemployees strengths,ratherthanshortcomings,inperformancefeedback.Leadershipstyleisathirdapproach.Greatleaders treateveryemployeeasanindividual;whentheyinteractwithpeople,theytreatthatpersonasthefocusoftheir attention. 6. Thischapterdiscussedtheconceptofvaluescongruenceinthecontextofanemployeespersonalvalues withtheorganizationsvalues.Butvaluescongruencealsorelatestothejuxtapositionofotherpairsof valuesystems.Explainhowvaluescongruenceisrelevantwithrespecttoorganizationalversus professionalvalues. Thisisadif1icultquestionwhichneedstobeclari1iedforstudents.Itmaybeusefultoremindthemtothinkin termsofprofessionaloccupationsinsteadofindividuals.Professionsinthecontextofthisquestioncouldinclude accountants,lawyers,engineers,teachersetc.Forexample,anengineerworkingforanautomanufacturermaybe askedtodesignagastankthatincorporatesthebottomofthetrunktosaveonmaterial.Whilesucharequestmight bemotivatedbyaneedforcostsavingsinordertomaximizeorganizationalpro1its,itislikelytoclashwithan engineerwhoseprofessiondictatesthatpublicsafetybeparamountinalldesignconsiderations.Theneedfor valuescongruencebetweentheorganizationandthatoftheprofessionalengineerwouldbeevidentinsuchacase.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

7. PeopleinaparticularSouthAmericancountryhavehighpowerdistanceandhighcollectivism.Whatdoes thismean,andwhataretheimplicationsofthisinformationwhenyou(aseniorexecutive)visitemployees workingforyourcompanyinthatcountry? Inhighpowerdistancecultures,peopletendtoacceptthepowerdifferentialwhichexistsintheirsociety.This extendstotheworkplaceaswell.Iwouldexpecttheemployeestoaddressmebymysurname.Iwouldnot interpretthisasbeingalooforunfriendly.ThesocialinterchangebetweentheemployeesandIwouldbeformal. Highcollectivismwouldencouragemetocelebratetheachievementsofeveryoneasagroup.Anydiscussionwould emphasizeandfocusonimprovingormaintaininggroupharmonyandteamwork. 8. Alldecisionsareethicaldecisions.Commentonthisstatement,particularlybyreferringtotheconcepts ofmoralintensityandethicalsensitivity. Thissweepingstatementisfalse.Foradecisiontohaveanethicaldimensionithastohavesomemoralintensity associatedwithit.Moralintensityisacharacteristicofthesituation.Itreferstothedegreetowhichanissue demandstheapplicationofethicalprinciples.Whoshouldbelaidoff?wouldhavehighmoralintensity.Onthe otherhand,adecisiontotakeanumbrellatoworkbecauseitmightrainhasnomoralintensity.Thisisbecause morallyintenseissuesinvolveothersinthesocietywhomaythinkthedecisionisgoodorevil,ortheissuequickly affectspeople. Ethicalsensitivityreferstoacharacteristicofthedecisionmaker,notthesituation.Facedwiththesameissue,two decisionmakersmaybemoreorlessethicallysensitive.Thismeansthatpeopledifferintheirabilitytorecognize thepresenceanddeterminetherelativeimportanceofanethicalissue. Moralintensityandethicalsensitivityaredifferent,buttheygohandinhand.Anissuewithhighmoralintensity mightbedecidedwithouttherequiredethicalconsiderationbecausethedecisionmakerdoesntrecognizeits ethicalimportance(i.e.,thepersonhaslowethicalsensitivity).Thus,bothconceptsareimportantfactorsinthe extenttowhichweapplyethicalprinciplestoissues.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

CASE STUDY 2-1: SK TELECOM GOES EGALITARIAN IN A HIERARCHICAL SOCIETY

Case Synopsis
ThiscasestudydescribeshowSKTelecom,Koreaslargesttelecommunicationscompany,ismovingtowardamore egalitarianculture.Thecompanyisremovingmanagerialtitlesthatre1lecteachlevelinthehierarchy.Itisencouraging stafftospeakupwhentheydisagreewiththeirboss.thecompanyisalsoassigningmoreresponsibilitytoyounger employees.ThecasestudydescribesthechallengeswiththistransitionaswellasthereasonswhySKTelecomis implementingthischange.

Suggested Answers to Case Questions

1. SKTelecomisattemptingtodistantitselffromwhichSouthKoreanculturalvalue?Whatindicatorsofthis valueareidenti8iedinthiscasestudy?Whatotherartifactsofthisculturalvaluewouldyounoticewhile visitingaSouthKoreancompanythatupheldthisnationalculture? Thecrossculturalvalueapparentinthiscaseispowerdistance.Themainindicatorsofpowerdistanceinthis cultureareasfollows: Of1icialtitlesrepresentinghierarchyinmanagement Subordinatesnotallowedtoquestionthebosssdecisions Subordinatesarentallowedtoinitiateconversationswithpeopleinhigherpositions. Higherlevelpositionareheldbypeoplewithmoreseniority(notstrictlypowerdistance,butre1lectshistorical notionofrespectforelders) Subordinates,visitors,etclookforsubtleevidenceofapersonsstatus,andactaccordinglytowardthem Thesecondpartofthisanswercallsforsomecreativethinking,particularifmoststudentsintheclasshavenot livedinahighpowerdistanceculture.Herearesomeindicators(artifacts)ofhighpowerdistance: Juniorstaffstandwhenaseniorpersonenterstheroom Employeesexpectthebosstoprovidedirection,ratherthanexpectedtobepartofthedecision Juniorstaffnevernameseniorpeoplebytheirpersonalnames,evenwhenseniorpeopleencouragetheuseof theirpersonalname Juniorstaffarereluctanttospeakupwhenseniorpeoplearepresent. Juniorstaffmightavoideyecontactwithseniorpeople 2. Inyouropinion,whyisthishierarchicalvaluesostronginSouthKorea?Whataretheadvantagesand disadvantagesofthisvalueinsocieties? Historicalreligiousandphilosophicalfoundationsofacultureaccountforthestrengthofmanyculturalvalues. Koreahasbeenheavilyin1luencedbyavariationofConfucianism.Thisphilosophyemphasizesthedutiesonehasto others,aswellastherespectonemustshowtowardselders.Confucianismencouragesritualstodistinguishpeople basedontheirstatus,therebyreinforcingpowerdistance. Studentscanengageinaninterestingdebateaboutthevalueofhigherversuslowpowerdistance.Mostwilllikely 1inditeasytoapplaudthebene1itsoflowpowerdistanceand,indeed,companiessuchasSKTelecom,KoreanAir, andother1irmshavemovedtowardamoreegalitarianculture.However,highpowerdistancehasexistedformore
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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

thantwothousandyearsinKoreaandothercultures,soitwouldcertainlybefunctionalforsociety.Studentsmight suggestthathighpowerdistancere1lectstheneedtoshowrespecttothosewithmoreknowledgeorexperience.It mightbepartofalargerdynamicinwhichpeopleworkeffectivelywhentheyknowtheirrolesandrelationshipsto eachother.somemightpointoutthatmilitaryorganizations(althoughmuchmoreegalitariantoday)emphasize higherpowerdistancevalues(respectforauthority,rightofleadertomake1inaldecisions)becauseoftheneedto makequickdecisionsandforfollowerstoactquicklywithoutdispute. 3. DoyouthinkSKTelecomwillbesuccessfulinintegratingamoreegalitarianculture,eventhoughit contrastswithSouthKoreasculture?Whataresomeoftheissuesthatmaycomplicateorsupportthis transition? Whenansweringthisquestion,studentsshouldnotethatitisdif1icultforanorganizationtoemphasizevaluesthat areatoddswiththecultureoftheprevailingsociety.Thisisratherlikethechallengesofsomeonelivingintwo contrastingroles,oneofwhichismoreinconsistentwiththenaturalrole.Peoplewhoareheavilysocializedto respectonesetofvalues1inditdif1iculttoacceptandenactopposingordifferentvalues. Afewissuescancomplicateor,alternatively,facilitatethistransition.Oneopposingforce,asidefromthenational culture,istheestablishedwaysofseniormanagers.Theyhavetheirexpectations,routines,andpreferenceswhen dealingwithsubordinates.Thecasestudyprovidessuchanillustration;themanagersayshefeltlikegoingbackto theoldwaywhenanemployeequestionedhim.Anotheropposingforcewouldbetheincentivesthatmanagers havetomaintainhighpowerdistance.Itismucheasiertogivecommandsthantodebateissueslogicallyand thoroughlywithemployees.Lowerpowerdistancepotentiallyalsoreducesthezoneofindifference,thatishow muchthebosscanrequestofemployees(suchasworkinglateorfetchingapotofcoffee).Onefacilitatingin1luence wouldbethemotivationofyoungeremployees,manyofwhomarelesspatientwithwaitingyearstoexperiencethe powerofinvolvement.Anotherfactorisglobalization.ManypeopleinKoreaincreasinglyexperiencepeoplefrom lowerpowerdistancecultures,sotheyhavesomerolemodelsandpersonalpracticeinteractingwithpowerpower distancepeople.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

CASE STUDY 2-2: PUSHING PAPERS CAN BE FUN

Case Synopsis
Thechiefofpoliceinalargecitygovernmentdescribestheproblemofgettinghisof1icerstodopaperwork.Theof1icers enjoyworkingwiththepublicandapprehendingcriminals,notsittingatadesk.Thepaperworkisboring,butcanmake thedifferenceinconvictions.TheChiefhasno1inancialrewards(budgetcrunch)andpromotionsaredeterminedby seniority,notthequalityofpaperwork.Of1icersweretrainedtoperformstreetwork,not1illoutforms.Arrests,not paperwork,getnoticed.Convictionsuccessisduetotoomanyfactorstobeaperformancecriterion.

Suggested Answers to Case Questions

1. Whatperformanceproblemsisthecaptaintryingtocorrect? Themainprobleminthiscaseispoorpolicereportingofincidents,aswellastheresultinglostcasesincourt. 2. UsetheMARSmodelofindividualbehaviorandperformancetodiagnosethepossiblecausesofthe unacceptablebehavior. Motivation.Thereareseveralfactsthatsuggestthatthepoorpaperworkisduetolackofmotivation.First,of1icers comeintothisprofessionbecausetheywanttoworkwiththepublicandcatchcriminals,notsitinanof1ice1illing outreports.Thus,thepaperworktaskdoesnotful1illtheirneedsforpersonalgrowth.Second,socialrewards (praise,recognition)resultfromtheoutsideactivities,notpaperwork.Third,1inancialrewardsdonotencourage peopletodopaperwork.Promotionsarebasedonseniority,sotheymotivateof1icerstostaywiththeforce,notto completepaperwork.Competitionsdidnotwork,either. Ability.Itisntcertainthatof1icersareabletocompletethepaperworktaskwellenough.Theydontseemto receiveanytraininginthisarea.However,thecaptainsdiscussionofthereportcompetitionsuggeststhatatleast someof1icersareabletoperformthistaskwellenough. RolePerceptions.Thecaptainseemstohaveemphasizedtheimportanceofpaperworktotheof1icers,andthey probablyhavelearnedthatsomecaseshavebeenlostduetopoorreports.Thus,itisreasonabletoconcludethat manyof1icersknowthatthequalityofreportsisanimportantoftheirjob.Atthesametime,itmaybepossiblethat thecaptainhasnotemphasizedtheimportanceofreportwritingtotheof1icers.Moreover,thereisnoevidencethat rookieshaveclearroleperceptionsaboutthistaskwhenthey1irstenterthedepartment. SituationalFactors.Thereisnoinformationaboutfactorsbeyondtheof1icerscontrolthatmighthinderor facilitatetheirjobperformanceinreportwriting.Itmaybepossiblethatmoretimeandotherresourcesareneeded tocompletethereportsbetter,butthisinformationisnotgiveninthecase. 3. Hasthecaptainconsideredallpossiblesolutionstotheproblems?Ifnot,whatelsemighthedo? Thecaptainhaslookedavarietyofincentivestomotivateof1icerstocompletethepaperwork,butotherstrategies mightbeconsidered.Forexample,theCrowncounselmightmeetoccasionallywithof1icerstodescribeexamples wheregoodorbadpaperworkin1luencedthesuccessoftheircases.Thecaptainmighttrytopubliclyrecognize of1icerswhohavecontributedtoasuccessfulcasemainlyduetotheirthoroughreports. Thepolicechiefmightalsoconsiderthepossibilitythatsomeof1icerslackthecompetenciestoperformthereport writingtask.Aneedsassessmentmightdeterminewhoshouldreceiveformaltraininginreportwriting.Atrain thetrainerapproachmightbeconsideredwhereof1icerswhoaremosteffectiveatreportwritingreceivespecial trainingtoteachotherof1icers.Thismightaddfurthersocialesteemtoperformanceinreportwriting..

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

CASE STUDY 2-3: THE TROUBLE WITH BUSINESS ETHICS

Case Synopsis
Businessethicsmayhaverisentothetopofmostexecutiveagendas,butWalMartStoreshaslearnedthatpracticing ethicscanalsopresentethicaldilemmas.Afewmonthsaftergoingthroughanewemployeetrainingsessionwitha heavyemphasisonethics,ChalaceEpleyLowryactedontheguidancetoreportanyactivitythatseemedtheleastbit suspicious.Lowrytoldthecompany'sethicsof1iceaboutpossibleinsidertradingbyoneofhersupervisors.WalMarts investigationconcludedthatthesupervisorhaddonenothingwrong,butLowrysoondiscoveredthatheridentityas thewhistleblowerhadbeenrevealedtothesupervisorsheaccusedofwrongdoing.NowLowryislookingforanother job,butthere'snoguaranteeshe'llgettransferredatWalMart.ThisBusinessWeekcasestudyexaminesthechallenges ofsupportingethicshotlinesandwhistleblowing,anddiscussesthereasonswhyemployeesarereluctantto communicateethicalwrongdoing.StudentsareaskedtoreadthefulltextofthisBusinessWeekarticleandtoand prepareforthediscussionquestionsbelow.

Suggested Answers to Case Questions

1. Inanorganizationseffortstomaintainethicalstandards,howimportantisittoencourageandsupport employeeswhoreportpossibleincidentsofethicalwrongdoing(i.e.engageinwhistleblowing)?Why? Whatcancompaniesdotosupportwhistleblowers? ItisVERYimportanttosupportwhistleblowing.Thereasoningisthatwhistleblowersrevealwrongdoingcloseto them,sotheytypicallyhavefactualinformationthatisnoteasilyreceivedotherwise.Whistleblowersareoftenthe onlymeansbywhichseriouswrongdoingbecomesknowntopeopleoutsidethatinnercircle,atleastuntillong afterthewrongfulactshavebeencommitted.Itwouldbeusefultohavestudentsciteexampleswhere whistleblowersweretheprimarymeansofrevealingunethicalconduct.OnewellknownexampleisEnron (SherronWatkins).AnotherisWorldcom(CynthiaCooper). Inansweringthisquestion,studentsshouldalsobeawareofthedebateaboutensuringthatwhistleblowersfollow usualchannelsofcomplaintbeforetakingthemattertothepublicoroutsideauthority.Ofcourse,therearetimes whentheinsidechannelsarenotappropriate(e.g.theinsidersareengaginginthewrongdoing),butthereisalsoa riskthatacompanyreceivesdamagingpublicityfromwhistleblowingbeforeithasbeengiventheopportunityto solvetheproblem.Butalsonotethat,asinthiscase,whistleblowingincludingthepracticeofinformingauthorities withintheorganization. Companiescansupportwhistleblowersbyprovidingclearguaranteesregardingtherightsofwhistleblowersto havetheirjobsprotectedorreasonableseverancewherecontinuedemploymentisnotpossible.Furthermore, companiesneedtoprovideaclearrouteandsetofproceduresforpeopletofollowsotheirinformationisreceived bypeopleinpositionsofpowerwhohavenoaf1iliationwiththewrongdoing.Third,companiesneedtodevelop procedures,unliketheexampleatWalMartwherewhistleblowersremainanonymoustotheextentthatthis anonymityispossible.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

2. Whatactionsaredescribedinthiscasestudythatcompanieshaveappliedtoimproveethicalstandardsin theirorganizations?Arethesesubstantivechanges,moremostlysymbolic?Why? Thecasestudydescribeshowcompanieshavehiredchiefethicsof1icerstooverseethedevelopmentofethics programsandpractices.Companieshavealsointroducedandannuallyreinforceacodeofconduct.Thequestionof whetherthesearesigni1icantorsymbolicdependsontheorganization.Manystudentswillbeskepticalthatsome ofthesecompaniestakeethicalconduct,particularlyemployeereportsofwrongdoing,seriously.Thecaseprovides anexcellentexampleofsigni1icantapplicationofethicalpracticesatBoeing,wheretheBoardofDirectors concludedthattheCEOsamorousbehaviorwasgroundsfordismissal.

CLASS EXERCISE 2-4: TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF PERSONALITY

Purpose
ThisexerciseisdesignedtohelpstudentstothinkaboutandunderstandtheeffectsoftheBigFivepersonality dimensionsonindividualpreferencesandoutcomes.

Instructions (Large Class)

BelowareseveralquestionsrelatingtotheBigFivepersonalitydimensionsandvariouspreferencesoroutcomes. Answereachofthesequestionsrelyingonyourpersonalexperienceorbestguess.Later,theinstructorwillshowyou theanswersbasedonscholarlyresults.YouwillNOTbegradedonthisexercise,butitmayhelpyoutobetter understandtheeffectofpersonalityonhumanbehaviorandpreferences.

Instructions (Small Class)

Step1:Theinstructorwillorganizestudentsintoteams.Membersofeachteamworktogethertoanswereachofthese questionsrelatingtotheBigFivepersonalitydimensionsandvariouspreferencesoroutcomes. Step2:Theinstructorwillrevealtheanswersbasedonscholarlyresults.(Note:theinstructormightcreatea competitiontoseewhichteamhasthemostanswerscorrect.)

Exercise Answers
Question1:WhichtwoBigFivepersonalitydimensionsarepositivelyassociatedwithenjoymentofworkplacehumor? Answer:Extroversionandagreeablenesshavethehighestcorrelationwithattitudestowardhavingfunatwork. Source:Karletal,Isfunforeveryone?Personalitydifferencesinhealthcareprovidersattitudestowardfun, JournalofHealthandHumanServicesAdministration,Spring2007,pp.409447

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Question2:Listedbelowareseveraljobs.Pleasechecknomorethantwo(2)personalitydimensionsthatyoubelieve arepositivelyassociatedwithpreferencesforeachoccupation. Answer: Budgetanalyst:Conscientiousness Corporateexecutive:Extroversion Engineer:Opennesstoexperience Journalist:Opennesstoexperience Lifeinsuranceagent:Extroversion Nurse:Extroversionandagreeableness Physician:Extroversionandagreeableness Productionsupervisor:Conscientiousness Publicrelationsdirector:Opennesstoexperience Researchanalyst:opennesstoexperience Schoolteacher:extroversionandagreeableness Sculptor:opennesstoexperience Sources:Furnham,A.,(2001)VocationalpreferenceandPO1it:Re1lectionsonHollandsTheoryofVocational Choice,AppliedPsychology:AnInternationalReview,50(1),pp.529;Tett,RobertP.,andDawnD.Burnett."A personalitytraitbasedinteractionistmodelofjobperformance."JournalofAppliedPsychology88,no.3(2003): 500517;Barrick,M.R.MurrayR.,M.K.MichaelK.Mount,andR.RashmiGupta."Metaanalysisoftherelationship betweenthe1ivefactormodelofpersonalityandHolland'soccupationaltypes."Personnelpsychology56,no.1 (2003):45. NOTE:Thereisongoingdebateregardingtheassociationbetweenvocationalpreferenceandpersonality.Sullivan &Hanson(2004)reportthatsubdimensionsoftheBig5arebetterpredictorsofvocationalinterestthanarethe overalldimensions(e.g.subdimensionsofextroversionsuchasenthusiasmandsociability). Assignmentofsomeofthesepersonalitydimensionstospeci1icoccupationsmaybebasedonlimiteddata.Also, althoughtheseareidenti1iedasthemostsigni1icantpersonalitypredictors,other1ivefactordimensionsalsolikely haveasigni1icantin1luenceonoccupationalpreferences.Furthermore Question3:Rankorder(1=highest;5=lowest)theBigFivepersonalitydimensionsintermsofhowmuchyouthinkthey predictapersonsdegreeoflifesatisfaction.(Note:personalitydimensionsarerankedbytheirabsoluteeffect,soignore thenegativeorpositivedirectionofassociation). RANK 1 2 3/4 5 PERSONALITYDIMENSION Neuroticism(negativeassociation) Conscientiousness Extroversion&agreeableness Opennesstoexperience

Source:DeNeve,K.M.,andH.Cooper."TheHappyPersonality:AMetaAnalysisof137PersonalityTraitsand SubjectiveWellBeing."PsychologicalBulletin124(1998):197229.

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

TEAM EXERCISE 2-5: COMPARING CULTURAL VALUES

Purpose
Thisexerciseisdesignedtohelpstudentstodeterminetheextentthattheyholdsimilarassumptionsaboutthevalues thatdominateinothercountries.

Instructions (Small Class)

Thenamesintheleftcolumnrepresentlabelsthatamajorconsultingprojectidenti1iedwithbusinesspeopleina particularcountry,basedonitsnationalcultureandvalues.Thesenamesappearinalphabeticalorder.Intheright columnarethenamesofcountries,alsoinalphabeticalorder,correspondingtothelabelsintheleftcolumn. Step1: Workingalone,studentswillconnectthelabelswiththecountriesbyrelyingonyourperceptionsofthese countries.Eachlabelisassociatedwithonlyonecountry,soeachlabelwillbeconnectedtoonlyonecountry,andvice versa.Drawalinetoconnectthepairs,orputthelabelnumberbesidethecountryname. Step2: Theinstructorwillformteamsof4or5members.Membersofeachteamwillcomparetheirresultsandtryto reachconsensusonacommonsetofconnectingpairs. Step3: Teamsortheinstructorwillposttheresultsforalltoseetheextentthatstudentsholdcommonopinionsabout businesspeopleinothercultures.Classdiscussioncanthenconsiderthereasonswhytheresultsaresosimilaror different,aswellastheimplicationsoftheseresultsforworkinginaglobalworkenvironment.

Instructions (Large Class)

Step1:Workingalone,studentswillconnectthelabelswiththecountriesbyrelyingonyourperceptionsofthese countries.Eachlabelisassociatedwithonlyonecountry,soeachlabelwillbeconnectedtoonlyonecountry,andvice versa.Drawalinetoconnectthepairs,orputthelabelnumberbesidethecountryname. Step2:Askingforashowofhands,theinstructorwill1indoutwhichcountryisidenti1iedbymoststudentswitheach label.Theinstructorwillthenpostthecorrectanswer.

Comments for Instructors

Theexhibitonthenextpageofthisinstructorsguideshowsthecorrectanswers;thatis,thecountrythattheconsulting groupassignedtoeachofthelabels.ThepageaftershowstheresultsofthisexerciseintwoofMBAclasses(40 studentsineachclass).Studentsenjoysharingeachothersperceptionsaboutthevaluesheldbypeopleinother countries,evenwhenpeoplefromthosecountriesareintheclass.(Ourclassincludedstudentsandinstructorsfrom morethanadozencountries,includingsevencountriesonthelist.) Keepinmindthattheanswersonthenextpagedonotnecessarilyre1lecttheculturalvaluesheldbymostpeople. Instead,theywerelabelledbytheresearchersbasedonsurveysofmanybusinesspeopleinseveralcountries.Thus, somelabelsmightnot1ittheactualculturalvalues. Oneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofthisexerciseisthedegreetowhichtheentireclassagreesonaculturalvalue,as wellastheextenttowhichpeopleagreeonthesamevalueforaparticularcountry.Inourclasses(inSingaporeand Australia),Germany,theUnitedStates,India,Taiwan,andChinawereassignedtothecorrectlabelbyatleast30percent oftheclass.Incontrast,Brazil,Canada,andNewZealandhadfairlylowagreementfromstudentsagainstthestudys list(seeclassresultstwopagesforward).

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Thisexerciseevokedlivelydebatesamongstudentsinteams,aswellasinclasswhenthecorrectscoreswere presented.Themessagehereisquiteclearbytheendoftheexercise:thatpeopleholdcommonopinions(stereotypes orbrandimages)aboutthevaluesheldbypeopleinsome(butnotall)countries.Theinterestingquestioniswhysome countriesDONThaveawellknownculturalvalues?Studentsareusuallyquicktoofferseveralexplanations,butthe correctanswerremainselusive.

Answer to Comparing Cultural Values Exercise

# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Country (Values) Label Affable Humanists Ancient Modernizers Commercial Catalysts Conceptual Strategists Efficient Manufacturers Ethical Statesmen Informal Egalitarians Modernizing Traditionalists Optimistic Entrepreneurs Quality Perfectionists Rugged Individualists Serving Merchants Tolerant Traders Country Assigned that Label Brazil China Singapore France Taiwan Canada New Zealand United Kingdom United States Germany Australia India Netherlands

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Results of Comparing Cultural Stereotypes Exercise in two MBA Classes

# Country (Values) Label Correct Answer Approx. Percent with Correct Answer (N=80)
2% 30 15 20 40 10 14 25 35 45 38 35 20

Other Country that Students Most Identified with that Label

New Zealand (25%) Brazil (18%) Taiwan (14%) United States (23%) China (15%) United Kingdom (23%) Netherlands (25%) China (25%) Taiwan (20%) Singapore (25%) New Zealand (15%) Brazil (15%) New Zealand (12%)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Affable Humanists Ancient Modernizers Commercial Catalysts Conceptual Strategists Efficient Manufacturers Ethical Statesmen Informal Egalitarians Modernizing Traditionalists Optimistic Entrepreneurs Quality Perfectionists Rugged Individualists Serving Merchants Tolerant Traders

Brazil China Singapore France Taiwan Canada New Zealand United Kingdom United States Germany Australia India Netherlands

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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

TEAM EXERCISE 2-6: ETHICS DILEMMA VIGNETTES

Purpose
Thisexerciseisdesignedtomakeyouawareoftheethicaldilemmaspeoplefaceinvariousbusinesssituations,aswell asthecompetingprinciplesandvaluesthatoperateinthesesituations.

Instructions (Small Class)

Theinstructorwillformteamsof4or5students.Teammemberswillreadeachcasebelowanddiscusstheextentto whichthecompanysactionineachcasewasethical.Teamsshouldbepreparedtojustifytheirevaluationusingethics principlesandperceivedmoralintensityofeachincident.

Instructions (Large Class)

Workingalone,studentsreadeachcasebelowanddeterminetheextenttowhichthecompanysactionineachcasewas ethical.Theinstructorwilluseashowofhandstodeterminetheextenttowhichstudentsbelievecaserepresentsan ethicaldilemma(highorlowmoralintensity),andtheextenttowhichthemainpeopleorcompanyineachincident actedethically.

Case One
Anemployeewhoworkedforamajorfoodretailerwroteaweblog(blog)and,inoneofhiswritings,complainedthat hisbosswouldntlethimgohomewhenhefeltsickandthathisdistrictmanagerrefusedtopromotehimbecauseofhis dreadlocks.Hisblognamedtheemployer,buttheemployeedidntusehisrealname.Althoughallblogsareonthe Internet,theemployeeclaimsthathiswaslowpro1ileandthatitdidntshowupwhendoingaGooglesearchofhis nameorthecompany.Still,theemployersomehowdiscoveredtheblog,1iguredouttheemployeesrealname,and1ired himforspeakingillwillofthecompanyinapublicdomain.

Case Two
Computerprintermanufacturersusuallysellprintersatalowmarginovercostandgeneratemuchmoreincomefrom subsequentsalesofthehighmargininkcartridgesrequiredforeachprinter.Oneglobalprintermanufacturernow designsitsprinterssotheyonlyworkwithinkcartridgesmadeinthesameregion.Inkcartridgespurchasedinthe UnitedStateswillnotworkforthesameprintermodelsoldinEurope,forexample.Thisregioncodingofink cartridgesdoesnotimproveperformance.Rather,thisactionpreventsconsumersandgreymarketersfrombuyingthe productatalowerpriceinanotherregion.Thecompanysaysthisactionallowsittomaintainstablepriceswithina regionratherthancontinuallychangingpricesduetocurrency1luctuations.

Case Three
Forthepastfewyears,thedesigndepartmentofasmall(40employee)companyhasbeenusingaparticularsoftware program,butthethreeemployeeswhousethesoftwarehavebeencomplainingformorethanayearthatthesoftware isoutofdateandisslowingdowntheirperformance.Thedepartmentagreedtoswitchtoacompetingsoftware program,costingseveralthousanddollars.However,thenextversionwontbereleasedforsixmonthsandbuyingthe currentversionwillnotallowmuchdiscounttowardthenextversion.Thecompanyhasputtinginadvancedordersfor thenextversion.Meanwhile,oneemployeewasabletogetacopyofthecurrentversionofthesoftwarefromafriendin theindustry.Thecompanyhasallowedthethreeemployeestousethiscurrentversionofthesoftwareeventhough theydidnotpayforit.

Case Four
JudyPriceisapopulartalkshowradiopersonalityandopinionatedcommentatoronthemorningphoneinshowofa popularradiostationinalargeU.S.city.MsPriceismarriedtoJohnTremble,anattorneywhowasrecentlyelected mayorofthecityeventhoughhehadnopreviousexperienceinpublicof1ice.TheradiostationsBoardofDirectorsis veryconcernedthatthestationsperceivedobjectivitywillbecompromisedifMs.Priceremainsonairasa
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Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

commentatorandtalkshowhostwhileherhusbandholdssuchapublicposition.Forexample,theradiostation managerbelievesthatMsPricegaveminimalattentiontoanincidentinwhichenvironmentalgroupscriticizedthecity foritsslowprogressonrecycling.MsPricedeniedthatherviewsarebiasedandthattheincidentdidntmeritasmuch attentionasotherissuesthatparticularweek.ToeasetheBoardsconcerns,thestationmanagerhastransferredMs Pricefromatalkshowhostandcommentatortothehourlynewsreportingposition,wherethemostofthescriptis writtenbyothers.Althoughtechnicallyalowerposition,MsPricestotalsalarypackageremainsthesame.MsPriceis nowseekingprofessionaladvicetodeterminewhethertheradiostationsactionrepresentsaformofdiscriminationon thebasisofmaritalstatus..

Comments for Instructors

Thereis,ofcourse,norightanswertothisexercise,buttheprocessandapplicationofethicsprinciplesisimportantin thediscussion.Studentstendtogetintodebatesaboutthemeritsandproblemswitheachactivity,buttheyalsoshould digdeeperintothethreeethicsprinciples,andthemoralintensityofeachissue.Hereareafewcommentsabouteach case.: CaseOne:ThiscasereferstoanemployeewhoworkedatStarbucksinToronto,Canada.Chancesarethatmost studentswillsidewiththeemployeeonthegroundsthathehasfreedomofspeech.Yetsome(ortocounterbalancethe discussion,theinstructor)shouldcommentonthecompanysrighttopreserveitsreputationbypreventing disagreementsfrombeingairedpublicly.Also,theemployeewasgivinghissideofthestorywithoutthecompanysside provided.Thereismoralintensityhereiftheemployeesstorybecamewellknownacrosstheinternet.Itmakesclaims ofemploymentdiscrimination,whichmaypreventsomepeoplefromapplyingtoStarbucksandmaydiscouragesome sociallyconsciousconsumersfromvisitingStarbucks. CaseTwo:Thisisalsoatruecase,involvingHewlettPackard(HP).(SeeDavidPringleandSteveStecklow,Electronics withborders,WallStreetJournal,17January2005,B1.)Studentsmightseebothsidesoftheissuehere.Althoughthe senseoffreedomtopurchasegloballymaydominatethediscussion,somestudentsmightagreewiththeconcernthat companiesarebuffetedbycurrency1luctuationstosuchanextentthattheycannotadaptquicklyenoughtoprice changesandshiftingsupplieswiththosecurrency1luctuations.Forinstance,alargebuyerofHPprinterinkinEurope mightshipmuchofthatinktotheUnitedStatesiftheEurorisesappreciativelyagainsttheU.S.dollar,therebycausinga shortageofprinterinkinEurope.Othersmayarguethatthissupplyshiftisasmallportionofthesupplyofink cartridgesinmostregions,soHPsactionsareunfair.Intermsofmoralintensity,studentsmayrealizethatfewpeople areaffectedbyHPsrestrictionsandthatithaslowproximity(notnearby),somoralintensityislow. CaseThree:Thiscaseisadaptedfromarealsituationinanotherindustry.Itisundoubtedlycommonenough,andthere areseveralvariationsofsoftwarepiracy.Thecasereferstoapracticethatsoftwarecompanieswouldeasilyconcludeis softwarepiracyandthereforeobviouslyunethical.Perhapsmoststudentswouldconcur,althoughmanywouldsupport thecompanysactiononthegroundsthatthesoftware1irmwouldreceiveanunfairwindfall(havingonepurchasejust beforethenewversionisreleased).Moralintensity1iguresstronglyhere.Thecompanyissmallandonlyintendsto purchaseafewcopies.Theperiodofillegaluseisalsoonlysixmonths. CaseFour:Thiscaseisbasedonadiscriminationcaseundersimilarcircumstances.Atissueisthestationsrightto operateabusinessthatmaintainsitsintegritytothelisteners,andtheindividualsrighttoperformherjobwithout considerationofmaritalstatus.Thelawinthiscasetendstosidewiththeemployee:employerscannotusebroad categorizations(suchasmaritalstatus)tomakedecisionsaboutindividualemployees.Rather,theymustrelyon informationspeci1ictothatperson.Atthesametime,theotherpointofviewisthatthestationdidrelyoninformation speci1ictothisperson;maritalstatuswassimplyonepieceofinformationintheirdeterminationofrisk.Atsomepoint, theindividualsrightmustbelimitedbytheemployersrighttominimizepotentialdamagetothegoodwillofits business.

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2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2-7: ARE YOU INTROVERTED OR EXTROVERTED?

NOTE: This self-assessment may be completed at the Online Learning Center.

Purpose
Thisselfassessmentisdesignedtohelpstudentstoestimatetheextenttowhichyouareintrovertedorextroverted.

Overview and Instructions

Thestatementsinthisscalerepresentthe10itemintroversionextroversionscaleintheInternationalPersonalityItem Pool.Thisistheshortversion,soitestimatesoverallintroversionextroversionbutnotspeci1icfacetswithinthe personalitydimension.StudentscanusethescoringkeyinAppendixBtocalculatetheirresults,orcompletethescale onthestudentCDforselfscoring.Thisexerciseiscompletedalonesostudentsassessthemselveshonestlywithout concernsofsocialcomparison.Classdiscussionwillfocusonthemeaningandimplicationsofextroversionand introversioninorganizations.

Feedback for the IPIP Introversion-Extroversion Scale

[NOTE:ThefollowinginformationisalsoprovidedinAppendixBand/ortheonlinelearningcenter.] Extroversioncharacterizespeoplewhoareoutgoing,talkative,sociable,andassertive.Itincludesseveralfacets, includingfriendliness,gregariousness,assertiveness,activitylevel,excitementseeking,andcheerfulness.Theopposite ofextroversionisintroversion,whichreferstothepersonalitycharacteristicsofbeingquiet,shy,andcautious. Extrovertsgettheirenergyfromtheouterworld(peopleandthingsaroundthem),whereasintrovertsgettheirenergy fromtheinternalworld,suchaspersonalre1lectiononconceptsandideas.Introvertsaremoreinclinedtodirecttheir intereststoideasthantosocialevents. Scoresonthisscalerangefrom0to40.Lowscoresindicateintroversion;highscoresindicateextroversion.Thenorms inthefollowingtableareestimatedfromresultsofearlyadults(under30yearsold)inScotlandandundergraduate psychologystudentsintheUnitedStates.However,introversionextroversionnormsvaryfromonegrouptothenext; thebestnormsarelikelybasedontheentireclassyouareattendingorwithpaststudentsinthiscourse.

Score 35-40 28-34 21-27 7-20 0-6

Interpretation High extroversion Moderate extroversion In-between extroversion and introversion Moderate introversion High introversion

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2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2-8: WHAT ARE YOUR DOMINANT VALUES?

NOTE: This self-assessment may be completed at the Online Learning Center.

Purpose
ThepurposeofthisselfassessmenttohelpstudentsestimatetheirdominantvaluesinSchwartzsValuesmodel.

Overview and Instructions

Valuesarestable,evaluativebeliefsthatguideourpreferencesforoutcomesorcoursesofactioninavarietyof situations.Theyareperceptionsaboutwhatisgoodorbad,rightorwrong.Valuesin1luenceourchoiceofgoalsandthe meansforachievingthosegoals.Wearrangeourpersonalvaluesintoahierarchyofpreferences,calledavaluesystem. Eachpersonsuniquevaluesystemtendstobestableandlonglastingbecauseitwasdevelopedandreinforcedthrough socializationfromparents,religiousinstitutions,friends,personalexperiences,andthesocietyinwhichwelive.Inthis questionnairestudentsaretoaskthemselves:"WhatvaluesareimportanttoMEasguidingprinciplesinMYlife,and whatvaluesarelessimportanttome?"Therearetwolistsofvaluesinthisselfassessment.Thesevaluescomefrom differentcultures.Intheparenthesesfollowingeachvalueisanexplanationtohelpstudentsunderstanditsmeaning.

Feedback for Schwartzs Dominant Values Scale

Thisinstrumentestimatespreferencesforabroadrangeofpersonalvalues.Thesevaluesaregroupedinto10broad domainsofvalues,describedbelow.Scoresoneachdomainpotentiallyrangefrom1to+7.However,studentsare unlikelytohavesuchanextremescoreonanydomainbecausetheselfassessmentaskedthemtousetheextreme responsessparingly.Instead,theresultsshowninthisinstrumentgivestudentsanestimateoftheirvaluesystem.They indicatetheirrelativepreferenceacrossthebroadrangeofvalues. POWER:Socialstatusandprestige,controlordominanceoverpeopleandresources ACHIEVEMENT:Personalsuccessthroughdemonstratingcompetenceaccordingtosocialstandards HEDONISM:Pleasureorsensuousgrati1icationforoneself STIMULATION:Excitement,novelty,andchallengeinlife SELFDIRECTION:Independentthoughtandactionchoosing,creating,exploring UNIVERSALISM:Understanding,appreciation,tolerance,andprotectionforthewelfareofallpeopleandfor BENEVOLENCE:Preservationandenhancementofthewelfareofpeoplewithwhomoneisinfrequentpersonalcontact TRADITION:Respect,commitment,andacceptanceofthecustomsandideasthattraditionalcultureorreligionprovide CONFORMITY:Restraintofactions,inclinations,andimpulseslikelytoupsetorharmothersandviolatesocial expectationsornorms SECURITY:Safety,harmony,andstabilityofsociety,ofrelationships,andofself

Score +5 to +7 +2 to +4 -1 to +1

Interpretation High importance Moderate importance Low importance

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2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2-9: INDIVIDUALISMCOLLECTIVISM SCALE

NOTE: This self-assessment may be completed at the Online Learning Center.

Purpose
Theobjectiveofthisselfassessmentisforstudentstoestimatetheirlevelsofindividualismandcollectivism.

Overview and Instructions

Crossculturalvalueshavebecomeanimportantpartoforganizationallifeduetoglobalizationandanincreasingly multiculturalworkforce.Organizationalbehaviorresearchershavestudiedseveralcrossculturalvalues,butnonehas hadasmuchattentionasthetwomeasuredinthisselfassessment:individualismandcollectivism.Atonetime,experts thoughtthatthesetwocrosscrossculturalvalueswereopposites.Now,weunderstandthattheyrepresentseparate valuesthataregenerallyunrelatedtoeachother. Studentsareaskedtoreadeachofthestatementsinthisinstrumentandselecttheresponsethattheybelievebest indicateshowwellthesestatementsdescribethem.Thisinstrumenthas16statements.

Feedback for the Individualism-Collectivism Scale

Eachscalehasapotentialscorerangingfrom8to40points.Higherscoresindicatethatthepersonhasahigherlevelof eachcrossculturalvalue.

Individualism
Individualismreferstohowmuchwevalueourindependenceandpersonaluniqueness.Highlyindividualistpeople valuepersonalfreedom,selfsuf1iciency,controlovertheirownlives,andappreciationoftheiruniquequalitiesthat distinguishthemfromothers.Thefollowinggraphshowstherangeofindividualismingeneral.However,keepinmind thattheaveragelevelofindividualismishigherinsomecultures(suchastheUnitedStates)thaninothers.

Score 31 to 40 23 to 30 8 to 22

Interpretation High individualism Moderate individualism Low individualism

Collectivism
Collectivismreferstohowmuchwevalueourdutytogroupstowhichwebelong,andtogroupharmony.Highly collectivistpeoplede1inethemselvesbytheirgroupmembershipandvalueharmoniousrelationshipswithinthose groups.Thefollowinggraphshowstherangeofcollectivismingeneral.However,keepinmindthattheaveragelevelof collectivismislowerinsomecultures(suchastheUnitedStates)thaninothers.

Score 31 to 40 23 to 30 8 to 22

Interpretation High collectivism Moderate collectivism Low collectivism

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2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2-10: ESTIMATING YOUR WORK LOCUS OF CONTROL

NOTE: This self-assessment may be completed at the Online Learning Center.

Purpose
Theobjectiveofthisselfassessmentisforstudentstoestimatetheirlevelofworklocusofcontrol.

Overview and Instructions

TheWorkLocusofControlScaleisdesignedtoassesscontrolbeliefsintheworkplace.Individualswhofeelthatthey areverymuchinchargeoftheirowndestinyintheworkplacehaveaninternallocusofcontrol;thosewhothinkthat eventsintheirworklifeareduemainlytofate/luckorpowerfulothershaveanexternallocusofcontrol. Foreachstatement,studentsareaskedtoselecttheresponsethatbestindicatesthedegreetowhichtheyagreeor disagreewiththatstatement.Thisinstrumenthas16statements,whichconcernbeliefsaboutjobsingeneral.Theydo notreferonlytothepersonspresentjob.

Feedback for the Work Locus of Control Scale

Scoresonthescalecanrangefrom16to96.Higherscoresindicatethatyouhaveahigherexternalworklocusof control.Lowerscoresindicatemoreofaninternalworklocusofcontrol.Theaveragescoreforemployeesandstudents inCanadaandtheUnitedStatesis40.

Score
70 to 96 43 to 69 16 to 42

Interpretation
External locus of control In-between locus of control Internal locus of control

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2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved

Chapter 2: Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2-11: IDENTIFYING YOUR GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY

NOTE: This self-assessment may be completed at the Online Learning Center.

Purpose
Thepurposeofthisselfassessmentistohelpstudentsunderstandtheconceptofselfef1icacyandtoestimatetheir generalselfef1icacy.

Overview
Selfef1icacyreferstoapersonsbeliefthatheorshehastheability,motivation,andresourcestocompleteatask successfully.Selfef1icacyisusuallyconceptualizedasasituationspeci1icbelief.Youmaybelievethatyoucanperforma certaintaskinonesituation,butarelesscon1identwiththattaskinanothersituation.However,thereisalsoevidence thatpeopledevelopamoregeneralselfef1icacy.

Instructions
Studentsareaskedtoreadeachofthestatementsandcircletheresponsethatbest1itstheirpersonalbelief.Thisself assessmentiscompletedalonesothatstudentsratethemselveshonestlywithoutconcernsofsocialcomparison. However,classdiscussionwillfocusonthemeaningofselfef1icacy,howthisscalemightbeappliedinorganizations, andthelimitationsofmeasuringselfef1icacyinworksettings.

Comments for Instructors

Oneissueiswherethisscalemaybeappliedinorganizationalsettings.Itisprobablyeasytofaketheresultspeople whowanttolookgoodwillanswereachitemsothatahighselfef1icacyscoreresults.Thus,itisprobably inappropriateforemploymentselection.Instead,studentsmightsuggestthatthisscalemaybeusefulforcoachingand careerdevelopmentwhereemployeesaremorewillingtobehonestwiththemselves. Studentscanidentifyseveralwaystoimproveselfef1icacy.Onewayisthroughsupportivecoachingfromleadersand coworkers.Someonewithlowselfef1icacymaydevelopastrongercandoattitudewhenhisorhersupervisor indicatesastrongbeliefintheemployeespotential.(Thisisdiscussedunderthetopicofefforttoperformance expectancyinthemotivationchapterandselfful1illingprophecyinthechapteronperceptions.)Feedbackmayalso increaseselfef1icacywhereemployeeslearnthattheiractionsarehavingafavorableresult.Forexample,knowingthat youareservingcustomerswellwouldincreaseyourselfef1icacyregardingthiscustomerservicetask.Thethird strategyistomatchpeoplewithjobsforwhichtheypossessthenecessarycompetencies.Themorewepossessthe necessaryskillsandknowledge,themorecon1idencewehaveinperformingthetask. Scoresonthegeneralselfef1icacyscalerangefrom8to40.Higherscoresindicatethatyouhaveahighergeneralself ef1icacy.ThefollowinggraphshowstherangeofscorescomparedtoundergraduatepsychologystudentsintheUnited States(77%female;averageage=23).

Score
Above 34 32-34 28-31 24-27 Below 24

Interpretation
High self-efficacy Above average Average Below average Low self-efficacy

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2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved