Preliminary General Maths Text Book

MATHS Quest
PRELIMINARY COURSE
General Mathematics
Robert Rowland
Second edition published 2008 by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064 First edition published 2000 Typeset in 10.5/12.5 pt Times John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2000, 2008 The moral rights of the author have been asserted. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data Rowland, Robert, 1963. Maths quest general mathematics: preliminary course. 2nd ed. For secondary school students. ISBN 978 0 7314 0570 1 (student edition) ISBN 978 0 7314 0571 8 (teacher edition) 1. Mathematics Textbooks. I. Title. 510
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL). Reproduction and communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher. Cover photograph and internal design images: Digital Vision Illustrated by the Wiley Art Studio Printed in China by Printplus Limited 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Contents
Introduction viii About eBookPLUS x Acknowledgements xi
10 Quick Questions 2
CHAPTER 1
Earning money 1
Are you ready? 2 Calculating salary payments 3 Exercise 1A 4 Calculating wages 6 Exercise 1B 8 10 Quick Questions 1 11 Commission and royalties 11 Exercise 1C 14 Payment by piece 16 Exercise 1D 17 10 Quick Questions 2 18 Working overtime 19 Exercise 1E 21 Investigation Investigating government payments 24 Additions to and deductions from gross pay 25 Exercise 1F 27 Investigation Examining bank fees and taxes 30 10 Quick Questions 3 31 Budgeting 31 Exercise 1G 35 Summary 40 Chapter review 41 Practice examination questions 43
69 Using ratios 69 Exercise 2F 72 Summary 74 Chapter review 75 Practice examination questions 76
CHAPTER 3
Applications of area and volume 77
Are you ready? 78 Review of area 79 Exercise 3A 81 Investigation Maximising an area of land 84 Calculating irregular areas from a field diagram 85 Investigation Land survey 86 Exercise 3B 87 10 Quick Questions 1 88 Solid shapes 89 Exercise 3C 91 Surface area 92 Exercise 3D 94 10 Quick Questions 2 96 Volume of a prism 97 Investigation Exploring the volume of a prism 97 Exercise 3E 99 Volume of other solids 103 Exercise 3F 105 Summary 108 Chapter review 109 Practice examination questions 112
CHAPTER 2
Units of measurement 45
Are you ready? 46
Units of measurement 47 Exercise 2A 50 Relative error 52 Exercise 2B 54 Investigation Measuring heights 56 10 Quick Questions 1 56 Significant figures 57 Exercise 2C 60 Rates 61 Exercise 2D 65 Percentage change 67 Exercise 2E 68
CHAPTER 4
Basic algebraic skills
Are you ready? 114
113
General number patterns 115 Exercise 4A 117 Number pattern notation 119 Exercise 4B 122 10 Quick Questions 1 124 Adding and subtracting like terms 125 Exercise 4C 126 Substitution 127 Exercise 4D 128
iv
10 Quick Questions 2 130
Multiplication and division of algebraic expressions 131 Exercise 4E 133 Solving linear equations 134 Exercise 4F 137 Equations arising from substitution 139 Exercise 4G 141 Summary 143 Chapter review 144 Practice examination questions 146
CHAPTER 5
Statistics and society
Are you ready? 148
147
Analysing data 149 Investigation Why statistical investigation? 149 Investigation A statistical investigation 1 149 Statistical processes 150 Investigation Posing questions 150 Investigation A statistical investigation 2 150 Exercise 5A 152 Investigation A statistical investigation 3 153 Exercise 5B 155 Investigation A statistical investigation 4 155 Exercise 5C 159 Investigation A statistical investigation 5 159 Investigation A statistical investigation 6 159 Investigation A statistical investigation 7 159 Quality control 160 Exercise 5D 162 Privacy and ethical issues 163 Investigation Privacy issues 163 Investigation Organisations that use statistics 164 Summary 165 Chapter review 166
Target populations and sampling 169 Investigation Gallup poll 169 Investigation Identifying the target population 169 Exercise 6A 172 Investigation Census or sample 174 Population characteristics 174 Investigation Population characteristics 175 Exercise 6B 177 Investigation Choosing a sample 179 10 Quick Questions 1 179 Bias 180 Investigation Bias in statistics 181 Investigation Biased sampling 182 Investigation Spreadsheets creating misleading graphs 182 Exercise 6C 184 Investigation Bias 185 Types of data 186 Exercise 6D 188 10 Quick Questions 2 191 Estimating populations 191 Investigation Estimating a population 192 Exercise 6E 193 Summary 194 Chapter review 195 Practice examination questions 196
CHAPTER 7
Modelling linear relationships 199
Are you ready? 200
CHAPTER 6
Data collection and sampling 167
Are you ready? 168
Graphing linear functions 201 Exercise 7A 204 Investigation Graph of height versus age 205 Gradient and intercept 205 Exercise 7B 209 Drawing graphs using gradient and intercept 211 Exercise 7C 214 10 Quick Questions 1 215 Graphing variations 216 Exercise 7D 217 Investigation Currency conversions 218 Step and piecewise functions 218 Exercise 7E 220 Simultaneous equations 221 Exercise 7F 222
v
Summary 224 Chapter review 225 Practice examination questions 227 Stem-and-leaf plots 302 Exercise 9E 306 Five-number summaries 308 Exercise 9F 312 Summary 315 Chapter review 316 Practice examination questions 319
CHAPTER 8
Investing money 229
Are you ready? 230
Calculation of simple interest 231 Exercise 8A 234 10 Quick Questions 1 236 Graphing simple interest functions 236 Exercise 8B 239 Calculation of compound interest 241 Exercise 8C 244 10 Quick Questions 2 247 Calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values 248 Exercise 8D 251 Graphing compound interest functions 253 Exercise 8E 255 Share dividends 257 Exercise 8F 258 Graphing share performance 260 Exercise 8G 262 Investigation Researching share prices 263 Inflation and appreciation 264 Exercise 8H 265 Summary 267 Chapter review 268 Practice examination questions 270
CHAPTER 10
Summary statistics
Are you ready? 322
321
Calculating the mean 323 Investigation Average what does it mean? 323 Exercise 10A 328 Standard deviation 333 Exercise 10B 337 Median and mode 341 Exercise 10C 345 10 Quick Questions 1 349 Best summary statistics 350 Exercise 10D 351 Investigation Wage rise 354 Investigation Best summary statistics and comparison of samples 354 Summary 355 Chapter review 356 Practice examination questions 361
CHAPTER 9
Displaying single data sets 271
Are you ready? 272
CHAPTER 11
Similarity of two-dimensional figures 363
Are you ready? 364
Frequency tables 273 Exercise 9A 276 Types of graphs 277 Exercise 9B 280 Investigation Choice of graph 283 Investigation Producing graphs using technology 283 Statistical graphs 283 Exercise 9C 287 10 Quick Questions 1 291 Range and interquartile range 292 Exercise 9D 297
Similar figures and scale factors 365 Exercise 11A 367 Investigation Enlarging a figure 369 Investigation Investigating scale factors 369 Investigation Similar triangles 370 Solving problems using similar figures 371 Exercise 11B 372 Investigation Scale drawing of the classroom 373 House plans 374 Exercise 11C 376 Investigation House plans 378
vi
Summary 379 Chapter review 380 Practice examination questions 382 Proportional diagrams 450 Investigation Checking with a proportional diagram 450 Investigation Using proportional diagrams 450 Summary 451 Chapter review 452 Practice examination questions 454
CHAPTER 12
Taxation
Are you ready?
383
384
Calculating allowable deductions 385 Exercise 12A 388 Taxable income 390 Exercise 12B 392 10 Quick Questions 1 395 Medicare levy 395 Exercise 12C 397 Investigation Medicare levy 397 Calculating tax 398 Exercise 12D 402 10 Quick Questions 2 404 Calculating GST and VAT 405 Exercise 12E 407 Graphing tax functions 409 Exercise 12F 409 Summary 411 Chapter review 412 Practice examination questions 414
CHAPTER 14
The language of chance
Are you ready? 456
455
CHAPTER 13
Right-angled triangles 415
Are you ready? 416 History of mathematics Pythagoras of Samos (circa 580 BC500 BC) 417
Pythagoras theorem 418 Exercise 13A 421 Calculating trigonometric ratios 423 Investigation Looking at the tangent ratio 423 Investigation Looking at the sine ratio 425 Investigation Looking at the cosine ratio 426 Exercise 13B 429 10 Quick Questions 1 430 Finding an unknown side 431 Exercise 13C 435 10 Quick Questions 2 438 Finding angles 438 Exercise 13D 442 Angles of elevation and depression 445 Exercise 13E 448 Investigation Calculation of heights 449
Informal description of chance 457 Exercise 14A 460 Investigation Common descriptions of chance 462 Sample space 462 Exercise 14B 464 Investigation Matching actual and expected results 465 10 Quick Questions 1 466 Tree diagrams 467 Exercise 14C 470 Investigation Two-stage experiments 471 Equally likely outcomes 472 Exercise 14D 474 10 Quick Questions 2 475 Using the fundamental counting principle 476 Exercise 14E 479 Summary 481 Chapter review 482 Practice examination questions 484
CHAPTER 15
Relative frequency and probability 485
Are you ready? 486 Relative frequency 487 Exercise 15A 489 Investigation Researching relative frequencies 491 Single event probability 492 Exercise 15B 494 Investigation Comparing probabilities with actual results 497 10 Quick Questions 1 498
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Writing probabilities as decimals and percentages 499 Exercise 15C 500 Range of probabilities 502 Exercise 15D 504 10 Quick Questions 2 506 Investigation Graphing results 506 Complementary events 507 Exercise 15E 509 10 Quick Questions 3 511 Summary 512 Chapter review 513 Practice examination questions 514 Glossary 515 Answers 521 Index 559
Introduction
Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary course is the first book in a series specifically designed for the General Mathematics Stage 6 Syllabus starting in 2000. This course replaces the current syllabuses for Mathematics in Society (1981) and Mathematics in Practice (1989). There are ve new areas of study: Financial mathematics Data analysis Measurement Probability Algebraic modelling. This resource contains: a student textbook with accompanying eBookPLUS and a teacher edition with accompanying eGuidePLUS.
Student textbook
Full colour is used throughout to produce clearer graphs and diagrams, to provide bright, stimulating photos and to make navigation through the text easier. Clear, concise theory sections contain worked examples, highlighted important text and remember boxes. Worked examples in a Think/Write format provide a clear explanation of key steps and suggest a presentation for solutions. Exercises contain many carefully graded skills and application problems, including multiple-choice questions. Cross-references to relevant worked examples appear beside the rst matching question throughout the exercises. Investigations, including spreadsheet investigations, provide further learning opportunities through discovery. Sets of 10 Quick Questions allow students to quickly review the concepts just learnt before proceeding further in the chapter. A glossary of mathematical terms is provided to assist students understanding of the terminology introduced in each unit of the course. Words in bold type in the theory sections of each chapter are dened in the glossary at the back of the book. Each chapter concludes with a summary and chapter review exercise, containing questions in a variety of forms (multiple-choice, short-answer and analysis) that help consolidate students learning of new concepts. Practice examination questions provide a ready source of problems for students to use to gain further condence in each topic.
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Technology is fully integrated, in line with Board of Studies recommendations. As well as graphics calculators, Maths Quest features spreadsheets, dynamic geometry software and several graphing packages. Not only does the text promote these technologies as learning tools, but demonstration versions of the programs (with the exception of Microsoft Excel) are also included, as well as hundreds of supporting les on the bonus accompanying online resources. Graphics calculator tips are incorporated throughout the text. All formulae, which are given on the HSC examination formula sheet, are marked with the symbol .
Programs included
Graphmatica: an excellent graphing utility Equation grapher and regression analyser: like a graphics calculator for the PC GrafEq: graphs any relation, including complicated inequalities Poly: for visualising 3D polyhedra and their nets Tess: for producing tessellations and other symmetric planar illustrations TI Connect: calculator screen capture and program transfer CASIO Software FA-123: calculator screen capture and program transfer Cabri Geometry II: dynamic geometry program Adobe Acrobat Reader 4.0
Teacher edition with accompanying eGuidePLUS

The teacher edition textbook contains everything in the student textbook and more. To support teachers assisting students in class, answers appear in red next to most questions in the exercises. Each exercise is annotated with relevant study design dot points. A readily accessible Work program lists all available resources and provides curriculum coverage information. The accompanying teacher eGuidePLUS contains everything in the student eBookPLUS and more. Two tests per chapter, fully worked solutions to WorkSHEETs, the work program and other curriculum advice in editable Word 2000 format are provided. Maths Quest is a rich collection of teaching and learning resources within one package. Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary course, Second edition, provides ample material, such as exercises, analysis questions, investigations, worksheets and technology les, from which teachers may set assessment tasks.
Next generation teaching and learning

About eBookPLUS
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Acknowledgements
The Maths Quest project began in 1997, and the rst edition of this book was printed in 2000. In that time we believe that Maths Quest has become the best-resourced mathematical database in Australian education. I would like to thank all of those people who have supported us with our rst edition. I hope that we have been able to help you in achieving your goals and have also played a part in your successes. Technology has evolved greatly since our rst edition was published. The second edition has evolved from the rst textbook into an interactive resource for both students and teachers. I would like to thank everyone at John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd for giving me the opportunity to do this. There are three people in particular whom I would like to single out for special mention: Jennifer Nolan, whose support for the Maths Quest project and for me personally has made everything possible; Ingrid Kemp, the newest addition to our team, who has brought a new set of eyes to our project and kept the ball rolling thanks Ingrid; and nally Keith Hartmann, who has tirelessly reviewed all of the new material and has completed all of the answer checking thanks Keith I hope youre enjoying retirement! Finally, and most importantly, to my family thank you. Without your support this book and online resources would never have been completed. The author and publisher would like to thank the following copyright holders, organisations and individuals for their assistance and for permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.
Illustrative material
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472, 476(2), 477, 479, 485, 490, 491, 498, 501, 505(2), 510 Purestock Superstock: pp. 11, 142(upper) Queensland Transport: p. 5 of WorkSHEET 11.2/ Reproduced with the permission of Maritime Safety Queensland. Not to be used for navigation. Rubberball Productions: p. 6 Stockbyte: pp. 494, 500 Stockdisc: p. 314.
Software
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following software providers for their assistance and for permission to use their materials. However, the use of such material does not imply that the providers endorse this product in any way. Third party software registered full version ordering information Full versions of third party software may be obtained by contacting the companies listed below. Texas Instruments TI Connect and TI-GRAPHLINK software TI Connect and TI-GRAPHLINK software reproduced with permission of the publisher Texas Instruments Incorporated. TI Connect software available from Texas Instruments Web: http://education.ti.com/us/product/software.html Note: The TI Connectivity cable can be purchased from educational booksellers or calculator suppliers. Program-Link FA-124 Copyright 19992005, CASIO COMPUTER CO., LTD. All rights reserved. fx-9860G Manager PLUS Expired (30 days) Copyright 2006, CASIO COMPUTER CO., LTD. All rights reserved. Distributed by Shriro Australia Pty Ltd 2327 Chaplin Drive Lane Cove NSW 2066 Web: www.casioed.net.au and nd the calculator product range If you are interested in this product after expiry, please contact Shriro Australia Pty Ltd. Graphmatica Reproduced with permission of kSoft, Inc. 345 Montecillo Dr., Walnut Creek, CA 94595-2654. e-mail: ksoft@graphmatica.com Web: http://www.graphmatica.com Software included is for evaluation purposes only. The user is expected to register share-ware if use exceeds 30 days. Order forms are available at www.graphmatica.com/register. txt
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Cabri Geometry II PLUS Reproduced with permission of Cabrilog. Cabrilog 6, Robert Schuman Place 38000 Grenoble FRANCE Web: http://www.cabri.com 1. Due to copyright restrictions, the demo version of Cabri Geometry II Plus must not be used in the classroom for presentation on a regular basis. 2. For site licences contact Cabrilog Grenoble-France at sales@cabri.com or www.cabri.com GrafEq and Poly Evaluation copies of GrafEq and Poly have been included with permission from Pedagoguery Software, Inc. e-mail: peda@peda.com Web: http://www.peda.com Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word and Microsoft PowerPoint Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word and Microsoft PowerPoint are registered trademarks of the Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries. Screenshots reproduced throughout with permission from Microsoft. Every effort has been made to trace the ownership of copyright material. Information that will enable the publisher to trace the copyright holders or to rectify any error or omission in subsequent reprints will be welcome. In such cases, please contact the Permission Section of John Wiley & Sons Australia, who will arrange for the payment of the usual fee.
About the author

Robert Rowland has been teaching Mathematics for over 20 years and currently holds the position of Head teacher, Teaching and learning at Ulladulla High School. He taught at Cabramatta High School from 1985 to 1988 before taking up his appointment at Ulladulla High School in 1989. Robert has successfully taught all levels of Mathematics to Year 12 as well as Computing Studies 712 and Information Processes and Technology. Robert is the coauthor of New South Wales Maths Year 9 Standard and New South Wales Maths Year 10 Standard as well as being the author of Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course and Maths Quest General Mathematics HSC Course.
Earning money
1
syllabus reference
Financial Mathematics 1 Earning money
In this chapter
1A Calculating salary payments 1B Calculating wages 1C Commission and royalties 1D Payment by piece 1E Working overtime 1F Additions to and deductions from gross pay 1G Budgeting
areyou
1.1
Converting units of time
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy.
READY?
b $31 432.70 12 d $45 600 52 c 4% f 17.5%
1 Convert each of the following to the units shown in brackets. a 2 years (months) b 3 years (weeks) c 42 weeks (fortnights) d 60 months (years)
Multiplying and dividing a quantity (money) by a whole number
1.2
2 Calculate each of the following. a $23.50 26 c $528.72 52

Converting a percentage into a decimal
1.3
3 Convert each of the following percentages to a decimal. a 34% b 79% d 67.2% e 8.25%
Finding a percentage of a quantity (money)
1.4
4 Find each of the following. a 10% of $350 c 18% of $9000
b 25% of $1424 d 12.5% of $4570
1.5
Multiplying a quantity (money) by a decimal
5 Calculate each of the following. a $8.56 1.5

Adding periods of time
b $12.90 2.5
1.6
6 Jessica has worked the following hours in one week. Thursday 6.30 pm to 9.00 pm Friday 5.45 pm to 9.00 pm Saturday 8.00 am to 2.30 pm How many hours has she worked?
Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another
1.8
7 For each of the following pairs, express the rst quantity as a percentage of the second quantity. a $56, $400 b $13, $20 c $125, $625
1.9
Increasing a quantity by a percentage
8 Increase each of the following by the percentage indicated. a $560 by 10% b $1120 by 5%
c $2560 by 15%
Chapter 1 Earning money
Calculating salary payments

Methods of payment
A payment received by an employee for doing a job is called income. There are many different ways people are paid for performing a job. In this section we are going to look at some of these methods of payment: salaries, wages, commission, royalties, piecework and overtime.
Salaries
Many people employed in professional occupations are paid a salary. Such employees include teachers, lawyers, accountants and some doctors. A salary is a xed amount of money that is paid to employees to do their jobs. The amount paid does not change, regardless of the number of hours worked. Salaries are usually calculated on an annual basis. A salary is therefore usually stated as an amount per annum, which means per year. Salaries are paid in weekly, fortnightly or monthly amounts. To make calculations about salaries, you will need to remember the following information. 1 year = 52 weeks = 26 fortnights = 12 months
A lecturer is paid a salary.
WORKED Example 1
Dimitri works as an accountant and receives an annual salary of $46 800. Calculate the amount that Dimitri is paid each fortnight. THINK
1 2
WRITE Fortnightly pay = $46 800 26 Fortnightly Pay = $1800
There are 26 fortnights in a year, so we divide $46 800 by 26. Evaluate.
We reverse this calculation when we are given the weekly, fortnightly or monthly pay of a person and are then asked to calculate the annual salary.
WORKED Example 2
Grace is a solicitor who is paid $3500 per month. Calculate Graces annual salary. THINK
1 2
WRITE Annual salary = $3500 12 Annual salary = $42 000
There are 12 months in a year, so multiply $3500 (monthly pay) by 12. Evaluate.
Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course
To compare a salary payment with other forms of income it may be necessary to calculate the equivalent daily or hourly payment. To do this, we need to know the number of days or hours worked per week.
WORKED Example 3
Charlotte works as a laboratory technician and is paid an annual salary of $41 560. If Charlotte works an average of 42 hours per week, calculate her equivalent hourly rate of pay. THINK
1
WRITE Weekly pay = $41 560 52 = $799.23 Hourly rate = $799.23 42 = $19.03
Calculate the weekly pay by dividing the salary by 52. Calculate the hourly rate by dividing the weekly pay by 42.
remember
1. A salary is a xed payment made for doing a job. 2. A salary is usually calculated on an annual basis and can be paid in weekly, fortnightly or monthly instalments. 3. To calculate information about equivalent daily or hourly rates of pay, we need information about the number of days and hours worked by the employee.
SkillS
HEET
1.1
1A
WORKED
Calculating salary payments
SkillS
HEET
1.2
Example
1 Toni is paid a salary of $44 200 per annum. Calculate Tonis fortnightly pay. 2 Roger is paid a salary of $49 920 per annum. Calculate Rogers weekly pay. 3 Frieda is paid a salary of $54 000 per annum. Calculate Friedas monthly pay. 4 Wendy works as an ofce secretary and is paid a salary of $38 740 per annum. Calculate Wendys pay if she is paid: a weekly b fortnightly c monthly. 5 Darren earns a salary of $43 000 per annum. Calculate Darrens fortnightly pay, correct to the nearest cent.
1
Multiplying and dividing a quantity (money) by a whole number
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Payroll calculations
et
6 Copy and complete the table below for food production employees.
Annual salary
Weekly pay
Fortnightly pay
Monthly pay
$30 000
$39 500
$42 250
$54 350
$86 475 7 Maxine is paid a salary. She receives $460 per week. Calculate Maxines annual salary. 8 Thao receives $1250 per fortnight. Calculate Thaos annual salary. 9 Deidre is paid monthly and receives $5800. Calculate Deidres annual salary. 10 multiple choice Which of the following people receives the greatest salary? A Goran, who receives $530 per week. B Bryan, who receives $1075 per fortnight. C Wayne, who receives $2330 per month. D Ron, who receives $27 900 per annum.
WORKED
WORKED
Example
Example
11 Fiona receives a salary of $29 700 per annum. If Fiona works an average of 40 hours per week, calculate the equivalent hourly rate of pay. 3 12 Jade receives a salary of $33 000 per annum. a Calculate Jades weekly pay, correct to the nearest cent. b Jade works an average of 36 hours each week. Calculate the hourly rate to which Jades salary is equivalent. Give your answer correct to the nearest cent. 13 Karina is on an annual salary of $35 776. Letitia is on a wage and is paid $16.00 per hour. a Calculate Karinas weekly pay. b If Karina works an average of 42 hours per week, calculate whether Karina or Letitia receive the better rate of pay. 14 Garry earns $42 500 per year while his friend Henry earns $18.50 per hour. Calculate the number of hours that Henry will need to work each week to earn more money than Garry does.
Calculating wages
Most people in the workforce earn a wage. A wage is paid at an hourly rate. The hourly rate at which a person is usually paid is called an ordinary rate. The wage for each week is calculated by multiplying the ordinary rate by the number of hours worked during that week.
WORKED Example 4
Sadiq works as a mechanic and is paid $13.65 per hour. Calculate Sadiqs wage in a week where he works 38 hours. THINK Multiply $13.65 (the hourly rate) by 38 (the number of hours worked). WRITE Wage = $13.65 38 Wage = $518.70
To compare two peoples wages, we cant just look at the amount of money each receives in a pay packet. We must also consider the number of hours each has worked. Wages are compared by looking at the hourly rate. To calculate the hourly rate of an employee we need to divide the wage by the number of hours worked.
WORKED Example 5
Georgina works 42 hours as a data entry operator for a computer company. Her wage for the week totalled $483.84. Calculate Georginas hourly rate of pay. THINK Divide $483.84 (the wage) by 42 (number of hours worked). WRITE Hourly rate = $483.84 42 Hourly rate = $11.52
Using a similar method we are able to calculate the number of hours worked by an employee, given their wage and hourly rate of pay. The number of hours worked is found by dividing the wage by the hourly rate. In some cases, wages are increased because an allowance is paid for working in unfavourable conditions. An allowance is an additional payment made when the working conditions are difcult or unpleasant.
For example, a road worker may be paid an allowance for working in the rain. In these cases, the allowance must be multiplied by the number of hours worked in the unfavourable conditions and this amount added to the normal pay.
WORKED Example 6
Ryan is a road worker and is paid $9.45 per hour for a 35-hour week. For working on wet days he is paid a wet weather allowance of 86c per hour. Calculate Ryans pay if for 12 hours of the week he works in the rain.
THINK
1
WRITE Normal pay = $9.45 35 = $330.75 Allowance = $0.86 12 = $10.32 Total pay = $330.75 + $10.32 = $341.07
Calculate Ryans normal pay by multiplying $9.45 (hourly rate) by 35 (number of hours worked). Calculate the wet weather allowance by multiplying 0.86 (the wet weather allowance) by 12 (number of hours worked in the wet). Add the normal pay to the wet weather allowance to calculate the total pay.
This type of allowance is also paid to casual workers. When you are employed on a casual basis you do not receive any holiday pay and you do not get paid for days you have off because you are sick. The casual rate is a higher rate of pay to compensate for this.
remember
1. A wage is money earned at an hourly rate. 2. To calculate a wage we multiply the hourly rate by the number of hours worked during the week. 3. To calculate an hourly rate we divide the wage by the number of hours worked. 4. To calculate the number of hours worked we divide the wage by the hourly rate. 5. Allowances are paid for working under unfavourable conditions. The total allowance should be calculated and then added to the normal pay. 6. A casual rate is a higher rate of pay for casual workers to compensate them for having no holidays and receiving no sick leave.
1B
EXCE
reads L Sp he
WORKED
Calculating wages
Example
Payroll calculations
1 Allan works in a newspaper printing mill and is paid $12.95 per hour. Calculate Allans wage in a week where he works 40 hours. 2 Copy and complete the table below by calculating the wage of each of the workers. Name A. Smith B. Brown N. Tran A. Milosevic L. McTavish Hourly rate $14.52 $16.45 $15.95 $20.10 $18.04 Hours worked 40 38 37.5 41 36 Wage
et
3 Alicia is an apprentice chef. In the rst year of her apprenticeship she earns $11.80 per hour. Calculate Alicias wage in a week where she works: a 36 hours b 48 hours c 42.5 hours. 4 Domonic is a fully qualied chef. He earns $13.50 per hour. Calculate Domonics wage in a week where he works: a 32 hours b 37 hours c 44.5 hours. 5 Katherine works as a casual waitress. Casual workers earn 20% more per hour than full-time workers to compensate for their lack of holidays and sick leave. a A full-time waitress earns $14.45 per hour. Calculate the casual rate earned by casual waitresses. b Calculate Katherines wage in a week where she works 6 hours on Saturday and 7 hours on Sunday. 6 multiple choice Which of the following workers earns the highest wage for the week? A Dylan, who works 35 hours at $13.50 per hour B Lachlan, who works 37 hours $12.93 per hour C Connor, who works 38 hours at $12.67 per hour D Cameron, who works 40 hours at $12.19 per hour
WORKED
Example
7 Calculate the hourly rate of a person who works 40 hours for a wage of $387.20. 8 Julie earns $11.42 per hour. Calculate the number of hours worked by Julie in a week where she is paid $445.38. 9 Copy and complete the table below. Name A. White B. Black C. Green D. Brown E. Scarlet F. Grey Wage $416.16 $538.80 $369.63 $813.96 $231.30 $776.72 Hours worked 36 40 37 $19.38 $15.42 $20.44 Hourly rate
10 Calculate the hourly rate of a casual worker who earns $250.80 for 20 hours work. 11 multiple choice Which of the following workers is paid at the highest hourly rate? A Melissa, who works 35 hours for $366.45 B Belinda, who works 36 hours for $376.20 C April, who works 38 hours for $399.76 D Nicole, who works 40 hours for $419.60 12 multiple choice Which of the following people worked the greatest number of hours? A Su-Li, who earned $439.66 at $11.57 per hour B Denise, who earned $576.00 at $14.40 per hour C Vera, who earned $333.20 at $9.52 per hour D Camille, who earned $707.25 at $17.25 per hour
WORKED
Example
13 Richard works as an electrical linesman and is paid $10.94 per hour for a 38-hour week. When he has to work at heights he is paid a 46c per hour height allowance. Calculate 6 Richards pay in a week where 15 hours are spent working at heights. 14 Ingrid works as an industrial cleaner and is paid $14.60 per hour for a 35-hour working week. When Ingrid is working with toxic substances she is paid an allowance of $1.08 per hour. Calculate Ingrids pay if she works with toxic substances all week. 15 Rema works as a tailor and earns $9.45 per hour. a Calculate Remas wage in a week where she works 37 hours. b Zhong is Remas assistant and earns $8.20 per hour. Find the least time Zhong must work if he is to earn more money than Rema does. 16 Tamarin works 38 hours per week at $12.40 per hour. a Calculate Tamarins weekly wage. b Zoe earns the same amount each week as Tamarin does, but Zoe works a 40-hour week. Calculate Zoes hourly rate of pay.
10
Computer Application 1 Spreadsheets

Throughout this chapter we are going to develop a number of spreadsheets that will calculate wages. Work through the following steps. 1. Open a spreadsheet and enter the following information. Alternatively, access the spreadsheet (Wages_1) from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM.
reads L Sp he
et
EXCE
Wages_1
2. Enter a pay rate of $11.20 per hour for each employee. 3. Enter the hours worked as follows: Frederick Astini, 40; James Carter, 38; Kelly George, 36; Dean Jones, 15; Paul Limbrick, 45. 4. In cell E7 (in the column headed Gross Pay) enter the formula =C7*D7. This will calculate the wage for Frederick Astini (the gure 448 should appear in the cell). 5. Format cell E7 as currency (cell E7 should now show $448.00). 6. Highlight cells E7 to E11 and select the Fill Down option. The wages for each employee should now be calculated and be formatted as currency. (The entries in this column should read $448.00, $425.60, $403.20, $168.00 and $504.00.) 7. If you now change the hours worked by each employee, his or her gross pay should update automatically. 8. Choose the Save As function to save the spreadsheet as Wages_1.
11
1
1 Calculate the wage of a person who works 36 hours at a pay rate of $9.56 per hour. 2 Calculate the wage of a person who works 38 hours at $13.65 per hour. 3 Donna works 15 hours on weekends at $14.56 per hour. Calculate Donnas wage. 4 Calculate what Stephen will earn for working 8 hours at $11.88 per hour. 5 Debbie earns $489.06 for a 38-hour working week. Calculate Debbies hourly rate of pay. 6 Damien earns an annual salary of $47 000 and is paid weekly. Calculate Damiens weekly pay. 7 Simone earns an annual salary of $70 000 and is paid fortnightly. Calculate Simones fortnightly pay. 8 Ivan earns an annual salary of $56 480 and is paid monthly. Calculate Ivans monthly pay. 9 Penny earns an annual salary of $44 000 and is paid weekly. Calculate Pennys weekly pay. 10 Penny works an average of 35 hours each week. Calculate the hourly rate to which her salary is equivalent. (Answer to the nearest cent.)
Commission and royalties

Commission is a method of payment used mainly for salespeople. When paid commission, a person receives a percentage of the value of goods sold.
A royalty is a payment made to a person who owns a copyright. For example, a musician who writes a piece of music is paid royalties on sales of CDs; an author who writes a book is paid according to the number of books sold. Royalties are calculated in the same way as commission, being paid as a percentage of sales.
12
WORKED Example 7
Jack is a computer salesman who is paid a commission of 12% of all sales. Calculate the commission that Jack earns in a week if he makes sales to the value of $15 000. THINK Calculate 12% of $15 000. WRITE Commission = 12% of $15 000 Commission = 12 100 $15 000 Commission = $1800
In some cases, commission may operate on a sliding scale. This means that the commission rate changes with the value of sales. This type of commission is commonly used in real estate sales. In these examples, each portion of the commission is calculated separately. The nal commission is the sum of each portion.
WORKED Example 8
A real estate agent is paid commission on his sales at the following rate: 5% on the rst $75 000 2.5% on the balance of the sale price. Calculate the commission earned on the sale of a property for $235 000.
THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE 5% of $75 000 = $3750 Balance = $235 000 $75 000 Balance = $160 000 2.5% of $160 000 = $4000 Commission = $3750 + $4000 Commission = $7750
Calculate 5% of $75 000. Calculate the balance of the sale. Calculate 2.5% of $160 000. Add up each portion to calculate the commission.
13
In some cases, people receive a xed amount (called a retainer) as well as a commission. This is to ensure that the person earns some money even if no sales are made. To calculate this type of pay, you will need to add the retainer to the commission.
WORKED Example 9
Shelley is a furniture salesperson and is paid $250 per week plus a commission of 2% of all sales. Calculate Shelleys pay in a week where her sales total $12 250. THINK
1
WRITE Commission = 2% of $12 250 Commission = 2 100 12 250 Commission = $245 Pay = $250 + $245 Pay = $495
Calculate the commission of 2% of $12 250. Add the $250 to the commission to calculate her pay.
In some cases, the commission does not begin to be paid until sales have reached a certain point. Here the commission is calculated only on sales above this xed amount.
WORKED Example 10
Tony is a car salesman. Tony is paid $300 per week and 2% of all sales over $50 000. Calculate Tonys pay in a week where his sales total $84 000. THINK
1 2
WRITE $84 000 $50 000 = $34 000 Commission = 2% of $34 000 Commission = 2 100 $34 000 Commission = $680 Pay = $300 + $680 Pay = $980
Calculate the amount on which commission is to be paid. Find 2% of this amount.
Add the $300 to the commission to calculate Tonys pay.
remember
1. A commission is earned when a person is paid a percentage of the value of sales made. 2. Some commissions are paid on a sliding scale. In these cases, each portion of the commission is calculated separately and then totalled at the end. 3. Some commissions are paid together with a xed payment called a retainer. To calculate an employees pay, the xed payment needs to be added to the commission. 4. In some cases where a xed payment is made, commission may not be paid on all sales, but rather on a section of sales above a certain point.
14
1C
SkillS
Commission and royalties
HEET
1.3
WORKED
Example
7 Converting a percentage into a decimal
1 Kylie is an insurance salesperson and she is paid 8% of the value of any insurance that she sells. Calculate the amount that Kylie is paid for selling insurance to the value of $25 000. 2 Beryl sells exercise equipment and is paid a commission of 10% on all sales. Calculate Beryls earnings in a week where her sales total is: a $2600 b $3270 c $5687.90. 3 Darrens job is to sell CDs to music stores. If Darren sells CDs to the value of $40 000, calculate his commission if it is paid at a rate of: a 1% b 3% c 3.4%. 4 Linda is a car salesperson who is paid 1.5% commission. Calculate the amount of money Linda earns in a week where her sales total $95 000. 5 Ken is an author and is paid a royalty on his book sales. The royalty is 12% of the value of all sales of his book. Calculate the value of Kens royalty if the value of sales totals $34 500. 6 multiple choice Ursula is a computer software salesperson. Ursulas sales total $105 000 and she is paid a commission of 0.8%. How much does Ursula receive in commission? A $105 B $840 C $8400 D $84 000 7 multiple choice Asif is a sales representative for a hardware rm. Asif earns $870 commission on sales of $17 400. What rate of commission does Asif receive? A 0.05% B 0.5% C 5% D 20%
SkillS
HEET
1.4
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Calculations with percentages
et
WORKED
Example
8 A real estate agent charges commission at the following rate: 5% on the rst $75 000 2.5% on the balance of the sale price. Calculate the commission charged on the sale of a property valued at $250 000. 9 Gabrielle is a fashion sales representative. Gabrielle is paid a commission of 5% on the rst $3000 of sales each week and 10% commission on the balance. Calculate Gabrielles commission in a week where her sales total $9500.
15
10 Using the sliding scale for commission shown in question 8, calculate the commission on a property that sells for: a $90 000 b $140 000 c $600 000.
WORKED
Example
11 Stanisa is a car salesman who is paid $250 per week plus a commission of 2% of any sales he makes. Calculate Stanisas pay in a week where his sales total $35 000. 9 12 Daniel works as a sales representative for a car accessories rm. Daniel is paid $150 per week plus 4% of any sales. Calculate Daniels earnings in a week where his sales total is: a $6000 b $8500 c $12 475. 13 multiple choice A group of sales representatives each have $10 000 in sales for a week. Who earns the most money? A Averil, who is paid a commission of 8% B Bernard, who is paid $250 plus 6% commission C Cathy, who is paid $350 plus 4% commission D Darrell, who is paid $540 plus 2.5% commission 14 Fred and Gina sell life insurance. Fred is paid a commission of 8% and Gina is paid $250 plus 5% commission. a How much does Fred earn for a week in which his sales are $5000? b How much does Gina earn for a week in which her sales total $5000? c In another week Gina earns $650. What is the value of Ginas sales? d Fred wishes to earn $650 in a week. How much should his sales be?
WORKED
Example
15 Mario is a pay television salesman. Mario earns $500 per week plus 5% commission on all sales above $5000. Calculate Marios pay in a week where his sales total $7500. 10 16 Neville is a door-to-door encyclopedia salesman. He is paid $300 per week plus 3% commission on all sales greater than $5000. Calculate Nevilles pay in a week where his sales total is: a $4000 b $6500 c $8560. 17 multiple choice A rm employs ve sales representatives. Which representative will earn the most in a week where each of their sales totals $12 480? A Peter, who receives a commission of 4% B Richard, who receives $100 plus a commission of 3% C Susan, who is paid $280 plus a commission of 1.8% D Trevor, who is paid $300 plus a commission of 3.5% on all sales over $6000 18 Andrew and Bonito are sales representatives. Andrew is paid $300 plus a commission of 2.5% on all sales. Bonito is paid $250 plus a 3.5% commission on all sales over $3000. a Calculate Andrews commission in a week where his sales total $6500. b Calculate Bonitos commission in a week where his sales total $6500. c Who will earn the most money in a week where both Andrew and Bonito make $16 000 in sales?
Work
T SHEE
1.1
16
Payment by piece
Payment by piece, or piecework refers to payment for the amount of work completed. It is commonly paid for jobs such as car detailing and letterbox delivery. The amount earned is calculated by multiplying the rate of payment by the number of pieces of work completed.
A person delivering to a letterbox is paid for piecework.
WORKED Example 11
Len has a job washing cars in a car yard. He is paid $2.25 per car washed. Calculate what Len earns in an afternoon where he washes 24 cars. THINK Multiply the pay rate by the number of cars detailed. WRITE Pay = $2.25 24 Pay = $54.00
In some cases, piecework is paid for multiples, rather than for single units. For example, for letterbox deliveries you may be paid per 1000 deliveries made.
WORKED Example 12
Holly is delivering brochures to letterboxes in her local area. She is paid $23.00 per thousand brochures delivered. Calculate what Holly will earn for a delivery of 3500 brochures. THINK
1
WRITE 3500 1000 = 3.5 Hollys pay = 3.5 $23.00 Hollys pay = $80.50
Divide 3500 by 1000 to calculate the number of thousand brochures delivered. Multiply 3.5 by $23.00 to calculate what Holly is paid.
There are also examples where you will be asked to compare payment by piece with other methods of earning income, in particular, wages.
17
WORKED Example 13
Tristan has a job picking apples. He is paid $4.40 per basket. a Calculate Tristans pay for picking 21 baskets of apples in one day. b If it takes Tristan 8 hours to pick these apples, calculate the equivalent hourly rate of pay he has earned. THINK a Multiply 21 (the number of baskets) by $4.40 (the pay per basket). b Divide $92.40 (total pay) by 8 (number of hours worked). WRITE a Pay = 21 $4.40 Pay = $92.40 b Hourly rate = $92.40 8 Hourly rate = $11.55
remember
1. Payment by piece is payment to an employee for the amount of work completed. 2. To calculate the amount to be paid, multiply the number of units of work completed by the amount to be paid per unit. 3. Be careful when pay is calculated for completing 100 or 1000 units of work. You will need to rst divide by this amount. 4. Remember your work on other methods of payment. You will need it to compare payment by piece with them.
1D
WORKED
Payment by piece
Example
11
1 Julia works after school at a car yard detailing cars. If Julia is paid $10.85 per car, calculate what she will earn in an afternoon when she details 7 cars. 2 A group of four friends take a job picking fruit over summer. They are paid $4.50 per basket of fruit picked. Calculate the earnings of each person in the group if: a Ryan picked 23 baskets b Summer picked 21 baskets c Seth picked 19 baskets d Taylor picked 18 baskets. 3 Natalie advertises that she will do ironing for $12.50 per basket. Calculate Natalies earnings for doing 14 baskets of ironing. 4 Matthew charges $15 to mow a lawn. Calculate Matthews earnings in a week if he mows 9 lawns. 5 Dean works as a house cleaner. He charges $46.50 to clean a house. If Dean cleans 7 houses, calculate his earnings.
WORKED
Example
12
6 Barbara delivers pamphlets to local letterboxes. She is paid $21.80 per thousand pamphlets delivered. Calculate what Barbara will be paid for delivering 15 000 pamphlets.
18
7 A local business employs four people to deliver advertising to letterboxes. They are paid $18.40 per 1000 deliveries. Calculate the amount each person is paid. a Jim makes 5000 deliveries. b Georgia makes 7500 deliveries. c Nicholas makes 4750 deliveries. d Claire makes 6200 deliveries. 8 Raul works in a factory assembling toys. Raul is paid $19.25 per 100 toys assembled. Calculate what Raul is paid in a day where he assembles: a 300 toys b 650 toys c 540 toys. 9 Carolina works as a bicycle courier. She charges $5.70 per kilometre for her deliveries. Calculate Carolinas earnings for a 4 km delivery. 10 Keith is a taxi owner/driver. He is paid $3.00 plus $1.60 per kilometre. Calculate the amount Keith will earn for a journey of: a 5 km b 15.5 km c 10.2 km.
WORKED
Example
11 Denise works as a fruit picker. She is paid $4.20 for every basket of fruit picked. a Calculate the amount Denise will earn in a day during which she picks 32 baskets 13 of fruit. b If it takes Denise 8 hours to pick the fruit, calculate the equivalent hourly rate of pay. 12 Charlie works in a car yard as a detailer. Charlie is paid $11.60 per car. a What will Charlie earn in an afternoon during which he details 15 cars? b If it takes Charlie 8 hours to detail the cars, calculate his hourly rate of pay. c If Charlie could nish in 6 hours, calculate the hourly rate of pay he would earn.
2
1 Kim works a 37-hour week at a rate of $12.32 per hour. Calculate her weekly wage. 2 Viet works 35 hours a week at an hourly rate of $9.89. Calculate Viets weekly wage. 3 Samantha receives an annual salary of $38 500 and is paid weekly. Calculate Samanthas weekly pay. 4 Tom receives an annual salary of $86 000 and is paid fortnightly. Calculate Toms fortnightly pay. 5 Celine is paid $1246.40 per fortnight. Calculate her annual salary. 6 Mick is paid 7% commission on all sales he makes. Calculate his commission for a week in which his sales total $6960. 7 Christine is paid $250 per week plus 2.5% commission on all sales. Calculate Christines pay for a week in which her sales total $12 800. 8 Jason has a job picking fruit and is paid $4.85 per basket. Calculate Jasons pay for a day in which he picks 43 baskets of fruit. 9 Julia has a job delivering pamphlets to letterboxes and is paid $13.40 per 1000 pamphlets delivered. Calculate Julias pay for delivering 4500 pamphlets. 10 Cameron is an author who receives a royalty of 8% of the value of sales of his book. Calculate Camerons royalty for book sales totalling $23 000.
19
Working overtime
Overtime is paid when a wage earner works more than the regular hours each week. When an employee works overtime a higher rate is paid. This higher rate of pay is called a penalty rate. The rate is normally calculated at either: -time and a half, which means that the person is paid 1 1 times the usual rate of pay, 2 or double time, which means that the person is paid twice the normal rate of pay. A person may also be paid these overtime rates for working at unfavourable times, such as at night or during weekends. To calculate the hourly rate earned when working overtime we multiply the normal -hourly rate by the overtime factor, which is 1 1 for time and a half and 2 for double time.
2
WORKED Example 14
Gustavo is paid $9.78 per hour in his job as a childcare worker. Calculate Gustavos hourly rate when he is being paid for overtime at time and a half.
THINK Multiply $9.78 (the normal hourly rate) by -1 1 (the overtime factor for time and a half).
2
WRITE
-Time and a half rate = $9.78 1 1 2 Time and a half rate = $14.67
To calculate the pay for a period of time worked at time and a half or double time, we -multiply the normal pay rate by the overtime factor (either 1 1 or 2) and then by the 2 number of hours worked at that overtime rate.
WORKED Example 15
Adrian works as a shop assistant and his normal rate of pay is $12.84 per hour. Calculate the amount Adrian earns for 6 hours work on Saturday, when he is paid time and a half. THINK Multiply $12.84 (the normal pay rate) by -1 1 (the overtime factor) and by 6 (hours 2 worked at time and a half). WRITE
-Pay = $12.84 1 1 6 2 Pay = $115.56
When we calculate the total pay for a week that involves overtime, we need to calculate the normal pay and then add the amount earned for any overtime.
20
WORKED Example 16
Natasha works as a waitress and is paid $11.80 per hour for a 38-hour week. Calculate Natashas pay in a week where she works 5 hours at time and a half in addition to her regular hours. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE Normal pay = $11.80 38 = $448.40 -Time and a half = $11.80 1 1 5 2 = $88.50 Total pay = $448.40 + $88.50 = $536.90
Calculate Natashas normal pay. Calculate Natashas pay for 5 hours at time and a half. Add the normal pay and the time and a half pay together.
Some examples will have more than one overtime rate to consider and some will require you to work out how many hours have been worked at each rate.
WORKED Example 17
Graeme is employed as a car assembly worker and is paid $10.40 per hour for a 36-hour week. If Graeme works overtime, the rst 6 hours are paid at time and a half and the remainder at double time. Calculate Graemes pay in a week where he works 45 hours.
THINK
1 2
WRITE Overtime = 45 36 Overtime = 9 hours Time and a half = 6 hours Double time = 3 hours Normal pay = $10.40 36 Normal pay = $374.40 -Time and a half = $10.40 1 1 6 2 Time and a half = $93.60 Double time = $10.40 2 3 Double time = $62.40 Total pay = $374.40 + $93.60 + $62.40 Total pay = $530.40
3 4 5 6
Calculate the number of hours overtime Graeme worked. Of these nine hours, calculate how much was at time and a half and how much was at double time. Calculate Graemes normal pay. Calculate what Graeme is paid for 6 hours at time and a half. Calculate what Graeme is paid for 3 hours at double time. Calculate Graemes total pay by adding the time and a half and double time payments to his normal pay.
21
remember
1. Overtime is paid when you work more than your normal working hours in a week, and you receive a higher rate of pay for the extra hours. 2. Overtime can be paid at: -(a) time and a half 1 1 times the normal hourly rate 2 (b) double time twice the normal hourly rate. 3. To calculate the hourly rate when working overtime, multiply the normal hourly rate by the overtime factor. 4. To calculate the pay that is received for overtime, multiply the normal hourly rate by the overtime factor by the number of hours worked at that overtime rate. 5. To calculate the total pay for a week when overtime has been worked, calculate the normal pay and the pay for each overtime rate separately, and add them.
1E
WORKED
Working overtime
1.5
SkillS
Example
14
1 Reece works in a restaurant and is paid a normal hourly rate of $11.30. Calculate the amount Reece earns each hour when he is being paid time and a half.
HEET HEET
Multiplying
2 Carmen works as a waitress and is paid $11.42 per hour. Calculate Carmens rate a quantity (money) by a per hour on a Sunday when she is paid double time. decimal 3 Gareth works as a train driver and is normally paid $11.48 per hour. For working on 1.6 -public holidays he is paid double time and a half (overtime factor = 2 1 ). Calculate 2 Gareths hourly rate of pay on a public holiday. Adding periods 4 Ben works in a hotel and is paid $11.88 per hour. Calculate the total amount Ben will of time earn for an 8-hour shift on Saturday when he is paid at time and a half. 5 Taylor works as an usher at a concert venue. She is normally paid $13.10 per hour. Calculate Taylors pay for 6 hours on Sunday when she is paid double time. 6 Copy and complete the table below. Name A. Nguyen M. Donnell F. Milosevic J. Carides Y. Robinson 7 multiple choice Ernie works as a chef and is paid $9.95 per hour. What will Ernies hourly rate be when he is paid time and a half for overtime? A $11.45 B $14.92 C $14.93 D $19.90 Ordinary rate $8.90 $9.35 $11.56 $13.86 $22.60 Overtime rate Time and a half Double time Time and a half Time and a half Double time Hours worked 4 6 7 6.5 5.5 Pay
SkillS
WORKED
Example
15
1.7
SkillS
HEET
Multiplying and dividing a quantity by a fraction
22
8 multiple choice Stephanie works in a shop and is paid $9.40 per hour. Calculate how much more Stephanie will earn in 8 hours work at time and a half than she would at ordinary rates. A $37.60 B $75.20 C $112.80 D $188.00 9 multiple choice Eric works on the wharves unloading containers and is paid $14.20 per hour. Calculate the number of hours at time and a half that Eric will have to work to earn the same amount of money that he will earn in 9 hours at ordinary rates. A 4.5 hours B 6 hours C 10.5 hours D 13.5 hours
WORKED
Example
10 Rick works 37 hours at ordinary time each week and receives $12.64 per hour. Calculate Ricks pay in a week where, in addition to his normal hours, he works 16 4 hours overtime at time and a half. 11 Kirsty works 36 hours each week at a pay rate of $16.40 per hour. Calculate Kirstys pay in a week where, in addition to her ordinary hours, she works 4 hours on Sunday, when she is paid double time. 12 Grant works as a courier and is paid $13.25 per hour for a 35-hour working week. Calculate Grants pay for a week where he works 4 hours at time and a half and 2 hours at double time in addition to his regular hours. 13 Copy and complete the table below. Name W. Clark A. Hurst S. Gannon G. Dymock D. Colley 14 multiple choice Jenny is a casual worker at a motel. The normal rate of pay is $10.40 per hour. Jenny works 8 hours on Saturday for which she is paid time and a half. On Sunday she works 6 hours for which she is paid double time. Jennys pay is equivalent to how many hours work at the normal rate of pay? A 14 B 21 C 24 D 28 15 multiple choice Patricia works a 35-hour week and is paid $14.15 per hour. Any overtime that Patricia does is paid at time and a half. Patricia wants to work enough overtime so that she earns more than $600 each week. What is the minimum number of hours that Patricia will need to work to earn this amount of money? A 40 B 41 C 42 D 43 Ordinary rate $8.60 $9.85 $14.50 $16.23 $24.90 Normal hours 38.5 37.5 38.5 37.5 36.5 Time and a Double time half hours hours 4 5 4 6 6.5 2.5 1.5 8.5 Total pay
23
WORKED
Example
16 Steven works on a car assembly line and is paid $12.40 for a 36-hour working week. The rst 4 hours overtime he works each week is paid at time and a half with the rest 17 paid at double time. Calculate Stevens earnings for a week in which he works 43 hours. 17 Kate works as a computer technician and is paid $18.56 per hour for a 38-hour working week. For the rst 4 hours overtime each week Kate is paid time and a half and the rest is paid at double time. Calculate Kates pay in a week where she works: a 38 hours b 41 hours c 45 hours. 18 Zac works in a supermarket. He is paid at an ordinary rate of $8.85 per hour. If Zac works more than 8 hours on any one day the rst 2 hours are paid at time and a half and the rest at double time. Calculate Zacs pay if the hours worked each day are: Monday 8 hours Tuesday 9 hours Wednesday 12 hours Thursday 7 hours Friday 10.5 hours.
Computer Application 2 Wages

1. Load the spreadsheet Wages_1 that you started earlier in this chapter and edit it with the following information. Alternatively, access the spreadsheet Wages_2 from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM.
E
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Wages_2
2. In cell G7 write the formula =C7*D7 + C7*1.5*E7 + C7*2*F7. This formula will calculate the gross wage for Frederick Astini. (You should get $526.40.) 3. Highlight cells G7 to G11 and choose the Fill Down option to copy this formula to the rest of this column. (Your answers should show $526.40, $442.40, $537.60, $481.60 and $644.00.) 4. Check the functioning of your spreadsheet by changing the hours worked by Frederick Astini to 38 normal hours, 3 hours at time and a half and 4 hours at double time. You should now have $554.40 in cell G7. Now change the hours for the other employees and notice the gross pay changing. Now change the hourly rate of pay for each employee. 5. Use the Save As option to save this spreadsheet under the name Wages_2. (This will mean that you have copies of both version 1 and 2 of the spreadsheet.)
24
Fixed incomes
Many people rely on government allowances for an income. These allowances include the youth allowance, pensions and other welfare benets.
Investigating government payments

Youth allowance
1 2 3 4 What is the youth allowance? How much is paid per week for the youth allowance? What conditions are placed on receipt of the youth allowance? What will be the total received by a person after one year of receiving the youth allowance? 5 Find out the average weekly income for an 18-year-old person. Compare this with a person who receives the youth allowance.
Unemployment benets
6 What is the difference between unemployment benets and the youth allowance? 7 How much is paid per week for the unemployment benet for a: a single person? b single person with children? c married person? 8 Do you have to work to receive the unemployment benet? 9 What conditions are placed on a person receiving unemployment benets? (For example, must they show that they are looking for work.) 10 Compare the amount received by a person on unemployment benets with the average weekly income for an adult in Australia.
Pensions
11 Name three different types of pension that are paid by the government. 12 What are the conditions for receiving each of these pensions? 13 How much is received per week for each of these pensions? 14 Does the amount received vary according to marital status and the number of dependants?
25
Additions to and deductions from gross pay

Although we may calculate a persons pay, this is not the amount that is actually received. The amount that we calculate, based on their wage or salary, is called gross pay or gross wage. From your gross pay, several deductions may be made for items such as tax, union fees, private health insurance, superannuation and so on. The amount left after these deductions have been taken out is called the net pay and it is this amount that you actually receive. To calculate an employees net pay we subtract any deductions from the gross pay.
WORKED Example 18
Roberts gross pay is $643.60 per week. Robert has deductions for tax of $144.46, superannuation of $57.92 and union fees of $11.40. Calculate Roberts net pay. THINK From $643.60 (gross pay) subtract $144.46 (tax), $57.92 (superannuation) and $11.40 (union fees). WRITE Net pay = $643.60 $144.46 $57.92 $11.40 Net pay = $429.82
In some cases, you will be required to calculate the size of a deduction based on either an annual amount or a percentage.
WORKED Example 19
Bruce is a shop assistant and he has his union fees deducted from his pay each week. If the annual union fee is $324.60, calculate the size of Bruces weekly union deduction. THINK
1 2
WRITE Weekly deduction = $324.60 52 Weekly deduction = $6.24
Divide $324.60 (the annual union fee) by 52. Round the answer off to the nearest cent.
WORKED Example 20
Charissa is a salary earner and her gross fortnightly salary is $1320. Charissa pays 9% of her gross pay each fortnight in superannuation. Calculate how much is deducted from Charissas pay each fortnight for superannuation. THINK Calculate 9% of $1320 (gross pay). WRITE Superannuation = 9% of $1320 Superannuation = 9 100 $1320 Superannuation = $118.80
26
When employees take annual leave, they may receive an annual leave loading. When -on holidays, such employees are paid an extra 17 1 % of their gross pay for up to 2 4 weeks.
WORKED Example 21
Russell is a newspaper printer and is paid $14.75 per hour for a 36-hour working week. a Calculate Russells pay for a normal working week. b Calculate Russells total pay for his 4 weeks annual leave if he -receives a 17 1 % annual leave 2 loading on the 4 weeks pay.
THINK a Multiply $14.75 (hourly rate) by 36 (hours worked). b

1
WRITE a Normal pay = $14.75 36 Normal pay = $531.00 b Normal 4 weeks pay = $531.00 4 = $2124.00
-Annual leave loading = 17 1 % of $2124.00 -= 17 1 100 $2124.00 2 = $371.70 Total holiday pay = $2124.00 + $371.70 = $2495.70 2
Multiply $531.00 (weekly pay) by 4 to nd his normal pay for 4 weeks. Calculate the annual leave -loading by nding 17 1 % of 2 $1692. Add $371.10 (annual leave loading) to $2124 (normal 4 weeks pay).
remember
1. Gross pay refers to pay before any deductions are made. 2. Net pay refers to the pay received after deductions have been taken out. Net pay = gross pay deductions 3. Some deductions are calculated on an annual basis and then taken out in equal weekly or fortnightly amounts. 4. Some deductions are calculated as a percentage of gross earnings. 5. When employees take their annual leave a loading is often paid. This means -that they are paid an extra 17 1 % of their gross pay.
2
27
1F
WORKED
Additions to and deductions from gross pay

1.4
SkillS
Example
18
1 Trevor is a tiler and his gross pay is $532.75 per week. His weekly deductions are $106.20 for tax, $47.95 for superannuation and $17.70 for health fund contributions. Calculate Trevors net pay each week. 2 Copy and complete the table below. Gross pay $345.00 $563.68 $765.90 $1175.60 $2500.00 Deductions $89.45 $165.40 $231.85 $429.56 $765.40 Net pay
HEET HEET HEET
1.8
Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another
SkillS
1.9
Increasing a quantity by a percentage
SkillS
3 David works in a mine and is paid a wage of $15.75 per hour for a 36-hour working week. His deductions are $118.02 for tax, $32.50 for health insurance, $51.03 for superannuation and $5.00 for the miners social club. Calculate Davids net pay. 4 Belinda is on an annual salary of $65 500. Belinda is paid fortnightly. a Calculate Belindas fortnightly pay. b If Belinda has fortnightly deductions of $834.92 for tax, $226.73 for superannuation and $23.50 as a contribution to a professional organisation, calculate Belindas net pay.
WORKED
Example
19
5 Lars works as a train driver and is a member of the union. If Lars union fees are $394.00 per year and Lars has his fees deducted from his pay weekly, calculate the size of Lars weekly deduction. 6 Yasmin is a salary earner who is paid fortnightly. Yasmin has her fees for private health insurance deducted from her pay fortnightly. If the annual premium for Yasmins health cover is $1456.50, calculate the amount that needs to be deducted from Yasmins pay each fortnight. 7 Dorothy is paid a wage of $13.45 per hour for a 38-hour working week. a Calculate Dorothys gross weekly pay. b Dorothy pays union fees of $265.60 per annum. Calculate the amount that should be deducted from her pay each week for union fees. c Dorothy has $98.73 deducted from her pay each week for tax and union fees. Calculate Dorothys net pay.
28
8 Patrick is on an annual salary of $56 000 and is paid fortnightly. a Calculate Patricks gross fortnightly pay. b Patrick pays fortnightly into a private health fund for which the annual premium is $1165.75. Calculate the fortnightly payment. c Patrick has his health fund payment and tax (total $660.60) deducted from his fortnightly pay. Calculate Patricks net fortnightly pay. WORKED 9 Sabrina earns a weekly wage of $623.50. She puts 9% of this wage into a Example superannuation fund. Calculate the amount that Sabrina pays in superannuation. 20 10 Arthur earns a gross fortnightly salary of $1520.50. He pays 11% of his gross salary in superannuation. Calculate the amount that Arthur has deducted from his salary each fortnight for superannuation. 11 Rex is paid $11.12 per hour for a 38-hour working week. a Calculate Rexs gross weekly wage. b Rex pays 10.5% of his gross weekly wage in superannuation. Calculate Rexs weekly superannuation contribution. c Rex pays tax of $68.18 as well as his superannuation contribution. Calculate Rexs weekly net wage. 12 Raylene is on an annual salary of $75 000 and is paid fortnightly. a Calculate Raylenes gross fortnightly salary. b Raylene pays 12.75% of her gross salary in superannuation. Calculate the amount that is deducted from Raylenes salary each fortnight for superannuation. c Raylene has union fees of $486.00 per annum and private health insurance of $1323.70 per annum deducted from her pay fortnightly. Calculate the amount of the deduction made for both union fees and health insurance. d If Raylene pays $1009.22 in fortnightly tax, as well as the above deductions, calculate her net weekly pay. WORKED 13 Liang-Yi earns $13.60 per hour for a 38-hour working week. Example a Calculate the amount Liang-Yi will earn in a normal working week. 21 b Calculate the total amount Liang-Yi will receive for his 4 weeks annual leave if he -receives a 17 1 % holiday loading. 2 14 Paula is paid an annual salary of $45 800. a Calculate Paulas gross weekly salary. b Calculate the total amount Paula will receive for her 4 weeks annual leave if she is -paid a 17 1 % holiday loading. 2 15 Leon is paid $12.95 per hour for a 36-hour working week. a Calculate Leons weekly wage. -b Leon takes one weeks holiday for which he is given a 17 1 % loading. Calculate 2 the holiday loading. c If Leon pays $83.24 in tax, calculate his net pay for his weeks holiday. 16 Scott is paid an annual salary of $68 500. a Calculate Scotts salary for a 4-week period. b Calculate how much holiday loading Scott will receive for this 4-week period if it -is paid at 17 1 %. 2 c Scott pays $1250 per annum in private health insurance, which is deducted from his gross salary. Calculate how much health insurance Scott must pay for a 4-week period. d If Scott pays $1779.92 in tax for this 4 weeks, calculate his net pay for the 4-week holiday.
29
Computer Application 3 Wages template

1. Load your spreadsheet Wages_2 and add the Deductions and Net Pay columns. Alternatively, accesss the spreadsheet Wages_3 from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM.
E
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Wages_3
2. In cell I7 write the formula =G7 H7. This formula will calculate Net Pay by subtracting Deductions from Gross Pay. 3. Your spreadsheet will now calculate both a persons Gross Pay and Net Pay. Save this as Wages_3. (You should now have three versions of the spreadsheet saved.) 4. Now clear all the data from the columns Pay Rate, Normal Hours, Time and a half Hours, Double Time Hours and Deductions. You should then have a spreadsheet set up with no data and $ - (as can be seen below) where there are formulas.
E
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Wages template
When a spreadsheet is in this form it is called a template. The spreadsheet is now ready to accept new data and make new calculations. Save this version as Wages template. Alternatively, download the Wages template from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM.
30
Costs of banking
Once we have earned money, we use a bank or similar nancial institution to look after it until we need it. When we deposit money in the bank the bank pays interest on that account. However, for many accounts where we need instant access to our money, the interest paid is very low and there may be fees associated with using the account.
Examining bank fees and taxes
Find three bank accounts into which your pay could be deposited electronically. Answer the following questions about them. 1 What is the interest rate payable on the account? 2 Is there a minimum balance that must be maintained in the account? 3 What are the features of this account? (For example, do you get a cheque book?) 4 Is there a monthly management fee on the account? 5 How many free transactions are you allowed each month? What are the charges for exceeding this number of transactions? 6 Are the transaction fees applied differently to deposits and withdrawals? Are they levied differently for over-the-counter and automatic teller and EFTPOS transactions?
31
3
-1 Wendy works 37 1 hours per week at a rate of $12.74 per hour. Calculate Wendys 2 weekly wage.
2 David is paid an annual salary of $43 240. Calculate Davids fortnightly pay. 3 Rebecca is paid a commission of 7.2% of the value of all sales she makes. Calculate Rebeccas pay in a week where her sales total $5700. 4 Veronica works assembling radios. She is paid $5.23 for every radio assembled. Calculate Veronicas pay in a week where she assembles 45 radios. 5 Christy is paid $34.50 per 1000 letterbox deliveries. Calculate what Christy is paid for 2200 deliveries. 6 Matthew is paid $12.68 per hour at ordinary rates. Calculate what Matthew earns per hour in overtime when he is paid at time and a half. 7 Calculate Normans earnings for a 6-hour shift at double time when his ordinary rate of pay is $8.45 per hour. 8 Darren is a bank teller who is paid $9.80 per hour. Calculate what Darren will earn in a week where he works 37 hours at ordinary rates as well as 5 hours at time and a half. 9 Zelkos gross wage is $459.50 per week. He has deductions of $80.93 for tax, $13.80 for superannuation and $11.25 for union fees. Calculate Zelkos net wage. 10 Calculate what Melissa will receive for 4 weeks holiday pay if her normal pay is -$512.40 per week and she is paid a 17 1 % holiday loading.
2
Budgeting
Once we have earned money we need to allocate the money to cover our expenses; otherwise, we may spend more than we earn! Allocating money to cover expenses is called making a budget. A budget is divided into two parts: income and expenditure. A budget is balanced when income and expenditure are equal. Consider the budget below, drawn up for Tanya, who earns a net wage of $700. Income Wages $700 Expenditure Rent Groceries Bills Car loan Car running costs Entertainment Credit card Savings Total $150 $100 $100 $75 $50 $60 $50 $115 $700
Total
$700
32
When designing a budget, it is important to look for all your expenses and set money aside for them. For example, electricity bills arrive every three months and money should be set aside each week so that when the bill does arrive you have the money to pay for it. The amount set aside should be based on the normal amount of the bill over a year, with that amount divided into weekly or fortnightly amounts. For bills such as electricity and telephone, an extra amount should be allowed, as you do not know the exact amount of the bill until it arrives. Such an allowance covers the possibilities of a price rise or increased usage. This is not necessary for bills such as council rates or insurance, as these are known in advance.
WORKED Example 22
Ben receives four electricity bills each year. For the previous year they were for $136, $187, $169 and $105. How much should Ben budget for electricity bills out of each weeks pay? We should allow an extra 10% to cover the possibility of price increases or extra usage. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE Annual total = $136 + $187 + $169 + $105 Annual total = $597 Weekly amount = $597 52 Weekly amount = $11.48 110% of $11.48 = $12.62 Ben should budget $12.50 per week to cover the electricity.
Calculate the total of the previous years bills. To calculate the weekly amount, divide $597 by 52. Increase $11.48 by 10%. Make a practical approximation of the answer.
Some bills are calculated over different lengths of time, so the simplest way to develop a budget is to calculate all bills over a year.
WORKED Example 23
Marlene has the following bills. Electricity $110 every 2 months Telephone $95 per quarter Car insurance $254 every 6 months Rates $1250 per year Calculate the total amount that Marlene should budget for all of these bills each fortnight, allowing for an extra 10% to cover possible increases. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE Electricity = $110 6 Electricity = $660 Telephone = $95 4 Telephone = $380 Car insurance = $254 2 Car insurance = $508 Rates = $1250
Calculate the total annual amount for electricity. Calculate the total annual amount for telephone. Calculate the total annual amount for car insurance. Calculate the total annual amount for rates.
33
THINK
5 6 7 8
WRITE Total = $660 + $380 + $508 + $1250 Total = $2798 110% of $2798 = 110 100 $2798 110% of $2798 = $3077.80 Fortnightly allowance = $3077.80 26 Fortnightly allowance = $118.38 Marlene should allow about $118 per fortnight to cover her bills.
Find the annual total for all of these bills. Increase $2798 by 10%. Divide $3077.80 by 26. Round off and give a written answer.
To bring a budget into balance, any money that is not spent can be saved. The amount saved can be calculated by subtracting the expenses to which we are committed from the total earnings.
WORKED Example 24
Peter earns $950 per fortnight. He allows $110 per fortnight for his bills, $250 per fortnight for groceries, $70 for car running costs and $80 per fortnight for entertainment. Peter also has a mortgage for which the payment is $600 per month. a Calculate the amount Peter should allocate each fortnight for his mortgage. b Calculate the amount of money Peter can save each fortnight. c Draw up a budget for Peter, showing his income and expenditure. THINK a
1 2
WRITE a Annual mortgage = $600 12 Annual mortgage = $7200 Fortnightly amount = $7200 26 Fortnightly amount = $276.92 b Total expenses = $276.92 + $110 + $250 + $70 + $80 Total expenses = $786.92 Savings = $950 $786.92 Savings = $163.08 c
1 2
Calculate the annual mortgage amount. Calculate the fortnightly amount by dividing by 26. Calculate total expenses. Calculate savings by subtracting all expenses from $950.
c Draw up a budget by listing income and expenses in two columns.
Income Wages $950
Expenditure Mortgage Bills Groceries Car Savings Total $276.92 $110.00 $250.00 $70.00 $163.08 $950.00
Total
$950
To do work on budgeting you will need to be able to interpret the information on various household bills.
34
WORKED Example 25
Look at the extract from a sample telephone bill below.
a What is the total of the bill? b For what period are the call charges? c How much of the bill is for service and equipment? THINK a Look in the box labelled Total amount payable. b Look at the dates following Local Calls. c Look at the amount next to Service & Equipment. WRITE a The total of the bill is $154.10. b The calls were for the period 5 Jan to 4 Apr. c The cost for service and equipment was $51.45.
35
remember
1. A budget is a statement of income and expenditure. 2. A budget is in balance when income and expenditure are equal. 3. When preparing a budget, you should calculate weekly or fortnightly amounts based on annual expenditure. 4. Any unspent money should be set aside as savings to bring a budget into balance. 5. To manage a budget, you will need to be able to read a variety of household bills.
1G
WORKED
Budgeting
SkillS
Example
22
1 Vesna gets her telephone bill quarterly. Last year her four bills were $89.50, $103.40, 1.9 $110.30 and $95.00. Calculate the amount that Vesna should budget for her telephone bill each week, allowing approximately 10% to cover price increases or extra usage. Increasing 2 Christopher pays $1360 each year in council rates. Calculate how much he should budget for each fortnight for council rates.
a quantity by a percentage
HEET
3 Isabelle pays $34.65 per month in car insurance. Calculate the amount that she should budget each week for car insurance.
4 Tristans mortgage repayments are $750 per month. Calculate the amount that Tristan Budgets should budget for each fortnight to cover his mortgage bill.
WORKED
Example
23
5 Mr and Mrs Banks have the following bills. Electricity $130 every quarter Telephone $108 per quarter Car insurance $35 per month House insurance $29.50 per month Council rates $1100 per year Calculate the amount that Mr and Mrs Banks should budget for each week, to pay all these bills, allowing an extra 10% for extra usage or price increases. 6 Mr and Mrs Duric have the following bills. Electricity $105 every 2 months Telephone $115 per quarter Car insurance $287 every 6 months Home contents insurance $365 per year Private health insurance $1200 per year Rent $180 per week Calculate the total amount that Mr and Mrs Duric must budget for each fortnight, to cover all these bills.
WORKED
Example
24
7 Neville earns $685 per week. His expenses are $100 for rent, $90 for groceries, $75 for bills, $70 in car running costs, $60 in entertainment and $50 for miscellaneous expenses. a Calculate the amount that Neville can save each week. b Present the above information in the form of a budget for Neville.
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36
8 Petria has the following bills. Electricity $120 every quarter Telephone $80 every quarter Council rates $800 per annum Water rates $700 per annum Insurance $70 per month a Calculate the amount that Petria must budget each fortnight for the above bills. b Petria has a mortgage with a monthly repayment of $900. Calculate the amount that Petria must budget each fortnight for her mortgage. c Petria has a net fortnightly pay of $1345. If Petria budgets $250 per fortnight for groceries, $80 for entertainment, $30 for medical expenses and $70 for car running costs, calculate the amount that Petria can save each fortnight. d Prepare the above information in a budget for Petria.
WORKED
Example
9 Look at the extract from a sample telephone bill below.
25
a b c d
What is the total of the bill? For what period are the local calls charged? What is the charge for international calls? If four of these bills are received each year, what amount should be budgeted per week to pay them?
37
10 Look at the extracts from a sample electricity bill below.
a What is the amount due for this bill? b What was the amount charged for off-peak use on this
bill?
c How many days does this bill cover? d How many kWh of power were used under the
Domestic heading?
e What is the present reading of the domestic meter? f What was the previous reading of the off-peak meter?
38
11 Look at the extracts from a sample gas bill below.
Customer Number
Invoice Number Date of Issue
00001 21 / 09 / 07
AGL Retail Energy Pty Ltd, ACN 074 839 464 PO Box 944, North Sydney NSW 2059
03A
MR BILL SAMPLE 787 SAMPLE RD SAMPLEVILLE VIC 3149
Account Enquiries 131 606 Gas faults and emergencies 24hrs 131 808 24 Hour Emergency (Gasfitters, Electricians) 131 909 Sales 131 707 Callers Outside Victoria 1800 645 221
Payment Due 10 / 10 / 07
Last Bill Payments Received Balance This Bill
Total Due $143.75
$55.92
$55.92
$0.00
$143.75
$
Gas Charge
See over for details
143.75 $143.75
Total Due
Details
Supply Address: 787 SAMPLE RD, SAMPLEVILLE
Average MJ Per Day
161 123
This Bill Same Bill Last Year
Average Cost Per Day

$2.00 $1.50
Gas Consumption:
Type Meter Number Current Date Reading Date Previous Reading Units Consumed Megajoules Consumed
Gas
MS666421 / 09 / 07
1874 11 / 07 / 07
1578
296
11593 MJ1
1 - To convert Gas Units to megajoules, multiply the Units by 39.166666
Consumption Charge:
Tariff - General Domestic Rate Total for 72 days was 11593 MJ, charged at 1.2400 per MJ Total Gas Charge = $143.75
a b c d
What is the amount due for this bill? How many days does this bill cover? What is the cost per MJ on this bill? What is the daily gas consumption in MJ for this household?
39
12 Look at the extract from the sample bill for council rates below.
BLUE MOUNTAINS CITY COUNCIL

GREAT WESTERN HIGHWAY, KATOOMBA P.O. Box 189, Katoomba, N.S.W., 2780 Phone: (STD 047) 82 0777 DX: 8305 Katoomba RATE ENQUIRIES DIRECT (047) 82 0538 Office and Cashiers Hours: Monday to Friday 8.30 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.
RATES AND CHARGES NOTICE

FOR PERIOD 1 JULY, 2007 TO 30 JUNE, 2008
RATE NOTICE Section 546 Local Government Act, 1993. As the owner, holder, tenant, or other person liable to pay rates and charges in respect of the below-mentioned land (or the agent to any such person) you are hereby notified that such land has been rated by Council as shown hereunder.
BILLING NUMBER 246810
SHOULD THE ADDRESS SHOWN ON THIS NOTICE BE INCORRECT, PLEASE ADVISE COUNCIL DIRECT IN WRITING
J CITIZEN 10 BROWN ST SMITHVILLE NSW 2222
POSTING DATE 29/07/07

FIRST INSTALMENT OR FULL AMOUNT DUE DATE
DESCRIPTION AND SITUATION OF LAND RATED
31/08/07
GENERAL MANAGER PARTICULARS OF RATES AND CHARGES FOR IMPORTANT INFORMATION AND PAYMENT METHODS PLEASE SEE REVERSE CENTS IN $
RATEABLE VALUE BASE DATE 1791
AMOUNT
Residential Faulconbridge Domestic Waste Charge
1.018000 91.50
90000 1
916.20 91.50
ACCRUAL OF INTEREST INTEREST ACCRUES ON RATES AND CHARGES THAT REMAIN UNPAID AFTER THE DUE DATE. INTEREST ACCRUES ON A DAILY BASIS. INTEREST DOES NOT ACCRUE ON INSTALMENTS NOT YET DUE. INTEREST RATE 10.5% PER ANNUM.
1st INSTALMENT
2nd INSTALMENT
3rd INSTALMENT
4th INSTALMENT
Domestic 31/08/07
Tellers Stamp
251.90 30/11/07
251.90 28/02/08
251.90 31/05/08
FOR PAYMENT IN FULL PAY THIS AMOUNT
$1007.70
Tellers Stamp
PLEASE DEDUCT ANY PAYMENTS MADE SINCE
FOR PAYMENT BY QUARTERLY INSTALMENTS PAY ABOVE AMOUNTS BY DUE DATES.
22/7/07
a b c d
What is the amount owed in council rates? What is the rateable value of the property? What is the domestic waste charge? The rates can be paid in how many instalments of what amount?
Work
T SHEE
1.2
40
summary
Methods of payment
A salary is a xed amount paid to an employee to do a job. This is usually based on an annual amount divided into weekly or fortnightly instalments. A wage is an amount paid to an employee according to an hourly rate. The weekly wage is the hourly rate multiplied by the hours worked. Commission or royalties are payments based on a percentage of sales. Payment by piece is payment to an employee according to the amount of work completed.
Overtime
Overtime is paid when the employee works more than the regular hours each week. Usually the employee will be paid at either: -time and a half 1 1 times the normal hourly rate, or 2 double time twice the normal hourly rate.
Additions and deductions

Gross pay is the pay the employee receives before any deductions are taken out. Deductions are made from gross pay for tax, superannuation, union fees and so on. The amount left from gross pay after deductions are taken out is called net pay. -Employees receive an extra 17 1 % when they take their annual leave. This is called 2 the annual leave loading.
Budgeting
A budget is a list of income and expenses. Budgets are used to allocate money to various purposes and to ensure that expenditure does not exceed income. If income and expenses are equal the budget is said to be balanced.
41
CHAPTER review
1 Carole earns a salary of $39 600 per year and is paid weekly. Calculate her weekly pay. 2 Neil earns a salary of $67 400 per year and is paid fortnightly. Calculate his fortnightly pay. 3 Lainie earns a salary of $1326 per month. Calculate her annual salary. 4 Paul earns a salary of $51 000 per annum and works an average of 44 hours per week. Calculate the hourly rate to which Pauls annual salary is equivalent. 5 Calculate the weekly wage of each of the following people. a Sandra, who works 36 hours at $14.50 per hour b Darren, who works 38 hours at $15.65 per hour c Melissa, who works 43 hours at $13.68 per hour 6 Bartenders earn a standard rate of $12.30 per hour. Casual bartenders receive a casual rate of $13.80 per hour. a Kevin is a full-time bartender who works a 36-hour week. Calculate his weekly wage. b Len is a casual bartender who works 16 hours a week. Calculate Lens weekly wage. 7 Charlotte works 36 hours for a wage of $410.40. Calculate her hourly rate of pay. 8 Brian earns $11.83 per hour. Calculate the number of hours that Brian would need to work in a week if he wanted to earn $500. 9 Renee is a furniture salesperson who is paid 8% commission on all her sales. Calculate Renees pay in a week where her sales total $4940. 10 Daryl is a car salesman who is paid $275 per week plus 1.5% commission on all sales. Calculate Daryls pay in a week where his sales total $34 900. 11 Felicity sells cosmetics and is paid $150 per week plus 15% commission on all sales in excess of $1000. Calculate Felicitys commission in a week where her sales total $3560. 12 Hong has an after-school job detailing cars. Hong is paid $11.75 for every car that he details. Calculate what Hong is paid for detailing 29 cars. 13 Svetlana delivers brochures to the local neighbourhood and is paid $17.50 for every 1000 brochures delivered. Calculate what Svetlana will earn for delivering 5600 brochures. 14 Beatrice earns $14.20 per hour. Calculate what she will earn per hour: a on Saturdays, when she is paid time and a half b on Sundays, when she is paid double time.
1A 1A 1A 1A 1B
1B
1B 1B 1C 1C 1C 1D 1D 1E
42
1E 1E
15 Nicholas is a storeman who is paid a normal rate of $10.90 per hour. Calculate what Nicholas will earn for: a 6 hours work at time and a half b 5 hours work at double time. 16 A photographic chemicals rm pays its factory workers $9.70 per hour. Calculate what each of the following employees earns in a week where: a Chao-ping works 38 normal hours b Elizabeth works 38 normal hours and 4 hours at time and a half c Phillip works 38 normal hours and 3 hours double time d Charlie works 38 normal hours, 4 hours time and a half and 3 hours double time. 17 Eddie works as a shop assistant and is paid an ordinary rate of $10.54 per hour for a 36-hour working week. Eddie is paid time and a half for the rst 4 hours overtime worked and double time for any hours beyond that. Calculate Eddys wage in a week where he works 47 hours. 18 Marella works as a seamstress and receives a gross wage of $439.00 per week. From her pay, $73.85 is deducted for tax, $4.80 for union fees, $39.51 for superannuation and $9.20 for health insurance. Calculate Marellas net wage.
1E
1F 1F
19 Anne works as a shop assistant. Her annual union fees are $210.60. Anne has her union fees deducted from her pay weekly. Calculate the size of Annes weekly deduction. 20 Harold earns a salary of $48 250 per annum and is paid fortnightly. a Calculate Harolds fortnightly pay. b Harold pays 9.5% of his gross fortnightly pay into a superannuation fund. Calculate the size of Harolds fortnightly superannuation contribution. 21 Lance is paid $14.86 per hour and works 38 hours at normal time and 3 hours overtime for which he is paid time and a half. a Calculate Lances gross weekly pay. b Lance has his private health cover deducted from his gross pay. The annual contribution is $689.40. Calculate the amount deducted weekly from Lances pay. c Lance pays 11.5% of his gross pay into superannuation. Calculate the amount of Lances superannuation contribution. d If Lance also pays $140.30 in tax, calculate Lances net wage. 22 Ruth has a net income of $700 per week. She has expenses of $190 for her mortgage, $90 for her bills, $80 for entertainment, $50 for car running costs, $125 for groceries and $30 for medical needs. Calculate the amount that Ruth can allocate for savings in her budget.
1F
1G
43
1G
23 Amy has to budget for the following bills. Electricity $115 every 2 months Telephone $120 per quarter Insurance $62.50 per month Rates $1050 per year Calculate the amount that Amy should budget for each week to pay all of these bills.
Practice examination questions

1 multiple choice Which of the following is the highest salary? A $961.48 per week C $4165.00 per month 2 multiple choice Simone works as a orist and receives a normal hourly rate of $13.60. Simones pay for a Saturday night, when she works 6 hours at a rate of time and a half, is: A $20.40 B $81.60 C $122.40 D $163.20 B $1923.12 per fortnight D $50 000 per annum
3 multiple choice Noel sells computer software and receives a $250 per week retainer plus a commission of 5% of all sales over $10 000. In a week where Noels sales reach $13 460, he is paid a total of: A $17 B $423 C $673 D $923
44
4 multiple choice Janelle works a 38-hour week at a rate of $14.50 per hour. When Janelle takes her 4 weeks -annual leave she is paid a loading of 17 1 %. Janelles weekly wage, when she takes her leave, 2 is: A $551 B $647.43 C $2204 D $2589.70 5 Ken works as a pest inspector. Ken is paid a wage of $15.40 per hour. a If Ken works a normal 36-hour week, calculate his wage. b Calculate Kens wage for a week if, in addition to his normal hours, he works 3 hours at time and a half and 2 hours at double time. c Ken receives an allowance of 79c per hour for working in conned spaces. Calculate Kens wage in a week if he works his normal 36 hours, but 23 of those hours are spent working in conned spaces. d Calculate the total amount which Ken will receive for his 4 weeks annual leave if he is paid -an annual leave loading of 17 1 %.
2
CHAPTER
test yourself
6 Danielle is a preschool teacher who receives a salary of $47 600 per annum. a Calculate the amount that she will receive each fortnight. b Danielle pays 9% of her gross salary in superannuation. Calculate her fortnightly superannuation contribution. c If Danielle also has $485.38 in tax, $45.80 for health insurance and $15.60 in union dues deducted from her pay, calculate her net fortnightly pay.
Units of measurement
2
syllabus reference
Measurement 1 Units of measurement
In this chapter
2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F Units of measurement Relative error Signicant gures Rates Percentage change Using ratios
areyou
2.1
Conversion of units
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 Complete each of the following conversions. a 5 m = ___ cm b 6.2 km = ___ m d 2000 g = ___ kg e 6.25 t = ___ kg
READY?
c 8500 mm = ___ m f 750 mL = ___ L c 8 hours = ___ min
2.2
2 Complete each of the following conversions. a 48 hours = ___ days b 4 years = ___ weeks
2.3
Writing one quantity as a percentage of another
3 In each of the following write the rst quantity as a percentage of the second. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place. a 1 cm; 2 m b 0.5 m; 15 m c 5 min; 9 hours
2.4
Rounding to a given number of decimal places
4 Round each of the following correct to the number of decimal places indicated in the brackets. a 2.186 486 [4] b 0.001 563 4 [3] c 48.8094 [2] d 118.3468 [1]
2.5
Increase or decrease by a percentage
5 Calculate the following. a $750 increased by 12% c 3 kg increased by 7.5%
b $2500 decreased by 5% d 1.25 L decreased by 12.5%
2.6
Simplifying ratios
6 Simplify each of the following ratios. a 48 : 20 b 1.5 m : 45 cm
c 0.2 : 0.65
1 -4
-:1 6
Chapter 2 Units of measurement
47
We deal with measurement every day of our lives. Each time we pick up a ruler, look at our watch, or purchase a can of drink from the school canteen we are using measurement. The quantities measured most often are length, mass, capacity and time. The units used are the basis for the more complicated measurements of area and volume. The system we use for measurement is the International System of Units (SI system), more commonly known as the metric system. This system was introduced in Australia in 1972 to replace the Imperial system. The metric system is simpler to use because it is based on powers of 10. Units of measurement can be compared under the metric system by examining the prex.
Units of length
Units of length are based on the metre. There are four units commonly used for measuring length: the millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm), metre (m) 1000 and kilometre (km). 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre 100 100 centimetres = 1 metre 1000 metres = 1 kilometre 10 The ow chart at right shows how to convert units of measurement.
kilometres metres 100 centimetres 10 millimetres 1000
WORKED Example 1
Complete each of the following. a 30 mm = cm b 4800 m = THINK a Changing millimetres to centimetres: divide by 10. b To change metres to kilometres: divide by 1000. c To change metres to centimetres: multiply by 100. d To change millimetres to metres: divide by 10 (to change to centimetres) then divide by 100 (to change to metres). km c 6.5 m = WRITE a 30 mm = 30 10 cm 30 mm = 3 cm b 4800 m = 4800 1000 km 4800 m = 4.8 km c 6.5 m = 6.5 100 cm 6.5 m = 650 cm d 8400 mm = 8400 10 cm 8400 mm = 840 100 m 8400 mm = 8.4 m cm d 8400 mm = m
48
Units of mass
The same method can be used to convert units of mass. There are three main units of mass: the gram (g), kilogram (kg) and tonne (t). 1000 grams = 1 kilogram 1000 kilograms = 1 tonne
1000 1000 grams tonnes kilograms 1000 1000
Remembering these conversions can be aided by a ow chart.
WORKED Example 2
Complete the following. a 4000 g = kg b 9750 kg = THINK a To change grams to kilograms: divide by 1000. b To change kilograms to tonnes: divide by 1000. c To change kilograms to grams: multiply by 1000. d To change tonnes to kilograms: multiply by 1000. t c 3.2 kg = WRITE a 4000 g = 4000 1000 kg 4000 g = 4 kg b 9750 kg = 9750 1000 t 9750 kg = 9.75 t c 3.2 kg = 3.2 1000 g 3.2 kg = 3200 g d 0.65 t = 0.65 1000 kg 0.65 t = 650 kg g d 0.65 t = kg
Units of capacity
Capacity is the measure of liquid volume. The three common units used to measure capacity are: millilitres (mL), litres (L) and kilolitres (kL). 1000 millilitres = 1 litre 1000 litres = 1 kilolitre
1000 1000 millilitres kilolitres litres 1000 1000
The ow chart for converting these units is similar to that for mass.
WORKED Example 3
Complete the following. a 6000 mL = L b 2500 L = THINK a To change millilitres to litres: divide by 1000. b To change litres to kilolitres: divide by 1000. c To change litres to millilitres: multiply by 1000. d To change kilolitres to litres: multiply by 1000. kL c 0.8 L = WRITE a 6000 mL = 6000 1000 L 6000 mL = 6 L b 2500 L = 2500 1000 kL 2500 L = 2.5 kL c 0.8 L = 0.8 1000 mL 0.8 L = 800 mL d 10.5 kL = 10.5 1000 L 10.5 kL = 10 500 L mL d 10.5 kL = L
49
7 24
Units of time
7 We use a more complicated system of units for time, but as we are so familiar with time, this is not difcult.
weeks days hours
60 seconds (s) = 1 minute (min) 60 minutes = 1 hour (h) 24 hours = 1 day 7 days = 1 week
24 60 minutes 60 seconds
60 60
In each of the measures of time shown, the conversions are straightforward. There are, however, others which are not so precise. For example, there are 365 days in one year, except in a leap year when there are 366. We also say that there are 52 weeks in a year. However, there are actually 52 weeks and either 1 or 2 days. Finally, there are always 12 months in a year but the number of days in each month varies.
WORKED Example 4
Complete the following. a 3 min = s b 300 min = d 1 day = min e 2h= s THINK a To change minutes to seconds: multiply by 60. b To change minutes to hours: divide by 60. c To change days to hours: multiply by 24. h c 4 days = h WRITE a 3 min = 3 60 s 3 min = 180 s b 300 min = 300 60 h 300 min = 5 h c 4 days = 4 24 h 4 days = 96 h d 1 day = 1 24 h 1 day = 24 60 min 1 day = 1440 min e 2 hours = 2 60 min 2 hours = 120 60 s 2 hours = 7200 s
d To change days to minutes: multiply by 24 (to change to hours) then multiply by 60 (to change to minutes). e To change hours to seconds: multiply by 60 (to change to minutes) then multiply by 60 (to change to seconds).
When making a measurement it is important to rst determine the kind of quantity you are measuring (length, mass, capacity or time) and then to choose the most practical unit. For example, to measure the diameter of a coin you would use length and the most practical unit would be millimetres.
50
WORKED Example 5
Choose the most appropriate unit for each of the following measurements. a The thickness of a book b The amount of water in a glass c The amount of matter in a cricket ball d The length of a movie THINK a The thickness of a book is a measure of length. b The amount of water in a glass is a measure of capacity. c The amount of matter in a cricket ball is a measure of mass. d The length of a movie is a measure of time. WRITE a Millimetres is the most practical unit to use. b Millilitres is the most practical unit to use. c Grams is the most practical unit to use. d Minutes is the most practical unit to use.
remember
1. Remember the unit conversions for length, mass, capacity and time. 2. When changing from a smaller unit to a larger unit, complete the conversion by dividing. (For example, 3 min = 3 60 h = 0.05 h.) 3. When changing from a larger unit to a smaller unit, complete the conversion by multiplying. (For example, 2.5 t = 2.5 1000 kg = 2500 kg.) 4. Choose the most appropriate unit for a measurement by choosing the type of measurement, then the most practical unit.
2A
SkillS
m cm m cm c f i l 5000 m = 9 km = 2400 m = 2.2 cm = km m km mm
HEET
2.1
Conversion of units
WORKED
Example
SkillS
HEET
2.2
WORKED
1 Copy and complete each of the following. a 70 mm = cm b 600 cm = d 9 cm = mm e 12 m = g 86 mm = cm h 9.2 km = j 6.4 cm = mm k 11.25 m = 2 Copy and complete the following. a 8000 g = kg b 3000 kg = d 5 kg = g e 9500 kg = g 5.5 t = kg h 4.84 kg = 3 Copy and complete the following. a 2000 mL = L b 11 000 L = d 15 L = mL e 4800 L = g 7.9 kL = L h 12.8 L =

reads L Sp he
et
Example
t t g
c 7t= kg f 2350 g = kg
EXCE
Converting Example metric 3 units
WORKED
kL kL mL
c 4 kL = L f 8650 mL =
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WORKED
Example
4 Copy and complete the following. a 240 s = min b 360 min = h d 5 days = h e 7h= min g 2 years = days h 3 years = months j 36 h = days k 1 week = h
c f i l
72 h = days 3h= min 4 years = weeks 450 min = h
5 Richard is planning to have a garage built. The garage is 5.2 m long, 2.4 m wide and 2.5 m high. All builders, however, work in millimetres. What are the dimensions of the garage, in millimetres? 6 Peter is a truck driver. When he is passing through a small country town a detour takes him to a road that has a 4 tonne weight limit on all vehicles. Peters truck, including its load, is 3850 kg. How many kilograms under the weight limit is the truck? 7 A factory is producing orange juice. One kilogram of oranges will produce 400 mL of freshly squeezed juice. How many litres of orange juice can be produced from 4.5 tonnes of oranges? 8 At a car sales yard there are 1200 cars. It takes 20 minutes for a person to detail a car. If 15 people are employed to detail cars, how many hours will it take for all cars to be detailed? 9 multiple choice One litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. What would be the mass of 1 mL of water? A 1g B 10 g C 100 g D unknown 10 multiple choice The number of millimetres in 2.4 km is: A 24 000 B 240 000
WORKED
C 2400 000
D 24 000 000
Example
11 Choose the appropriate unit for each of the following measurements. a The time taken to run 100 metres 5 b The amount of petrol in a cars petrol tank c A persons height d The distance between two cities e The mass of a truck 12 The Schneider family purchase a backyard swimming pool. a Copy and complete the following statement using the appropriate unit of capacity. The amount of water used to ll the pool would be 150 . b The family decide to reduce household water consumption to compensate for lling the swimming pool. How much less water must be used per day to make up for this water over 1 year?
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Relative error
How far is it from your house to school? If you live very close to school you may give your answer in metres, or if you are a bit further away you would probably answer in kilometres. In either case the answer you give would not be exact. In fact, no measurement is exact. We are able to measure a quantity only to the degree of accuracy that our instruments allow. All measurements are approximations. In practice, we usually choose a degree of accuracy that is convenient. For example, you may say that it is 4 km from your home to school. In this case, the measurement would be given to the nearest kilometre. The actual distance from your home to school could be anything between 3.5 km and 4.5 km. Someone who lives close to school may say it is 600 m to school. This measurement is probably given to the nearest 100 m. The actual distance would be between 550 m and 650 m. When rounding off measurements, the maximum error possible is half the degree of accuracy stated.
WORKED Example 6
Hilary has her height measured at 164 cm. This measurement is given to the nearest centimetre. Between what values would her actual height be? THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE Maximum error = 0.5 cm Lower limit = 164 0.5 = 163.5 cm Upper limit = 164 + 0.5 = 164.5 cm Hilarys height is between 163.5 cm and 164.5 cm.
The maximum error is half the degree of accuracy used (1 cm). Subtract 0.5 cm from 164 cm to nd the smallest possible measurement. Add 0.5 cm to nd the largest possible measurement. Give a written answer.
WORKED Example 7
The mass of a trailer load of soil is given as 260 kg. The mass is given to the nearest 10 kg. Between what two masses would the true mass of the trailer load actually be? THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE Maximum error = 5 kg Lower limit = 260 5 = 255 kg Upper limit = 260 + 5 = 265 kg The soils mass is between 255 kg and 265 kg.
The maximum error is half the degree of accuracy used (10 kg). Subtract 5 kg from 260 kg to nd the smallest possible measurement. Add 5 kg to 260 kg to nd the largest possible measurement. Give a written answer.
53
The true degree of accuracy in a measurement is found by determining the maximum percentage error. To do this we nd the greatest possible error and then write that as a percentage of the measurement given. maximum error Percentage error = ------------------------------------ 100% measurement
WORKED Example 8
A cars fuel tank has a capacity of 65 litres. If this capacity is given to the nearest litre, nd the degree of accuracy as a percentage (answer correct to 2 decimal places). THINK
1
WRITE Maximum error = 0.5 L 0.5 Percentage error = ------ 100% 65 = 0.77% The degree of accuracy is 0.77%.
Find the maximum error. This is half the degree of accuracy used (1 L). Write the percentage error rule. Calculate the percentage error to 2 decimal places. Give a written answer.
2 3 4
The degree of accuracy as a percentage shows how accurate a measurement is. No measuring instrument is perfect and different people can sometimes obtain a different reading from the same instrument. For example, one person may measure a persons height as 162 cm while another may get an answer of 163 cm. To reduce the likelihood of error, we can average several readings of the same measurement.
WORKED Example 9
Taylor has her height measured by 8 people. They obtain the following results: 169 cm, 169 cm, 168 cm, 170 cm, 169 cm, 169 cm, 168 cm, 168 cm. What is the average result? THINK
1 2
WRITE Total = 169 + 169 + 168 + 170 + 169 + 169 + 168 + 168 Total = 1350 Average = 1350 8 Average = 168.75 cm
Find the total of the 8 readings. Divide the total by 8 to nd the average.
remember
1. All measurements are approximations that are limited by the accuracy of the measuring instrument. 2. The maximum error of any measurement is half the degree of accuracy used. 3. The true accuracy of a measurement is found by calculating the percentage error. This is the maximum error as a percentage of the measured reading. 4. To obtain a more accurate measurement, several readings can be averaged.
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2B
WORKED
Relative error
Example
SkillS
HEET
2.3
1 Each of the following measurements are given to the nearest centimetre. State the limits between which the true length lies. a 5 cm b 12 cm c 34 cm d 59 cm e 90 cm f 2m 2 Each of the following measurements are given to the nearest 10 m. State the limits between which the true length lies. a 40 m b 90 m c 250 m d 300 m e 1000 m f 2 km 3 Each of the following measurements are given correct to 1 decimal place. State the limits between which the true length lies. a 5.3 cm b 9.8 m c 7.2 km d 5.0 mm e 9.9 km f 0.1 m
Writing WORKED one Example quantity 7 as a percentage of another

EXCE
reads L Sp he
et
WORKED
Calculations with percentages

Example
4 The distance between two towns is given as 45 km, correct to the nearest kilometre. a Between what two limits does the true distance lie? b What is the greatest possible error in the distance? c Write the degree of accuracy in this measurement as a percentage, correct to 2 decimal places. 5 For each of the following measurements, write the degree of accuracy as a percentage, correct to 2 decimal places. a A persons mass is given as 67 kg, correct to the nearest kilogram. b The capacity of a bucket is 7 L, correct to the nearest litre. c The length of a park is said to be 180 m, correct to the nearest 10 m. d The volume of water in a tank is 38.6 L, correct to 1 decimal place. e The distance between Sydney and Melbourne is 1000 km, correct to the nearest 100 km. 6 a Measure each of the following lines to the nearest centimetre. iii iii iii b For each, nd the maximum percentage error in the measurement, correct to 2 decimal places. 7 a Measure each of the lines in question 6, correct to the nearest millimetre. b When the lines are measured correct to the nearest millimetre, what is the maximum percentage error for each line? 8 Janice estimates that it takes 1 hour and 20 minutes to drive to a friends house. a If Janices estimate is to the nearest 10 minutes, between what two lengths of time does it take Janice to make the journey? b What is the maximum error in Janices estimate? c Find the degree of accuracy of Janices estimate, as a percentage, correct to 2 decimal places.
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9 multiple choice The length of a house, correct to 2 decimal places, is given as 19.95 m. Which of the following statements is the most accurate? A The length of the house is between 19.9 m and 20 m. B The length of the house is between 19.945 m and 19.955 m. C The length of the house is between 19.94 m and 19.96 m. D The length of the house is between 19.955 m and 20 m. 10 multiple choice The world record for 100 m is 9.77 s. This is the time correct to 2 decimal places. What is the maximum possible error in this time? A 0.5 s B 0.05 s C 0.005 s D 0.1 s 11 multiple choice An aeroplane trip takes 17 hours, correct to the nearest hour. The degree of accuracy, correct to 2 decimal places, is: A 0.29% B 1.76% C 2.94% D 5.88% 12 multiple choice Which of the following four measurements has the greatest degree of accuracy? A The mass of a bag of beans is 400 g, correct to the nearest 50 g. B A water container contains 10 L of water, correct to the nearest litre. C The distance from home to school is 1.6 km, correct to 1 decimal place. D A roast is to cook for 1 hour and 30 min, correct to the nearest 5 minutes. 13 A paddock needs a fence which is 30 m long and 20 m wide, when measured to the nearest metre. a Between what two measurements does the length lie? b Between what two measurements does the width lie? c What is the smallest possible length of fencing needed? d What is the greatest possible length of fencing needed? e What is the maximum error in the length of fencing needed? 14 For the paddock in question 13, the area is found by multiplying the length by the width. a By multiplying the smallest possible length and width, nd the smallest possible area. b By multiplying the largest possible length and width, nd the largest possible area. c What is the maximum error in the area of the paddock?
WORKED
Example
15 The capacity of a jug is measured by 5 people to be 750 mL, 752 mL, 749 mL, 753 mL and 748 mL. Calculate the average of these 5 readings. 9 16 The distance between two towns is given on 4 different maps as 79 km, 81 km, 77 km and 80 km. Calculate the average of these 4 readings.
56
Measuring heights
In your class, get each person to measure the height of one class member. Each person writes down their reading, without showing it to anyone else. When all readings are taken, answer the following questions. 1 What unit did you use to measure height? 2 What is the maximum error? 3 Calculate the percentage error using your reading. 4 What was the smallest height measured? 5 What was the greatest height measured? 6 Calculate the average reading.
1
Convert the following measurements into the units indicated. 1 450 cm (m) 2 6.8 km (m) 3 6800 g (kg) 4 9.45 L (mL) 5 4 min (s) 6 3 days (h) 7 5.6 m (cm) 8 40 000 mm (cm) 9 The mass of a person is shown on a scale as 65.7 kg, correct to 1 decimal place. Between what two measurements does the persons mass lie? 10 The distance between two houses is given as 360 m, correct to the nearest 10 m. Find the degree of accuracy, correct to 1 decimal place.
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Signicant gures
Consider each of the following measurements. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149 000 000 km. The distance between Sydney and Melbourne is 1040 km. A circle with a radius of 5 cm has an area of 78.54 cm2. In each of the above cases the measurement is not exactly correct. As already stated, all measurements are approximations. Each of these measurements has had a sensible and practical approximation applied. The distance from the Earth to the Sun has been given to the nearest one million kilometres. The distance to the nearest kilometre is needed only for very precise scientic work. The distance between Sydney and Melbourne is given to the nearest kilometre. Noone travelling between these two cities would need to know the distance with any greater degree of accuracy. Using the formula A = r 2 the calculator gives the area of the circle as 78.539 816 34. Using 2 decimal places is usually a more practical way to answer such questions. The accuracy of every measurement taken is limited by the accuracy of the instrument used to take the measurement. The measurement is then given to the most practical degree of accuracy. Measurements are usually given to a required number of signicant gures. In the examples above: 149 000 000 km is to 3 signicant gures 1024 km is to 4 signicant gures 78.54 cm2 is also to 4 signicant gures. Signicant gures are the number of non-zero digits at the beginning of a number. The zeros that ll the remaining places are not signicant and are there to maintain the correct place values. (Note: Zeros between 2 signicant gures are taken to be signicant, for example, 1024 has 4 signicant gures, not 3.) Consider the situation below. A star is a distance of 68.04 light-years away from the Earth. If the speed of light is 299 792 km/s and a year is taken to be 365.26 days, what is the distance from the Earth to the star, in kilometres? A light-year is the distance that light will travel in 1 year. Therefore: 1 light-year = 299 792 60 60 24 365.26 = 9 460 975 039 488 km Distance = 68.04 9 460 975 039 488 = 643 724 741 686 764 km With such large numbers it is not usually necessary to be so exact. We could say that the distance was approximately 644 000 000 000 000 km. In this example we have rounded the distance off, correct to 3 signicant gures. In this example, the zeros are not signicant gures. When rounding off, however, we must include them, so that each signicant gure has its correct place value. When rounding a number off to 3 signicant gures, we cut the number off after the rst three non-zero digits and round off using the same rules as for decimal places. We then ll out the remaining places with zeros.
58
WORKED Example 10
Round each of the following numbers off to the required number of signicant gures. a 25 854 789 652 (2 signicant gures) b 63 879 258 (1 signicant gure) THINK a
1 2
WRITE a 26 000 000 000
Rounding off to 2 signicant gures, so we look at the third signicant gure. This digit is 8, so take the second signicant gure up by 1 and ll out the remaining places with zeros. Rounding off to 1 signicant gure, so we look at the second signicant gure. This digit is 3, so it is ignored and the remaining places are lled out with zeros.
60 000 000
Signicant gures can also be used to round off decimals. Care must be taken when reading a question to see if you are being asked to round off using signicant gures or decimal places. Zeros at the front of a decimal are not considered to be signicant gures. For the decimal 0.000 254 878 the rst signicant gure is the 2. If we round off to 2 signicant gures 0.000 254 878 0.000 25. When rounding off decimals to a set number of signicant gures, the zeros at the front must be left in place but there is no need to ll out remaining places with zeros.
WORKED Example 11
Round each of the following numbers off to the number of signicant gures indicated. a 0.005 254 8 (3 signicant gures) b 0.014 725 8 (2 signicant gures) THINK a
1
WRITE a
Rounding off to 3 signicant gures, so we look at the fourth signicant gure. This digit is 4, so it and the following digits are ignored. Rounding off to 2 signicant gures, so we look to the third signicant gure. This digit is 7, so the second signicant gure must be increased by 1.
0.005 25 b
0.015
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For very large or very small numbers we use signicant gures together with scientic notation. If you look up in the sky at night, the closest star you can see is approximately 41 600 000 000 000 kilometres away. This measurement has been given correct to 3 signicant gures. It can also be written as 4.16 1013 km, which is in scientic notation correct to 3 signicant gures. 41 600 000 000 000 = 4.16 1013 and is entered as 4.16 EXP 13. The appearance of this on the calculator display will vary with different types of calculators. An example of a very small measurement is the width of a human hair. This may be 0.000 000 041 365 mm. In scientic notation, correct to 2 signicant gures, we would write this as 4.1 108 mm.
WORKED Example 12
Write each of the following measurements in scientic notation, correct to 3 signicant gures. a 25 473 269 000 km b 0.000 004 583 12 g c 499.85 L THINK a
1 2
WRITE a
Look at the fourth signicant gure. This digit is a 7, so the third signicant gure must be increased by 1. The decimal place must be moved 10 places left to be between the rst 2 signicant gures. Look at the fourth signicant gure. This digit is a 3, so it and the following digits are ignored. The decimal place must be moved 6 places right to be between the rst 2 signicant gures. Look at the fourth signicant gure. This digit is an 8, so the third signicant gure must be increased by 1. As this digit is a 9, the previous digit must be increased until a number other than 9 is reached. The decimal place must be moved 2 places left to be between the rst 2 signicant gures.
2.55 1010
1 2 3
4.58 106
1 2
5.00 102
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remember
1. A measurement is usually given to a required number of signicant gures. 2. We round off using signicant gures by counting the rst non-zero digits. The same rules are used to round off signicant gures as for decimal places. However, with signicant gures zeros must be used to ll places to make sure all digits have the same place value. 3. Very large or very small measurements are written in scientic notation, correct to a required number of signicant gures.
2C
SkillS
Signicant gures
HEET
2.4
WORKED
Example
10 Rounding to a given number WORKED Example of 11 decimal places
1 Round each of the following off to the number of signicant gures indicated. a 24 587 258 (2) b 236 500 258 (1) c 8 782 568 (3) d 4587 (1) e 654 200 (1) f 287.35 (3) 2 Round each of the following off to the number of signicant gures indicated. a 0.032 579 81 (2) b 0.003 658 (1) c 0.001 498 758 (3) d 6.256 677 158 (4) e 68.254 (3) f 0.000 201 47 (1) 3 Write the distance 146 565 992 km correct to: a 1 signicant gure b 2 signicant gures c 3 signicant gures d 5 signicant gures. 4 multiple choice When rounded to 2 signicant gures, 0.035 81 is equal to: A 0.03 B 0.04 C 0.035 5 multiple choice The distance between two cities is 2986 km. Rounded to 2 signicant gures, this distance becomes: A 29 km B 2900 km C 2986.00 km D 3000 km 6 multiple choice 45.5698 = 45.57 when it is rounded to which degree of accuracy? A 2 decimal places B 4 signicant gures C Both A and B D Neither A nor B D 0.036
WORKED
Example
12
7 Write each of the following measurements in scientic notation, correct to 2 signicant gures. a 471 591 400 km b 7 415 200 000 000 mm c 12 850 t d 0.002 369 g e 0.222 221 L f 0.002 99 s
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8 The distance between the planet Mars and the Sun is given by the World Book Encyclopedia as 227 900 000 km. a Do you think this answer is correct to the nearest kilometre? Explain your answer. b To how many signicant gures has this distance been given? c Give this distance correct to 2 signicant gures. 9 Copy and complete each of the following measurement conversions. a 2.4 106 mm = m b 9.1 108 m = km c 4.6 106 cm = mm d 4.9 105 kg = t e 3.45 107 t = 6 f 8.11 10 kg = g g 8.9 107 L = 10 h 1.09 10 kL = L i 7.1 103 L =
kg kL mL
10 Scientists in a laboratory measure the diameter of a certain microbe to be 0.000 000 2 mm, and growing by 0.000 000 000 5 mm/day. What will be the diameter of the microbe in 10 days? (Answer in scientic notation.) 11 A light-year is dened as the distance travelled by light in one year. If light travels at 2.991 105 km/s, calculate in scientic notation the size of a light-year, correct to 3 signicant gures. (1 year = 365.26 days)
Rates
It is the last day of a test cricket match between Australia and India. To win the match, Australia need to make 280 runs in 80 overs. How many runs per over do they need to score?
Work
T SHEE
2.1
62
This question requires us to work with rates. A rate is a comparison of two quantities of a different type. In this example we need to compare runs with overs.
WORKED Example 13
What quantities are being compared in each of the following rates? a 60 km/h b $2.50/kg c 1500 kL/year THINK a A kilometre is a measure of distance. An hour is a measure of time. b $2.50 is an amount of money. Kilograms is a measure of mass. c A kilolitre is a measure of capacity. Years are a measure of time. WRITE a 60 km/h compares distance with time.
b $2.50/kg compares money with mass.
c 1500 kL/year compares capacity with time.
Rates, like ratios, often need to be simplied. To simplify a rate, we divide the rst quantity by the second quantity. A rate is always simplied to a single unit.
WORKED Example 14
Simplify each of the following rates fully. a 240 km in 3 hours b $29.96 for 40 litres c 280 runs in 80 overs THINK a
1 2
WRITE a 240 km in 3 hours = 80 km in 1 hour = 80 km/h b $29.96 for 40 litres = $0.749 for 1 litre = 74.9 c/L c 280 runs in 80 overs = 3.5 runs in 1 over = 3.5 runs/over
Rewrite the original rate. Divide the rst quantity by the second quantity. (240 3) Write the answer as a simplied rate. Rewrite the original rate. Divide the rst quantity by the second quantity. (29.96 40) Write the answer as a simplied rate. Rewrite the original rate. Divide the rst quantity by the second quantity. (280 80) Write the answer as a simplied rate.
1 2
1 2
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Once we are able to simplify rates, we can use them to solve problems. Solving problems usually involves multiplying or dividing quantities and rates. In each example, we need to carefully think about which of these we need to do and clearly set out the working steps.
WORKED Example 15
Giovanni is a plumber who charges $22.50/h for labour. What will be his labour charge for a job that takes 4 hours? THINK
1
WRITE $22.50 4 = $90.00 Giovanni charges $90.00 for 4 hours labour.
$22.50 for 1 hour, so multiply by 4 to calculate the labour charge. Give a written answer.
A common example of where a rate must be used is when modifying a recipe for a set number of people. A recipe may be given to serve 4 people but we may need to modify -it to serve, say, 6. In such a case, each ingredient would need to be multiplied by 1 1 .
2
WORKED Example 16
Below are the ingredients to make a banana pudding for 6 people. 4 bananas 10 mL lemon juice 2 eggs 20 g castor sugar 250 g coconut 20 g apricot jam Janice is having 9 people to dinner. Modify this recipe to serve 9. THINK
1
WRITE Multiplication factor = 9 6 -Multiplication factor = 1 1

-bananas = 4 1 1 2 =6 -eggs = 2 1 1 2 =3 -coconut = 250 g 1 1 2 = 375 g 2 -lemon juice = 10 mL 1 1 2 = 15 mL -castor sugar = 20 g 1 1 2 = 30 g -apricot jam = 20 g 1 1 2 = 30 g
Divide 9 by 6 to calculate the multiplication factor. Multiply each ingredient -by 1 1 .

2
In a few examples a rate can compare two measurements of the same type. For example, a concentration of medicine may contain a mass/weight rate or a mass/ volume rate. This is where we are measuring the concentration of a certain substance. The concentration is the amount of one substance that is contained within another.
64
WORKED Example 17
The concentration of pentoxyverine citrate in a cough mixture is 15 mg/100 mL. A person should not consume more than 9 mg of pentoxyverine citrate per day. If one dose of the cough medicine is 10 mL, what is the maximum number of doses a person can have per day? THINK
1
WRITE 1 dose = 10 mL, so 100 mL = 10 doses 15 mg of pentoxyverine in 100 mL of cough mixture means 15 mg of pentoxyverine citrate in 10 doses or 1.5 mg of pentoxyverine citrate in 1 dose. 9 1.5 = 6
Calculate the amount of pentoxyverine citrate in one dose of cough mixture. Divide the maximum amount of pentoxyverine citrate that can be consumed per day by the amount in each dose. Give a written answer.
A person can have a maximum of 6 doses of cough mixture per day.
We need to be able to use the conversion facts for measurement to convert between rates. We should be able to convert km/h to m/s and other similar rates. This is done by changing each unit separately at each stage of the conversion while keeping the equivalent rate.
WORKED Example 18
Convert the speed 20 m/s into km/h. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE 20 m/s = 1200 m/min 20 m/s = 72 000 m/h 20 m/s = 72 km/h
Convert 20 m/s to m/min by multiplying by 60. Convert 1200 m/min to m/h by multiplying by 60. Convert 72 000 m/h to km/h by dividing by 1000.
remember
1. A rate is a comparison of two quantities of a different type. 2. To simplify a rate, we compare the rst quantity with one unit of the second quantity. 3. Rate questions need to be read carefully to see whether to multiply or divide to solve the problem. 4. Rates are converted by changing each unit separately, at each stage writing the equivalent rate.
65
2D
WORKED
Rates
Example
13
1 What quantities are being compared in each of the following rates? a 80 km/h b $2.50/kg c $12.40/h d 50 g/L e 4 goals/game f 2C/min g 5.1 m/s h 200 g/m2 i 78.9 c/L j 6 s/kg k 40 L/100 km l 2 m/year 2 Simplify each of the following rates (where necessary answer to 1 decimal place). a 270 km in 3 hours b $32 for 8 kg c 250 runs in 50 overs d 10 degrees in 2 h e $65 for 4 h f 90 m2 with 4 kg g 600 m in 80 s h $223 in 5 days i 500 km on 65 L j 23 goals in 8 games k 400 kL for 32 days l $42.68 for 55 L 3 multiple choice George buys 600 g of bacon at the delicatessen for $5.94. As a rate this is equal to: A $3.56/kg B 99 c/kg C $9.90/kg D $35.64/kg 4 Josie takes her car to the mechanic for a service. The mechanic worked on the car and -charged Josie $68.50 for 2 1 hours labour. At what rate has she been charged for labour?
2
WORKED
Example
14
5 After 15 minutes of hard exercise, Roulas heart beat 520 times in the next 4 minutes. What is her heart rate in beats per minute? 6 Judy wants to leave Melbourne at 6:00 am bound for Sydney, a distance of 1040 km. She needs to be in Sydney by 8:00 pm that evening. If she allows for 2 hours as rest breaks, what speed must she average to arrive in time? (Answer to the nearest whole number.) 7 The race record for the Melbourne Cup is 3 min 16.9 s held by Kingston Rule. The Melbourne Cup is run over 3200 m. a How many seconds did Kingston Rule take? b What was the average speed of Kingston Rule in metres per second, to 1 decimal place? 8 Kristels car is lled with petrol. After travelling 345.6 km she found that her car had used 48 L of petrol. What was the fuel consumption of Kristels car in km/L? 9 More commonly, fuel consumption is expressed in L/100 km. A car travels 400 km on 48 L of petrol. What would be the fuel consumption in L/100 km? 10 multiple choice Hugos car used 56 litres of petrol on a trip of 400 km. Statement 1: Hugos fuel consumption is 7.14 km/L, correct to 2 decimal places. Statement 2: Hugos fuel consumption is 14 L/100 km. Which of the above statements is true? A 1 only B 2 only C Both 1 and 2 D Neither 1 nor 2
WORKED
Example
11 Jodie is paid $11.23 per hour for her job at the bank. How much does she earn in a week if she works 42 hours? 15
66
12 A patient in hospital is placed on an intravenous drip. The medication is given to the patient at a rate of 15 drips/min. Each drip is 0.25 mL. How much medication will the patient receive in 4 hours?
WORKED
Example
13 Below are the ingredients for seafood mornay. 600 g of rice 300 g of pink salmon 1 egg 16 60 g of butter 30 g of plain our 450 mL of milk 90 g of shredded cheese 75 g of breadcrumbs This recipe serves 6 people. Modify the recipe so that it will serve 8 people. 14 The ingredients below make 15 chocolate cookies. 300 g of brown sugar 90 g of oil 120 g of self-raising our 120 g of plain our 60 g of white chocolate Modify the recipe to make 10 chocolate cookies.
30 g of cocoa powder 90 g of choc bits
WORKED
Example
15 A sore throat treatment contains 7.5 g/100 mL of povidone. If the intake of povidone must not exceed 3 grams per day and each dose of the sore throat treatment is 5 mL, 17 calculate the maximum number of doses a person can take each day. 16 A dietary supplement for cattle requires that the bull be fed 2.5 g/kg weight. Calculate the amount of the dietary supplement required for a 760 kg bull. 17 In his job as a sales assistant Jacob is paid $9.60 per hour. a On Saturdays he is paid at a rate of time and a half. How much does he receive each hour for working on Saturday? b How much does Jacob earn on a Saturday if he starts work at 8:00 am and nishes at 1:00 pm?
EXCE
reads L Sp he
WORKED
Example
18 Convert a speed of 15 m/s to km/h. 19 Convert each of the following rates. a 90 km/h to m/s c 8 mL/m to L/km 20 multiple choice Which of the following is the most economical fuel consumption? A 10 km/L B 10 L/100 km
Speed converter
et
18
b 2.5 m/s to km/h d 8 km/L to L/100 km
C 12 km/L
D 12 L/100 km
21 The instructions on a 1 kg bag of lawn food say to use 125 g/m2 of lawn. Nora buys 5 bags of the lawn food. Does she have enough to do a lawn that is 43 m2 in area? Explain your answer. 22 A car uses 45 L of petrol on a 432 km trip. a Write the fuel consumption in km/L. b How much fuel will the car use on a 324 km trip at the same rate?
67
Percentage change
You should be familiar with increasing and decreasing an amount by a percentage. We will now examine consecutive percentage changes. Consider the case of a pair of rollerblades that is usually priced at $120. The price rises by 20% but then a discount of 20% is applied. The price does not revert to $120 because the increase and decrease are 20% of different amounts.
WORKED Example 19
The price of a pair of rollerblades is $120. The price is increased by 20% and then decreased by 20%. Calculate the new price of the rollerblades. THINK
1
WRITE 120% of $120 = 120 100 $120 = $144 80% of $144 = 80 100 $144 = $115.20
Increase $120 by 20%.
Decrease $144 by 20%.
remember
1. When we increase and decrease a quantity by the same percentage, the quantity does not revert to the original amount. 2. The increase and the decrease need to be calculated separately.
68
2E
SkillS
Percentage change
HEET
2.5
WORKED
Example
1 The cost of a stereo system is $750. The price is increased by 10% and then decreased by 10%. Calculate the new price of the stereo. 19 2 Calculate each of the following. a Increase 25 km by 5% and decrease the result by 5%. b Decrease 560 kg by 15% and then increase the result by 15%. c Increase 4 hours by 40% and then decrease the result by 40%. 3 The time taken to travel between two towns is 2 hours. A new section of road decreases the travelling time by 5%. a Calculate the new travelling time between the two towns. b An accident then increases the travelling time on a particular day by 20%. Calculate the time taken to travel between the two towns. 4 Increase $150 by 10% and then increase the result by 10%. 5 Decrease 250 kg by 5% and then decrease the result by 5%. 6 Are each of the following calculations equal? a 50 litres is increased by 10% and then the result is increased by 20%. b 50 litres is increased by 20% and then the result is increased by 10%. 7 A carpenter purchases $600 worth of items from a hardware store. He receives a 5% discount for paying cash and a further 2.5% trade discount. Calculate what he pays for the items. 8 The price of a $200 tool kit is increased by 25%. a Calculate the new price of the tool kit. b The price of the tool kit is then reduced back to $200 during a sale. Calculate the percentage discount that has been applied.
69
2
1 Copy and complete the following: 5.46 m = cm. 2 The mass of a horse is found to be 725 kg, correct to the nearest kilogram. Within what range could the actual mass of the horse lie? 3 Calculate the maximum percentage error in the weight of the horse, correct to 3 decimal places.
4 Write 0.028 34 cm correct to 2 signicant gures. 5 Write 178 569 543 in scientic notation correct to 3 signicant gures. 6 Write 0.000 001 011 03 in scientic notation correct to 2 signicant gures. 7 Simplify the rate 45 kg in 3 hours. 8 Convert the speed 56 km/h to m/s, correct to 1 decimal place. 9 Increase $280 by 10% and decrease the result by 5%. 10 Decrease $13.50 by 20% and then increase the result by 20%.
Using ratios
Zhong and Hasam invest money in a business. Zhong invests $25 000 and Hasam invests $30 000. The business made a prot of $33 000 in the rst year. If their prot is to be fairly shared, how much should each of the partners receive? We need a simple method for comparing the investment of each partner. We do this by using ratios. A ratio is a comparison of two or more quantities measured in the same units. For example, a ratio can be used to compare two quantities of money in dollars, two distances in kilometres or two masses in grams. However, we cant use a ratio to compare quantities of different types. For example, a ratio cant compare a distance with a mass.
70
A ratio can be simplied by dividing each quantity by the highest common factor (HCF). When this is done, we say the ratio has been fully simplied. The ratio is then easier to use in solving problems.
WORKED Example 20
Fully simplify the following ratios. a 24 cm:32 cm b $3.60:$2.10 c 3 m:80 cm THINK a b
1 2 1 2 3
WRITE a 24:32 3:4 b $3.60:$2.10 360:210 12:7 c 3 m:80 cm 300:80 15:4
1 2 3
Write down the question, ignoring units. Divide both numbers by the HCF (8). Write down the question. Write both money quantities as cents. Divide by the HCF (30). Write the question. Change metres to centimetres. Divide by the HCF (20).
Once we are able to write ratios, we can use them to compare quantities. We do this by comparing the two parts of the ratio. We can consider each part of the ratio as consisting of a number of shares. If we know the value of one part of the ratio we can nd the value of one share and hence nd the other part of the ratio. This is known as the unitary method.
WORKED Example 21
Jane and Brookes heights are in the ratio 9:10. If Jane is 162 cm tall, how tall is Brooke? THINK
1
WRITE Jane:Brooke 9:10 162 cm:??? 9 shares = 162 cm s1 share = 18 cm 10 shares = 180 cm
2 3 4
Model the problem by comparing the ratio to the known information. Compare the known part of the ratio (Janes height). Divide by 9 to nd 1 share. Multiply 1 share by 10 to nd the unknown part of the ratio. Give a written answer.
Brooke is 180 cm tall.
Returning to the problem at the start of this section, we can use ratios to divide a quantity into unequal parts.
71
WORKED Example 22
Zhong and Hasam invest money in a business. Zhong invests $25 000 and Hasam invests $30 000. a What is the ratio of these investments? b If the business makes a prot of $33 000 in the rst year, how much should each of the partners receive?
THINK a b
1 2 1 2 3 4 5
WRITE a $25 000:$30 000 5:6 b 11 shares = $33 000 s1 share = $3000 5 shares = $15 000 6 shares = $18 000 Zhongs share is $15 000 and Hasams share is $18 000.
Write down the whole ratio. Divide by the HCF (5000). Sum the parts and make this equal to $33 000. Divide $33 000 by 11 to nd 1 share. Zhong receives 5 shares so multiply 1 share by 5. Hasam receives 6 shares so multiply 1 share by 6. Give a written answer.
remember
1. A ratio is a comparison of two quantities of the same type. 2. To be compared, both quantities need to be in the same unit. 3. Ratios can be simplied by dividing each part by the highest common factor (HCF). 4. To divide a quantity in a given ratio, we calculate the value of one share before calculating each part of the ratio. 5. To do most ratio problems you will need to know your basic measurement facts.
72
2F
SkillS
Using ratios
c f i l o r u x 300 g:800 g 375 mL:500 mL 800 mm:550 mm $1:60c 40 min:1 h 900 L:3 kL 1.25 L:500 mL 3 t:450 kg
HEET
2.6
Simplifying ratios
WORKED
Example
20
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Ratios
1 Fully simplify each of the following ratios. a $20:$4 b 50 cm:45 cm d 560 km:240 km e 35 t:21 t g 15c:80c h 4 weeks:52 weeks j 1250 mL:300 mL k 80 cm:1 m m 1 kg:250 g n 400 mL:1 L p $4:20c q 750 kg:2 t s 3 min:45 s t 600 g:10 kg v $10:$6.50 w 3.6 km:800 m 2 multiple choice The ratio 3 h:45 min fully simplied is: A 3:45 B 1:15 3 multiple choice The ratio 80 cm:2 km fully simplied is: A 40:1 B 1:2500 C 2:5 C 180:45
et
WORKED
D 4:1
D 1:125
Example
21
4 The ratio of boys to girls in a class is 5:4. If there are 15 boys in the class, how many girls are there? 5 In a school, the ratio of students to teachers is 35:2. If the school has 60 teachers, how many students attend the school? 6 The ratio of the weight of a male elephant to a female elephant is 10:9. If the male elephant weighs 1400 kg, what does the female elephant weigh? 7 In a cordial mixture, the ratio of syrup to water is 2:15. a How much water must be added to a 1 litre bottle of syrup? b How much cordial will this mixture make? 8 In a cricket match, the ratio of Australias score to Englands score is 5:3. If England made 192 runs, how many did Australia make? 9 In Parliament, the ratio of Liberal members to Labor members is 4:3. If there are 63 Labor members of the Parliament, how many Liberal members are there? 10 multiple choice In her yearly exams, the ratio of Ritas Maths mark to her English mark was 8:7. If she scored 56% in English, what did she score in Maths? A 49% B 63% C 64% D 72% 11 Tom and Rachael divide $1000 in the ratio 7:3. How much should each receive? 12 Natalie and Kathy share a job in the ratio 3:2. If their job is a 35 hour per week job, how many hours does each person work?
73
13 In a game of netball a team scored 45 goals. The goals were scored by the goal shooter and the goal attack in the ratio 7:2. How many goals were scored by the goal attack? 14 A game of AFL at the Telstra Stadium attracts a crowd of 80 000 people. The ratio of Sydney supporters to Collingwood supporters is 11:5. How many Collingwood supporters are at the game? 15 multiple choice A fruit punch drink is to be made for a party. It consists of orange juice, pineapple juice and apple juice in the ratio 5:3:2. If we want to ll a 9 litre bucket with the punch, how much pineapple juice will be needed? A 0.9 L B 2.7 L C 3L D 5L 16 A radio station plays 14 songs in one hour. Of these, 4 are by Australian artists. a What is the ratio of Australian music to overseas music played during this hour? b If during a week this ratio is maintained, how many tracks by Australian artists will be played if a total of 2100 tracks are played?
WORKED
Example
17 Sandra and Kevin purchase a Lotto entry. The entry costs $24.80. Sandra puts in $15.50 and Kevin the rest. 22 a How much does Kevin put towards the cost of the Lotto entry? b What is the ratio of their contributions? c If the entry wins a prize of $640 000 and they agree to share the winnings in the same ratio as their contributions, how much should each receive? 18 A concrete mix is made from sand, cement and gravel in the ratio 3:2:1. How much of each component will be needed to make 150 kg of concrete? 19 At the Commonwealth Games, Australia won 60 gold, 75 silver and 30 bronze medals. a Simplify the ratio of gold:silver:bronze medals. b If at the Olympic Games medals were won in the same ratio, how many gold medals would be won if Australia won a total of 33 medals?
20 Monica and Vicky share a two bedroom at. Monicas bedroom has an area of 15 m2, while Vickys has an area of 12 m2. a What is the ratio of the area of Vickys bedroom to Monicas? b The rent on this at is $180 per week and they agree that the rent should be split in the ratio of their bedroom areas. How much should they each contribute to the rent?
Work
T SHEE
2.2
74
summary
Measures of length:10 mm = 1 cm, 100 cm = 1 m, 1000 m = 1 km Measures of mass:1000 g = 1 kg, 1000 kg = 1 t Measures of capacity:1000 mL = 1 L, 1000 L = 1 kL
Relative error
All measurements are approximations. Every measuring instrument is limited in the degree of accuracy that it allows. The maximum error is half the degree of accuracy used. A true gauge of the accuracy of a measurement is to calculate the maximum error as a percentage of the measurement we have taken.
Scientic notation
Scientic notation is a method for writing very large and very small measurements. For numbers greater than one, we move the decimal point between the rst two digits and multiply by the power of 10 corresponding to the number of places the decimal point has moved to the left. For positive numbers less than one, we move the decimal point between the rst two non-zero digits and multiply by the negative power of 10 corresponding to the number of places the decimal point has moved to the right.
Rates
A rate is a comparison of two quantities of different types. To simplify a rate, we compare the rst quantity with one unit of the second quantity. Many problems involve using rates and these questions must be read carefully to determine whether to multiply or divide to solve the problem.
Percentage change
Percentage change involves increasing or decreasing an amount by a percentage. When more than one percentage change is to be done, each must be carried out separately.
Ratios
A ratio is a comparison of two quantities of the same type. Ratios often need to be simplied, and this is done by dividing each part by the highest common factor. When a quantity needs to be divided in a given ratio, we add the parts of the ratio to nd the total number of shares, then divide the quantity by this number to nd the value of one share. Each part of the ratio can then be calculated by multiplying this by the number of shares in each part.
75
CHAPTER review
1 Copy and complete each of the following. a 90 mm = cm b 6m= cm d 4800 m = km e 6.9 cm = mm g 9000 g = kg h 9500 kg = t j 11 000 L = kL k 4550 mL = L m 300 s = min n 240 min = h p 4 days = h q 4 years = days c f i l o r 6.7 km = m 11.25 m = cm 4.84 kg = g 12.8 L = mL 96 h = days 5 years = months
2A
2 An elevator has a capacity of 1.3 tonnes. If 18 people who each weigh an average of 66 kg are on the elevator, how much under the capacity is the total weight? 3 In each of the following, a measurement and its degree of accuracy are given. State the limits between which the measurement lies. a 34 cm, correct to the nearest centimetre b 8.9 kg, correct to 1 decimal place c 500 km, correct to the nearest 100 km d 2.25 L, correct to 2 decimal places e 800 km, correct to the nearest 10 km 4 For each of the measurements in question 3, nd the degree of accuracy as a percentage, correct to 1 decimal place. 5 Write each of the following measurements in scientic notation. a 60 000 000 km b 400 000 mm c 147 000 000 m d 643 000 t e 0.8739 t f 0.000 574 g g 0.002 874 mL h 0.005 874 g 6 Copy and complete each of the following. a 5.2 105 cm = mm b 9.1 107 g = 7 Simplify each of the following rates. a $2.50 for 10 L b 80 km in 2 h d 3 h for 2 kg kg c 3.45 107 t = c $42 for 5 h kg
2A 2B
2B 2C 2C 2D 2D 2D 2D 2E 2F
8 A car is travelling at 90 km/h. How far will it travel in 7 hours at this rate? 9 Eric earns $12.45/h. How many hours does he need to work to earn more than $400? 10 If petrol costs $1.27/L, how much petrol can be bought for $40? 11 The cost of a refrigerator is $900. The price is then increased by the manufacturer by 10%. When on sale, the refrigerator is sold at a discount of 10%. Calculate the sale price of the refrigerator. 12 Simplify each of the following ratios. a 9:12 b 64:48 d 40 min:25 min e $5:80c g 40 min:3 h h 600 g:2 kg c 90 m:150 m f 500 m:3 km
76
2F 2F 2F
13 Jane and Allan share an amount of money in the ratio 5:3. If Janes share of the money is $600, what is Allans share? 14 Divide $2000 in the ratio 3:7. 15 Yasmin and Carrie purchase a lottery ticket for $5. Yasmin paid $3.50 and Carrie paid $1.50 for the ticket. a What is the ratio of their investments in the ticket? b If the ticket won $250 000, how much should each receive?

1 multiple choice One litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. What would be the mass of 1 mL of water? A 1g B 10 g C 100 g D unknown 2 multiple choice A trees height is measured to be 17.3 m, correct to 1 decimal place. The maximum percentage error in the measurement of the tree is: A 0.3% B 1.7% C 2.9% D 17% 3 multiple choice The diameter of a human hair is 0.000 045 6 mm. In scientic notation this is equal to: A 4.56 104 B 4.56 105 C 4.56 104 D 4.56 105 4 multiple choice Which of the following is the greatest speed? A 100 km/h B 30 m/s C 1.5 km/min 5 multiple choice The ratio of a trees height to its girth is 15:4. If the height of the tree is 26.25 m, the girth is: A 1.75 m B 6.5625 m C 7m D 98.4375 m 6 On a set of building plans the length of a rectangular house is given as 20 500 mm. a State this length in metres. b Daryl measures the length of the house in metres, correct to 1 decimal place. State the maximum error of his measurement in millimetres. c Calculate the maximum percentage error in Daryls measurement. d The width of the house is given as 8000 mm. Daryl calculates the area of the house as 164 000 000 mm2. Give this measurement in scientic notation. 7 At a certain point in the orbit of the planets Earth and Mars, the distance for a spacecraft to travel from Earth to Mars is 55 750 450 km. a Give this distance correct to 3 signicant gures. b Calculate the percentage error when the distance is rounded to 3 signicant gures. Give the percentage error correct to 1 signicant gure. c The spacecraft takes 2 years to travel to Mars. Calculate the speed of the spacecraft in kilometres per hour, correct to 2 signicant gures. D 2500 km/day
CHAPTER
test yourself
Applications of area and volume
3
syllabus reference
Measurement 2 Applications of area and volume
In this chapter
3A Review of area 3B Calculating irregular areas from a eld diagram 3C Solid shapes 3D Surface area 3E Volume of a prism 3F Volume of other solids
areyou
3.1
Are you ready?
Area of squares, rectangles, triangles and circles
READY?
b
0.7 m 11.6 m
1 Find the area of each of the following. a
6.5 m
c
3.2 m
3.3 m 5.7 m
3.2
Converting units of area
2 Complete each of the following. a 2 cm2 = ___ mm2
b 300 000 cm2 = ___ m2
c 50 000 m2 = ___ ha
3.3
Surface area of cubes and rectangular prisms
3 Find the surface area of: a
b
8 cm 12 cm 19 cm
9 cm
3.5
Converting units of volume
4 Complete each of the following. a 2 cm3 = ___ mm3

Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms
b 3 000 000 cm3 = ___ m3
c 5000 mm3 = ___ cm3
3.6
5 Calculate the volume of the gures drawn in question 3.
Chapter 3 Applications of area and volume
79
Review of area
Area is a measure of the amount of space km2 within a closed shape. Area is expressed in 1 000 000 10 000 square units. The exception to this rule is hectares the hectare (ha). 10 000 10 000 100 mm2 = 1 cm2 m2 10 000 cm2 = 1 m2 10 000 10 000 10 000 m2 = 1 ha cm2 1 000 000 m2 = 1 km2 = 100 ha 100 100 mm2 To convert between units we can use the ow chart at right. A square unit is a space equal to that of a square with that particular side length. For example, a square centimetre is the amount of space contained within a square with each side 1 cm. Most common shapes have a formula that we can use to nd the area of that shape.
Square
The formula for the area of a square is A = s2 where s represents the side length of the square.
WORKED Example 1
Find the area of the square at right. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE A = s2 A = 8.52 A = 72.25 m2

8.5 m
Write the formula. Substitute the side length. Calculate the area.
Rectangles
The formula for the area of a rectangle is A = l b where l = length and b = breadth.
WORKED Example 2
Find the area of the rectangle at right. THINK
1 2 3
19 mm
WRITE A=lb A = 62 19 A = 1178 mm2
62 mm
Write the formula. Substitute the length and the breadth. Calculate the area.
Triangles
The formula for the area of a triangle is A = triangle and h is the perpendicular height.
1 -2
b h where b is the base of the
80
WORKED Example 3
Find the area of the triangle at right. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE A= A=
1 -2 1 -2
9.4 cm
Write the formula. Substitute the base and the height. Calculate the area.
bh 12.8 9.4
12.8 cm
A = 60.16 cm2
Other quadrilaterals
Formulas are also used to nd the area of parallelograms, rhombuses and trapeziums. Area of a parallelogram A = b h (b = base, h = height) Area of a rhombus Area of a trapezium A= A=
1 -2 1 -2
Dd (a + b) h
(D, d = diagonals) (a, b = parallel sides, h = height)
WORKED Example 4
Find the area of each of the following shapes. a b
9m 14 m 11.4 cm
5.9 cm 7.2 cm
18 m
26
THINK a
1 2 3
WRITE a A=bh A = 14 9 A = 126 m2 b A= A=

1 -2 1 -2
Write the formula. Substitute the base and height. Calculate the area. Write the formula. Substitute the diagonal lengths. Calculate the area. Write the formula. Substitute the sides and height. Calculate the area.
1 2 3
Dd 18 26
A = 234 m2 c A= A=
1 -2 1 -2
1 2 3
(a + b) h (5.9 + 11.4) 7.2
A = 62.28 cm2
You should have seen all of these formulas in Years 710. You will be expected to know these formulas in your exams as they will not be given to you on your formula sheet.
81
remember
You will need to remember each of the following area formulas. 1. Square 2. Rectangle 3. Triangle 4. Parallelogram 5. Rhombus 6. Trapezium A = s2 A=lb A= A= A= A=bh
1 -2 1 -2 1 -2
bh Dd (a + b) h
3.1
SkillS
HEET
3A
WORKED
Review of area
c
Area of squares, rectangles, triangles and circles
Example
1 Find the area of each of the squares below. a b
3.2
Converting units of area
SkillS
HEET
8 cm
29 mm
3.7 cm
12.5 cm
Area converter (DIY)

Cabri Geo
3.6 km
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
ry met
2.9 m
WORKED
Example
GC
2 Find the area of each of the rectangles below. a b

3m 27 mm 38 mm 2.2 km 49.7 km 9m
Area of a rectangle
c
47 cm 62 cm 3.85 m
am progr C
asio
Mensuration
f
program GC
TI
6.4 m Mensuration 34 m 6.3 m

WORKED
Example
3 Find the area of each of the triangles below. a b

12 m 6.2 cm 9.4 cm 9m
Perimeter and area

Cabri Geo
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
ry met
76 mm 82 mm
Area of a triangle
82
d
4.2 m 9.7 m
6.3 km 8.4 km
f
3.7 m
Cabr
omet i Ge ry
WORKED
Example
Area of a parallelogram
4a
4 Find the area of each of the parallelograms below. a b

6m 12 m 36 cm 17 cm
c
7.8 m 9.3 m
d
12.8 km 16.9 km
WORKED
38 mm 87 mm
f
80 cm 8m
Example
4b
5 Find the area of each of the rhombuses below. a b

c 15
9c
m
7.7
m 31
m
4
7m
m
8.8
e
20.9 m
km
f
10.2 m
14 .2
5k
3m 39 cm
25
.25
Cabr
omet i Ge ry
WORKED
Example
Area of a trapezium
4c
6 Find the area of each of the trapeziums below. a b 26 mm 3m

4m 7m 97 mm 58 mm
c
3.2 m
5.6 m
8.4 m
1m 12 m 9m
2.8 m 3.65 m 0.4 m
f
9.5 cm
3.6 cm 5.4 cm
83
7m
7 Look at the gure at right. a Find the area of the outer rectangle. b Find the area of the inner rectangle. c Find the shaded area by subtracting the area of the inner rectangle from the area of the outer rectangle. 8 Find the shaded area in each of the following. a b
14 m 8m 10 m 16 m 5 cm 5 cm 9 cm
3 m 12 m 20 m
c
3m 8m 5m 9m 10 m
d
8m 8m 12 m
12 m
9 multiple choice The area of the triangle at right is: A 36 cm2 B 54 cm2 2 C 108 cm D 1620 cm2
15 cm 12 cm
9 cm
10 multiple choice Which of the two statements is correct for the two shapes at right?
19 cm 38 cm 19 cm 38 cm
Statement 1. The rectangle and parallelogram have equal areas. Statement 2. The rectangle and parallelogram have equal perimeters. A Statement 1 B Statement 2 C Both statements D Neither statement 11 multiple choice The area of the gure at right is: A 54 m2 B 165 m2 2 C 225 m D 255 m2
17 m 15 m 7m 15 m
12 Len is having his lounge room carpeted. Carpet costs $27.80/m2. The lounge is rectangular with a length of 7.2 m and a width of 4.8 m. a Calculate the area of the lounge room. b Calculate the cost of carpeting the room.
84
13 A rectangular garden in a park is 15 m long and 12 m wide. A concrete path 1.5 m wide is to be laid around the garden. a Draw a diagram of the garden and the path. b Find the area of the garden. c What are the dimensions of the rectangle formed by the path? d Find the area of concrete needed for the path.
Maximising an area of land

Farmer Brown needs to build a paddock for her sheep to graze. She has 1000 m of fencing with which to build this paddock. 1 If Farmer Brown builds the paddock 100 m long and 400 m wide, the area will be 40 000 m2. If she builds it 200 m long and 300 m wide, the area will be 60 000 m2. What dimensions should Farmer Brown build the paddock so it has the maximum possible area? 2 If one side of the paddock is a river, only three sides need to be fenced. If Farmer Brown still uses 1000 m of fencing, what dimensions should she now make the paddock to maximise the area?
It is possible for you to set up a spreadsheet that will calculate the area of a rectangle and substitute different values for the length and width of the paddock. Use the spreadsheet to nd the maximum area of the paddock.
85
Calculating irregular areas from a eld diagram

Surveyors are often required to draw scale diagrams and to calculate the area of irregularly shaped blocks of land. This is done using a traverse survey. In this survey, a diagonal (traverse) is constructed between two corners of the block. The diagonal is then measured.
From this diagonal each other corner is sighted at right angles to the diagonal. Each of these lines, called an offset, is measured. These offsets then divide the block into triangles and quadrilaterals, hence we can calculate the area.
C
100
The results of a traverse survey are displayed in a eld diagram. The measurements through the centre of the eld diagram are the points at which the offsets are taken. 100 metres is the length of the diagonal. At the sides are the measurements from the diagonal to the corners.
45
75 40 70
20 30 E 0
A
The eld diagram can then be drawn as a scale diagram and the area calculated, as shown on the following page.
86
WORKED Example 5
Use the eld diagram on the previous page to: a draw a scale diagram of the eld (use 1 mm = 1 m) b calculate the area of the eld. THINK a
1 2
WRITE a
A2 B
45
3 4
Draw a 100 mm line. Draw in all offsets at the appropriate points on the traverse line. Join all corners of the eld. Write all measurements on your diagram.
C
25 5 50
A3
40
D A4
A1
20
30
E A5
Calculate the area of the four triangles and the trapezium.
b A1 = = A4 = =
1 -2 1 -2
bh 75 45
2
A2 = =
1 -2 1 -2
bh 25 45
2
A3 =
1 -2 2
bh
-= 1 30 40
= 1687.5 m
1 -2 1 -2
= 562.5 m
= 600 m2
1 -2 1 -2
(a + b) h (40 + 30) 50
A5 = =
bh 20 30
Add the areas together.
= 1750 m2 = 300 m2 Area = 1687.5 + 562.5 + 600 + 1750 + 300 = 4900 m2
When you draw a scale diagram of the block of land, you can use measurement to nd the perimeter.
Land survey
1 2 3 4 Find an area of land in or near your school and conduct a traverse survey of it. Draw a scale diagram of the area of land. Calculate the area of the land. Find the perimeter of the block.
remember
1. A traverse survey is used to calculate the area of irregularly shaped blocks of land. 2. A eld diagram can be used to make a scale drawing of the land. 3. The land can be broken up into triangles and quadrilaterals. The area can then be calculated.
87
3B
WORKED
Calculating irregular areas from a eld diagram

C
1 At right is a surveyors eld diagram of a block of land. a Draw a scale diagram of the block of land, using the scale 1 mm = 1 m. b Calculate the area of the block of land.
B
50 25 40
Example
15 20 0
A
2 For the eld diagram shown at right: a Draw a scale diagram of the block of land using the scale 1 mm = 1 m. b Calculate the area of the block of land. c Use measurement to nd the perimeter.
80
C
42 65 40 28
E
35 10 0
A
3 Use the eld diagrams below to calculate the area of each block of land. a b c C D D
70
C B
75 23 70 40 30 20 20 0
A E
100 30 90 50 30
E F
40 40 30 15 0
A D
30 40 20 0
A
88
1
1 Find the area of a square with a side length of 4.7 m. 2 Calculate the area of a rectangle with a length of 14.5 cm and a breadth of 9.7 cm. 3 Calculate the side length of a square with an area of 49 cm2. 4 A rectangle has a length of 7 m and an area of 84 m2. Calculate the breadth of the rectangle. 5 Calculate the area of a triangle with a base of 4.7 m and a height of 0.7 m. 6 Calculate the area of the parallelogram below.
1.7 m 9.9 m
7 Calculate the area of the rhombus below.

cm
8.9
4.5 cm
8 Calculate the area of the trapezium below.

17 mm 12 mm 39 mm
9 Calculate the area of a square with a side length of 10 mm. 10 Using your answer to question 9, copy and complete the following: 1 cm2 = mm2.
89
Solid shapes
So far in this chapter we have dealt with 2-dimensional (plane) shapes. We also need to be able to recognise, classify and draw 3-dimensional (solid) shapes. Most of the solid shapes that we will be dealing with in this chapter can be classied as either prisms or pyramids. A prism is a solid shape with a constant cross-section, usually a polygon. This means that if the solid is sliced parallel to the base of the prism, the shape seen will be identical to the base. A prism is named according to the shape of its base.
WORKED Example 6
Name the prism at right. THINK The shape has a common cross-section and the shape of the base is a triangle. WRITE Triangular prism
Pyramids have a plane shape as their base and have triangular sides that meet in an apex. A pyramid is also named according to the shape of its base.
WORKED Example 7
Name the pyramid at right. THINK The base shape is a square. WRITE Square pyramid
A solid can also be identied by its net. The net of a solid shape is how the shape would look if it were unfolded and laid at.
WORKED Example 8
Use the diagram of a cube to help you draw its net. THINK
1 2
WRITE
The cube has six faces, each of which is a square. Draw the cube so that the six squares would fold up to form a cube.
90
Imagine looking at a pair of railway tracks like those in the photograph below. As you can see, they appear to get closer together. The point on the horizon where they appear to meet is called the vanishing point.
When drawing a solid shape, the sides should slightly converge so that if they were extended they would meet at a similar vanishing point. This can best be done by using isometric paper.
remember
1. A prism is a solid shape where any cross-section parallel to the base is a polygon which is identical to that base shape. 2. A pyramid is a solid shape with a base and triangular sides that meet in an apex. 3. The net of a solid is how that shape would look if it were unfolded and attened. 4. Solid shapes when drawn in perspective converge on a vanishing point. This point is best found by drawing the shape on isometric paper.
91
3C
WORKED
Solid shapes
Example
1 Name the prism at right.
WORKED
Example
2 Name the pyramid at right.
3 Name each of the shapes below. a
4 Draw your own example of a prism and a pyramid.

WORKED
Example
5 Below is a diagram of a rectangular prism. Use the diagram to help you draw the 8 net of the rectangular prism.
6 Name each solid in the top row then match it with a net in the bottom row. a b c
ii
ii
iii
92
7 Draw the net of each of the following solids. a b
8 Identify the solids from the nets below. Draw the solid in your book. a b c
Work
T SHEE
3.1
9 Draw an example of each of the following on isometric paper and on your diagram mark the vanishing point. a cube b rectangular prism c triangular prism d square pyramid
Surface area
Area usually refers to the space inside a 2-dimensional shape. Surface area refers to the total area occupied by the faces of a 3-dimensional shape. Surface area is measured in square units as are 2-dimensional area problems. In general, the surface area of a solid needs to be calculated by adding the area of each face separately. However, for some solids there is a unique formula.
Cube
A cube has six identical faces, each of which is a square. Consider a cube of side length s. Each face can have its area calculated using the formula A = s2. Therefore, we have the formula for the surface area (SA) of a cube: SA = 6s2
WORKED Example 9
Find the surface area of the cube at right. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE SA = 6s2 SA = 6 4.32 SA = 110.94 cm2

4.3 cm
Write the formula. Substitute the side length. Calculate the surface area.
Rectangular prism
h Consider a rectangular prism with a length of l, l a breadth of b and a height of h. Each pair of opposite faces are equal. Using the formula for a rectangle: Front and back A=lh Top and bottom A=lb Left and right A=bh
93
Adding these gives the formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism: SA = 2(lh + lb + bh)
WORKED Example 10
Find the surface area of the rectangular prism at right.
9.7 m 3.2 m
THINK
1 2 3
WRITE
4.3 m
Write the formula. Substitute the length, breadth and height. Calculate the surface area.
SA = 2(lh + lb + bh) SA = 2(4.3 9.7 + 4.3 3.2 + 3.2 9.7) SA = 173.02 m2
For other solid shapes the surface area is found by adding the area of each face separately.
WORKED Example 11
Find the surface area of the square pyramid at right. THINK
1
5 cm 4 cm 6 cm
WRITE A=s A = 62 A = 36 cm2 -A= 1 bh

2
Calculate the area of the square base.
Calculate the area of a triangular side. (Note: Each side is identical and the height of each triangular side is 5 cm.) Calculate the total surface area. (Note: There are 4 identical triangular sides.)
A=
2 1 -2
65
A = 15 cm2 SA = 36 + 4 15 SA = 96 cm2
You will be expected to know these formulas for surface area as well. They do not appear on your formula sheet.
94
remember
1. The surface area of a solid shape is the total area of each face of the shape. 2. The surface area of a cube or rectangular prism can be found using the formulas: Cube: SA = 6s2 Rectangular prism: SA = 2(lh lb bh) 3. The surface area of any other shape is found by adding the area of each face of the shape.
3D
SkillS
Surface area
c
HEET
3.3
Surface area of cubes and rectangular prisms
WORKED
Example
1 Find the surface area of each of the cubes below. a b
5 cm 9 cm 32 cm
SkillS
HEET
3.4
Surface area of triangular prisms
WORKED
d
2.7 cm
62 mm 2.8 m
Example
10
2 Find the surface area of each of the following rectangular prisms. a b c

3m 7m 4m 7.5 m 3.5 m 2.5 m
12 cm 42 cm
21 cm
d
4 cm 4.1 cm 3.9 cm
20 cm 13 cm 14 cm
42 mm
7 mm 7 mm
3 Oliver is making a box in the shape of a rectangular prism. The box is to be 2.5 m long, 1.2 m wide and 0.8 m high. Calculate the surface area of the box. 4 Calculate the surface area of an open box in the shape of a cube, with a side length of 75 cm. (Hint: Since the box is open there are only ve faces.)
95
5 A room is in the shape of a rectangular prism. The oor is 5 m long and 3.5 m wide. The room has a ceiling 2.5 m high. The oor is to be covered with slate tiles, the walls are to be painted blue and the roof is to be painted white. a Calculate the area to be tiled. b Each tile is 0.25 m2. Calculate the number of tiles needed. c Calculate the area to be painted blue. d Calculate the area to be painted white. e One litre of paint covers an area of 2 m2. How many litres of paint are needed to paint the room?
WORKED
Example
6 Calculate the surface area of the square pyramid at right.
11
13 cm
10 cm
7 A triangular based pyramid has four equal sides as shown at right. Calculate the surface area.
3.5 cm
8 multiple choice
4 cm
Two cubes are drawn such that the side length on the second cube is double the side length on the rst cube. The surface area of the larger cube will be: A twice the surface area of the smaller cube B four times the surface area of the small cube C six times the surface area of the small cube D eight times the surface area of the small cube 9 Calculate the surface area of the triangular prism below.
5 cm 4 cm 3 cm 2 cm
10 Calculate the surface area of the prism below.

3.2 m 1m 2m 6m 4m
96
2
1 Calculate the area of a rectangle with a length of 0.4 m and a breadth of 1.1 m. 2 Calculate the area of a triangle with a base of 12.3 m and a height of 4.8 m. 3 Calculate the area of the trapezium at right.
96 m 56 m 32 m
Name the solids below. 4
7 Find the surface area of the cube shown at left.

9c m
8 Find the surface area of a rectangular prism with a length of 8 cm, a breadth of 5 cm and a height of 6 cm. 9 Find the surface area of the triangular prism below.
10 cm 6 cm
8 cm 20 cm
10 Find the surface area of the square pyramid below.

6 cm
8 cm
97
Volume of a prism
The volume of a solid shape is the amount of space within that shape. Consider the prism at right which has been built with cubes with sides of 1 cm. We can see by counting squares that the area of the base is 15 cm2. The height of the prism is 3 cm, and if we count the remaining cubes we nd that the volume of the prism is 57 cm3.
Exploring the volume of a prism

Build the prism that has been drawn above. Count the number of cubes that have been used to build the prism. Build other prisms and count the area of the base, the height and nd the volume. Show that the volume can be found by multiplying the area of the front face (base) by the height perpendicular to the front face. When prisms are drawn, they are usually drawn lying down so that we can see the base. Hence, using the above example we can see that the volume of a prism can be calculated using the formula: V=Ah where A is the area of the base and h is the height.
WORKED Example 12
Calculate the volume of the prism at right. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE V=Ah V = 63 5 V = 315 cm3
Write the formula. Substitute the area of the base and the height. Calculate the volume.
A = 63 cm2
5 cm
For some prisms we can develop a more specic formula for volume, without separately calculating the area of the base.
Cube
The front face of the cube is a square of side length s and the height is s. V=Ah V = s2 s since A = s2 for a square. V = s3 This becomes the formula used for the volume of a cube.
WORKED Example 13
Find the volume of the cube at right. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE V = s3 V = 6.83 V = 314.432 cm3

6.8 cm
Write the formula. Substitute the side length. Calculate the volume.
98
Rectangular prism
Now consider a rectangular prism with a length of l, a breadth of b and a height of h. Substituting into the formula: V=Ah V = l b h since A = l b.
h l b
WORKED Example 14
Calculate the volume of the rectangular prism at right. THINK
1 2 3
12 mm 47 mm 29 mm
WRITE V=lbh V = 47 29 12 V = 16 356 mm3
Write the formula. Substitute the length, breadth and height. Calculate the volume.
Cylinders
A cylinder can be considered to be a circular prism. Consider the cylinder at right with a radius of r and a height of h. Substituting into h the formula r V=Ah V = r 2h since for a circle A = r 2. The symbol indicates that this formula will be on the HSC exam formula sheet. We also need to be aware of the relationship between volume and capacity. Capacity refers to the amount of liquid that a container holds. Capacity is measured in millilitres, litres and kilolitres. A volume of 1 cm3 = 1 mL and 1 m3 = 1000 L.
WORKED Example 15
Find the capacity of a cylinder with a radius of 1.3 m and a height of 7.8 m. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE V = r 2h V = (1.3)2 7.8 V 41.412 m3 Capacity = 41.412 1000 Capacity = 41 412 L
Write the formula. Substitute the radius and the height. Calculate the volume in m3. Calculate the capacity by multiplying the volume by 1000.
For any other prism, to calculate the volume we calculate the area of the base rst and then use the formula V = A h.
99
WORKED Example 16
Calculate the volume of the triangular prism at right. THINK
1
WRITE A= A=
1 -2 1 -2
7.9 cm 1.2 cm
Calculate the area of the triangular base.
bh 5.6 7.9
5.6 cm
A = 22.12 cm2
2 3 4
Write the volume formula. Substitute the area and the height. Calculate the volume.
V=Ah A = 22.12 1.2 A = 26.544 cm3
remember
1. The volume of a prism is found using the formula V = A h. 2. Special volume formulas can be used for: Cube: V = s3 Rectangular prism: V = l b h Cylinder: V = r 2h. 3. For other prisms, the volume is found by rst calculating the area of the base, then using the formula V = A h. 4. The capacity of a container can be calculated using: 1 cm3 = 1 mL and 1 m3 = 1000 L
3E
WORKED
Volume of a prism
3.5
c
Converting units of volume A = 57 cm2 4 cm
SkillS
Example
1 Calculate the volume of each of the solids below. a

A = 24 cm2 5 cm A = 19 cm2 12 cm
HEET
12
3.6
Volume of cubes and rectangular prisms
E
SkillS
HEET
d
9.2 m A = 27.9 m2
e
18 mm A = 15.93 mm2
A = 77.7 cm2
7.7 cm
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Volume
2 A prism has a base area of 74.5 m2 and a height of 3.1 m. Calculate the volume.
100
WORKED
Example
3 Calculate the volume of each of the cubes below. a

5 cm 2.4 m 13 m
13
d
29 mm
8.2 m 5.64 m
WORKED
Example
4 Find the volume of each of the rectangular prisms below. a

3 cm 6 cm 4 cm 42 mm 6.3 m 13 mm 9 mm
14
c
3.7 m 4.5 m
d
3.2 m 4.2 m
e
50 mm
f
12.5 m
20.5 m
16.5 m
9 mm 9 mm
WORKED
Example
5 Calculate the volume of each of the cylinders below, correct to 1 decimal place. a
6 cm 12 cm 3m
15
b
12 m
27 cm 13 cm
d
9 cm
15 cm
18.5 cm
f 3 mm
25 cm
47 cm
101
WORKED
Example
16
6 For each of the following triangular prisms nd: i the area of the front face ii the volume of the prism. a b
6 cm 8 cm 8 cm 3 cm 5 cm 12 cm
c
3.4 m 1.5 m
12.5 m 2.7 m 3.2 m 7.8 m
7 Find the volume of each of the following prisms by rst calculating the area of the front face. a b 15 m
5m 5m 5m 15 m 20 m 10 m
c
19 m 12 m 10 m
3.1 cm
1.7 cm
2.4 cm
8 In each of the following, the prisms front face is made up of a composite gure. For each: i calculate the area of the front face ii nd the volume of the prism. a b 4 cm
4m 20 cm 16 cm 10 cm 10 cm 8m 9m
c
15 cm 8 cm 12 cm 20 cm 6 cm
d
3m 6m
12 m
18 m
12 m
9 multiple choice The shape at right could be described as a: A cube B square prism C rectangular prism D both B and C
102
10 multiple choice The area of the front face of a prism is 34.67 cm2, and the height is 3.6 cm. The volume of the prism is: A 38.27 cm2 B 38.27 cm3 C 124.12 cm2 D 124.812 cm3 11 multiple choice The dimensions of a rectangular prism are all doubled. The volume of the prism will increase by a factor of: A 2 B 4 C 6 D 8 12 A refrigerator is in the shape of a rectangular prism. The internal dimensions of the prism are 60 cm by 60 cm by 140 cm. a Find the volume of the refrigerator in cm3. b The capacity of a refrigerator is measured in litres. If 1 cm3 = 1 mL, nd the capacity of the refrigerator in litres. 13 A semi-trailer is 15 m long, 2.5 m wide and 2.7 m high. Find the capacity of the semitrailer in m3. 14 A petrol tanker is shown at right. The tank is cylindrical in shape. The radius of the tank is 2 m and the length is 12 m. Calculate: a the volume of the tank, correct to 3 decimal places b the capacity of the tank, to the nearest 100 litres. (1 m3 = 1000 L).
2m
12 m
10 m 15 At right is a diagram of a concrete slab for a house. a Calculate the area of the slab. 2.5 m b The slab is to be 10 cm thick. Calculate the volume of 15 m concrete needed for the slab. (Hint: Write 10 cm as 0.1 m.) 10 m c Concrete costs $45.50/m3 to lay. Calculate the cost of this slab.
16 A rectangular roof is 14 m long and 8 m wide. When it rains, the water is collected in a cylindrical tank. a Calculate the volume of water collected on the roof when 25 mm of rain falls. b How many litres of water does the roof collect? c The cylindrical tank has a radius of 1.8 m and is 2.4 m high. What is the capacity of the tank, in litres? d By how much does the depth of water in the tank rise when the rain falls? Answer in centimetres, correct to 1 decimal place.
103
Volume of other solids

Prisms are only one type of solid shape. In this section we nd the volume of pyramids, cones and spheres.
Pyramids
The volume of any pyramid is one-third of the volume of the corresponding prism. This leads us to the general formula for the volume of any pyramid:
-V = 1 Ah 3
where A is the area of the base and h is the height of the pyramid.
WORKED Example 17
Find the volume of the pyramid at right. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE
-V = 1 Ah 3
7 cm
Area = 45 cm2
We are given A and h, so use the general formula. Substitute the value of A and h. Calculate V.
V=
V = 105 cm3
1 -3
45 7
In other cases we may need to calculate the area of the base before we are able to use the general formula for the volume of a pyramid.
Cones
A cone is a circular pyramid. By substituting the formula for the area of a circle into the general formula for the volume of a pyramid, we nd the formula for the volume of any cone.
-A = r 2 when substituted into V = 1 Ah becomes 3 -A = r when substituted into V = 1 r 2h
2
WORKED Example 18
Find the volume of the cone at right, correct to 2 decimal places. THINK
1 2 3
8.5 cm 3.2 cm
WRITE
-V = 1 r 2h
Write the formula. Substitute the radius and height. Calculate the volume.
V=
V = 91.15 cm3
3 1 -3
3.22 8.5
104
Spheres
A sphere is a solid that looks like a ball. To nd the volume of a sphere we need only the radius. The volume is calculated using the formula:
-V = 4 r3 3
Find the volume of a sphere with a radius of 9.5 cm, correct to the nearest cm3. THINK
1 2 3
WORKED Example 19
Write the formula. Substitute the radius. Calculate the volume.
WRITE
-V = 4 r3
V=
V = 3591 cm3
3 4 -3
9.53
remember
-1. The volume of a pyramid is found using the formula V = 1 Ah 3 the area of the base and h is the height. -2. The volume of a cone is found using the formula V = 1 r2h. 3 -3. The volume of a sphere is found using the formula V = 4 r 3. 3
, where A is
105
3F
WORKED
Volume of other solids

b
Example
1 Find the volume of each of the pyramids below. a

8m
17
6m
A = 25 cm2
A = 47 cm2
c
9 cm A = 62 cm2
d
2.5 m
A = 13.5 m2
2 For each of the following pyramids, calculate the volume by rst calculating the area of the base shape. a
8 cm 6 cm
b
15 cm 14 cm
8 cm
c
12 m
d
8 cm 6 cm 5 cm 6m 10 m 12 cm
E
-3 Use the formula V = 1 Ah to nd the volume of the following cones. 3
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
b
6 cm 10 cm A = 30 cm2 A = 46 cm2
Volume of a cone
14 cm
52 mm
A = 12 mm2
A = 150 cm2
106
WORKED
Example
18
4 Find the volume of each of the following cones, correct to the nearest whole number. a b
10 cm 5 cm 12 cm 12 cm
c
33 mm 8 mm
42 cm
42 cm
5 A cone has a base with a diameter of 9 cm and a height of 12 cm. Calculate the volume of that cone, correct to 1 decimal place.
WORKED
Example
19
6 Calculate the volume of each of the following spheres, correct to 1 decimal place. a b
6 cm 8 cm
c
12.5 m
d
3.2 m
7 Calculate the volume of a sphere with a diameter of 2.3 cm. Answer correct to 2 decimal places. 8 multiple choice Which of the following solids could not be described as a pyramid? A B
9 multiple choice A triangular pyramid and a square pyramid both have a base area of 20 cm2 and a height of 15 cm. Which has the greater volume? A The triangular pyramid B The square pyramid C Both have equal volume D This cant be calculated.
107
10 multiple choice A spherical balloon has a volume of 500 cm3. It is then inated so that the diameter of the balloon is doubled. The volume of the balloon will now be: A 1000 cm3 B 2000 cm3 C 3000 cm3 D 4000 cm3 11 Find the volume of the solid at right. Answer correct to 1 decimal place. 12 A hollow rubber ball is to be made with a radius of 8 cm, and the rubber to be used is 1 cm thick. a What would be the radius of the hollow inside? b Calculate the volume of the ball. c Calculate the volume of space inside the ball. d Calculate the amount of rubber (in cm3) needed to make the ball. 13 The gure at right is a truncated cone, that is, a cone with the top cut off. a Calculate the volume of the cone before it was truncated. b The portion cut off was itself a cone. Calculate its volume. c Calculate the volume of the truncated cone.
15 cm 3 cm 6 cm 6 cm
4 cm 12 cm
5 cm
14 Use the same method as in question 13 to nd the volume of the truncated pyramid shown at right.
1 cm
3 cm
3 cm
15 The gure at right is of an ice-cream cone, containing a spherical scoop of ice-cream. a Calculate the volume of the cone. b Calculate the volume of the scoop of ice-cream. c Calculate the total volume of the shape. (Hint: Only half the sphere sits above the cone.)
2.5 cm
8 cm
Work
T SHEE
3.2
108
summary
Area
Area formulas that you will need to remember are: Square A = s2 Rectangle A=lb -Triangle A= 1 bh 2 Parallelogram A=bh -Rhombus A= 1 Dd 2 1 Trapezium A = -- (a + b) h 2 Irregular areas have their area calculated using a survey. A traverse survey is done, a eld diagram is drawn that will allow the shape to be divided into triangles and quadrilaterals, then the area is calculated.
Three-dimensional shapes
Prisms are solids with a constant cross-section. Pyramids have a plane shape as a base and triangular sides that meet in an apex. The net of a solid is what the shape would look like if it were unfolded and laid at. Solid shapes can be drawn on isometric paper to locate the vanishing point.
Surface area
The surface area is the total area of all faces on a solid shape. Surface area formulas: Cube SA = 6s2 Rectangular prism SA = 2(lh + lb + bh) Many solid shapes have their surface area calculated by separately calculating the area of each face.
Volume
The volume is the amount of space inside a solid shape. Volume formulas that you will need: Cube V = s3 Rectangular prism V=lbh Cylinder V = r 2h Cone Sphere
-V = 1 r 2h 3 3 -V = 4 r3
Any other prism has its volume calculated by using the formula V = A h, where A is the area of the base and h is the height. Any other pyramid has its volume calculated using the formula V =
1 -3
A h.
Any formula without the icon you should have seen in years 710 and will be expected to remember, as they will not appear on your formula sheet in the HSC exam.
109
CHAPTER review
1 Find the area of each of the gures drawn below. a b
6.3 cm 17.9 cm 5.2 cm 74 mm
c
32 mm
3A
d
43
35 cm 15 cm 70 cm
f
80 cm 3m
mm
2 Find the area of each of the triangles drawn below. a b

9 cm 40 cm 15.5 cm 18.2 cm
26 m m
3A
c
12.5 cm 12.5 cm
d
40 m 35 m
3 At right is the eld diagram for a block of land. a Use the scale 1 mm = 1 m to draw a scale diagram of the block of land. b Calculate the area of the block of land.
B
95 70 25
D
3B
36 30 0
A
4 Calculate the area of the block of land represented by the eld diagram at right.
82 46 45 32 37 15 26
3B
5 Name each of the solids below. a b
3C
110
3C
6 Draw the net of each of the following solids. a b
3C 3D
7 Name the solid shape for which the net is given at right.
8 Find the surface area of each of the following solids. a b

3.9 m 4.2 cm
2.1 m 0.8 m
4.6 m 0.9 m
1.8 m
3D
9 Calculate the surface area of each of the gures below, by calculating the area of each face separately and adding them. a b c 10 cm 5m
5m 4m 3.5 m 4 cm 12 cm 3m 6 cm 5 cm 15 m 2m 3m 12 m
3D
10 Below is a diagram of an Olympic swimming pool.

50 m 22 m 2m 1m
a b c d
Calculate the area of one side wall. Use the formula V = A h, to calculate the volume of the pool. How many litres of water will it take to ll the pool? (1 m3 = 1000 L) The walls and oor of the pool need to be painted. Calculate the area to be painted.
3D
11 At right are the plans for a garage that Rob is building. (Note: The garage has an iron roof and is closed at one end.) a Calculate the area that will need to be bricked. b If each brick is 20 cm long and 8 cm high, how many will be needed to complete the job?
2.5 m 3m
6m
111
3E
12 Use the formulas to calculate the volume of each of the following cubes, rectangular prisms and cylinders. a b c
3.8 m 29 mm 6.5 cm 11.6 m 4.6 m
d
41 cm
e
13 cm 3 cm 8 cm
f
18 mm 32 mm
3 cm
13 A prism has a base area of 45 cm2 and a height of 13 cm. Calculate the volume.
-14 Use the formula V = 1 Ah to calculate the volume of each of the pyramids below. 3
3E 3F
9 cm
19 mm
2.3 m
A = 16 cm2
A = 126 mm2
A = 6.9 m2
15 Calculate the volume of each of the pyramids, cones and spheres below. a
25 m
b
2.6 m 36 m 3.2 m 7.9 m
3F
19.5 mm 23.5 mm
52 mm 19 mm
e
23 mm
f
70 cm
112

1 multiple choice Which of the solids below is not a prism? A B C D
2 multiple choice A cube has a side length of 4 cm. I: The surface area of the cube is 64 cm2. II: The volume of the cube is 96 cm3. Which of the above statements is correct? A I only B II only 3 multiple choice A prism and a pyramid both have a rectangular base of area 50 cm2 and have equal volumes. The height of the prism is 5 cm. The height of the pyramid is: A 5 cm B 10 cm C 15 cm D 20 cm 4 The gure at right is a square pyramid. a Calculate the area of the base. b Calculate the volume of the pyramid. c Calculate the surface area of the pyramid. d Draw the net of the pyramid.
13 cm
C Both I and II
D Neither I nor II
12 cm
10 cm
CHAPTER
test yourself
5 A ice-cream cone has a base radius of 2.5 cm and a height of 12 cm. a Calculate the volume of the cone, correct to 1 decimal place. b Calculate the capacity of the cone in millilitres. c A scoop of ice-cream in the shape of a sphere is to sit inside the cone. Calculate the volume of the scoop. d How many scoops can be obtained from a 4 litre tub of icecream?
Basic algebraic skills
4
syllabus reference
Algebraic modelling 1 Basic algebraic skills
In this chapter
4A General number patterns 4B Number pattern notation 4C Adding and subtracting like terms 4D Substitution 4E Multiplication and division of algebraic expressions 4F Solving linear equations 4G Equations arising from substitution
areyou
4.1
Number patterns
Are you ready?
READY?
2 5 3 6 4 7 b x y 0 0 1 3 2 6 3 9 4 12 y = ___x 2 11 3 15 4 19 d x y 0 8 1 6 2 4 3 2 4 0
1 Write down the next three numbers in each of the following sequences. a 14, 22, 30, 38, . . . b 12, 7, 2, 3, . . . c 3, 6, 12, 24, . . . d 16, 8, 4, 2, . . .
Completing a formula for a table of values
4.2
2 Complete the algebraic rule for each of the following tables. a x y 0 3 1 4
y = x + ___ c x y 0 3 1 7
y = 4x + ___
y = ___ 2x
4.3
Adding and subtracting like terms
3 Simplify the following expressions. a 3g + 4g d 20x 19x + 11

Substituting into algebraic expressions
b y + 2y + 3y e 7g + 8g + 8 + 9
c 6gy 3gy f 7h + 4t 3h
4.4
4 If x = 2 and y = 5, evaluate each of the following. a 9x b 3y c xy e 7y 10 f 8xy g 3x2y

Multiplying algebraic terms
d 2x + 5 h 6x 2y
4.5
5 Simplify the following expressions. a 4x 3 b 3a 4b

Dividing algebraic terms
c 5k p
d 2mn 3m
4.6
6 Simplify the following expressions. a 12x 4 b 15y y

Solving equations
c 8a 2a
d 21xy 3
4.7
7 Solve each of the following equations. a x + 28 = 67 b 6x = 102 c 3x 7 = 20 2x d ----- = 8 3
Chapter 4 Basic algebraic skills
115
General number patterns

There are many different types of number patterns; however, all number patterns (sequences) follow a rule. Consider the number pattern 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, . . . In this pattern (sequence), each number is 4 more than the previous one. The numbers in a sequence are called terms. In the sequence above, the rst term is 6, the second term is 10, the third term is 14 and so on. The dots at the end of a sequence indicate that the pattern can be continued indenitely.
WORKED Example 1
For the number pattern 9, 15, 21, 27, . . . a What number is added to one term to get the next? b Find the next three terms. THINK a
1 2 3
WRITE a 15 9 = 6, 21 15 = 6 Add 6 to each term to get the next term. b 33, 39, 45 are the next three terms.
Subtract consecutive terms. Each term differs by 6. Give a written answer.
b Each term is 6 more than the previous, so add 6 to each term to get the next.
Some sequences are generated by multiplication rather than addition.
WORKED Example 2
For the sequence 1, 4, 16, 64, . . . a What is each number multiplied by to get the next? b What are the next three terms in the sequence? THINK a
1 2 3
WRITE a 4 1 = 4, 16 4 = 4 Multiply each number by 4 to get the next. b 256, 1024, 4096
Divide consecutive terms. Each term is 4 times the previous. Give a written answer.
b Each term is 4 times the previous, so multiply each term by 4 to get the next.
As we go through the following exercise you will discover sequences that are formed by subtraction and division. There are also examples in which you will be asked to describe a number pattern in words. To do this, we state the rst term and then describe what is done to the previous term to get the next.
116
WORKED Example 3
Describe each of the following patterns in words. a 45, 51, 57, 63, . . . b 2, 6, 18, 54, . . . THINK a
1
WRITE a 51 45 = 6, 57 51 = 6
Check to see that each term increases by the same amount by subtracting consecutive terms. Describe the sequence by stating the rst term and the rule to obtain each consecutive term. Divide consecutive terms to check that each term is multiplied by the same amount. Describe the sequence by stating the rst term and the rule to get each consecutive term.
The pattern has a rst term of 45 and then each term is found by adding 6 to the previous term. b (6) 2 = 3, 18 (6) = 3
The pattern has a rst term of 2 and then each term is found by multiplying the previous term by 3.
Patterns also occur in nature.
remember
1. A number pattern is a sequence of numbers that obey a certain rule. 2. If a pattern appears to be increasing (or decreasing) by a constant amount, subtract consecutive terms to nd that amount. This number can then be added to each term to get the next. 3. If each term in a sequence appears to be found by multiplying or dividing the previous term by a constant amount, we nd that amount by dividing consecutive terms. 4. To describe a pattern in words, state the rst term and then describe what is done to the previous term to get the next term.
117
4A
WORKED
General number patterns

SkillS
Example
1a
1 In each of the following number patterns, nd the number that is added to one term to 4.1 get the next. a 3, 6, 9, 12, . . . b 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . c 4, 9, 14, 19, . . . Number d 9, 16, 23, 30, . . . e 0, 11, 22, 33, . . . f 4, 5, 14, 23, . . . patterns g 6, 19, 32, 45, . . . h 17, 13, 9, 5, . . . i 2, 4.5, 7, 9.5, . . . -- -- -- - j 1 , 1 , 3 , 1, . . .
4 2 4
HEET
WORKED
Example
2 For each of the sequences in question 1, write down the next three terms. 3 In each of the following number patterns, nd the number which is subtracted from one term to get the next. a 10, 9, 8, 7, . . . b 30, 28, 26, 24, . . . c 40, 36, 32, 28, . . . d 40, 34, 28, 22, . . . e 19, 14, 9, 4, . . . f 22, 15, 8, 1, . . . g 65, 56, 47, 38, . . . h 3, 4, 11, 18, . . . i 5, 4.3, 3.6, 2.9, . . . -- -- -j 2, 1 1 , 1 , 1 , . . .
4 2 4
1b
4 For each of the sequences in question 3, write down the next three terms.
WORKED
Example
2a
5 In each of the following number patterns, nd the multiplied by to get the next. a 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . b 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . d 2, 10, 50, 250, . . . e 2, 14, 98, 686, . . . g 3, 6, 12, 24, . . . h 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, . . . j 4, 6, 9, 13.5, . . .
number which one term is c 5, 20, 80, 320, . . . f 2, 6, 18, 54, . . . i 3, 39, 507, 6591, . . .
WORKED
Example
6 For each of the sequences in question 5, write down the next three terms. 7 In each of the following sequences, nd the number that each term is divided by to get the next term. a 1600, 800, 400, 200, . . . b 10 000, 1000, 100, 10, . . . c 1600, 400, 100, 25, . . . d 750, 150, 30, 6, . . . e 729, 243, 81, 27, . . . f 400 000, 20 000, 1000, 50, . . . g 512, 64, 8, 1, . . . i 100, 10, 1, 0.1, . . .
-- -- -- - h 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , . . . 2 4 8
2b
j 5000, 500, 50, 5, . . .
8 For each of the sequences in question 7, nd the number which each term is -multiplied by to get the next. (Hint: Dividing by 2 is the same as multiplying by 1 .)
2
9 For each of the sequences in question 7, write down the next three terms. 10 In each of the following sequences, write down the rst term, the fth term and calculate the tenth term. a 2, 5, 8, 11, . . . b 45, 41, 37, 33, . . . c 4, 12, 36, 108, . . . d 192, 96, 48, 24, . . . e 25, 17, 9, 1, . . . f 6, 9, 12, 15, . . . g 2, 8, 32, 128, . . . h 48, 24, 12, 6, . . . i 1, 3, 6, 10, . . . j 1, 4, 9, 16, . . .
118
WORKED
Example
11 Describe the rule for each of the following number patterns. a d g j 5, 10, 15, 20, . . . 8, 4, 2, 1, . . . 2, 5, 12.5, 31.25, . . . 5, 10, 20, 40, . . . b 100, 97, 94, 91, . . . e 8, 15, 22, 29, . . . h 343, 49, 7, 1, . . . c 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . f 84, 71, 58, 45, . . . i 14, 11, 8, 5, . . .
12 Find the missing term in each of the following sequences. a c e g i 5, 12, ___, 26, 33, . . . 50, 44, 38, ___, 26, . . . 13, 5, 3, ___, 19, . . . 3, ___, 48, 192, 768, . . . 9, 18, ___, 36, 45, . . . b d f h j 2, ___, 18, 54, 162, . . . 320, 160, ___, 40, 20, . . . 14, 9, ___, 1, 6, . . . -- -- ___, 3, 1, 1 , 1 , . . . 3 9 9, 18, ___, 72, 144, . . .
13 Write down the rst three terms of a number sequence with: a a rst term of 2 and the next term found by adding 6 to the previous term b a rst term of 2 and the next term found by multiplying the previous term by 5 c a rst term of 45 and the next term found by subtracting 8 from the previous term d a rst term of 2000 and the next term found by dividing the previous term by 5 e a rst term of 12 and the next term found by adding 5 to the previous term f a rst term of 15 and the next term found by subtracting 9 from the previous term g a rst term of 20 and the next term found by dividing the previous term by 5 h a rst term of 6 and the next term found by multiplying the previous term by 5 i a rst term of 80 and the next term found by multiplying the previous term by
1 -2 4 -j a rst term of 6 and the next term found by multiplying the previous term by 1 .
14 In each of the following number patterns, calculate how many terms are in the sequence. a 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, . . ., 60 b 4, 9, 14, 19, . . ., 74 c 100, 90, 80, 70, . . ., 30 d 62, 59, 56, 53, 50, . . ., 8 e 1, 2, 4, 8, . . ., 1024 f 2, 6, 18, 54, . . ., 13 122 g 6561, 2187, 729, 243, . . ., 1 h 100, 20, 40, 0.8, . . ., 0.000 256 i 5, 10, 20, 40, . . ., 10 240 ---j 1 , 1 , 1 , 1, . . ., 128
8 4 2
15 In the photograph at left, we can see the inside walls of the spiral of a shell. Can you nd a number pattern? (Hint: Measure the length of each dividing wall using a length of cotton and a ruler.)
119
Number pattern notation

Usually we describe number patterns using pronumerals as this provides us with a shorter, more convenient method than using words. Two important pronumerals used in number patterns are n and Tn. The pronumeral n usually stands for the position of the term in the sequence, while Tn is the value of that term. For example, the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, . . . could be written as Tn = 3n. Terms in the sequence are found by substituting the position number for n. In this example, 3n is said to be the general term of the sequence. We could therefore also write this sequence as 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . . , 3n. For example, in this sequence: T1 = 3 1 =3 T87 = 3 87 = 261 T2 = 3 2 =6 T3 = 3 3 =9 T4 = 3 4 = 12 T5 = 3 5 = 15
We could then go on to nd any other term in the sequence. For example the 87th term:
Find the sequence generated by the rule Tn = 7n. THINK

1 2 3 4 5
WORKED Example 4
WRITE T1 = 7 1 T1 = 7 T2 = 7 2 T1 = 14 T3 = 7 3 T1 = 21 T4 = 7 4 T1 = 28 The sequence is 7, 14, 21, 28, . . .
The rst term is found substituting n = 1. The second term is found substituting n = 2. The third term is found substituting n = 3. The fourth term is found substituting n = 4. Give a written answer.
Graphics Calculator tip! Using the TABLE function

You can use the table function on your Casio graphics calculator to generate the terms of a sequence once given the rule. Consider worked example 4. 1. From the MENU select TABLE.
120
2. Enter the rule for the number pattern using Y1 to represent Tn and X to represent n. i.e. Y1 = 7X. Press EXE once you have entered the rule. Note that you must use the X on the X,q,T button and NOT the red X which is accessed by pressing ALPHA +. 3. Press F5 for RANG. This shows the rst and last number in your table as well as what to increase the values of X by. By having Start = 1, End = 100 and Pitch = 1 you will rarely need to change this setting. Press EXE after entering these settings to return to the previous screen. 4. Press F6 for TABL to display the table. You can then read off the result of each substitution. Use the arrow button to scroll down and see the values of X greater than 4. In many cases, the sequence will be presented in table form. This method makes the connection between the term and its position in the sequence clearer.
Complete the table below for the sequence Tn = 5n 3. n Tn THINK

1 2 3 4 5 6
WORKED Example 5
1
WRITE T1 = 5 1 3 =2 T2 = 5 2 3 =7 T3 = 5 3 3 = 12 T4 = 5 4 3 = 17 T5 = 5 5 3 = 22 n Tn 1 2 2 7 3 12 4 17 5 22
The rst term is found substituting n = 1. The second term is found substituting n = 2. The third term is found substituting n = 3. The fourth term is found substituting n = 4. The fth term is found substituting n = 5. Complete the table.
The major advantage of writing sequences algebraically is that it allows us to calculate the value of any term in the sequence without working out all the terms that come before it. For example, if I want to calculate the 100th term of a sequence, I do not need to write out the rst 99 terms. All I need to do is substitute n = 100 into the general term.
121
Find the 1st, 35th and 100th term of the sequence Tn = 6n 15. THINK
1
WORKED Example 6
WRITE T1 = 6 1 15 = 9 T35 = 6 35 15 = 195 T100 = 6 100 15 = 585
The 1st term is found substituting n = 1. The 35th term is found substituting n = 35. The 100th term is found substituting n = 100.
We can also look at sequences presented in table form and from there calculate the general term. Earlier we saw that the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, . . . could be written in the general form Tn = 3n. Each term in this sequence increases by 3. Any sequence that increases by 3 will have 3n as part of its general term.
WORKED Example 7
Find the general term from the sequence given below. n Tn THINK
1
1 3
2 8
3 13 WRITE
4 18
5 23
Terms are increasing by 5 so the general term includes 5n. 5 1 = 5 and 5 2 = 3. We then suspect Tn = 5n 2. Test the other values in the table. Substitute n = 2. Substitute n = 3. Substitute n = 4. Substitute n = 5. Give a written answer. Testing Tn = 5n 2
T2 = 5 2 2 T1 = 8 T3 = 5 3 2 T1 = 13 T4 = 5 4 2 T1 = 18 T5 = 5 5 2 T1 = 23 Tn = 5n 2
122
remember
1. A sequence can be written algebraically. This is done using a general term called Tn, which is written in terms of n. In this statement, n is the position of the term in the sequence and Tn is the value of that term. 2. When a sequence is written in this form, the terms of the sequence are found by substituting values of n. For example, the rst term, T1, is found by substituting n = 1, the second term, T2, by substituting n = 2 and so on. 3. When the sequence is written, the general term can be found by looking at the sequence and nding a pattern that can then be written in algebraic form.
4B
WORKED
Number pattern notation

c Tn = 9n f Tn = 4n + 3 i Tn = 10 n l Tn = 2 5n c f i l Tn = (5)n Tn = 2 n + 5 Tn = (1)n Tn = (2)n + 3
Example
1 Find the sequence generated by each of the following. a Tn = n b Tn = 4n d Tn = 6n e Tn = 2n 1 g Tn = 23n + 13 j Tn = 20 3n

-h Tn = 1 n + 2 1 -2
k Tn = 100 7n
2 Find the sequence generated by each of the following. a Tn = 2 n b Tn = 3 n n d Tn = 10 e Tn = 4 n 3 n g Tn = 3.2 h Tn = 2.3n n n j Tn = (1) 3 k Tn = (4)n
WORKED
SkillS
HEET
4.2
Completing a formula for a table of values
Example
3 In each of the following, copy and complete the table. a Tn = 7n b Tn = 4n 3 n Tn c Tn = 5n + 4 n Tn e Tn = 3 n Tn g Tn = (2) n Tn i Tn = n n Tn

2 n n
n Tn
d Tn = 7n + 2 2 3 4 5 n Tn f Tn = 2 n + 2 1 2 3 4 5
n Tn
h Tn = (5)n 2 3 4 5 n Tn j Tn = n(n 3) 1 2 3 4 5
n Tn
123
25
4 For each of the following, copy and complete the table. a Tn = 9n b Tn = 3n + 2 n Tn c Tn = 6n 1 n Tn e Tn = 2 n n Tn g Tn = (3)n n Tn i Tn = n n Tn
WORKED
3
10
20
n Tn
10
d Tn = 8n + 5 3 6 12 50 n Tn f Tn = 3 n 1 1 10 20 50 100
12
n Tn
10
h Tn = (5)n 4 7 10 15 n Tn j Tn = n(2 n) 1 2 6 9 10
10
20
n Tn
10
20
Example
5 For the sequence Tn = 3n + 8, nd the value of: a T1 b T10 c T38 6 For the sequence Tn = 30 4n, nd the value of: a T1 b T12 c T46 7 For the sequence Tn = 4.2n, nd the value of: a T1 b T5 c T8 8 For the sequence Tn = (1)n4n, nd the value of: a T1 b T15 c T25
-9 For the sequence Tn = 100 1 , nd the value of: 2 a T1 b T2 c T5
n
d T50 d T10 d T1 d T56 d T10
10 multiple choice For the sequence Tn = 4n 1, the value of T9 is: A 3 B 35 C 48 11 multiple choice Which of the following is not a term of the sequence Tn = n2 + n? A2 B 6 C 100 D 110 12 multiple choice In which of the following sequences is 100 not a term? A Tn = n 2 B Tn = 10n C Tn = 5n 5n D Tn = 2n2 + 10n D 49
124
WORKED
Example
13 For each of the tables below try to discover the algebraic rule. a b 7 n 1 2 3 4 5 n 1 2 Tn 4 8 12 16 20 Tn 2 5 c n Tn e n Tn 1 49 1 2 2 48 2 4 3 47 3 8 4 46 4 16 5 45 5 32 f d n Tn n Tn 1 33 1 2 2 30 2 8
3 8 3 27 3 26
4 11 4 24 4 80
5 14 5 21 5 242
1
1 Write the next three terms of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . 2 In the sequence 5, 13, 21, 29, . . . what do I do to a term to get the next? 3 In the sequence 40, 20, 10, 5, . . . what is each term multiplied by to obtain the next? 4 A number pattern begins with 2 and to get the next term we add 8 to the previous one. Find the rst ve terms. 5 How many terms are in the number sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, . . . 225? 6 Find the rst ve terms of the sequence generated by Tn = n2 + n. 7 In the sequence Tn = 3n + 2, nd the value of T6. 8 Copy and complete the table below for the sequence Tn = 4n 5. n Tn 9 Is 98 a term of the sequence Tn = 5n + 3? If so, which term? 10 Find an algebraic rule for the table below. n Tn 1 38 2 36 3 34 4 32 5 30 1 3 7 10 15
125

In algebra, each pronumeral used stands in place of a number. Consider the expression: 5+5+5+5+5+5+5=75 We can write this addition as a multiplication because the same number is being added. We can say that like terms are used. Similarly, we can simplify a similar expression using pronumerals: a + a + a + a + a + a + a + a = 8a Note that we do not use the multiplication sign in algebra. The multiplication sign is implied when it is not used. Now consider the expression 9+9+9+9+9+9+4+4+4+4+4 We can not write this as a single expression because the terms are not like. We can only simplify the like terms. 9+9+9+9+9+9+4+4+4+4+4=69+54 Similarly: x + x + x + x + x + y + y + y = 5x + 3y Only like terms, that is, the same pronumerals, can be added together.
WORKED Example 8
Simplify the expressions: a m+m+m+m+m+m+m b p + p + p + q + q + q + q + q + q. THINK a Write the repeated addition as a multiplication. b 1 Write p + p + p as a multiplication. 2 Write q + q + q + q + q + q as a multiplication. WRITE a m + m + m + m + m + m + m = 7m b p + p + p + q + q + q + q + q + q = 3p + 6q
We are able to add or subtract any expressions that use the same pronumerals.
Simplify 5k + 9k k. THINK
WORKED Example 9
WRITE 5k + 9k k = 13k
Each term uses the same pronumeral so we add and subtract the coefcients. Remember that where no coefcient is written it is assumed to be 1.
In each expression where more than one different pronumeral is used, we collect all the like terms (the same pronumeral). The addition or subtraction sign in such expressions belongs with what follows it. For example, in 4x 6y + 2x the minus sign belongs to the 6y and the plus sign to the 2x.
126
WORKED Example 10
Simplify: a 5b + 2 + 2b 6 THINK a
1 2
b 4m 3n + 2m 5n. WRITE a 5b + 2 + 2b 6 = (5b + 2b) + (2 6) = 7b 4 b 4m 3n + 2m 5n = (4m + 2m) + (3n 5n) = 6m 8n
Rewrite the expression, grouping like terms. Complete each addition and subtraction separately. Rewrite the expression, grouping like terms. Complete each addition and subtraction separately.
1 2
remember
1. Like terms occur when the same pronumeral is used. 2. Like terms can be added or subtracted, unlike terms cannot. 3. In any expression, the sign belongs with the term that follows it.
4C
SkillS

b r+r+r d x+x+x+x f n+n+n+n+n+n+n+n e 3y c f i l o
c f i l o r
HEET
4.3
WORKED
Example
1 Simplify each of the following. a t+t 8 c w+w+w+w+w+w e q+q+q+q+q+q+q
2 Write the following algebraic terms as additions. a 2m b 6n c 9s d 8w 3 Simplify the following. a 5y + 7y 9 d 34j + 13j g 14r 6r j 4w + 6w m 4j 2j j b e h k n 15x + 4x 17k + 8k 9w 8w 2s 5s 2p 17p + 25p
f 4r
WORKED
Example
15e + 24e 14k 10k m 5m 14m + 5m + 3m 5z 15z + 9z 7k + 5k + 3k 2k 2t + 7t + 4t 5b 16 + 11b 10 6r 17 2r 9d 15 + 4d + 7 8z 4w 8z + 6w
WORKED
Example
4 Simplify the following by collecting like terms. a 8x + 2x + 7 b h 4 + 3h 10 d 5p + 9q 2p 2q e 5 + 6w 2w g 9j + 6k 5j + 2k h 16x 15 13x j 4 + 5a 12 2a k 7b 4 2 + 10b m 4y 4 + 6y 2 n 8c 3b 5c + 2b p 15e 8p + 4e + 4p q 16t 12s + 4t 11s
127
Substitution
An algebraic expression has little or no meaning without a value being substituted for the pronumeral. An algebraic expression that is used in common calculations is called a formula. When using a formula, we substitute for one unknown to allow us to calculate the value of another. When substituting into a formula, we replace a pronumeral with a number and then calculate the value of the entire expression.
-The formula V = 4 r3 is used to calculate the volume of a sphere. Calculate the value of 3 V, correct to 2 decimal places, when r = 4.7.
WORKED Example 11
THINK
1 2 3
WRITE
-V = 4 r3 3 4 -3
Write the formula. Substitute 4.7 for r. Calculate the value of V and round off to 2 decimal places.
V=
(4.7)3
V = 434.89
In many such examples you will be required to do calculations that require more than one substitution.
In the formula v = u + at, calculate the value of v when u = 12.8, a = 9.8 and t = 5. THINK
1 2 3
WORKED Example 12
WRITE v = u + at v = 12.8 + 9.8 5 v = 61.8
Write the formula. Substitute 12.8 for u, 9.8 for a and 5 for t. Calculate the value of v.
Graphics Calculator tip! Substitution

Your Casio graphics calculator can be used to complete substitutions. Consider worked example 12. 1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. We need to assign the values u = 12.8, a = 9.8 and t = 5. To do this, press 12.8 ALPHA U EXE To do this, press 19.8 ALPHA A EXE To do this, press 22.5 ALPHA T EXE
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3. To evaluate v, enter the expression to which v is equal, that is U + AT. Press EXE to obtain the value of the expression.
remember
1. A pronumeral stands in place of a number and so numbers can be substituted for pronumerals. 2. A formula is an algebraic rule for a calculation. 3. When calculating the value of an expression, rewrite the expression substituting the known values for the pronumerals, then calculate.
4D
SkillS
Substitution
HEET
4.4
WORKED
Example
11 Substituting into algebraic expressions
9C 1 The formula F = ------ + 32 converts degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Use the 5 formula to convert the following temperatures to degrees Fahrenheit. a 20C b 35C c 5.3C 2 For each of the following formulas, nd the value of the subject given the variable. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 2 decimal places. a C = 6r (r = 5) b P = 4s (s = 7.3) c L = l 2 (l = 4.9) d C = 45 + 65d (d = 1.4) e S = 4 r 2 (r = 8.8) p2 f Q = -----9.8 ( p = 6.5)
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Substitution
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Substitution game
et
WORKED
Example
12
3 In the formula A = (1 + r)n, nd the value of A when r = 0.075 and n = 4. (Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.) PRT 4 a Given that I = ----------- , nd I when P = 2000, R = 6 and T = 5. 100 b Given that T = a + 8d, nd T when a = 56 and d = 8. c Given that P = 2l + 2w, nd P when l = 34 and w = 54.
-d Given that A = 1 bh, nd A when b = 9.8 and h = 6.7. 2
et
e Given that V = lbh, nd V when l = 6.5, b = 6.5 and h = 5.6. D f Given that S = --- , nd S when D = 900 and T = 12. T g Given that C =
5 -9
(F 32), nd C when F = 212.

2
-h Given that S = ut + 1 at2, nd S when u = 8, t = 4 and a = 6.
i Given that T = a + (n 1)d, nd T when a = 23, n = 27 and d = 2.4. j Given that c2 = a2 + b2, nd c when a = 12 and b = 22.5.
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5 The cost of hiring a taxi is $4.50 plus 60c per kilometre. a Write a formula for the cost of a taxi journey, C, in terms of distance travelled, d. b Use the formula to calculate the cost of a taxi journey of: i 5 km ii 20 km iii 50 km. 6 multiple choice A formula is given as c = mp. If m = 2 and p = 5 then c is equal to: A3 B 7 C 10 D 25
-7 The formula V = 1 r 2h is used to calculate the volume of a cone, where r is the 3 radius and h is the height. Use the formula to calculate the volume of a cone, correct to 2 decimal places, where:
a the radius is 4 cm and the height is 8 cm b the radius is 32 mm and the height is 17 mm c the radius is 4.6 cm and the height is 9.7 cm. m 8 In the formula B = ---- , calculate the value of B when: h2 a m = 56 and h = 2 b m = 3.6 and h = 6 c m = 1.6 and h = 0.8. yA 9 In the formula D = -------------- , nd the value of D when: y + 12 a y = 6 and A = 2 b y = 4.2 and A = 7 c y = 0.24 and A = 96. 10 Frieds rule to calculate the infant dosage of a medicine is given by the mA formula D = -------- , where D is the 150 infant dosage, m is the infants age in months and A is the adult dosage. Calculate the dosage of medicine given to: a a nine-month-old baby, where the adult dosage is 50 mL b an 18-month-old child, where the adult dose is 30 mL c a two-year-old child, where the adult dose is 40 mL. yA 11 Youngs rule for the calculation of a childs dose of medicine is D = -------------- . In this y + 12 formula, D is the childs dose, y is the age of the child in years and A is the adults dose. Calculate the dosage for a three-year-old child taking a medicine for which the adult dose is 45 mL.
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kA 12 Clarks rule for calculating a dosage is D = ----- , where k is the mass of the child in 70 kilograms and A is the adult dose. Calculate the dosage required for a child who weighs 20 kg, where the adult dosage is 35 mL. 13 Gavin is eight years old and weighs 28 kg. The adult dosage of a medicine is 30 mL. Calculate the dosage of medicine that should be given to Gavin according to: a Frieds rule b Youngs rule c Clarks rule. 14 The Body Mass Index, B, is a measure of how healthy a person is. The formula is m B = ---- , where m is a persons mass in kilograms and h is a persons height in metres. h2 A person is considered to be healthy if 21 B 25. Calculate the Body Mass Index, correct to 1 decimal place, of the following people and comment on the health of each person. a Caroline, who is 71 kg and 1.7 m tall b Neil, who is 86 kg and 1.65 m tall c Bronwyn, who is 42 kg and 1.68 m tall
Work
T SHEE
4.1
2
1 Write the next three terms in the sequence 3, 9, 15, 21, . . . 2 Write an algebraic rule for the sequence in question 1. 3 Simplify the expression r + r + r + r + r. 4 Simplify the expression p + p + p + p + q + q. 5 Simplify 4m + 6m 11m. 6 Simplify 3v 4w 6v 7w.
-7 In the formula A = 1 bh, nd the value of A when b = 7.6 and h = 9.3. 2
8 In the formula A = P(1 + r)n, nd the value of A when P = 5000, r = 0.09 and n = 5.
-9 In the formula V = 4 r 3, nd the value of V correct to 1 decimal place when r = 9.1. 3
10 In the formula S = 4 r 2, nd the value of S correct to 1 decimal place when r = 9.1.
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Multiplication and division of algebraic expressions

When we are multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions, the same rule about like terms applies; however, care needs to be taken with the notation of multiplication and division. Earlier, we saw the shorthand way of writing a repeated addition. We said: 4+4+4+4+4+4+4+4=84 For multiplication, we use indices: 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 = 48 In this expression, 4 is the base and 8 is the index. The same method applies to pronumerals, provided they are like terms. We can write: p p p p p = p5
WORKED Example 13
Simplify each of the following. a 333333 b mmmm THINK a 3 is shown 6 times. b m is shown 4 times. WRITE a 3 3 3 3 3 3 = 36 b m m m m = m4
We can use index laws to simplify expressions already in index form. Consider: a3 a4 = (a a a) (a a a a) = a7 This leads us to the rst index law. Index Law 1: ax ay = ax + y
When using the index laws, the indices of the same base are added in turn. If there are coefcients (numbers in front of the pronumerals) in the expression, these are multiplied.
WORKED Example 14
Simplify each of the following. a t5 t4 b 4m3 6m2 THINK a Add the indices. b Multiply the coefcients and add the indices. c Multiply coefcients, add the base a indices, then add the base b indices. c 12a2b 4a5b3 WRITE a t5 t4 = t9 b 4m3 6m2 = 24m5 c 12a2b 4a5b3 = 48a7b4
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The reverse to the index law for multiplication is the index law for division. Index Law 2: a x ay = a x y or ax ---- = a x y ay
Division questions can be written as either a division or in fraction form. This may involve simplifying a fraction as well as applying this law. We need to be able to divide terms which are linear, quadratic and cubic in particular, as well as higher powers.
WORKED Example 15
Simplify each of the following. a w 8 w3 b 24d 4 6d THINK a Subtract the indices. b Divide the coefcients then subtract the indices. WRITE a w 8 w3 = w 5 b 24d 4 6d = 4d 3
We are also expected to be able to simplify expressions that raise an index to a further index. This leads to our third index law. Consider: (a3)4 = a3 a3 a3 a3 Adding indices: = a12 In these cases we are able to simply multiply the indices. Index Law 3: (a x) y = a xy
WORKED Example 16
Simplify each of the following. a (n5)2 b (3w4)3 THINK a Multiply the indices. b Calculate 33 then multiply the indices. c Calculate 22 then calculate ( p3)2 and (q4)2 by multiplying the indices. c (2p3q4)2 WRITE a (n 5)2 = n 10 b (3w4)3 = 27w12 c (2p3q4)2 = 4p6q8
These rules can also be used when required to expand brackets. In such examples every term inside brackets must be multiplied by the term immediately outside.
Expand 2x3(4x5 3y2). THINK
WORKED Example 17
WRITE 2x3(4x5 3y2) = 8x8 6x3y2
Multiply both terms inside the brackets by 2x3.
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remember
1. Learn the index laws. Index Law 1: a x ay = a x + y ax Index Law 2: a x ay = a x y ---- = a x y ay Index Law 3: (a x) y = a xy 2. Apply the index laws separately to each pronumeral.
4E
WORKED

b 777777 d qqqqqqq f www c 87 f j9 c f i l o r y7 y8 s s2 7g4 5g6 4m 6m 9a3b7 7a2b2 9r3s2t 4 6rst 6
Example
1 Write each of the following in index form. a 2222 13 c 99 e ppppp
4.5
Multiplying algebraic terms
SkillS
HEET
2 Write each of the following in expanded form. a 36 b 45 d m3 e y2

WORKED
4.6
Dividing algebraic terms
SkillS
HEET
Example
3 Simplify each of the following. a q3 q4 b 14 d 45 42 e 4 2 g 3b 2b h j 9 3j 6 k m 4x4y3 5x3y6 n p 6jk 4 8j3k 6 q 4 Simplify each of the following. a a5 a d e5 e g 56j7k 5 7j 4k 3 72r 6 j ---------8r 3
x5 x6 a5 a 5d 4 2d 4 8k 3 k 5m2n4 4m3n5 10p4q3 5p
WORKED
Example
15
b b8 b4 18g 5 e ----------3g 3 64m 7 n 3 h -----------------16m 4 n 2 84s 7 k ---------7s 5
c9 c ---c7 f 24h6 4h2 i 42p9q4 6pq l 6t 8 --------18t 5
WORKED
Example
5 Simplify each of the following. a (a3)4 b (g4)5 16 4 3 d (2k ) e (7m6)2 g (5p3q4)2 h (6r3s)5
c (h2)2 f (8n2)3 i (5xy5)2
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6 Simplify each of the following. a m6 m3 m5 b 5 2 d 14q 7q 6q e g (4w4)2 (2w3)6 h 4 4m 5 12m j ---------------------------k 8m 3

WORKED
(n3)5 n4 3r3 (2r4)2 (8v5)2 (2v3)3 3y 4 ---------------------2 7y 6 9y
c ( p3)6 p12 f (6s6)2 9s7 i (2x5)3 (4x4)2 x3 9z 4 6z 7 l --------------------( 3z 4 ) 3 c f i l o r m(5m + 6n) p5( p5 5q) 9a4(a 2b4) 9t2(2s3 + 6t4) 8pq( p2 q) 7pq4r(2p4q 7r5)
Example
7 Expand the brackets in each of the following. a m(m + 1) b 2f( f 4) 17 d w(w3 4) e r2(r5 + s) g 4q(5q3 9) h 7y5(3y4 + z2) 6 j 3x (4 + 2x) k 5h(g 4h4) m 3xy(2x + 2y) n 4ab(ab + 7) p 5m2n5(5m3 3n2) q 6r4s6(3r3s2 3)
Solving linear equations

An equation is an incomplete mathematical sentence. When we are given an equation, our task is to solve it. That is, to nd a value for the pronumeral which makes the sentence true. The basic idea to follow when solving an equation is to undo those operations performed on the pronumeral. We do this by writing an equivalent equation made by using one of four possible steps. Step 1. We can add the same number to each side of an equation. Step 2. We can subtract the same number from each side of an equation. Step 3. We can multiply both sides of an equation by the same number. Step 4. We can divide both sides of an equation by the same number. The simplest type of equation is the one-step equation. The solution to these equations uses only one of the above four steps.
WORKED Example 18
Solve each of the following equations. a x + 48 = 75 c 7d = 91 THINK a b c d
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
b y 43 = 56 q d ----- = 29 13 WRITE a x + 48 = 75 x = 27 b y 43 = 56 y = 99 c 7d = 91 d = 13 q ----- = 29 d 13 q = 377
Write the equation. Subtract 48 from both sides. Write the equation. Add 43 to both sides. Write the equation. Divide both sides by 7. Write the equation. Multiply both sides by 13.
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When solving equations that involve more than one step to the solution, we must show the equivalent equation formed after using each of our chosen steps.
WORKED Example 19
Solve the equations. a 12 + 3x = 45 THINK a
1 2 3
m b --- 14 = 25 7 WRITE a 12 + 3x = 45 3x = 33 x = 11 m b --- 14 = 25 7 m --- = 11 7 m = 77
Write the equation. Subtract 12 from each side. Divide both sides by 3. Write the equation. Add 14 to each side. Multiply both sides by 7.
1 2 3
The solution to an equation can be checked by substituting the value found into the equation. For example, if we check x = 11 in 12 + 3x = 45. LHS = 12 + 3 11 = 45 = RHS Since x = 11 gives a true number sentence, we know the solution x = 11 is the correct solution to this equation. The substitution can be written, although this is not usually necessary. This is normally done mentally or on the calculator as a check that the value we have is correct. A more difcult type of equation is one that has the pronumeral occurring on both sides. In these examples, it is necessary to gather all the pronumerals on one side of the equation. This is done by adding or subtracting one pronumeral expression to each side of the equation.
Solve the equation 6e 4 = 3e 43. THINK

1 2 3 4 5
WORKED Example 20
WRITE 6e 4 = 3e 43 3e 4 = 43 3e = 39 e = 13 LHS = 6 (13) 4 RHS = 3 (13) 43 = 82 RHS = 82 Solution e = 13 is correct. Write the equation. Subtract 3e from both sides. Add 4 to both sides. Divide both sides by 3. Check the answer by substitution.
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Graphics Calculator tip! Solving equations

Your Casio graphics calculator can be used to solve equations using the EQUA function. Consider worked example 20. 1. From the MENU select EQUA.
2. Press F3 for Solver.
3. Delete any existing equation and enter the equation 6e 4 = 3e 43 by pressing 6 ALPHA E 4 SHIFT = 3 ALPHA E 43 then press EXE to store the equation. At this stage ignore any value of E that is shown, as it will be a previously stored value. 4. Press F6 to solve the equation. You can see the solution E = 13. The calculator also displays the checking of the solution. Lft = 82 and Rgt = 82 shows the result of substituting the solution E = 13 into both sides of the equation. Important note: Although your graphics calculator can be used to solve equations, it is important that you learn to solve equations without using the calculator as well. In your exams, it is possible that you will be given a question that asks you to explain the steps of solving an equation. If you do not understand the manual method of solution, you will be unable to answer such a question. Many equations involve the use of brackets. With such equations, we need to expand brackets before solving the equation.
Solve 8(3x 7) = 152. THINK

1 2 3 4
WORKED Example 21
WRITE 8(3x 7) = 152 24x 56 = 152 56 24x = 96 56 24x = 4
Write the equation. Expand the brackets. Add 56 to each side of the equation. Divide both sides of the equation by 24.
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A similar approach must be used to solve equations that use fractions. If an equation has fractions, we multiply by the lowest common multiple of the denominators in the equation.
WORKED Example 22
k+2 3k 8 Solve the equation ----------- = -------------- . 5 8 THINK
1 2 3 4 5 6
WRITE k + 2 3k 8 ----------- = -------------5 8 8(k + 2) = 5(3k 8) 8k + 16 = 15k 40 7k + 16 = 40 7k = 56 k=8
Write the equation. Multiply by the lowest common multiple of 5 and 8 (40). Expand the brackets. Subtract 15k from each side. Subtract 16 from each side. Divide both sides by 7.
remember
1. An equation is an incomplete mathematical sentence. 2. When solving an equation, our task is to nd a value for the pronumeral that will make the sentence true. 3. Remember the four steps that can be taken in solving an equation. 4. Write out the equivalent equation formed after each step in the solution. 5. Check your answer to each equation by substitution. This can be done mentally or on the calculator and does not always need to be written. 6. If an equation involves the use of brackets, expand the brackets before solving the equation. 7. When the equation involves the use of fractions, we rst multiply by the lowest common multiple of the denominators in the equation. 8. You can use a graphics calculator to solve an equation but it is very important that you understand manual methods as well.
4F
WORKED

c 9q = 162 f t 253 = 78 i e + 79 = 45 l 7a = 84 o d + 8.5 = 13.7
--r t 24 = 31 5 2
Example
18
1 Solve each of the following one-step equations. a z + 24 = 67 b w 34 = 54 y d ----- = 19 e r + 387 = 435 14 p g 17x = 306 h ----- = 851 23 j k 56 = 34 k 15b = 240 u f m ----- = 4 n -- = 8 45 5 v p 5c = 17 q ------ = 9.5 3.2
4.7
Solving equations
SkillS
Equation solver
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2 multiple choice Which of the following is the exact solution to 7x = 23? 7 -A x = ----B x = 32 C x = 3.28
23 7
Solving equations
am rogr Ca
et
D x = 3.29 c 6x = 37 f 9x = 2 c f i l o r 3z + 6 = 27 13x 85 = 227 4c + 70 = 2 9v 10 = 5 23 2b = 1 1 7h = 65
3 Solve each of the following. a 5x = 23 b 7x = 45 d 3x = 20 e 13x = 45

WORKED
sio
Example
GC p
Equations 19a
GC p
am rogr TI
Equations
4 Solve each of the following equations. a 5a + 11 = 41 b 2q 9 = 25 d 9s 14 = 22 e 7w + 74 = 193 g 5e 9 = 19 h 8d + 45 = 29 j 5r 14 = 44 k 7f + 6 = 14 m 12 + 6t = 48 n 35 5g = 50 --p 4s + 8.5 = 2.3 q 8y 3 = 2 1

4 2
GC p
am rogr Ca
WORKED
Example
Expanding
19b
GC p
am rogr TI
Expanding
5 Solve each of the following equations. s v a -- + 7 = 12 b -- 8 = 9 3 7 f p d -- 1 = 12 e ----- + 3 = 11 4 11 k v g ----- + 20 = 27 h -- 4 = 0 15 3 j p j ----- 13 = 11 k -- + 35 = 4 10 7 6 Solve each of the following equations. 4y 3p a ----- = 8 b ------ = 9 5 2 2s 5w d ---- = 8 e ------ = 10 5 9
sio
r c -- + 5 = 11 8 s f -- 10 = 2 4 g i -- 1 = 1 8 m l --- 10 = 4 6 2q c ----- = 8 3 12m f --------- = 6 5
7 In each of the following equations, check by substitution if the answer given is correct. a x + 67 = 98 (x = 31) b r 6.8 = 45.9 (r = 51.7) b 3 -c 32p = 256 ( p = 8) d -- = -(b = 6 3 ) 4 9 4 e 5t 98 = 56 (t = 30.8) f 7y + 13 = 65 ( y = 11.1) 3w 2 2e -g --------------- = 3 (w = 4 2 ) h ----- + 1 = 7 (e = 9) 3 4 3
WORKED
Example
20
8 Solve each of the following equations. a 8a + 7 = 7a + 9 b 7b + 5 = 6b + 14 d 6d + 8 = 3d + 17 e 5e 10 = e + 10 g 12g + 14 = 6g + 44 h 11h 18 = 2h j 20 + 2j = j + 54 k 9k 2 = 28 k 9 multiple choice
c f i l
9c 2 = 8c + 2 7f 2 = 2f + 13 10i + 11 = 8i 7 32 5l = 5 2l
For which of the following equations is x = 12 not a solution? 5x x4 A ----- + 1 = 16 B 4x 7 = 53 x C 4x 12 = 48 x D ----------- = 4 x 4 2
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WORKED
Example
10 Solve each of the following equations by rst expanding the brackets. a 3(b + 5) = 30 b 5(n + 6) = 40 c 7(h 5) = 56 21 d 9( p 4) = 54 e 4(k 8) = 72 f 3(m 16) = 45 g 6(t + 9) = 84 h 4(2n + 5) = 52 i 9(3r 7) = 72 j 6(6g + 5) = 210 k 4(5g 1) = 44 l 7(3v 11) = 161 m 6(z 2) = 44 n 3(6y + 13) = 76 o 5(4u 9) = 34 11 Solve each of the following equations. s s t3 22 - a -- = -- + 3 b --------- = 3 4 5 v+5 v 9w d ----------- = 5 -e ------ 4 3 2 2 x+1 x 2m 3 g ----------- = -- 3 h --------------5 2 3 t2 --------6 = 6 1 + 6m = ---------------7 2u 1 u1 c -------------- = ----------2 5 x+3 3x + 2 f ----------- = -------------4 8 i p 3p 1 -- = ------ -4 8 4
WORKED
Example
12 Two teams of people worked at two different car washes detailing vehicles. The cost of detailing each car is the same. Team A had 5 people who detailed 30 cars and received $20 in tips. They divided their money equally. Team B had 4 people who detailed 25 cars and received $4 in tips. They also divided their money equally. At the end of the day all 9 people had the same amount of money. a Write an equation for this situation. b Solve the equation to nd the cost of getting one car detailed.
Equations arising from substitution

Earlier in this chapter we covered substitution of values into a formula. In each of these examples we calculated the value of the subject of the formula. In many cases, after substitution we may be left with a value to calculate that is not the subject of the formula. Hence, the solution will require you to solve an equation.
WORKED Example 23
9C The formula F = ------ + 32 is used to convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Use 5 the formula to convert 68 Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius. THINK
1 2 3 4 5
WRITE 9C F = ------ + 32 5 9C 68 = ------ + 32 5 340 = 9C + 160 180 = 9C C = 20
Write the formula. Substitute 68 for F. Multiply both sides of the equation by 5. Subtract 160 from each side. Divide both sides by 9.
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Graphics Calculator tip! Solving an equation arising from substitution

Earlier in the chapter we learned how to assign a value to a variable. We can assign the value in the RUN mode of the calculator and then switch to equation solving mode as shown below. Consider worked example 23.
1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. Assign the value F = 68 by pressing 68 ALPHA F EXE .
3. From the MENU select EQUA.
4. Press F3 for Solver. Delete any equations on screen.
5. Enter the equation by pressing ALPHA F SHIFT = 9 ALPHA C 5 + 32 EXE . At this stage F = 68 is displayed as well as any previously stored value of C. Use the arrow keys to highlight C as shown.
6. Press F6 to solve the equation for C. Note that if you mistakenly highlight F in the previous step the equation will be solved for F using the previously stored value of C.
More difcult questions involve the substitution of more than one unknown. There must be only one unknown remaining for the equation to be solved.
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WORKED Example 24
h The formula A = -- (a + b) is used to calculate the area of a trapezium. A trapezium with 2 parallel sides 16 cm and 9 cm has an area of 150 cm2. Calculate the height of the trapezium. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE h A = -- (a + b) 2 h 150 = -- (16 + 9) 2 300 = 25h h = 12
Write the formula. Substitute A = 150, a = 16 and b = 9. Multiply both sides of the equation by 2. Divide both sides by 25.
remember
1. Begin each question by writing the formula. 2. Substitute each known value into the formula. 3. Solve the equation formed.
4G
WORKED
Equations arising from substitution
Example
1 The formula A = lb can be used to calculate the area of a rectangle. Calculate the value of b when A = 56 and l = 8. 23 2 In the formula A = lb, calculate: a l, when A = 437 and b = 23 b b, when A = 36.225 and l = 6.3. 3 The formula P = 2l + 2w is used to calculate the perimeter of a rectangle. Calculate the value of l when: a P = 64 and w = 18 b P = 142 and w = 17 c P = 12.4 and w = 3.4. 9C 4 The formula F = ------ + 32 converts 5 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. In each of the following, nd C given that F is equal to: a 50 b 80 c 100 d 10 e 15 f 5.3.
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5 Use the formula T = a + (n 1)d to nd: a a, when T = 30, n = 8 and d = 4 b a, when T = 447, n = 54 and d = 8 c n, when T = 5050, a = 1 and d = 1 d n, when T = 454, a = 56 and d = 6.
WORKED
Example
PRT 6 a Given that I = ----------- , nd R when I = 500, P = 2500 and T = 2. 100 24 b Given that T = a + 8d, nd d when T = 59 and a = 11. c Given that P = 2l + 2w, nd w when l = 34 and P = 176.
-d Given that A = 1 bh, nd h when A = 19.43 and b = 5.8. 2
e Given that V = lbh, nd b when V = 74.375, 1 = 2.5 and h = 3.5. D f Given that S = --- , nd D when S = 90 and T = 12. T 5 ( F 32 ) g Given that C = ----------------------- , nd F when C is 15. 9
-h Given that S = ut + 1 at 2, nd u when S = 120, t = 5 and a = 8. 2
i Given that T = a + (n 1)d, nd n when T = 3, a = 57 and d = 4. j Given that c2 = a2 + b2, nd a when c = 17 and b = 15. 7 The cost of hiring a taxi can be found using the formula C = 4 + 2.5d, where d is the distance travelled in kilometres. Find the distance travelled if the taxi fare was: a $29.00 b $49.00 c $25.25.
Work
T SHEE
4.2
8 An operator connected phone call costs $1.50 connection fee plus $2.20 per minute. a Write a formula connecting the cost of the call, C, to the length of the call, m. b Calculate the cost of a call lasting: iii 1 minute iii 5 minutes iii 8 minutes. c Calculate the length of a call for which the charge is: iii $8.10 iii $16.90 iii $34.50.
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summary
Number patterns
A number pattern is a sequence of numbers that obey a certain rule. A number pattern can be continued by following a rule that shows how to move from one term to the next, or by nding an algebraic rule that connects the value of a term with its position in the sequence. When writing an algebraic rule for a sequence, n is the position of a term in the sequence and Tn is the value of that term.
Addition and subtraction of like terms

Like terms are those which use the same pronumeral. We can only simplify expressions involving addition and subtraction that contain like terms.
Substitution
Pronumerals stand in place of numbers. A number can be substituted for a pronumeral in an expression before the expression is calculated.

When multiplying and dividing algebraic expressions we need to use the index laws. Index Law 1: a x ay = a x + y ax Index Law 2: a x ay = a x y or ---- = a x y ay Index Law 3: (a x) y = a xy When multiplying or dividing expressions, we treat each pronumeral separately, applying the index laws when necessary. When an expression involves the use of brackets, we multiply each term in the brackets by the term immediately outside.
Equations
An equation is a mathematical sentence with a missing value. The object of solving an equation is to nd the missing value that makes the sentence correct. In solving an equation, we can add, subtract, multiply or divide both sides of the equation to make the unknown value the subject of the equation. Whatever is done to one side of an equation must be done to the other to maintain the equality. Always begin by writing the equation, then write each step in the solution. The answer to an equation can be checked by substituting the value found into the equation. Equations can be formed when substituting into a formula. This occurs when the subject of the formula is not the value we need to nd. You can use a graphics calculator to nd the solution to an equation, but it is very important to understand the manual methods as well.
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CHAPTER review
4A
1 Write down the next three terms of each of the following sequences. a 4, 8, 12, 16, . . . b 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . c 12, 5, 2, 9, . . . d 800, 200, 50, 12.5, . . . e 1, 4, 9, 16, . . . f 3, 12, 48, 192, . . . g 1000, 100, 10, 1, . . . h 1, 3, 6, 10, . . . i 54, 45, 36, 27, . . . j 1, 1, 2, 3, . . . 2 Describe in words each of the sequences in question 1. 3 Write down the rst ve terms of a sequence which: a starts with 45 and each term is 8 less than the previous b starts with 6 and each term is 3 times the previous c starts with 34 and each term is 12 more than the previous -d starts with 243 and each term is 2 the previous.
3
4A 4A
4B 4B
4 Write down the rst ve terms of each of the sequences given by the following algebraic rules. a Tn = 7n b Tn = 5 n c Tn = 8n 3 d Tn = (1)2n n n e Tn = 20 6n f Tn = 3 g Tn = 10 1 h Tn = (6)n 13 5 Use the given rule to copy and complete the table in each of the following. a Tn = 9n b Tn = 2n + 9 n Tn c Tn = 2 n Tn
n
10
n Tn
12
d Tn = (3)n 1 2 5 8 10 n Tn c 6r + 9r r f 9x + 6x x c 12k 5l + 3l 8k f 12m 20 2m + 4 1 3 6 9 10
4C 4C 4D 4D
6 Simplify each of the following. a y+y+y+y b 8w + 9w d 15t 9t e 6q 5q 7 Simplify each of the following. a 8m + 4n 3m b 6a + 4 3a 9 d 15m 7 + m + 1 e 5x + 20 + 3x 6
a -8 In the formula S = ---------- , nd the value of S when a = 20 and r = 1 . 2 1r 3e + 18 9 The formula N = ----------------- + 70 is used to calculate the number of video-recorders, N, that 5 can be produced by e employees. Calculate the number of video-recorders that can be produced by 89 employees.
145
4D 4D 4E
h 10 In the formula A = -- ( a + b ) , calculate the value of A when h = 5, a = 8.5 and b = 6.2. 2

-11 Given that S = ut + 1 at2, nd S when u = 9.5, t = 5 and a = 5.8. 2
12 Simplify each of the following. a w 3 w5 b d 9 4q3 e g 6x2 8x4 h j 5ab3 4a3b2 k m b6 b2 n p 63y5 7y q 64a 6 s ----------t 16a 4 v (a3)4 w y k5 k4 k3 z
a a6 5p3 p 4r4 3r4 7g3h2 4gh f4 f 45r5s2 5r4s3 32m 6 -----------8m 4 (5m4)3 (8q4)2 4q3
4x5 6x3 5y 6y 5x5y4 6x7y6 12m4n3 4mn3 45r6 5r3 36s3t5 9st 28 p u ----------12 p 4 x (3p3q5)3 c f i l o r
13 Expand each of the following. a m(m + 3) b 5p(2p 6q) d 2w3(3w2 3) e 4pq(3p2 2q4) 14 Solve each of the following equations. a a + 98 = 165 b b 76 = 84 d d ----- = 42 e 8e = 96 23 g g + 45 = 12 h 9h = 25 j 4j 17 = 47 k 7k + 13 = 76 m 45 + 3m = 18 p p 8 -- = 5 5 15 Solve each of the following. a 4(s + 9) = 56 d 7v 2 = 2v + 23 g 7( y 3) = 4( y 9) b3 b2 j ----------- = ----------5 6 n 33 4n = 7 5q q ----- = 15 4
c x3(4x5 2) f 7a6(3a8 9b2) c 43c = 3827 f f -- = 19 4 i 12 i = 23 l 5l + 43 = 2 t o -- + 9 = 17 5 3r r ----- = 15 7
4E 4E
b 3(2t 7) = 84 e 8w 5 = 25 2w h 3(3z + 5) = 7(z 4) 6c k ----- + 4 = 16 4
c 7u 8 = 6u + 34 f 35 6x = 8 3x a a i -- = -- + 1 4 5 d+4 3d 4 l ----------- = -------------6 10
4E
16 Solve the following equations by substituting the given values. a A = lw (A = 56, w = 7) b P = 2l + 2w (P = 94, l = 16)
-c C = 5 (F 32) 9
4F
(C = 25) (S = 6, a = 3)
a d S = ---------1r
146

1 multiple choice The number pattern 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . can be described by the algebraic rule: A Tn = 2n B Tn = 2 n C Tn = n + 2 D Tn = n2 2 multiple choice 7x 5y 6x + 4y = Ax+y 3 multiple choice 5x4y (2x3)2 = A 10x10y 4 multiple choice The solution to the equation 3(2x + 4) = 4(2x 7) is: --A x = 1 B x = 26 Cx=8
2 7 -5 In the formula v = ut + 1 at2: 2
B xy
C x + 9y
D x 9y
B 20x10y
C 10x14y
D 20x14y
D x = 20
a calculate the value of v when u = 0.8, t = 12 and a = 6 b calculate the value of u when v = 100, t = 4 and a = 1.6. 6 a Simplify 4x + 9y 5x 8y. 4x 3 y 2 6x 2 y 4 b Simplify ---------------------------------- . 3xy 8
CHAPTER
test yourself
( 2x 3 y ) 2 c Simplify the expression ------------------ . 8x 5 y 9 d Solve the equation 7x + 15 = 113 + 9x.
Statistics and society
5
syllabus reference
Data analysis 1 Statistics and society
In this chapter
5A 5B 5C 5D Collecting data Organising data Displaying data Quality control
areyou
5.1
Presenting data in a frequency table
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 Copy and complete the frequency table at right for the scores listed below. 1, 3, 2, 6, 4, 4, 3, 5, 2, 3, 1, 3, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6, 2, 3, 6, 1, 3, 2, 4 Score (x) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number preferring (frequency)
READY?
Tally III Frequency (f) 3
Favourite leisure activity 10 8 6 4 2 0
Reading Television Sport Hanging Other out
5.2
Reading column graphs
2 This is a graph of preferred leisure activities of a Year 8 class. a How many students preferred sport as a leisure activity? b How many students were in the class? c Which was the most favoured activity? d How many times more popular than reading was watching television? e Which two activities are closest in popularity?
Leisure activity
5.4 5.3
Drawing sector graphs
3 For the following table of values showing the number of kilograms of meat of various types that a butcher sold in a day: a copy and complete the table of values b construct a sector graph to display the data. You could use a spreadsheet program such as Excel to generate a sector graph Type of meat Lamb Beef Pork Chicken Turkey Rabbit Total Amount sold (kg) 10 45 5 15 10 5 90 Fraction Angle size ()
5.5
4 In each of the following, write the rst quantity as a percentage of the second. a 18, 500 b 4, 2500 c 245, 500 d 6, 2000
Chapter 5 Statistics and society
149
Analysing data
There are many cases in society where data need to be analysed. Governments and businesses have data analysed regularly to try and make accurate predictions about future trends. Consider the case of a government department such as the Roads and Trafc Authority. This department needs to gather data about places where accidents occur. These data are analysed and decisions are then made about what areas need to have roadworks and what places need greater police supervision. Now consider a business example. A department store analyses sales gures throughout the year to determine its stock orders and stafng requirements. In sport, the gathering of statistics is used to measure player performance. These are kept as a matter of interest to followers of the sport, and are used by coaches when selecting their teams and planning tactics against opposition teams. When analysing data, trends need to be observed. The discovery of these trends allows for predictions of future outcomes.
Why statistical investigation?

Below are some common examples of statistical analysis. (a) Weather records (b) Unemployment and ination gures (c) Sales records (d) Hospital admissions (e) World records in sport For each of the above discuss: 1 the reason that such records are kept 2 the methods that are used to collect the information 3 what information could be gained from the analysis 4 what future predictions could be made as a result of the analysis.
A statistical investigation 1
Choose an area of interest for which you would like to do a statistical analysis. For the analysis you have chosen, answer the following questions. 1 What information do you intend to collect? 2 Of what use is this information and to whom would it be useful? 3 What predictions or decisions could be made based on your analysis?
150
Statistical processes
The purpose of completing a statistical inquiry is to turn raw data into meaningful information. Data are a set of facts that are collected, but limited data taken alone can have very little meaning. When lots of data are collected and presented and conclusions are drawn, the data become more useful information. When we set out to complete a statistical investigation, there are six stages that need to be completed: Stage 1. Posing questions Stage 2. Collecting data Stage 3. Organising data Stage 4. Summarising and displaying data Stage 5. Analysing data and drawing conclusions Stage 6. Writing a report. The whole process needs to be well planned as what can be achieved at the later stages of the process depends upon what has been done in the earlier stages.
Posing questions
The initial stage of the statistical process is to determine the nal information required. For example, suppose that you want to nd out the best time of year to plan a skiing holiday and the best location to take that holiday? Questions that may need to be posed include: When during the year do the best skiing conditions occur? Which resort has the best skiing conditions on a regular basis? What is the cost of accommodation, lift tickets and ski hire at each resort? What facilities are available at each resort? When you have nished collecting data and can answer each question, you will be ready to make a conclusion.
Posing questions
For each of the following, pose some questions that, if answered, would allow you to make a conclusion. 1 A department store manager wants to know the number of extra staff that should be hired to work in the weeks leading up to Christmas. 2 A local council wants to nd out what new sporting facilities the community wants and needs. 3 The NRMA wants to know which model cars are the most secure against theft. 4 The Australian test cricket selectors need to choose a new opening batsman. 5 A potential investor wants to know which shares represent the best potential gains. 6 A newspaper wants to try and predict the winner of the next federal election.
For the area that you are going to investigate, list the questions you will need to answer in order to draw a conclusion.
151
Collecting data
Data can be collected using either external or internal sources. To collect data from an external source means that the data are available by doing some research. For example, if you were researching share prices, data would be available from the stock exchange. Other types of data can be obtained from organisations such as the CSIRO, local councils, the NRMA and the Australian Bureau of Statistics. If data are not available from an external source, you will need to generate the data yourself. This is called using internal sources. There are two methods of acquiring data internally. 1. Observation this is used if the data collection does not require a response from people. For example, you may be surveying the number of customers that enter a certain shop during the day or the number of students at your school who are out of uniform. 2. Questioning this is used when the data are obtained by getting a response from people. For example, you may be investigating what sporting facilities are needed in your local area. When designing a survey for your investigation, the questions need to be well organised and thought needs to go into how the data are going to be tabulated. It is easier to organise information if the questions asked are not open-ended. This means that the responses are limited. A survey form What sporting facilities do you think are needed in this area? This question invites a range of responses that may be difcult to tabulate. A better method Please rank the following would be to list a few options that are likely to prove sporting needs in this area. popular and ask people to rank them in order of Cricket nets priority. Tennis courts Similarly, when there could be a large range of Golf course responses to a question it is easier to group these Netball courts responses.
Soccer field Other
WORKED Example 1
What is your annual income? Redesign this question so that the results are easier to tabulate. THINK The range of responses could be simplied by putting them into income brackets. WRITE Within what range does your income fall? $0 $9999 $10 000 $19 999 $20 000 $29 999 $30 000 $39 999 $40 000 $49 999 $50 000 or more
152
remember
1. Data can be collected from internal or external sources. 2. An external source is where the data have been collected and are available by doing research. 3. An internal source is where you need to gather the data yourself. 4. Internal data gathering can be done by observation or questioning. 5. Observation is used when the data can be obtained without a response from other people. 6. Questioning is used when the data are found by getting peoples responses.
5A
Collecting data
1 For each of the following, state whether the data source would be internal or external. a The number of cars stolen in NSW each year b The rise or fall in a share price over the past year c The number of people who rode bikes to school today d The number of people who voted in the last federal election e Who people intend to vote for in the next federal election f The most popular band among Year 11 students at your school g The number of Holden cars sold each week in Australia h The batting average of each player in the Australian cricket team 2 For each of the following, state whether the data would be gathered using observation or questioning. a The number of sets of trafc lights in a country town b The number of students in Year 11 at your school who started high school at a different school c The most popular football team in Year 11 d The football team that attracts the largest crowds e The number of students in your class with a learners permit f The number of trees in your school grounds g The average weekly income of Year 11 students h The number of people who speed through an intersection
WORKED
Example
3 Rewrite the following open-ended questions so that the responses will be easier to tabulate. 1 a Where is your favourite holiday destination? b What is your weekly income? c How many movies have you seen at the cinema this year? d Who is your favourite singer or group? e How many hours study do you do each week? 4 Design a questionnaire that will provide the following information. a The sporting facilities that people would like to see in your area b The amount of income and source of income among Year 11 students
153
For your investigation: 1 State whether your data will be obtained from external or internal sources. 2 If you are using an internal source, state if you will use observations or questioning. Regardless of what method you are using, give details on how you are going to collect your data. You are now ready to collect your data.
Organising data
Once data have been collected, they need to be put into an organised form. This involves tallying the responses to a questionnaire, accurately recording your observations or tabulating the results of your research. This task is made easier if the questionnaire is designed with ease of tabulation in mind. Usually the results are rst organised into a table and the number of responses in each category recorded. This is often done with tally marks and using the gatepost method.
WORKED Example 2
A survey is conducted among 24 students who were asked to name their favourite spectator sport. Their responses are recorded below. AFL Cricket Cricket Soccer Rugby League Cricket Tennis Cricket AFL Rugby League AFL AFL Rugby Union Soccer Netball Basketball Basketball Netball AFL Cricket Cricket AFL Rugby League Cricket THINK Draw a table and beside each sport put a tally mark for each response. Every fth tally mark becomes a gatepost. WRITE Sport AFL Basketball Cricket Netball Rugby League Rugby Union Soccer Tennis Tally |||| | || |||| || || ||| | || | Frequency 6 2 7 2 3 1 2 1
154
For simplicity, numerical data may be tabulated in groups.
WORKED Example 3
A Year 11 class was surveyed on their weekly income. The responses are shown below. $75 $115 $60 $54 $88 $0 $98 $102 $56 $45 $83 $71 $40 $37 $87 $117 $43 $79 $58 $89 $70 $105 $99 $55 Complete the table below. Income $0$20 $21$40 $41$60 $61$80 $81$100 $101$120 Tally Frequency
THINK Count the number of responses within each category and put a tally mark in the column.
WRITE Income $0$20 $21$40 $41$60 $61$80 $81$100 $101$120 Tally | || |||| || |||| |||| | |||| Frequency 1 2 7 4 6 4
Here we have done some very simple tables. These tables will be dealt with in greater depth in chapter 9.
remember
1. When data are collected they are usually rst organised into table form. 2. Data can be easily counted using a tally column and the gatepost method. 3. Sometimes numerical data are better organised into categories.
155
5B
WORKED
Organising data
car their family owned. Their Toyota Toyota Toyota Holden Ford Holden Toyota Mazda Ford Toyota
Example
1 A class of students was asked to identify the make of responses are shown below. 2 Holden Ford Nissan Mazda Ford Holden Ford Mitsubishi Nissan Holden Holden Ford Mazda Toyota Ford Holden Mitsubishi Toyota Holden Ford Put these results into a table.
5.1
SkillS
2 The results of a spelling test done by 30 students are shown below. 6 5 4 7 7 7 6 8 8 8 10 8 4 5 7 6 9 8 6 7 6 7 7 5 5 7 9 9 6 7
Frequency tables
Put these results into a table.

WORKED
Example
3 The marks scored on below. 3 87 44 95 66 54 60 66 69 71 83 74 81
a Maths exam, out of 100, by 25 Year 11 students are shown 78 66 69 69 77 70 66 79 57 92 66 78 71
Copy and complete the table below. Mark 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099 4 The data below show the number of customers that entered a shop each day in a certain month. 114 178 169 141 195 216 185 155 175 200 173 132 163 147 164 143 180 168 130 190 120 173 119 179 204 102 158 200 199 150 163
T SHEE
Tally
Frequency
L Spre XCE ad
Choose suitable groupings to tabulate these data.
Organise the data for your investigation into a suitable table.
Work
5.1
HEET
sheet
156
Displaying data
The most common way for displaying data is by using a graph. Different graphs have different purposes, which we will look at in more detail in chapter 9. For now, we will look briey at column graphs and sector graphs. A column graph is used when we wish to show a quantity. Categories are written on the horizontal axis and frequencies on the vertical axis.
WORKED Example 4
The table below shows the results of the survey on favourite sports. Sport AFL Basketball Cricket Netball Rugby League Rugby Union Soccer Tennis Show this information in a column graph. THINK
1 2 3
Frequency 6 2 7 2 3 1 2 1
WRITE
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Draw the horizontal axis showing each sport.

Frequency
Draw a vertical axis to show frequencies up to 7. Draw the columns.
l e l t n r s FL al e al u o e ni A etb rick etb eag Uni occ Ten S sk C N y L by Ba gb ug Ru R

Sport
157
Graphics Calculator tip! Drawing graphs

Your Casio graphics calculator can be used to draw some types of graphs, including column graphs. In practice, it is probably easier to draw the column graph manually but knowing how to do this will be of use later in this course. Consider worked example 4. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Delete any existing data. The calculator will not recognise any words so we will need to replace the names of the sports with the numbers 18. Write these numbers in List 1 and the Frequencies in List 2.
3. Press F1 for GRPH.
4. Press F6 for SET, arrow down to Graph Type and press F1 for Hist. Then arrow down to Xlist and press F1 for List 1, then arrow down to Frequency and press F3 for List 2. Your display should be as shown on the right. 5. Press EXE to return to the previous screen then F1 for GPH1. Enter a Start = 1 and a Pitch = 1.
6. Press F6 to draw the column graph. It will be drawn as a histogram, which has no gaps between the columns.
A sector graph is used when we want the graph to display a comparison of quantities. An angle is drawn at the centre of the circle that is the same fraction of 360, as the fraction of people making each response.
158
WORKED Example 5
For the table in worked example 4, draw a sector graph. THINK
1
WRITE AFL = Cricket =

6 ----24 7 ----24
Calculate each angle as a fraction of 360.
360 360
3 ----24
Basketball = Netball = 360
2 ----24 2 ----24
360 360
= 90 = 105 Rugby League = Rugby Union = Soccer =

2 ----24
= 30 = 30
Rugby League = 45
1 ----24
360 Tennis =
1 ----24
Rugby Union = 15 360 360 = 30

2
= 15
Sport AFL Basketball Cricket Netball Rugby League Rugby Union Soccer Tennis
Draw the graph.
Column graphs and sector graphs can also be drawn using a spreadsheet and the charting tool.
remember
1. A column graph is drawn when we want to display quantities. 2. A sector graph is drawn when we want to compare quantities.
159
5C
WORKED
Displaying data
5.2
Reading column graphs
SkillS
Example
1 Draw a column graph to display the data from question 1 of Exercise 5B. 2 Draw a sector graph to display the data from question 1 of Exercise 5B. 3 Draw a column graph to display the data from question 2 of Exercise 5B. 4 Draw a column graph to display the data from question 3 of Exercise 5B. 5 Draw a column graph to display the data from question 4 of Exercise 5B. 6 Draw a sector graph to compare the number of people in each category from question 3 of Exercise 5B.
4
WORKED
HEET
Example
5.3
Reading line graphs
SkillS
HEET HEET
5.4
Drawing sector graphs
E
SkillS
For your investigation draw suitable graphs. You may prefer to do so using a spreadsheet, by entering your results and using the charting function to produce your graphs.
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Analysing data and drawing conclusions

Once the data have been organised and displayed, they need to be studied and conclusions drawn. It is at this stage that those making the statistical inquiry can reect on the results and decide what the data mean. These conclusions should be written in point form and from them recommendations can be made to the relevant bodies.
Column graphs (DIY)

E
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Sector graphs (DIY)

GC
am progr C
asio
What conclusions and recommendations can you make based on your study?
UV stats
program GC
TI
Writing the report

The nal stage is to collate all earlier stages into a written report. The written report should: 1. Pose the questions that the statistical analysis is examining. 2. Explain how data were collected, what type of data were collected and from what sources they were collected. 3. The tables used should be included. 4. Relevant graphs should be used to display the data. 5. The conclusions and recommendations should be written and include reasons why these conclusions were reached.
UV stats
Complete a written report for your statistical inquiry.
160
Quality control
Companies use statistics to ensure that their product is of a required standard. This is known as quality control. Consider the example of a company that produces matches. The cover of the matchbox says, Minimum contents 50 matches. To ensure that this statement is correct, a sample of matchboxes from the batch is tested. If more than 3% of the boxes have less than 50 matches, the batch is said to be unsatisfactory and the entire batch is rejected.
WORKED Example 6
A batch of matchboxes is tested for its contents. If more than 3% of the matchboxes have less than 50 matches in them, the batch is rejected. If 300 matchboxes are tested and 10 have less than 50 matches, is the batch accepted or rejected? THINK
1 2
WRITE
- 100% = 3 1 % 3 The batch is rejected, as there are more than 3% of boxes with less than 50 matches. 10 -------300
Calculate 10 as a percentage of 300. Make a conclusion.
161
In some cases you will need to be able to tabulate the results before making a conclusion.
WORKED Example 7
From a batch of batteries a sample is tested to see how long it will take for them to go at. The results are shown below.
Life (hours) 200249 250299 300349 350399 400449 450499 500549 550599 600649 650699
Frequency 2 5 7 15 42 38 36 20 7 3
If more than 20% of batteries go at in less than 400 hours, the batch is rejected. Determine whether this batch is accepted or rejected. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE 175 batteries in the sample. 29 batteries went at in less than 400 hours.
29 -------175
Count the number of batteries in the sample. Count the number of batteries that take less than 400 hours to go at. Calculate the percentage that go at in less than 400 hours. Make a conclusion about the batch.
100% = 16.6%
The batch is accepted.
remember
1. Statistical methods are used in quality control. 2. You will need to calculate the percentage of a sample that meets the requirements. 3. You should be able to obtain this information from a table.
162
5D
SkillS
Quality control
HEET
5.5
WORKED
Example
1 A batch of 400 tyres is tested. If more than 5% of the tyres lose their tread in less than 15 000 km, the batch is rejected. If 17 tyres lose their tread in less than 15 000 km, cal6 culate if the batch is accepted or rejected. 2 One kilogram bags of sugar are tested to check their mass. A batch of 250 bags is tested. If more than 2% of the bags have a mass less than 1 kg, the batch is rejected. If 246 bags have a mass of 1 kg or more, calculate if the batch is accepted or rejected. 3 A batch of light globes is tested. A sample of globes are taken and tested to see how long 7 they will burn. To be considered satisfactory, at least 90% of the batch must burn for more than 1000 hours. The results are shown in the table at right. Determine if the batch is satisfactory. Hours 0249 250499 500649 750999 10001249 12501499 No. of globes 1 6 15 46 89 65
WORKED
Example
4 The diameter of a batch of screws is given as 4 mm. A sample of the batch is tested. For the batch to be considered satisfactory, 95% of the screws must have a diameter between 3.9 mm and 4.1 mm. The results are shown in the table at right. Determine if the batch is satisfactory.
Diameter 3.73.8 3.83.9 3.94.0 4.04.1 4.14.2
No. of screws 3 14 58 46 1
5 Boxes of toothpicks contain a minimum of 100 toothpicks. From a batch, 60 boxes of toothpicks are selected and their contents counted. If more than 4% of the boxes contain less than 100 toothpicks, the batch is rejected. The contents of the boxes are given below. 102 101 100 102 98 103 102 101 99 101 105 102 101 100 101 100 101 102 103 100 101 100 103 100 103 101 100 100 101 99 102 100 104 102 100 99 101 103 102 101 100 101 105 103 105 103 100 106 101 102 100 100 101 100 103 100 100 100 102 100
Determine if the batch is satisfactory.
163
6 The label on a soft drink bottle states that it contains 600 mL. From a batch of bottles, 40 are selected and their volumes measured. To be considered satisfactory, 90% of the bottles must contain between 590 mL and 610 mL. The volumes found are shown below. 599 606 600 615 602 600 603 607 598 598 602 600 602 594 600 598 615 602 610 597 585 602 590 595 604 592 588 610 604 605 604 595 602 601 606 603 608 608 600 600
Work
T SHEE
Determine if the batch is satisfactory.
5.2
Privacy and ethical issues

Many of the questions that are the subject of statistical analysis ask people to provide information that may be considered private. Examples of this are: information on peoples income information about peoples voting intentions. When such questions need to be asked, it is necessary for those conducting the inquiry to take steps to ensure that the privacy of the participants in the survey is maintained. This can be done by doing the survey anonymously. In this way, the participant can be sure that the information provided cannot be tracked back to them. In some cases, large organisations doing major research are unable to do anonymous studies. In this case there must be some guarantee to the participants that the information will remain condential, and when the data have been collated that response forms will be destroyed. There are other issues associated with the use of statistical information. Ethical issues arise when organisations sell their data to other organisations. For example, a bank needs to keep information on its mortgage customers. If this information were then sold to an insurance company, which, in turn, was able to approach these people seeking their business, a major ethical breach would have occurred.
Privacy issues
1 Discuss with your family and friends the information they consider too private to reveal for the purposes of a survey. In your class make a list of all such issues. 2 Try to create a set of conditions under which people may be more willing to reveal more detailed private information. This may include anonymous surveying, privacy guarantees, or the use of grouping the data so specic details do not need to be revealed.
164
Statistical organisations
Many major organisations carry out regular statistical analysis. These organisations include: Australian Bureau of Statistics; United Nations; World Health Organization; Morgan Gallup Polls; and NRMA. These organisations collect data for a wide variety of purposes. If you look at any statistical analysis in a book, magazine or newspaper, the source of the statistics will be given. From this you can nd out the names of many similar organisations. In many cases the methods used by the organisation will also be explained.
Organisations that use statistics

Choose an organisation that regularly collects statistical data. 1 Give an example of the type of information it aims to collect. 2 For what purpose is this information collected? 3 What conclusions do they hope to draw? 4 For whom is the information collected and who is going to act on the results?
165
summary
Analysing data
Data are analysed by various groups for many reasons. In each case the aim is to provide a useful conclusion to a problem. Facts that are gathered are called data. When data are put into a meaningful form they become more meaningful as information.
Statistical processes
There are six stages to a statistical inquiry. Stage 1. Posing questions questions are set to nd the information that will help solve the problem. Stage 2. Collecting data this can be done: externally this involves obtaining data from outside sources internally this involves researchers generating information. Internal collection of data can be done by observation or questioning. Stage 3. Organising data putting the results into an organised, readable form. Stage 4. Summarising and displaying data the display of the tables used and the drawing of graphs. Stage 5. Analysing data and drawing conclusions reading and interpreting the results to answer the original problem. Stage 6. Writing a report the explanation of the above processes and how the conclusions were reached.
Quality control
Statistical methods are used by companies to maintain standards in their products and to determine consumer satisfaction.
Major organisations
Organisations such as the United Nations, Australian Bureau of Statistics and the World Health Organization use statistics for the benet of the communities they serve.
166
CHAPTER review
5A
1 For each of the statistical investigations below, state whether the data source would be external or internal. a The wins recorded by a major football team b The number of brick homes in an area c The number of sales made by a department store in a month d The amount of trafc passing through an intersection in one hour 2 For each of the following, state whether the data would be gathered using observation or questioning. a The number of surfers on various beaches b The brand of surfboard preferred by surfers c The average height of Year 11 students at your school d The most popular movie among Year 11 students at your school 3 Rewrite each of the following questions so that the results are easier to tabulate. a What is the distance from your home to school? b Describe the type of house you live in. c What is the number of kilometres that your family car travels in one year? d What is your favourite sport? 4 A survey is conducted on the number of people living in each household in a street. The results are shown below. 1 6 3 4 4 3 5 4 4 2 6 2 2 3 2 3 2 4 3 6 5 1 1 2 3 5 4
5A
5A
5B
Put these results into a table.
5B
5 A group of Year 11 students were asked to state the number of CDs that they had purchased in the last year. The results are shown below. 12 9 12 1 5 6 13 11 18 20 0 7 5 14 10 22 25 9 35 3 6 12 8 23 17 10 14 20 9 19
Put the results into a table using the categories 04, 59, 1014 etc.
5C 5C
CHAPTER
6 Draw a column and a sector graph to represent the results to question 4. 7 Draw a column and a sector graph to represent the results to question 5.
test yourself
Data collection and sampling
6
syllabus reference
Data analysis 2 Data collection and sampling
In this chapter
6A Target populations and sampling 6B Population characteristics 6C Bias 6D Types of data 6E Estimating populations
areyou
6.1
Are you ready?
Writing one amount as a percentage of another
READY?
b 15% of it is 126 c 2.4% of it is 28.8.
1 In each of the following write the rst quantity as a percentage of the second. a 12; 200 b 54; 250 c 45; 527
6.2
Unitary method of percentages
2 Find the total quantity given that: a 5% of it is 230
6.3
Finding a percentage of a quantity
3 Find: a 15% of 900
b 6% of 1150
c 8.25% of 1327.
Chapter 6 Data collection and sampling
169
Target populations and sampling

In the previous chapter we looked at statistics and the role they play in society. In this chapter we investigate in more detail how data are collected. To gather data we conduct a poll. A poll is the recording of responses to a set of questions known as a questionnaire.
Gallup poll
The most famous poll is named after its founder, the American statistician, George Gallup, who was born in 1901. Find out about Gallup and his work and how Gallup polls are used today. The rst step in gathering the relevant data for a statistical investigation is to target the population to be investigated. This means identifying the sections of the population for whom the statistical investigation will have meaning. For example, if investigating the medical needs of a community, we would not conduct our survey at the local tness club. For such a survey, we would survey doctors and other medical personnel, as well as a selection of patients who use the existing facilities.
Identifying the target population

For each of the following statistical investigations, identify the population that you would target for a survey. 1 The school End of Year Committee wants to nd out the preferred venue, band and meals for the Year 12 farewell. 2 The local council wants to know what sporting facilities are needed in the local area. 3 A newspaper wants a survey to predict the winner of a forthcoming election. 4 A group of people planning to build a preschool would like to know what facilities attract people to a particular preschool. 5 A recording label wants to estimate the potential success of a grunge band. When starting an investigation, we must determine the quantity of data needed for the database. Consider the case of a company calculating the TV ratings. Does the company need to nd out what every household is watching? Obviously they do not; they ask a selection of homes to record their TV viewing. Now consider the case of selecting a band to play at the Year 12 farewell. In this case it is reasonable to ask every Year 12 student their opinion. Data can be collected in one of two ways: 1. Census. In a census an entire population is counted. Australians complete The Census every ve years. This is a survey of every household in the nation conducted by the Bureau of Statistics. For the purposes of most statistical investigations, a census surveys everyone in the target population, such as the Year 12 example above. 2. Sample. A sample is a more practical method for doing most surveys. Only a selection of the target population is surveyed, with the results taken to be representative of the whole group. The TV ratings example is one where a sample is used.
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WORKED Example 1
In each of the following, state if the information was obtained by census or sample. a A school uses the roll to count the number of students absent each day. b The television ratings, in which 2000 families complete a survey on what they watch over a one week period. c A light globe manufacturer tests every hundredth light globe off the production line. d A teacher records the examination marks of her class. THINK a Every student is counted at roll call each morning. b Not every family is asked to complete a ratings survey. c Not every light globe is tested. d The marks of every student are recorded. WRITE a Census b Sample c Sample d Census
To ensure that the results of your sample are representative of the whole population, the method of sampling is important. There are three main methods of choosing a sample: random sample, stratied sample and systematic sample. Method 1. Random sample. In a random sample those to be surveyed are selected by chance. When a random sample is conducted, every person in the target population should have an equal chance of being selected. For example, the names of the people to complete your survey may be drawn from a hat. If this method is used, you should get a good mixture of people in your survey. Suppose that we are going to survey students in No. of Year students a school. We want a mixture of students and could choose a xed number of students from each year. Year 7 200 Suppose we decide to survey 60 students. We could select 10 from each year, but if we did this the survey Year 8 180 would not have the correct proportion of students from Year 9 190 each year. For example, 20% of the students at this 2 school are in Year 7, but only 16 -- % of the survey Year 10 185 3 participants are in Year 7. Year 11 135 If we randomly select the 60 participants, we could expect those chosen to resemble the overall Year 12 110 population. To get a genuinely random sample, you could use the random number generator on your Total 1000 calculator. The calculator will give you a random decimal number between 0 and 1. Each random number is multiplied by 1000 and then rounded up to give a whole number between 1 and 1000. We could then take the roll number of the student corresponding to this number. Repeating this 60 times will give us a genuinely random sample.
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WORKED Example 2
Three students from a school are to be selected to participate in a statewide survey of school students. There are 750 students at the school. To choose the participants, a random number generator is used with the results 0.983, 0.911 and 0.421. What are the roll numbers of the students who should be selected? THINK
1
WRITE 0.983 750 = 737.25 0.911 750 = 683.25 0.421 750 = 315.75 The 738th, 684th and the 316th people on the roll would be surveyed.
Multiply the results of the random number generator by the size of the population. Round up to whole numbers.
Any other method may not give a truly representative sample. For example, if you survey people in the playground you may: have a tendency to ask people you know choose an area where a lot of students from a particular year tend to sit choose more of one sex than the other. Method 2. Stratied sample. In this type of sample you deliberately choose people to complete your survey who are representative of the whole population. In the school survey you would need to select six strata that had the correct proportion of students from each year. In this example, 20% of the school population are in Year 7 and so 20% of your sample should be from Year 7.
WORKED Example 3
Adrian is conducting a survey of school students. At his school, 47% of the population are male and 53% are female. If Adrian decides to survey 60 students, how many students of each sex should he choose if he decides to use a stratied sample? THINK
1
WRITE 47% of 60 = 0.47 60 47% of 60 = 28.2 53% of 60 = 0.53 60 53% of 60 = 31.8 There should be 28 males and 32 females in Adrians survey.
The population is 47% male and so 47% of the sample should be male. Find 47% of 60. The population is 53% female and so 53% of the sample should be female. Find 53% of 60. Make a conclusion about how many of each sex should participate in the survey, rounding off your answers.
Method 3. Systematic sample. Systematic sampling is where those chosen for the sample are chosen in a systematic or organised way. This method is mostly used in quality control situations discussed in the previous chapter. For example, suppose that the quality and strength of sports shoes is being tested. The quality control department may test every 20th pair of shoes that come off the production line. In doing a survey, every 20th person on the school roll may be surveyed.
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remember
1. Before beginning a statistical investigation it is important to identify the target population. 2. The survey can be conducted either by: (a) Census the entire target population is surveyed, or (b) Sample a selection is surveyed such that those selected are representative of the entire target population. 3. There are three methods for selecting a sample. Method 1. Random sample chance is the only factor in deciding who is surveyed. This is best done using a random number generator. Method 2. Stratied sample those sampled are chosen in proportion to the entire population. Method 3. Systematic sample a system is used to choose those who are to be in the sample.
6A
WORKED
Target populations and sampling
Example
1 A school conducts an election for a new school captain. Every teacher and student in the school votes. Is this an example of a census or a sample? Explain your answer. 2 A survey is conducted by a council to see what sporting facilities the community needs. If 500 people who live in the community are surveyed, is this an example of a census or a sample? 3 For each of the following surveys, state whether a census or a sample has been used. a Two hundred people in a shopping centre are asked to nominate the supermarket where they do most of their grocery shopping. b To nd the most popular new car on the road, 500 new car buyers are asked what make and model car they purchased. c To nd the most popular new car on the road, the make and model of every new car registered are recorded. d To nd the average mark in the Mathematics half-yearly exam, every students mark is recorded. e To test the quality of tyres on a production line, every 100th tyre is road tested. 4 For each of the following, recommend whether you would use a census or a sample to obtain the results. a To nd the most watched television program on Monday night at 7:30 pm b To nd the number of cars sold during a period of one year c To nd the number of cars that pass through the tollgates on the Sydney Harbour Bridge each day d To nd the percentage of computers produced by a company that are defective 5 An opinion poll is conducted to try to predict the outcome of an election. Two thousand people are telephoned and asked about their voting intention. Is this an example of a census or a sample?
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WORKED
Example
6 A factory has 500 employees. Each employee has an employee number between 1 and 500. Five employees are selected to participate in an Occupational Health and Safety survey. To choose the participants, a random number generator is used. The results are 0.326, 0.352, 0.762, 0.989 and 0.018. What are the employee numbers of those to participate in the survey? 7 A school has 837 students. A survey of 10 students in the school is to be conducted. A random number generator is used to select the participants. If the random numbers chosen are: 0.988 0.251 0.498 0.661 0.247 0.031 0.967 0.932 0.229 0.443 what are the roll numbers of the students who should be selected? 8 A survey is to be conducted of 20 out of 50 000 people in a country town. Those selected are to be chosen using a random number generator. a Use your calculator to generate 20 random numbers. b Calculate the electoral roll numbers of the people who should be chosen for the survey. 9 For each of the following, state whether the sample used is an example of random, stratied or systematic sampling. a Every 10th tyre coming off a production line is tested for quality. b A company employs 300 men and 450 women. The sample of employees chosen for a survey contains 20 men and 30 women. c The police breathalyse the driver of every red car. d The names of the participants in a survey are drawn from a hat. e Fans at a football match ll in a questionnaire. The ground contains 8000 grandstand seats and 20 000 general admission seats. The questionnaire is then given to 40 people in the grandstand and 100 people who paid for a general admission seat. 10 multiple choice Which of the following is an example of a systematic sample? A The rst 20 students who arrive at school each day participate in the survey. B Twenty students to participate in the survey are chosen by a random number generator. C Twenty students to participate in the survey are selected in proportion to the number of students in each school year. D Ten boys and 10 girls are chosen to participate in the survey. 11 multiple choice Which of the following statistical investigations would be practical to complete by census? A A newspaper wants to know public opinion on a political issue. B A local council wants to know if a skateboard ramp would be popular with young people in the area. C An author wants a cricket players statistics for a book being written. D An advertising agency wants to know the most watched program on television.
WORKED
Example
12 Zara is conducting a survey of the people at work. At her work 68% of the workers are male and 32% are female. If Zara decides to survey 50 workers, how many of each sex 3 should she choose, if she chooses to use a stratied sample?
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13 The table below shows the percentage of students that are in each year of a school. Percentage of students 20% 19% 21% 16% 13% 11%
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
If 40 students are to participate in a survey, nd the number chosen from each year group if stratied sampling is used.
Census or sample
For each of the following statistical investigations, state whether you would gather data using a census or sample. For those for which you would use a sample, state the best method for selecting the sample. 1 A company wants to test the life of its batteries. 2 A sporting club wants to elect a new club president. 3 A market research company wants to determine the most popular brand of toothpaste. 4 A theme park wants to know from which state and suburb its visitors come. 5 A Gallup poll is conducted to determine the preferred prime minister.
Population characteristics
Characteristics about a population can be estimated by taking a sample of that population. For example, to estimate the average income of Australians we could conduct an anonymous survey of a sample of the Australian population. To get an accurate estimate, it is important that the sample taken has similar characteristics to the entire population. For example, the sample should have an equal number of males and females, and the ages of those in the sample should be in the same proportion as for the whole population. The area sampled should include a cross-section of people according to socio-economic level, ethnic background, religion etc., similar to that of the whole population. In such cases we use the stratied sampling technique. Characteristics (such as sex and age) of the population and the sample must also match, if we expect our sample to have incomes in the same proportions as those of the general population.
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If we are trying to estimate the average income of Australian families, what would be the effect if our sample: 1 contained a majority of one sex? 2 contained only people in the 1521 age group? 3 contained only people who live in a small country town? To calculate the number of participants in a sample from each strata of the population, we calculate each strata as a fraction of the total population and multiply this fraction by the total number to be chosen in the sample.
WORKED Example 4
The table at right shows the enrolment at a high school. Sam is conducting a music survey for the school disco. He plans to survey 60 students. Show how Sam should break down his sample in terms of year and sex.
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total Grand total WRITE Year 7 boys = Year 7 girls = Year 8 boys = Year 8 girls = Year 9 boys = Year 9 girls = Year 10 boys = 5.85
102 -------984 85 -------984 87 -------984 92 -------984 88 -------984 80 -------984 96 -------984
Boys 96 85 92 80 71 69 493
Girls 102 87 88 74 75 65 491 984
THINK
1
Write each strata as a fraction of the total and then multiply by the 60 to be chosen in the sample.
60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Continued over page
6.22 5.18 5.30 5.61 5.37 4.88
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THINK
WRITE Year 10 girls = Year 11 boys = Year 11 girls = Year 12 boys = Year 12 girls =
74 -------984 71 -------984 75 -------984 69 -------984 65 -------984
60 60 60 60 60
4.51 4.33 4.57 4.21 3.96 Number of students to be sampled Year 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total Grand total Boys 6 5 6 5 4 4 30 Girls 6 5 5 5 5 4 30 60
To complete the table, round off each of these answers to the nearest whole number.
Note that on some occasions after rounding off each of the answers, the total number of people to participate in the sample may add to one more than the number that we planned to select. In such cases, the person doing the sample should include this extra person as it gives a better sample of the overall population.
remember
1. Stratied sampling is used to ensure that a sample chosen is representative of the entire population. 2. To choose the number of participants from each stratum in the population, write each stratum as a fraction of the total population, and then multiply by the number of people you intend to select in the sample. Round off each of the answers to this multiplication to the nearest whole number. 3. Sometimes, as a result of rounding off, there may be one more to be chosen in the sample than was originally intended.
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6B
WORKED
6.1
Writing one amount as a percentage of another
SkillS
Example
1 The table below shows the number of students in each year at a school. 4 Year 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total No. of students 90 110 90 80 70 60 500
HEET HEET HEET
6.2
SkillS
6.3
SkillS
If a survey is to be given to 50 students at the school, how many from each year should be chosen if a stratied sample is used?
2 A company employs 300 men and 200 women. If a survey of 60 employees using a stratied sample is completed, how many people of each sex participated? 3 A business has 400 employees of which 250 are female and 150 are male. The business intends to survey 40 of their employees. If a stratied survey is to be conducted, how many employees of each sex should be surveyed? 4 In the head ofce of a bank there are 250 employees. Ten of these employees are senior management, 60 are middle management and 180 are employed as clerks. A survey is to be conducted of 50 staff members. How many employees at each level should be surveyed? 5 The Department of Education wants to survey a school population. At the school there are 93 teachers and 1248 students. If the department is to survey a total of 50 people, how many teachers and how many students should participate in the survey? 6 The table below shows the age and sex of the staff of a corporation. Age 2029 3039 4049 5059 Male 61 40 74 5 Female 44 50 16 10
A survey of 50 employees is to be done. Using a stratied survey, suggest the breakdown of people to participate in terms of age and sex.
178
7 The table below shows the number of students who are in each year level at a school. Year 7 8 9 10 11 12 Number of students 187 192 168 157 137 108
If 80 students are to be selected to participate in a survey, how many should be chosen from each year level? 8 A shopping centre has a oor area of 5000 m2. There is one major department store with an area of 1500 m2, two smaller department stores of 750 m2 and 40 small stores of 50 m2. The management of the centre assigns voting rights in the shopping centre in proportion to the oor area of each business. Given that there are 200 votes to be distributed, how many votes should each business get? 9 The table below shows the population of a school. Year 7 8 9 10 11 12 Boys 104 112 107 97 75 68 Girls 98 119 110 88 82 66
A survey of 100 students is to be conducted. Complete the table below to show the number of students from each year and sex who should participate in a stratied sample. Year 7 8 9 10
Work
T SHEE
Boys
Girls
6.1
11 12
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Choosing a sample
Consider how you would choose your sample if you wished to conduct a survey for your next school disco. Use the method in worked example 4 to select the number of boys and girls that should be chosen from each year to do your survey. Step 1. Find out the number of boys and girls enrolled in each year at your school. Step 2. Calculate the percentage of the whole school population in each year for both boys and girls. Step 3. Choose a suitable sample size and calculate the number of boys and girls needed from each year to complete your survey.
1
For each of the following, state whether a census or sample has been used. 1 A school votes to elect a school captain. 2 Five hundred drivers complete a survey on the state of a major highway. 3 Every insurance customer completes a questionnaire when renewing their policy. For each of the following, state the type of sample that has been taken. 4 A computer selects 500 phone numbers. 5 Every 1000th person in the telephone book. 6 Private and business telephone numbers are chosen in proportion to the number of private and business listings. 7 In a school there are 1000 students and 100 teachers. A sample of 20 members of the school is to participate in an Occupational Health and Safety review. If a stratied sample is chosen, how many students should participate? 8 In the Parliament there are 90 Liberals and 60 Labor members. For a committee, 3 Liberal and 3 Labor members are selected. Explain why this is not a stratied sample. 9 For question 8, calculate the correct number of people who should have been selected from each party. 10 Give an advantage that stratied sampling has over random sampling.
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Bias
No doubt you have heard the comment, There are lies, damned lies and statistics. This implies that we should be wary of statistical gures quoted. Indeed, we should always make informed decisions of our own and not simply accept the mass of statistics that bombards us through the media. Bias can be introduced into statistics by: 1. questionnaire design 2. sampling bias 3. the interpretation of results.
Bias in questionnaire design

Consider a survey designed to collect data on opinions relating to culling kangaroo numbers in Australia. The questions may be designed to be emotive in nature. Respondents in these situations feel obliged to show compassion. Posing a question in the form, The kangaroo is identied as a native Australian animal, not found anywhere else in the world. Would you be in favour of culling kangaroos in Australia?, would almost certainly encourage a negative response. Using a leading question (one which leads the respondent to answer in a particular way) can cause bias to creep into responses. Rephrasing the question in the form, As you know, kangaroos cause massive damage on many farming properties. Youd agree that their numbers need culling, wouldnt you?, would encourage a positive response. Using terminology that is unfamiliar to a large proportion of those being surveyed would certainly produce unreliable responses. Do you think we need to cull herbivorous marsupial mammals in Australia?, would cause most respondents to answer according to their understanding of the terms used. If the survey was conducted by an interviewer, the term could be explained. In the case of a self-administered survey, there would be no indication of whether the question was understood or not.
Sampling bias
As discussed previously, an ideal sample should reect the characteristics of the population. Statistical calculations performed on the sample would then be a reliable indication of the populations features. Selecting a sample using a non-random method, as discussed earlier, generally tends to introduce an element of bias.
181
Particular responses can be selected from all those received. In collecting information on a local issue, an interviewer on a street corner may record responses from many passers-by. From all the data collected, a sample could be chosen to support the issue, or alternatively another sample could be chosen to refute the same issue. A sample may be selected under abnormal conditions. Consider a survey to determine which lemonade was more popular Kirks or Schweppes. Collecting data one week when one of the brands was on special at half price would certainly produce misleading results. Data are often collected by radio and television stations via telephone polls. A Yes response is recorded on a given phone-in number, while the No respondents are asked to ring a different phone-in number. This type of sampling does not produce a representative sample of the population. Only those who are highly motivated tend to ring and there is no monitoring of the number of times a person might call, recording multiple votes. When data are collected from mailing surveys, bias results if the non-response rate is high (even if the selected sample was a random one). The responses received often represent only those with strong views on the subject, while those with more moderate views tend to lack representation in their correct proportion.
Statistical interpretation bias

Once the data have been collected, collated and subjected to statistical calculations, bias may still occur in the interpretation of the results. Misleading graphs can be drawn leading to a biased interpretation of the data. Graphical representations of a set of data can give a visual impression of little change or major change depending on the scales used on the axes. The use of terms such as majority, almost all and most are open to interpretation. When we consider that 50.1% for and 49.9% against represents a majority for an issue, the true gures have been hidden behind words with very broad meanings. Although we would probably not learn the real facts, we should be wary of statistical issues quoted in such terms.
Bias in statistics
The aim of this investigation is to study statistical data that you suspect to be biased. Conduct a search of newspapers, magazines or any printed material to collect instances of quoted statistics that you believe to be biased. There are occasions when television advertisements quote statistical gures as a result of questionable sampling techniques. For each example, discuss: 1 the purpose of the survey 2 how the data might have been collected 3 the question(s) that may have been asked (try to pose the question(s) in a variety of ways to inuence different outcomes) 4 ways in which bias might be introduced 5 variations in interpretation of the data.
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Biased sampling
Discuss the problems that would be caused by each of the following biased samples. 1 A survey is to be conducted to decide the most popular sport in a local community. A sample of 100 people was questioned at a local football match. 2 A music store situated in a shopping centre wants to know the type of music that it should stock. A sample of 100 people was surveyed. The sample was taken from people who passed by the store between 10 and 11 am on a Tuesday. 3 A newspaper conducting a Gallup poll on an election took a sample of 1000 people from Sydney.
Spreadsheets creating misleading graphs

Let us practise producing misleading graphs. Consider the data in this table. Year Wages ($m) % increase in wages Prots ($m) % increase in prots
Graph 1
1990 6 25 1 20
1995 9 50 1.5 50
2000 13 44 2.5 66
2005 20 54 5 100
Graph 2
We shall use a spreadsheet to produce misleading graphs based on these data.
Graph 3
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1 Enter the data as indicated in the spreadsheet (see page 182). 2 Graph the data using the Chart Wizard. You should obtain a graph similar to Graph 1. 3 Copy and paste the graph twice within the spreadsheet. 4 Graph 2 gives the impression that the wages are a great deal higher than the prots. This effect was obtained by reducing the horizontal axis. Experiment with shortening the horizontal length and lengthening the vertical axis. 5 In Graph 3 we get the impression that the wages and prots are not very different. This effect was obtained by lengthening the horizontal axis and shortening the vertical axis. Experiment with various combinations. 6 Print out your three graphs and examine their differences. Note that all three graphs have been drawn from the same data using valid scales. A cursory glance leaves us with three different impressions. Clearly, it is important to look carefully at the scales on the axes of graphs. Another method which could be used to change the shape of a graph is to change the scale of the axes. 7 Right click on the axis value, enter the Format axis option, click on the Scale tab, then experiment with changing the scale values on both axes. Techniques such as these are used to create different visual impressions of the same data. 8 Use the data in the table to create a spreadsheet, then produce two graphs depicting the percentage increase in both wages and prots over the years giving the impression that: a the prots of the company have not grown at the expense of wage increases (the percentage increase in wages is similar to the percentage increase in prots) b the company appears to be exploiting its employees (the percentage increase in prots is greater than that for wages).
WORKED Example 5
Discuss why the following selected samples could provide bias in the statistics collected. a In order to determine the extent of unemployment in a community, a committee phoned two households (randomly selected) from each page of the local telephone book during the day. b A newspaper ran a feature article on the use of animals to test cosmetics. A form beneath the article invited responses to the article. THINK a
1
WRITE a Phoning two randomly selected households per page of the telephone directory is possibly a representative sample. However, those without a home phone and those with unlisted numbers could not form part of the sample. An unanswered call during the day would not necessarily imply that the resident was at work.
Continued over page
Consider phone book selection.
Consider those with no phone contact. Consider the hours of contact.
184
THINK b
1
WRITE b Selecting a sample from a circulated newspaper excludes those who do not have access to the paper. In emotive issues such as these, only those with strong views will bother to respond, so the sample will represent extreme points of view.
Consider the newspaper circulation.
Consider the urge to respond.
remember
Bias can be introduced at each of the following stages: 1. questionnaire design 2. sampling bias 3. interpretation of results.
6C
Bias
1 Rewrite the following questions, removing any elements or words that might contribute to bias in responses. a The poor homeless people, through no fault of their own, experience great hardship during the freezing winter months. Would you contribute to a fund to build a shelter to house our homeless? b Most people think that, since weve developed as a nation in our own right and broken many ties with Great Britain, we should adopt our own national ag. Youd agree with this, wouldnt you? c Youd know that our Australian 50 cent coin is in the shape of a dodecagon, wouldnt you? d Many in the workforce toil long hours for low wages. By comparison, politicians seem to get life pretty easy when you take into account that they only work for part of the year and they receive all those perks and allowances. Youd agree, wouldnt you? 2 Rewrite parts a to d in question 1 so that the expected response is reversed.
WORKED
Example
3 What forms of sampling bias can you identify in the following samples? a Choosing a sample from students on a bus travelling to a sporting venue to answer a 5 questionnaire regarding sporting facilities at their school b Sampling using phone-in responses to an issue viewed on a television program c Promoting the results of a mail-response survey when fewer than half the selected sample replied d Comparing the popularity of particular chocolate brands when one brand has a two for the price of one special offer e Choosing a Year 7 class and a Year 12 class to gather data relating to the use of the athletics oval after school
185
4 Why does this graph produce a biased visual impression?

Australian currency Value of A$ compared with US $1 71c 70c 69c
9 May 11 May 12 May Date
5 Comment on the following statement: University tests have demonstrated that Double-White toothpaste is consistently used by the majority of teenagers and is more effective than most other toothpastes. 6 Surveys are conducted on samples to determine the characteristics of the population. Discuss whether the samples selected would provide a reliable indication of the populations characteristics. Sample Population a Year 11 students Student drivers b Year 12 students Students with part-time jobs c Residents attending a Residents of a suburb neighbourhood watch meeting d Students in the school choir Music students in the school e Cars in a shopping centre car park Models of Holden cars on the road f Males at a football match Popular TV programs g Users of the local library Popular teenage magazines
Bias
It is important that a sample is chosen randomly to avoid bias. Consider the following situation. The government wants to improve sporting facilities in Sydney. They decide to survey 1000 people about what facilities they would like to see improved. To do this, they choose the rst 1000 people through the gate at a football match at the Sydney Cricket Ground. In this situation it is likely that the results will be biased towards improving facilities for football. It is also unlikely that the survey will be representative of the whole population in terms of equality between men and women, age of the participants and ethnic backgrounds. Questions can also create bias. Consider asking the question, Is football your favourite sport? The question invites the response that football is the favourite sport rather than allowing a free choice from a variety of sports by the respondent. Consider each of the following surveys and discuss: a any advantages, disadvantages and possible causes of bias b a way in which a truly representative sample could be obtained.
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1 Surveying food product choices by interviewing customers of a large supermarket chain as they emerge from the store between 9.00 am and 2.00 pm on a Wednesday. 2 Researching the popularity of a government decision by stopping people at random in a central city mall. 3 Using a telephone survey of 500 people selected at random from the phone book to nd if all Australian States should have Daylight Saving Time in summer. 4 A bookseller uses a public library database to survey for the most popular novels over the last three months. 5 An interview survey about violence in sport taken at a rugby league football venue as spectators leave.
Types of data
Data can be put into two categories. 1 Categorical data Categorical data cannot be measured; they can only be put into categories. An example of categorical data is makes of cars. The categories for the data would be all possible makes of cars such as Ford, Holden, Toyota, Mazda etc. Other questions that would lead to categorical data would be things such as: What is your hair colour? Who is your favourite musical performer? What method of transport do you use to get to school? 2 Quantitative data Quantitative data can be measured. They are data to which we can assign a numerical value. Quantitative data are collected either by measurement or by counting. For example, the data collected by measuring the heights of students are quantitative data. The data collected by counting the ages of students in years are also quantitative data.
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WORKED Example 6
State whether the following pieces of data are categorical or quantitative. a The value of sales recorded at each branch of a fast-food outlet b The breeds of dog that appear at a dog show THINK a The value of sales at each branch can be measured. b The breeds of dog at a show cannot be measured. WRITE a The value of sales are quantitative data. b The breeds of dog are categorical data.
There are two types of categorical data and two types of quantitative data. Data Categorical Data which are placed in categories; that is, non-numerical form, such as hair colour, type of vehicle, and so on. Nominal Need sub-groups to complete the description, such as hair colour: blond, brown and so on. Ordinal Need a ranking to order the description, such as achievement levels: very high, high, satisfactory and so on. Quantitative Data which are in numerical form; such as height, number of children in the family, and so on. Discrete Counted in exact values, such as goals scored in a football match, shoe size and so on. Values are often, but not always, whole numbers. Continuous Measured in a continuous decimal scale, such as mass, temperature, length and so on.
Classify each of the following data using two selections from the following descriptive words: categorical, quantitative, nominal, ordinal, discrete and continuous. a the number of students absent from school b the types of vehicle using a certain road c the various pizza sizes available at a local takeaway d the room temperature at various times during a particular day THINK WRITE a 1 Determine whether the data are a The data are quantitative as absences are categorical or quantitative. represented by a number. The data are discrete as the number of absences 2 Determine whether the data are discrete or continuous. can be counted and is an exact value.
Continued over page
WORKED Example 7
188
THINK b 1 Determine whether the data are categorical or quantitative. 2 Determine whether the data are nominal or ordinal. c
1 2
WRITE b The data are categorical as the types of vehicle need to be placed in non-numerical categories. The data are nominal as there is no ranking or order involved. c The data are categorical as the pizza sizes need to be ranked in order ranging from small to family. The data are ordinal as pizzas are ranked in order of size. d The data are quantitative as room temperature is represented by a number. The data are continuous as temperature can assume any value and measurement is involved.
Determine whether the data are categorical or quantitative. Determine whether the data are nominal or ordinal. Determine whether the data are categorical or quantitative. Determine whether the data are discrete or continuous.
1 2
remember
1. Data can be classied as either: (a) categorical the data are in categories, or (b) quantitative the data can be either measured or counted. 2. Categorical data can be either: (a) nominal where the order of the categories is not important, or (b) ordinal the categories have a logical order. 3. Quantitative data can be either: (a) discrete the data can take only certain values, usually whole numbers, or (b) continuous the data can take any value depending on the degree of accuracy.
6D
WORKED
Types of data
Example
1 State whether the data collected in each of the following situations would be categorical or quantitative. a The number of matches in each box is counted for a large sample of boxes. b The sex of respondents to a questionnaire is recorded as either M or F. c A sheries inspector records the lengths of 40 cod. d The occurrence of hot, warm, mild and cool weather for each day in January is recorded. e The actual temperature for each day in January is recorded. f Cinema critics are asked to judge a lm by awarding it a rating from one to ve stars.
189
2 State whether the categorical data formed by each of the following situations are nominal or ordinal. a On a school report students are ranked as Unsatisfactory, Satisfactory, Above average or Outstanding. b The day of the week that a business has the most customers is recorded. c Visitors to a museum are recorded as being either male or female. d The colour of each trafc light on a journey is recorded. e The make of each television in an electronics store is recorded. 3 State whether the quantitative data formed by each of the following situations are discrete or continuous. a The heights of 60 tomato plants at a plant nursery b The number of jelly beans in each of 50 packets c The time taken for each student in a class of six-year-olds to tie their shoelaces d The petrol consumption rate of a large sample of cars e The IQ (intelligence quotient) of each student in a class
WORKED
Example
4 Classify each of the following data using two words selected from the following descriptive words: categorical, quantitative, nominal, ordinal, discrete and continuous. a The population of your town or city b The types of motorbike in a parking lot c The heights of people in an identication line-up d The masses of babies in a group e The languages spoken at home by students in your class f The time spent watching TV g The number of children in the families in your suburb h The air pressure in your cars tyres i The number of puppies in a litter j The types of radio program listened to by teenagers k The times for swimming 50 metres l The quantity of sh caught in a net m The number of CDs you own n The types of shops in a shopping centre o The football competition ladder at the end of each round p The lifetime of torch batteries q The number of people attending a rock concert r Exam grades s The types of magazine sold at a newsagency t Hotel accommodation rating 5 For each of the following, state if the data are categorical or quantitative. If quantitative, state if the data are discrete or continuous. a The number of students in each class at your school b The teams people support at a football match c The brands of peanut butter sold at a supermarket d The heights of people in your class e The interest rate charged by each bank f A persons pulse rate
190
6 An opinion poll was conducted. A thousand people were given the statement Euthanasia should be legalised. Each person was offered ve responses: strongly agree, agree, unsure, disagree and strongly disagree. Describe the data type in this example. 7 A teacher marks her students work with a grade A, B, C, D, or E. Describe the data type used. 8 A teacher marks his students work using a mark out of 100. Describe the data type used. 9 multiple choice The number of people who are using a particular bus service are counted over a two week period. The data formed by this survey would be an example of: A categorical and ordinal data B cateorical and nominal data C quantitative and discrete data D quantitative and continuous data 10 The following graph shows the number of days of each weather type for the Gold Coast in January.
Number of days in January 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
H ot
m ild ar M W Weather
Co
ol
Describe the data in this example. 11 The graph at right shows a girls height each year for 10 years. Describe the data in this example.
180 Height (cm) 160 140 120 100 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Age
191
2
1 The rich should pay more in tax, to allow the poorer families to have access to better services, wouldnt you agree? Explain why this question is biased. 2 Rewrite the above question to eliminate bias. 3 A television program has a phone-in survey asking the question, Should criminals receive tougher sentences? Explain why telephone phone-in surveys have a sampling bias. 4 Explain a better method of getting public opinion on this issue. For each of the following, state if the data are categorical or quantitative. If categorical, state whether the data are nominal or ordinal, and if quantitative, state if they are continuous or discrete. 5 Customers in a video shop vote for their favourite movie. 6 Customers in a video shop have records kept on the number of movies they hire each year. 7 The video shop keeps records of the number of times each movie has been hired. 8 The video shop keeps records of the length of each movie. 9 Give an example of categorical data which is ordinal. 10 Give an example of quantitative data which is discrete.
Estimating populations
Statistics are used to estimate populations that are too difcult to count accurately. An example of this is the number of sh in a lake. The method used to estimate the population is the capturerecapture technique. In this technique, a sample of the population is captured, tagged and then released back into the population. A second sample is then captured. The percentage of the second sample that have been previously tagged (that is, recaptured) becomes an estimate of the percentage of the entire population that has been tagged.
192
Estimating a population
Make a large collection of marbles, jelly beans, matches or toothpicks. 1 Select a sample of these items and identify/tag them with a dab of liquid paper. 2 Put those selected back in with the others and mix them thoroughly. 3 Select another sample and see how many are tagged. 4 Estimate the total number. 5 Put those selected back and repeat the process to see if you get a similar answer. 6 Count the number of items to see how accurate your estimates were.
WORKED Example 8
A group of marine biologists want to estimate the sh population in a lake. To do this, they catch 100 sh, tag them and release them back into the lake. The next day, they catch 200 sh and nd that 10 of them have been previously tagged. What would be their estimate of the population? THINK
1
WRITE
10 Percentage tagged = -------- 100% 200 Percentage tagged = 5%
Calculate the percentage of the second sample that has been tagged. Use this percentage to calculate what 100% of the population would be. Give a written answer.
5% of population = 100 so 1% of population = 20 and 100% of population = 2000 Their estimate of the sh population in the lake is 2000.
remember
1. The capturerecapture technique is used to estimate populations that cannot be accurately counted with ease. 2. A sample of the population is captured, tagged and released back into the population. 3. A second sample is then captured and the percentage tagged is an estimate of the percentage of the entire population that has been tagged. 4. The unitary method of percentages is then used to estimate the entire population.
193
6E
WORKED
Example
1 The sh population of a river is to be estimated. A sample of 400 sh are caught, tagged and released. The next day another sample of 400 sh are caught and 40 of them 8 have tags. Estimate the sh population of the river. 2 A colony of bats live near a school. Wildlife ofcers try to estimate the bat population by catching 60 bats and tagging them. These bats are then released and another 60 are caught, 9 of which had tags. Estimate the size of the bat population living near the school. 3 A rivers sh population is to be estimated. On one day 1000 sh are caught, tagged and released. The next day another 1000 sh are caught. Estimate the population of the river if in the second sample of sh: a 100 had tags b 40 had tags c 273 had tags. 4 A certain sh population is said to be endangered if the population falls below 15 000. A sample of 1000 sh are caught, tagged and released. The next day another sample of 1200 sh are caught, 60 of which had tags. Is the sh population endangered? 5 To estimate the sh population of a lake, 300 sh were caught. These 300 sh (150 trout, 100 bream and 50 perch) were tagged and released. A second sample of sh were then caught. Of 100 trout, 24 had tags; of 100 bream, 20 had tags; and of 100 perch, 8 had tags. a Estimate the number of trout in the lake. b Estimate the number of bream in the lake. c Estimate the number of perch in the lake. 6 The kangaroo population in a national park is to be estimated. On one day, 100 kangaroos were caught and tagged before being released. (Note: For each sample taken, the kangaroos are released after the number with tags is counted.) a The next day 100 were caught, 12 of which had tags. Estimate the population. b The following day another estimate was done. This time 200 were caught and 20 had tags. Estimate the population again. c A third estimate was done by catching 150 and this time 17 had tags. What will the third estimate for the population be? d For a report, the average of the three estimates is taken. Calculate this average.
Work
T SHEE
6.2
194
summary
Data collection
A statistical investigation can be done by either census or sample. A census is when an entire population takes part in the investigation. A sample is when a small group takes part in the investigation and the results are taken to be representative of the whole group. There are three types of sample. 1. Random sample chance is the only factor in deciding who participates. 2. Stratied sample the sample taken is chosen so that it has the same characteristics as the whole population. 3. Systematic sample there is a method for deciding who participates in the sample.
A stratied sample can be used to ensure that the characteristics of your sample match the characteristics of the whole population. To select a stratied sample: 1. Write each number in each stratum as a fraction of the whole population. 2. Multiply by the size of the sample that you wish to take. 3. Round off the answer for each stratum to the nearest whole number. Sometimes this method increases the sample size, but this may be necessary to get the best representation possible in your sample.
Bias
Bias occurs when the results of an investigation are skewed to one side. This can occur because of: 1. A poorly worded question that can lead the responder into a response favouring one side. 2. A poorly chosen sample. Those participating in the investigation may not represent the whole population and be more inclined to a certain point of view. 3. Misinterpretation of results. This can occur when a graph is drawn to give a certain impression.
Classication of data
Data can be classied as being categorical or quantitative. Categorical data are data that are non-numerical. For example, a survey of car types is not numerical. Quantitative data are data that can be either counted or measured. For example, a survey of the daily temperature is quantitative. Quantitative data can be either discrete or continuous. Discrete data can take only certain values such as whole numbers. Continuous data can take any value within a certain range.
Populations that cant be accurately counted with ease are estimated by using the capturerecapture technique.
195
CHAPTER review
1 For each of the following statistical investigations, state whether a census or a sample has been used. a The average price of petrol in Sydney was estimated by averaging the price at 40 petrol stations. b The Australian Bureau of Statistics has every household in Australia complete an information form once every ve years. c The performance of a cricketer is measured by looking at his performance in every match he has played. d Public opinion on an issue is sought by a telephone poll of 2000 homes. 2 Name and describe three different methods for selecting a sample. 3 Which method of sampling has been used for each of the following? a The quality-control department of a tyre manufacturing company road tests every 50th tyre that comes off the production line. b To select the students to participate in a survey, a spreadsheet random number generator selects the roll numbers of 50 students. c An equal number of men and women are chosen to participate in a survey on fashion. 4 Use a random number generator to select 10 numbers between 1 and 1000. 5 The table at right shows the number of students in each year of school. In a survey of the school population, how many students from each year should be chosen, if a sample of 60 is selected using a stratied sample? 6 Bias can be introduced into statistics through: a questionnaire design b sample selection c interpretation of statistical results. Discuss how bias could be a result of techniques in the above three areas.
6A
6A 6A
6A 6B
212 200 189 175 133 124
Year 7 8 9 10 11 12
No. of students
6C
7 State whether each of the following data types are categorical or quantitative. a The television program that people watch at 7:00 pm b The number of pets in each household c The amount of water consumed by athletes in a marathon run d The average distance that students live from school e The mode of transport used between home and school
6D
196
6D
8 For each of the quantitative data types below, determine if the data are discrete or continuous. a The dress sizes of Year 11 girls b The volume of backyard swimming pools c The amount of water used in households d The number of viewers of a particular television program e The amount of time Year 11 students spent studying
6E 6E 6E
9 To estimate the sh population of a lake, 100 sh are caught, tagged and released. The next day another 100 are caught and it is noted that 5 have tags. Estimate the population of the lake. 10 Kimberley has a worm farm. To estimate the population of her farm, she catches 150 worms and tags them before releasing them. The next day, she catches 120 worms and nds that 24 of them have tags. Estimate the population of the worm farm. 11 A sample of 200 sh are caught, tagged and released back into the population. Later Barry, Viet and Mustafa each catch a sample of sh. Barry caught 40 sh and 3 had tags. Viet caught 75 sh and 9 had tags. Mustafa caught 55 sh and 7 had tags. a Find the estimate of the population that each would have calculated. b Give an estimate for the population, based on all three samples.

1 multiple choice Which of the following is an example of a census? A A newspaper conducts an opinion poll of 2000 people. B A product survey of 1000 homes to determine what brand of washing powder is used C Every 200th jar of Vegemite is tested to see if it is the correct mass. D A federal election 2 multiple choice Which of the following is an example of a random sample? A The rst 50 students to arrive at school take a survey. B Fifty students names are drawn from a hat and those drawn take the survey. C Ten students from each year of the school are asked to complete a survey. D One class in the school is asked to complete the survey.
197
3 multiple choice Which of the following is an example of categorical data? A The type of car that is in each home B The number of cars in each home C The distance travelled by a persons car in a one year period D The amount of money spent on petrol in a one year period 4 multiple choice Which of the following is an example of continuous data? A The type of car that is in each home B The number of cars in each home C The distance travelled by a persons car in a one year period D The amount of money spent on petrol in a one year period 5 Carolyn is a marine biologist. She spends the day on a boat and 500 sh are netted. Carolyn notes the types of sh netted. There are 173 blacksh, 219 drummer and 108 mullet. a Are Carolyns data categorical or quantitative? b The sh are tagged and released back into the school from which they were caught. Another 250 are then caught and it is noted that 63 have tags. Estimate the population of the school.
198
6 A paint company says that 1 litre of paint can paint an area of 4 m2. To test this, every 100th can is tested to see that it will cover at least 4 m2. a Are the data categorical or quantitative? If they are quantitative, are the data discrete or continuous? b What type of sample has been used? c The paint is mixed in one of ve machines. Every can tested therefore comes from the same machine. A quality control ofcer then says that the data are biased. What is meant by the term bias? d Explain what could be done to prevent the data from being biased.
CHAPTER
test yourself
Modelling linear relationships
7
syllabus reference
Algebraic modelling 2 Modelling linear relationships
In this chapter
7A Graphing linear functions 7B Gradient and intercept 7C Drawing graphs using gradient and intercept 7D Graphing variations 7E Step and piecewise functions 7F Simultaneous equations
areyou
7.1
Recognising linear functions
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 Which of the functions below are linear functions? a y = x2 b y = 2x x c y = -2 2 d y = -x
READY?
b
y
7.2
Gradient of a straight line
2 Find the gradient of each of the following. a

y
y 6
3 x 2 x
7.3
Substitution
3 Complete the following. a Given that y = 5 2x, nd the value of y when x = 6. b Given that y = 4x + 7, nd the value of y when x = 3. 10 2x c Given that y = ----------------- , nd the value of y when x = 0. 5
Graphing linear equations
7.4
4 Draw the graph of: a y=x+1

b y = 2x 4
c y = 6 2x.
7.5
5 Solve each of the following equations. a 2x 8 = 0 b 12 4x = 0
c 5x 2 = 0
Chapter 7 Modelling linear relationships
201
Graphing linear functions

Imagine a car travelling at a constant speed D of 60 km/h. The graph at right compares 600 500 the distance travelled with time. 400 This graph can be given by the 300 200 relation D = 60t. This relation is an 100 0 example of a function. A function is 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t a rule with two variables. In the above example time, t, is the independent variable. This is the variable for which we can substitute any value. Distance, D, is the dependent variable as its value depends on the value substituted for t. A linear function is a graph that, when drawn, is represented by a straight line. Linear functions are drawn from a table of values. The independent variable is graphed on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable is graphed on the vertical axis.
WORKED Example 1
The table below shows the amount of money earned by a wage earner. Hours (H) Wage (W) 10 85 20 170 30 255 40 340 50 425
Draw the graph of wage, W, against hours, H. THINK

1
DRAW
W 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 H
2 3
Draw the graph with H on the horizontal axis and W on the vertical axis. Plot the points (10, 85) (20, 170) (30, 255) (40, 340) and (50, 425). Join the points with a straight line.
In many examples we are required to draw a graph from an algebraic rule. In such an example we need to create our own table. To do this, we can choose any sensible value to use for the independent variable.
WORKED Example 2
The conversion of Australian dollars, A, to US dollars, U, can be given by the rule U = 0.8A. Draw the graph of this function. THINK
1
WRITE/DRAW
Draw a table choosing several values to substitute for the independent variable, A.
Continued over page
202
THINK
2
WRITE A U 10 8 20 16 30 24 40 32 50 40
Calculate the value of U for each value of A in the table.
Draw the axes, plot the points generated and join each point with a straight line, extending the line as required.
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 A
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing linear equations

The Casio graphics calculator can be used to draw both the table of values and the graph of a linear equation. Consider worked example 2. 1. From the MENU select GRAPH.
2. Delete any existing functions and enter the rule. The calculator always uses Y as the dependent variable and X as the independent variable. Enter Y1 = 0.8X. Be sure to use the X,q,T button for X. Finish by pressing EXE . 3. Next we need to rule up our coordinate axes. This is done using the V-Window function. Press SHIFT F3 . This sets the minimum and maximum values for both X and Y as well as the increments on each axis. Enter the settings shown on the screen at right, which replicate the axes that are drawn in the worked example. 4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and then F6 to draw the graph.
5. To see the points on the graph use the Trace function. Press SHIFT F1 and use your arrow keys to see the points drawn.
203
When applying a function we need to understand the idea of: input process output.
The independent variable is the input, a calculation is made which is the process and the output is the value of the dependent variable. An independent variable is substituted (input), a calculation is made (process) according to the rule dened by the function and the dependent variable (output) is the result.
WORKED Example 3
A preschool has hired an entertainment group to entertain their children at a concert. The cost of staging the concert is given by the function C = 80 + 3n, where C is the cost and n is the number of children attending the concert. Draw the graph of this function. THINK
1
WRITE/DRAW
Draw a table choosing ve values for n to substitute. Calculate the values of C for each value of n chosen. n C 0 80 50 230 100 380 150 530 200 680
Draw the axes, plot the points generated and join with a straight line.
C 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0
50 100 150 200 n
remember
1. A function is a rule for a calculation that consists of an independent and dependent variable. 2. Values are substituted for the independent variable and a value for the dependent variable is generated. 3. A linear function is represented by a straight line when graphed. 4. When graphing a linear function, the independent variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the vertical axis. 5. To graph a linear function we draw up a table of values, plot the points generated by that table then join these points with a straight line.
204
7A
WORKED
Graphing linear functions
SkillS
HEET
7.1
Example
1 The table below shows the amount of money, M, earned for delivering a number of pamphlets, P, to letterboxes. P M 1000 50 2000 100 3000 150 4000 200 5000 250
Recognising linear functions

EXCE
reads L Sp he
et
sio sio
WORKED
Draw the graph of this function. 2 Use the graph drawn in question 1 to nd the amount of money earned by a person delivering: a 8000 pamphlets b 9500 pamphlets. 3 Australian dollars can be converted to Japanese yen using the algebraic rule Y = 80A. To draw a conversion graph, the table below is used. A Y 100 8000 200 16 000 300 24 000 400 32 000 500 40 000
Graph paper
am rogr Ca
GC p
Linear
GC p
am rogr TI
Linear
GC p
am rogr Ca
Myrule
Example
Draw a graph converting Australian dollars to Japanese yen. 4 The cost of an international telephone call can be given by the rule C = 1.5t, where C is the cost of the call and t is the length of the call in minutes. Draw a graph showing the cost of a telephone call. 5 Use the graph from question 4 to calculate the cost of a telephone call that lasts for: a 17 minutes b 45 minutes. 6 The distance, d, travelled by a cyclist can be given by the algebraic rule d = 15t, where t is the time in hours that the cyclist has been riding. Draw a graph showing the distance travelled by the cyclist against time.
WORKED
GC p
am rogr TI
Myrule
Example
7 The cost, C, of a taxi journey can be given by the rule C = 4 + 1.5d, where d is the distance of the journey in kilometres. Draw a graph showing the cost of a taxi journey. 8 A tree bought as a seedling is 80 cm tall. It then grows at an average rate of 12 cm per year. Draw a graph that will show the height of the tree each year. 9 Casey has a job that pays $10 per hour. Draw a graph that will show the money earned against hours worked. 10 It costs Bill $1850 per week to operate his business developing photographs. Bill charges $8 to develop a roll of lm. Draw a graph that shows the prot or loss he makes against the number of rolls of lm developed.
205
Graph of height versus age

Not all graphs can be drawn as a straight line. Consider the case of height and age. 1 Find a person of each age from 120. Measure their height and plot their age and height as a pair of coordinates. 2 Draw a line of best t for the points plotted. 3 The graph will atten where people stop growing and so does not continue to rise indenitely. Suggest a point at which this graph should stop.
Gradient and intercept

Consider the graph of a car that is D travelling at 60 km/h. Earlier we drew 600 500 the graph of this as a linear function. 400 Two points on this graph are (1, 60) 300 200 and (2, 120). From the graph we can 100 0 see that for a one unit increase in the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t independent variable, there is a 60 unit increase in the dependent variable. For this function we can say that the gradient is 60. The gradient (m) is the rate of change in the dependent variable for a one unit increase in the independent variable. A simple formula that can be used to calculate gradient is: vertical change in position m = --------------------------------------------------------------------C = 2 + 0.5d horizontal change in position C (8, 6) 6 Using this formula, the gradient can be 5 3 units calculated by measurement from a graph 4 (2, 3) 3 by choosing any two points on the graph. 2 6 units The graph at right shows the function 1 0 C = 2 + 0.5d. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 d On the graph, the two points (2, 3) and (8, 6) are marked. Between these two points the vertical rise = 3 and the horizontal run = 6. Using the gradient formula: -gradient = 3 gradient =
6 1 -2
206
WORKED Example 4
For the linear function drawn at right, calculate the gradient.
THINK
1 2
WRITE
Choose two points on the graph: (1, 4) and (5, 20) for example. Measure the vertical rise and the horizontal run.
D 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4
D = 4t
6 t
D 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 (1, 4) 4 2 0 0 1
D = 4t (5, 20)
16
4 2 3 4 5 6 t
3 4 5
Write the gradient formula. Substitute for the rise and the run. Calculate the gradient.
vertical change in position gradient = --------------------------------------------------------------------horizontal change in position ----gradient = 16 gradient = 4

4
A function with a positive gradient is called an increasing function. That means that the value of the dependent variable increases as the value of the independent variable increases. A decreasing function has a negative gradient. In such cases when calculating the gradient, we take the vertical rise to be negative. In a decreasing function, the value of the dependent variable decreases as the value of the independent variable increases.
WORKED Example 5
For the function drawn at right calculate the gradient.
y
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
y=4x
THINK
1
WRITE
Choose two points on the graph. In this case we choose (0, 4) and (4, 0).
207
THINK
2
WRITE
y
5 (0, 4) 4 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Measure the vertical rise and the horizontal run.
4 (4, 0) 1 2 3 4 5
y=4x
3 4 5
Write the gradient formula. Substitute for the rise and the run. Calculate the gradient.
vertical change in position gradient = --------------------------------------------------------------------horizontal change in position ----gradient = 4 4 gradient = 1
The gradient of 1 in the example above means that for every one-unit increase in x, there is a one unit decrease in y. In the example above, the graph cuts the y-axis at 4. Therefore, for this function the y-intercept is 4. Consider worked example 3. Here the cost of hiring the C entertainment group was given by the function C = 80 + 3n. 800 700 In this example, the intercept on the vertical axis is 80; 600 500 that is, it costs $80 to hire the entertainment group without 400 any children attending the concert. The $80 is a xed cost. 300
200 100 0 0 50 100 150 200 n
WORKED Example 6
The table below shows the cost of running an excursion for a given number of students. No. of students Cost 20 $200 40 $300 60 $400 80 $500 100 $600
a Draw a graph of the cost of this excursion. b Calculate the gradient and explain its meaning in this context. c Use your graph to nd the intercept on the vertical axis and explain its meaning in this context.
Continued over page
208
THINK a
1
WRITE/DRAW a
600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Number of students
Draw a set of axes and plot the points given.
Join with a straight line. Choose two points on the graph and measure the vertical change in position and horizontal change in position. b
600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0
Cost ($)
Cost ($)
100 20
20 40 60 80 100 Number of students
Calculate the gradient.
vertical change in position gradient = --------------------------------------------------------------------horizontal change in position -------gradient = 100

20
The gradient is the increased cost of the excursion per student.
gradient = 5 A gradient of 5 means that the cost of the excursion increases by $5 for every student who attends. c Intercept = 100 The excursion has a xed cost of $100, meaning it would cost $100 even if no children attended.
1 2
Find the point where the graph cuts the vertical axis. The intercept is the xed cost of running an excursion without considering the number of students.
209
remember
1. The gradient is the increase in the dependent variable for every one unit increase in the independent variable. 2. The gradient is denoted m, and is found using the formula: vertical change in position m = --------------------------------------------------------------------horizontal change in position 3. A positive gradient occurs when the value of the dependent variable increases as the value of the independent variable increases. 4. A negative gradient occurs when the value of the dependent variable decreases as the independent variable increases. 5. The intercept on the vertical axis gives us the value of the dependent variable when the independent variable is equal to zero.
7B
WORKED

b
y 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Example
1 For the functions below, nd the gradient. a y 4

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 01 23 45 6 x
7.2
Gradient of a straight line
E
SkillS
L Spre XCE ad
HEET
sheet
Gradient 01 23 45 x
Cabri Geo
WORKED
Example
y 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 01 23 4 x
y 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
ry met
Gradient
Cabri Geo
ry met
sheet
Linear graph intercepts

E
L Spre XCE ad
2 multiple choice Which of the functions below has a negative gradient? A B y y
Graph paper
210
WORKED
Example
3 The table below shows the payment made to a person on a newspaper delivery round. Deliveries Payment 200 120 400 180 600 240 800 300 1000 360
a Draw the graph of the function. b Find the gradient of the function. c Find the intercept on the vertical axis. 4 The table below shows the prot or loss made by a cinema for showing a movie. No. of people 20 50 100 150 200 Prot 60 0 100 200 300
a Draw the graph of the function. b Find the gradient of the function. Explain the meaning of the gradient in this context. c Find the intercept on the vertical axis. Explain its meaning in this context. 5 A function is given by the rule y = 5x 4. a Copy and complete the table below. x y b Draw the graph of this function. c Find the gradient and intercept of this function. 0 1 2 3
211
Drawing graphs using gradient and intercept

Most linear functions are represented on a number plane. Consider the graph of y = 2x + 1 drawn at right. This function has a gradient of 2. The intercept on the vertical axis (called the y-intercept) is 1. Comparing the gradient and y-intercept with the function, we can see that the number with x (called the coefcient of x) is 2 (the gradient) and we then add 1 (y-intercept) to complete the function. Any linear function can be written in the form y = mx + b , where m = gradient and b = y-intercept.
y
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = 2x + 1
1 2 3 4 5
WORKED Example 7
Find the gradient and y-intercept of: a y = 3x 4 b y = 7 2x. THINK a b
1 2 1 2
WRITE a b gradient = 3 y-intercept = 4 gradient = 2 y-intercept = 7
The gradient is the coefcient of x (3). The y-intercept is the constant term (4). The gradient is the coefcient of x (2). The y-intercept is the constant term (7).
We can use the gradient and y-intercept to draw the graph of a function in the form y = mx + b. By plotting the y-intercept we are able to use the gradient to plot other points. For example, a gradient of 2 means a rise of 2 units for a 1 unit increase in x. Therefore, from the y-intercept we count a rise of 2 units and a run of 1 unit to plot the next point. It is a useful check to repeat this process from the next point plotted. The points plotted can then be joined by a straight line that is the graph of the function.
Draw the graph of y = 3x 2. THINK

1 2 3 4
WORKED Example 8
WRITE gradient = 3 y-intercept = 2 Find the gradient (3). Find the y-intercept (2). Mark the y-intercept on the axis. Count a rise of 3 and a run of 1 to mark the point (1, 1).
Continued over page
212
THINK
5
WRITE
y
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
From (1, 1) count a rise of 3 and a run of 1 to mark the point (2, 4).
Join these points with a straight line.
y
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = 3x 2
1 2 3 4 5
If the gradient is a fraction, the numerator indicates the vertical change in position and the denominator the horizontal change in position. The method of drawing the graph then remains unchanged.
-Sketch the graph of y = 2 x 2. 3
WORKED Example 9
WRITE
-gradient = 2 3 y-intercept = 2 -Find the gradient ( 2 ). 3 Find the y-intercept (2). Mark the y-intercept on the axis. Count a rise of 2 and a run of 3 to mark the point (3, 0). From (3, 0) count a rise of 2 and a run of 3 to mark the point (6, 2).
THINK
1 2 3 4 5
y
5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6
213
THINK
6
WRITE
y
5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = 2x 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
When sketching functions with a negative gradient we need to remember to treat the rise as negative; that is, the function decreases.
Sketch the function y = 3 2x. THINK

1 2 3 4 5
WORKED Example 10
WRITE gradient = 2 y-intercept = 3 Find the gradient (2). Find the y-intercept (3). Mark the y-intercept on the axis. Count a rise of 2 and a run of 1 to mark the point (1, 1). From (1, 1) count a rise of 2 and a run of 1 to mark the point (2, 1).
y
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
y
5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
y = 3 2x
214
remember
1. A function is written in the form: y = mx + b where m equals the gradient and b equals the y-intercept. 2. A function can be graphed when in this form by plotting the y-intercept, then using the gradient to plot two other points, which can then be joined with a straight line.
7C
EXCE
reads L Sp he
WORKED
Drawing graphs using gradient and intercept
Example
Equation of a straight line

EXCE
reads L Sp he
et et
1 For each of the functions below, state the gradient and the y-intercept. a y = 2x + 2 b y = 3x 8 c y = 2 4x x --d y = 3x + 3 e y = -- + 1 f y = 3 3x 4 2 2 2 Sketch the function y = 2x 3. 3 Sketch the functions: a y = 2x + 1
2
Linear graphs
WORKED
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Graph paper
omet i Ge ry
WORKED
et
WORKED
Example
b y = 3x 6
c y = 5x.
Example
-4 Sketch the function y = 1 x + 2.
5 Sketch the graph for each of the functions below.

-a y = 3x 1 4 -b y = 1x 3 -c y = 3x 4 2
Cabr
Example
6 Sketch the function y = 4 3x. 7 Sketch the graphs of: a y = 6 3x b y = 2x 3

-c y = 1 x + 4 2
10
Linear graphs
8 multiple choice -Which of the following could be the graph of y = 1 x + 1? 2 A B y y
215
9 multiple choice The equation of the graph drawn at right could be: A y = 2x 1 B y = 2x + 1 --C y = 1x 1 D y = 1x + 1
2 2
10 Write and draw an example of a linear function with: a a positive gradient b a negative gradient c a positive y-intercept d a y-intercept of 0 e a negative gradient and negative y-intercept f a gradient of 0 g a positive gradient and negative y-intercept. 11 Write an equation that could t the following sketches. a b y y c
2 1
1
1 For the function y = 2x 3, state the gradient. 2 For the function y = 2x 3, state the y-intercept. 3 For the function y = 5 3x, state the gradient. 4 For the function y = 5 3x, state the y-intercept. 5 Write the equation of a linear function with a gradient of 3 and a y-intercept of 6. 6 Write the equation of a linear function with a gradient of 2 and a y-intercept of 4. 7 Write the equation of a linear function with a gradient of
1 -2
and a y-intercept of 3.
8 Draw an example of a linear function with a positive gradient. 9 Draw an example of a linear function with a negative gradient. 10 Draw an example of a linear function with a y-intercept of 0.
Work
T SHEE
7.1
216
Graphing variations
A variation occurs when one quantity is proportional to another. Consider the following variation problem. The number of cars produced on an assembly line varies directly with the number of workers employed on the line. Twenty workers can produce 30 cars per week. From this information, we can determine that the number of cars produced each week will be 1.5 times the number of workers employed on the assembly line. Using this, we can draw the table below. No. of workers (N) No. of cars produced (C) 10 15 20 30 30 45
C 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 N
40 60
50 75
These gures are plotted on the axes at right. In any example where one quantity varies directly with another, the graph that is drawn will be a linear function through the origin (0, 0). To draw the function, we need to know only one other point on the graph. This is known as a direct linear variation.
WORKED Example 11
The distance travelled by a car is directly proportional to the speed at which it is travelling. If the car travels 225 km in 3 hours, draw a graph of distance travelled against time. THINK
1
WRITE
2 3
Draw a set of axes showing time on the horizontal axis and distance on the vertical axis. Plot the points (0, 0) and (3, 225). Join them with a straight line.
Distance
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time
If we examine the gradient of a variation function, we see that the gradient is equal to the constant of variation. For example in worked example 11, the gradient is 75. This is the speed at which the car is travelling. Any variation can be graphed using the form y = ax where a, the gradient, is also the constant of variation.
217
It is known that y is directly proportional to x. When x = 30, y = 12. a Draw the graph of y against x. b What is the gradient of the graph? c Write an equation linking y and x. THINK a Draw a straight line graph through (0, 0) and (30, 12). WRITE a y
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100
12 ----30
WORKED Example 12
vertical change in position Gradient = --------------------------------------------------------------------- . horizontal change in position 2 Simplify. c The equation is in the form y = ax, where a is the gradient. b
1
b Gradient =
Gradient = 0.4 c y = 0.4x
remember
1. When two quantities vary directly with each other, the variation can be graphed as a linear function. 2. To graph the function we need to know only one point on the graph, together with (0, 0). A straight line is then drawn through these two points. 3. The gradient of the function is the constant of variation. Hence, the variation is graphed using a linear function that can be written in the form y = ax.
7D
WORKED
Graphing variations
SkillS
Example
1 The distance travelled by a car varies directly with the time that the car has been trav- 7.3 elling. If the car travels 400 km in 5 hours, draw the graph of distance against time. 11 Substitution 2 A team of 6 people can unload 9 containers from a wharf per day. a Draw a graph showing the number of containers, n, that can be unloaded by a team of people, p. b What is the gradient of the graph drawn? 7.4 c Write an equation linking n and p.
Graphing linear equations
SkillS
HEET HEET
3 It is known that y varies directly with x. When x = 5, y = 40. Example a Draw the graph of y against x. 12 b What is the gradient of the graph? c Write an equation linking y and x.
WORKED
218
4 The distance, D, travelled by a car in a certain period of time will be directly proportional to the cars speed, s. A car moving at 40 km/h travels 120 km. a Draw the graph of D against s. b Write an equation linking D and s. 5 The wage, W, earned by a worker is directly proportional to the hours, h, worked. A person who works 35 hours earns $306.25. Draw the graph of W against h. 6 The quantity of petrol, l, used by a car varies directly with the distance, d, travelled by the car. A car that travels 100 km uses 12.5 L of fuel. a Draw the graph of l against d. b Use the graph to nd the quantity of petrol needed to travel 240 km. 7 The height of a tree, h, is directly proportional to the girth, g. A tree with a girth of 2.5 m has a height of 14 m. a Draw the graph of h against g. b Use the graph to nd the height of a tree with a girth of 3 m. c Use the graph to nd the girth of a tree that is 9 m tall, correct to 1 decimal place. 8 It is known that A$100 will buy US$67.50. Draw a conversion graph between Australian and US dollars.
Currency conversions
Find out the current rate of conversion for each of the following foreign currencies and draw a linear function that will convert between Australian dollars and each currency. 1 US dollars 2 Euro 3 Pound Sterling 4 Japanese yen 5 New Zealand dollars
Step and piecewise functions

A step function is a linear function for which the rule changes as the value of the independent variable changes. Consider the case of a parking lot. The charge to park is $3 for the rst 2 hours and $1 per hour after that. The graph for the parking charges is shown at right. The graph is called a step graph because it looks like a staircase.
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of hours Parking fee ($)
219
WORKED Example 13
A telephone call is charged at 75c for the rst minute and 25c per minute after that. Draw a graph of the cost of the telephone call. THINK
1 2
DRAW
Cost of telephone call ($) Cost ($) 3.00 2.75 2.50 2.25 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time (min)
Draw axes with time on the horizontal axis and cost on the vertical axis. Draw a step function at 75c with increases of 25c every minute.
A piecewise linear function is similar to a step graph. A piecewise function consists of more than one piece. In such examples we draw each linear function separately for the section of the graph to which it applies.
WORKED Example 14
A catering company charges $140 per hour for the rst 2 hours and $80 per hour thereafter. Show this as a piecewise linear graph. THINK
1 2 3
DRAW
480 440 400 360 320 280 240 200 160 120 80 40 0 01 23 45 6 Time (h)
Draw axes with time on the horizontal axis and cost on the vertical axis. For the rst 2 hours draw the graph at $140 per hour. Three hours will cost $360, 4 hours $440. Plot these points and join them with a straight line.
remember
1. A step function shows the increase in a quantity in steps. 2. A piecewise function follows different rules for different values of the independent variable.
220
7E
WORKED
Example
1 The cost of a bus fare is $1.20 for one section and 40c per section thereafter. Show this in a step graph. 13 2 The cost of posting a parcel is shown in the table below. Mass 500 g or less 500 g to 2 kg Over 2 kg Cost $2.50 $3.75 $5.50
Draw this information in a step graph. 3 A mobile telephone plan has a base charge of $25 per month, which includes 10 free calls. Every call thereafter costs $1.50. Show this information in a step graph.
WORKED
Example
4 A cyclist rides at an average 9 km/h uphill for 2 hours and then at 15 km/h for the next 14 3 hours. Draw a graph of distance travelled against time. 5 The cost of having business cards printed is $100 plus 50c each for the rst 100, then 20c each thereafter. Draw a graph showing the cost of having these business cards printed. 6 Chandra earns $12 per hour for the rst 35 hours worked each week. Any overtime is paid at time-and-a-half. Draw a piecewise graph that will show Chandras pay. 7 The PAYE tax rates in Australia are shown below. Income $1 to $6000 $6001 to $25 000 $25 001 to $75 000 $75 001 to $150 000 In excess of $150 000 $0 15% of each $1 over $6000 $2850 plus 30% of each $1 over $25 000 $17 850 plus 40% of each $1 over $75 000 $47 850 plus 45% of each $1 over $150 000 Tax payable
Draw a piecewise function showing the amount of tax payable on income.
221
Simultaneous equations
Consider the problem below. G G = 2B A class has 30 students. There are 30 twice as many girls as boys. How 27 24 many boys and girls are in this class? (10, 20) 21 We solve this problem by modelling 18 15 two linear relationships. 12 9 We can say that G = 30 B and G = 30 B 6 G = 2B, where G represents the 3 0 number of girls and B represents the 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 B number of boys. The solution to the problem will be the point of intersection of these linear relationships. The point of intersection on these lines is (10, 20). Therefore the solution to this problem is 10 boys and 20 girls.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the point of intersection

Once you have graphed two functions, the point of intersection can be found using your graphics calculator. Consider the functions drawn previously. 1. From the MENU select GRAPH.
2. Delete any existing functions and enter the functions Y1 = 2X and Y2 = 30 X.
3. Press SHIFT F3 for V-Window. Enter the settings shown at right, which match the axes drawn above.
4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen, and then press F6 to draw the graphs.
5. To nd the intersection press SHIFT (a graph-solving function).
F5
for G-Solv
6. Press F5 for ISCT to nd the intersection of the two graphs. This may take a moment for the calculator to nd.
222
WORKED Example 15
Car A is travelling at a constant speed of 60 km/h. Car B leaves 2 hours later and travels at a constant speed of 90 km/h. This is represented by the linear model below. How far from the starting point does car B overtake car A?
Distance (km) 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 B A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Time (h)
THINK
1 2
WRITE Point of intersection (6, 360). Car B overtakes car A 360 km from the starting point.
Look for the point of intersection of the two graphs. Read the distance of this point on the y-axis.
remember
The point of intersection of two linear models will give the point where both conditions hold true.
7F
SkillS
b 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
HEET
7.5
WORKED
Example
EXCE
reads L Sp he
1 At the grocery store, apples cost $5 per kg and bananas cost $2 per kg. Rhonda spends $30 on 9 kg of fruit. 15 This can be represented by the linear functions at right, where a represents the number of apples and b represents the number of bananas. Use the graph to nd the mass of apples and bananas that Rhonda bought.
5a + 2b = 30
omet i Ge ry
et
a+b=9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 a
Cabr
Simultaneous linear equations
223
2 a On the same set of axes as question 1, sketch the graphs of y = 2x + 1 and y = 7 x. b Write down the point of intersection of the two graphs. 3 A rectangle has a length of x and a width of y. a The perimeter of the rectangle is 22 cm. This can be represented by the linear function 2x + 2y = 22. Graph this function. b The length of the rectangle is 5 cm longer than the width. This can be represented by the linear function y = x 5. On the same set of axes graph this function. c Use the intersection of the two graphs to determine the length and width of the rectangle. 4 a Steve earns twice as much money each week as Theo. This can be represented by the linear function s = 2t, where s represents the amount of money Steve earns and t represents the amount of money Theo earns. Draw the graph of this function. b The total of Theo and Steves wages is $750. This can be represented by the linear function t + s = 750. Draw this function on the same set of axes. c Use the intersection of these graphs to nd Theos wage and Steves wage. 5 The sum of Tanyas English and Maths marks is 135. a Write a linear function that represents this information and sketch the function. b Tanyas English mark was 21 marks higher than her Maths mark. Write a linear function to represent this piece of information and draw the graph on the same set of axes. c Use the intersection of your two graphs to nd Tanyas mark in both English and Maths.
Work
T SHEE
7.2
224
summary
Linear functions
A function is a rule for calculation that involves an independent variable and a dependent variable. If the function is a straight line when graphed, then the function is called a linear function. The independent variable is shown on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the vertical axis. The function can be graphed by drawing a table of values and then plotting the points generated, joining them with a straight line.

The gradient is the increase in the dependent variable per one unit increase in the independent variable. The gradient (m) can be found using the formula vertical change in position m = --------------------------------------------------------------------- . horizontal change in position If the function is decreasing, then the gradient will be negative. The intercept on the vertical axis gives the value of the dependent variable when the independent variable is equal to zero. A function is written in the form: y = mx + b where m equals the gradient and b equals the y-intercept. The gradient and the y-intercept can be used to help draw the graph of a function.
Variation
When two quantities vary directly with one another, the variation can be graphed as a linear function. The variation will be in the form y = ax. The graph is drawn from the point (0, 0) to one other point that is given. The gradient of the linear function will equal the constant of variation.

A step function occurs when the value of the dependent variable increases in steps rather than continuously. A piecewise function occurs when the function has different rules applying for different values of the independent variable.
The point of intersection of two linear functions gives the point where both functions hold true simultaneously. This is known as solving simultaneous equations.
225
CHAPTER review
1 The table below shows the labour charge for working on a motor vehicle. Hours (h) Cost (C) 1 55 2 80 3 105 4 130 5 155
7A
a Draw the graph of this function. b Use the graph to nd the labour charge for 8 hours work. 2 The conversion rate between Australian dollars, A, and Euro, E, can be dened by the rule E = 0.7A. Draw the linear function that will convert between the two currencies. 3 The cost, C, of having a parcel delivered by courier is given by the linear function C = 20 + 3k, where k is the number of kilometres the parcel must be delivered. a Draw a graph of this function. b Use the graph to determine the cost of having the parcel delivered a distance of 12 km. 4 For the functions below, nd the gradient and vertical intercept. a b c y y
(3, 7)
7A 7A 7B
y 3
1 x
x 2 3 x
5 The table below shows the prot or loss that would be made from a cake stall given the number of cakes sold. Number Prot 20 30 40 20 60 70 80 120 100 170
7B
a Draw the graph of this function. b State the gradient of this function. State the meaning of the gradient in this context. c State the vertical intercept for this function. State the meaning of the vertical intercept in this context.
226
7C 7C
6 For each of the linear functions below, state the gradient and the y-intercept. a y = 3x 2 c y=5x 7 Sketch each of the functions shown below. a y = 2x 1 c y=
1 -- x 2 -b y = 3x + 7 4
b y = 6 3x
+3
8 The cost of a tank of petrol varies directly with the amount of petrol purchased. If 25 L of petrol costs $21.25, graph the variation.
7D 7E
9 It is known that p varies directly with q. When p = 5, q = 15. a Draw the graph of q against p. b What is the gradient of the graph? c Write an equation linking p and q. 10 The table below shows the cost per minute of a long distance telephone call. Distance of call Less than 150 km 150 km 750 km Over 750 km Show this information in a step graph. Cost per minute 30c 65c 90c
7E 7F
11 A tree has an initial height of 75 cm. The growth rate of the tree is approximately 75 cm per year for the rst 4 years, and 40 cm per year thereafter. Show this by way of a piecewise graph. 12 A rectangle has a length of l and a width of w. a The length of the rectangle is 10 cm longer than the width. This can be represented by the linear function w = l 10. Draw this function. b The perimeter of the rectangle is 40 cm. This can be represented by a linear function. On the same set of axes draw this function. (Hint: Use the perimeter formula.) c Use the point of intersection of your two functions to nd the length and the width of the rectangle.
227

1 multiple choice Look at the linear function drawn at right. The gradient of this function is: A 2 -C 1
2 -B 1 2 D2
y 2 4 x
2 multiple choice The function y = 6 x has a gradient of: A 6 3 multiple choice For which of the functions drawn below is the gradient the greatest? A
y
B 1
C1
D6
4 multiple choice The linear function drawn at right is the graph of:
-A y = 1x 1 2 -B y = 1x + 1 2 2 -D y = 1x 2
Cy=1
1 -- x 2
1 2 x
5 The table below shows the values of x and y in a linear function. x y 0 3 1 1 2 1 3 3 4 5
228
a b c d e f
Plot the points and draw the graph of the linear function. What is the gradient of the function? What is the y-intercept? Write the equation of this function. On the same axes, draw the graph of y = 5 2x. Write the solution to the pair of simultaneous equations represented on your diagram.
CHAPTER
test yourself
6 It is known that a quantity, m, varies directly with n. When m = 2.5, n = 1.5. a Draw a graph of n against m. b What is the gradient of the function? c What is the equation of this linear function?
Investing money
8
syllabus reference
Financial mathematics 2 Investing money
In this chapter
8A Calculation of simple interest 8B Graphing simple interest functions 8C Calculation of compound interest 8D Calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values 8E Graphing compound interest functions 8F Share dividends 8G Graphing share performance 8H Ination and appreciation
areyou
8.1
Converting percentages to decimals
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 Convert each of the following percentages to decimals. a 12% b 8% c 4.5%
Substitution into formulae
READY?
-d 61 % 4
8.2
2 Given: -a A = 1 bh, nd A when b = 6.8 and h = 18.2 2 b T = a + (n 1)d, nd T when a = 7, n = 19 and d = 5 c I = Prn, nd I when P = 12 000, r = 0.065 and n = 7.
Graphing linear and non-linear relationships
8.3
3 Use the data in the table to draw a graph of the relationship between population and time. Time Population 0 10 000 1 12 000 2 14 400 3 17 280
8.4
4 Convert: a 0 months into years b 15 months into years c 78 weeks into years.
8.5
5 Find: a 6% of $1200
b 8.5% of $2350
c 0.6% of $12 500.
8.6
6 Write: a $56 as a percentage of $800 b $1050 as a percentage of $2800 c $625 as a percentage of $250 000.
Chapter 8 Investing money
231
Calculation of simple interest

When you deposit money in a bank, building society, or other nancial institution you are actually lending them your money. Since you are lending them money you expect to receive your money back, plus an extra amount commonly known as interest. Similarly, if you borrow money from an institution, you must pay back the original sum, together with interest. A measure of the interest paid is called the interest rate. The interest rate is a percentage of the amount of money invested or borrowed and is paid each year. Even though all interest rates are expressed in the same way, interest can be calculated by using several different methods. Whether depositing or borrowing, it is important that you understand how the interest is calculated. The simplest method of interest calculation is called simple interest. Interest is calculated as a percentage of the initial deposit or borrowing (called the principal) and multiplied by the period the money was invested. The formula used to calculate simple interest is: I = Prn where: I = simple interest P = initial quantity r = percentage interest rate per period, = expressed as a decimal n = number of periods
WORKED Example 1
Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $5000 at 4% p.a. for 3 years. THINK
1 2
WRITE I = Prn P = $5000 r = 0.04 n=3 I = $5000 0.04 3 = $600
3 4
Write down the simple interest formula. Write down the values of P, r (converting the percentage to a decimal) and n. Substitute into the formula. Calculate.
The total amount (A) that your deposit or debt has become after interest is added can be found using the formula: A=P+I where: A = total amount at the end of the term P = initial quantity I = simple interest
232
WORKED Example 2
$12 000 is invested for 5 years at 9.5% p.a. simple interest. Calculate the value of this investment at the end of the term. THINK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
WRITE I = Prn P = $12 000, r = 0.095, n = 5 I = $12 000 0.095 5 = $5700 A=P+I = $12 000 + $5700 = $17 700
Write down the formula for simple interest. Write down the value of P, r and n. Substitute the values into the given formula. Calculate the simple interest. Write down the formula for the total amount. Substitute the values into the given formula. Calculate.
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculating simple interest

Your Casio graphics calculator can perform a number of nancial functions by using the TVM mode. One of the options in this mode is to calculate simple interest. Examples such as worked example 2 are solved more simply by using the method above, rather than using the TVM mode of your graphics calculator. However, for some of the more complex questions later in this chapter, it is worth familiarising yourself with this method. 1. From the MENU select TVM.
2. Press F1 to select Simple Interest.
3. The calculator has two modes of calculating interest: 360 day mode or 365 day mode. You need to make sure that it is on 365 day mode. If not, press SHIFT SET UP, highlight DATE MODE and press F1 for 365.
233
4. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and enter the data for worked example 2. n = 3 365 (as n is in days) I% = 4 PV = 5000 (Principal or present value is entered as a negative.) 5. The calculator gives you two options. F1 : SI is simple interest. F2 : SFV is future value, in other words the principal plus interest. In this example, as we want the simple interest, we press F1 for SI. Care must be taken with simple interest questions when the length of the investment is not given in years. If the investment is given as months, it must be converted to years by writing the number of months as a fraction over 12, for example, 18 months =
18 ----12 -= 1 1 years. 2
WORKED Example 3
Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $7600 at 5.2% p.a. for 9 months. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE I = Prn P = $7600, r = 0.052, n = I = $7600 0.052 I = $296.40

3 -4 3 -4
Write down the formula for simple interest. Write down the value of P, r and n 9 -(converting 9 months to ----- = 3 year). 12 4 Substitute the values into the given formula. Calculate the simple interest.
Some examples will ask you to calculate the length of time for which money must be invested in order to earn a given amount of interest.
WORKED Example 4
How long, to the nearest month, will it take to earn $650 simple interest if $8375 is invested at 6.25% p.a.? THINK
1 2
WRITE I = Prn I = $650, P = $8375, r = 0.0625

Continued over page
Write down the formula for simple interest. Write down the value of I, P and r.
234
THINK
3 4 5 6 7 8
WRITE $650 = $8375 0.0625 n = $523.4375 n $650 n = ------------------------$523.4375 n = 1.2418 years 15 months It will take approximately 1 year and 3 months to earn $650 in simple interest.
Substitute the values into the given formula. Simplify the RHS of the equation. Make n the subject of the equation. Calculate the value of n in years. Convert 0.2418 years to months by multiplying the decimal by 12. Answer the question.
Examples of investments involving simple interest include investment bonds and debentures. Investment bonds are offered by the government, either State or federal, and larger organisations such as Telstra. Interest earned on investment bonds can be paid at varying intervals, for example monthly, quarterly, every six months (semi-annually) or yearly. Bonds are traded on nancial markets. That is, they can be bought or sold prior to the term expiry date (also known as bond maturity). Debentures are similar to investment bonds but are issued by private companies to investors to raise capital. At the end of the term, the principal (or face value) is returned to the investor, while the interest earned is again paid at varying intervals.
remember
1. Interest is an amount of money paid to an investor or by a borrower for the use of money. 2. Simple interest is calculated by using only the initial investment. 3. The simple interest formula is: I = Prn where P is the initial quantity, r is the interest rate per period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods. 4. If using the formula to nd a value other than I, substitute the known values into the formula and solve the resulting equation.
8A
SkillS
Calculation of simple interest
HEET
8.1
WORKED
Example
1 Veronica invests $4000 for 3 years at 5% p.a. Calculate the simple interest earned. 2 In each of the following, calculate the amount of simple interest earned. a $1200 for 1 year at 10% p.a. b $2460 for 5 years at 5% p.a. c $126 000 for 2 years at 8.5% p.a. d $9862 for 6 years at 11.25% p.a.
-e $1000 for 1 1 years at 6% p.a. 2 4 -f $1750 for 5 1 years at 7.45% p.a.
1
Converting percentages to decimals
SkillS
HEET
8.2
Substitution into formula
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GC
3 Julie has $40 000 to invest. She invests it for 5 years in a State Government bond that am progr C pays 5.6% p.a. interest. Calculate the simple interest that Julie will earn: Interest a each year b for the whole 5 years of the investment.
WORKED
Example
4 Brian has a $10 000 inheritance that he wants to invest. He invests his money in program GC government bonds for 3 years at 8% p.a. Calculate: a the simple interest earned Interest b the value of his investment on maturity. 5 Karelle invests $7600 in a debenture that pays 6.9% p.a. for investments over 2 years. Calculate the total value of Karelles investment on maturity. 6 Frank is 7 years old and starts a savings account with the local bank. He has $140 with which to start the account. -a If the interest rate is 3 3 %, calculate the amount of interest Frank will receive after 4 one year. b What will be the balance of Franks bank account after one year? 7 Loretta invests $7540 at 5.95% p.a. a Calculate the simple interest that Loretta will earn in her rst year. b Loretta receives two interest payments per year. Calculate the size of each payment. -c Find the total value of the investment after 4 1 years.
2
Interest
WORKED
Example
8 Kath invests $9450 in a government bond that pays 6% p.a. simple interest for an 18 month investment. Calculate the simple interest earned on this investment. 9 multiple choice The simple interest paid on an investment of $5750 at 4.6% p.a. for 2 years is: A $529.00 B $541.17 C $6291.17 D $6279.00 10 multiple choice The total value of an investment of $3500 after 2 years and 6 months if simple interest is paid at the rate of 5% per annum, is: A $437.50 B $826.25 C $3937.50 D $3975.50 11 Calculate the simple interest that has to be paid, if $4650 is invested on a term deposit for 180 days at 5.75% p.a. (Hint: Write 180 days as a fraction of 1 year.)
WORKED
Example
12 How long, to the nearest month, will it take to earn $2400 simple interest, if $16 410 is invested at 9.75% p.a.? 4 13 A debenture offers to pay 8% p.a. interest on a 4 year investment. Janine wants to earn $2000 interest. What principal will Janine need to invest? 14 multiple choice What sum, to the nearest dollar, must be invested for one year at 6% per annum simple interest, in order to earn $1200 interest? A $2000 B $12 200 C $20 000 D $21 200
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15 Sue and Harry invested $14 500 in State Government bonds at 8.65% p.a. The investment is for 10 years and the interest is paid semi-annually (that is, every six months). Calculate how much interest: a they receive every payment b will be received in total. 16 Mrs Williams invested $60 000 in government bonds at 7.5% p.a. with interest paid semi-annually (that is, every 6 months). a How much interest is she paid each 6 months? b How much interest is she paid over 3 years? c How long would the money need to be invested to earn a total of $33 750 in interest? 17 Mr and Mrs Tyquin donate money for a scholarship at the local high school. The value of the scholarship is $1500. They invest a sum of money at 8% p.a. so that each year $1500 in interest is earned. How much will Mr and Mrs Tyquin need to invest?
1
Find the simple interest on each of the following investments. 1 $4000 at 5% p.a. for 4 years 2 $9000 at 7% p.a. for 2 years 3 $15 000 at 6% p.a. for 3 years 4 $950 at 0.1% p.a. for 2 years 5 $40 000 at 3.5% p.a. for 5 years
-6 $1200 at 4.6% p.a. for 2 1 years 2 -7 $5745 at 3 3 % p.a. for 1 year 4
8 $32 500 at 4.1% p.a. for 18 months 9 $532 at 0.2% p.a. for 6 months 10 $3330 at 6.95% p.a. for 9 months
Graphing simple interest functions

Suppose that we invest $10 000 at 5% p.a. simple interest. The table below shows the amount of interest that we will receive over various lengths of time. No. of years Interest 1 $500 2 $1000 3 $1500 4 $2000 5 $2500
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The amount of interest earned can be graphed by the linear function at right. Note that the gradient of this graph is 500, which is the amount of one years interest, or 5% of the principal.
Interest ($)
3000 2000 1000 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
WORKED Example 5
$6000 is invested at 4% p.a. a Complete the table below to calculate the interest that will have been earned over 5 years. No. of years Interest b Graph the interest earned against the number of years the money is invested. THINK a Use the simple interest formula to calculate the interest earned on $6000 at 4% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years. b Draw the graph with Years on the horizontal axis and Interest on the vertical axis. WRITE/DRAW a No. of years
Interest 1 $240 2 $480 3 $720 4 5 $960 $1200
Interest ($)
1500 1000 500 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a simple interest function

By using the simple interest formula we can create a function that can be graphed using the GRAPH function on the graphics calculator. Consider worked example 5. 1. Write the simple interest formula 2. Substitute the known values of P = $6000 and r = 0.04. Simplify the expression. 3. From the MENU select GRAPH. I = Prn I = 6000 0.04 n I = 240n
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4. Delete any existing function and enter Y1 = 240X.
5. To draw up the axes press SHIFT enter the setting shown at right.
F3 for V-Window and
6. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and then press F6 to DRAW the graph.
We are able to compare the interest that is earned by an investment at varying interest rates by graphing the interest earned at varying rates on the one set of axes.
WORKED Example 6
Kylie has $12 000 to invest. Three different banks offer interest rates of 4%, 5% and 6%. a Complete the table below to show the interest that she would earn over 5 years. No. of years Interest (4%) Interest (5%) Interest (6%) b Show this information in graph form. THINK a Use the simple interest formula to calculate the interest earned on $12 000 at 4% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years. 2 Use the simple interest formula to calculate the interest earned on $12 000 at 5% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years. 3 Use the simple interest formula to calculate the interest earned on $12 000 at 6% p.a. for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years. b Draw a line graph for each investment.
1
WRITE/DRAW a
No. of years Interest (4%) Interest (5%) Interest (6%)
1 2 3 4 5 $480 $960 $1440 $1920 $2400 $600 $1200 $1800 $2400 $3000 $720 $1440 $2160 $2880 $3600
b
Interest ($)
4000 3000 2000 1000 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5 Interest (6%) Interest (5%) Interest (4%)
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remember
1. The amount of simple interest earned on an investment for various lengths of time can be graphed as a linear function. 2. The gradient of the linear function will be equal to one years interest. 3. To compare the interest earned at various rates, we can graph several functions on the one set of axes.
8B
WORKED
Graphing simple interest functions

8.3
Graphing linear and non-linear relationships
SkillS
Example
1 $8000 is invested at 5% p.a. a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the interest over 5 years. No. of years Interest b Draw a graph of the interest earned against the length of the investment. 2 $20 000 is to be invested at 8% p.a. a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the interest for various lengths of time. No. of years Interest b Draw a graph of the interest earned against the length of the investment. c What is the gradient of the linear graph drawn? d Use your graph to nd the amount of interest that would have been earned after 10 years. 3 Draw a graph to represent the interest earned by each of the following investments over 5 years. a $15 000 at 7% p.a. b $2000 at 10% p.a. c $8600 at 7.5% p.a. d $50 000 at 8.2% p.a. 4 A graph is drawn to show the interest earned on $6000 at 4.8% p.a. for various lengths of time. Without drawing the graph, state the gradient. 5 Darren invests $3200 at 2.5% p.a. for 5 years. a Graph the amount of interest that Darren would have earned at the end of each year for the 5 years. b Graph the total value of Darrens investment at the end of each year. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
HEET
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WORKED
Example
6 Julieanne has $25 000 to invest at 5%, 6% or 8%. a Complete the table below to show the interest that she would earn over 5 years. No. of years Interest (5%) Interest (6%) Interest (8%) b Show this information in graph form. 7 Theo has $50 000 to invest. Theo investigates the website www.whichbank.com.au, which has an interactive component. Theo enters the gure $50 000 and the following graph is displayed.
40 000 35 000 30 000 25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 5000 0 0 1 The Whichbank advantage
Interest ( )
Whichbank Eastpac NZA bank
5 6 Years
9 10
a Find the amount of simple interest earned after 10 years by investing with each of the three banks listed. b Use your answer to a to calculate the interest rate paid by each of the three banks. 8 Mark has $5500 to invest at 3%, 3.5% or 3.75%. a Complete the table below to show the interest that he would earn over various lengths of time. No. of years Interest (3%) Interest (3.5%) Interest (3.75%) b Show this information in graph form. 9 Draw a graph to show the interest earned on an investment of $12 500 at 4.5% p.a., 5% p.a. and 5.2% p.a. Use the graph to nd: a the amount of interest earned by each investment after 8 years b how much more the investment at 5.2% p.a. is worth after 10 years than the 4.5% p.a. investment. 10 Three banks offer $4000 debentures at rates of 5.2% p.a., 5.8% p.a. and 6.2% p.a. Draw a graph of the value of the debentures at maturity against the number of years of the debenture. 1 2 3 4 5
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Computer Application 1 Simple interest spreadsheets

Throughout this chapter we will use some spreadsheets that allow us to track the growing value of an investment over time. 1. From the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM open the spreadsheet Interest.
E
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Interest
2. The spreadsheet Simple Interest (Sheet 1) models an investment of $10 000 at 5% p.a. 3. Use the graphing function on your spreadsheet to draw a line graph for the amount of interest earned each year and the value of the investment after each year. 4. Change the amount of the principal and the interest rate, and note the change in the gures displayed and the chart. 5. Use this function to check your answers to Exercise 8B. 6. Save the spreadsheet as Simple Interest.
Calculation of compound interest

In practice, most investments are not calculated using simple interest. If you have a bank account, you would know that when interest is paid the balance of your account grows and it is on this new balance that your next interest payment is calculated. When interest is added to the principal and this new balance is used to calculate the next interest payment, this is called compound interest. We can calculate compound interest by calculating simple interest one period at a time. The amount to which the initial investment grows is called the compounded value or future value.
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WORKED Example 7
Calculate the future value of an investment of $10 000 at 10% p.a. for 3 years with interest paid at the end of each year, by calculating the simple interest for each year separately. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE Initial principal = $10 000 1st years interest = 10% of $10 000 1st years interest = $1000 2nd years principal = $10 000 + $1000 2nd years principal = $11 000 2nd years interest = 10% of $11 000 2nd years interest = $1100 3rd years principal = $11 000 + $1100 3rd years principal = $12 100 3rd years interest = 10% of $12 100 3rd years interest = $1210 Future value = $12 100 + $1210 Future value = $13 310
Write the initial principal. Calculate the interest for the 1st year. Calculate the 2nd years principal by adding the 1st years interest to the initial principal. Calculate the 2nd years interest. Calculate the 3rd years principal by adding the 2nd years interest to the 2nd years principal. Calculate the 3rd years interest. Calculate the future value of the investment by adding the 3rd years interest to the 3rd years principal.
4 5
6 7
To calculate the actual amount of interest received, we subtract the initial principal from the future value. In the example above CI = $13 310 $10 000 = $3310 To compare this with simple interest earnings at the same rate. I = Prn = $10 000 0.1 3 = $3000 The table below shows a comparison between the value of an investment of $10 000 earning 10% p.a. at both simple interest and compound interest.
Year
Simple interest Compound inteerest
1
$1000 $1000
2
$2000 $2100
3
$3000 $3310
4
$4000 $4641
5
$5000 $6105
6
$6000 $7716
7
$7000
8
$8 000
$9487 $11 436
We can develop a formula for the future value of an investment rather than do each example by repeated use of simple interest. Consider worked example 7. Let the compounded value after each year be An. After 1 year A1 = 10 000 1.1 (increasing $10 000 by 10%) After 2 years A2 = A1 (1.1) = 10 000 1.1 1.1 (substituting the value of A1) = 10 000 1.12
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A3 = A2 1.1 = 10 000 1.12 1.1 = 10 000 1.13 The pattern then continues such that the value of the investment after n years equals: $10 000 1.1n We can generalise this example to any investment. A = P(1 + r)n where A = nal balance P = initial quantity r = percentage interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a decimal n = number of compounding periods. After 3 years In the nancial world, the terms future value (FV) and present value (PV) are sometimes used instead of amount and principal.
WORKED Example 8
Calculate the future value of an investment of $12 000 at 7% p.a. for 5 years, where interest is compounded annually. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE A = P(1 + r)n P = $12 000, r = 0.07, n = 5 A = $12 000 1.075 = $16 830.62
Write down the formula for the future value. Write down the value of P, r (as a decimal) and n. Substitute into the formula. Calculate.
In the above example, interest is paid annually; however, this is not always the case. In many cases interest is paid more often. It may be paid six-monthly, quarterly, monthly or even daily. This is called the compounding period. If interest is paid more often than annually, the value of n is the number of compounding periods during the investment. The interest rate then needs to be converted from a rate per annum to a rate per compounding period. For example, consider an investment of $6000 at 8% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. Interest is paid four times per year and therefore eight times in 2 years. Therefore n = 8. The interest rate must be calculated per quarter. This is done by dividing the annual rate by four. Therefore, in this example the rate is 2% per quarter, hence r = 0.02.
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WORKED Example 9
Calculate the future value of an investment of $6000 at 8% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE A = P(1 + r)n P = $6000, r = 0.02, n = 8 A = $6000 1.028 = $7029.96
Write down the formula for the future value. Write down the value of P, r (as a decimal) and n. Substitute into the formula. Calculate.
Graphics Calculator tip! Compound interest warning!

The TVM function on a graphics calculator can calculate compound interest. This is somewhat more complicated than using the formula A = P(1 + r)n. Further, a graphics calculator uses an imprecise method and answers may vary by up to $1 from the correct answer. For this reason we recommend not using a graphics calculator for these calculations.
remember
1. The future value of an investment under compound interest can be calculated by calculating the simple interest for each year separately. 2. The formula used to calculate the future value of an investment is: A = P(1 + r)n where A = nal balance P = initial quantity n = number of compounding periods r = percentage interest rate per compounding period, expressed as a = decimal. 3. In the formula, n is the number of compounding periods over the term of the investment and r is the interest rate per compounding period. To nd r, divide the interest rate per annum by the number of compounding periods per year.
8C
SkillS
Calculation of compound interest
HEET
8.4
WORKED
Example
1 Ray has $5000 to invest. He invests it for 3 years at 10% p.a. with interest paid annually. Calculate the future value of the investment by calculating the simple interest on each year separately. 2 Suzanne is to invest $15 000 for 2 years at 7% p.a. with interest paid annually. Calculate the future value of the investment by calculating the simple interest for each year separately. 3 Kiri has $2000 to invest. She invests the money at 8% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded annually. Use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the future value of Kiris investment.
SkillS
HEET
8.5
Finding a WORKED percentage Example of a 8 quantity
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SkillS
4 Use the compound interest formula to calculate the future value of each of the 8.6 following investments with interest compounded annually. a $4000 at 5% p.a. for 3 years b $8000 at 3% p.a. for 5 years Writing one quantity as a c $18 000 at 8% p.a. for 4 years d $11 500 at 5.5% p.a. for 3 years percentage of e $8750 at 6.25% p.a. for 6 years another
WORKED
HEET
Example
5 Carla is to invest $45 000 at 9.2% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded sixmonthly. Calculate the future value of the investment. 6 A passbook savings account pays interest of 0.2% p.a. Luke has $500 in such an account. Calculate the future value of the account after 2 years, if interest is compounded quarterly. 7 Noel is to invest $12 000 at 8% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the future value of the investment. 8 Vicky invests $30 000 in a one-year xed deposit at an interest rate of 6% p.a. with interest compounding monthly. a Convert the interest rate of 6% p.a. to a rate per month. b Calculate the future value of the investment upon maturity. 9 Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments. a $960 for 1 year at 4.50% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly. -b $7500 for 3 1 years at 5.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. 2 -c $152 000 for 2 1 years at 7.2% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly. 2 d $14 000 for 4 years at 9% p.a. with interest compounded monthly. e $120 000 for 20 years at 11.95% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. 10 multiple choice A sum of $5000 is invested for 2 years at the rate of 4.75% p.a., compounded quarterly. The interest paid on this investment, to the nearest dollar, is: A $475 B $495 C $5475 D $5495 11 multiple choice After selling their house Mr and Mrs Dengate have $61 800. They plan to invest it at 6% p.a., with interest compounded annually. The value of their investment will rst exceed $100 000 after: A 8 years B 9 years C 10 years D 11 years 12 multiple choice Warren wishes to invest $10 000 for a period of 5 years. The following investment alternatives are suggested to him. The best investment would be: A simple interest at 9% p.a. B compound interest at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually C compound interest at 7.8% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly D compound interest at 7.2% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly 13 multiple choice Which of the following investments, to be invested for 6 years and compounded semiannually at 8% p.a., will have a future value closest to $15 000? A $900 B $8500 C $9400 D $11 000
Compound interest
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14 Brittany has $13 500 to invest. An investment over a 2-year term will pay interest of 8% p.a. Calculate the compounded value of Brittanys investment if the compounding period is: a one year b six months c three months d monthly. 15 Kerry invests $100 000 at 8% p.a. for a one-year term. For such large investments interest is compounded daily. a Calculate the daily percentage interest rate, correct to 4 decimal places. b Calculate the compounded value of Kerrys investment on maturity. c Calculate the amount of interest paid on this investment. d Calculate the extra amount of interest earned, compared with the interest calculated at the end of the year. 16 Simon invests $4000 for 3 years at 6% p.a. simple interest. Monica also invests $4000 for 3 years, but her interest rate is 5.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. a Calculate the value of Simons investment on maturity. b Show that the compounded value of Monicas investment is greater than Simons investment. c Explain why Monicas investment is worth more than Simons, despite receiving a lower rate of interest.
Work
T SHEE
8.1
Computer Application 2 Compound interest spreadsheets

Earlier we wrote a spreadsheet to show the growth of an investment over a number of years. We will now write a similar spreadsheet to show the growth under compound interest. 1. From the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM open the spreadsheet Interest.
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reads L Sp he
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Interest
2. Select Sheet 2, Compound Interest. This spreadsheet models a $10 000 investment at 5% p.a. interest with interest compounded annually (one compounding period per year).
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3. Use the graphing function to draw a graph showing the growth of this investment over 10 years. Compare this graph with the graph drawn for the corresponding simple interest investment. 4. Change the number of compounding periods per year to see the change in the value of the investment. Your graph should change as you change the information. 5. Change other information, such as the principal and interest rate, to see the change in your graph. 6. Save this spreadsheet as Compound Interest.
2
1 Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $9240 made at 7.4% p.a. for 3 years. 2 Corey invests $14 200 for 5 years in debentures that pay 4.3% p.a. simple interest. Calculate the total value of Coreys investment at maturity. 3 Emma invests $27 500 in investment bonds which pay 6.25% p.a. simple interest for 2 years. Calculate the interest earned in this investment. 4 The interest that Emma receives is paid in quarterly instalments. Calculate the size of each quarterly interest payment. 5 Vladimir invests $2000 at 5% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually. Calculate the compounded value of Vladimirs investment. 6 Calculate the amount of interest earned by Vladimir. 7 Calculate the compounded value of an investment of $6000 at 6.4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded annually. 8 Calculate the compounded value of an investment of $6000 at 6.4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded six-monthly. 9 Calculate the compounded value of an investment of $6000 at 6.4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. 10 Calculate the compounded value of an investment of $13 200 at 7.2% p.a. for 18 months with interest compounded monthly.
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Calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values

So far we have looked at the calculation of compounded values and the amount of compound interest paid. Suppose we have $10 000 saved for a world holiday, which is going to cost $15 000. The best interest rate for investing the money is at 8%, compounded quarterly. We want to know how long we need to invest the $10 000, so that it will have a compounded value of $15 000. To solve this example we need to calculate the value of n, having been given the values of CV, PV and r. The best way to do this is to use a table showing the compound value interest factor for various investments. A compound value interest factor (CVIF) is the compounded value that $1 will amount to under a certain investment. For example, if $1 were invested at 5% p.a. for 4 years, compounded annually, its compounded value would be $1.216. We can use this to calculate the value of other amounts of money under the same investment pattern. For example, if $7600 were invested at 5% p.a. for 4 years, to calculate the compounded value of the investment we multiply $7600 by the CVIF which is 1.216. Therefore CV = $7600 1.216 = $9241.60 In this example $7600 is the present value (PV) of the investment and $9241.60 is the compounded value (CV). We can therefore use the formula: CV = PV CVIF This formula simply states: compounded value = present value interest factor. The CVIF table below shows the interest factors.
Interest rate per period

Periods 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1% 1.010 1.020 1.030 1.041 1.051 1.062 1.072 1.083 1.094 1.105 2% 1.020 1.040 1.061 1.082 1.104 1.126 1.149 1.172 1.195 1.219 3% 1.030 1.061 1.093 1.126 1.159 1.194 1.230 1.267 1.305 1.344 4% 1.040 1.082 1.125 1.170 1.217 1.265 1.316 1.369 1.423 1.480 5% 1.050 1.103 1.158 1.216 1.276 1.340 1.407 1.477 1.551 1.629 6% 1.060 1.124 1.191 1.262 1.338 1.419 1.504 1.594 1.689 1.791 7% 1.070 1.145 1.225 1.311 1.403 1.501 1.606 1.718 1.838 1.967 8% 1.080 1.166 1.260 1.360 1.469 1.587 1.714 1.851 1.999 2.159 9% 1.090 1.188 1.295 1.412 1.539 1.677 1.828 1.993 2.172 2.367 10% 1.100 1.210 1.331 1.464 1.611 1.772 1.949 2.144 2.358 2.594
We can now use this table to solve compound interest problems.
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WORKED Example 10
Use the CVIF table to nd the compounded value of $4560 invested at 8% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded six-monthly. THINK
1
WRITE Interest rate per period = 4% Interest periods = 4 CVIF = 1.170 CV = PV CVIF CV = $4560 1.170 CV = $5335.20
Calculate the interest rate per period and number of interest periods. Look up the CVIF for 4% with 4 interest periods. Write the formula. Substitute the PV and the CVIF. Calculate.
3 4 5
This table can also be used to help us calculate the present value of an investment that is required to produce a given compounded value. This is done using the same formula; however, you will need to solve the equation to nd the value of PV.
WORKED Example 11
Liz is 16 years old. She hopes to have $3000 in 3 years to buy a used car. She nds an investment of 6% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly. Calculate the amount of money that Liz must invest to generate a compounded value of $3000 in 3 years. THINK
1
WRITE Interest rate per period = 3% Interest periods = 6 CVIF = 1.194 CV = PV CVIF $3000 = PV 1.194 $3000 PV = -------------1.194 PV = $2512.56 Liz will need to invest $2512.56 to generate $3000 in 3 years.
Calculate the interest rate per period and number of interest periods. Look up the CVIF for 3% with 6 interest periods. Write the formula. Substitute for CV and CVIF. Make PV the subject of the equation (by dividing by 1.194). Calculate. Give a written answer.
3 4 5
6 7
We can also use the table to determine the length of time that a given present value will take to reach a certain compounded value. This is done by calculating the required CVIF and looking for the rst CVIF in the table, at the given interest rate, greater than that required.
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WORKED Example 12
How long will it take $2500 to grow to $3200 when invested at 8% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly? THINK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
WRITE Interest rate per period = 4% PV = $2500, CV = $3200 CV = PV CVIF $3200 = $2500 CVIF $3200 CVIF = -------------$2500 = 1.28 Seven interest periods will be required.
Calculate the interest rate per period. Write the value of PV and CV. Write the formula. Substitute the values of PV and CV. Make CVIF the subject of the formula. Calculate the value of CVIF. Look at the 4% column of the CVIF table. The rst CVIF greater than 1.28 (that is, 1.316) will be the minimum number of interest periods required to produce the required growth. Calculate the length of time for seven interest periods.
-It will take 3 1 years for $2500 to grow to 2 $3200.
The same method can be used to nd the interest rate required to achieve a certain compounded value over a xed period of time.
remember
1. The compounded value of $1 under a particular investment is called the compounded value interest factor (CVIF). 2. The compounded value of any investment can be calculated by using a CVIF table and the formula CV = PV CVIF. 3. We can use CVIF tables to calculate the length of time an investment will take to reach a certain compounded value, or the interest rate required to reach a certain compounded value.
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8D
WORKED
Calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values
Example
10
1 Toshika has $10 000 to invest for 4 years. The bank offers her 7% p.a. with interest compounded annually. Use the CVIF table on page 248 to calculate the compounded value of Toshikas investment. 2 Greg has $8500 to invest for 5 years. A building society offers 8% p.a. with interest compounded twice a year. Use the CVIF table to calculate the compounded value of Gregs investment. 3 Marlene invests $40 000 for 2 years at 8% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. Use the CVIF table to calculate the compounded value of Marlenes investment. 4 Roger invests $2400 for 2 years in an at call account, which pays 4% p.a. interest with interest paid quarterly. Use the CVIF table to calculate the future value of this investment. 5 Use the CVIF table to calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments. a $5000 at 9% p.a. for 6 years with interest compounded annually b $6700 at 10% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded six-monthly c $250 at 6% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly d $23 670 at 4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly e $13 250 at 8% p.a. for 18 months with interest compounded quarterly f $115 000 at 12% p.a. for 6 months with interest compounded monthly 6 Use the formula A = P(1 + r)n to calculate the CVIF, correct to 3 decimal places, for an investment at 2.5% for: a 1 interest period b 2 interest periods c 3 interest periods d 4 interest periods e 6 interest periods f 8 interest periods. 7 Using the CVIFs found in question 6 will allow you to calculate each of the compounded values of the following investments. a $900 at 2.5% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually b $2340 at 5% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded six-monthly c $7200 at 10% p.a. for 1 year with interest compounded quarterly d $11 000 at 10% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly -e $5750 at 10% p.a. for 1 1 years with interest compounded quarterly
2
8 multiple choice One dollar invested at 3.5% for 5 interest periods amounts to: A 0.175 B 1.035 C 1.175 D 1.188 9 multiple choice For a certain investment the CVIF = 2.147. If the present value of the investment is $32 546, the compounded value, correct to the nearest dollar, will be: A $15 158 B $15 159 C $69 876 D $69 877
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WORKED
Example
10 Jason wants to save for a car in 3 years. He needs to have $10 000. Use the CVIF table to calculate the amount of money that he will need to invest at 5% p.a. with interest 11 compounded annually, to have $10 000 in 3 years. Give your answer correct to the nearest dollar. 11 How long will it take $2000 to grow to $2500 when invested at 8% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly? 12 12 Calculate the length of time that it will take: a $1000 to grow to $1100 at 10% p.a. with interest paid annually b $1000 to grow to $1500 at 7% p.a. with interest paid annually c $3000 to grow to $4000 at 6% p.a. with interest paid six-monthly d $9000 to grow to $10 000 at 8% p.a. with interest paid quarterly e $12 000 to grow to $17 500 at 10% p.a. with interest paid six-monthly. 13 Calculate the interest rate required for $1000 to grow to $1300 in 2 years, if interest is compounded quarterly. (Hint: Find the CVIF required and use the table for 8 interest periods.) 14 Use the CVIF table to calculate the interest rate, to the nearest whole number, required for each of the following investments. a $1000 to grow to $1200 in 3 years with interest compounded annually b $2000 to grow to $2600 in 4 years with interest compounded six-monthly c $500 to grow to $650 in 1 year with interest compounded quarterly d $10 000 to grow to $20 000 in 8 years with interest compounded annually e $3500 to grow to $6000 in 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly 15 Bruce, Keith and Max each have $10 000 to invest over a 5-year term. a Bruce invests at 10% p.a. simple interest. Calculate the value of Bruces investment at maturity. b Keith invests at 10% p.a. with interest compounded annually. Calculate the value of Keiths investment at maturity, using the CVIF table. c Max invests at 10% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly. Calculate the value of Maxs investment at maturity, using the CVIF table. d Calculate the total amount of interest each man received. e Write down the amount of interest each received as a percentage of their original investment.
WORKED
Example
253
Graphing compound interest functions

Earlier, we drew graphs of the simple interest earned by various simple interest investments and found that these graphs were linear. This occurred because the amount of interest earned in each interest period was the same. With compound interest, the interest earned in each interest period increases, and so when we graph the future value of the investment, an exponential graph results. We can use the compounded values of $1 to complete tables that will then allow us to graph a compound interest function.
WORKED Example 13
Pierre invests $5000 at 5% p.a., with interest compounded annually. a Use the table of compounded values to complete the table below to show the future value at the end of each year. No. of years Future value b Draw a graph of the future value of the investment against time. THINK a Use the table of compounded values of $1 to complete the table. b Draw the graph, by drawing a smooth curve between the marked points. WRITE/DRAW a No. of years b
Future value ($)
1 2 3 4 5 Future value $5250 $5515 $5790 $6080 $6380

7000
6000
5000 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
254
Graphics Calculator tip! Graphing a compound interest function

By using a graphics calculator, we can both calculate and draw a graph of the compound interest formula. 1. Write the compound interest formula. 2. Substitute the known values of P = $5000 and r = 0.05. Simplify the expression. 3. From the MENU select GRAPH. A = P(1 + r)n A = 5000(1 + 0.05)n A = 5000(1.05)n
4. Delete any existing function and enter Y1 = 5000(1.05)^X.
5. To draw up the axes, press SHIFT enter the setting shown at right.
F3 for V-Window and
6. Press EXE to return to the previous screen and then press F6 to DRAW the graph.
To graph the interest earned, the principal must be subtracted from the future value of the investment. As with simple interest, such graphs can be used to compare various investments.
WORKED Example 14
Amy is to invest $2000 at 5%, 6% or 7%, compounded annually. a Copy and complete the table below to nd the future value of each investment at the end of each year. No. of years Future value (5%) Future value (6%) Future value (7%) b Draw a graph that will allow the investments to be compared. 1 2 3 4 5
255
THINK a Use the table of compounded values of $1 to complete the table. b Draw each graph by joining the points with a smooth curve.
WRITE/DRAW a No. of years

1 2 3 4 5 Future value (5%) $2100 $2206 $2316 $2432 $2552 Future value (6%) $2120 $2248 $2382 $2524 $2676 Future value (7%) $2140 $2290 $2450 $2622 $2806
2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 0 0 1 2 3 Years 4 5
b
Future value ($)
Future value (7%) Future value (6%) Future value (5%)
remember
1. A table that shows the compounded value of $1, at various interest rates for various compounding periods, can be used to calculate the future value of an investment. 2. Graphing the future value of a compound interest investment results in an exponential graph. 3. To graph the amount of compound interest paid, we need to subtract the principal from the future value. 4. By drawing the graphs of several investments on one set of axes, we can compare the investments.
8E
WORKED
Graphing compound interest functions
Example
1 An amount of $8000 is invested at 5% p.a. with interest compounded annually. a Copy and complete the table below, using the formula A = P(1 + r)n, to calculate the 13 future value of the investment at the end of each year. No. of years Future value b Draw a graph of the future value against the length of the investment. 2 An amount of $12 000 is to be invested at 8% p.a. with interest compounded annually. a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the future value at the end of each year. No. of years Future value b Draw a graph of the interest earned against the length of the investment. c Use your graph to nd the future value of the investment after 10 years. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
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3 Draw a graph to represent the future value of the following investments against time. a $15 000 at 7% p.a. with interest compounded annually b $2000 at 10% p.a. with interest compounded annually 4 A graph is drawn to show the future value of an investment of $2000 at 6% p.a., with interest compounding six-monthly. a Complete the table below. Years FV b Use the table to draw a graph. 5 An amount of $1200 is invested at 4% p.a. with interest compounding quarterly. a Graph the future value of the investment at the end of each year. b Graph the compound interest earned by the investment at the end of each year.
WORKED
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
Example
6 James has $8000 to invest at either 4%, 6% or 8%, compounding annually. 14 a Complete the table below to show the interest that he would earn over 5 years. No. of years Interest (4%) Interest (6%) Interest (8%) b Show this information in graph form. 7 Petra has $4000 to invest at 6% p.a. a Complete the table below to show the future value of the investment at the end of each year, if interest is compounded annually, or six-monthly. No. of years Annually Six-monthly b Show this information in graph form. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
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Share dividends
Investing money in banks and similar nancial institutions is the most common type of investment, as it is safe and the return can be calculated in advance. An alternative to investing in a bank is to purchase shares. Shares have a risk associated with them and there is no xed return; however, they have the potential to return more money to the investor than through a bank. When buying shares you are purchasing a share of the company. In other words, you become a part owner of that company. You can earn money from shares in two ways: 1. The prot made by a company will be paid to the companys owners (the shareholders). That part of the prot distributed to shareholders is called a dividend. 2. The value of shares changes daily. People invest in the share market with the expectation that the value of shares will rise and they can be sold at a prot. The risk is that the shares may fall in value. Once or twice a year the directors of a company calculate the companys prot. A certain proportion of the prot may be spent on developing the company, the remainder being distributed to the shareholders as dividends. A dividend is calculated by dividing the prot that is to be distributed by the number of shares in the company. The dividend is then declared on a per-share basis.
WORKED Example 15
A company has an after-tax prot of $34.2 million. There are 90 million shares in the company. What dividend will the company declare if all the prots are distributed to the shareholders? THINK
1 2
WRITE Dividend = $34 200 000 90 000 000 Dividend = $0.38 The dividend is 38c per share.
The dividend is calculated by dividing the prot by the number of shares. Give a written answer.
We cant accurately compare the values of investments from the dividend alone. We need to consider the money that was invested in order to earn that dividend. A 38c dividend paid by a company with a share value of $12.00 is a lower return than a company that pays a 15c dividend and has a share value of $2.50. To compare the true return from any investment, we need to calculate that return as a percentage of the amount invested. For the income part of a share investment, this percentage is called the dividend yield. To calculate the dividend yield for any share, we calculate the dividend as a percentage of the share price.
WORKED Example 16
A company with a share price of $5.42 declares a dividend of 25c. Calculate the dividend yield, correct to 2 decimal places. THINK Write 0.25 (the dividend) over $5.42 (the share price) and multiply by 100%. WRITE 0.25 Dividend yield = --------- 100% 5.42 Dividend yield = 4.61%
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remember
1. An investment in shares earns money through dividend payments and by increasing in value. 2. A dividend is a payment made to shareholders. It is calculated by dividing the prot to be distributed to shareholders by the total number of shares in the company. 3. To calculate the true worth of an investment, we calculate the dividend yield. The dividend yield is found by writing the dividend as a percentage of the share price.
8F
SkillS
Share dividends
HEET
8.5
WORKED
Example
15
Unless stated otherwise, for the calculations in this exercise, assume that companies distribute all their prots as dividends. 1 A company has issued 20 million shares and makes an after-tax prot of $5 million. Calculate the dividend to be declared by the company. 2 A company that has 2 million shares makes a prot of $3 million. Calculate the dividend that will be declared. 3 A company makes an after-tax prot of $150 000. If there are 2.5 million shares in the company, calculate the dividend that the company will declare. 4 A company with an after-tax prot of $1.2 million consists of 4.1 million shares. Calculate the dividend the company will declare, in cents, correct to 2 decimal places. 5 A company makes a before-tax (gross) prot of $3.4 million. a If the company is taxed at the rate of 36%, calculate the amount of tax it must pay. b What will be the after-tax prot of the company? c If there are 5 million shares in the company, calculate the dividend that the company will declare. 6 A company makes a gross prot of $14.5 million and there are 8 million shares in the company. a Calculate the after-tax prot if company tax is paid at the rate of 36%. b If $3.2 million is to be reinvested in the company, calculate the amount of money that is to be distributed to the shareholders. c Calculate the dividend that this company will declare. 7 A company declares a dividend of 78c. If there are 4.2 million shares in the company, calculate the after-tax prot of the company.
SkillS
HEET
8.6
WORKED
Example
16
8 A company with a share price of $10.50 declares a dividend of 48c per share. Calculate the dividend yield for this company.
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9 Copy and complete the table below. Dividend $0.56 $0.78 $1.20 $1.09 $0.04 Share price $8.40 $7.40 $23.40 $15.76 $0.76 Dividend yield
10 Hsiang purchased shares in a company for $3.78 per share. The company paid Hsiang a dividend of 11c per share. Calculate the dividend yield, correct to 2 decimal places. 11 multiple choice Which of the following companies paid the highest dividend yield? A Company A has a share value of $4.56 and pays a dividend of 35c/share. B Company B has a share value of $6.30 and pays a dividend of 62c/share. C Company C has a share value of $12.40 and pays a dividend of $1.10/share. D Company D has a share value of 85c and pays a dividend of 7.65c/share. 12 George bought $5600 worth of shares in a company. The dividend yield for that company was 6.5%. Calculate the amount that George receives in dividends. 13 Andrea bought shares in a company for $11.50 each. The company paid a dividend of 76c/share. a Calculate the dividend yield for this company. b One year later the share value is $12.12. The company then has a dividend yield of 8.75%. Calculate the dividend per share. 14 A companys prospectus predicts that the dividend yield for the coming year will be 6.7%. Its share price is $21.50. a Calculate the dividend paid if the dividend yield in the prospectus is paid. b If there are 5.2 million shares in the company, calculate the after-tax prot of the company. 15 Janice buys shares in a company at $5.76. The company pays a dividend in July of 22.7c and a dividend in February of 26.4c. Calculate the dividend yield for the whole nancial year (July to the following June). 16 The dividend paid by a company for the 200809 nancial year was 5.6c/share, with a share price of $9.50. a Calculate the dividend yield for 200809. b In the 200910 nancial year the share price rose by 12%. Calculate the share price for this year. c In 200910 the dividend paid to shareholders increased by 15%. Calculate the dividend paid, in cents, correct to 1 decimal place. d Calculate the dividend yield for 200910.
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Graphing share performance

Because shares offer no guaranteed returns, we can only use the past performance of a share to try to predict its future performance. This is done by graphing the value of the share at regular intervals and then drawing a line of best t to try to monitor the trend. By continuing the line of best t you can make a prediction for future share prices. This is called extrapolating information from the graph. Interpolate is the opposite of extrapolate and occurs when drawing a graph using data found at the end points.
WORKED Example 17
The graph shows the share price of a company over a 3-month period.
Share price ($) 4.40 4.20 4.00 3.80 3.60
1 Se pt
a On the graph draw a line of best t. b Use your line of best t to estimate the share price after another three months. THINK a Draw a line on the graph, which best ts between the points marked. WRITE a
Share price ($) 4.80 4.60 4.40 4.20 4.00 3.80 3.60
1 Oc t 1 No v 1 De c
Month
1 Se pt
b Extend the line of best t for three months and read the predicted share price.
b The predicted share price is $4.80.
You should be able to produce your own graph to answer this type of question from a set of data that you have been given or have researched.
1 Oc t 1 No v 1 De c 1 Ja n
Month
1 Fe b 1 M ar
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WORKED Example 18
Below is the share price of a company taken on the rst day of the month for one year. Month January February March April May June Share price $10.34 $10.54 $10.65 $10.89 $10.72 $11.10 Month July August September October November December Share price $10.98 $11.56 $11.34 $11.23 $11.48 $11.72
a On a set of axes plot the share price for each month and draw a line of best t. b Predict the share price in June of the following year. THINK a
1
WRITE a
12.40 12.20 12.00 11.80 11.60 11.40 11.20 11.00 10.80 10.60 10.40 10.20 Share price ($)
Draw up a set of axes and plot the data.
Share price ($)
Draw a straight line on the graph that best ts in with the marked points.
12.40 12.20 12.00 11.80 11.60 11.40 11.20 11.00 10.80 10.60 10.40 10.20
1J 1- an F 1- eb M 1- ar A 1- pr M 1- ay Ju 1- n 1- Jul A 1- ug S 1- ep O 1- ct N 1- ov D 1- ec J 1- an Fe 1- b M 1- ar A 1- pr M 1- ay Ju n
1 2
Extend the line of best t for six months. Predict the share price by reading from the line of best t.
b The predicted share price is $12.35.
1J 1- an F 1- eb M 1- ar A 1- pr M 1- ay Ju 1- n 1- Jul A 1- ug S 1- ep O 1- ct N 1- ov D 1- ec J 1- an Fe 1- b M 1- ar A 1- pr M 1- ay Ju n
Month
Month
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remember
1. To try to predict possible future movement in share prices, we use the past performance of the share. 2. Graphing the past share price allows us to examine trends by drawing a line of best t on the graph. 3. We can then use the line of best t to predict the future price of a share.
8G
WORKED
Graphing share performance

Share price ($) 6.50 6.30 6.10 5.90 5.70
M ay n Ju 11l 1Ju
Example
1 The graph at right shows the movement in a share price over a 2-month period. 17 a Copy the graph into your book and on it draw a line of best t. b Use your graph to predict the value of the share on 1 November. 2 The graph at right shows the movement in a share price over a 6-month period. a Copy the graph into your book and on it draw a line of best t. b Use your graph to predict the value of the share on 1 February.
Month 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50

n Ju 1A u 1- g Se pt 1O c 1- t N ov 1D ec M ay 111Ju l
Share price ($)
Month
Share price ($)
3 The graph at right shows the movement in a share price over a 9-month period. a Copy the graph into your book and on it draw a line of best t. b Use your graph to predict the value of the share after a further 12 months.
1.14 1.12 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02
1 Ja n 1 Fe 1 b M a 1 r Ap 1 r M a 1 y Ju n 1 Ju 1 l Au 1 g Se p 1 t Oc t
Month
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WORKED
Example
18
4 The table below shows the share price of a large multinational company over a 12-month period. Month January February March April May June Share price $12.86 $13.43 $11.98 $12.10 $12.11 $12.98 Month July August September October November December Share price $13.45 $13.86 $14.40 $13.65 $13.20 $12.86
a Plot the share prices on a set of axes and on your graph draw a line of best t. b Use your graph to predict the value of the share after a further 6 months. 5 The table below shows the share price of BigCorp Productions Ltd over a period of one year. Month January February March April May June Share price $12.40 $12.82 $12.67 $13.05 $13.06 $12.89 Month July August September October November December Share price $13.17 $13.62 $13.41 $13.30 $13.46 $13.20
a Graph the share price for each month and show a line of best t. b Use your line of best t to predict the share price in December of the next year.
Researching share prices

1 Choose three companies from the business section of the newspaper. 2 Determine the movement of each share over the past year using nancial journals, the newspaper or the Internet. 3 Graph the information on the share price that you have found. Include the highest and lowest point of the share price over the past year. 4 On your graph, draw a line of best t to nd the overall trend in the movement of the share price. 5 Try to predict the share price in six months from now by extending the line of best t. 6 Find the share price each week for six months and see if your line of best t accurately predicts the share price.
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Ination and appreciation

One of the measures of how an economy is performing is the rate of ination. Ination is the rise in prices within an economy and is generally measured as a percentage. In Australia this percentage is called the Consumer Price Index (CPI). By looking at the ination rate, we can estimate what the cost of various goods and services will be at some time in the future. To estimate the future price of an item one year ahead, we increase the price of an item by the rate of ination.
WORKED Example 19
The cost of a new car is $35 000. If the ination rate is 5%, estimate the price of the car after one year. THINK Increase $35 000 by 5%. WRITE Future price = 105% of $35 000 Future price = 105 100 $35 000 Future price = $36 750
When calculating the future cost of an item several years ahead, the method of calculation is the same as for compound interest. This is because we are adding a percentage of the cost to the cost each year. Remember the compound interest formula is A = P(1 + r)n and so in these examples P is the original price, r is the ination rate expressed as a decimal and n is the number of years.
WORKED Example 20
The cost of a television set is $800. If the average ination rate is 4%, estimate the cost of the television set after 5 years. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE P = $800, r = 0.04, n = 5 A = P(1 + r)n A = $800 (1.04)5 A = $973.32
Write the values of P, r and n. Write down the compound interest formula. Substitute the values of P, r and n. Calculate.
A similar calculation can be made to anticipate the future value of collectable items, such as stamp collections and memorabilia from special occasions. This type of item increases in value over time if it becomes rare, and rises at a much greater rate than ination. The amount by which an item grows in value over time is known as appreciation.
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WORKED Example 21
Jenny purchases a rare stamp for $250. It is anticipated that the value of the stamp will rise by 20% per year. Calculate the value of the stamp after 10 years, correct to the nearest $10. THINK
1
WRITE P = $250, r = 0.2, n = 10 A = P(1 + r)n = $250 (1.2)10 = $1550
Write the values of P, r and n. Write down the compound interest formula. Substitute the values of P, r and n. Calculate and round off to the nearest $10.
3 4
remember
1. Ination is the measure of the rate at which prices increase. 2. The ination rate is given as a percentage and is called the Consumer Price Index. 3. To estimate the cost of an item after one year, we increase the price by the percentage ination rate. 4. To estimate the cost of an item after several years, we use the compound interest formula, using the ination rate as the value of r. 5. Rare items such as collectibles and memorabilia increase in value as time goes on at a rate that is usually greater than ination.
8H
WORKED
Ination and appreciation
Example
19
1 The cost of a motorcycle is $20 000. If the ination rate is 4%, estimate the cost of the motorcycle after one year. 2 For each of the following, estimate the cost of the item after one year, with the given ination rate. a An MP3 player costing $600 with an ination rate of 3% b A toaster costing $45 with ination at 7%
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c A loaf of bread costing $1.80 with ination at 6% d An airline ticket costing $560 with ination at 3.5% e A washing machine costing $925 with ination at 0.8% 3 An electric guitar is priced at $850 at the beginning of 2008. a If the ination rate is 3.3% p.a., estimate the cost of the guitar at the beginning of 2009. b The government predicts ination will fall to 2.7% in 2009. Estimate the cost of the guitar at the beginning of 2010. 4 When the Wilson family go shopping, the weekly basket of groceries costs $112.50. The ination rate is predicted to be 4.8% for the next year. How much should the Wilsons budget per week be for groceries for the next year?
WORKED
Example
20
5 The cost of a lawnmower is $550. If the average ination rate is predicted to be 3%, estimate the cost of the lawnmower after 4 years. 6 The cost of a litre of milk is $1.70. If the ination rate is an average 4%, estimate the cost of a litre of milk after 10 years. 7 A daily newspaper costs $1.00. With an average ination rate of 3.4%, estimate the cost of a newspaper after 5 years (to the nearest 5c). 8 If a basket of groceries costs $98.50 in 2008, what would the estimated cost of the groceries be in 2015 if the average ination rate for that period is 3.2%? 9 multiple choice A bottle of soft drink costs $2.50. If the ination rate is predicted to average 2% for the next ve years, the cost of the soft drink in ve years will be: A $2.60 B $2.70 C $2.75 D $2.76
WORKED
Example
10 Veronica bought a shirt signed by the Australian cricket team after it won the 2007 World Cup for $200. If the value of the shirt increases by 20% per annum for the next 21 5 years, calculate the value of the shirt (to the nearest $10). 11 Ken purchased a rare bottle of wine for $350. If the value of the wine is predicted to increase at 10% per annum, estimate the value of the wine in 20 years (to the nearest $10).
Work
T SHEE
8.2
12 The 1968 Australian 2c piece is very rare. If a coin collector purchased one in 2006 for $400 and the value of the coin increases by 15% per year, calculate its value in 2019 (to the nearest $10).
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summary
Simple interest
Simple interest is interest paid where the interest is not added to the principal before the next interest calculation. It is calculated using the formula: I = Prn where P is the initial quantity, r is the percentage interest rate per annum expressed as a decimal and n is the number of periods. It can be graphed as a linear function.
Compound interest
Compound interest is the interest added to the principal before the next interest calculation is made. It can be calculated by using the formula: A = P(1 + r)n where A is the nal balance, P is the initial quantity, r is the percentage interest rate per interest period expressed as a decimal and n is the number of compounding periods. The amount of compound interest paid is found by subtracting the principal from the future value of the investment. Compound interest can be calculated by using a table of compounded values of $1. When a compound interest function is graphed, it is an exponential function.
Shares
When you buy shares you purchase a share in the company. There is no guaranteed return with shares, although there is a greater potential for prot than with investments such as banking and property, but with that comes a higher risk. Prot can be made from buying shares in two ways: (a) The value of the share could rise over time. (b) The company may pay a dividend to its shareholders. The dividend when written as a percentage of the share price is called the dividend yield. To try to predict the future movement in share prices, we can graph the past movement in the share price and draw a line of best t on the graph. This line of best t can be extrapolated to estimate the future price.
Ination
The price of goods and services rise from year to year. To predict the future price of an item, we can use the compound interest formula taking the rate of ination to be r. The same method is used to predict the future value of collectibles and of memorabilia, which tend to rise at a rate greater than ination.
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CHAPTER review
8A 8A
1 Calculate the simple interest earned on an investment of $5000 at 4% p.a. for 5 years. 2 Calculate the simple interest earned on each of the following investments. a $3600 at 9% p.a. for 4 years b $23 500 at 6% p.a. for 2 years c $840 at 2.5% p.a. for 2 years d $1350 at 0.2% p.a. for 18 months -e $45 820 at 4.75% p.a. for 3 1 years
2
8A
3 Dion invests $32 500 in a debenture paying 5.6% simple interest for 4 years. a Calculate the interest earned by Dion. b Calculate the total value of Dions investment after 4 years. c If the debenture payed Dion in quarterly instalments, calculate the value of each interest payment. 4 Bradley invests $15 000 for a period of 4 years. Calculate the simple interest rate, given that Bradley earned a total of $3900 interest. 5 Kerry invests $23 500 at a simple interest rate of 4.6% p.a. If he earned $1351.25 in interest, calculate the length of time for which the money was invested. 6 An amount of $7500 is to be invested at 6% p.a. a Copy and complete the table below to calculate the simple interest over 5 years. No. of years Interest b Draw a graph of the interest earned against the length of the investment. c What is the gradient of the linear graph drawn? d Use your graph to nd the amount of interest that would have been earned after 10 years. 1 2 3 4 5
8A 8A 8C
8C 8C 8C
7 Vicky invests $2400 at 5% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded annually. Calculate the compounded value of the investment at the end of the term. 8 Barry has an investment with a present value of $4500. The investment is made at 6% p.a. with interest compounded six-monthly. Calculate the value of the investment in 4 years. 9 Calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments. a $3000 at 7% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded annually b $9400 at 10% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded six-monthly c $11 400 at 8% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded quarterly d $21 450 at 7.2% p.a. for 18 months with interest compounded six-monthly -e $5000 at 2.6% p.a. for 2 1 years with interest compounded quarterly
2
8C
10 Dermott invested $11 500 at 3.2% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the total amount of interest paid on this investment.
269
8C
11 Kim and Glenn each invest $7500 for a period of 5 years. a Kim invests her money at 9.9% p.a. with interest compounded annually. Calculate the compounded value of Kims investment. b Glenn invests his money at 9.6% p.a. with interest compounded quarterly. Calculate the compounded value of Glenns investment. c Explain why Glenns investment has a greater compounded value than Kims. 12 Use the table of CVIF values on page 248 to calculate the compounded value of each of the following investments. a $6000 at 7% p.a. for 4 years with interest compounded annually b $7230 at 9% p.a. for 7 years with interest compounded annually c $3695 at 6% p.a. for 3 years with interest compounded six-monthly d $12 400 at 10% p.a. for 5 years with interest compounded six-monthly e $2400 at 4% p.a. for 2 years with interest compounded quarterly 13 $20 000 is to be invested at 4% p.a. with interest compounded annually. a Copy and complete the table below, using the compound interest formula to calculate the future value at the end of each year. No. of years Future value b Draw a graph of the interest earned against the length of the investment. c Use your graph to nd the future value of the investment after 10 years. 14 A company that has 10.9 million shares makes a prot of $21 million. If this entire amount is distributed among the shareholders, calculate the dividend that will be declared. 15 A company that has an after-tax prot of $2.3 billion distributes this among its 156 million shares. Calculate the dividend that this company will declare. 16 A company has a share price of $8.62. It declares a dividend of 45c per share. Calculate the dividend yield on this share. 17 A company with a share price of 45c declares a dividend of 0.7c per share. Calculate the dividend yield on this investment. 18 The dividend yield from a share valued at $19.48 is 4.2%. Calculate the dividend paid by the company, correct to the nearest cent. 19 The table below shows the uctuations in a share price over a period of 1 year. Month January February March April May June Share price $15.76 $16.04 $16.27 $16.12 $16.49 $16.39 Month July August September October November December Share price $16.60 $16.77 $16.51 $16.71 $16.69 $16.98 1 2 3 4 5
8C
8E
8F 8F 8F 8F 8F 8G
a On a set of axes plot the share price for each month. b Draw a line of best t on your graph and use your line to predict the share price after a further year.
270
8H 8H 8H
20 A MP3 player is currently priced at $80. If the current ination rate is 4.3%, estimate the price of the MP3 player after one year. 21 It is predicted that the average ination rate for the next ve years will be 3.7%. If a skateboard currently costs $125, estimate the cost of the skateboard after ve years. 22 In 1979, Cherie bought a limited edition photograph autographed by Sir Donald Bradman for $120. If the photograph appreciates in value by 15% per annum, calculate the value of the photograph in 2009 (to the nearest $100).

1 multiple choice The simple interest paid on $5600 at 5.6% for 3 years is: A $940.80 B $994.46 C $6540.80
D $6594.47
2 multiple choice The compound interest paid on $5600 at 5.6% for 3 years with interest compounded annually is: A $940.80 B $994.46 C $6540.80 D $6594.47 3 multiple choice A share is valued at $23.40. Greg buys 4000 shares and, at the end of the nancial year, Greg receives a dividend of $4212. The dividend yield on Gregs investment is: A 0.55% B 1.053% C 4.5% D 5.3% 4 multiple choice In 2008, a basket of groceries costs $67.50. If the ination rate is predicted to be 2.9% for the next year, by how much can we expect the cost of the basket of groceries to rise? A $1.95 B $1.96 C $69.45 D $69.46 5 Jaclyn has $7500 saved for a holiday that she plans to take in two years time. a If Jaclyn invests the money in a debenture that pays 4.2% p.a. simple interest, calculate the amount of money that Jaclyn will have after two years. b An alternative investment for Jaclyn would be to invest her money at 4% p.a. for two years with interest compounding quarterly. Would this be a better investment? Explain your answer. c Jaclyn nally decided to buy 1500 shares in a company at $5.00 each. For the past year the dividend yield for this company was 5.1%. Is this a safe investment for Jaclyn? d After two years, the average dividend yield for this company was 4.8% p.a. of Jaclyns initial investment and the shares were valued at $5.75 each. Calculate the total value of Jaclyns investment. e Calculate Jaclyns prot as a percentage of her initial investment. 6 Frank has saved $30 000 to buy a new car. He decides to try to get another two years use out of his old car and in the meantime invest the money he has saved. a If Frank invests the $30 000 at 3.5% p.a. for two years with interest compounded annually, calculate the money that Frank has at the end of the investment. b Over the two years that Frank has invested his money, the ination rate has averaged 4.2% p.a. Calculate the cost of the car at the end of this two years if the price rose at the same rate as ination (to the nearest $100). c How much more money does Frank now need to buy the new car?
CHAPTER
test yourself
Displaying single data sets
9
syllabus reference
Data analysis 3 Displaying single data sets
In this chapter
9A 9B 9C 9D Frequency tables Types of graphs Statistical graphs Range and interquartile range 9E Stem-and-leaf plots 9F Five-number summaries
areyou
9.3
Reading a line graph
Are you ready?
170 160 Height (cm) 150 140 130 120 110 100 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Years Increase in Timmys height between 1990 and 1995
READY?
1 The line graph at right shows the height of a child (Timmy) over 5 years. a How tall was Timmy at the start of the measurement period? b How much did Timmy grow in the rst year? c How much did Timmy grow over the ve years? d How many years did it take for Timmy to grow 10 cm?
9.4
Presenting data as a dot plot
2 Copy and complete the dot plot at right for the data shown below. 6, 4, 3, 11, 9, 12, 5, 7, 7, 6, 3, 6, 5, 6, 8, 6, 9, 5, 6, 7
Producing a frequency table from a frequency histogram
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
9.5
3 Copy and complete the following frequency table to show the data represented in the frequency histogram. Score (x) 20 21 22 23 24
Frequency
Frequency (f) 5
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 20 21 22 23 24 Score
9.6
Finding the median of a small data set
4 Find the median of each of the following data sets. a 2, 6, 8, 4, 5, 6, 7 b 13, 10, 15, 12, 18, 17, 12, 12 c 52, 45, 23, 83, 9, 45, 71, 84, 90, 183 d 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.9, 9.4, 9.7, 9.8, 9.0, 10.0, 9.4, 9.2, 9.9
Presenting data as a stem-and-leaf plot
9.7
5 Copy and complete the following stem-and-leaf plot for the given data. 52, 34, 38, 45, 10, 33, 27, 19, 33, 46
Key: 2 | 3 = 23 Stem Leaf 1 _9 2 _ 3 3_4_ 4 5_ 5 _
Chapter 9 Displaying single data sets
273
Frequency tables
A frequency table is used to tabulate statistical data. A well-designed table allows the person doing the statistical investigation to easily tally up the data. In this chapter we are concerned with the tallying of quantitative data. When working with quantitative data, each No. of visits Frequency piece of data is known as a score. Quantitative data may be presented as either grouped or 0 6 ungrouped data. The table at right shows the number of cinema visits during a month by each 1 7 of 20 students. It is an example of ungrouped 2 4 data because each score is a separate group in itself. 3 2 Ungrouped data are suitable for discrete data 4 1 that do not have a wide range of scores. A frequency table usually has a tally column that allows us to enter a tally mark for each score as it is entered into the table. The gatepost method of tallying (the fth tally mark crosses the previous four like a gatepost) allows us to easily count up the frequency at the end.
WORKED Example 1
Fifty people were surveyed and asked the number of videos that they had hired from a video store in the past month. The results are shown below. 2 1 3 0 0 4 3 4 1 2 5 3 4 5 0 3 0 2 5 4 3 5 0 1 4 3 2 1 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 0 1 0 5 2 5 3 3 3 4 1 1 2 4 5
Enter the information in a frequency table. THINK

1
WRITE/DRAW
Draw a table with three columns and with scores from 0 to 5. Enter a tally mark for each score. Count the tally marks for each score and enter the result in the frequency column. Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| Tally || || |||| |||| | |||| || Frequency 7 7 9 11 9 7
2 3
274
When the data are continuous or if the data are spread over a wide range, it is useful to group the scores into groups or classes. The following table contains grouped data. It shows the number of passengers on each of 20 bus trips. No. of passengers 59 1014 1519 2024 2529
Frequency 1 6 8 4 1
When making the decision to summarise some raw data by grouping them in a frequency table, the choice of class size (group size) is important. As a general rule, try to choose a class size so that 5 to 10 groups are formed. Choosing a suitable data label is also important. Consider the following data that give the number of nails in each of a sample of 40 boxes. 130 132 137 137 122 138 134 124 118 129 126 134 139 139 129 134 126 116 127 120 128 123 118 137 119 126 130 141 124 128 132 118 122 131 134 125 123 142 132 129
Lets say that we wish to represent the data in a frequency table. It would be pointless trying to tally the data as individual (ungrouped) scores, as most scores would occur only once or twice in the whole distribution. It makes good sense to group the scores. A class size of ve would be appropriate as this leads to the formation of six classes. With grouped data, an extra column is shown for the class centre. The class centre is the middle of each class. No. of nails 115119 120124 125129 130134 135139 140144 Class centre 117 122 127 132 137 142 Tally |||| |||| || |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| | || Frequency 5 7 10 10 6 2
275
WORKED Example 2
The height of 40 students was measured and the results are shown below. 146 141 155 166 168 158 169 164 141 154 159 143 152 156 146 146 161 150 141 153 152 148 152 142 162 159 141 151 169 169 164 148 168 169 146 162 151 150 143 140 Put the above results into a frequency table.
THINK
1
WRITE
2 3 4
The data range from 140 cm to 168 cm. Choose a group of 5 cm beginning at 140 cm. Calculate the class centres. Draw a frequency table with four columns and room for six classes. Enter a tally mark in the appropriate class as each height is read. Complete the frequency table by counting the tally marks.
Height 140144 145149 150154 155159 160164 165169
Class centre 142 147 152 157 162 167
Tally |||| ||| |||| | |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||
Frequency 8 6 9 5 5 7
In some examples the class groupings overlap at the boundary. For example, if we are collecting information on peoples mass, the categories used may be 5055, 5560, 6065, etc. In such examples, the class centres would be 52.5, 57.5, 62.5, . . . etc. When tabulating such data, convention is that a score on the boundary is placed in the higher class. For example, a person with a mass of 60 kg would be placed in the 6065 class.
remember
1. 2. 3. 4. Statistical information may be tabulated using a frequency table. A frequency table has three columns for score, tally and frequency. The data can be entered as either grouped or ungrouped data. Ungrouped data are where each score becomes a group on its own and is suitable for a small range of scores for which the data are discrete. 5. Grouped data are put into classes. They are suitable for continuous data or discrete data for which there is a wide range of scores. For grouped data the class centre should be shown.
276
9A
SkillS
Frequency tables
HEET
9.1
WORKED
Example
1 Twenty households were surveyed to nd the number of people in that household. The results are shown below. 1 4 3 4 6 3 2 5 2 7 4 5 6 4 3 5 4 6 2 3 4 Use this information to complete a copy of the frequency table below. Score 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 The marks of 25 students on a spelling test are shown below. 4 5 8 5 10 7 6 9 7 6 5 7 6 4 7 5 6 7 5 7 8 4 6 8 7 Put this information into a frequency table. 3 The scores of 50 professional golfers in a round of golf are shown below. 72 70 69 75 78 68 66 68 67 72 72 71 68 73 72 71 74 77 72 73 72 72 72 74 70 71 73 72 77 74 76 68 69 68 77 75 72 72 72 71 73 72 70 74 72 71 73 68 67 67 Display this information in a frequency table. Tally Frequency
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Frequency tables
et
WORKED
Example
4 A class of 30 students sat for a Mathematics test. Their results out of 100 are shown below. 2 68 72 58 45 69 92 38 51 70 65 69 73 52 76 48 69 73 41 42 73 80 50 60 49 65 94 88 85 53 60 Use these results to copy and complete the frequency table below. Score 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099 Class centre Tally Frequency
277
5 A farmer measures the heights of his tomato plants. The results, in metres, are shown below. 0.93 1.21 2.03 1.40 1.17 1.53 1.82 1.77 1.65 0.63 1.24 1.99 0.80 2.14 1.53 2.07 1.96 1.05 0.94 1.23 1.72 1.34 0.75 1.17 1.50 1.41 1.74 1.86 1.55 1.42 1.52 1.39 1.76 1.67 1.28 1.43 2.13 Use the class groupings 0.60.8, 0.81.0, 1.01.2, . . . etc. to complete a frequency distribution table for these data. 6 The following data give the times (in seconds) taken for athletes to complete a 100 m sprint. 12.2 12.0 11.9 12.0 12.6 11.7 11.4 11.0 10.9 11.7 11.2 11.8 12.2 12.0 12.7 12.9 11.3 11.2 12.8 12.4 11.7 10.8 13.3 11.7 11.6 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.0 12.2 Construct a frequency distribution table for the data. Use a class size of 0.5 seconds.
Types of graphs
Once statistical information has been tabulated, the next step is to display the data in some type of graph. The type of graph that is chosen depends on the purpose of the graph.
Dot plots
A dot plot is used to display a set of scores on a number line. This graph is useful for showing a small number of scores.
WORKED Example 3
Below are the scores out of 10 achieved by 11 students on a Maths quiz. 7 4 8 7 6 7 6 5 8 9 5 Show this information on a dot plot. THINK
1 2
WRITE
Draw a number line showing all numbers from 0 to 10. Place a dot on the appropriate number for each score, stacking the dots to show where more than one of the same score has occurred.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
278
Sector graph (pie chart)

A sector graph is used to compare quantities. A circle is divided into proportions to be shown on the graph. To calculate the angles at the centre of the circle, the fraction of the total quantity is multiplied by 360.
WORKED Example 4
A poll was conducted on an issue of justice based on the statement Penalties for serious crime should be increased. The responses were: Agree 35 Disagree 20 Unsure 5. Show this information in a sector graph. THINK
1 2
WRITE 35 + 20 + 5 = 60 ----Agree = 35 360 60 = 210 5 Unsure = ----- 360 60 = 30

----Disagree = 20 360 60 = 120
Calculate the total number of responses. Calculate the angles at the centre of the circle by multiplying each fraction by 360. Draw the graph.
Agree Disagree Unsure
Line graph
A line graph is used to compare the change in one quantity with the change in another. It is suitable for quantitative data.
WORKED Example 5
The table below shows the temperature taken in a school playground over a day. Time Temp (C) 9:00 am 15 10:00 am 11:00 am 12:00 pm 17 20 22 1:00 pm 23 2:00 pm 25 3:00 pm 22
Show this information in the form of a line graph. THINK

1 2 3
DRAW
Temperature 25 20 15 0 m m m m m m m 0a 0a 0a 0p 0p 0p 0p 9:0 10:0 11:0 12:0 1:0 2:0 3:0 Time
Show time on the horizontal axis and temperature on the vertical axis. Plot the points for the hourly temperature. Join each point with a straight line.
279
Bar and column graphs

A bar graph or a column graph is used when we want to show a quantity and compare it to other quantities. This is particularly suitable for categorical data. In a bar graph, the categories are shown on the vertical axis and the results are shown on the horizontal axis. The bars are then drawn horizontally. These axes are reversed for a column graph.
WORKED Example 6
The information shown below represents the unemployment rates in various NSW regions. Hunter 12.9% Illawarra 11.8% Mid North Coast 16.4% Western NSW 9.1% Riverina 8.4% Show this information in a bar graph. THINK
1
DRAW
Riverina Region Western NSW Mid North Coast Illawarra Hunter 0 5 10 15 20 Percentage unemployed
Draw the categories on the vertical axis and the percentages on the horizontal axis. Draw horizontal bars for each category.
Graphs can be used to misrepresent information. This can be done by adjusting the scale on the horizontal axis. The graph at right shows the same information as worked example 6.
Riverina Region Western NSW Mid North Coast Illawarra Hunter 7 9 11 13 15 17 Percentage unemployed
Radar charts
A radar chart is similar to a line graph except it is circular. It is particularly suitable for showing data trends that repeat. The radar is drawn with the data being measured placed in equal sectors around the circle and the results having a scale emanating from the centre. The points are then plotted and joined.
280
WORKED Example 7
The information below shows the sales in a department store over a year. Month January February March April May June Sales ($m) 2.8 1.7 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.6 Month July August September October November December Sales ($m) 1.8 1.1 1.6 1.9 2.5 3.4
Show these data in a radar chart. THINK

1 2 3 4
WRITE
Sales ($m) January 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
Draw equal sectors of 30. Draw the sales from the centre using 1 cm = $0.5 million. Plot the points. Join each point with a straight line.
December November
February March
October
April
September August July June
May
remember
1. A graph is used to visually display data that have been tabulated. 2. You should choose the most appropriate graph for the purpose of the display and the data type. 3. You should be able to draw dot plots, sector graphs, line graphs, bar graphs and radar charts.
9B
SkillS
Types of graphs
HEET
9.2
Reading a column graph
WORKED
Example
1 Below are the scores out of 10 on a spelling test as achieved by a small class of students. Show the information on a dot plot. 4 5 3 7 8 10 9 6 7 7 8 6 8 6 7 2 Below is the maximum temperature in Sydney each day during February. 28 35 33 34 30 27 28 29 30 26 28 30 31 33 32 31 30 31 29 29 28 25 26 30 31 30 29 29 Show this information on a dot plot.
281
9.3
Reading a line graph
SkillS
WORKED
Example
3 During a season, a soccer team has 10 wins, 4 draws and 6 losses. Show these results in a sector graph. 4 Gary earns $600 per week. His weekly budget is: Rent $200 Bills $150 Groceries $120 Car running costs $70. The balance is put away for savings. Display Garys budget in a sector graph.
HEET
WORKED
Example
5 The population over 8 years in a small town is shown in the table below. Year Pop. 2000 12 000 2001 12 500 2002 13 250 2003 13 500 2004 13 600 2005 14 100 2006 15 000 2007 16 000
9.4
E
SkillS
HEET
Show this information in a line graph. 6 Tania has a savings account. The balance of the account at the beginning of each month for a year is shown in the table below. Month January February March April May June Balance $200 $270 $320 $260 $380 $430 Month July August September October November December Balance $500 $460 $570 $625 $570 $700
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Column graphs
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Line graphs
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Bar graphs
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Show this information in a line graph.

WORKED
Example
7 Below are the average weekly earnings of people in different categories of employment. Labourers $543 Plant operators $598 Salespersons $607 Clerks $620 Tradespersons $640 Para-professionals $780 Professionals $865 Managers $906 Show this information in a horizontal bar graph. 8 The table below shows the number of Olympic gold medals Australia has won since 1952. Year and venue 1952 Helsinki 1956 Melbourne 1960 Rome 1964 Tokyo 1968 Mexico City 1972 Munich 1976 Montreal No. of gold medals 6 13 8 6 5 8 0 Year and venue 1980 Moscow 1984 Los Angeles 1988 Seoul 1992 Barcelona 1996 Atlanta 2000 Sydney 2004 Athens No. of gold medals 2 4 3 7 9 16 17
Sector graphs
Show this information in a column graph.
282
WORKED
Example
9 The table below shows the average monthly temperature in Sydney. Month January February March April May June Temp (C) 28 30 26 24 20 17 Month July August September October November December Temp (C) 15 16 20 22 25 27
Show this information in a radar chart.
10 The table below shows the percentage of televisions that are being watched over a 24-hour period. Time 12:00 am 2:00 am 4:00 am 6:00 am 8:00 am 10:00 am Percentage 12% 1% 2% 8% 15% 24% Time 12:00 pm 2:00 pm 4:00 pm 6:00 pm 8:00 pm 10:00 pm Percentage 30% 33% 45% 60% 78% 55%
Show this information in a radar chart.
283
Choice of graph
For different statistical investigations, some graphs may be more suitable than others. Depending on the information that needs to be displayed, each graph has its strengths and weaknesses. In the above exercise, you drew a dot plot, sector graph, line graph, column graph and radar chart. For each of these graph types describe: a The advantages of this type of display. b The disadvantages of this type of display. c An example of when this type of display would be most suitable.
Producing graphs using technology

Each of the graph types described in this section can be drawn using a spreadsheet or a graphics calculator. From the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM, click on each of the spreadsheet icons in the margin to practise using a spreadsheet to produce a graph.
Column graphs
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E E E E
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Line graphs
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Bar graphs
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Sector graphs
Statistical graphs
When displaying statistical, or quantitative data, the most useful graphs are a frequency histogram and frequency polygon. A histogram is similar to a column graph with the following essential features. Gaps are never left between the columns, except for a half unit space before the rst column. If the chart is coloured or shaded then it is done all in one colour. (The columns are essentially all representing different levels of the same thing.) Frequency is always plotted on the vertical axis. For ungrouped data, the horizontal scale is marked so that the data labels appear under the centre of each column. For grouped data, the horizontal scale is marked so that the class centre of each class appears under the centre of the column.
284
WORKED Example 8
The table below shows the number of people living in each house in a street. No. of people 1 2 3 4 5 Show this information in a frequency histogram. THINK
1
Frequency 1 4 10 15 8
DRAW
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Draw a set of axes with the number of people living in a house on the horizontal axis and frequency on the vertical axis. Draw the graph, leaving half a column width space before the rst column.
Frequency
1 2 3 4 5 Number of people in a house
Frequency
A frequency polygon is a line graph that can be drawn by joining the centres of the tops of each column of the histogram. The polygon starts and nishes on the horizontal axis a half column width space from the group boundary of the rst and last groups. The gure at right shows the frequency polygon 16 drawn on top of the histogram for the previous 14 12 worked example. 10 It is common practice to draw the histogram and 8 6 the polygon on the same set of axes.
4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 Number of people in a house
WORKED Example 9
The frequency table below shows a class set of marks on an exam. Draw a frequency histogram and polygon on the same set of axes. Mark 5160 6170 7180 8190 91100 Class centre 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5 Frequency 3 5 12 7 3
285
THINK
1
DRAW
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Frequency
2 3
Draw a set of axes with the exam mark on the horizontal axis and frequency on the vertical axis. Show the class centres for the exam marks. Draw the columns, leaving a half column width space before the rst column. Draw a line graph to the centre of each column.
.5 .5 .5 .5 .5 55 65 75 85 95 Exam mark
For further analysis of statistical data it is useful to draw cumulative frequency graphs. The cumulative frequency is a progressive total of the frequency column. Consider the table from worked example 8. No. of people 1 2 3 4 5 Frequency 1 4 10 15 8 Cumulative frequency 1 5 15 30 38
Cumulative frequency 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Number of people in a house
Once the cumulative frequency has been calculated, a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon (ogive) can be drawn. The cumulative frequency histogram is drawn without the half column space before the rst column. The cumulative frequency polygon is drawn to the top right-hand corner of each column.
WORKED Example 10
The frequency table below shows the heights of people in a basketball squad. Height (cm) 170174 175179 180184 185189 190194 195199 Class centre 172 177 182 187 192 197 Frequency 3 6 12 10 8 1
a Add a cumulative frequency column to the table. b Draw a frequency histogram and polygon.
Continued over page
286
THINK a
1
WRITE/DRAW a
Height (cm) 170174 175179 180184 185189 190194 195199 Class centre 172 177 182 187 192 197 Cumulative frequency 3 9 21 31 39 40
Add a fourth column to the table. Complete the column by keeping a running total of the frequencies.
Frequency 3 6 12 10 8 1
Cumulative frequency
Draw the axes with height on the horizontal axis and cumulative frequency on the vertical axis. Show the class centres for the height. Draw the columns for the cumulative frequency histogram. Draw the cumulative frequency polygon by joining the lines to the top right-hand corner of each column.
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
172 177 182 187 192 197 Height (cm)
287
remember
1. A piece of numerical data is known as a score. 2. Quantitative data can be graphed using histograms and polygons. 3. When drawing histograms, always put frequency on the vertical axis and never leave gaps between columns. 4. If the histogram is illustrating ungrouped data, the data labels on the horizontal axis are placed under the centre of each column. 5. If the histogram is illustrating grouped data, the data labels on the horizontal axis (that is, the class centres) are placed under the centre of each column. 6. A polygon is a line graph that can be drawn by joining the centres of the tops of each column of the histogram. 7. The cumulative frequency is a running total of the frequency column. The cumulative frequency can also be graphed using a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
9C
WORKED
Statistical graphs
No. of mistakes (score) 0 1 2 3 4 5 No. of drivers (frequency) 5 8 13 4 3 1
Example
1 A survey was done on young drivers taking the written test for their licence. The number of mistakes each made was recorded and the results are shown in the frequency distribution table at right. Show this information in a frequency histogram.
9.5
Producing a frequency table from a frequency histogram
E
SkillS
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HEET
sheet sheet
Histogram, frequency polygon

E
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2 Each student in a class was asked the number of children in their family. The results are shown in the frequency distribution table at right. Show this information in a frequency histogram and polygon.
No. of children in a family 1 2 3 4 5 6
Histogram, frequency polygon (DIY)
288
3 The table below shows the age in years of the members of a surf club. Age 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 No. of members 3 5 8 13 15 10 8 5
Show this information on a frequency polygon. 4 The label on a box of matches states that the average contents of a box is 50 matches. Quality control surveyed 50 boxes for the number of matches and the results are shown below. 48 50 50 51 50 49 53 52 48 51 50 50 51 49 48 53 52 50 49 49 49 50 50 51 53 52 54 47 50 49 48 49 47 53 49 52 50 51 50 50 50 48 47 50 51 49 50 49 52 51 a Put this information into a frequency table. b Show the results on a frequency histogram and polygon.
WORKED
Example
5 The table below shows the length of 71 sh caught in a competition. Length of sh (mm) 300309 310319 320329 330339 340349 350359 Class centre 304.5 314.5 324.5 334.5 344.5 354.5 Frequency 9 15 20 12 8 7
Show this information in a frequency histogram and polygon.
289
6 Sixty people were involved in a psychology experiment. The following frequency table shows the times taken for the 60 people to complete a puzzle for the experiment. Time taken (seconds) 68 810 1012 1214 1416 1618 1820 Class centre Frequency 1 4 16 18 12 8 2
a Copy the frequency table and complete the class centre column. b Show the information in a frequency histogram and polygon.
WORKED
Example
10
7 The following data show the number of registered cars normally kept at each of 30 households. No. of cars 0 1 2 3 4 5 Frequency 2 8 11 6 2 1
a Copy the table and add a cumulative frequency column. b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. 8 The following table shows the number of jelly beans in each of 60 packets. No. of jelly beans 48 49 50 51 52 53 Frequency 2 10 32 9 5 2
a Add a cumulative frequency column to the table. b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
290
9 The following frequency table gives the number of oysters of different lengths from a tray in a marine farm. Length (cm) 45 56 67 78 89 910 Class centre Frequency 6 10 60 58 8 4 Cumulative frequency
a Copy and complete the table. b Show the information in the form of a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
10 The following frequency table gives the results of testing the lives of 200 torch batteries. Lifetime (hours) 2025 2530 3035 3540 4045
Work
T SHEE
Frequency 6 25 70 61 30 8
9.1
4550
a Redraw the table, including a column for class centre and cumulative frequency. b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
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1
Class 110 1120 2130 3140 4150 1 Copy the frequency table above and complete the class centre column. 2 Complete the cumulative frequency column. 3 How many scores in the data set were above 30? 4 How many scores in the data set were 40 or less? 5 Is the data set an example of grouped or ungrouped data? 6 Draw a frequency histogram for the data set. 7 On your histogram, draw a polygon for this data set. 8 Draw a cumulative frequency histogram for the data set. 9 On your cumulative frequency histogram, draw a cumulative frequency polygon. 10 Copy and complete: Another term for a cumulative frequency polygon is an . Class centre Frequency 5 15 29 37 11 Cumulative frequency
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Range and interquartile range

Once a set of scores has been collected, tabulated and graphed, we are ready to make some conclusions about the data. The range and interquartile range are used to measure the spread of a set of scores. The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest score. Range = highest score lowest score
WORKED Example 11
There are 17 players in the squad for a State of Origin match. The number of State of Origin matches played by each member of the squad is shown below. 2 6 12 8 1 4 8 9 24 4 5 11 14 6 11 15 10 What is the range of this distribution? THINK
1 2 3
WRITE Lowest score = 1 Highest score = 24 Range = 24 1 Range = 23
The lowest number of matches played is 1. The highest number of matches played is 24. Calculate the range by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score.
A smaller range will usually represent a more consistent set of scores. Exceptions to this are when one or two scores are much higher or lower than most. When we are calculating the range from a frequency distribution table, we nd the highest and lowest score from the score column. We do not use any information from the frequency column in calculating the range. When the data are presented in grouped form, the range is found by taking the highest score from the highest class and the lowest score from the lowest class.
WORKED Example 12
The frequency distribution table at right shows the heights of boys competing for a place on a basketball team. Find the range of these data. Height 170175 175180 180185 185190 190195 195200 Frequency 3 6 12 10 8 1
293
THINK
1 2 3
WRITE Lowest score = 170 Highest score = 200 Range = 200 170 Range = 30
The lowest score is at the bottom of the 170175 class. The highest score is at the top of the 195200 class. Range = highest score lowest score.
In many cases, the range is not a good indicator of the overall spread of scores. Consider the two sets of scores below showing the wages of people in two small businesses. A: $240, $240, $240, $245, $250, $250, $260, $800 B: $180, $200, $240, $290, $350, $400, $500, $600 The range for business A = $800 $240 = $560 and for business B = $600 $180 = $420
While the range for business A is greater, by looking at the wages in the two businesses, we can see that the wages in business B are generally more spread. The range uses only two scores in its calculation. The interquartile range is usually a better measure of dispersion (spread). The quartiles are found by dividing the data into quarters. The lower quartile is the lowest 25% of scores, the upper quartile is the highest 25% of scores. To calculate an interquartile range, we must rst be able to calculate the median. To calculate the median, we must rst arrange the scores in ascending order. The median is the middle score (if there is an odd number of scores) or the average of the two middle scores (if there is an even number of scores).
WORKED Example 13
Calculate the median of: a 2, 5, 8, 8, 8, 11, 12 b 45, 69, 69, 87, 88, 92, 99, 100. THINK a There are 7 scores so the median is the 4th score. b There are 8 scores so the median is the average of the 4th score and the 5th score. WRITE a Median = 8 87 + 88 b Median = ----------------2 = 87.5
The interquartile range is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile. To nd the lower and upper quartiles we arrange the scores in ascending order. --The lower quartile is 1 of the way through the distribution and the upper quartile is 3 4 4 of the way through the distribution.
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To nd the interquartile range we follow the steps below. 1. Arrange the data in ascending order. 2. Divide the data into two halves by nding the median. (a) If there is an odd number of scores, the median score should not be included in either half of the scores. (b) If there is an even number of scores, the middle will be halfway between two scores and this will divide the data neatly into two sets. 3. The lower quartile will be the median of the lower half of the data. 4. The upper quartile will be the median of the upper half of the data. 5. The interquartile range will be the difference between the medians of the two halves of the data.
WORKED Example 14
Find the interquartile range of the following data, which show the number of home runs scored in a series of baseball matches. 12, 9, 4, 6, 5, 8, 9, 4, 10, 2 THINK
1 2 3 4 5
WRITE 2, 4, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 9, 10, 12 2, 4, 4, 5, 6 8, 9, 9, 10, 12 Lower quartile = 4 Upper quartile = 9 Interquartile range = 9 4 Interquartile range = 5
Write the data in ascending order. Divide the data into two equal halves. The lower quartile is the median of the lower half. The upper quartile is the median of the upper half. The interquartile range is the upper quartile minus the lower quartile.
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Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the median, range and interquartile range
When data are entered into the statistics function on a graphics calculator, all essential summary statistics can be found. Consider the data in worked example 14. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Delete any existing data from all lists and then enter the scores into List 1.
3. Press F2 for CALC and then F6 for SET. Enter the settings as shown at right. 1Var Xlist:List 1 shows that the scores are stored in List 1. 1Var Freq:1 shows that each score in List 1 is an individual score with a frequency of 1. 4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen and then press F1 for 1Var and all the summary statistics will be displayed. 5. Scroll down using the arrow keys until you can see the median, which is equal to 7. 6. To nd the range, we need to nd the lowest and the highest score. On the previous screen you will see the lowest score denoted MinX. Scroll down further to nd MaxX. The range is found by subtracting MinX from MaxX. Range = 12 2 Range = 10 7. On this screen you will see the value of the upper quartile Q3 and the lower quartile Q1. To nd the interquartile range, subtract Q1 from Q3. IQR = 9 4 IQR = 5 In most cases we are asked to nd the interquartile range of a grouped distribution. This requires us to draw a cumulative frequency polygon and nd the 25th and 75th percentile. A percentile is a measure of where in a set of scores an individual score lies. For example, the 25th percentile has 25% of scores below it and 75% above it. To nd the interquartile range, draw a second vertical axis that shows the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile. A line is drawn from the 25th, 50th and 75th percentile to the ogive and then down to the horizontal axis. The value for the quartiles can then be calculated. The median is the score that is found at the 50th percentile.
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Cumulative frequency 0
WORKED Example 15
The cumulative frequency histogram and polygon at right shows the number of customers who order different volumes of concrete from a readymix concrete company during a day. Find the: a median b interquartile range for this distribution.
50 40 30 20 10 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 Volumes of concrete
THINK a
1
WRITE/DRAW a
100% 75% 50% 25% 0% 50 40 30 20 10
Draw a vertical axis showing the percentiles.
5 5 5 5 5 5 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.7 Volumes of concrete
Draw a line for the 50th percentile to the ogive and estimate the median. Draw a line for the 25th and 75th percentiles and estimate these values. Calculate the interquartile range by subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile.
Median = 0.9
b Lower quartile = 0.4 Upper quartile = 1.6 Interquartile range = 1.6 0.4 = 1.2
A data set can also be divided into deciles. A decile is a band of 10% of all scores. The deciles can be calculated in the same way as the quartiles, using the appropriate percentage on the vertical scale. For example, the top decile would be found using the 90th percentile.
297
remember
1. The range and interquartile range, also called measures of dispersion, are used to measure the spread of a set of scores. 2. The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score. 3. A single outlying score can enlarge the range. The interquartile range is therefore a better measure of dispersion. 4. The interquartile range is found by subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile. 5. The lower and upper quartiles are found by dividing the scores into two equal halves. The median of the lower half is the lower quartile and the median of the upper half is the upper quartile. 6. The interquartile range is estimated from a grouped distribution by drawing a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon.
9D
WORKED

9.6
Finding the median of a small data set
GC
SkillS
Example
11
1 Find the range of each of the following sets of data. a 2, 5, 4, 5, 7, 4, 3 b 103, 108, 111, 102, 111, 107, 110 c 2.5, 2.8, 3.4, 2.7, 2.6, 2.4, 2.9, 2.6, 2.5, 2.8 d 3.20, 3.90, 4.25, 7.29, 1.45, 2.77, 8.39 e 45, 23, 7, 47, 76, 89, 96, 48, 87, 76, 66
WORKED
Example
12
2 Use the frequency distribution tables below to nd the range for each of the following UV stats sets of scores. a Score 1 2 3 4 5 Frequency 2 6 12 10 7 b Score 38 39 40 41 42 43 c Score 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 Frequency 12 25 36 34 11 9 4 Frequency 23 46 52 62 42 45
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3 For the grouped dispersions below, state the range. a Class 5160 6170 7180 8190 91100 Frequency 2 8 15 7 1 b Class 150155 155160 160165 165170 170175 175180 c Class 4043 4447 4851 5255 5659 6063 Frequency 48 112 254 297 199 84 Frequency 12 25 38 47 39 20
4 The scores below show the number of points scored by two AFL teams over the rst 10 games of the season. Sydney: 110 95 74 136 48 168 120 85 99 65 Collingwood: 125 112 89 111 96 113 85 90 87 92 a Calculate the range of the scores for each team. b Based on the results above, which team would you say is the more consistent? 5 Two machines are used to ll boxes with approximately 100 Smarties. A check is made on the operation of the two machines. Ten boxes lled by each machine have the number of Smarties in them counted. The results are shown below. Machine A: 100, 99, 99, 101, 100, 101, 100, 100, 101, 108 Machine B: 98, 104, 96, 97, 103, 96, 102, 100, 97, 104 a What is the range in the number of Smarties from machine A? b What is the range in the number of Smarties from machine B? c Ralph is the quality control ofcer and he argues that machine A is more consistent in its distribution of Smarties. Explain why.
WORKED
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Median
Example
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Median (DIY)
et
13
6 Find the median for each of the data sets below. a 3, 4, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 b 17, 20, 19, 25, 29, 27, 28, 25, 29 c 52, 55, 53, 53, 54, 55, 52, 53, 54, 52 d 12, 14, 15, 12, 14, 19, 17, 15, 18, 20 e 56, 75, 83, 47, 93, 35, 84, 83, 73, 20, 66, 90
et
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WORKED
Example
7 For each of the data sets in question 6, calculate the interquartile range.
14 Cumulative frequency
WORKED
Example
15
8 The frequency histogram and polygon at right displays the results of a survey of 50 drivers who were asked about the number of speeding nes they have received. a Use the ogive to nd the median of the distribution. b Find the lower quartile. c Find the upper quartile. d Calculate the interquartile range. e Calculate the top decile.
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 No. of speeding fines received by drivers
9 The frequency distribution table below shows the result of a survey of 90 households who were asked about the number of times they had been the victim of crime. Score 0 1 2 3 4 a b c d Frequency 26 31 22 8 3
Add a column for cumulative frequency to the table. Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. Use your graph to nd the median of the distribution. Calculate the interquartile range.
10 multiple choice For the frequency table below, what is the range? Score 25 26 27 28 29 A 4 11 multiple choice Calculate the interquartile range of the following data. 17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 23, 25 A 3 B 4 C 5 D 8 B 5 C 6 Frequency 14 12 19 25 19 D 17
300
12 multiple choice The interquartile range is considered to be a better measure of the variability of a set of scores than the range because it: A takes into account more scores B is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles C is easier to calculate D is not affected by extreme values. 13 multiple choice The distribution below shows the ranges in the heights of 25 members of a football squad. Height (cm) 140149 150159 160169 170179 180189 Class centre 144.5 154.5 164.5 174.5 184.5 Frequency 2 5 10 7 1 Cumulative frequency 2 7 17 24 25
Which of the statements below is correct? A The range of the distribution is 40. B The range of the distribution is 49. C The range of the distribution is 9. D The interquartile range can only be estimated using a cumulative frequency polygon. 14 The frequency distribution table below shows the marks obtained by a group of people on an IQ test. IQ score 7585 8595 95105 105115 115125 Frequency 12 25 50 24 13
a Redraw the frequency distribution table to include columns for class centre and cumulative frequency. b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. c Find the range. d Use the graph to estimate the interquartile range.
301
15 The following frequency distribution table shows the distribution of daily maximum temperatures during the course of a full year. Maximum temperature (C) 05 510 1015 1520 2025 2530 3035 3540 a b c d e Number of days 4 22 95 124 94 19 5 2
Add a cumulative frequency column to the table. Draw an ogive of the data. Find the upper and lower quartiles of the data and calculate the interquartile range. Use the ogive to nd the median (50th percentile of the data). Find the bottom decile of the data (the scores between which the lowest 10% of scores lie).
16 The following data give the number of fruit that have formed on each of 30 trees in an orchard. 45 81 60 a b c d 48 73 53 52 46 54 36 48 58 38 44 41 72 39 44 36 52 47 74 58 76 56 57 68 46 65 55
Complete a frequency distribution table for the data. Draw an ogive of the data. Use the ogive to nd the median, lower quartile and upper quartile of the data. Find the interquartile range of the data.
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Stem-and-leaf plots
As an alternative to a frequency table, a stem-and-leaf plot may be used to group and summarise data. A stem is made using the rst part of each piece of data. The second part of each piece of data forms the leaves. Consider the case below. The following data show the mass (in kg) of 20 possums trapped, weighed then released by a wildlife researcher. 1.8 0.9 0.7 1.4 1.6 2.1 2.7 2.2 1.8 2.3 2.3 1.5 1.1 2.2 3.0 2.5 2.7 3.2 1.9 1.7 The stem is made from the whole number part of the mass and the leaves are the decimal part. The rst piece of data was 1.8 kg. The stem of this number could be considered to be 1 and the leaf 0.8. The second piece of data was 0.9. It has a stem of 0 and a leaf of 0.9. To compose a stem-and-leaf plot for these data, rule a vertical column of stems then enter the leaf of each piece of data in a neat row beside the appropriate stem. The rst row of the stem-and-leaf plot records all data from 0.0 to 0.9. The second row records data from 1.0 to 1.9 etc. Attach a key to the plot to show the reader the meaning of each entry. It is convention to assemble the data in order of size, so this stem-and-leaf plot should be written in such a way that the numbers in each row of leafs are in ascending order. Key: 0 | 7 = 0.7 kg Stem 0 1 2 3 Leaf 7 9 1 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 1 2 2 3 3 5 7 7 0 2
When preparing a stem-and-leaf plot, it is important to try to keep the numbers in neat vertical columns because a neat plot gives the reader an idea of the distribution of scores. The plot itself looks a bit like a histogram turned on its side.
WORKED Example 16
The information below shows the mass, in kilograms, of twenty 16-year-old boys. 65 45 56 57 58 54 61 72 70 69 61 58 49 52 64 71 66 65 66 60 Show this information in a stem-and-leaf plot. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE
Make the tens the stem and the units the leaves. Write a key. Complete the plot.
Key: 5 | 6 = 56 kg Stem 4 5 6 7 Leaf 5 9 2 4 6 7 8 8 0 1 1 4 5 5 6 6 9 0 1 2
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It is also useful to be able to represent data with a class size of 5. This could be done for the stem-and-leaf plot on the opposite page by choosing stems 0*, 1, 1*, 2, 2*, 3, where the class with stem 1 contains all the data from 1.0 to 1.4 and stem 1* contains the data from 1.5 to 1.9 etc. If stems are split in this way, it is a good idea to include two entries in the key. The stem-and-leaf plot for the possum data would appear as follows. Key: 1 | 1 = 1.1 kg 1* | 5 = 1.5 Stem 0* 1* 1* 2* 2* 3* Leaf 7 9 1 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 1 2 2 3 3 5 7 7 0 2
A stem-and-leaf plot has the following advantages over a frequency distribution table. The plot itself gives a graphical representation of the spread of data. (It is rather like a histogram turned on its side.) All the original data are retained, so there is no loss of accuracy when calculating statistics such as the mean and standard deviation. In a grouped frequency distribution table some generalisations are made when these values are calculated.
WORKED Example 17
The following data give the length of gestation in days for 24 mothers. Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot of the data using a class size of 5. 280 288 292 281 287 273 288 292 285 295 279 268 276 279 281 282 266 284 270 275 292 271 278 281 WRITE
THINK
1
A class size of 5 is required. The smallest piece of data is 266 and the largest is 295 so make the stems: 26*, 27, 27*, 28, 28*, 29, 29*. The key should give a clear indication of the meaning of each entry. Enter the data piece by piece. Enter the leaves in pencil at rst so that they can be rearranged into order of size. Check that 24 pieces of data have been entered.
Continued over page
304
THINK
3
WRITE Key: 26* | 6 = 266 27 | 0 = 270 Stem Leaf 26* 6 8 27* 0 1 3 27* 5 6 8 9 9 28* 0 1 1 1 2 4 28* 5 7 8 8 29* 2 2 2 29* 5
Now arrange the leaves in order of size.
Since all the original data are recorded on the stem-and-leaf plot and are conveniently arranged in order of size, the plot can be used to locate the upper and lower quartiles and the median. As was discussed earlier in the chapter: the median is the middle score or the average of the two middle scores the lower quartile is the median of the lower half of the data the upper quartile is the median of the upper half of the data. Using the possum weight data as an example: Key: 0 | 7 = 0.7 kg Stem 0 1 2 3 Leaf 7 9 1 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 1 2 2 3 3 5 7 7 0 2
There were 20 pieces of data so the median is the average of the 10th and 11th scores. Counting each score as it appeared in the stem-and-leaf plot, we can see that the 10th score is the number 1.9 and the 11th score is the number 2.1. 1.9 + 2.1 Median = -------------------2 Median = 2.0 The median divides the data into two halves. The lower quartile is the median of the lower half, which has ten scores in it. So the position of the lower quartile is given by the average of the 5th and 6th scores. The 5th score is the number 1.5. The 6th score is the number 1.6. 1.5 + 1.6 The lower quartile = -------------------2 The lower quartile = 1.55
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The upper quartile is the median of the upper half, which also has ten scores in it. The 5th score in this half is the number 2.3. The 6th score is the number 2.5. 2.3 + 2.5 The upper quartile = -------------------2 = 2.4
WORKED Example 18
Find the interquartile range of the data presented in the following stem-and-leaf plot. Key: 15 | 7 = 157 kg Stem 15 16 17 18 19 20 THINK
1
Leaf 4 8 8 1 3 3 6 8 0 0 1 4 7 9 9 9 1 2 3 3 5 7 8 8 9 2 7 8 0 2 WRITE 179 + 179 Median = ----------------------2 Median = 179 The lower quartile = 168 The upper quartile = 188 Interquartile range = upper quartile lower Interquartile range = quartile Interquartile range = 188 168 Interquartile range = 20
There are 30 scores and so the median will be the average of the 15th and 16th scores. There are 15 scores in each half and so the lower and upper quartiles will be the 8th score in each half. The interquartile range is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles.
remember
When presenting the stem-and-leaf plots, observe the following points. 1. Always include a key to assist in the interpretation of the plot. 2. Choose a suitable class size. A class size of 5 is possible by using * notation on class stems. 3. After initially recording each score, rearrange the leaves so that they appear in ascending order.
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Stem-and-leaf plots
HEET
9.7
Presenting data as a stem-andleaf plot
WORKED
Example
16
1 The data below give the number of errors made each week by 20 machine operators. Prepare a stem-and-leaf diagram of the data using stems of 0, 10, 20, etc. 6 15 20 25 28 18 32 43 52 27 17 26 38 31 26 29 32 46 13 20 2 The data below give the time taken for each of 40 runners on a 10 km fun run. Prepare a stem-and-leaf diagram for the data using a class size of 10 minutes. 36 66 42 71 42 75 58 42 52 45 40 50 38 42 41 46 47 55 47 40 59 38 53 52 72 42 68 37 68 46 43 54 57 48 39 48 82 39 48 52
WORKED
Example
17
3 The typing speed of 30 word processors is recorded below. Prepare a stem-and-leaf diagram of the data using a class size of 5. 96 102 92 96 95 102 95 115 110 108 88 86 107 111 107 108 103 121 107 96 124 95 98 102 108 112 120 99 121 130 4 Twenty transistors are tested by applying increasing voltage until they are destroyed. The maximum voltage that each could withstand is recorded below. Prepare a stemand-leaf plot of the data using a class size of 0.5. 14.8 15.2 13.8 14.0 14.8 15.7 15.5 15.6 14.7 14.3 14.6 15.2 15.9 15.1 14.3 14.6 13.9 14.7 14.5 14.2
WORKED
Example
18
5 The stem-and-leaf plot at right gives the exact Key: 248 | 4 = 248.4 g mass of 24 packets of biscuits. Find the interquartile Stem Leaf range of the data. 248 4 7 8 249 2 3 6 6 250 0 0 1 1 6 9 9 251 1 5 5 5 6 7 252 1 5 8 253 0 6 The time taken for a test vehicle to accelerate from Key: 7 | 2 = 7.2 s 0 to 100 km/h is recorded during 24 trials. Key: 7* | 6 = 7.6 s The results are represented by the stem-and-leaf plot Stem Leaf at right. 7* 2 4 4 a Find the median of the data. 7* 5 5 7 9 b Find the upper and lower quartiles of the data. 8* 0 0 1 2 4 4 4 c Find the interquartile range of the data. 8* 5 5 6 8 9 9* 2 2 3 9* 0 2
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Questions 7 to 10 refer to the stem-and-leaf plot below. Key: 12 | 1 = 1210 Key: 12* | 5 = 1250 Stem 12* 12* 13* 13* 14* 14* 7 multiple choice The class size used in the stem-and-leaf plot is: A 1 B 10 C 33 8 multiple choice The number of scores that have been recorded is: A 27 B 33 C 1210 9 multiple choice The median of the data is: A 13.4 B 14 10 multiple choice The interquartile range of the data is: A 14 B 100 C 1290 D 1390 C 1335 D 1340 D 1410 D 50 Leaf 1 2 4 5 7 7 0 1 1 5 6 6 0 2 3 0 1
9 9 2 3 4 4 7 9 9 4
11 The maximum hand spans (in cm) of 20 male concert pianists is recorded as follows: 23.6 20.2 22.8 21.4 25.1 24.8 23.2 21.6 20.7 23.6 22.8 24.6 21.8 22.8 23.1 24.6 21.7 24.7 22.2 23.0 a Complete a stem-and-leaf plot to represent the data. b Find the median of the data. c Find the upper and lower quartile of the data. d Find the interquartile range of the data. 12 The heights (in cm) of a sample of 30 plants are recorded as follows. 93 88 94 99 91 85 126 107 110 111 98 96 117 101 97 92 101 132 103 82 114 84 96 103 108 115 90 110 126 85 a Complete a stem-and-leaf plot to represent the data. b Find the median of the data. c Find the upper and lower quartile of the data. d Find the interquartile range of the data.
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Five-number summaries
Once the median and quartiles have been calculated, we are able to summarise a data set using ve numbers. This ve-number summary consists of: lower extreme the lowest score in the data set lower quartile the score at the 25th percentile median the middle score upper quartile the score at the 75th percentile upper extreme the highest score in the data set.
WORKED Example 19
For the set of scores below, develop a ve-number summary. 12 15 46 9 36 85 73 29 64 50 THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE 9 12 15 29 36 46 50 64 73 85 Lower extreme = 9 Lower quartile = 15 36 + 46 Median = ----------------2 Median = 41 Upper quartile = 64 Upper extreme = 85 Five-number summary = 9, 15, 41, 64, 85
Re-write the list in ascending order. Write the lowest score. Calculate the lower quartile. Calculate the median. Calculate the upper quartile. Write the upper extreme.
5 6
In most cases you will need to calculate the ve-number summary from an ogive.
WORKED Example 20
The ogive below shows the number of seeds found in each of 60 pumpkins.
Cumulative frequency 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0% 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 Number of seeds 50% 100%
Use the ogive to develop a ve-number summary.
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100%
THINK
1
WRITE/DRAW
60 Cumulative frequency 50 40 30 20 10 0 0% 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 Number of seeds 50%
Draw the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles on the ogive.
2 3 4 5 6
Write the lower extreme. Use the ogive to estimate the lower quartile. Use the ogive to estimate the median. Use the ogive to estimate the upper quartile. State the upper extreme.
Lower extreme = 10 Lower quartile = 31 Median = 38 Upper quartile = 47
Upper extreme = 70 Five-number summary = 10, 31, 38, 47, 70
Once a ve-number summary has been developed, it can be graphed using a box-andwhisker plot, a powerful way to display the spread of the data. The box-and-whisker plot consists of a central divided box with attached whiskers. The box spans the interquartile range, the vertical line inside the box marks the median and the whiskers indicate the range.
lower lower extreme quartile
median
upper upper quartile extreme
Box-and-whisker plots are always drawn to scale. This can be drawn with the venumber summary attached as labels:
15 21 23
28
or with a scale presented alongside the box-and-whisker plot.
10 15
20 25
30
Scale
310
WORKED Example 21
The box-and-whisker plot drawn below shows the marks achieved by a class on their end of year exam.
10
20 30
40 50
60 70
80 90 100
a State the median. b Find the interquartile range. c What was the highest mark in the class? THINK a The mark in the box shows the median (72). b
1
WRITE a Median = 72
The lower end of the box shows the lower quartile (63). The upper end of the box shows the upper quartile (77). Subtract the lower quartile from the upper quartile.
b Lower quartile = 63 Upper quartile = 77 Interquartile range = 77 63 Interquartile range = 14 c Top mark = 92
c The top end of the whisker gives the top mark (92).
WORKED Example 22
After analysing the speed of motorists through a particular intersection, the following venumber summary was developed. The lowest score is 82. The lower quartile is 84. The median is 89. The upper quartile is 95. The highest score is 114. Show this information in a box-and-whisker plot. THINK
1
DRAW
Draw a scale from 70 to 120 using 1 cm = 10 km/h. Draw the box from 84 to 95. Mark the median at 89. Draw the whiskers to 82 and 114.
70 80 90 100 110 120
2 3 4
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Graphics Calculator tip! Drawing a box-and-whisker plot

Earlier in the chapter we used a graphics calculator to nd each number in a venumber summary, and used them to nd the range and interquartile range. Once the data are entered, we can then get the graphics calculator to draw the boxand-whisker plot. Use the same data set that we used earlier, which was taken from worked example 14. The scores were 12, 9, 4, 6, 5, 8, 9, 4, 10 and 2. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Delete any existing data from all lists and then enter the scores into List 1.
3. Press F1 for GRPH, then F6 for SET. Use the arrow keys to highlight Graph Type and press F2 for Box, which will make MedBox appear in the display. Make sure that Xlist is set to List 1 and Frequency is set to 1 as shown at right. 4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, then F1 for GPH1. The box-and-whisker plot then appears on the screen.
5. Press SHIFT F1 for Trace. You can then use the left and right arrow keys to display the values of the ve-number summary used to draw the box-and-whisker plot.
remember
1. A ve-number summary is a summary set for a distribution. 2. The ve numbers used in a ve-number summary are the lower extreme, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and upper extreme. 3. A box-and-whisker plot can be used to graph a ve-number summary. 4. The box is used to show the interquartile range and the median is marked with a line in the box. The whiskers then extend to show the range of the data set.
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Five-number summaries
Example
UV stats
19
1 Write a ve-number summary for the data set below. 15 17 16 8 25 18 20 15 17 14 2 For each of the data sets below, write a ve-number summary. a 23 45 92 80 84 83 43 83 b 2 6 4 2 5 7 1 c 60 75 29 38 69 63 45 20 29 93 8 29 93
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3 A cumulative frequency histogram and polygon is shown at right. Write a ve-number summary of the data set.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
4 5 Score
4 A cumulative frequency histogram and polygon is shown at right. Write a ve-number summary of the data set.
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
45 55 65 75 85 95 Score
WORKED
Example
21
5 From the ve-number summary 6, 11, 13, 16, 32 nd: a the median b the interquartile range
c the range.
6 From the ve-number summary 101, 119, 122, 125, 128 nd: a the median b the interquartile range c the range.
WORKED
Example
22
7 A ve-number summary is given below. Lower extreme = 39.2 Lower quartile = 46.5 Median = 49.0 Upper quartile = 52.3 Upper extreme = 57.8 Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. 8 The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the distribution of nal points scored by a football 50 70 90 110 130 150 Points team over a seasons roster. a What was the teams greatest points score? b What was the teams smallest points score? c What was the teams median points score? d What was the range of points scored? e What was the interquartile range of points scored?
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9 The box-and-whisker plot at right shows the distribution of data formed by counting the number of honey bears in each of a large sample of packs. In any pack, what was: a the largest number of honey bears? b the smallest number of honey bears? c the median number of honey bears? d the range of numbers of honey bears? e the interquartile range of honey bears?
30
35
40 45
50 55 60 Scale
Questions 10, 11 and 12 refer to the box-and-whisker plot drawn below.
10
15 20
25 30 Scale
10 multiple choice The median of the data is: A 20 B 23 11 multiple choice The interquartile range of the data is: A 23 B 26 12 multiple choice Which of the following is not true of the data represented by the box-and-whisker plot? A One-quarter of the scores is between 5 and 20. B One-half of the scores is between 20 and 25. C The lowest quarter of the data is spread over a wide range. D Most of the data are contained between the scores of 5 and 20. 13 The data below show the number of sales made each day by a salesperson over a fortnight. 25, 31, 28, 43, 37, 43, 22, 45, 48, 33 a Write a ve-number summary of the data. b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. 14 The data below show monthly rainfall in millimetres. Jan. 10 Feb. 12 Mar. 21 Apr. 23 May 39 June 22 July 15 Aug. Sept. Oct. 11 22 37 Nov. Dec. 45 30 C 5 D 20 to 25 C 35 D 31
a Provide a ve-number summary of the data. b Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data.
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15 The following data detail the number of hamburgers sold by a fast food outlet every day over a 4-week period. Mon. 125 134 131 152 Tues. 144 157 121 163 Wed. 132 152 165 150 Thur. 148 126 129 148 Fri. 187 155 143 152 Sat. 172 183 182 179 Sun. 181 188 181 181
a Draw a frequency table of the data. (Use a class size of 10.) b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon for the data. c Use the ogive to nd approximations for the: i median ii lower quartile iii upper quartile. d Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. 16 The following data show the ages of 30 mothers upon the birth of their rst baby. 22 21 18 33 17 23 22 24 24 20 25 29 32 18 19 22 23 24 28 20 31 22 19 17 23 48 25 18 23 20 a Prepare a frequency table for the data. (Use a class size of 5.) b Draw an ogive for the data. c Draw a box-and-whisker plot of the data. d Describe the distribution in words. What does the distribution say about the age that mothers have their rst baby?
Work
T SHEE
9.2
315
summary
Frequency tables
A frequency table is used to display a set of data in table form. Ungrouped data are placed in a table and every score is displayed in the table. Grouped data are used for continuous data or when the scores are spread over a large range. It is best to group data to create ve to six classes. If the data are grouped, the table should display a column for class centre.
Graphs
A dot plot is used to display a set of scores on a scale. A sector graph (pie chart) is used for a display that allows comparison of categorical data. A line graph is used to show the way a quantity changes over time. A bar or column graph is used to show quantities associated with categorical data. A radar chart is a type of line graph that shows the way in which a quantity changes over time. It is most appropriate for a period of time that repeats.
Statistical graphs
Quantitative data are best displayed by a frequency histogram and polygon. A frequency histogram is a column graph that is drawn with a 0.5 unit (half column) space before the rst column and no other spaces between the columns. A frequency polygon is drawn as a line graph from the corner of the axes to the centre of each column. A cumulative frequency histogram and polygon graphs the cumulative frequency. There is no space before the rst column and the polygon is drawn from the corner of the axes to the top right-hand corner of each column.

The range is the difference between the highest score and the lowest score. The interquartile range is the difference between the score at the 25th percentile and the 75th percentile. The median is the score in the middle of the distribution (50th percentile). The median, lower quartile and upper quartile can be calculated by using an ogive (cumulative frequency polygon).
Five-number summary
A ve-number summary of a data set is the lower extreme, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and upper extreme. A ve-number summary can be graphed using a box-and-whisker plot. A box-and-whisker plot shows the spread of a data set on a scale.
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CHAPTER review
9A
1 A cricketer keeps track of the number of wickets he took in each innings in which he bowled during a season. The results are shown below. 0 2 3 1 0 6 4 1 1 2 0 0 4 3 2 2 3 1 0 1 1 1 2 0 1 0 Show this information in a frequency table.
9A
2 The following data give the amount of cut meat (in kg) obtained from 20 lambs. 4.5 6.2 5.8 4.7 4.0 3.9 6.2 6.8 5.5 6.1 5.9 5.8 5.0 4.3 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.3 4.2 4.8 Show these data in a frequency table using a class size of 0.5 kg.
9B
3 A survey is taken about the television stations being watched at 7:30 pm on a Monday night. ABC 27 SBS 5 Channel 7 48 Channel 9 72 Channel 10 28
Show this information using a sector graph.
9B 9C
4 The number of absences from a school is taken over a week. Monday 43 Tuesday 55 Wednesday 34 Thursday 45 Friday 63
Show this information using a radar chart. 5 The table below shows the number of sales made each day over a month in a car yard. Number of sales 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Frequency 2 7 12 6 2 0 1
Show this information in a frequency histogram and polygon.
317
9C
6 The frequency table below shows the crowds at football matches for a team over a season. Class 50009999 10 00014 999 15 00019 999 20 00024 999 25 00029 999 30 00034 999 Class centre Frequency 1 5 9 3 2 2
a Copy and complete the class centre column for the frequency table. b Show the information in a frequency histogram and polygon. 7 The frequency table below shows the marks achieved by Year 11 students on their English exam. Class 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8079 Class centre Frequency 3 6 12 15 18 10 Cumulative frequency
9C
a Copy and complete the frequency table. b Show the information on a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. 8 Find the range of each of the following sets of scores. a 28 24 26 24 25 29 22 27 25 b 118 2 56 45 72 43 69 84 159 0 c 1.9 0.7 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.4 9 For each of the data sets in question 8 calculate: i the median iii the lower quartile iii the upper quartile iv the interquartile range. 10 The cumulative frequency histogram and polygon at right shows the number of goals scored by a soccer team in each match over a season. Use the graph to calculate: a the median b the lower and upper quartiles c the interquartile range.
Cumulative frequency 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
9D 9D 9D
0 1 2 3 4 Number of goals scored in a soccer match
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9D
11 The cumulative frequency histogram and polygon at right shows the number of apples on each tree in an orchard. Use the graph to nd: a the median b the lower and upper quartiles c the interquartile range. 12 Display the following scores in a stem-and-leaf plot.
300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Cumulative frequency 45 20 25
.5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 34 44 54 64 74 84 Number of apples on a tree
9E
45 21 38 46 42 41 42 49 35 29 24 28 36 21 38 45 44 40 29 28 35 35 33 38 40 41 48 39 34 38 45 28 23 29 30 40 13 Use the stem-and-leaf plot drawn in the previous question to nd: a the range b the median c the interquartile range. 14 For the data set below, give a ve-number summary. 24 53 91 57 29 69 29 15 84 6 15 Use the ogive to develop a ve-number summary for the data set below.
Cumulative frequency 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
9E 9F 9F
15
25 35 Score
9F
16 For the box-and-whisker plot drawn at right: 0 a state the median b calculate the range c calculate the interquartile range.
10 15
30
35 40
45 50
55 60
9F
17 The number of babies born each day at a hospital over a year is tabulated and the venumber summary is given below. Lower extreme = 1 Upper quartile = 16 Lower quartile = 8 Upper extreme = 18 Median = 14 Show this information in a box-and-whisker plot.
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1 multiple choice The frequency table below shows the marks achieved on a test by a group of students. Score 15 16 17 18 19 20 How many students received a mark higher than 17? A 3 B 10 C 11 2 multiple choice Which of the following would be greatly affected by the addition of an extreme score to the data set? A the median B the range C the interquartile range D all would be greatly affected
Cumulative frequency 25 20 15 10 5 0 0% 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Weight 50% 100% Cumulative frequency %
Frequency 12 15 10 6 3 2
D 18
3 multiple choice For the cumulative frequency polygon at right, the interquartile range of the data is: A 12 B 17 C 24 D 12 to 24
Questions 4 and 5 refer to the box-and-whisker plot shown below.
10
15
20 25
30 35
40
45 Scale
4 multiple choice The upper quartile of the data is: A 24 B 28 5 multiple choice The interquartile range is: A 12 B 28 C 14 to 42 D 24 to 36 C 36 D 42
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6 The data set below shows the number of admissions to a hospital each day over a month. 25 20 33 41 15 18 24 40 12 29 30 38 26 20 17 23 10 11 16 23 22 27 14 11 12 14 32 24 29 33 a b c d e Using classes 1014, 1519, 2024, etc., show this information in a frequency table. Draw a frequency histogram and polygon for the data. Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. State the range of the data set. Use the ogive to nd: i the median ii the interquartile range.
7 The box-and-whisker plots below show the sales of two different brands of washing powder at a supermarket each day.
Brand A Brand B 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Scale
CHAPTER
test yourself
a b c d e
State the range for Brand A. State the interquartile range for Brand A. State the range for Brand B. State the interquartile range for Brand B. Describe the spread of the sales for each brand of washing powder.
Summary statistics
10
syllabus reference
Data analysis 4 Summary statistics
In this chapter
10A Calculating the mean 10B Standard deviation 10C Median and mode 10D Best summary statistics
areyou
10.1
Finding the mean of a list of scores
Are you ready?
READY?
1 Find the average of each of the following sets of scores. a 1, 3, 4, 6, 8 b 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 1.1, 1.2, 1.7 c 180, 45, 92, 84, 96, 2, 104, 32, 8, 111
10.2
2 Draw a dot plot to represent the following data. 6 8 7 9 4 6 7 8 3 5 7
10.3
3 a Display the following sets of scores in a frequency table. 15 16 18 19 15 13 14 13 12 18 15 19 18 12 14 13 17 18 14 16 b Use the classes 09, 1019, 2029, etc. to display the scores below in a frequency table. 45 13 9 12 28 19 36 37 28 42 28 18 39 28 36 40 28 37 28 48
10.5
Presenting data as a stem-and-leaf plot
4 Place the scores shown below in a stem-and-leaf plot. 48 31 20 20 46 20 25 41 32 49 24 31 31 28 46 48 41 46 27 46 29 24 36 44 29 40 41 20 39 41
Chapter 10 Summary statistics
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Calculating the mean Average what does it mean?

Survey a group of people about what they believe is meant by the word average. Use their answers to describe what the word is generally understood to mean.
When looking at a set of statistics we are often asked for the average. The average is a gure that describes a typical score. In statistics, the correct term for the average is the mean. The mean is the rst of three measures of central tendency that we will be studying. The others are the median and the mode. x ------The statistical symbol for the mean is . The formula for the mean is = - . x x n In Mathematics, the symbol (sigma) means sum or total, x represents each individual score in a list and x is therefore the sum of the scores. The sum is divided by n, which represents the number of scores.
WORKED Example 1
Find the mean of the scores 17, 16, 13, 15, 16, 20, 10, 15. THINK
1
WRITE Total = 17 + 16 + 13 + 15 + 16 + 20 + 10 + 15 Total = 122 122 Mean = -------8 Mean = 15.25
Find the total of all scores. Divide the total by 8 (the number of scores).
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Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the mean from a list of scores

In the previous chapter we introduced putting a data set into a graphics calculator and extracting certain summary statistics. In this chapter we are going to explore that function further. Consider worked example 1. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Delete any existing data and enter the scores into List 1.
3. Press F2 for CALC, then F6 for SET. For 1Var Xlist, enter List 1 by pressing F1 . This means that the scores are stored in List 1. For 1Var Freq, enter 1 by pressing F1 . This means every score entered has a frequency of 1. 4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen. Press F1 for 1Var to display all summary statistics. The mean (x ) is the rst summary statistic displayed.
As we have seen, large amounts of data are often presented in a frequency table. To calculate the mean in such a case, we need to add an extra column to the table. This column is the f x column. In this column, we multiply each frequency by the score. We then total this column to nd the total of all scores and divide this by the sum of the frequency column. Written as a formula this is: = f x x ----------------f
WORKED Example 2
Complete the frequency table at right, then calculate the mean. Score (x) 4 5 6 7 8 9 Frequency (f ) 3 7 11 13 10 6 f = f x = fx
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THINK
1 2
WRITE
Complete the f x column by multiplying each score by the frequency. Sum the frequency and f x columns.
Score (x) 4 5 6 7 8 9 = f x x ----------------f 338 x = -------50 x = 6.76
Frequency (f ) 3 7 11 13 10 6 f = 50
fx 12 35 66 91 80 54 f x = 338
Use the formula to calculate the mean.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the mean from a frequency table

When data are presented in the form of a frequency table, the set up of the calculator is slightly different when nding summary statistics. This is because we enter the scores in List 1 and the frequencies in List 2. The calculator needs to be told that this is how the data are presented. Consider worked example 2. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Delete any existing data and enter the scores in List 1 and the frequencies in List 2.
3. Press F2 for CALC, then F6 for SET. For 1Var Xlist, enter List 1 by pressing F1 . For 1Var Freq, enter List 2 by pressing F3 . This means the entries in List 2 are the frequencies corresponding to the entries in List 1. 4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen. Press F1 for 1Var to display all summary statistics. The mean (x ) is the rst summary statistic displayed.
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The same method is used when the frequency table is given in terms of grouped data. In these cases, however, to calculate the f x column we use the class centre multiplied by the frequency. In these cases, we obtain an estimate of the mean rather than an exact mean.
WORKED Example 3
Complete the frequency distribution table and use it to estimate the mean of the distribution. Class 2529 3034 3539 4044 4550 Class centre (x) Frequency (f ) 4 9 13 12 7 f = THINK
1 2
fx
f x =
WRITE
Calculate the class centres. Multiply each class centre by the frequency to complete the f x column. Sum the frequency and the f x column. Class 2529 3034 3539 4044 4550 = f x x ----------------f 1710 x = ----------45 x = 38
Class centre (x) 27 32 37 42 47
Frequency (f ) 4 9 13 12 7 f = 45
fx 108 288 481 504 329 f x = 1710
Use the formula to calculate the mean.
In most cases, when calculating the mean you will use your calculator and will need to set it to statistics mode. Once this is done, each score is entered and the M+ function pressed. When all scores are entered, the mean is found by using the x function.
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If the data are presented in the form of a frequency distribution table, you will need to check how to enter multiple scores. On many calculators, you press score frequency followed by M+, but check with your teacher as to how your calculator works. For all statistical questions, when using your calculator clear the memory at the beginning of each question. Most calculators will display the number of scores you have entered after each entry. This is a useful check that you have cleared the memory and entered the data correctly.
WORKED Example 4
Use your calculator to nd the mean of: a 10, 15, 47, 23, 56 b Score Frequency 67 68 69 70 71 THINK a
1 2 3
10 23 35 28 12 WRITE a Mean = 30.2 b Mean = 69.1
1 2 3
Put your calculator on to statistics mode and clear the memory. Press each score followed by M+. Get the mean by pressing . x Set your calculator to statistics mode and clear the memory. Press each score frequency then M+. Get the mean by pressing . x
remember
1. The mean is the statistical term for average. 2. The mean is calculated by adding all scores then dividing by the number of scores. 3. When calculating the mean from a frequency distribution table, a column for frequency score ( f x) is added. The mean is then calculated using the f x formula: = x ----------------- . f 4. If the frequency distribution uses grouped data, the f x column is calculated using class centres. 5. The mean can be calculated using your calculator. To do so, set the calculator to statistics mode, enter the scores using the M+ function and make sure you know how to retrieve the mean using the x function.
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10A
SkillS
Calculating the mean
HEET
10.1
WORKED
Example
1 Finding the mean of a list of scores
SkillS
HEET
10.2
1 Calculate the mean of each of the following sets of scores. a 4, 8, 3, 5, 5 b 16, 24, 30, 35, 23, 11, 45, 28 c 65, 92, 56, 84 d 9.2, 9.7, 8.8, 8.1, 5.6, 7.5, 8.5, 6.4, 7.0, 6.4 e 356, 457, 182, 316, 432, 611, 299, 355 2 Majid sits for ve tests in Mathematics. His marks on the tests were 45%, 90%, 67%, 86% and 75%. Calculate Majids mean mark on the ve tests. 3 An oil company surveys the price of petrol in eight Sydney suburbs. The results are below. Manly 132.9 c/L Lakemba 121.9 c/L Cronulla 129.9 c/L Liverpool 119.9 c/L Wentworthville 125.5 c/L Epping 128.9 c/L Campbelltown 125.9 c/L Penrith 120.9 c/L Based on these results, calculate the mean price of petrol in cents per litre in Sydney. 4 The seven players on a netball team have the following heights: 1.65 m, 1.81 m, 1.75 m, 1.78 m, 1.88 m, 1.92 m and 1.86 m. Calculate the mean height of the players on this team, correct to 2 decimal places. 5 A golf ball manufacturer randomly tests the mass of 10 golf balls from a batch. The batch will be considered satisfactory if the average mass of the balls is between 44.8 g and 45.2 g. The mass, in grams, of those tested are: 45.19, 45.06, 45.35, 44.78, 45.47, 44.68, 44.95, 45.32, 44.60, 44.95. Will the batch be passed as satisfactory? 6 The marks out of 10 on a spelling test are recorded in the frequency table below. Score 4 5 6 Frequency 2 4 5 9 3 5 2 f = f x = fx
SkillS SkillS SkillS
HEET
10.3
HEET
10.4
Organising data into class intervals
HEET
10.5
Presenting data as a stem-and- WORKED leaf plot Example 2
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Mean
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Mean (DIY)
et et
7 8 9 10
a Copy and complete the table. f x b Use the formula: = x ----------------- to calculate the mean. f
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7 An electrical store records the number of televisions sold each week over a year. The results are shown in the table below. No. of televisions sold 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
No. of weeks 4 4 3 6 7 12 8 2 4 2 f =
fx
f x =
a Copy and complete the table. b Calculate the mean number of televisions sold each week over the year. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place. 8 In a soccer season a team played 50 matches. The number of goals scored in each match is shown in the table below. No. of goals No. of matches 0 4 1 9 2 18 3 10 4 5 5 4
a Redraw this table in the form of a frequency distribution table. b Use your table to calculate the mean number of goals scored each game. 9 A clothing store records the dress sizes sold during a day. The results are shown below. 12 14 10 12 8 12 16 10 8 12 10 12 18 10 12 14 16 10 12 12 12 14 18 10 14 12 12 14 14 10 a Present this information in a frequency table. b Calculate the mean dress size sold this day. 10 multiple choice There are eight players in a Rugby forward pack. The mean mass of the players is 104 kg. The total mass of the forward pack is: A 13 kg B 104 kg C 112 kg D 832 kg
330
11 multiple choice A small business employs ve people on a mean wage of $580 per week. A manager is then employed and receives $700 per week. What is the mean wage of the six employees? A $580 B $600 C $680 D $3600 12 multiple choice The mean height of ve starting players in a basketball match is 1.82 m. During a time out, a player who is 1.78 m tall is replaced by a player 1.88 m tall. What is the mean height of the players after the replacement has been made? A 1.78 m B 1.82 m C 1.84 m D 1.88 m
WORKED
Example
13 The table below shows a set of class marks on a test out of 100. Class 3140 4150 5160 6170 7180 8190 91100 Class centre (x) Frequency (f ) 1 3 4 7 11 2 2 f = a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table. b Use the table to calculate the mean class mark. 14 In the heats of the 100 m freestyle at a swimming meet, the times of the swimmers were recorded in the table below. Time 50.0151.00 51.0152.00 52.0153.00 53.0154.00 54.0155.00 55.0156.00 Class centre No. of swimmers 4 12 23 38 15 3 f = a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table. b Use the table to calculate the mean time. f x = fx f x = fx
331
15 A cricketer played 50 innings in test cricket for the following scores. 23 65 8 112 54 0 84 12 21 4 25 105 74 40 1 15 33 45 21 47 16 70 22 33 21 8 34 36 5 7 69 104 57 78 158 0 51 16 6 16 0 49 0 14 28 52 21 3 3 7 a Put the above information into a frequency distribution table using appropriate groupings. b Use the table to estimate the batting average for this player.
WORKED
Example
16 Use the statistics function on your calculator to nd the mean of each of the following scores, correct to 1 decimal place. 4 a 11, 15, 13, 12, 21, 19, 8, 14 b 2.8, 2.3, 3.6, 2.9, 4.5, 4.2 c 41, 41, 41, 42, 43, 45, 45, 45, 45, 46, 49, 50 17 Use your calculator to nd the mean from each of the following tables.
a
Score 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency 7 10 18 19 38 27 10 5
Score 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Frequency 5 18 25 25 14 10 3
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18 The table below shows the heights of a group of people. Height (cm) 150154 155159 160164 165169 170174 175179 Calculate the mean of this distribution. 19 Seventy students were timed on a 100 m sprint during their P.E. class. The results are shown in the table below. Time (s) Number 1213 13 1314 17 1415 25 1516 15 1617 10 Class centre 152 157 162 167 172 177 Frequency 7 14 13 23 24 12
a Calculate the class centre for each group in the distribution. b Use your calculator to nd the mean of the distribution. 20 A drink machine is installed near a quiet beach. The number of cans sold each day over the rst 10 weeks after its installation is shown below. 4 39 31 31 50 43 70 45 57 71 18 26 3 52 51 59 33 51 27 62 30 90 3 30 97 59 33 44 99 62 72 6 42 83 19 49 11 6 63 4 53 20 45 58 1 9 79 41 2 33 97 71 52 97 69 83 39 84 92 43 71 98 8 97 18 89 21 9 4 17 a Put this information into a frequency distribution table using the classes 110, 1120, 2130 etc. b Calculate the mean number of cans sold per day over these 10 weeks.
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Standard deviation
In the previous chapter, we discussed using the range and the interquartile range as a measure of the spread of a data set. The most commonly used measure of spread is the standard deviation. The standard deviation is a measure of how much a typical score in a data set differs from the mean. The standard deviation is found by entering a set of scores into your calculator, just as you do when you are nding the mean. Your calculator will have a function that gives the standard deviation. There are two standard deviation functions on your calculator. The rst, n, is the population standard deviation. This function is used when the statistical analysis is conducted on the entire population.
WORKED Example 5
Below are the scores out of 100 by a class of 20 students on a Science exam. Calculate the mean and the standard deviation. 87 69 95 73 88 47 95 63 91 66 59 70 67 83 71 57 82 65 84 69 THINK
1 2 3
WRITE = 74.05 x n = 13.07
Enter the data set into your calculator. Retrieve the mean using the x function. Retrieve the standard deviation using the n function.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the population standard deviation

The summary statistics displayed by your graphics calculator include the two standard deviation functions. Consider worked example 5. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
3. Press F2 for CALC, then F6 for SET. Set the calculator up for a list of scores as shown earlier and as shown at right.
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4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, then F1 to display the summary statistics. The population standard deviation is displayed by the symbol xn.
Population standard deviation
When the statistical analysis is done using a sample of the population, a slightly different standard deviation function is used. Called the sample standard deviation, this value will be slightly higher than the population standard deviation. The sample standard deviation will be found on your calculator using the n 1 or the sn function.
WORKED Example 6
Ian surveys twenty Year 11 students and asks how much money they earn from part-time work each week. The results are given below. $65 $82 $47 $78 $108 $94 $60 $79 $88 $91 $50 $73 $68 $95 $83 $76 $79 $72 $69 $97 Calculate the mean and standard deviation. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE = $77.70 x n 1 = $15.56
Enter the statistics into your calculator. Retrieve the mean using the x function. Retrieve the standard deviation using the n 1 function, as a sample has been used.
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the sample standard deviation

The summary statistics displayed by your graphics calculator include the sample standard deviation. Consider worked example 6. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
3. Press F2 for CALC, then F6 for SET. Set the calculator up for a list of scores as shown earlier and as shown at right.
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4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, then F1 to display the summary statistics. The sample standard deviation is displayed by the symbol xn 1.
Sample standard deviation
For most examples, you will need to read the question carefully to decide whether to use the population or the sample standard deviation. The standard deviation can also be calculated when the data are presented in table form. This is done by entering the data in the same way as they were when calculating the mean earlier in this chapter.
WORKED Example 7
The table below shows the scores of a class of thirty Year 3 students on a spelling test. Score 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Frequency 1 2 4 9 6 7 1
Calculate the mean and standard deviation. THINK

1 2 3
WRITE
Enter the data into your calculator using score frequency. Retrieve the mean using the x function. Retrieve the standard deviation using the n function, as the whole population is included in the statistics.
= 7.4 x n = 1.4
Once we have calculated the standard deviation, we can make conclusions about the reliability and consistency of the data set. The lower the standard deviation, the less spread out the data set is. By using the standard deviation, we can determine whether a set of scores is more or less consistent (or reliable) than another set. The standard deviation is the best measure of this because, unlike the range or interquartile range as a measure of dispersion, the standard deviation considers the distance of every score from the mean.
336
A higher standard deviation means that scores are less clustered around the mean and less dependable. For example, consider the following two students: Student A: = 60 x n = 5 Student B: = 60 x n = 15 Both students have the same mean. However, student A has a standard deviation of 5 and student B has a standard deviation of 15. Student A is far more consistent and can condently be expected to score around 60 in any future exam. Student B is more inconsistent but is probably capable of scoring a higher mark than student A. This concept will be discussed further during the HSC course.
WORKED Example 8
Two brands of light globe are tested to see how long they will burn (in hours). Brand X: Brand Y: 850 950 1400 1150 1000 900 975 1100 1050 950 1075 1025 875 1200 850 825 1000 950 975 900
Which of the two brands of light globe is more reliable?
THINK
1 2
WRITE
3 4
Enter both sets of data into your calculator. Choose the sample standard deviation because a sample of each light globe brand has been chosen. Write down the sample standard deviation for each brand. The brand with the lower standard deviation is the more reliable.
Brand X: n 1 = 190.4 Brand Y: n 1 = 62.4 Brand Y is the more reliable as it has a lower standard deviation.
remember
1. The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of a data set. 2. Standard deviation is found on your calculator by entering the data set using the calculators statistical mode. 3. The population standard deviation is used when an entire population is considered in the statistical analysis and can be found on the calculator using the n function. 4. The sample standard deviation is used when a sample of the population is used in the analysis and can be found using the n 1 function.
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10B
WORKED
Standard deviation
Example
1 For each of the sets of scores below, calculate the standard deviation. Assume that the scores represent an entire population and answer correct to 2 decimal places. a 3, 5, 8, 2, 7, 1, 6, 5 b 11, 8, 7, 12, 10, 11, 14 c 25, 15, 78, 35, 56, 41, 17, 24 d 5.2, 4.7, 5.1, 12.6, 4.8 e 114, 12, 3.6, 42.8, 0.5 2 For each of the sets of scores below, calculate the sample standard deviation, correct to 2 decimal places. a 25, 36, 75, 85, 6, 49, 77, 80, 37, 66 b 4.8, 9.3, 7.1, 9.9, 7.0, 4.1, 6.2 c 112, 25, 56, 81, 0, 5, 178, 99, 41 d 0.3, 0.3, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 0.8, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 e 56, 1, 258, 45, 23, 58, 48, 35, 246 3 For each of the following, state whether it is appropriate to use the population standard deviation or the sample standard deviation. a A quality control ofcer tests the life of 50 batteries from a batch of 1000. b The weight of every bag of potatoes is checked and recorded before being sold. c The number of people who attend every football match over a season is analysed. d A survey of 100 homes records the number of cars in each household. e The score of every HSC student in Mathematics is recorded. 4 The band Aquatron is to release a new CD. The recording company needs to predict the number of copies that will be sold at various music stores throughout Australia. To do so, a sample of 10 music stores supplied information about the sales of the previous CD released by Aquatron, as shown below. 580 695 547 236 458 620 872 364 587 1207 a Calculate the mean number of sales at each store. b Should the population or sample standard deviation be used in this case? c What is the value of the appropriate standard deviation?
WORKED
Example
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5 A supermarket chain is analysing its sales over a week. The chain has 15 stores and the sales for each store for the past week were (in $million): 1.5 2.1 2.4 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.6 2.0 0.7 1.2 1.7 1.3 a Calculate the mean sales for the week. b Should the population or sample standard deviation be used in this case? c What is the value of the appropriate standard deviation?
WORKED
Example
6 Use the statistical function on your calculator to nd the mean and standard deviation (correct to 1 decimal place) for the information presented in the following tables. In each case, use the population standard deviation. a Score 3 4 5 6 7 Frequency 12 24 47 21 7 b Score 45 46 47 48 49 50 Frequency 1 16 39 61 52 36 c Score 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 Frequency 22 17 8 10 12 21 29
7 Copy and complete the class centre column for each of the following distributions and use your calculator to nd an estimate for the mean and standard deviation (correct to 2 decimal places). In each case use the population standard deviation. a Class 1012 1315 1618 1921 2224 b Class 3140 4150 5160 6170 7180 8190 91100 Class centre Class centre c Frequency 12 16 25 28 13 Class 04 59 1014 1519 2024 2529 Frequency 15 28 36 19 8 7 2 Class centre
Frequency 15 24 31 33 29 17
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WORKED
Example
8 Below are the marks achieved by two students in ve tests. Brianna: 75, 80, 70, 72, 78 Katie: 50, 95, 90, 80, 55 a Calculate the mean and standard deviation for each student. b Which of the two students is more consistent? Explain your answer. 9 multiple choice From Year 11, 21 students are chosen to complete a test. The scores are shown in the table below. Class 1020 2030 3040 4050 5060 Frequency 1 6 9 4 1
When preparing an analysis of the typical performance of Year 11 students on the test, the standard deviation used is: A 9.209 B 9.437 C 21 D 34.048 10 multiple choice The results below are Ians marks in four exams for each subject that he studies. English: 63 85 78 50 Maths: 69 71 32 97 Biology: 45 52 60 41 Geography: 65 78 59 61 In which subject does Ian achieve the most consistent results? A English B Maths C Biology D Geography 11 The following frequency distribution gives the prices paid by a car wrecking yard for a sample of 40 car wrecks. Price ($) 0500 5001000 10001500 15002000 20002500 25003000 30003500 Frequency 2 4 8 10 7 6 3
Find the mean and standard deviation of the price paid for these wrecks.
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12 The table below shows the life of a sample of 175 household light globes. Life (hours) 200250 250300 300350 350400 400450 450500 500550 550600 600650 650700 Frequency 2 5 12 25 42 38 26 15 7 3
a Find the range of the data. b Use the class centres to nd the mean and standard deviation in the lifetimes of this sample of light globes. 13 Crunch and Crinkle are two brands of potato crisps. Each are sold in packets nominally of the same size and for the same price. Upon investigation of a sample of packets of each, it is found that Crunch and Crinkle have the same mean mass (25 g). The standard deviation of the masses of Crunch is, however, 5 g and the standard deviation of the masses of Crinkle is 2 g. Which brand do you think represents better value for money under these circumstances? Why?
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Median and mode

So far we have used the mean as a measure of the typical score in a data set. Consider the case of someone who is analysing the typical house price in an area. On a particular day, ve houses are sold in the area for the following prices: $375 000 $349 000 $360 000 $411 000 $1 250 000 For these ve houses the mean price is $549 000. The mean is much greater than most of the houses in the data set. This is because there is one score that is much greater than all the others. For such data sets, we need to use a different measure of central tendency. In the previous chapter, we introduced the median as the middle score in a data set, when all scores are arranged in order. For the above data set, the median house price is $375 000, a much better measure of the typical house price in this area.
WORKED Example 9
Calculate the median of the scores 3, 5, 8, 4, 4, 6, 9, 1, 6. THINK 1 Rewrite the scores in ascending order. 2 The median is the middle score. WRITE 1, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 8, 9 Median = 5
The median becomes more complicated when there is an even number of scores because there are two scores in the middle. When there is an even number of scores, the median is the average of the two middle scores.
WORKED Example 10
Find the median of the scores 13, 13, 16, 12, 19, 18, 20, 18. THINK 1 Write the scores in ascending order.
2
There is an even number (8) scores, so average the two middle scores.
WRITE 12, 13, 13, 16, 18, 18, 19, 20 16 + 18 Median = ----------------2 Median = 17
The median can also be calculated from the cumulative frequency column of a frequency table. The cumulative frequency column puts the scores into order and tells us what score is in each position. Consider the frequency distribution table below. Score 4 5 6 7 8 9 Frequency 1 6 9 8 4 2 Cumulative frequency 1 7 16 24 28 30 The 1st score is 4. The 2nd7th scores are 5. The 8th16th scores are 6. The 17th24th scores are 7. The 25th28th scores are 8. The 29th and 30th scores are 9.
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There are 30 scores in this distribution and so the middle two scores will be the 15th and 16th scores. By looking down the cumulative frequency column we can see that these scores are both 6. Therefore, 6 is the median of this distribution.
WORKED Example 11
Find the median for the frequency distribution at right.
Score 34 35 36 37 38 39
THINK
1
WRITE Score 34 35 36 37 38 39 Frequency 3 8 12 9 8 5 Cumulative frequency 3 11 23 32 40 45
Redraw the frequency table with a cumulative frequency column.
2 3
There are 45 scores and so the middle score is the 23rd score. Look down the cumulative frequency column to see that the 23rd score is 36.
Median = 23rd score Median = 36
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the median

Once the data are entered into the graphics calculator, the display of summary statistics gives us the median. This is a function that most scientic calculators do not have. Consider worked example 11. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
2. Delete any existing data and enter the scores in List 1 and the frequencies in List 2.
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3. Press F2 for CALC, then F6 for SET. Set the calculator up for data stored in a frequency table as shown earlier in the chapter and as shown by the screen at right.
4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, then F1 to display the summary statistics. To see the median you will need to use the arrow keys to scroll down the screen by three lines.
Median
When the frequency table presents grouped data, the median is estimated from the ogive as shown in the previous chapter. There are many examples where neither the mean nor the median is the appropriate measure of the typical score in a data set. Consider the case of a clothing store. It needs to re-order a supply of dresses. To know what sizes to order it looks at past sales of this particular style and gathers the following data: 8 12 14 12 16 10 12 14 16 18 14 12 14 12 12 8 18 16 12 14 For this data set the mean dress size is 13.2. Dresses are not sold in size 13.2, so this has very little meaning. The median is 13, which also has little meaning as dresses are sold only in even-numbered sizes. What is most important to the clothing store is the dress size that sells the most. In this case size 12 occurs most frequently. The score that has the highest frequency is called the mode.
WORKED Example 12
Find the mode of the scores below. 4, 5, 9, 4, 6, 8, 4, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4 THINK The score 4 occurs most often and so it is the mode. WRITE Mode = 4
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding the mode

Once the data are entered into the graphics calculator, the display of summary statistics gives us the mode. This is a function that most scientic calculators do not have. Consider worked example 12. 1. From the MENU select STAT.
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2. Delete any existing data and enter the scores into List 1 .
3. Press F2 for CALCthen F6 for SET Set the calculator , . up for a list of scores as shown earlier and as shown at right.
4. Press EXIT to return to the previous screen, then F1 to display the summary statistics. To see the mode you will need to use the arrow keys to scroll down to the last line of the display.
Mode
When two scores occur most often an equal number of times, both scores are given as the mode. In this situation the scores are bimodal. If all scores occur an equal number of times, then the distribution has no mode. The Casio CFX-9850 shows only the highest mode. The Casio FX-9860GAU shows all modes, as well as the number of modes and the frequency of each. To nd the mode from a frequency distribution table, we simply give the score that has the highest frequency.
WORKED Example 13
For the frequency distribution below, state the mode. Score Frequency 14 3 15 6 16 11 17 14 18 10 19 7
THINK The highest frequency is 14, which belongs to the score 17 and so 17 is the mode.
WRITE Mode = 17
When a table is presented using grouped data, we do not have a single mode. In these cases, the class with the highest frequency is called the modal class.
remember
1. The median is the middle score in a data set or the average of the two middle scores. 2. The median can be found using the cumulative frequency column of a frequency table. 3. The mode is the score that occurs the most.
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10C
WORKED
Median and mode

Median
E E E E
Example
1 The scores of seven people on a spelling test are given below. 5 6 5 8 5 9 8 Calculate the median of these marks. 2 Below are the scores of eight people who played a round of golf. 75 80 81 76 84 83 81 82 Calculate the median for this set of scores. 3 Find the median for each of the following sets of scores. a 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 9 b 5.6, 5.2, 5.4, 5.3, 5.8, 5.4, 5.3, 5.4 c 45, 62, 39, 88, 75 d 102, 99, 106, 108, 101, 103, 102, 105, 102, 101 4 A factory has 80 employees. Over a two-week period the number of people absent from work each day was recorded and the results are shown below. 3, 1, 5, 4, 3, 25, 4, 2, 4, 5 a Calculate the median number of people absent from work each day. b Calculate the mean number of people absent from work each day. c Does the mean or the median give a better measure of the typical number of people absent from work each day? Explain your answer.
L Spre XCE ad
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Example
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Median (DIY)
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sheet sheet
Mode
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Mode (DIY)
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WORKED
Example
11
5 The table at right shows the number of cans of drink sold from a vending machine at a high school each day. a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table. b Use the table to calculate the median number of cans of drink sold each day from the vending machine.
Score 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Frequency 4 9 6 12 8 5 4 2
6 The table at right shows the number of accidents a tow truck attends each day over a three-week period. Calculate the median number of accidents attended to by the tow truck each day.
No. of accidents 2 3 4 5 6
No. of days 4 12 3 1 1
7 The table at right shows the number of errors made by a machine each day over a 50-day period. Calculate the median number of errors made by the machine each day.
No. of errors per day 0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 9 18 13 6 3 1
8 multiple choice There are 25 scores in a distribution. The median score will be the: A 12th score B 12.5th score C 13th score D average of the 12th and 13th score.
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9 multiple choice For the scores 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9, 10 the median is: A 5 B 6 C 6.5 10 multiple choice Consider the frequency table at right. The median of these scores is: A 2 B 3 C 8 D 13 Score 1 2 3 4 5 D 7 Frequency 12 13 8 7 5
11 The frequency distribution table below shows the number of sick days taken by each worker in a small business. Days sickness 04 59 1014 1519 2024 2529 3034 Frequency 10 12 7 6 5 3 2 Cumulative frequency
a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table. b Calculate the median class for this distribution. 12 For the frequency distribution table in question 11: a make a list of the class centres for the distribution b draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon c use the cumulative frequency polygon to estimate the median of the distribution.
WORKED
Example
13 For each of the following sets of scores nd the mode. a 2, 5, 3, 4, 5 12 b 8, 10, 7, 10, 9, 8, 8 c 11, 12, 11, 15, 14, 13 d 0.5, 0.4, 0.6, 0.3, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.9, 0.4 e 110, 113, 100, 112, 110, 113, 110 14 Find the mode for each of the following. (Hint: Some are bimodal and others have no mode.) a 16, 17, 19, 15, 17, 19, 14, 16, 17 b 147, 151, 148, 150, 148, 152, 151 c 2, 3, 1, 9, 7, 6, 8 d 68, 72, 73, 72, 72, 71, 72, 68, 71, 68 e 2.6, 2.5, 2.9, 2.6, 2.4, 2.4, 2.3, 2.5, 2.6
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WORKED
Example
15 Use the tables below to state the mode of the distribution. a b c 13 Score Frequency Score Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 2 4 5 6 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 3 5 8 5 3
Score 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Frequency 2 4 1 5 6 3 6 2
16 Use the frequency histogram below to state the mode of the distribution.
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Frequency
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Score
17 For each of the following grouped distributions, state the modal class. a b Class Frequency Class Frequency 14 58 912 1316 1720 2124 2528 6 12 30 23 46 27 9 17 814 1521 2228 2935 3642 4349 Depth (cm) 050 50100 100150 150200 200250 250300 300350 350400 3 8 9 25 12 11 2 Frequency 8 9 12 15 6 4 2 2
18 The table at right shows the depth of snow during every day of the ski season. a Redraw the table to include the class centres and cumulative frequency. b Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. c Use the graph to estimate the median depth of snow for the ski season.
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19 The weekly wage (in dollars) of 40 people is shown below. 376 592 299 501 375 366 204 359 382 274 223 295 232 325 311 513 348 235 329 203 556 419 226 494 205 307 417 204 528 487 543 532 435 415 540 260 318 593 592 393 a Use the classes $200$249, $250$299, $300$350 etc. to display the information in a frequency distribution table. b From your table, calculate the median class. c Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon, and use it to estimate the median wage in the group.
1
For the set of scores 2, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 9, 10 nd: 1 the mean 2 the median 3 the mode 4 the population standard deviation 5 the sample standard deviation. For the table of scores below nd: Score 75 76 77 78 79 80 6 the mean 7 the median 8 the mode 9 the population standard deviation 10 the sample standard deviation. Frequency 12 19 52 64 33 1 Cumulative frequency 12 31 83 147 180 181
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Best summary statistics

Having now examined all three summary statistics, it is important to recognise when it is appropriate to use each one. In some circumstances, one summary statistic may be more appropriate than the others. For example, a shoe manufacturer notes that in a new style of sporting footwear: mean size sold is 8.63 median size is 8.75 mode size is 9. In this case, the mode is the most useful measure as the manufacturer needs to know which size sells the most. The mean and median are of less use to the manufacturer.
WORKED Example 14
Below are the wages of ten employees in a small business. $420 a b c d $430 $490 $475 $465 $450 $1700 $420 $420 $440 Calculate the mean wage. Calculate the median wage. Calculate the mode wage. Does the mean, median or mode give the best measure of a typical wage in this business? WRITE a Total = $5710 Mean = $5710 10 Mean = $571 b $420 $420 $420 $430 $440 $450 $465 $475 $490 $1700 $440 + $450 Median = ----------------------------2 Median = $445 c Mode = $420 d The median is the best measure of the typical wage as the mode is the lowest score, which is not typical, and the mean is inated by the $1700 wage.
THINK a
1 2
Total all the wages. Divide the total by 10.
Write the wages in ascending order. Average the 5th and 6th score to nd the median.
c $420 is the score that occurs most often and so this is the mode. d The mean is larger than what is typical because of one very large wage: the mode is the lowest wage and so this is not typical. Therefore, the median is the best measure.
For each of these examples you will need to think carefully about the relevance of each summary statistic in terms of the particular example.
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remember
1. The three summary statistics are: mean calculated by adding all scores, then dividing by the number of scores median the middle score or average of the two middle scores mode the score with the highest frequency. 2. Be careful when using the mean. One or two extreme scores can greatly increase or decrease its value. 3. When the mean is not a good measure of central tendency, the median is used. 4. The mode is the best measure in some examples where discrete data means that the mean and median may have very little meaning.
10D
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Best summary statistics

GC
Example
1 There are ten houses in a street. A real-estate agent values each house with the am progr C following results. 14 UV stats $350 000 $390000 $375000 $350000 $950000 $350000 $365000 $380000 $360000 $380000 a b c d Calculate the mean house valuation. Calculate the median house valuation. Calculate the mode house valuation. Which of the above is the best measure of central tendency?
program GC
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UV stats
2 The table below shows the number of shoes of each size that were sold over a week at a shoe store. Size 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 a b c d Frequency 5 7 19 24 16 8 7
Calculate the mean shoe size sold. Calculate the median shoe size sold. Calculate the mode of the data set. Which measure of central tendency has the most meaning to the shoe store proprietor?
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3 The table below shows the crowds at football matches over a season. Crowd 10 00020 000 20 00030 000 30 00040 000 40 00050 000 50 00060 000 60 00070 000 70 00080 000 a b c d e f Class centre 15 000 25 000 35 000 45 000 55 000 65 000 75 000 Frequency 95 64 22 15 3 0 1
Calculate the mean crowd over the season. Calculate the median class. Calculate the modal class. Draw a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. Use the ogive to estimate the median. Which measure of central tendency would best describe the typical crowd at football matches over the season?
4 multiple choice Mr and Mrs Yousef research the typical price of a large family car. At one car yard they nd six family cars. Five of the cars are priced between $30 000 and $40 000, while the sixth is priced at $80 000. What would be the best measure of the price of a typical family car? A Mean B Median C Mode D All are equally important. 5 Thirty men were asked to reveal the number of hours they spent doing housework each week. The results are given below. 1 5 2 12 2 6 2 8 14 18 0 1 1 8 20 25 3 0 1 2 7 10 12 1 5 1 18 0 2 2 a Represent the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use classes 04, 59, 1014 etc.) b Find the mean number of hours that the men spend doing housework. c Find the median class for hours spent by the men at housework. d Find the modal class for hours spent by the men at housework. 6 The resting pulse rates of 20 female athletes below. 50 62 48 61 30 45 43 47 51 61 44 54 were measured. The results are shown 52 42 52 38 71 48 34 40
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a b c d e f
Represent the data in a frequency distribution table using appropriate groupings. Find the mean of the data. Find the median class of the data. Find the modal class of the data. Draw an ogive of the data. Use the ogive to determine the median pulse rate.
7 The following data give the age of 25 patients admitted to the emergency ward of a hospital. 18 23 43 74 80 16 82 19 24 20 6 74 84 20 23 75 25 72 63 17 24 21 31 79 19
a Represent the data in a frequency distribution table. (Use classes 014, 1529, 3044, etc.) b Use the table to nd: iii the mean age of patients admitted iii the median class of age of patients admitted iii the modal class for age of patients admitted. c Draw an ogive of the data. d Use the ogive to determine the median age. e Do any of your statistics (mean, median or mode) give a clear representation of the typical age of an emergency ward patient? f Give some reasons that could explain the pattern of the distribution of data in this question. 8 The batting scores for two cricket players over six innings are as follows: Player A: Player B: a b c d e 31, 34, 42, 28, 30, 41 0, 0, 1, 0, 250, 0
Find the mean score for each player. Which player appears to be better if the mean result is used? Find the median score for each player. Which player appears to be better when the decision is based on the median result? Which player do you think would be more useful to have in a cricket team and why? How can the mean result sometimes lead to a misleading conclusion?
9 The following frequency table gives the number of employees in different salary brackets for a small manufacturing plant. Position Machine operator Machine mechanic Floor steward Manager Chief Executive Ofcer Salary ($) 38 000 40 000 44 000 82 000 100 000 No. of employees 50 15 10 4 1
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Work
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10.2
a Workers are arguing for a pay rise, but the management of the factory claims that workers are well paid because the mean salary of the factory is $42 100. Are they being honest? b Suppose that you were representing the factory workers and had to write a short submission in support of the pay rise. How could you explain the managements claim? Provide some other statistics to support your case.
Wage rise
The workers in an ofce are trying to obtain a wage rise. In the previous year, the ten people who work in the ofce received a 2% rise while the company CEO received a 42% rise. 1 What was the mean wage rise received in the ofce last year? 2 What was the median wage rise received in the ofce last year? 3 What was the modal wage rise received in the ofce last year? 4 The company is trying to avoid paying the rise. What statistic do you think they would quote about last years wage rises? Why? 5 What statistic do you think the trade union would quote about wage rises? Why? 6 Which statistic do you think is the most honest reection of last years wage rises? Explain your answer. Quoting different averages can give different impressions about what is normal. Try the following task. 1 Visit a local real estate agent and study the properties for sale in the window. 2 Calculate the mean, median and mode price for houses in the area. 3 If you were a real estate agent and a person wanting to sell their home asked what the typical property sold for in the area, which gure would you quote? 4 Which gure would you quote to a person who wanted to buy a house in the area?
Best summary statistics and comparison of samples

Examine each of the following statistics. The typical mark in Maths among Year 11 students. The number of attempts taken by Year 11 and 12 students to get their drivers licence. The typical number of days taken off school by Year 11 students so far this year. 1 For each of the above, gather your data by selecting a random sample. 2 Calculate the mean, median and mode for each topic. 3 Compare your results with other students who will have selected their samples from the same population. 4 In each case, state the best summary statistic and explain your answer.
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summary
The mean
For a small number of scores, the mean is calculated using the formula: = x x ------n When the data are presented in a frequency table, the mean can be calculated using the formula: = f x. x ----------------f The mean can also be calculated using the statistical function on your calculator.
Standard deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of a data set. The smaller the standard deviation, the smaller the spread of the data set. The standard deviation is found using the statistical function on your calculator. When the analysis is conducted on the entire population, the population standard deviation (n) is used. When the analysis is conducted on a sample of the population, the sample standard deviation (n 1) is used.
Median and mode

The median is the middle score of a data set, or the average of the two middle scores. The mode is the score with the highest frequency.
Summary statistics
The summary statistics are the mean, median and mode. Each summary statistic must be examined in the context of the statistical analysis to determine which is the most relevant.
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CHAPTER review
10A
1 Calculate the mean of each of the following sets of scores. a b c d 4, 9, 5, 3, 5, 6, 2, 7, 1, 10 65, 67, 87, 45, 90, 92, 50, 23 7.2, 7.9, 7.0, 8.1, 7.5, 7.5, 8.7 5, 114, 23, 12, 25
10A
2 Copy and complete the tables below and then use them to calculate the mean. a Score (x) 5 6 7 8 9 Frequency (f ) 11 15 24 21 9 f = f x = fx
Score (x) 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
Frequency (f ) 36 48 74 65 51 32 14 2 f =
fx
f x =
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3 Complete the frequency distribution table below and use it to estimate the mean of the distribution. Class 2124 2528 2932 3336 3740 4144 4548 4952 Class centre (x) Frequency (f ) 3 9 17 31 29 25 19 10 f = f x = fx
4 Use the statistics function on your calculator to nd the mean of each of the following sets of scores. a 2, 18, 26, 121, 96, 32, 14, 2, 0, 0 b 2, 2, 12, 12, 12, 32, 32, 47, 58 c 0.2, 0.3, 0.6, 0.4, 0.3, 0.7, 0.8, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.1 5 Use the statistics function on your calculator to nd the mean of the following distributions. Where necessary, give your answers correct to 1 decimal place. a Score 10 20 30 40 50 Frequency 23 47 68 56 17 b Score 24 25 26 27 28 29 c Class 1012 1315 1618 1921 2224 2527 2830 Class centre 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 Frequency 18 32 34 40 28 14 6 Frequency 45 89 124 102 78 46
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10B
6 The marks of 30 students in a Geography test are shown below. 66 47 43 80 42 92 92 90 92 77 67 87 75 72 42 60 86 53 95 78 46 87 49 70 82 92 93 71 62 67 a Calculate the mean. b Should the population or sample standard deviation be used in this case? c Write the value of the appropriate standard deviation.
10B
7 To nd the number of attempts most people take to get their drivers licence, a sample of twenty Year 12 students is chosen. The results are shown below. 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 a Calculate the mean. b Should the population or sample standard deviation be used in this case? c Write the value of the appropriate standard deviation.
10B
8 Use the statistics function on your calculator to nd the mean and population standard deviation of each of the following distributions. Give each answer correct to 3 decimal places. a 0.7, 1.2, 0.5, 0.9, 1.3, 1.5, 0.1, 1.0, 0.4, 0.5 b 23, 254, 12, 89, 74, 15, 26, 45 c Score Frequency 26 27 28 29 30 d Class 1014 1519 2024 2529 3034 3539 4044 12 25 29 28 14 Class centre 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 Frequency 8 12 32 45 40 19 6
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10C
9 For each of the following sets of scores, nd the median. a 25, 26, 26, 27, 27, 28, 30, 32, 35 b 4, 5, 8, 5, 8, 6, 7, 10, 4, 8, 4 c 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 3.5, 3.2, 3.2, 3.2, 3.6 d 2, 3, 7, 4, 4, 8, 5, 7, 7, 6 e 121, 135, 111, 154, 147, 165, 101, 108 10 Copy and complete each of the following frequency tables and then use them to nd the median. a Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 b Score 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 c Score 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 Frequency 8 10 12 14 7 5 4 Frequency 2 5 14 11 6 1 1 Cumulative frequency Frequency 2 6 11 7 6 3 Cumulative frequency Cumulative frequency
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11 a Copy and complete the frequency distribution table below. Class 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099 Class centre Frequency 18 34 39 45 29 10 5 Cumulative frequency
b What is the median class of this distribution? c Display these data in a cumulative frequency histogram and polygon. d Use your graph to estimate the median of the distribution.
10C
12 For each set of scores below, state the mode. a 2, 3, 6, 8, 4, 2, 4, 2, 6, 5, 2 b 23, 24, 19, 23, 27, 25, 31, 24, 23, 27, 27 c 1.2, 5.6, 4.7, 6.8, 4.5, 2.1 13 For each of the frequency tables below, state the mode. a Score Frequency 1 2 3 4 5 b Score 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 35 21 19 8 Frequency 9 15 8 12 15 7 1
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10C
14 Use the frequency table below to state the modal class. Class 3033 3437 3841 4245 4649 5053 Class centre 31.5 35.5 39.5 43.5 47.5 51.5 Frequency 12 26 34 45 52 23
15 Below are the number of goals scored by a netball team in ten matches in a tournament. 25 26 19 24 28 67 21 22 28 18 a b c d Calculate the mean. Calculate the median. Calculate the mode. Which of the above is the best summary statistic? Explain your answer.
10D
16 Give an example of a statistical analysis where the best summary statistic is: a the mean b the median c the mode.
10D

1 multiple choice For the following data set, which of the statements is correct? 3, 4, 8, 7, 3, 6, 5, 3, 4, 7 A B C D The mean is 5. The median is 5. The mode is 5. all of the above
2 multiple choice For which of the following data sets is the median greater than the mean? A B C D 2, 6, 14, 14, 15, 16, 18 12, 13, 14, 14, 14, 18, 22 12, 15, 15, 15, 15, 18 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49
3 multiple choice For the data set below, which statement is correct? 25, 45, 64, 48, 66, 85, 45, 27 A The mean is 50.625. B The sample standard deviation is 20.29. C The population standard deviation is 18.98. D all of the above
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4 multiple choice Tracey compiles a sample of new car prices. She selects 100 new car buyers and asks what price they paid for their car. To measure the spread of the distribution Tracey should use: A the population standard deviation B the sample standard deviation C both standard deviations D the mean 5 multiple choice For the statistical analysis in question 4 which summary statistic would be the most appropriate? A mean B median C mode D standard deviation 6 The table below shows the gross annual income for a sample of 100 company executives. Income $50 000$75 000 $75 000$100 000 $100 000$125 000 $125 000$150 000 $150 000$175 000 $175 000$200 000 a b c d e f Class centre Frequency 12 18 26 24 12 8 Cumulative frequency
Copy and complete the frequency table. Calculate the mean. Calculate the standard deviation. Calculate the median class Calculate the modal class. Which summary statistic best describes the typical income for a company executive?
7 In order to compare two textbooks, a teacher recommends one book to one class and another book to another class. At the end of the year the classes are each tested; the results are detailed below. Text A 44 52 95 76 13 94 83 72 55 81 22 25 64 72 35 48 56 59 84 98 84 21 35 69 28 Text B 65 72 48 63 68 59 68 62 75 79 81 72 64 53 58 59 64 66 68 42 37 39 55 58 52 82 79 55 Calculate the mean and standard deviation for each class group. Which standard deviation did you use in part a? Explain why. Which class performed better? Which class had the more consistent results? Could a conclusion be drawn about the better textbook from the above information? Explain your answer.
CHAPTER
test yourself
10
a b c d e
Similarity of twodimensional gures
1 1
syllabus reference
Measurement 3 Similarity of twodimensional gures
In this chapter
11A Similar gures and scale factors 11B Solving problems using similar gures 11C House plans
areyou
11.1
Simplifying ratios
Are you ready?
READY?
c 0.8 : 1.25 d 40 cm : 2 m
X Y A
1 Simplify each of the following ratios. a 15 : 12 b $56 : $49
11.2
Corresponding sides of congruent and similar triangles
2 Consider the similar triangles drawn at right. a Which side in XYZ corresponds to BC? b Which angle in ABC corresponds to XZY?
11.3
Similar triangles
3 Find the value of the pronumeral in the gure at right.

a 6 6
11.4
Using tests to prove similar triangles
4 Using the gure at right, prove that ABX is similar to ACX.
11.5
Finding the scale factor
5 Find the scale factor given that: a AB = 6 cm and AB = 18 cm b AB = 3 cm and AB = 27 mm.
Chapter 11 Similarity of two-dimensional gures
365
Similar gures and scale factors

Have you ever read a road map or looked at plans for a house? The map or the plan is a scaled down version of the roads or house. When two objects are identical, except one is a reduction or an enlargement of the other, the objects are said to be similar. Maps and plans are practical examples of similarity. Maps and plans both use a scale. The scale tells us how many times larger an object is in reality compared to the plan. For example, a house plan may use a scale of 1:100. This means that if a wall is 1 cm long on the plan, it is 100 cm (or 1 m) in reality. All the angles shown on the plan are the same as in reality. If two walls meet at right angles on the plan, they meet at right angles in reality. Similar gures are in proportion and have the same shape. That is, each pair of corresponding sides are in the same ratio and each pair of corresponding angles are equal. To show that two triangles are similar, we can show that either of the above conditions is true. The symbol for similarity is three vertical lines (|||). For triangles, if two pairs of corresponding sides are in the same ratio and the angles they include are equal then they are similar.
In the gure at right, show that LABC ||| LXYZ.

A
WORKED Example 1
C Y
THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE BAC = YXZ ACB = XZY ABC = XYZ LABC ||| LXYZ (3 pairs of equal angles)
BAC and YXZ are equal. ACB and XZY are equal. ABC and XYZ are equal. Make a conclusion.
WORKED Example 2
Show that the triangles LMN and PQR are similar.
L 4 cm
P 15 cm
12 cm 5 cm Q
THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE
Simplify the ratio LM:PQ. Simplify the ratio MN:QR. Simplify the ratio LM:PR. Make a conclusion.
LM:PQ = 4:12 = 1:3 MN:QR = 3:9 = 1:3 LN:PR = 5:15 = 1:3 LLMN ||| LPQR (3 pairs of sides in equal ratio)
M 3 cm N
9 cm
To determine if other gures are similar, we need to examine the ratio of sides.
366
WORKED Example 3
Determine if the rectangles ABCD and PQRS are similar.
A 4m D 10 m C B
15 m
THINK
1 2 3
WRITE
6m
Simplify the ratio of corresponding sides AD and RS. Simplify the ratio of corresponding sides CD and QR. Make a conclusion.
AD:RS = 4:6 = 2:3 CD:QR = 10:15 = 2:3 The rectangles are similar as their corresponding sides are in equal ratio.
When we examine similar gures we can state the ratio of sides between the two gures. The number by which we multiply measurements on the rst gure to get the measurements on the second gure is called the scale factor. The scale factor is calculated by replacing the rst part of the ratio of sides with one. The second part of the ratio is then calculated and is the scale factor.
WORKED Example 4
The two gures at right are similar. a What is the ratio of their sides? b What is the scale factor? THINK a
1
7.5 cm 3 cm
6 cm
WRITE a 6:15 = 2:5 3:7.5 = 30:75 = 2:5
15 cm
The 6 cm side corresponds to the 15 cm side. Write this as a ratio and simplify. The 3 cm side corresponds to the 7.5 cm side. Check that this simplies to the same ratio. Make a conclusion. The scale factor is written by comparing one unit on the rst gure with the second. Make a conclusion.
The similar gures are in the ratio 2:5.

-b 2:5 = 1:2 1 2
-The scale factor is 2 1 . 2
A special case of similarity occurs when the scale factor is 1. These shapes are identical and are called congruent gures.
367
remember
1. Similar gures have all pairs of corresponding angles equal and all pairs of corresponding sides in equal ratio. 2. To prove that triangles are similar, we need to prove only that either the corresponding angles are equal or that the corresponding sides are in equal ratio. 3. The ratio of the corresponding sides in similar gures can be used to calculate the scale factor. 4. If the scale factor is 1 then the gures are congruent.
11A
WORKED
Similar gures and scale factors

A X Y
Example
1 Prove that LABC ||| LZYX.
11.1 SkillS
Simplifying ratios
C A C B
11.2 SkillS
Corresponding sides of congruent and similar triangles
HEET HEET
2 Prove that LABC ||| LEDC.
11.3 SkillS
D
WORKED
HEET
E P L 10 cm 4 cm 6 cm N Q 12 cm D 16 cm Similar triangles 8 cm R
Example
3 Prove that LLMN ||| LPQR.

5 cm M
11.4 SkillS
Using tests to prove similar triangles
HEET
4 Prove that LABC ||| LFED.

12 cm
A 12 cm F
11.5 SkillS
12 cm E R Finding the scale factor
Cabri Geo
HEET
B 9 cm C
16 cm
5 Prove that LLMN ||| LRST.
ry met
Similar triangles M N S T
368
6 Prove that LVWX ||| LVYZ.
W Y
WORKED
X Z W 15 cm X
Example
7 Determine if the rectangles ABCD and WXYZ are similar.
A 5 cm B 2 cm D C L 3 cm K A 4 cm E B 8 cm 16 cm D 7 cm
6 cm Z P M N 4 cm S P 6 cm T Q 12 cm 40 cm S R R 8 cm Y Q
8 Determine if the rectangles KLMN and PQRS are similar. 9 The gures at right are similar. a What is the ratio of sides? b What is the scale factor? 10 The gures at right are similar. a What is the ratio of sides? b What is the scale factor?
WORKED
Example
4 cm
10 cm
6 cm 15 cm
11 In the gure below, LMNO ||| LMPQ. Calculate the ratio of sides.
M 6 cm N 3 cm P O Q
12 On a set of house plans, a measurement of 5 cm represents a wall which is 10 m long. Calculate the scale factor. 13 On a map, a distance of 3 cm represents an actual distance of 60 km. Calculate the scale factor.
Work
T SHEE
11.1
369
Enlarging a gure
We can draw similar gures using an enlargement factor. We will enlarge the triangle below by a scale factor of 2. 1 Mark a point, P, external to the gure. This point is called the centre of enlargement.
P B C A' A P B C A' A P B B' C C' A' A P B B' C C' A
2 Measure the distance from P to the vertex, A. Mark a point twice this distance away in a straight line. Label this point A.
3 Repeat step 2 for the vertices 4 B and C.
5 Join the points A, B and C. 6
Investigating scale factors

1 Draw a gure on clear plastic so that it can be placed on an overhead projector. 2 Place the overhead projector 2 m from the screen and focus the image. Measure the lengths on the image and state the scale factor. 3 Repeat step 2, placing the overhead projector 3 m, 4 m and 5 m from the screen. 4 Determine if there is a relationship between the scale factors and the distance from the projector to the screen.
370
Similar triangles
Two triangles are similar if they have the same shape but not necessarily the same size. One is an enlargement or reduction of the other. This means that the corresponding angles of the triangles have to be equal (to make them the same shape) and the ratio of their corresponding sides must be constant (making one smaller or larger than the other). As with congruent triangles, we do not need to know all the information about the three sides and three angles to determine if a pair of triangles is similar. Certain minimum information is sufcient. Let us investigate. 1 Draw the LABC shown (it is not drawn to scale). A Draw LXYZ, larger than ABC with X = A, 70 Y = B and Z = C. Measure the lengths of the sides of the two triangles. Determine the ratios XY YZ of the lengths of the corresponding sides ------- , ------AB BC 60 50 B C ZX and ------- . Are these ratios constant (within the limits of the accuracy of the CA constructions)? Does it appear that XYZ is a true enlargement of LABC? Repeat the process, drawing LXYZ smaller than LABC. Is XYZ similar to ABC? 2 Construct the two triangles shown where LTVW is twice the size of LDEF. D The ratio of their corresponding sides is 1 cm E TV VW WT 2 cm constant as ------- = --------- = -------- = 2. Measure 1.5 cm DE EF FD F their corresponding angles. Are the two triangles similar? 3 Construct LGHJ and LQRS to the measurements shown at right. Find the ratio of their corresponding sides (as in part 1) and measure all angles. What do you conclude? 4 Draw the right-angled triangles KLM and NPU to the dimensions given. Again, nd the ratio of their corresponding sides (as in part 1) and measure all angles. What do you conclude? 5 Summarise the results of your investigation. What are the minimum requirements to ensure the similarity of two triangles?
L T 2 cm V 3 cm W Q G 3 cm H
30
4 cm
6 cm R 30 4 cm N S
2 cm
K 7.5 cm 5 cm
3 cm
4.5 cm
371
Solving problems using similar gures

We can use similar gures to solve many problems. By setting up similar triangles we can calculate measurements of objects such as trees, which we are unable to physically measure. Another example is house plans. In this case, the ratio of sides becomes the scale of the plan making it similar to the house itself. Consider the case where we want to measure the height of a tree too tall for us to physically measure. Using shadows we can create two similar triangles.
WORKED Example 5
A tree casts a shadow 7.5 m long. At the same time a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 60 cm long. Calculate the height of the tree.
h 1m
THINK
1 2
WRITE
7.5 m
60 cm
The triangles are similar because all three angles are equal. Write the shadow lengths as a ratio and simplify. Write a proportion and solve to nd the height of the tree.
7.5 m:60 cm = 750:60 7.5 m:60 cm = 25:2 h 25 -- = ----1 2 h = 12.5 m
We use a similar method when reading maps or plans. The map is a similar gure to the place being mapped. We use the scale given on the map to calculate the distance between two places.
The scale on a road map is given as 1 cm = 5 km. Jodie uses her ruler and nds the distance between the towns Huxley and Brownville is 6.2 cm. Calculate the distance between these two towns. THINK
1 2
WORKED Example 6
WRITE 6.2 cm 5 cm/km = 31 km The actual distance between Huxley and Brownville is 31 km.
Multiply 6.2 cm by the given scale. Give a written answer.
In the case of plans, the scale is often stated as a ratio. The method of solution is the same.
372
WORKED Example 7
The scale on a house plan is 1:150. The front of the house measures 8.5 cm on the plan. Calculate the actual length of the front of the house. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE 8.5 cm 150 = 1275 cm 8.5 cm 150 = 12.75 m The front of the house is 12.75 m long.
Multiply the measurement by the scale. Change the units from cm to m. Give a written answer.
remember
1. We can calculate measurements of objects by setting up similar triangles. 2. Maps and plans are similar to the actual object. 3. The scale is the ratio of sides on the plan to those on the object. This scale can be used to make calculations.
11B
WORKED
Solving problems using similar gures
Example
1 A tree casts a shadow 2.5 m long. At the same time a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 40 cm long, as shown in the gure. Calculate the height of the tree.
1m 2.5 m 40 cm
2 A building casts a shadow 9.5 m long. At the same time a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 25 cm long. a Draw a diagram to represent this situation. b Calculate the height of the building. 3 Kerry is 170 cm tall and her shadow measures 50 cm. At the same time a agpole casts a shadow which is 3 m long. a Draw a diagram to represent this situation. b What is the ratio of sides in the similar triangles formed? c Calculate the height of the agpole. 4 An artist holds his brush so that the top and bottom of the brush line up with the top and bottom of a tree. The brush is 10 cm long and is held 1 m away from the artists eye. The tree is 100 m away from the artist. Calculate the height of the tree.
1m
100 m
373
5 multiple choice A tree casts a 6 m shadow. At the same time a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 1.2 m long. The ratio of sides in the similar gures formed is: A 5:6 B 5:1 C 6:1 D 10:1
WORKED
Example
6 A map gives the scale as being 1 cm = 10 km. Two towns are shown as being 6 cm apart on the map. What is the actual distance between the two towns? 7 On a map where the scale is given as 1 cm = 4 km, calculate the actual distance where the distance on the map is measured as: a 5 cm b 9 cm c 6.5 cm d 12.8 cm e 0.9 cm f 4 mm. 8 On a map where the scale is given as 1 cm = 5 km, what should the distance on the map be when the actual distance is: a 20 km? b 45 km? c 22 km? d 340 km? e 8 km? f 37.5 km? 9 multiple choice The scale on a map is given as 1 cm = 4 km. If the distance between two points on the map is 3.8 cm, then the actual distance between these two points is: A 15.2 cm B 3.8 km 10 multiple choice On a map the scale is given as 1 cm = 5 km. The distance from Freewell to Taleton is 64 km. How far apart should they be drawn on the map? A 0.078 125 cm B 12.8 cm C 320 cm D 12.8 km
C 4 km
D 15.2 km
WORKED
Example
11 The scale on a set of house plans is given as 1:500. Calculate the length of the house frontage if it is shown as 4 cm on the plans. 7 12 A set of house plans is to be drawn using a scale of 1:400. The side of the house is to be 16 m long. Calculate the length that this should be drawn on the plans.
Scale drawing of the classroom

Draw a scale diagram showing the oor plan of the classroom you are now in. On your diagram show the location of all desks, cupboards, the blackboards and any other features of the room.
374
House plans
House plans are a very common application of similar gures. As we saw in the previous section, plans are drawn using a ratio as the scale factor. Measurement enables us to calculate all dimensions within the house. Corresponding angles on similar gures are equal and so the angles on the plans will be the same as the angles in reality.
WORKED Example 8
Below is a plan for a house.
WC Kitchen/Dining
Bathroom
Bed 3
Bed 2
Lounge Bed 1
a Calculate the dimensions of the house. b Calculate the area of the lounge room. THINK a
1
Scale 1:100
WRITE a Length of house on plan = 12 cm Width of house on plan = 10 cm Actual length of house = 12 cm 100 = 1200 cm = 12 m Actual width = 10 cm 100 = 1000 cm = 10 m The dimensions of the house are 12 m by 10 m.
Measure the length and width of the house on the plan. Multiply each of these measurements by 100.
Write your answer.
375
THINK b 1 Measure the length and width of the lounge room on the plan. 2 Multiply each of these measurements by 100.
3 4
Calculate the area of the lounge room. Write your answer.
WRITE b Length of lounge room on plan = 6 cm Width of lounge room on plan = 6 cm Actual length of lounge room = 6 cm 100 = 600 cm =6m Actual width of lounge room is also 6 m. A = 62 A = 36 m2 The area of the lounge room is 36 m2.
House plans are also drawn with a view of what the house will look like from the outside. These diagrams are called elevations. For example, the front elevation is what the house will look like from the front. Elevations are also drawn using a scale.
WORKED Example 9
The diagram below shows the front elevation of a house.
Scale 1:100
a Calculate the height of the eaves on the lower side of the house. b Measure the angle of the pitch of the roof. THINK a 1 Measure the height on the plan for the lower side of the house. 2 Multiply the plan measurement by 100. WRITE a Height on the plan = 3.5 cm Actual height = 3.5 cm 100 Actual height = 350 cm Actual height = 3.5 m The height of the eaves is 3.5 m. b Angle to horizontal = 45 The angle of the pitch of the roof is 45.
1 2
Write your answer. Measure the angle that the slope of the roof makes with the horizontal. Write your answer.
376
remember
1. House plans are drawn with a ratio as the scale factor. 2. Using the scale factor, we can calculate the dimensions for the house from the plans. 3. An elevation is the view of a house from one side. 4. From an elevation, we can measure all lengths and angles and use the scale to calculate the actual measurements.
11C
WORKED
House plans
Example
1 Below is the site plan for a block of land.

N
Shed
House Garden bed
Garage
Driveway
Garden bed Scale 1:250
a What are the dimensions of the block of land? b What are the dimensions of the house?
377
2 A house plan is shown below.
Lounge
Bed 3
Bed 4
Family
Pantry Kitchen Bed 1 Bed 2 Toilet Laundry Scale 1:150 Bathroom
a Calculate the dimensions of the house. b What are the dimensions of the lounge room? c Which bedroom is the largest? What are its dimensions?
WORKED
Example
3 Below is the front elevation of a house, drawn to scale. 9
Scale 1:100
a Calculate the height of the peak of the roof. b Calculate the height of the eaves. c Measure the angle of the pitch of the roof.
378
4 Trace the front elevation of the house at right into your book. On your diagram write all lengths and angles necessary for the construction of the house.
Scale 1:200
5 The following diagrams are representations of houses with a variety of roof types. Draw a plan of the south and east elevations of these houses. The direction of north is given. a b
N Gable roof Boxed gable roof
N Gambrel (a roof combining the addition of small gables to a hip roof)
Work
T SHEE
11.2
Hip roof
House plans
1 Try to obtain a set of plans to a house. a What is the scale on the plans? b What are the dimensions of the house? c What is the total area of the house? 2 What symbols are used on the house plans to indicate the following: a a door b a window c cupboards d any other signicant features? 3 Using a suitable scale, draw a set of plans for your house. Include a oor plan of your house and a front elevation.
379
summary
Similar gures
Similar gures have all pairs of corresponding angles equal and corresponding sides in equal ratio. To show that triangles are similar, we show either that all pairs of corresponding angles are equal or that all pairs of corresponding sides are in equal ratio. For other gures it is necessary to show that both properties are true.
Scale factors
The scale factor allows us to solve problems using similar gures. Heights of objects, such as trees, that are not easily measured can be determined by constructing similar triangles.
House plans
House plans are similar to the house being built. We can measure all lengths and angles on a house plan and use the scale to calculate the actual measurements.
380
CHAPTER review
11A
1 Prove that LMNO ||| LPQO.
18 cm P M 2 cm O N 4 cm 9 cm Q V 8 cm X 12 cm Y 18 cm Z 12 cm W
11A
2 Prove that LVWX ||| LYZX.
11A
3 Given that E is the midpoint of the line AC, prove that LABC ||| LEDC.
E
D 5 cm C
10 cm
B W X
11A
4 ABCD and WXYZ are rectangles. a Prove that the two rectangles are similar. b State the ratio of sides in the two similar gures.
A 2 cm D
6 cm
B 15 cm C Z 5 cm Y
11B
5 The two triangles at right are similar. Use this to nd the length of the side marked x.
15 cm x
9 cm
12 cm
11B 11B 11B
6 When a 1-metre ruler casts a shadow 75 cm long, a building casts a 15 m shadow. Calculate the height of the building. 7 A 10 m ladder will reach 9 m up a wall. How high up a wall will a 25 m ladder reach, if it is placed at the same angle to the ground? 8 A map has a scale of 1:40 000. Calculate the actual distance between two places if they are shown on the map as: a 1 cm apart b 6 cm apart c 8.5 cm apart.
381
11B 11C
9 A surveyors plan has a scale 1:800. The dimensions of a property are shown as 10 cm 16 cm on the plan. What are the actual dimensions on the property? 10 The scale diagram below is a site plan for a block of land on which a house is to be built.
Garden bed Swimming pool
House
Garage
Driveway N
Scale 1 cm = 4 m
a Calculate the dimensions of the block of land. b Calculate the dimensions of the house. c Calculate the area of the house in square metres.
Garden bed
382

1 multiple choice Which of the triangles below are similar?
I 9 cm II 3 cm III 6 cm
4 cm
2 cm
4 cm
A I and II 2 multiple choice
B I and III
C II and III
D I, II and III
Consider the statements below. Statement I. All rhombuses are similar. Statement II. All parallelograms are similar. Which of the above statements is correct? A Statement I B Statement II C Statements I and II 3 multiple choice On a set of house plans a room that measures 4.5 m 3.2 m is shown as 9 cm 6.4 cm. The scale of the plans is: A 1:2 B 1:50 C 1:100 D 1:200 4 Harley is 160 cm tall. He casts a shadow 1 m long. a Calculate the height of a tree, which at the same time casts a shadow 4.8 m long. b Calculate the length of the shadow that would be cast by a building that is 20 m tall. D Neither statement
CHAPTER
test yourself
11
5 A rectangular block of land is 20 m wide and 32 m long. a Using a scale of 1:200, make a scale drawing of the block of land. b On the same diagram, a house is shown as 6.2 cm long and 5.9 cm wide. Calculate the actual dimensions of the house.
Taxation
12
syllabus reference
Financial mathematics 3 Taxation
In this chapter
12A Calculating allowable deductions 12B Taxable income 12C Medicare levy 12D Calculating tax 12E Calculating GST and VAT 12F Graphing tax functions
areyou
12.1
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 Find: a 42% of $4900
READY?
b 48% of $52 000 c 1.5% of $67 500. b Increase $750 by 15% d Decrease $945 by 25%
12.2
2 Complete the following. a Increase $450 by 10% c Decrease $600 by 12%
12.3
3 Write: a $45 as a percentage of $180 c $135 as a percentage of $90
b $52.50 as a percentage of $420 d $48 as a percentage of $750
12.4
4 Find the amount given that: a 10% of the amount is $7.50 b 40% of the amount is $560 c 110% of the amount is $275.
12.5
Sketching straight lines
5 Draw the graph of: a y = 2x + 1
b y = 4x 2
c y = 5 x.
C h a p t e r 1 2 Ta x a t i o n
385
Calculating allowable deductions

The government collects taxes in order to pay for government services. There are several different ways in which the government collects these taxes. The one with which we are most familiar is income tax; however, there are several other forms of tax used by the government to collect money. In this chapter, we look at how taxes are calculated and collected. In chapter 1, we looked at earning money. We learned that the gross pay was the wage or salary paid by the employer. Before the employee receives this money, deductions are taken out. The amount actually received by the worker is called the net pay. There may be several payments taken out of a persons gross pay, but for most people the largest deduction is income tax. Everyone who earns over a certain amount must pay income tax. Income tax is paid on an increasing scale, depending on the amount you earn. Most people pay income tax in each pay period. This is called Pay As You Earn tax (PAYE tax). At the end of each nancial year, which runs from July 1 of one year to June 30 the following year, people who earn income must submit a tax return. A tax return is used to calculate the amount of tax that should have been paid and compares this with the amount of PAYE tax paid. The taxpayer then either receives a refund or must pay the amount owing. The amount of tax paid is calculated using your taxable income. Taxable income is your gross pay less any allowable tax deductions. Deductions are allowed for expenses incurred while earning an income. For example, a builder is allowed a tax deduction for the cost of tools or a bank teller who wears a uniform may be allowed a deduction for the dry-cleaning of that uniform. Deductions are also allowed for donations to charity over $2.
WORKED Example 1
A large company employs Ken as a plumber. Ken claims deductions of $1400 to buy tools, $25 for gumboots, $200 for two pairs of work overalls, $5 per week for dry-cleaning the overalls and $1.50 per week for work-related telephone calls. Calculate Kens total deductions. THINK
1
WRITE Dry-cleaning = $5 52 = $260 Telephone = $1.50 52 = $78 Deductions = $1400 + $25 + $200 + $260 + $78 = $1963
Calculate Kens total dry-cleaning and telephone deductions.
Add up all of Kens deductions.
People who use their own car for work are entitled to claim a portion of the running costs as a deduction. The amount of the deduction is based on the size of the engine and the number of kilometres travelled. The tax deduction covers the cost of the fuel and a portion of the long-term costs of running a car such as registration, insurance, depreciation and maintenance.
386
WORKED Example 2
Raylene is a computer programmer. As part of her job she uses her own car to travel to visit clients and to attend training seminars. Raylenes car is a 2.4 litre Mitsubishi Lancer, for which she is allowed a deduction of 51.9 c/km. Calculate the size of the tax deduction in a year where she travels 2547 km on work-related matters. THINK Multiply the number of kilometres (2547) by the rate per kilometre (0.519). Be sure to convert the rate in cents to dollars. WRITE Travel deduction = 2547 0.519 Travel deduction = $1321.89
Tax deductions are also allowed for the depreciation of major equipment. For example, a teacher may own a home computer that is used to prepare lessons and store marks. The computer loses value as it becomes older and so a tax deduction is allowed for this.
WORKED Example 3
Trevor is an accountant who works from home. He owns a personal computer that is used as part of his job. Trevor bought a new computer on 1 July 2007 for $3200. Each year he is allowed a 33% deduction for the depreciation of the computer. Calculate the tax deduction allowed in: a the 200708 nancial year b the 200809 nancial year. THINK a The depreciation was 33% of the purchase price. WRITE a Tax deduction = 33% of $3200 Tax deduction = 0.33 $3200 Tax deduction = $1056 b Computer value = $3200 $1056 Computer value = $2144 Tax deduction = 33% of $2144 Tax deduction = 0.33 $2144 Tax deduction = $707.52
Calculate the value of the computer at the beginning of 200809, by subtracting the depreciation from the purchase price. The depreciation was 33% of its value at the end of the last nancial year.
Another form of tax deduction comes for the cost of property needed while working. If you run a business from a shop or house, the cost of these premises is tax deductable. This includes expenses such as rent, interest on a loan if buying the property, rates, electricity and telephone. If the business is run from the family home, then a percentage of these expenses is allowed.
387
WORKED Example 4
Wendy runs a confectionery shop in a shopping centre. She pays rent of $400 per week, has an electricity bill of $326 per quarter and a telephone bill of $276 per month. Calculate the deduction that Wendy is entitled to. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE Rent = $400 52 Rent = $20 800 Electricity = $326 4 Electricity = $1304 Telephone = $276 12 Telephone = $3312 Total tax deduction = $20 800 + $1304 + $3312 Total tax deduction = $25 416
Calculate the amount of rent that Wendy pays for a year. Calculate Wendys annual electricity bill. Calculate Wendys annual telephone bill. Add these expenses to calculate the tax deduction allowed.
remember
1. A tax deduction is an amount of money deducted from gross income before tax is calculated. 2. Tax deductions are allowed for work-related expenses as well as other expenses such as charity donations. 3. A tax deduction can be claimed on: (a) the cost of expenses incurred while earning an income (b) travel that is part of your job (c) depreciation of equipment used in performing your job (d) expenses associated with maintaining the premises used for your work (e) miscellaneous other costs.
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12A
SkillS
Calculating allowable deductions
HEET
12.1
WORKED
Example
1 Finding a percentage of a quantity
1 Darren is a pest exterminator. He is allowed tax deductions for three sets of protective clothing at $167.50 each, two pairs of goggles at $34 each and four face masks at $13.60 each. He also uses a spray tank costing $269 and pays $5 per week to have his clothing professionally cleaned. Calculate Darrens total tax deductions. 2 Jasmine is a dressmaker. Jasmine claims a tax deduction for the cost of her sewing machine ($560), an overlocker ($320), needles and cotton ($134.75), and $349.80 for dress patterns. Jasmine also claims to make $5 worth of work-related telephone calls per week. Calculate Jasmines total tax deductions. 3 Kevin works as a waiter. Kevin must wear a white shirt with black pants, belt and bow tie. Kevin buys three shirts at $45.00 each, two pairs of pants at $76.90 each, a belt for $15 and a bow tie for $14.90. Kevins uniform must be dry-cleaned each week at a cost of $5.70. Kevin has other tax deductions of $345 for union fees, $60 for having his tax return prepared by an accountant and makes $50 in charity donations. Calculate Kevins total tax deductions. 4 Rajid uses his car as part of his job as an insurance assessor. He has a 1.6 L Nissan Tiida for which he is allowed a deduction of 45.7 c/km. Calculate the tax deduction Rajid is allowed in a year where he claims 3176 km in work-related travel. 5 The table below shows the rate per kilometre allowed as a tax deduction for travel in a private vehicle (for cars using up to 5000 km/year on work-related travel). Engine capacity Up to 1.6 L More than 1.6 L and up to 2.6 L More than 2.6 L Allowable deduction 45.7 c/km 51.9 c/km 53.8 c/km
SkillS SkillS
HEET
12.2
HEET
12.3
SkillS
HEET
12.4
WORKED
Example
2 Unitary method of percentages
Calculate the total tax deduction allowed for a person who claims: a 2000 km in a Mazda-2 with a 1.3 L engine b 2645 km in a Toyota Corolla with a 1.8 L engine c 1564 km in a Ford Focus with a 2.5 L engine d 2900 km in a Holden Commodore with a 3.6 L engine.
WORKED
Example
6 Bruce is a teacher with a home computer that he purchased for $2500. If a 40% tax deduction is allowed for depreciation, calculate the tax deduction that Bruce is allowed in: a the rst nancial year b the second nancial year c the third nancial year. 7 Jeff is a builder. At the end of the 200607 nancial year Jeffs building equipment was valued at $12 350. If Jeff is allowed a tax deduction of 25% for depreciation of his equipment, calculate his deduction.
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8 Mr and Mrs Williams own a farm. Their capital equipment, which includes items such as tractors, trucks etc. is valued at $75 000 at the beginning of the 200708 nancial year. Each year they are allowed a 40% tax deduction for depreciation of capital equipment. a Calculate the tax deduction allowed for the: i 200708 nancial year ii 200809 nancial year iii 200910 nancial year. b When the value of the capital equipment falls below $5000, the entire balance can be tax deducted and the equipment is said to be written off. In what nancial year will this occur? 9 Catherine is a fashion designer who uses a computer to assist her with drawing. Catherine buys a new computer on 1 November for $3600. She therefore owned the 8 computer for only ----- of the nancial year. A deduction of 40% p.a. is allowed for 12 8 depreciation of the computer, but Catherine can claim only ----- of this. 12 Calculate Catherines allowable tax deduction for the computer.
WORKED
Example
10 Gabrielle owns a small boutique in a shopping mall. Her operational expenses are: $325 per week rent 4 $280 per quarter in electricity $185 per quarter in telephone bills. Calculate the total allowed in tax deductions for running this business. 11 Greg is a graphic designer who works from home. He has set up one room in the house as his ofce. In one nancial year his household bills are: $4500 in interest on the home mortgage $1200 in council rates electricity bills of $129, $187, $165 and $119 telephone bills of $98.50, $110.60, $128.30 and $106.90 $378.40 for building and contents insurance. As Gregs ofce is 10% of the area of the house, he can claim 10% of all these bills as deductions. Calculate Gregs tax deduction. 12 Henry is a motor mechanic who runs his own garage. Henry has the following work-related expenses: $250 per week for rent on the garage $290 per quarter for the electricity bill $190 per quarter for the telephone bill $25 per month for his mobile telephone plan. Henry also has $85 000 in capital equipment that he depreciates at a rate of 27.5% p.a. He travels 2750 km on work-related trips in his van, which has a 3.0 L engine. Calculate Henrys total tax deductions.
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Taxable income
A persons taxable income is the income on which their tax is calculated. Most people have PAYE tax deducted from their wage or salary throughout the year. The amount of PAYE tax deducted each week or fortnight is the amount that would be paid, if this amount was earned each week for the entire nancial year. When calculating the amount of PAYE tax to deduct from an employees pay, the employer makes no consideration of possible tax deductions or other sources of income. When a taxpayer completes a tax return at the end of the nancial year, the amount of tax that should have been paid is calculated based on their taxable income. Taxable income is the gross income earned from all sources less any tax deductions. When calculating total income you must include your income from all sources. This means that you include any job for which you received payment throughout the year and other incomes such as interest, prots from shares, rental income etc.
WORKED Example 5
Michael is a carpet layer who earned a gross pay of $34 500 during the 200708 nancial year. Michael also earned $278.50 for working as a polling ofcer during a State election and received $148.63 in interest from his bank accounts. Michaels total tax deductions for the year were $1846.30. Calculate Michaels taxable income. THINK
1 2
WRITE Total income = $34 500 + $278.50 + $148.63 Total income = $34 927.13 Taxable income = $34 927.63 $1846.30 Taxable income = $33 081.33
Calculate the total gross income. Calculate the taxable income by subtracting tax deductions from gross income.
In order to calculate a persons taxable income, you may need to calculate their income from a variety of sources and make a number of calculations about tax deductions.
WORKED Example 6
Murray works as a full-time jackeroo and plays two evenings per week in a band. Murray earns $471.52 per week from his full-time job and $118.53 per week from playing in the band. During the year Murray also earned $87.52 in interest from his bank accounts. a Calculate Murrays total gross income. b It is 15 km from the property where Murray works to the club where he plays. When someone has two jobs, the cost of travel between jobs is tax deductable. If Murray is allowed a tax deduction of 45.7 c/km for travel, calculate the travel deduction that he is entitled to claim. c If Murray has other tax deductions of $948.50, calculate his taxable income.
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THINK a
1
WRITE a Jackeroo earnings = $471.52 52 = $24 519.04 Band earnings = $118.53 52 = $6163.56 Total earnings = $24 519.04 + $6163.56 + $87.52 Total earnings = $30 770.12 b Number of trips = 2 52 Number of trips = 104 Total km = 104 15 Total km = 1560 km Travel deduction = 1560 0.457 Travel deduction = $712.92 c Total deduction = $948.50 + $712.92 Total deduction = $1661.42 Taxable income = $30 770.12 $1661.42 Taxable income = $29 108.70
Multiply Murrays weekly earnings in each job by 52 to calculate the yearly total. Add the total of each job with the interest earned to calculate total earnings. Calculate the total number of trips made between jobs. Calculate the total kilometres travelled. Calculate the deduction by multiplying kilometres travelled by the allowable rate. Calculate the total tax deduction. Calculate the taxable income by subtracting the tax deductions from the total income.
1 2 3
1 2
remember
1. Taxable income is the income on which your tax is calculated. 2. To calculate taxable income, add income from all sources and subtract all tax deductions.
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12B
WORKED
Taxable income
Example
1 Fernando earns a gross salary of $45 900 per year. His tax deductions total $2145.75. Calculate Fernandos taxable income. 2 Tonys gross fortnightly pay is $649.20. a Calculate Tonys gross yearly pay. b If Tonys tax deductions total $1142.70, calculate his taxable income. 3 During the last nancial year Janelle had a gross income of $45 670 from her job as a physiotherapist. Janelle also earned $238.79 in interest from her bank accounts. She also had tax deductions totalling $2340.45. Calculate Janelles taxable income. 4 Paula worked as a receptionist and earned a gross wage of $418.50 per week. Paula also earned $45 per week from a second job conducting telephone surveys. Paula had a bank account that paid her $117.40 in interest. a Calculate Paulas total income. b If Paula had tax deductions totalling $1956.80, calculate her taxable income. 5 Janine has two part-time jobs. For one job she is paid $196.50 per week and for the other she is paid $395.60 per fortnight. a Calculate Janines gross annual income. b If Janine claims tax deductions of $428.40, calculate her taxable income. 6 Tavit is a telephone salesman. He is paid a commission of 5% of all sales. Over the year, Tavit makes sales that total $850 000. a Calculate the gross commission that Tavit earned. b Tavit makes $10 worth of phone calls that are tax deductable per day (5 days per week). Calculate the tax deduction that he will claim. c If Tavit has no other tax deductions, calculate his taxable income.
WORKED
Example
7 Stefan worked as a hairdresser and earned a gross wage of $537.90 per week. He also worked part-time at TAFE for a wage of $112.80 per week. Stefans income from various investments was $425.90 for the year. a Calculate Stefans gross annual income. b Stefan travelled 12 km between the hairdressing salon and TAFE, 80 times during the year. If he is allowed a tax deduction of 51.9 c/km for travel, calculate the amount that Stefan will claim. c If Stefan has other tax deductions totalling $1560, calculate Stefans taxable income. 8 Andrew earns a gross annual salary of $65 700. He also earns $165 per week from a rental property that he owns in Newcastle. a Calculate Andrews gross annual income. b Andrew travels 320 km to Newcastle and back four times a year to inspect his property and is allowed a tax deduction of 45.7 c/km. Andrew is also entitled to a deduction of $1200 for the council rates, $4325 in interest on his loan for the property, and $287.50 for insurance. Andrew claims $2340 in other deductions associated with his work. Calculate his total deductions. c Calculate Andrews taxable income.
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9 Sandra works from home as an editor for a book company. Sandra is paid $986.50 per fortnight. a Calculate Sandras annual gross income. b Sandra has one room of her house set up as an ofce. This room is 15% of the area of the house. If Sandras total household expenses are $9800 per year, calculate the deduction that she can claim for her home ofce. c Sandra bought a $3850 computer. If Sandra claims 40% of this value as a tax deduction for depreciation, calculate the amount claimed. d Sandra is allowed to claim travel expenses from her home to the book companys ofce once a week. If the distance is 50 km and Sandra is allowed a deduction at the rate of 51.9 c/km, calculate the amount that Sandra can claim for a travel deduction. e Calculate Sandras taxable income. 10 multiple choice Waynes gross fortnightly pay is $1156.60. He has tax deductions of $5 per week for dry-cleaning his work uniform, $50 per month in work-related travel expenses and $348 per year in union dues. Waynes taxable income is: A $28 863.60 B $29 653 C $29 668.60 D $60 143.20
Computer Application 1 Calculating taxable income

We are going to use a prepared spreadsheet to calculate a persons taxable income.
E
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Tax calculator
1. From your Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM, load the spreadsheet Tax Calculator. Enter the following data for income into Sheet 1, Taxable Income: salary $44 500, casual work $1258.50 and interest $258.50. You should now see a total income of $46 017.
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2. The spreadsheet has a section that calculates the size of various deductions. Scroll down to row 23, where you will see calculation areas for travel, home ofce and depreciation.
(a) In cell B24 enter 2200 for the kilometres travelled and in B25 enter 3 for the engine capacity of the car. (b) We will now do a similar calculation to nd the home ofce deduction. Enter the following data for home ofce. Home Ofce Calculator House area (m2) 170 Ofce area (m2) 17 Interest/rent $4500.00 Rates $1150.00 Telephone $ 600.00 Electricity $ 800.00 Gas Insurance $ 350.00 Other (c) The nal section we will include is a depreciation calculator. Enter the following data for depreciation. Depreciation Calculator Item Value Rate Amount Computer $4000 40% Car Capital equipment $5000 25% Other $ 500 25% 3. Scroll up to the top of your spreadsheet. The results appear in the main calculation section. For Union fees enter $352, for Charity donations enter $90, and for Other enter $125. You should now see the total of all allowable deductions and the taxable income.
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1
1 Candice has the following tax deductions: $1200 for travel, $800 for home ofce and $260 for depreciation. Calculate her total deductions. 2 Brendon has used his own car for a total of 3460 km on work-related matters during the nancial year. Calculate the tax deduction that Brendon is entitled to if he can claim 45.7 c/km. 3 Noeline has a computer that is valued at $5000 at the beginning of the nancial year. If Noeline depreciates the computer at 33% p.a., calculate the tax deduction that Noeline can claim in the nancial year. 4 Calculate the tax deduction that Noeline can claim for the same computer in the next nancial year. 5 How many years will it take for the value of Noelines computer to fall below $500? 6 Ravi has a gross annual income of $39 000. Ravis tax deductions total $2480. Calculate Ravis taxable income. 7 Indira has a gross annual salary of $43 000. She also earns $3450 per year from various investments. If Indiras tax deductions total $4679, calculate her taxable income. 8 Vicky earns a gross wage of $482.50 per week. Calculate Vickys annual taxable income, if her tax deductions for the year total $2430. 9 Shoaib earns $650 per week from his day job and another $112.40 per week from a second part-time job. Calculate Shoaibs taxable income, given that his tax deductions total $2119. 10 Megan has a taxable income of $23 900. Her tax deductions totalled $670. Calculate Megans gross annual income.
Medicare levy
Medicare is Australias national health care scheme. As part of our tax, we pay the Medicare levy. In return for this, Medicare pays for basic health care services, such as visits to your local doctor, x-rays and pathology. The basic Medicare levy is 1.5% of taxable income. This is the rate that the majority of people pay. People who are on low incomes do not pay any Medicare levy or pay the levy at a reduced rate.
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WORKED Example 7
Calculate the Medicare levy for a person with an annual taxable income of $44 300. THINK Calculate 1.5% of $44 300. WRITE Medicare levy = 1.5% of $44 300 Medicare levy = 0.015 $44 300 Medicare levy = $664.50
In Australia the government encourages people to take out private health insurance in addition to Medicare. This is to take the pressure off the public health system. They encourage people to do this in two ways. 1. The government provides a 30% rebate (refund) on the cost of the private health insurance. 2. People on higher incomes who do not have private health insurance are charged the Medicare levy surcharge. This surcharge is a further 1% of taxable income. The income threshold upon which families are charged the Medicare levy surcharge is shown by the table below. Number of dependent children 01 2 3 4 More than 4 dependent children Surcharge income threshold $100 000 $101 500 $103 000 $104 500 $104 500 plus $1500 for each additional child
For a single person the surcharge applies if their income exceeds $50 000 per annum.
WORKED Example 8
Calculate the total Medicare levy (including surcharge) paid by a person who has two children, no private health insurance and a taxable income of $164 000 per annum. THINK
1
WRITE Medicare levy = 1.5% of $164 000 Medicare levy = 0.015 $164 000 Medicare levy = $2460 This persons income is over the $101 500 threshold for a person with two children. Surcharge = 1% of $164 000 Surcharge = $1640 Total Medicare levy = $2460 + $1640 Total Medicare levy = $4100
Calculate the regular Medicare levy.
2 3 4
Decide if the person must pay the Medicare levy surcharge. Calculate the Medicare levy surcharge. Calculate the total Medicare levy by adding the surcharge to the regular levy.
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remember
1. The Medicare levy is a payment made as part of our tax that pays for basic health care services. 2. The Medicare levy is 1.5% of taxable income. 3. Allowances are made for people on low incomes who do not have to pay the levy or pay it at a reduced rate.
12C
WORKED
Medicare levy
12.1 SkillS
HEET
Example
1 Calculate the Medicare levy for a person whose taxable income is $39 870. 2 Calculate the Medicare levy for a person with a taxable income of: a $43 250 b $56 745 c $94 000. 3 Simon has a gross weekly wage of $451.75. a Calculate Simons gross annual wage. b Calculate the amount of Medicare levy that Simon pays annually. 4 multiple choice
12.4 SkillS
HEET
Which of the following families do not have to pay the Medicare levy surcharge, assuming that none of them have private health insurance? A Income of $100 000 with no children B Income of $101 000 with one child C Income of $102 000 with two children D Income of $104 000 with four children 5 Mr and Mrs Wyatt have ve children. What is the threshold for the Medicare levy surcharge for this family?
WORKED
Example
6 Calculate the total Medicare levy (including surcharge) paid by a person who has three children, no private health insurance and a taxable income of $184 000 per annum. 8 7 Calculate the total Medicare levy (including surcharge) paid by a person who has eight children, no private health insurance and a taxable income of $140 000 per annum. 8 James has an annual income of $250 000 and is single with no children. The cost of private health insurance for James would be $950 per year. Calculate how much James would save each year by joining a private heath fund as opposed to having to pay the Medicare levy surcharge.
Work
T SHEE
12.1
Medicare levy
1 At the time of writing, the Medicare levy was 1.5% of gross income. This is reviewed each year in the federal budget. Find out the current Medicare levy. 2 What is the lower income threshold at which no Medicare levy is paid?
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Calculating tax
The amount of PAYE tax payable is based on a table that shows the annual tax payable. This annual amount is then divided into a weekly or fortnightly amount. Taxable income is broken into ve tax brackets. As you earn more money the rate of tax increases, as shown in the table below. The table is based on whole dollar amounts and so any cents earned are ignored for the purposes of calculating tax. Note that we do not round off when ignoring cents; we always round down. For example, a person who earns $35 956.90 has their tax calculated on $35 956. Taxable income $1 to $6000 $6001 to $30 000 $30 001 to $80 000 $80 001 to $180 000 Over $180 000 $0 15c for each dollar over $6000 $3600 plus 30c for each $1 over $30 000 $18 600 plus 40c for each $1 over $80 000 $58 600 plus 45c for each $1 over $180 000 Tax payable
From the table we can see that there are ve tax brackets. Bracket 1. People who earn less than $6000 per year pay no tax. Bracket 2. People who earn between $6001 and $30 000 pay 15c for every dollar over $6000. Bracket 3. People who earn between $30 001 and $80 000 pay $3600 plus 30c for every dollar over $30 000. Bracket 4. People who earn between $80 001 and $180 000 pay $18 600 plus 40c for every dollar over $80 000. Bracket 5. People who earn over $180 000 pay $58 600 plus 45c for every dollar over $180 000. To calculate the amount of PAYE tax that should be deducted from a persons income, we need to see what tax bracket they are in and then apply the appropriate rule.
WORKED Example 9
Calculate the annual tax payable on a taxable income of $36 600. THINK
1 2 3 4 5
WRITE
$36 600 is in the $30 001 to $80 000 tax bracket. Tax payable is $3600 plus 30c (0.3) for each $1 over $30 000. Calculate the amount over $30 000 by subtracting $30 000 from $36 600. Apply the rule $3600 plus 30c for each $1 over $30 000. Calculate.
$36 600 $30 000 = $6600 Tax payable = $3600 + 0.3 $6600 Tax payable = $5580
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When calculating the total amount of tax payable, this income tax must be added to the Medicare levy.
WORKED Example 10
Christian has a taxable income of $85 000 per year. a Calculate the income tax that Christian must pay. b Calculate the Medicare levy for Christian if he is in a private health fund. c Calculate Christians total tax for the year. THINK a
1 2 3
WRITE a $85 000 $80 000 = $5000 Income tax = $18 600 + 0.4 $5000 Income tax = $20 600 b Medicare levy = 1.5% of $85 000 Medicare levy = 0.015 $85 000 Medicare levy = $275 c Total tax = $20 600 + $1275 Total tax = $21 875
$85 000 is in the $80 001 to $180 000 tax bracket. Subtract $80 000 from $85 000 to calculate the amount over $80 000. Apply the rule $18 600 plus 40c for each $1 over $80 000.
b Calculate the Medicare levy as 1.5% of $85 000.
c Add the Medicare levy to the income tax to nd the total tax payable.
When calculating the weekly tax payable, it is assumed that the gross amount earned that week is earned for the whole year, without consideration of tax deductions. The Medicare levy is taken out as part of PAYE tax. The yearly amount of tax is then calculated using this amount, then divided into a weekly payment.
WORKED Example 11
Trevor earns a gross wage of $772.70 per week. Calculate the amount of PAYE tax that is deducted by his employer. THINK
1
WRITE $772.70 per week = $40 180 per year.
2 3 4
Calculate $772.70 per week as an annual amount by multiplying by 52 (ignore any cents). $40 180 is in the $30 001 to $80 000 tax bracket. Calculate the amount over $30 000, by subtracting $30 000 from $40 180. Apply the rule to calculate the annual tax payable.
$40180 $30000 = $10180 Annual tax = $3600 + 0.3 $10180 Annual tax = $6654
Continued over page
400
THINK
5
WRITE Medicare levy = 1.5% of $40180 Medicare levy = 0.015 $40180 Medicare levy = $602.70 Total yearly tax = $6654 + $602.70 Total yearly tax = $7256.70 Weekly tax = $7256.70 52 Weekly tax = $139.55
Calculate the Medicare levy as 1.5% of $40 180. Calculate the total tax payable for the year. Divide $7256.70 into weekly instalments, by dividing by 52.
6 7
PAYE tax taken out by an employer is based on the pay being the employees only source of income without tax deductions. In most cases this means that the amount of tax paid by the end of the year will not be correct. For this reason, every taxpayer must complete a tax return. Before completing a tax return the taxpayer must collect a group certicate from each of their employers. A group certicate is a statement of gross earnings and the amount of PAYE tax that has been deducted from those earnings.
In a tax return, all group certicates are collected to nd the total gross income and total PAYE tax already paid. All allowable deductions are then subtracted to calculate taxable income. The correct amount of tax is then calculated. Based on this calculation, the taxpayer will then either receive a refund or pay the difference.
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WORKED Example 12
Catherines gross annual salary as a veterinarians assistant is $44 500. She has paid $8617.50 in PAYE tax. Catherine has also earned $560.40 in interest from an investment and has tax deductions totalling $2345. a Calculate Catherines taxable income. b Calculate the tax payable on Catherines taxable income, including the Medicare levy. c Calculate the amount that Catherine should receive as a tax refund or the amount of Catherines tax debt. THINK a
1
WRITE a Taxable income = $44 500 + $560.40 Taxable income = $2345 Taxable income = $42 715.40 Taxable income = $42 715 b $42 715 $30 000 = $12 715 Income tax = $3600 + 0.3 $12 715 Income tax = $7414.50 Medicare levy = 1.5% of $42 715 Medicare levy = 0.015 $42 715 Medicare levy = $640.73 Total tax = $7414.50 + $640.73 Total tax = $8055.23 c $8617.50 $8055.23 = $562.27
1 2
3 4
Calculate taxable income by adding all incomes and subtracting any tax deductions. Ignore cents in stating the taxable income. $42 715 is in the $30 001 to $80 000 tax bracket. Subtract $30 000 from $42 715 to calculate the amount earned over $30 000. Apply the rule $3600 plus 30c for each $1 over $30 000. Calculate the Medicare levy.
1 2
Calculate the total tax payable by adding the income tax to the Medicare levy. Catherine has paid more tax than she needed to. So she gets a refund. Calculate the size of the refund by subtracting the amount she should pay ($8055.23) from the amount that she paid ($8617.50). Give a written answer.
Catherine receives a refund of $562.27.
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remember
1. PAYE tax is the tax calculated based on your weekly or fortnightly earnings ignoring other income sources or tax deductions. 2. At the end of the nancial year each taxpayer must complete a tax return, which compares the PAYE tax paid with the correct amount of tax. The taxpayer then either receives a refund or must pay the difference. 3. The rate of tax payable increases with income. The income tax scales are based on tax brackets. To calculate tax, use the tax table to determine the appropriate tax bracket and apply the rule for that bracket. 4. To calculate the total tax payable, the income tax component must be added to the Medicare levy. 5. A refund or tax debt is calculated by nding the difference between the tax that has been paid over the year and the tax that should be paid.
12D
SkillS
Calculating tax
HEET
12.1
WORKED
Example
9 Finding a percentage of a quantity
1 Use the income tax table on page 398 to calculate the income tax payable on an annual taxable income of $35 450. 2 Calculate the income tax payable on each of the following taxable incomes. a $5500 b $18 675 c $31 250 d $44 320 e $92 850 f $208 000 3 Julie receives a gross pay of $627.68 per week. a Calculate Julies gross annual pay (remember to ignore cents). b Calculate the annual amount of tax that Julie must pay, based on this amount (remember to ignore cents). 4 Gregory earns a gross pay of $1963.80 per fortnight. Calculate the annual amount of tax that Gregory must pay, based on this amount.
SkillS
HEET
12.4
WORKED
Example
10
5 Johann has an annual taxable income of $35 600. a Calculate the amount of income tax Johann must pay. b Johann is married with one child. Calculate the Medicare levy for Johann. c Calculate the total amount of tax that Johann must pay for the year. 6 For each of the following taxpayers, calculate the total amount of tax that they must pay (assume each must pay the 1.5% Medicare levy). a Andre, whose taxable income is $23 500 b Brianna, whose taxable income is $72 000 c Catelyn, whose taxable income is $106 000
WORKED
Example
11
7 Sandy earns a gross weekly pay of $478.60. Calculate the amount of PAYE tax deducted each week by her employer. 8 Ashley earns a gross fortnightly pay of $2174.35. Calculate the amount of PAYE tax that Ashleys employer should deduct each fortnight.
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9 multiple choice Friedas taxable income is $50 000 per year. The total amount of tax that she should pay for the year, including the Medicare levy is: A $3600 B $9600 C $10 350 D $20000 10 multiple choice Henry earns a gross pay of $1295.60 per fortnight. The amount of PAYE tax incuding the Medicare levy that will be deducted from Henrys pay over a full year will be: A $4701.00 B $5210.78 C $10 101.00 D $33 670.00 11 multiple choice Ian receives a gross pay of $822.50 per week. The only deduction that Ian has taken from his gross pay is tax. Ians net weekly pay will be: A $142.90 B $155.24 C $667.26 D $679.60
WORKED
Example
12 At right is a group certicate for Wendell Hancock. GROUP CERTIFICATE Wendell has also earned $372.10 in interest from 12 an investment and has tax deductions totalling $1298. Wendell Hancock Gross income: $39 600.00 a Calculate Wendells taxable income. PAYE tax deducted: $7 074.00 b Calculate the tax payable on Wendells taxable income, including the Medicare levy. c Calculate the amount that Wendell should receive as a tax refund or what he must pay in tax. 13 Raymond earns a gross weekly pay of $1748.90. a Calculate Raymonds gross annual pay. b Calculate the amount of PAYE tax including the Medicare levy (but not the surcharge) that would be deducted from Raymonds pay each week. c During the year Raymond earned $45.15 in bank interest, and had tax deductions totalling $1296. Calculate the amount of tax that Raymond should pay for the year, based on his annual taxable income. d Calculate his refund or tax debt. 14 Vonda Flockhart is employed by day as a journalist and by night as a radio announcer. Her group certicates are shown at right. a Calculate Vondas gross annual pay from both jobs and the total amount of PAYE tax that Vonda has paid. b Vonda earned $184.40 in interest from bank accounts and had $3276 worth of tax deductions for the year. Calculate Vondas taxable income. c Calculate the amount of tax that Vonda should have paid throughout the year, including the Medicare levy, but not the surcharge. d Calculate the tax refund that Vonda is owed.
Job 1
GROUP CERTIFICATE
Vonda Flockhart Journalist Gross income: $35 000.00 PAYE tax deducted: $5 625.00 Job 2
GROUP CERTIFICATE
Vonda Flockhart Radio announcer Gross income: PAYE tax deducted:
$9605.00 $4466.33
15 Jelena receives a gross weekly pay of $1350.52. a Calculate the amount of PAYE tax, including the Medicare levy, that Jelena should have deducted from her pay for the year. b If at the end of the nancial year Jelena earned $11 274.56 from other sources and had tax deductions totalling $3650, calculate Jelenas tax refund or tax debt.
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Computer Application 2 Tax calculation

Tax calculator
We are now going to continue our tax calculation spreadsheet. In the previous computer application we used the spreadsheet to calculate a persons taxable income. We will now use it to calculate income tax and the Medicare levy. 1. From your Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM, open the spreadsheet Tax Calculator.
et
EXCE
If you saved your information from the taxable income, then the second spreadsheet, Income Tax, reads the taxable income and does the appropriate calculations for income tax and the Medicare levy. 2. The formula in cell B7 calculates the Medicare levy by taking 1.5% of the taxable income. 3. The income tax is calculated by making a calculation for the appropriate tax bracket only. This gure is then transferred to the top of the spreadsheet and added with the Medicare levy to calculate the total tax payable.
2
Calculate the Medicare levy for a person with a taxable income of: 1 $40 000 2 $24 000 3 $29 467 4 $25 670 5 $33 508 Use the table on page 398 to calculate the income tax payable (without Medicare levy) on an annual taxable income of: 6 $5000 7 $19 560 8 $32 500 9 $93 675 10 $182 000
405
Calculating GST and VAT

When you purchase most items you must pay the GST on that item. GST stands for Goods and Services Tax. The GST is a tax amounting to 10% of the purchase price of that item. There are some items that are exempt from the GST. These include fresh food, some educational costs and some medical costs. The GST is an example of an indirect tax. This is because the individual does not pay the tax directly to the government and there is no record kept of who is paying the tax. The tax is collected at the point of sale. To calculate the amount of GST payable on an item, we simply calculate 10% of the purchase price.
WORKED Example 13
A cricket bat has a pre-GST price of $127.50. Calculate the GST payable on the purchase of the bat. THINK Calculate 10% of $127.50. WRITE GST payable = 10% of $127.50 GST payable = 0.1 $127.50 GST payable = $12.75
When calculating the amount required to purchase an item, you will need to add the GST to the pre-tax price. The quickest way to do this will be to calculate 110% of the pre-tax price. By using this method we add the 10% GST to 100%, which represents the cost of the item. In this way there is only one calculation to make.
WORKED Example 14
The Besenko family goes to McDonalds for lunch. The cost of the meal before GST is $19.80. How much will the Besenkos have to pay for the meal, including the GST? THINK
1
WRITE Total cost = 110% of $19.80 Total cost = 1.1 $19.80 Total cost = $21.78 The cost of the meal will be $21.80.
Calculate 110% of $19.80.
Give a written answer, rounding your answer to the nearest 5c.
When we are given the total cost of an item including GST, we need to reverse the above process to calculate the pre-tax price of the item. This means that we need to divide the total cost by 110%, written as a decimal.
406
WORKED Example 15
Calculate the pre-tax price of a car that costs $31 350, including GST. THINK
1 2
WRITE Price = $31 350 1.1 Price = $28 500
Total cost is 110% of the price. Price is total cost divided by 1.1.
Taxes similar to the GST apply in many countries. These taxes are levied at different percentages in different countries and in many cases are called value added tax (VAT). The methods used to calculate the amount of VAT are the same as for Australias GST; however, the rate must be checked for each question.
WORKED Example 16
New Zealand has a VAT levied at a rate of 12.5%. Vanessa goes on holidays to New Zealand and rents a car for ve days at a rate of NZ$56.50 per day (before VAT). Calculate the total cost of renting the car including the VAT. THINK
1
WRITE Cost = $56.50 5 Cost = $282.50 Total cost = 112.5% of $282.50 Total cost = $317.81
Calculate the cost of the car by multiplying the daily rate by the number of days. Add the VAT by calculating 112.5% of the cost.
Note that in other countries there may be 1c and 2c pieces and so we do not take the answer to the nearest 5c.
remember
1. The GST is a tax of 10% of the purchase price of all items other than a few exemptions. 2. To calculate the amount of GST payable, calculate 10% of the purchase price. 3. To calculate the total cost of an item including the GST, calculate 110% of the pre-tax price. 4. To calculate the price of an item when you are given the total cost including the GST, divide the total cost by 110%. 5. A value added tax (VAT) is a tax similar to the GST that is applied in many countries. The VAT rate varies between countries; however, the same methods of calculation are used as for the GST.
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12E
WORKED
Calculating GST and VAT

12.1 SkillS
HEET
Example
1 Calculate the GST payable on a book that has a pre-tax price of $35.60.
13
2 Calculate the GST payable on each of the following items (prices given are pre-tax): Finding a a a bottle of dishwashing liquid at $2.30 percentage of b a basketball at $68.90 a quantity c a pair of cargo pants at $98.50 d a bus fare at $1.30 12.2 e a restaurant meal for which the bill totals $89.90. 3 Calculate the GST payable on each of the following items (correct to the nearest Increase or cent): decrease by a a a barbecued chicken with a pre-tax price of $7.99 percentage b a tin of shoe polish with a pre-tax price of $4.81 c a tin of dog food with a pre-tax price of 93c 12.4 d a pack of toilet rolls with a pre-tax price of $6.25 e a pack of frozen pies with a pre-tax price of $3.36. Unitary
SkillS
SkillS
HEET HEET
WORKED
Example
14
4 A pair of sports shoes that cost $112.50 has 10% GST added to the cost. Calculate the of percentages total cost of the sports shoes. 5 Calculate the total cost of each of the following items after the 10% GST has been added (prices given are pre-tax): a a football jersey priced at $114.90 b a CD priced at $29.90 c a bunch of owers priced at $14.70 d a birthday card priced at $4.95 e a jar of coffee priced at $5.88. 6 Jia travels to New Zealand where the VAT is set at 12.5%. Calculate the amount of tax payable on each of the following items: a a camera priced at $240 b a bus fare for $7.50 c a whitewater rafting tour costing $376 d a ski lift ticket costing $23.50 e a new suitcase priced at $78.90.
method
408
WORKED
Example
15
7 A restaurant bill totals $108.35 including the 10% GST. Calculate the actual price of the meal before the GST was added.
8 A bus fare was $2.09 including the 10% GST. Calculate: a the bus fare without the GST b how much GST was paid.
WORKED
Example
16
9 Austin travels to the USA. In the state of Utah a VAT is levied at 11%. Calculate what Austin will pay for four nights accommodation in a hotel that charges $78.40 per night before VAT. 10 Nancy travels to the USA. In California, the VAT is 7.5% of the price of the item. Calculate what Nancy will pay for each of the following items: a a postcard that has a ticketed price of $1 b Disneyland entry that is $75 c two nights accommodation at a hotel for $89.90 per night d a restaurant meal for which the bill totals $45.78 e a taxi fare that costs $6.46. 11 Sachin decides to purchase a new car. The pre-tax cost for the basic model of the car is $30 500. It is an extra $1200 for an automatic car, an extra $1600 for airconditioning, $1000 for power steering, $600 for a CD player and $450 for alloy wheels. Calculate the cost of each of the following cars, after the 10% GST has been added: a the basic model car b an automatic car with airconditioning c a car with a CD player and alloy wheels d a car with all of the above added extras.
409
Graphing tax functions

We can draw linear graphs to display the tax payable. This is possible for both the GST and income tax.
12F
Graphing tax functions

50 40 GST ($) 30 20 10 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Price ($) Sketching straight lines
1 Draw a set of axes with the price on the horizontal axis and GST on the vertical axis, as shown. a Calculate the GST payable on items that cost: i $100 ii $200 iii $500. b Join these points with a straight line to show the GST function.
12.5 SkillS
HEET
2 Draw a set of axes with Income on the horizontal axis and Income tax on the vertical axis, as shown below.
80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 200 195 190 185 180 175 170 165 160 155 150 145 140 135 130 125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Income ($' 000)
Income tax ($' 000)
a What is the tax payable on gross incomes up to $6000? Show this on the axes. b Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of: i $10 000 ii $30 000. This is the second tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight line. c Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of: i $30 000 ii $50 000 iii $80 000. This is the third tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight line.
410
Work
T SHEE
12.2
d Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of: i $100 000 ii $180 000. This is the fourth tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight line. e Calculate the tax payable on a gross income of: i $180 000 ii $190 000 iii $200 000. This is the fth tax bracket. Mark these points on the axes and join these points with a straight line.
411
summary
Allowable deductions
Allowable tax deductions are amounts that are deducted from gross income, as they are not taxable. Deductions are allowed for work-related expenses and other items such as charity donations.
Taxable income
Taxable income is the income on which income tax is assessed. Taxable income is calculated by subtracting any allowable deductions from gross income.
Medicare levy
The Medicare levy is part of the tax system that funds basic health care services. For most people the Medicare levy is 1.5% of gross income. People on low incomes either pay no Medicare levy or pay it at a reduced rate. People on high incomes with no private health insurance must pay a Medicare levy surcharge of an extra 1% of taxable income.
PAYE tax
Pay As You Earn (PAYE) tax is deducted from your gross pay each week or fortnight. Tax is calculated on the taxpayers gross annual income. This is then divided into weekly or fortnightly amounts. At the end of the nancial year the taxpayer submits a tax return. In a tax return the correct amount of tax for the year is calculated. The taxpayer then either receives a tax refund or pays a tax debt.
GST
The most common indirect tax is the GST, which began in Australia on 1 July 2000. The GST is a 10% tax paid on the cost of all goods and services with the exception of some basic foods. Some other countries have a value added tax (VAT), which is similar to the GST but levied at different rates.
412
CHAPTER review
12A 12A 12A
1 Tony is employed as a motor mechanic. Tony claims deductions of $1800 to buy tools, $225 for three pairs of work overalls, $5 per week for dry-cleaning of these overalls and $2.50 per week for work-related telephone calls. Calculate Tonys total tax deductions. 2 Catherine is a computer consultant who uses her own vehicle for work. Each week she must make several visits to businesses that use her computer systems. Catherine travelled 4523 km on work-related trips during the year. Calculate the tax deduction that Catherine can claim if she is entitled to claim at the rate of 47.5c per kilometre. 3 Brian runs a small bakery and has equipment in his bakery to the value of $45 000 at the beginning of the 200607 nancial year. For tax purposes he depreciates these items at a rate of 28% p.a. Calculate the tax deduction that Brian can claim for depreciation in: a 200708 b 200809 c 200910. 4 If a $5000 computer can be depreciated at a rate of 33% p.a., how many years will it take for its value to fall below $500? 5 Verity is employed as a vet. Verity has the following tax deductions. (a) $1500 for appropriate clothing (b) $5 per week for dry-cleaning (c) $2590 for new equipment (d) 28% depreciation on major equipment currently valued at $65 000 (e) 3287 km in travelling expenses (at a rate of 51.9 c/km) (f) $127.45 per month in telephone calls (g) $318 per quarter for electricity Calculate Veritys total tax deductions. 6 Eddie has a gross annual salary of $46 000 and has tax deductions that total $2117. Calculate Eddies taxable income. 7 From her job as a journalist, Jana earns a gross annual salary of $72 000. Jana also earns $3540 per year from her investments. If Jana has tax deductions totalling $5120, calculate her taxable income. 8 Allisons gross weekly wage is $539.50. Allison also earned $107.40 per quarter in interest from a xed term deposit. Calculate: a Allisons total earnings for the year b Allisons taxable income, given that she had deductions that total $2018. 9 Raymond has two jobs. One earns him $938.50 per fortnight and the other $190.60 per week. He also earned $97.10 in interest throughout the year. a Calculate Raymonds gross annual income. b In travelling between jobs, Raymond made 104 trips at 23 km per trip. For this he was entitled to claim a tax deduction at the rate of 45.7 c/km. Raymond had other tax deductions totalling $950. Calculate Raymonds taxable income for the year.
12A 12A
12B 12B 12B 12B
413
12C 12C
10 The Medicare levy is paid at a rate of 1.5% of taxable income. Calculate the Medicare levy that must be paid by a person whose taxable income is $39 000 per year. 11 Calculate the amount of Medicare levy that is payable by each of the people below. a Tanya has a taxable income of $15 500. b Sam has a taxable income of $29 000. c Emma has a taxable income of $47 500. d Gavin has a taxable income of $83 507 and is in a private health fund. e Holly has a taxable income of $99 000 and is in a private health fund. 12 Use the table on page 396 to determine the Medicare levy paid by a family with 3 children, no private health insurance and a taxable income of: a $87 600 b $101 000 c $156 000. 13 Use the tax table on page 398 to calculate the tax payable on a taxable income of $44 500. 14 Use the tax table on page 398 to calculate the tax payable on an income of: a $5000 b $19 357 c $35670 d $89 562 e $278 000. 15 Brett earns a gross weekly wage of $653.60. a Calculate Bretts gross annual pay. b Calculate annual tax that would be payable on this annual amount. c Calculate the Medicare levy payable on this annual amount. d Calculate the total annual tax payable. e Calculate the weekly PAYE tax that would be deducted from Bretts wages. 16 Fiona has a gross fortnightly salary of $3367.90. Calculate the amount of PAYE tax that would be deducted from Fionas pay each fortnight. 17 Neville has a gross annual salary of $43 750. He has tax deductions totalling $3495. During the year Neville has had $8381.25 deducted in PAYE tax. a Calculate Nevilles taxable income. b Calculate the total tax payable on this amount, including the Medicare levy. c Calculate the tax refund that Neville should receive. 18 An electric guitar has a pre-tax price of $990. Calculate the amount of GST payable on the guitar. 19 Calculate the amount of GST payable on each of the following items (prices given are pretax): a a takeaway meal at $11.30 b a lawnmower at $369.00 c a bus fare costing $1.20 d a hair style priced at $37.50 e a $12.50 movie ticket. 20 A round of golf costs $20 before tax. Calculate the total cost of the game after the 10% GST is added. 21 The total cost of a restaurant meal was $123.75, including GST. Calculate the actual cost of the meal without the tax.
12C 12D 12D 12D
12D 12D
12E 12E
12E 12E
414

1 multiple choice Slavisa is a nurse with a gross annual income of $45 675. He has earned $136.50 in interest from his bank accounts and has allowable deductions of $680. Slavisas taxable income is: A $44 858.50 B $45 131.50 C $46 218.50 D $46 491.50 2 multiple choice Allans taxable income is $48 000. Allans tax for the year is (use the PAYE tax table on page 398): A $720 B $3600 C $9000 D $9720 3 multiple choice Bradley receives a bill for $489.50 for car repairs, which includes GST. The cost of the repairs without the tax was: A $440.55 B $445.00 C $489.50 D $538.45 4 Lleyton is employed as a forklift driver and receives a gross weekly wage of $970. a Calculate Lleytons gross annual wage. b If Lleyton has tax deductions totalling $1194 and has earned $75.80 from other sources, calculate Lleytons taxable income. c Calculate the Medicare levy for Lleyton. d Use the table on page 398 to calculate the income tax due for Lleyton. e If Lleytons employer has deducted $5083.20 in PAYE tax through the year, calculate Lleytons tax refund or tax debt. 5 Vicky goes to a travel agent to enquire about a holiday in New Zealand. The cost of accommodation in a New Zealand hotel is A$75 per night. a If Vicky books this at the travel agent she must pay the 10% GST on the cost of the accommodation. Calculate the total cost of four nights in Australian dollars. b If Vicky ies to New Zealand and books the hotel on arrival, the cost is NZ$80 per night. If there is a 12.5% VAT on the hotel room, calculate the total cost of four nights in New Zealand dollars. c A$1 = NZ$1.12. What is the cheapest way to book the accommodation and by how much is it cheaper?
CHAPTER
test yourself
12
Right-angled triangles
13
syllabus reference
Measurement 4 Right-angled triangles
In this chapter
13A Pythagoras theorem 13B Calculating trigonometric ratios 13C Finding an unknown side 13D Finding angles 13E Angles of elevation and depression
areyou
13.1
Labelling sides of a right-angled triangle
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 In each of the following, name the opposite side, adjacent side and the hypotenuse. a A b c X P
READY?
Y Q R Z
13.2
Using Pythagoras theorem
2 Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place. 10 cm a b

x 3.5 cm 5.9 cm 27 cm x
13.3
3 Round each of the following numbers to the number of decimal places indicated in brackets. a 4.7368 [2] b 18.539 [1] c 0.377 51 [3] d 507.182 09 [3] e 10.797 [2] f 0.764 281 [4]
x Solving equations of the type a = -- to nd x b
13.4
4 Solve each of the following equations. x x a 0.6 = ----b 1.45 = -20 9
x c 0.7328 = -----4.7
13.5
b Solving equations of the type a = -- to nd x x
5 Solve each of the following equations. 6 2.7 a 0.25 = -b 7.5 = -----x x
76.95 c 0.1425 = -----------x
13.7
Rounding angles to the nearest degree
6 Round each of the following to the nearest degree. a 23.698o b 47.215o c 27o2434
d 86o4512
Chapter 13 Right-angled triangles
417
History of mathematics
P Y T H AG O R A S O F S A M O S ( c i rc a 5 8 0 B C 5 0 0 B C )
a During his life: Taoism is founded Kung-Fu-tse (Confucius) is born Buddhism is founded. length of the string, it produced a sound that was in harmony with the rst. He also found that if it was not exactly half, or a multiple of a half, then it was a clashing sound. This approach is still used in musical instruments today. He is credited with the discovery now known as Pythagoras theorem. This states that For a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse (long side) is equal to the sum of the squares of the two short sides and is normally written as c2 = a2 + b2. Other people knew of this idea long before he announced it, and there is a Babylonian tablet known as Plimpton 322 (believed to have been made about 1500 years before Pythagoras was born), c which has a set of these b sort of values (which are now called Pythagorean a triples). He used a string with knots in it to demonstrate and make right angles. Some examples of Pythagorean triples are: 3, 4 and 5 8, 15 and 17 and a more difcult example: 20, 99 and 101.
Pythagoras was a famous Greek mathematician and mystic who is now best known for his theorem about the sides of a triangle. He was born on Samos Island, near Greece. It is believed that he was born about 580 BC and died about 500 BC, but because of the way dates were recorded then, various dates are given for his life. Not much is known about his personal life, but we know that he had a wife, son and daughter. When Pythagoras was a young man, he travelled to Egypt and Babylonia (Mesopotamia) where he learned much of his mathematics and developed an interest in investigating it further. He founded a cult with the idea that the essence of all things is a number. This group believed that all nature could be expressed in terms of numbers. They found, however, that some numbers could not be expressed as rational numbers, such as 2 . They kept this information to themselves and there is a story that they killed one member who told somebody else about this problem. Pythagoras showed that musical notes had a mathematical pattern. He stretched a string tightly and found that it produced a certain sound and then found that if he halved the
Questions 1. Where was Pythagoras born? 2. Where did he travel to and learn most of his mathematics? 3. What is the formula for his famous theorem? 4. What did he start to investigate about patterns in nature? 5. What is the name of the ancient tablet that contains Pythagorean triples? 6. What is a Pythagorean triple?
418
Pythagoras theorem
Pythagoras theorem allows us to calculate the length of A a side of a right-angled triangle, if we know the lengths of hypotenuse the other two sides. Consider LABC at right. AB is the hypotenuse (the longest side). It is opposite the B C right angle. Note that the sides of a triangle can be named in either of two ways. 1. A side can be named by the two capital letters given to the vertices at each end. This is what has been done in the gure above to name the hypotenuse AB. 2. We can also name a side by using the lower-case letter of the opposite vertex. In the gure above, we could have named the hypotenuse c.
WORKED Example 1
Name the hypotenuse in the triangle at right. THINK
1 2
WRITE
Q R
The hypotenuse is opposite the right angle. The vertices at each end or the lower case of the opposite vertex can be used to name the side.
The hypotenuse is QR or p.
Pythagoras theorem In any right-angled triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides. Writing this result as a formula we say: c2 = a2 + b2 This is the formula used to nd the length of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle when we are given the lengths of the two shorter sides.
WORKED Example 2
Find the length of the hypotenuse in the triangle at right. THINK
1 2 3 4
8 cm
c 15 cm
WRITE c =a +b c2 = 82 + 152
2 2 2
Write the formula. Substitute the lengths of the shorter sides. Evaluate the expression for c2. Find the value of c by taking the square root.
c2 = 64 + 225 c2 = 289 2 c = 289 c2 = 17 cm
419
In this example, the answer was a whole number because we are able to nd 289 exactly. In most examples this will not be possible. In such cases, we are asked to write the answer correct to a given number of decimal places or signicant gures. By rearranging Pythagoras theorem, we can write the formula to nd the length of a shorter side of a triangle. If c2 = a2 + b2 then and a2 = c2 b2 b2 = c2 a2.
The method of solving this type of question is the same as in the previous example, except we use subtraction instead of addition. For this reason, it is important to look at each question carefully to determine whether you are nding the length of the hypotenuse or one of the shorter sides.
WORKED Example 3
Find the length of side PQ in triangle PQR, correct to 3 signicant gures. THINK
1 2 3 4
R 16 m P
2
9m Q
WRITE a =c b a2 = 162 92
2 2
Write the formula. Substitute the lengths of the known sides. Evaluate the expression. Find the answer by nding the square root.
= 256 81 = 175 a = 175 = 13.2 m
Pythagoras theorem states that in a right-angled triangle, c2 = a2 + b2. The converse of this theorem states that if c2 = a2 + b2 then the triangle is right angled. This is a method used by builders to ensure that a structure is square.
WORKED Example 4
Determine whether the triangle at right is right angled. THINK
1
4 cm 7 cm
5 cm
WRITE c2 = 72 = 49 2 2 a + b = 52 + 42 = 25 + 16 = 41 c2 a2 + b2
Calculate c2 and a2 + b2 separately.
2 3
Write down an equality or inequality statement. Write a conclusion.
Therefore the triangle is not right angled.
420
These formulas can be used to solve more practical problems. In these cases, it is necessary to draw a diagram that will help you to see which method for nding a solution is required. The diagram simply needs to represent the triangle; it does not need to show details of the situation described.
WORKED Example 5
The re brigade attends a blaze in a tall building. They need to rescue a person from the 6th oor of the building, which is 30 metres above ground level. Their ladder is 32 metres long and must be at least 10 metres from the foot of the building. Can the ladder be used to reach the people needing rescue? THINK
1
WRITE
burning building
Draw a diagram and show all given information.

30
c fire engine 10
3 4
Write the formula after deciding if you are nding the hypotenuse or a shorter side. Substitute the lengths of the known sides. Evaluate the expression. Find the answer by taking the square root. Give a written answer.
c2 = a2 + b2
c2 = 302 + 102 = 900 + 100 = 1000 c = 1000 31.62 m The ladder will be long enough to make the rescue.
5 6
remember
1. Make sure that you can identify the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. It is the side opposite the right angle. 2. If you are nding the length of the hypotenuse use c2 = a2 + b2. 3. If you are nding the length of a shorter side use either a2 = c2 b2 or b2 = c2 a2. 4. Read the question carefully to make sure that you give the answer in the correct form. 5. Begin written problems with a diagram and nish with an answer written in words.
421
13A
WORKED
Pythagoras theorem
13.1 SkillS
B
HEET
Example
1 Name the hypotenuse in each of the following triangles. a b c X

P Y A
Labelling sides of a right-angled triangle

Z C
Q
WORKED
13.2 SkillS
Using Pythagoras theorem
HEET
Example
2 Find the length of the hypotenuse in each of the following triangles. a b c

x 12 cm 150 mm 5 cm 80 mm m
z 60 m
11 m
Pythagoras
3 In each of the following, nd the length of the hypotenuse, correct to 2 decimal places. a b c 4.9 m
8.6 km 11.3 km
L Spre XCE ad
Cabri Geo
sheet
ry met
Pythagoras
9 cm
4.9 m
am progr C
6 cm
WORKED
GC
asio
Example
4 Find the length of each shorter side in the right-angled triangles below, correct to 1 decimal place. a b c 2.01 m
6 cm p 2.2 m 2.9 m 4.37 m q t
Pythagoras
program GC
TI
Pythagoras
2 cm
5 In each of the following right-angled triangles, nd the length of the side marked with a pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place. a b
10.5 cm
8 cm m
24.5 cm
4 cm
33 mm
d
37.25 m
34 mm
52.75 m
422
WORKED
Example
6 Use the converse of Pythagoras theorem to determine if the following triangles are right angled. a b c 31 m
10 cm 8 cm 6 cm 41 cm 40 cm 38 m 16 m
9 cm
7 multiple choice The hypotenuse in LXYZ at right is: A XY B XZ C YZ D impossible to tell 8 multiple choice Which of the following triangles is right angled? A B
24.5 m 32.5 m
5m 25 m
24.5 m
20.5 m
C 24.5 m
84 m 87.5 m
D
24.5 m
25.4 m
35.3 m
WORKED
Example
9 A television antenna is 12 m high. To support it, wires are attached to the ground 5 m from the foot of the antenna. Find the length of each wire. 10 Susie needs to clean the guttering on her roof. She places her ladder 1.2 m back from the edge of the guttering that is 3 m above the ground. How long will Susies ladder need to be (correct to 2 decimal places)? 11 A rectangular gate is 3.5 m long and 1.3 m wide. The gate is to be strengthened by a diagonal brace as shown at right. How long should the brace be (correct to 2 decimal places)?
3.5 m 1.3 m
12 A 2.5 m ladder learns against a brick wall. The foot of the ladder is 1.2 m from the foot of the wall. How high up the wall will the ladder reach (correct to 1 decimal place)? 13 Use the measurements in the diagram at right to nd the height of the agpole, correct to 1 decimal place.
7.9 m
2.4 m
423
C 160 120 50 D
14 An isosceles, right-angled triangle has a hypotenuse of 10 cm. Calculate the length of the shorter sides. (Hint: Call both shorter sides x.) 15 A block of land was surveyed and the eld diagram is shown. a Draw a scale diagram of the block of land. b Use Pythagoras theorem to calculate the perimeter of the block of land, correct to the nearest metre.
B 30 40 0 A
Calculating trigonometric ratios

In the previous section we looked at Pythagoras theorem. This enabled us to nd the length of one side of a right-angled triangle given the length of the other two. To use Pythagoras theorem, we had to recognise the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle. In trigonometry, we need to be able to name the two hypotenuse shorter sides as well. We do this with reference to a given opposite angle, and label them opposite and adjacent. They are the sides opposite and adjacent to the given angle. The diagram adjacent shows the sides labelled with respect to the angle, .
Looking at the tangent ratio

The tangent ratio is a ratio of sides in similar I right-angled triangles, such as those in the G diagram. BAC is common to each triangle E and is equal to 30. We are going to look at the C ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side in each triangle. You can do this either on your calculator or by completing the spreadsheet A H F D B Tangent from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM. Complete each of the following measurements and calculations. BC 1 a BC = mm b AB = mm c ------- = AB DE 2 a DE = mm b AD = mm c -------- = AD FG 3 a FG = mm b AF = mm c ------- = AF HI 4 a HI = mm b AH = mm c -------- = AH Remember that BAC is common to each triangle. In each of the above, part c is the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side of BAC. What do you notice about each of these answers?
Tangent
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
424
Trigonometry uses the ratio of side lengths to calculate the lengths of sides and the size of angles. The ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side is called the tangent ratio. This ratio is xed for any particular angle. The tangent ratio for any angle, , can be found using the result: opposite side tan = -----------------------------adjacent side In the investigation on page 423, we found that for a 30 angle the ratio was 0.58. We can nd a more accurate value for the tangent ratio on a calculator by pressing tan and entering 30. For all calculations in trigonometry you will need to make sure that your calculator is in DEGREES MODE. For most calculators you can check this by looking for a DEG in the display. When measuring angles: 1 degree = 60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds You need to be able to enter angles using both degrees and minutes into your calculator. Most calculators use a DMS (Degrees, Minutes, Seconds) button or a button. Check with your teacher to see how to do this.
WORKED Example 6
Using your calculator, nd the following, correct to 3 decimal places. 8 a tan 60 b 15 tan 75 c ----------------d tan 4932 tan 69 THINK a Press tan and enter 60. b Enter 15, press and enter 75. c Enter 8, press enter 69.
tan tan
WRITE/DISPLAY , , a tan 60 = 1.732 b 15 tan 75 = 55.981 8 c ---------------- = 3.071 tan 69 d tan 4932 = 1.172
and
d Press tan , enter 49, press enter 32, press DMS .
DMS ,
Graphics Calculator tip! Calculating trigonometric ratios involving degrees and minutes
Setting calculator to degrees mode
To calculate the value of a trigonometric ratio, put the calculator into RUN mode and, if the angle is in degrees only, the value is found in exactly the same way as if using a scientic calculator. Check you can do this by nding the value of tan 60 as shown above in worked example 6. If you get a different answer it may be because the calculator is not set to degrees. Click on the icon to see how to check if your calculator is set to degrees mode and how to change it if it is not.
CASI
425
Now consider worked example 6 d. 1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. To set the calculator up to accept degrees, minutes and even seconds, press OPTN , F6 for more options, then F5 for ANGL. The screen should appear as shown.
3. Now to nd the trigonometric ratio, enter tan 49 and press F4 for degrees; enter 32 and press F4 for minutes; then press EXE .
The tangent ratio is used to solve problems involving the opposite side and the adjacent side of a right-angled triangle. The tangent ratio does not allow us to solve problems that involve the hypotenuse. The sine ratio (abbreviated to sin) is the name given to the ratio of the opposite side and the hypotenuse.
L Spre XCE ad
Looking at the sine ratio

The tangent ratio is the ratio of the opposite side and the adjacent side in a rightangled triangle. The sine ratio is the ratio of the opposite side and the hypotenuse. Look back to the right-angled triangles used in the tangent investigation on page 423. Complete each of the following measurements and calculations by using your calculator or the spreadsheet Sine from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM. As we saw earlier, BAC is common to all of these similar triangles, and so in this exercise, we look at the ratio of the side opposite BAC to the hypotenuse of each triangle. BC 1 a BC = mm b AC = mm c ------- = AC DE 2 a DE = mm b AE = mm c ------- = AE FG 3 a FG = mm b AG = mm c -------- = AG HI c ----- = AI In this exercise, part c is the ratio of the opposite side to BAC to the hypotenuse. You should again notice that the answers are the same (or very close, allowing for measurement error). 4 a HI = mm b AI = mm
sheet
Sine
426
In any right-angled triangle with equal angles, the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse will remain the same, regardless of the size of the triangle. The formula for the sine ratio is: opposite side sin = -----------------------------hypotenuse The value of the sine ratio for any angle is found using the sin function on the calculator. sin 30 = 0.5 Check this on your calculator.
WORKED Example 7
Find, correct to 3 decimal places: a sin 57 THINK a Press
sin
b 9 sin 45
18 c ----------------sin 44
d 9.6 sin 2612. WRITE/DISPLAY
and enter 57.

a sin 57 = 0.839
sin sin
b Enter 9, press c Enter 18, press
and and
, enter 45. , enter 44.
b 9 sin 45 = 6.364 18 c ---------------- = 25.912 sin 44 d 9.6 sin 2612 = 4.238
d Enter 9.6, press and sin , enter 26, press DMS , enter 12, press DMS .
A third trigonometric ratio is the cosine ratio. This ratio compares the length of the adjacent side and the hypotenuse.
EXCE
reads L Sp he
Cosine
Looking at the cosine ratio

Look back to the right-angled triangles used in the tangent investigation on page 423. Complete each of the following measurements and calculations. You may do so by using the spreadsheet Cosine from the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM. AB 1 a AB = mm b AC = mm c ------- = AC AD 2 a AD = mm b AE = mm c -------- = AE AF 3 a AF = mm b AG = mm c -------- = AG AH 4 a AH = mm b AI = mm c -------- = AI Again for part c, you should get the same answer for each triangle. In each case, this is the cosine ratio of the common angle BAC.
et
427
The cosine ratio is found using the formula: adjacent side cos = -----------------------------hypotenuse To calculate the cosine ratio for a given angle on your calculator, use the cos function. On your calculator check the calculation: cos 30 = 0.866
WORKED Example 8
Find, correct to 3 decimal places: a cos 27 THINK a Press
cos
b 6 cos 55
21.3 c ----------------cos 74
4.5 d ------------------------- . cos 8246 WRITE/DISPLAY
and enter 27.

a cos 27 = 0.891
cos
b Enter 6, press c Enter 21.3, press 74. d Enter 4.5, press enter 82, press DMS .
and
, enter 55. , enter
b 6 cos 55 = 3.441 21.3 c ----------------- = 77.275 cos 74 4.5 d ------------------------- = 35.740 cos 8246
and
cos
and
cos
DMS , enter 46, press
Similarly, if we are given the sin, cos or tan of an angle, we are able to calculate the size of that angle using the calculator. We do this using the inverse functions. On most calculators these are the 2nd function of the sin, cos and tan functions and are denoted sin1, cos1 and tan1.
Find , correct to the nearest degree, given that sin = 0.738. THINK
1 2
WORKED Example 9
1
WRITE/DISPLAY
Press 2nd F [sin ] and enter 0.738. Round your answer to the nearest degree.
= 48
So far, we have dealt only with angles that are whole degrees. You need to be able to make calculations using minutes as well. On most calculators, you will use the DMS (Degrees, Minutes, Seconds) function or the function.
428
Given that tan = 1.647, calculate to the nearest minute. THINK

1 2
WORKED Example 10
WRITE/DISPLAY
Press 2nd F [tan1] and enter 1.647. Convert your answer to degrees and minutes by pressing DMS .
= 5844
answer Graphics Calculator tip! Displaying anseconds in degrees, minutes and

Consider worked example 10. 1. From the MENU select RUN.
2. As with a scientic calculator, press SHIFT [tan-1] and enter 1.647, then press EXE .
3. Display the angle options by pressing OPTN , F6 for more choices, and then F5 for ANGL.
4. The function for getting the answer displayed in degrees, minutes and seconds is accessed by pressing F5 .
remember
1. The tangent ratio is the ratio of the opposite side and the adjacent side. opposite side tan = -----------------------------adjacent side 2. The sine ratio is the ratio of the opposite side and the hypotenuse. opposite side sin = -----------------------------hypotenuse 3. The cosine ratio is the ratio of the adjacent side and the hypotenuse. adjacent side cos = -----------------------------hypotenuse 4. The value of the trigonometric ratios can be found using the sin, cos and tan functions on your calculator. 5. The angle can be found when given the trigonometric ratio using the sin1, cos1 and tan1 functions on your calculator.
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13B
WORKED
Calculating trigonometric ratios

13.3 SkillS
Cabri Geo
ry met
Example
1 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places. a tan 57 b 9 tan 63 c 8.6 ---------------tan 12 d tan 3319
HEET
WORKED
Example
2 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places. a sin 37 b 9.3 sin 13 c 14.5 ---------------sin 72 48 d -----------------------sin 6740
WORKED
Example
3 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 3 decimal places. a cos 45 b 0.25 cos 9 c 6 ----------------cos 24 d 5.9 cos 23
Sincostan ratios
4 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 4 signicant gures. a sin 30 b cos 15 c tan 45 d 48 tan 85 e 128 cos 60 f 9.35 sin 8 4.5 0.5 g ----------------h ---------------cos 32 tan 20 15 i ---------------sin 72 5 Calculate the value of each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places. a sin 2438 b tan 5721 c cos 8440 d 9 cos 5530 e 4.9 sin 3550 f 2.39 tan 859 19 49.6 g ------------------------h ------------------------tan 6745 cos 4725 0.84 i --------------------sin 755
WORKED
Example
6 Find , correct to the nearest degree, given that sin = 0.167. 7 Find , correct to the nearest degree, given that: a sin = 0.698 b cos = 0.173 c
tan = 1.517.
WORKED
Example
8 Find , correct to the nearest minute, given that cos = 0.058. 9 Find , correct to the nearest minute, given that: a tan = 0.931 b cos = 0.854 c
10
sin = 0.277.
430
1
1 Find the length of the hypotenuse in the triangle at right.
5 cm 12 cm
2 Find x, correct to 1 decimal place.

12 cm x
12 cm
3 Find y, correct to 3 signicant gures.

20 cm 30 cm
4 Find z, correct to 4 signicant gures.
3.7 m 7.4 m z
5 Calculate sin 56, correct to 4 decimal places. 6 Calculate 9.2 tan 50, correct to 3 signicant gures. 132 7 Calculate ---------------------- , cos 845 correct to 2 decimal places. 8 Find , given that sin = 0.5. 9 Find to the nearest degree, given that cos = 0.299. 10 Find to the nearest minute, given that tan = 2.
431
Finding an unknown side

We can use the trigonometric ratios to nd the length of one hyp x opp side of a right-angled triangle if we know the length of another 30 side and an angle. Consider the triangle at right. 14 cm In this triangle we are asked to nd the length of the opposite adj side and have been given the length of the adjacent side. opposite x We know from the formula that: tan = ------------------- . In this example, tan 30 = ----- . From adjacent 14 our calculator we know that tan 30 = 0.577. We can set up an equation that will allow us to nd the value of x. opp tan = -------adj x tan 30 = ----14 x = 14 tan 30 = 8.083 cm
WORKED Example 11
Use the tangent ratio to nd the value of h in the triangle at right, correct to 2 decimal places. THINK
1
h 55 17 m
WRITE
Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and hyp.
hyp 55 17 cm adj
h opp
2 3 4 5
Write the tangent formula. Substitute for (55) and the adjacent side (17 m). Make h the subject of the equation. Calculate.
opp tan = -------adj h tan 55 = ----17 h = 17 tan 55 = 24.28 cm
In the example above, we were told to use the tangent ratio. In practice, we need to be able to look at a problem and then decide if the solution is found using the sin, cos or tan ratio. To do this we need to examine the three formulas. opposite side tan = -----------------------------adjacent side We use the tan ratio when we are nding either the length of the opposite or adjacent side and are given the length of the other.
432
opposite side sin = -----------------------------hypotenuse The sin ratio is used when we are nding the length of the opposite side or the hypotenuse and are given the length of the other. adjacent side cos = -----------------------------hypotenuse The cos ratio is for problems where we are nding the length of the adjacent side or the hypotenuse and are given the length of the other. To make the decision we need to label the sides of the triangle and make a decision based on these labels.
WORKED Example 12
Find the length of the side marked x, correct to 2 decimal places. THINK
1
24 m 50
WRITE
hyp 24 m 50 adj opp x
Label the sides of the triangle.
x is the opposite side and 24 m is the hypotenuse, therefore use the sin formula. Substitute for and the hypotenuse. Make x the subject of the equation. Calculate.
opp sin = -------hyp x sin 50 = ----24 x = 24 sin 50 x = 18.39 m
3 4 5
Graphics Calculator tip! Using the equation solver

In each example when nding the length of a side, after substitution you will be left with an equation to solve to obtain your nal answer. The solution steps can be cut out by using the equation solver. x Consider worked example 12. At step 3 of the solution we are left with sin 50 = ----- , 24 which can be solved as shown below. 1. From the MENU select EQUA.
433
x 3. Delete any existing equation and enter sin 50 = ----- by 24 pressing sin 50 SHIFT = X 24 EXE . Do not worry about a different value of X in the display at this stage as it is a previously stored value. 4. Press F6 for SOLV to solve this equation.
To remember each of the formulas more easily, we can use this acronym: SOHCAHTOA We pronounce this acronym as Sock ca toe her. The initials of the acronym represent the three trigonometric formulas. opp adj opp sin = -------cos = -------tan = -------hyp hyp adj Care needs to be taken at the substitution stage. In the above examples, the unknown side was the numerator in the fraction, hence we multiplied to nd the answer. If after substitution, the unknown side is in the denominator, the nal step is done by division.
WORKED Example 13
Find the length of the side marked z in the triangle at right. THINK
1
2315'
z 12.5 m
WRITE
hyp z 12.5 m adj
Label the sides opp, adj and hyp.

2315'
opp
Choose the cosine ratio because we are nding the hypotenuse and have been given the adjacent side. Write the formula. Substitute for and the adjacent side. Make z the subject of the equation. adj cos = -------hyp 12.5 cos 2315 = --------z z cos 2315 = 12.5 12.5 z = ------------------------cos 2315 = 13.60 m
3 4 5
Calculate.
If you are using the graphics calculator to solve an equation that involves the use of degrees and minutes, the angle needs to be entered as a fraction. In worked example 13 ----above, cos 23o15 needs to be entered as cos 23 15 as the equation solver does not allow 60 access to the degrees, minutes and seconds function.
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Trigonometry is used to solve many practical problems. In these cases, it is necessary to draw a diagram to represent the problem and then use trigonometry to solve the problem. With written problems that require you to draw the diagram, it is necessary to give the answer in words.
WORKED Example 14
A ying fox is used in an army training camp. The ying fox is supported by a cable that runs from the top of a cliff face to a point 100 m from the base of the cliff. The cable makes a 15 angle with the horizontal. Find the length of the cable used to support the ying fox. THINK
1
WRITE
f 15 100 m
Draw a diagram and show information.
2 3
Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and hyp. Choose the cosine ratio because we are nding the hypotenuse and have been given the adjacent side. Write the formula. Substitute for and the adjacent side. Make f the subject of the equation. adj cos = -------hyp 100 cos 15 = -------f f cos 15 = 100 100 f = ----------------cos 15 = 103.5 m The cable is approximately 103.5 m long.
4 5 6
7 8
Calculate. Give a written answer.
remember
1. Trigonometry can be used to nd the length of a side in a right-angled triangle when we are given the length of one side and the size of an angle. 2. The trigonometric formulas are: opp adj opp sin = -------cos = -------tan = -------hyp hyp adj 3. Take care to choose the correct trigonometric ratio for each question. 4. Substitute carefully and note the change in the calculation, depending upon whether the unknown side is in the numerator or denominator. 5. Before using your calculator, check that it is in degrees mode. 6. Be sure that you know how to enter degrees and minutes into your calculator. 7. Worded problems will require you to draw a diagram and give a written answer.
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13C
Finding an unknown side

SkillS
1 Label the sides of each of the following triangles, with respect to the angle marked 13.1 13.4 with the pronumeral. a b c Solving mmm

equations mmmm of the type mmym x a = -b to find x
WORKED
Example
11
2 Use the tangent ratio to nd the length of the side marked x (correct to 1 decimal place).
13.5 SkillS
Solving equations 71 of the type b 51 mm a = -x to find x 13 m 23 a x
H T HEET HEET
3 Use the sine ratio to nd the length of the side marked a (correct to 2 decimal places).
13.6 SkillS
HEET
4 Use the cosine ratio to nd the length of the side marked d (correct to 3 signicant gures).
35 cm d 31
Rearranging formulas
Cabri Geo
ry met
Sine ratio
Cabri Geo
WORKED
Example
12
5 The following questions use the tan, sin or cos ratios in their solution. Find the size of the side marked with the pronumeral, correct to 3 signicant gures. a
x 13 cm 68
ry met
Cosine ratio
Cabri Geo
b
49 48 m y
c
ry met
12.5 km 41 z
Tangent ratio
Cabri Geo
ry met
WORKED
Example
13
6 Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the following Sincostan (correct to 1 decimal place). a
21 t
b
p 87 mm 77
q 36 8.2 m
4.8 m
436
7 Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the following (correct to 3 signicant gures). a b c x 23
76 a 39 2.3 m b 0.85 km 8.5 km
d
m 116 mm
f x
64.75 m 13
16.75 cm 11
g
44.3 m 83 x
g 20 15.75 km
i
849'
2.34 m
q 6032' 84.6 km
k
t 7519' 21.4 m
r 26.8 cm 2932'
8 multiple choice Look at the diagram at right and state which of the following is correct. 9.2 A x = 9.2 sin 69 B x = ---------------sin 69 9.2 C x = 9.2 cos 69 D x = ----------------cos 69 9 multiple choice Study the triangle at right and state which of the following is correct. A tan =
8 ----15
x 69 9.2
8 ----17
B tan =
15 ----8
C sin =
15 ----17
D cos =
17
15 8
10 multiple choice Which of the statements below is not correct? A The value of tan can never be greater than 1. B The value of sin can never be greater than 1. C The value of cos can never be greater than 1. D tan 45 = 1
437
11 multiple choice Study the diagram at right and state which of the statements is correct. 22 A w = 22 cos 36 B w = ---------------22 mm sin 36 w C w = 22 cos 54 D w = 22 sin 54
36
12 A tree casts a 3.6 m shadow when the suns angle of elevation is 59. Calculate the Example height of the tree, correct to the nearest metre. 14 13 A 10 m ladder just reaches to the top of a wall when it is leaning at 65 to the ground. How far from the foot of the wall is the ladder (correct to 1 decimal place)?
WORKED
14 The diagram at right shows the paths of two ships, A and B, after they have left port. If ship B sends a distress signal, how far must ship A sail to give assistance (to the nearest kilometre)?
Port 60 23 km
15 A rectangle 13.5 cm wide has a diagonal that makes a 24 angle with the horizontal. a Draw a diagram of this situation. b Calculate the length of the rectangle, correct to 1 decimal place. 16 A wooden gate has a diagonal brace built in for support. The gate stands 1.4 m high and the diagonal makes a 60 angle with the horizontal. a Draw a diagram of the gate. b Calculate the length that the diagonal brace needs to be. 17 The wire support for a agpole makes a 70 angle with the ground. If the support is 3.3 m from the base of the agpole, calculate the length of the wire support (correct to 2 decimal places). 18 A ship drops anchor vertically with an anchor line 60 m long. After one hour the anchor line makes a 15 angle with the vertical. a Draw a diagram of this situation. b Calculate the depth of water, correct to the nearest metre. c Calculate the distance that the ship has drifted, correct to 1 decimal place.
T SHEE
Work
13.1
438
2
Find the length of the side marked with the pronumeral in each of the following. Where necessary, give your answer correct to 1 decimal place. 1
a 15 cm
2
10 m b
20 m
8 cm
3
c
30 km
4
21 d 23 m
40 km
5
e 40 39.2 cm
6
42.1 m
37
14.9 mm g
119 mm
50
42
9
93.2 m 17 i
10
j 45
17 m
Finding angles
In this chapter so far, we have concerned ourselves with nding side lengths. We are also able to use trigonometry to nd the sizes of angles when we have been given side lengths. We need to reverse our previous processes. Consider the triangle at right. We want to nd the size 10 cm of the angle marked . 5 cm
439
opp Using the formula sin = -------- we know that in this triangle hyp sin = =
5 ----10 1 -2
= 0.5 We then calculate sin1 (0.5) to nd that = 30. As with all trigonometry it is important that you have your calculator set to degrees mode.
Find the size of angle , correct to the nearest degree, in the triangle at right. THINK
1
WORKED Example 15
Label the sides of the triangle and choose the tan ratio.
4.3 m
6.5 m
WRITE
hyp
4.3 opp
6.5 adj
Substitute for the opposite and adjacent sides in the triangle and simplify. Make the subject of the equation. Calculate.
3 4
opp tan = -------adj 4.3 = -----6.5 = 0.6615 = tan1(0.6615) = 33 (to the nearest degree)
Graphics Calculator tip! Using equation solver to find an angle

The equation solver can be used to nd an angle in the same way that it can be used to nd the length of a side. Consider worked example 15. 1. From the MENU select EQUA.
440
4.3 3. Delete any existing equation and enter tan x = ------ by 6.5 pressing
tan X SHIFT [=] 4.3 6.5 EXE .
4. Press F6 for SOLV to solve this equation.
In many cases we will need to calculate the size of an angle, correct to the nearest minute. The same method for nding the solution is used; however, you will need to use your calculator to convert to degrees and minutes.
Find the size of the angle , correct to the nearest minute. THINK
1
WORKED Example 16
Label the sides of the triangle and choose the sin ratio.
4.6 cm
WRITE
opp 4.6 cm adj hyp 7.1 cm
7.1 cm
Substitute for the opposite side and adjacent in the triangle and simplify. Make the subject of the equation. Calculate and convert your answer to degrees and minutes.
3 4
opp sin = -------hyp 4.6 = -----7.1 = 0.6479 = sin1(0.6479) = 4023 (to the nearest minute)
Graphics Calculator tip! Finding a solution in degrees and minutes

If using the equation solver, the solution can only be displayed in degrees as a decimal. Consider worked example 16. To obtain the solution in degrees and minutes, use the steps shown here. 1. Solve the equation as shown previously, which gives an answer in degrees as a decimal.
441
2. Press MENU and select RUN.
3. Press X equation.
EXE
to recall the value of X from the
4. To access the angle functions, press OPTN F6 , F5 for ANGL, and F5 again to convert to degrees, minutes and seconds.
The same methods can be used to solve problems. As with nding sides, we set the question up by drawing a diagram of the situation.
WORKED Example 17
A ladder is leant against a wall. The foot of the ladder is 4 m from the base of the wall and the ladder reaches 10 m up the wall. Calculate the angle that the ladder makes with the ground. THINK
1
WRITE
Draw a diagram and label the sides.

opp 10 m hyp
4m adj
2
Choose the tangent ratio and write the formula. Substitute for the opposite and adjacent side, then simplify. Make the subject of the equation. Calculate. Give a written answer.
opp tan = -------adj 10 = ----4 = 2.5
4 5 6
= tan1(2.5)
= 6812 The ladder makes an angle of 6812 with the ground.
442
remember
1. Make sure that the calculator is in degrees mode. 2. To nd an angle given the trigonometric ratio, press SHIFT and then the appropriate ratio button. 3. Be sure to know how to get your calculator to display an answer in degrees and minutes. When rounding off minutes, check if the number of seconds is greater than 30. 4. When solving triangles remember the SOHCAHTOA rule to choose the correct formula. 5. In worded problems draw a diagram and give an answer written in words.
13D
SkillS
Finding angles
HEET
13.7
Rounding angles to the nearest degree
1 In each of the following, use the tangent ratio to nd the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral, correct to the nearest degree. a
7m
25 mm
162 mm
SkillS
HEET
13.8
Rounding angles to the nearest minute
12 m
11 m
3m
SkillS
HEET
13.9
Rounding angles to the nearest second
2 In each of the following, use the sine ratio to nd the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral, correct to the nearest minute. a
13 m 24 m
4.6 m
9.7 km
6.5 m
Cabr
omet i Ge ry
5.6 km
Sine ratio
omet i Ge ry
3 In each of the following, use the cosine ratio to nd the size of the angle marked with the pronumeral, correct to the nearest minute. a
15 cm
Cabr
b
4.6 m 2.6 m
c
27.8 cm
Cosine ratio
9 cm
19.5 cm
443
ry met
WORKED
Example
15
4 In the following triangles, you will need to use all three trigonometric ratios. Find the Cabri Geo size of the angle marked , correct to the nearest degree. Tangent a b c 14 cm
ratio 11 cm 15 cm 9 cm
Cabri Geo
ry met
7 cm
8 cm
Sincostan
3.6 m
e
196 mm
32 mm 26.8 m 14.9 m
9.2 m
WORKED
Example
16
5 In each of the following, nd the size of the angle marked , correct to the nearest minute. a
30 m 63 cm
c
0.6 m
2.5 m
19.2 m
10 cm
3.5 m
e
8.3 m 16.3 m
18.9 m
6.3 m
18.5 m
6 multiple choice Look at the triangle drawn at right. Which of the statements below is correct? A ABC = 30 B ABC = 60 C CAB = 30 D ABC = 45 7 multiple choice Consider the triangle drawn at right. is closest to: A 4155 B 4156 C 484 8 multiple choice 3 The exact value of sin = ------ . The angle = 2 A 30 B 45 C 60
A 5 cm C 10 cm
D 485
9.3 m
12.5 m
D 90
444
WORKED
Example
17
9 A 10 m ladder leans against a 6 m high wall. Find the angle that the ladder makes with the horizontal, correct to the nearest degree. 10 A kite is ying on a 40 m string. The kite is ying 10 m away from the vertical as shown in the gure at right. Find the angle the string makes with the horizontal, correct to the nearest minute.
40 m kite
11 A ships compass shows a course due east of the port from which it sails. After sailing 10 nautical miles, it is found that the ship is 1.5 nautical miles off course as shown in the gure below.
10 nm 1.5 nm
10 m
Find the error in the compass reading, correct to the nearest minute. 12 The diagram below shows a footballers shot at goal.
7m
30 m
By dividing the isosceles triangle in half, calculate, to the nearest degree, the angle within which the footballer must kick to get the ball to go between the posts.
13 A golfer hits the ball 250 m, but 20 m off centre. Calculate the angle at which the ball deviated from a straight line, correct to the nearest minute.
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Angles of elevation and depression

The angle of elevation is measured upwards from a horizontal and refers to the angle at which we need to look up to see an object. Similarly, the angle of depression is the angle at which we need to look down from the horizontal to see an object. We are able to use the angles of elevation and depression to calculate the heights and distances of objects that would otherwise be difcult to measure.
WORKED Example 18
From a point 50 m from the foot of a building, the angle of elevation to the top of the building is measured as 40. Calculate the height, h, of the building, correct to the nearest metre. THINK
1 2
h 40 50 m
WRITE
Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and hyp. Choose the tangent ratio because we are nding the length of the opposite side and have been given the length of the adjacent side. Write the formula. Substitute for and the adjacent side. Make h the subject of the equation. Calculate. Give a written answer.
hyp 40 50 m adj
h opp
3 4 5 6 7
opp tan = -------adj h tan 40 = ----50 h = 50 tan 40 = 42 m The height of the building is approximately 42 m.
In practical situations, the angle of elevation is measured using a clinometer. Therefore, the angle of elevation is measured from a persons height at eye level. For this reason, the height at eye level must be added to the calculated answer.
WORKED Example 19
Bryan measures the angle of elevation to the top of a tree as 64, from a point 10 m from the foot of the tree. If the height of Bryans eyes is 1.6 m, calculate the height of the tree, correct to 1 decimal place. THINK
1 2
64 10 m 1.6 m
WRITE
Label the sides opp, adj and hyp. Choose the tangent ratio because we are nding the length of the opposite side and have been given the length of the adjacent side.
h opp
hyp
64 10 m adj Continued over page
446
THINK
3
WRITE opp tan = -------adj h tan 64 = ----10 h = 10 tan 64 = 20.5 m 20.5 + 1.6 = 22.1 The height of the tree is approximately 22.1 m.
Write the formula. Substitute for and the adjacent side. Make h the subject of the equation. Calculate h. Add the eye height. Give a written answer.
5 6 7 8
A similar method for nding the solution is used for problems that involve an angle of depression.
WORKED Example 20
When an aeroplane is 2 km from a runway, the angle of depression to the runway is 10. Calculate the altitude of the aeroplane, correct to the nearest metre.
2 km 10 h
THINK
1
WRITE
adj 2 km 10 opp h hyp
Label the sides of the triangle opp, adj and hyp. Choose the tan ratio, because we are nding the length of the opposite side given the length of the adjacent side. Write the formula. Substitute for and the adjacent side, converting 2 km to metres. Make h the subject of the equation. Calculate. Give a written answer.
opp tan = -------adj h tan 10 = ----------2000 h = 2000 tan 10 = 353 m The altitude of the aeroplane is approximately 353 m.
5 6 7
Angles of elevation and depression can also be calculated by using known measurements. This is done by drawing a right-angled triangle to represent a situation.
447
WORKED Example 21
A 5.2 m building casts a 3.6 m shadow. Calculate the angle of elevation of the sun, correct to the nearest degree. THINK
1 2
WRITE
opp 5.2 m
5.2 m
Label the sides opp, adj and hyp. Choose the tan ratio because we are given the length of the opposite and adjacent sides.
3.6 m
hyp
3.6 m adj
3 4 5 6 7
Write the formula. Substitute for opposite and adjacent. Make the subject of the equation. Calculate. Give a written answer.
opp tan = -------adj 5.2 tan = -----3.6 5.2 = tan1 -----3.6 = 55 The angle of elevation of the sun is approximately 55.
remember
1. The angle of elevation is the angle at which you look up to see an object. 2. The angle of depression is the angle at which you look down to see an object. 3. Problems can be solved by using angles of elevation and depression with the aid of a diagram. 4. Worded problems should be given an answer written in words.
448
13E
WORKED
Example
18
1 From a point 100 m from the foot of a building, the angle of elevation to the top of the building is 15. Calculate the height of the building, correct to 1 decimal place.
15 100 m
2 The angle of elevation from a ship to an aeroplane is 60. The aeroplane is 2300 m due north of the ship. Calculate the altitude of the aeroplane, correct to the nearest metre.
60 2300 m
3 From a point out to sea, a ship sights the top of a lighthouse at an angle of elevation of 12. It is known that the top of the lighthouse is 40 m above sea level. Calculate the distance of the ship from the lighthouse, correct to the nearest 10 m.
WORKED
40 m 12 x
Example
19
4 From a point 50 m from the foot of a building, Rod sights the top of a building at an angle of elevation of 37. Given that Rods eyes are at a height of 1.5 m, calculate the height of the building, correct to 1 decimal place. 5 Richard is ying a kite and sights the kite at an angle of elevation of 65. The altitude of the kite is 40 m and Richards eyes are at a height of 1.8 m. Calculate the length of string the kite is ying on, correct to 1 decimal place.
1.5 m
37 50 m
x 40 m 65 1.8 m
WORKED
Example
20
6 Bettina is standing on top of a cliff, 70 m above sea level. She looks directly out to sea and sights a ship at an angle of depression of 35. Calculate the distance of the ship from shore, to the nearest metre. 7 From an aeroplane ying at an altitude of 4000 m, the runway is sighted at an angle of depression of 15. Calculate the distance of the aeroplane from the runway, correct to the nearest kilometre.
35 70 m
15 4000 m
8 There is a re on the fth oor of a building. The closest a re truck can get to the building is 10 m. The angle of elevation from this point to where people need to be rescued is 69. If the re truck has a 30 m ladder, can the ladder be used to make the rescue?
69 10 m
449
9 From a navy vessel, a beacon which is 80 m D above sea level is sighted at an angle of elevation of 5. The vessel sailed towards the beacon and 80 m thirty minutes later the beacon is at an angle of elevation of 60. 5 60 C A B Use the diagram on the right to complete the following. a Calculate the distance that the vessel was from the beacon when the angle of elevation to the beacon was 5 (the distance AC). b Calculate the distance that the vessel sailed in the 30 minutes between the two readings.
WORKED
Example
10 A 12 m high building casts a shadow 15 m long. Calculate the angle of elevation of the sun, to the nearest degree. 21
12 m
15 m
11 An aeroplane that is at an altitude of 1500 m is 4000 m from a ship in a horizontal direction, as shown at right. Calculate the angle of depression from the aeroplane to the ship, to the nearest degree. 12 The angle of elevation to the top of a tower is 12 from a point 400 m from the foot of the tower. a Draw a diagram of this situation. b Calculate the height of the tower, correct to 1 decimal place. c Calculate the angle of elevation to the top of the tower from a point 100 m from the foot of the tower.
4000 m
1500 m
Calculation of heights
To measure the heights of trees and buildings around your school, try the following. 1 Measure your height at eye level. 2 Take a clinometer and from a point measure the angle of elevation to the top of the tree or building. 3 Measure your distance from the foot of the tree or building. 4 Use trigonometry to calculate the height, remembering to add your height at eye level to the result of the calculation.
Work
T SHEE
13.2
450
Proportional diagrams
In many cases, we need only an approximate measurement for a practical problem. This type of answer can be obtained by drawing a scale diagram. Consider the situation where a hiker walks 6 km due north, turns and walks 4 km due east. By 6 km drawing a diagram using a scale of 1 cm = 1 km, we can obtain an approximate measurement for the distance the hiker is from the starting point. By measurement, we can see that the distance the hiker is from the starting point is approximately 7.2 km.
4 km
With a protractor, we can draw a scale diagram to solve problems involving angles. Suppose that the angle of elevation to the top of a tree is 40 from a point 12 m from the foot of the tree. h By measurement, the height of the tree is approximately 10 m. 40 12 m In many situations a quick check of the accuracy of an answer is useful and can be made by using a scale drawing. In such cases the drawing would need to be only approximately to scale. Suppose that you were told that the angle of depression from the top of a 50 m cliff to a ship out to sea was 15. You were then told that this ship is 1 km from shore.
15 50 m
Using this diagram, we would estimate that the ship is only 190 m from shore. Such a diagram is a useful check to a calculation.
Checking with a proportional diagram

Draw diagrams roughly to scale to check the results to the previous investigation. Such diagrams are used to develop car rally courses, cross-country running courses and orienteering events.
Using proportional diagrams

Plan a track for a cross-country run or orienteering event around your school. 1 Measure the length of each leg and the angle involved in each turn. 2 On a scale diagram, draw the course. 3 By measuring your diagram, calculate the approximate length of the course.
451
summary
Pythagoras theorem
When nding the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, use the formula: c2 = a2 + b2. To nd a shorter side of a right-angled triangle use: a2 = c2 b2 or b2 = c2 a2.
Trigonometric formulas for right-angled triangles

opp tan = -------adj opp sin = -------hyp adj cos = -------hyp SOHCAHTOA this acronym will help you remember trigonometric formulas.
Steps to nd a side of a right-angled triangle

Label the sides of the triangle opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse. Choose the correct ratio. Substitute given information. Make the unknown side the subject of the equation. Calculate.
Steps to nd an angle in a right-angled triangle

Label the sides of the triangle opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse. Choose the correct ratio. Substitute given information. Make the unknown angle the subject of the equation. Calculate by using the inverse trigonometric functions.

The angle of elevation is the angle we look up from the horizontal to see an object. The angle of depression is the angle we look down from the horizontal to see an object. Problems are solved using angles of elevation and depression by the same methods as for all right-angled triangles.
Proportional diagrams
A scale diagram can be drawn to obtain a reasonable estimate of a distance or angle. A diagram that is drawn roughly to scale can be used to check that an answer is reasonably accurate.
452
CHAPTER review
13A
1 Find the length of the side marked with a pronumeral, in each case writing your answer correct to 2 decimal places. a b c
m 9.2 m 9.2 m n 32 cm 4.8 m 26 cm 3.2 m q 7.25 cm 17.25 cm r p
1.9 km 1.3 km
0.6 m t 2.4 m
13A 13A 13B 13B 13B 13C
2 To travel between the towns of Bolong and Molong, you need to travel west along a road for 45 km, then north along another road for another 87 km. Calculate the straight-line distance between the two towns. 3 A rope is 80 m long and runs from a cliff top to the ground, 45 m from the base of the cliff. Calculate the height of the cliff, to the nearest metre. 4 Calculate each of the following, correct to 4 decimal places. a sin 46 b tan 7642 c 4.9 cos 56 5.69 2.5 e ----------------f ---------------------d 8.9 sin 673 cos 75 tan 955 5 Calculate , correct to the nearest degree, given that: a cos = 0.5874 b tan = 1.23 6 Calculate , correct to the nearest minute, given that: a cos = 0.199 b tan = 0.5 c c sin = 0.8. sin = 0.257.
7 Find the length of each side marked with a pronumeral, correct to 1 decimal place. a b c 6 cm
3.9 m 9 q 78 x m 22 12.6 cm
d
12.6 cm 22
e
32 q n
6.8 m 65 t
7.8 cm
453
h
h
i
z 8330' 138 mm
2.9 m 2642'
4.8 cm 7718'
4.32 m
k
38.5 m j 168' k
l
63 km 8512' m
2951'
8 A rope that is used to support a agpole makes an angle of 70 with the ground. If the rope is tied down 3.1 m from the foot of the agpole, nd the height of the agpole, correct to 1 decimal place. 9 A dirt track runs off a road at an angle of 34 to the road. If I travel for 4.5 km along the dirt track, what is the shortest distance back to the road (correct to 1 decimal place)? 10 A re is burning in a building and people need to be rescued. The re brigades ladder must reach a height of 60 m and must be angled at 70 to the horizontal. How long must the ladder be to complete the rescue? 11 Find the size of the angle marked in each of the following, giving your answer correct to the nearest degree. a b c 2.3 m
43 cm 116 cm 16 m 19 m 4.6 m
13C 13C 13C 13D
12 Find the size of the angle marked in each of the following, giving your answer correct to the nearest minute. a b c 10.8 m 2.9 m

4.6 m 6.1 m
13D
11.9 cm 13.8 cm
13 A kite on an 80 m string reaches a height of 50 m in a strong wind. Calculate the angle the string makes with the horizontal. 14 There is 50 m of line on a shing reel. When all the line is out, the bait sits on the bed of a lake and has drifted 20 m from the boat. Calculate the angle that the shing line makes with the vertical. 15 The top of a building is sighted at an angle of elevation of 40, when an observer is 27 m back from the base. Calculate the height of the building, h correct to the nearest metre.
27 m
13D 13D 13E
40
454
13E
16 Hakam stands 50 m back from the foot of an 80 m telephone tower. Hakams eyes are at a height of 1.57 m. Calculate the angle of elevation that Hakam must look to see the top of the tower.
1.57 m
80 m
50 m

1 multiple choice Which of the triangles drawn below is not right angled? A B 13 cm
5 cm 12 cm 3 cm
5 cm 4 cm
C
7m 19 m
D
8 cm 17 cm 15 cm
9m
2 multiple choice Look at the triangle at right. 9m 9 9 Statement 1. cos = ----Statement 2. tan = ----41 40 Which of the above statements is true? A 1 only B 2 only C both 1 and 2 3 multiple choice Which of the following statements is correct? A cos 30 = tan 60 B cos 30 = sin 60 C cos 30 = sin 30 D cos 60 = sin 60 4 multiple choice 3 The exact value of cos = ------ . The angle = 2 A 30 B 45 C 60 5 On a bushwalk starting at point A, Sally walks 4.2 km due west to point B then turns due south for a distance of 3.1 km to point C. a Calculate the distance, AC, that Sally must walk to return to her starting point. b Calculate the direction that Sally must walk, represented by the angle , correct to the nearest degree.
41 m
40 m
D neither statement
D 90
B 3.1 km 4.2 km A
CHAPTER
test yourself
13
6 A hot-air balloon takes off and after 30 minutes of ying reaches an altitude of 2000 m. At that time, the angle of depression to 15 its launch pad is 15. 2000 m a Calculate the horizontal distance that the balloon has travelled in that half-hour (correct to the nearest 100 m). b Calculate the angle of depression to the launch pad after the balloon has travelled 15 km in one direction (assuming that it maintains its altitude of 2000 m).
The language of chance
14
syllabus reference
Probability 1 The language of chance
In this chapter
14A Informal description of chance 14B Sample space 14C Tree diagrams 14D Equally likely outcomes 14E Using the fundamental counting principle
areyou
14.1
Understanding chance words
Are you ready?
READY?
1 For each of the following events, specify whether the chance of the event occurring is certain, likely, fty-fty, unlikely or impossible. a A coin is tossed and it lands on Heads. b A fair die is rolled and a number less than 5 is obtained. c Two dice are rolled and a total of 1 is obtained. d Your family wins the lottery. e The maximum temperature on a summers day in Sydney will be greater than 0oC.
14.2
Understanding a deck of cards
2 For a standard deck of 52 playing cards, state the number of: a red cards b jacks c black queens d kings of diamonds e eights f number cards greater than 7.
14.3
Probability scale I
3 For each of the probabilities listed below, state whether the event would be certain, likely, ftyfty, unlikely or impossible. a 0.2 b 0.5 c 0 d 1 e 0.9
14.4
Probability scale II
4 List the events A, B and C below in order from least likely to occur to most likely to occur. A tossing a coin and having it land Heads B winning Lotto C a baby being born on either Saturday or Sunday
14.5
Listing the sample space
5 List the sample space (possible outcomes) for each of the following. a rolling a die b tossing a coin c spinning a circular spinner numbered from 1 to 5
Chapter 14 The language of chance
457
Informal description of chance

You have booked a ski holiday to Thredbo for the middle of July. What is the chance that there will be enough snow on the ground for you to ski? There is no exact answer to this question, but by looking at the amount of snow in Thredbo during July over past years, we know that there is a very good chance that there will be enough snow to ski again this year. We can say that it is very likely that we will be able to ski during July at Thredbo. Terms such as very likely, almost certain, unlikely and fty-fty are used in everyday language to describe the chance of an event occurring. For the purposes of probability, an event is the outcome of an experiment that we are interested in. We can describe an outcome as a possible result to the probability experiment. Imagine that you are playing a board game and it is your turn to roll the die. To win the game you need to roll a number less than 7. If you roll one die, you must get a number less than 7. We would describe the chance of this event occurring as certain. When an event is certain to occur, the probability of that event occurring is 1. Now lets consider an impossible situation. certain In a board game you have one last throw of the die. To win you almost certain must roll a 7. We know that this cannot be done. We would say that probable this is impossible. When an event is impossible, the probability of the event is 0.
fifty-fifty 1
1 2
unlikely The chance of any event occurring will often be somewhere between being certain and impossible, and we use a variety of very unlikely terms to describe where the chance lies in this range as shown in impossible 0 the gure at right. We use these terms based on our general knowledge of the world, the total possible outcomes and how often an event occurs.
WORKED Example 1
Describe the chance of each of the following events occurring. a Tossing a coin and it landing Heads b Rolling a 6 with one die c Winning the lottery d Selecting a spot (numbered) card from a standard deck THINK a There is an equal chance of the coin landing Heads and Tails. b There is only one chance in six of rolling a 6. c There is only a very small chance of winning the lottery. d There are more spot cards than picture cards in a deck. WRITE a The chance of tossing a head is fty-fty. b It is unlikely that you will roll a 6. c It is very unlikely that you will win the lottery. d It is probable that you will select a spot card.
458
You will need to use these terms to describe events that are more likely to occur than others.
WORKED Example 2
Mrs Graham is expecting her baby to be born between July 20 and 26. Is it more likely that her baby will be born on a weekday or a weekend? THINK There are 5 chances that the baby will be born on a weekday and 2 chances that it will be born on a weekend. WRITE It is more likely that Mrs Grahams baby will be born on a weekday.
The term frequency refers to how often an event occurs. We use our knowledge about possible outcomes to order outcomes from the most frequent to the least frequent.
WORKED Example 3
A card is chosen from a standard deck. List the following outcomes in order from least likely to most likely. Selecting a picture card Selecting an Ace Selecting a diamond Selecting a black card THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE
There are 12 picture cards in the deck. There are 4 aces in the deck. There are 13 diamonds in the deck. There are 26 black cards in the deck.
The order of events in ascending order of likelihood: Selecting an Ace Selecting a picture card Selecting a diamond Selecting a black card.
In the above examples, we have been able to calculate which event is more likely by counting the number of ways an event may occur. This is not always possible. In some cases we need to use general knowledge to describe the chance of an event occurring. Consider the following probability problems. The letters of the alphabet are written on cards and one card is selected at random. Which letter has the greatest chance of being chosen, E or Q? Each letter has an equal chance of being chosen because there is one chance that E will be chosen and one chance that Q will be chosen. Stacey sticks a pin into a page of a book and she writes down the letter nearest to the pin. Which letter has the greater chance of being chosen, E or Q?
459
This question is more difcult to answer because each letter does not occur with equal frequency. However, we know from our experience with the English language that Q will occur much less often than most other letters. We can therefore say that E will occur more often than Q. This is an example of using your knowledge of the world to make predictions about which event is more likely to occur. In this way, we make predictions about everyday things such as the weather and which football team will win on the weekend.
WORKED Example 4
During the 2006 NRL season, the Brisbane Broncos won 9 of their rst 12 games. In Round 13 they played South Sydney who had won 0 of their rst 12 games. Who would be more likely to win? THINK Brisbane Broncos have won more games than South Sydney. WRITE Brisbane Broncos would be more likely to win, based on their previous results. (Footy note: South Sydney won the game 3414. Brisbane was more likely to win the game but nothing in football is certain.)
This is one example of past results being used to predict future happenings. There are many other such examples.
WORKED Example 5
Weather records show that it has rained on Christmas Day 12 times in the last 80 years. Describe the chance of it raining on Christmas Day this year. THINK It has rained only 12 times on the last 80 Christmas Days. This is much less than half of all Christmas Days. WRITE It is unlikely that it will rain on Christmas Day this year.
remember
1. The chance of an event occurring ranges from being certain to impossible. 2. (a) An event that is certain has a probability of 1. (b) An event that is impossible has a probability of 0. 3. There are many terms that we use to describe the chance of an event occurring, such as improbable, unlikely, fty-fty, likely and probable. 4. Sometimes we can describe the chance of an event occurring by counting the possible outcomes, while other times we need to rely on our general knowledge to make such a description.
460
14A
SkillS
HEET
14.1
WORKED
Example
1 Understanding chance words
SkillS
HEET
14.2
Understanding a deck of cards
1 Describe the chance of each of the following events occurring, using an appropriate probability term. a Selecting a ball with a double-digit number from a bag with balls numbered 1 to 40 b Selecting a female student from a class with 23 boys and 7 girls c Selecting a green marble from a barrel with 40 blue marbles and 30 red marbles d Choosing an odd number from the numbers 1 to 100 2 For each of the events below, describe the chance of it occurring as impossible, unlikely, even chance (fty-fty), probable or certain. a Rolling a die and getting a negative number b Rolling a die and getting a positive number c Rolling a die and getting an even number d Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a red card e Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a spot (numbered) card f Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting an ace g Reaching into a moneybox and selecting a 30c piece h Selecting a blue marble from a bag containing 3 red, 3 green and 6 blue marbles 3 Give an example of an event which has a probability that could be described as: a certain b probable c even chance d unlikely e impossible.
SkillS SkillS
HEET
14.3
Probability scale I
HEET
14.4
Probability scale II
WORKED
Example
4 Is it more likely that a persons birthday will occur during a school term or during the school holidays? 5 For each event on the left, state whether it is more likely, less likely or equally likely to occur than the event on the right. a Fine weather Christmas Day Wet weather Christmas Day b A coin landing Heads A coin landing Tails c Rolling a total of 3 with two dice Rolling a total of 7 with two dice d Winning a rafe made up of 50 tickets Winning a rafe made up of 200 tickets e Winning a prize in the Lotto draw Not winning a prize in the Lotto draw
WORKED
Example
6 A die is thrown and the number rolled is noted. List the following events in order from least likely to most likely. Rolling an even number Rolling a number less than 3 Rolling a 6 Rolling a number greater than 2 7 Write the following events in order from least to most likely. Winning a rafe with 5 tickets out of 30 Rolling a die and getting a number less than 3 Drawing a green marble from a bag containing 4 red, 5 green and 7 blue marbles Selecting a court card (ace, king, queen, jack) from a standard deck Tossing a coin and having it land Heads
461
WORKED
Example
8 Before meeting in the cricket World Cup in 2007, Australia had beaten Bangladesh in 10 of the last 11 matches. Who would be more likely to win on this occasion? 9 Which of the following two runners would be expected to win the nal of the 100 m at the Olympic Games? Carl Bailey best time 9.92 s and won his semi-nal Ben Christie best time 10.06 s and 3rd in his semi-nal Give an explanation for your answer. 10 multiple choice A stack of 26 cards has the letters of the alphabet written on them. Vesna draws a card from that stack. The probability of selecting a card that has a vowel written on it could best be described as: A unlikely B even chance C probable D almost certain 11 multiple choice Which of the following events is the most likely to occur? A Selecting the rst number drawn from a barrel containing 20 numbered marbles B Selecting a diamond from a standard deck of cards C Winning the lottery with one ticket out of 150 000 D Drawing the inside lane in the Olympic 100-metre nal with eight runners 12 multiple choice The ski season opens on the rst weekend of June. At a particular ski resort there has been sufcient snow for skiing on that weekend on 32 of the last 40 years. Which of the following statements is true? A It is unlikely to snow at the opening of the ski season this year. B There is a fty-fty chance that it will snow at the opening of the ski season this year. C It is probable that it will snow at the opening of the ski season this year. D It is certain to snow at the opening of the ski season this year.
WORKED
Example
13 On a production line, light globes are tested to see how long they will last. After testing 1000 light globes, it is found that 960 will burn for more than 1500 hours. Wendy 5 purchases a light globe. Describe the chance of the light globe burning for more than 1500 hours. 14 Of 12 000 new cars sold last year, 1500 had a major mechanical problem during the rst year. Edwin purchased a new car. Describe the chance of Edwin having a major mechanical problem in the rst year. 15 During an election campaign, 2000 people were asked for their voting preferences. One thousand said that they would vote for the government. If one person is chosen at random, describe the chance that they would vote for the government.
462
Common descriptions of chance

The English language has many colourful expressions to describe the chance of an event occurring. Consider the following expressions and research them to answer the questions. 1 That will happen once in a blue moon. a What is a blue moon? b How often does a blue moon occur? 2 There is Buckleys chance of that happening. a Who was Buckley? b How did this saying originate? Are there any similar expressions that you can think of? What are their origins?
Sample space
At some time in our lives, most of us have tossed or will toss a coin. Many sports begin with the toss of a coin.
What is the chance that the coin will land on Heads? Most people would correctly say fty-fty. We need to develop a method of accurately describing the probability of an event. Before we can calculate probability, we need to be able to list all possible outcomes in a situation. This is called listing the sample space. When tossing a coin, the sample space has two elements: Heads and Tails. To calculate a probability, we need to know the elements of the sample space and how many elements are in the sample space.
WORKED Example 6
List the sample space for rolling a die. THINK The sample space is the numbers 1 to 6. WRITE S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
463
In many cases, several elements of the sample space may be the same. In such cases, we can distinguish between the number of elements in the sample space and the number of distinct (different) elements.
WORKED Example 7
In a barrel there are 4 red marbles, 5 green marbles and 3 yellow marbles. One marble is drawn from the barrel. a List the sample space. b How many elements are in the sample space? c How many distinct elements in the sample space? THINK a List each marble in the barrel. b Count the number of elements in the sample space. c Count the number of different elements in the sample space. WRITE a S = {red, red, red, red, green, green, green, S = green, green, yellow, yellow, yellow} b The sample space has 12 elements. c The sample space has 3 distinct elements.
In some probability elements there may be more than one element in the sample space that gives us the desired outcome. Favourable outcomes are the elements from the sample space that will meet the requirements for an event to occur.
WORKED Example 8
Tegan is playing a board game. To win the game, Tegan must roll a number greater than 2 with one die. a List the sample space. b List the favourable outcomes. THINK a List all possible outcomes for one roll of a die. b List all elements of the sample space that are greater than 2. WRITE a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} b E = {3, 4, 5, 6}
remember
1. The sample space is the list of all possible outcomes in a probability experiment. 2. The number of elements in a sample space is the total number of possible outcomes. 3. In the sample space, there are sometimes several elements that are the same. We may be asked to count the number of distinct (different) elements in the sample space. 4. Favourable outcomes are the elements from the sample space that meet the requirements for a certain event to occur.
464
14B
WORKED
Sample space
SkillS
HEET
14.5
Listing the sample space
Example
1 The numbers 1 to 10 are written on cards that are turned face down. The cards are shufed and one is chosen. List the sample space. 2 For each of the following probability experiments, state the sample space. a Tossing a coin b Rolling a die c The total when rolling two dice d Choosing a letter of the alphabet e The day of the week on which a baby could be born f The month in which a persons birthday falls 3 For each of the following probability experiments, state the number of elements in the sample space. a Choosing a card from a standard deck b Selecting the winner of a 15 horse race c Selecting the rst ball drawn in a Lotto draw (The balls are numbered 144.) d Drawing a rafe ticket from tickets numbered 1 to 1500 e Selecting a number between 100 and 1000, inclusive f Drawing a ball from a bag containing 3 yellow, 4 red and 4 blue balls
WORKED
Example
4 The letters of the word MISSISSIPPI are written on cards and turned face down. A card is then selected at random. a List the sample space. b How many elements are in the sample space? c How many distinct elements in the sample space? 5 A card is to be selected from a standard deck. a How many elements does the sample space have? b How many different elements are in the sample space if we are interested in: i the suit of the card? ii the colour of the card? iii the face value of the card?
WORKED
Example
6 Jane is playing a game of snakes and ladders. It is her turn to roll the die and to win she needs a number greater than 4. a List the sample space for this roll of the die. b List the favourable outcomes for this roll of the die. 7 A bag holds 60 black marbles and 40 white marbles. Tony is to choose one of these marbles from the bag. Tony wants to select a white marble. a How many elements are in the sample space? b How many favourable outcomes are contained in the sample space? 8 multiple choice A bag contains 5 blue discs, 9 red discs and 6 yellow discs. To win a game, Jenny needs to draw a yellow disc from the bag. How many elements are in the sample space? A 3 B 6 C 14 D 20
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9 multiple choice To win a game Jenny needs to draw a yellow disc from the bag in question 8. How many favourable outcomes are there? A 3 B 6 C 14 D 20 10 multiple choice A rafe has 100 tickets. Chris buys 5 tickets in the rafe. Which of the following statements is correct? A There are two elements in the sample space. B There are ve favourable outcomes. C There are 100 elements in the sample space. D Both B and C 11 New South Wales are playing Queensland in a State of Origin match. a List the sample space for the possible outcomes of the match. b How many elements in the sample space? c Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer. 12 A bag contains ve 20c pieces, four 10c pieces and one 5c piece. A coin is selected at random from the bag. Without replacing the rst coin, a second coin is then selected. a List the sample space for the rst coin selected. How many elements does the sample space have? b Assume that the rst coin chosen was a 20c piece. List the sample space for the second coin chosen. c Assume that the rst coin chosen was a 10c piece. List the sample space for the second coin chosen. d Assume that the rst coin chosen was the 5c piece. List the sample space for the second coin chosen. 13 Write down an example of an event that has 4 elements in the sample space. 14 Write down an example of an event that has 10 elements in the sample space but only 4 distinct elements.
Matching actual and expected results

For each of the four probability experiments below, answer the following questions. 1 List the sample space. 2 How many times in 100 trials would you expect each element of the sample space to occur? 3 Conduct 100 trials of the experiment and see how closely your results match the expected results. Experiment 1. Tossing a coin Experiment 2. Rolling a die Experiment 3. Selecting a card from a standard deck and noting its face value Experiment 4. Selecting a card from a standard pack and noting its suit
E E E
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Dice
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Die rolling
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1
1 A die is rolled. Describe the chance that the uppermost face is 4. 2 A card is drawn from a standard pack. Describe the chance of selecting a black card. 3 A bag contains four $1 coins and seven $2 coins. Describe the chance that a coin drawn at random from the bag will be a $2 coin. 4 A barrel containing balls numbered 1 to 100 has one ball selected at random from it. How many elements are in the sample space? 5 Five history books, three reference books and ten sporting books are arranged on a shelf. A book is chosen at random from the shelf. How many elements are in the sample space? 6 For the example in question 5, how many distinct elements does the sample space have? 7 For the example in question 5, if you want a sporting book, how many favourable outcomes are there? 8 Copy and complete. If an event is certain, then the probability of it occurring is . 9 Copy and complete. If an event is impossible, then the probability of it occurring is . 10 If Jane needs to select an ace from a standard deck to win the game, how many favourable outcomes are there?
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Tree diagrams
A multi-stage event is where there is more than one part to the probability experiment. Tree diagrams are used to nd the elements in the sample space in a multi-stage probability experiment. Consider the case of tossing two coins. How many elements are there in the sample space? We draw a tree diagram to develop a system that will list the sample space for us.
1st coin Heads Tails 2nd coin Heads Tails Heads Tails
The tree diagram branches out once for every stage of the probability experiment. At the end of each branch, one element of the sample space is found by following the branches that lead to that point. Therefore, when two coins are tossed, the sample space can be written: S = {Heads-Heads, Heads-Tails, Tails-Heads, Tails-Tails} There are four elements in the sample space; Heads-Tails and Tails-Heads are distinct elements of the sample space.
WORKED Example 9
A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. List all elements of the sample space. THINK
1 2
WRITE
Coin toss Head Die roll 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Draw the branches for the coin toss. From each branch for the coin toss, draw the branches for the die roll.
Tail
List the sample space by following the path to the end of each branch.
S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, S = T5, T6}
Click on the PowerPoint icon on the Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM to see worked example 9 appear step by step. In many cases, the second branch of the tree diagram will be different from the rst branch. This occurs in situations such as those outlined in the following worked examples, where the rst event has an inuence on the second event. The card chosen rst can then not be chosen in the second event.
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WORKED Example 10
The numbers 2, 4, 7 and 8 are written on cards and are chosen to form a two-digit number. List the sample space. THINK
1
WRITE
1st digit 2nd digit 4 7 2 8 2 7 4 8 2 4 7 8 2 4 8 7
Draw the rst branch of the tree diagram to show each possible rst digit. Draw the second branch of the tree diagram to show each possible second digit. When drawing the second branch, the digit from which the tree branches cant be repeated. List the sample space by following the tree to the end of each branch.
S = {24, 27, 28, 42, 47, 48, 72, 74, 78, 82, 84, 87}
By clicking on the PowerPoint icon on your Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM, you can see the tree diagram drawn step by step. Each question must be read carefully, to see if repetition is possible or not. In the above example, the numbers cannot be repeated because we are drawing two cards without replacing the rst card. In examples such as tossing two coins, it is possible for the same outcome on both coins. 1st coin 2nd coin 3rd coin When drawing a tree diagram, the tree needs Heads to branch once for every stage of the experiment. Heads Tails Heads When we roll two dice, there are two levels to the Heads Tails tree diagram. If we were to toss three coins, there Tails would be three levels to the diagram, as shown Heads Heads at right. Tails
Tails Tails Heads Tails
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WORKED Example 11
Four children go exploring. a Draw a tree diagram to list all possible combinations of boys and girls. b How many elements are in the sample space? c How many elements of the sample contain 3 boys and a girl? THINK a Draw the tree diagram. WRITE a
1st child 2nd child 3rd child Boy Boy Girl Boy Boy Girl Girl Boy Boy Girl Girl Boy Girl Girl 4th child Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl
b List the sample space by following the paths to the end of each branch.
b S = {BBBB, BBBG, BBGB, BBGG, BGBB, S = BGBG, BGGB, BGGG, GBBB, GBBG, S = GBGB, GBGG, GGBB, GGBG, GGGB, S = GGGG} c There are four elements of the sample space which contain 3 boys and 1 girl.
c Count the number of elements that contain 3 boys and 1 girl.
By clicking on the PowerPoint icon on your Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course CD-ROM, you can see the tree diagram drawn step by step.
remember
1. A tree diagram is necessary in any example where there is more than one stage to the probability experiment. 2. The tree diagram must branch out once for every stage of the probability experiment. 3. Once the tree is drawn, the sample space is found by following the branches to each end.
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14C
WORKED
Tree diagrams
Example
1 Two coins are tossed. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space. 2 On three red cards, the numbers 1, 2 and 3 are written. On three blue cards, the same numbers are written. A red card and a blue card are then chosen to form a two-digit number. Draw a tree diagram to list the sample space. 3 A family consists of 3 children. Use a tree diagram to list all possible combinations of boys and girls. 4 A coin is tossed and then a die is rolled. a How many elements are in the sample space? b Does it make any difference to the sample space if the die is rolled rst and then the coin is tossed?
WORKED
Example
10
5 The digits 1, 3, 4 and 8 are written on cards. Two cards are then chosen to form a twodigit number. List the sample space. 6 Darren, Zeng, Melina, Kate and Susan are on a committee. From among themselves, they must select a chairman and a secretary. The same person cannot hold both positions. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space for the different ways the two positions can be lled. 7 A tennis team consists of six players, three males and three females. The three males are Andre, Pat and Yevgeny. The three females are Monica, Stef and Lindsay. A male and a female must be chosen for a mixed doubles match. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space. 8 Chris, Aminta, Rohin, Levi and Kiri are on a Landcare group. Two of them are to represent the group on a eld trip. Use a tree diagram to list all the different pairs that could be chosen. (Hint: In this example, a pairing of Chris and Aminta is the same as a pairing of Aminta and Chris.)
WORKED
Example
11
9 Four coins are tossed into the air. a Draw a tree diagram for this experiment. b Use your tree to list the sample space. c How many elements have an equal number of Heads and Tails? 10 multiple choice Three coins are tossed into the air. The number of elements in the sample space is: A 3 B 6 C 8 D 9 11 multiple choice A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6 and 9. If the same number can be repeated, the number of elements in the sample space is: A 3 B 6 C 8 D 9 12 multiple choice A two-digit number is formed using the digits 4, 6 and 9. If the same number cannot be used twice, the number of elements in the sample space is: A 3 B 6 C 8 D 9
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13 When two coins are tossed there are three elements in the sample space, 2 Heads, 2 Tails or 1 Head and 1 Tail. Is this statement correct? Explain why or why not. 14 A two-digit number is to be formed using the digits 2, 5, 7 and 8. a If the same number can be used twice, list the sample space. b If the same number cannot be repeated, list the sample space. 15 The numbers 1, 2, 5 and 8 are written on cards and placed face down. a If two cards are chosen and used to form a two-digit number, how many elements are in the sample space? b If three cards are chosen and used to form a three-digit number, how many elements are in the sample space? c How many four-digit numbers can be formed using these digits? 16 A school captain and vice-captain need to be elected. There are ve candidates. The three female candidates are Tracey, Jenny and Svetlana and the male candidates are Richard and Mushtaq. a Draw a tree diagram to nd all possible combinations of captain and vice-captain. b How many elements are in the sample space? c If boys are lling both positions, how many elements are there? d If girls are lling both positions, how many elements are there? e If students of the opposite sex ll the positions, how many elements are there? 17 Two dice are rolled. a Use a tree diagram to calculate the number of elements in the sample space. b Steve is interested in the number of elements for each total. Copy and complete the table below. No. of elements c How many elements of the sample space have a double number?
Work
Total
10
11
12
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Two-stage experiments
1 Toss two coins 100 times. Copy and complete the table below. Result 2 Heads 1 Head, 1 Tail 2 Tails Does this match your expected outcome? 2 Roll two dice 100 times and record the total of the two dice in a copy of the table below. Total No. of times Percentage Compare your results with your answer to question 17 in the previous exercise. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 No. of times
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Equally likely outcomes

Below is the eld for the 2006 Melbourne Cup. Melbourne Cup Odds Horse Yeats Delta Blues Railings Tawqeet Geordieland Headturner Short Pause Activation Land n Stars Mahtoum On a Jeune Pop Rock Odds 11-2 16-1 50-1 5-1 15-1 66-1 200-1 20-1 200-1 200-1 20-1 5-1 Horse Zipping Dizelle Ice Chariot Kerry OReilly Zabeat Art Success Demerger Glistening Mandela Dolphin Jo Maybe Better Efcient Odds 9-1 25-1 200-1 50-1 200-1 40-1 100-1 80-1 20-1 80-1 9-1 SCR
There were 23 horses in this race after Efcient was scratched. The sample space therefore has 23 elements. However, in this case, each outcome is not equally likely. This is because each horse in the race is not of equal ability. Some horses have a greater chance of winning than others. It is true in many practical situations that each outcome is not equally likely to occur. The weather on any day could be wet or ne. Each outcome is not equally likely as there are many factors to consider, such as the time of year and the current weather patterns.
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In each probability example, it is important to consider whether or not each outcome is equally likely to occur. In general, when the selection is made randomly then equally likely outcomes will result.
WORKED Example 12
In a rugby league match between Brisbane and Parramatta there are three possible outcomes: Brisbane win, Parramatta win and a draw. Is each outcome equally likely? Explain your answer. THINK Each team may not be of equal ability and draws occur less often than one of the teams winning. WRITE Each outcome is not equally likely as the teams may not be of equal ability and draws are fairly uncommon in rugby league.
In some cases we need to use tree diagrams to calculate if each outcome is equally likely. A statement may seem logical, but unless further analysis is conducted, we can not be sure.
WORKED Example 13
When two coins are tossed there are three possible outcomes, 2 Heads, 2 Tails and one of each. Is each outcome equally likely? THINK
1
WRITE
1st coin Heads Tails 2nd coin Heads Tails Heads Tails
There is more than one coin being tossed and so a tree diagram must be drawn.
There are actually four outcomes, two of which involve 1 Head and 1 Tail. Therefore each of the outcomes mentioned is not equally likely to occur.
Each outcome is not equally likely. There are two chances of getting one Head and one Tail. There is only one chance of getting 2 Heads and one chance of getting 2 Tails.
remember
1. Each element of the sample space will not always be equally likely. 2. Outcomes will be equally likely if a selection is random. When other factors inuence the selection, each outcome is not equally likely. 3. When there is more than one event involved, examine the tree diagram to determine if events described are equally likely.
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14D
WORKED
Example
12
1 A tennis match is to be held between Lindsay and Anna. There are two possible outcomes, Lindsay to win and Anna to win. Is each outcome equally likely? Explain your answer. 2 There are 80 runners in the Olympic Games marathon. The sample space for the winner of the race therefore has 80 elements. Is each outcome equally likely? Explain your answer. 3 The numbers 1 to 40 are written on 40 marbles. The marbles are then placed in a bag and one is chosen from the bag. There are 40 elements to the sample space. Is each outcome equally likely? Explain your answer. 4 For each of the following, state whether each element of the sample space is equally likely to occur. a A card is chosen from a standard deck. b The result of a volleyball game between two teams. c It will either rain or be dry on a summers day. d A rafe with 100 tickets has one ticket drawn to win rst prize. 5 For each of the following, state whether the statement made is true or false. Give a reason for your answer. a Twenty-six cards each have one letter of the alphabet written on them. One card is then chosen at random. Each letter of the alphabet has an equal chance of being selected. b A book is opened on any page and a pin is stuck in the page. The letter closest to the pin is then noted. Each letter of the alphabet has an equal chance of being selected. 6 multiple choice In which of the following is each member of the sample space equally likely to occur? A Kylies softball team is playing a match that they could win, lose or draw. B A bag contains 4 red counters and 2 blue counters. One counter is selected from the bag. C The maximum temperature on a January day will be between 20C and 42C. D A rose that may bloom to be red, yellow or white is planted in the garden.
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WORKED
Example
13
7 A couple have two children. They could have two boys, two girls or one of each. The sample space therefore has three elements that are all equally likely. Is this statement correct? Explain your answer. 8 In a game two dice are rolled and the total of the two dice is the players score. a What is the sample space for the totals of two dice? b Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? 9 A restaurant offers a three-course meal. The menu is shown below.
Entree Prawn cocktail Oysters Soup Main course Seafood platter Chicken Supreme Roast beef Vegetarian quiche Dessert Pavlova Ice-cream
a A diner selects one plate from each course. Draw a tree diagram to determine the number of elements in the sample space. b Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? 10 There are 10 horses in a race. Ken hopes to select the winner of the race. a How many elements in the sample space? b Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer. c Loretta selects her horse by drawing the names out of a hat. In this case, is the sample space the same? Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer.
2
1 Describe the chance of selecting an ace from a standard deck of cards. For questions 25: A bag contains 3 black marbles, 4 white marbles and a red marble. 2 How many elements in the sample space? 3 How many distinct elements in the sample space? 4 If Julie needs to draw a red marble from the bag, how many favourable outcomes are there? 5 Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? 6 A pair of twins is born. Draw a tree diagram and then list the sample space for all possible combinations of boys and girls. 7 Amy and Katherine are in Year 11, while Luke, Matthew and John are in Year 12. One Year 11 student and one Year 12 student are to represent the school at a conference. List the sample space for all pairs that could be chosen. 8 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 1, 2 and 3. How many elements does the sample space have if the same digit can be used twice? 9 A two-digit number is formed using the digits 5, 6, and 7. How many elements are in the sample space if the same digit cannot be used twice? 10 A student has an exam in Mathematics that she could either pass or fail. Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur?
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Using the fundamental counting principle

A three-course meal is to be served at a 21st birthday party. Guests choose one plate from each course, as shown in the menu below.
Entree Beef broth Calamari Main course Spaghetti Roast chicken Pasta salad Grilled fish Dessert Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries
In how many different ways can the three courses for the meal be chosen? There are two possible choices of entree, four choices for main course and three Entree dessert choices. To nd the sample space for all possible outcomes, we draw a tree diagram. By following the path to the end of each branch we can see that there are 24 Beef broth elements in the sample space. If we simply need to know the number of elements in the sample space, we multiply the number of possible choices at each level. Number of elements = 2 4 3 Number of elements = 24 There are 24 ways in which the three-course meal can be chosen. This multiplication principle is called the fundamental counting principle.
Calamari
Main course Spaghetti Roast chicken Pasta salad
Dessert Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries Ice-cream Banana split Strawberries
Grilled fish
Spaghetti Roast chicken Pasta salad
The total number of ways that a succession of choices can be made is found by multiplying the number of ways each single choice could be made.
Grilled fish
The fundamental counting principle is used when each choice is made independently of every other choice. That is, when one selection is made it has no bearing on the next selection. In the case above, the entree that is chosen has no bearing on what main course or dessert is chosen.
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WORKED Example 14
A poker machine has three wheels. There are 20 symbols on each wheel. In how many different ways can the wheels of the poker machine nish, once they have been spun? THINK
1
WRITE Total outcomes = 20 20 20 Total outcomes = 8000
There are 20 possibilities for how the rst wheel can nish, 20 for the second wheel and 20 for the third wheel. Multiply each of these possibilities together. Give a written answer.
There are 8000 different ways in which the wheels of the poker machine can land.
WORKED Example 15
In Year 11 at Blackhurst High School, there are four classes with 20, 22, 18 and 25 students in them respectively. A committee of four people is to be chosen, one from each class to represent Year 11 on the SRC. In how many ways can this group of four people be chosen? THINK
1
WRITE Total possible outcomes = 20 22 18 25 Total possible outcomes = 198 000
There are 20 possible choices from the rst class, 22 from the second, 18 from the third and 25 from the fourth class. Multiply these possibilities together. Give a written answer.
The committee of four people can be chosen in 198 000 different ways.
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Sometimes we need to reconsider examples that have some type of restriction placed on the possible selections.
WORKED Example 16
If number plates consist of 3 letters and 3 digits, how many different plates are possible if the rst letter must be A, B or C, and the rst digit cannot be 0 or 1?
THINK
1 2 3 4 5 6
WRITE
There are 3 possible rst letters. There are 26 possible second and third letters. There are 8 possible rst digits. There are 10 possible second and third digits. Multiply all these possibilities together. Give a written answer.
Total number plates = 3 26 26 8 10 10 Total number plates = 1 622 400 There are 1 622 400 possible number plates under this system.
remember
1. The fundamental counting technique allows us to calculate the number of different ways that separate events can occur. 2. This method can be used only when each selection is made independently of the others. To use this method, we multiply the number of ways that each selection can be made.
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14E
WORKED
Using the fundamental counting principle
Example
14
1 A poker machine has four reels, with 15 symbols on each wheel. If the wheels are spun, in how many ways can they nish? 2 Consider each of the following events. a A 10c coin and a 20c coin are tossed. In how many ways can they land? b A red die and blue die are cast. How many ways can the two dice land? c A coin is tossed and a die is rolled. How many possible outcomes are there? 3 A briefcase combination lock has a combination of three dials, each with 10 digits. How many possible combinations to the lock are there? 4 In the game of Yatzee, ve dice are rolled. In how many different ways can they land? 5 Some number plates have two letters followed by 4 numbers. How many of this style of plate are possible? 6 multiple choice Personalised number plates have six symbols that can be any combination of letters or digits. How many of these are possible? A 1 000 000 B 17 576 000 C 308 915 776 D 2 176 782 336 7 multiple choice A restaurant menu offers a choice of four entrees, six main courses and three desserts. If one extra choice is offered in each of the three courses, how many more combinations of meal are possible? A 3 B 68 C 72 D 140
WORKED
Example
15
8 There are 86 students in Year 11 at Narratime High School. Of these, 47 are boys and 39 are girls. One boy and one girl are to be chosen as school captains. In how many different ways can the boy and girl school captain be chosen? 9 A travel agency offers Queensland holiday packages ying with QANTAS and Virgin Blue, travelling in First, Business and Economy class to Brisbane, the Gold Coast, The Great Barrier Reef and Cairns for periods of 7, 10 and 14 days. How many holiday packages does the traveller have to choose from?
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10 A punter at the racetrack tries to pick the daily double. This requires her to pick the winner of race 6 and race 7. How many selections of two horses can she make if there are: a eight horses in each race? b 12 horses in each race? c 14 horses in race 6 and 12 in race 7? d 16 horses in race 6 and seven in race 7? e 24 horses in race 6 and 16 horses in race 7? 11 A poker machine has ve wheels and 20 symbols on each wheel. a In how many ways can the wheels of the poker machine nish when spun? b There are 4 aces on the rst wheel, 5 on the second wheel, 2 on the third wheel, 6 on the fourth wheel and 1 on the fth. In how many ways can ve aces be spun on this machine? 12 Radio stations on the AM band have a call sign of a digit from 2 to 9, followed by two letters. a How many radio stations could there be under this system? b In NSW all stations begin with a 2. How many stations are possible in NSW? 13 At a shoe store a certain pair of shoes can be bought in black, brown or grey; lace up or buckle up; and in six different sizes. How many different pairs of shoes are possible? 14 Home telephone numbers in Australia have eight digits. a How many possible home telephone numbers are there? b If a telephone number cant begin with either a 0 or 1, how many are possible? c Freecall 1800 numbers begin with 1800 and then six more digits. How many of these are possible? d A certain mobile network has numbers beginning with 015 or 018 followed by six digits. How many numbers can this network have?
WORKED
Example
15 Madako cant remember his PIN number for his bank account. He knows that it has four digits, does not begin with nine, is an odd number and that all digits are greater 16 than ve. How many possible PIN numbers could he try? 16 multiple choice Postcodes in Australia begin with either 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 followed by three more digits. How many of these postcodes can there be? A 70 B 1000 C 7000 D 10 000 17 Nadia goes to a restaurant that has a choice of 8 entrees, 15 main courses and 10 desserts. a How many combinations of entree, main course and dessert are possible? b Nadia is allergic to garlic. When she examines the menu she nds that three entrees and four main courses are seasoned with garlic. How many possible choices can she make without choosing a garlic dish? 18 Bill is trying to remember Toms telephone number. It has eight digits and Bill can remember that it starts with 963 and nishes with either a 4 or a 6. How many possible telephone numbers are there for Tom? 19 A representative from each of six classes must be chosen to go on a committee. There are four classes of 28 students, a class of 25 students and a class of 20 students. How many committees are possible?
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summary
The chance of an event occurring can be described as being from certain (a probability of 1) to impossible (a probability of 0). Terms used to describe the chance of an event occurring include improbable, unlikely, fty-fty, likely and probable. The chance of an event occurring can be described by counting the possible outcomes and sometimes by relying on our general knowledge.
Sample space
A sample space is a list of all possible outcomes to a probability experiment. It includes every possible outcome even if some outcomes are the same.
Tree diagrams
Tree diagrams are used to list the sample space when there is more than one stage to a probability experiment. The tree must branch out once for each stage of the probability experiment.

Equally likely events occur when the selection method is random. Events will not be equally likely when other factors inuence selection. For example, in a race each person will not have an equal chance of winning, as each runner will be of different ability.
The fundamental counting principle

This principle can be used to count the number of elements in a sample space of a multi-stage experiment. The total number of possible outcomes is calculated by multiplying the number of ways each stage of the experiment can occur.
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CHAPTER review
14A 14A
1 Graham and Marcia are playing a game. To see who starts they each take a card from a standard deck. The player with the higher card starts. Graham takes a ve. Describe Marcias chance of taking a higher card. 2 Describe each of the following events as being either certain, probable, even chance (ftyfty), unlikely or impossible. a Rolling a die and getting a number less than 6 b Choosing the eleven of diamonds from a standard deck of cards c Tossing a coin and it landing Tails d Rolling two dice and getting a total of 12 e Winning the lottery with one ticket 3 Give an example of an event which is: a certain b impossible. 4 The Chen family are going on holidays to Queensland during January. Are they more likely to experience hot weather or cold weather? 5 List each of the events below in order from most likely to least likely. Winning a lottery with 1 ticket out of 100 000 tickets sold Rolling a die and getting a number greater than 1 Selecting a blue marble out of a bag containing 14 blue, 15 red and 21 green marbles Selecting a picture card from a standard deck 6 Mark and Lleyton are tennis players who have played eight previous matches. Mark has won six of these matches. When they play their ninth match, who is more likely to win? Explain your answer. 7 The letters of the word SAMPLE are written on cards and placed face down. One card is then selected at random. List the sample space. 8 List the sample space for each of the following probability experiments. a A coin is tossed. b A number is selected from the numbers 1 to 18. c The four aces from a deck of cards are selected. One of these cards is then chosen. d A bag contains 4 black marbles, 3 white marbles and 5 green marbles. One marble is then selected from the bag.
14A 14A 14A
14A 14B
14B 14B
9 To win a game, Sarah must roll a number greater than 4 on the die. a List the sample space. b List the favourable outcomes. 10 For each of the following, state: i the number of elements in the sample space ii the number of favourable outcomes. a At the start of a cricket match, a coin is tossed and Steve calls Heads. b Anne selects a card from a standard deck and needs a number less than 9. (Aces count as 1.) c A bag contains 3 red, 8 blue and 4 black discs. Florian draws a disc from the bag and must not draw a black disc.
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14C 14C 14C 14C 14C
11 Two coins are tossed. Draw a tree diagram to nd the sample space. 12 Two dice are rolled. How many elements are in the sample space? 13 A two-digit number is formed using 5, 6, 7 and 9, without repetition. a Use a tree diagram to list the sample space. b If Dan wants to make a number greater than 60, how many favourable outcomes are there? 14 Mary, Neville, Paul, Rachel and Simon are candidates for an election. There are two positions, president and vice-president. One person cannot hold both positions. a List the sample space. b If Paul is to hold one of the positions, how many elements are in the event space? 15 A school must elect one representative from each of three classes to sit on a committee. In 11A the candidates are Tran and Karen. In 11B the candidates are Cara, Daisy, Henry and Ian. In 11C the candidates are Bojan, Melina and Zelko. a List the sample space. b If there is to be at least one boy and at least one girl on the committee, how many elements are in the sample space? 16 A greyhound race has eight runners. a How many elements are in the sample space? b Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer. 17 For each of the following, explain if each element of the sample space is equally likely to occur. a There are 150 000 tickets in a lottery. One ticket is drawn to win rst prize. b There are twelve teams contesting a hockey tournament. One team is to win the tournament. c A letter is chosen from the page of a book. 18 A poker machine has ve wheels. Each wheel has 15 symbols on it. In how many ways can the wheels land? 19 There are four roads that lead from town A to town B, and ve roads that lead from town B to town C. In how many different ways can I travel from town A to town C? 20 The daily double requires a punter to select the winner of two races. How many selections are possible if there are 16 horses in the rst leg and 17 in the second leg? 21 At a restaurant, a patron has the choice of ve entrees, eight main courses and four desserts. In how many ways can they choose their meal? 22 Jake has a bike chain that has a dial with four wheels, with 10 digits on each wheel. a How many different combinations are possible? b Jake has forgotten his combination. He can remember that the rst digit is 5, and the last digit is odd. How many different combinations could there be to his chain? 23 The dial to a safe consists of 100 numbers. To open the safe, you must turn the dial to each of four numbers that form the safes combination. a How many different combinations to the safe are possible? b How many different combinations are possible if no number can be used twice?
14D 14D
14E 14E
14E 14E 14E
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1 multiple choice Jason and Kylie are playing a game of Monopoly. To move your piece, you roll two dice and move the same number of places as the total of the two dice. Kylie needs a total of 7 to land on Mayfair. The chance of Kylie rolling a 7 could best be described as: A impossible B unlikely C fty-fty D probable 2 multiple choice To win a game, Rhonda must roll a number greater than 3 with a single die. Which of the following statements is correct? A The sample space has 3 elements and there are 3 favourable outcomes. B The sample space has 3 elements and there are 6 favourable outcomes. C The sample space has 6 elements and there are 3 favourable outcomes. D The sample space has 6 elements and there are 6 favourable outcomes. 3 multiple choice A three-digit number is to be formed using the digits 3, 6, 7 and 8. The same number cannot be used more than once. How many three-digit numbers can be formed? A 4 B 12 C 24 D 64 4 multiple choice For which of the following events is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? A The likelihood of selecting the winning Lotto combination B The likelihood of the weather being wet or ne C The likelihood of passing your next Maths exam D The likelihood of being successful in a job interview 5 multiple choice One person from each Year 11 class is to be elected to the Student Representative Council. If there are four classes in Year 11 with 23, 20, 19 and 25 people in these classes, the number of possible combinations of four representatives is: A 87 B 348 C 218 500 D 874 000 6 At a school athletics carnival, a RED YELLOW BLUE GREEN relay team must be selected. Below is the list of students who Richard Andrew Boris Milan qualied and the house for which Stan Frank Harry they compete. There must be one Ned Danny member of the relay team from Voula each house. a Draw a tree diagram to show all possible relay teams. b How many elements are in the sample space? c If Ned is to be in the relay team, how many favourable outcomes are there? d Describe the chance of Milan being in the relay team. e Is each element of the sample space equally likely to occur? Explain your answer. 7 Gino, Dennis, Kurt and Colin make up a tennis team. Two of them are to represent the club at a tournament. a Draw a tree diagram, to nd the sample space for all possible teams. b List the favourable outcomes if Colin is to be in the team. c If the two selected players are to play two players selected from a group of six from another club, in how many ways can the nal four players be chosen?
CHAPTER
test yourself
14
Relative frequency and probability
15
syllabus reference
Probability 2 Relative frequency and probability
In this chapter
15A Relative frequency 15B Single event probability 15C Writing probabilities as decimals and percentages 15D Range of probabilities 15E Complementary events
areyou
15.1
Converting fractions to decimals
Are you ready?
Try the questions below. If you have difculty with any of them, extra help can be obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon next to the question on the Maths Quest Preliminary Course CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy. 1 Convert the following fractions to decimals. a
1 -5
READY?
b
3 -4
3 ----10
17 ----20
15.2
Converting decimals to percentages
2 Convert each of the following decimals to percentages. a 0.3 b 0.65 c 0.04

Simplifying fractions
d 0.125
15.3
3 Simplify each of the following fractions. a

5 ----20
28 ----32
160 -------200
18 ----50
15.4
Converting fractions to percentages
4 Write each of the following fractions as percentages. a

1 -4
3 -5
5 -8
1 -3
15.5
Probability scale
5 For each of the following events, specify whether the chance of the event occurring is certain, fty-fty or impossible. a Two dice are rolled and a total of 14 is obtained. b A coin is tossed and it lands on Tails. c The month of July will follow June. d The maximum temperature on a summers day in Sydney will be less than 0C. e A fair die is rolled and a number less than 4 is obtained.
Theoretical probability
15.6
6 In a box of chocolates, there are 6 soft-centred chocolates, 4 hard-centred chocolates and 5 nutcentred chocolates. A chocolate is selected at random. a What is the probability of selecting a hard-centred chocolate? b What is the probability of selecting a soft-centred chocolate? c What is the probability of selecting a nut-centred chocolate? d What is the sum of the probabilities calculated in parts a, b and c?
Chapter 15 Relative frequency and probability
487
Relative frequency
You are planning to go skiing on the rst weekend in July. The trip is costing you a lot of money and you dont want your money wasted on a weekend without snow. So what is the chance of it snowing on that weekend? We can use past records to estimate that chance. If we know that it has snowed on the rst weekend of July for 54 of the last 60 years, we could say that the chance of snow this year is very high. To measure that chance, we calculate the relative frequency of snow on that weekend. We do this by dividing the number of times it has snowed by the number of years we have examined. In this case, we can say the relative frequency of snow on the rst weekend in July is 54 60 = 0.9. The relative frequency is usually expressed as a decimal and is calculated using the formula: number of times an event has occurred Relative frequency = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------number of trials In this formula, a trial is the number of times the probability experiment has been conducted.
WORKED Example 1
The weather has been ne on Christmas Day in Sydney for 32 of the past 40 years. Calculate the relative frequency of ne weather on Christmas Day. THINK 1 Write the formula. WRITE Relative frequency = number of times an event has occurred -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------number of trials ----Relative frequency = 32
40
2 3
Substitute the number of ne Christmas Days (32) and the number of trials (40). Calculate the relative frequency as a decimal.
Relative frequency = 0.8
The relative frequency is used to assess the quality of products. This is done by nding the relative frequency of defective products.
WORKED Example 2
A tyre company tests its tyres and nds that 144 out of a batch of 150 tyres will withstand 20 000 km of normal wear. Find the relative frequency of tyres that will last 20 000 km. Give the answer as a percentage. THINK 1 Write the formula. WRITE Relative frequency = number of times an event has occurred -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------number of trials -------Relative frequency = 144
150
2 3 4
Substitute 144 (the number of times the event occurred) and 150 (number of trials). Calculate the relative frequency. Convert the relative frequency to a percentage.
Relative frequency = 0.96 Relative frequency = 96%
488
Relative frequencies can be used to solve many practical problems.
WORKED Example 3
A batch of 200 light globes was tested. The batch is considered unsatisfactory if more than 15% of globes burn for less than 1000 hours. The results of the test are in the table below. No. of hours less than 500 500750 7501000 10001250 12501500 more than 1500 Determine if the batch is unsatisfactory. THINK
1 2
No. of globes 4 12 15 102 32 35
WRITE 31 light globes burn for less than 1000 hours. Relative frequency = number of times an event has occurred -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------number of trials 31 Relative frequency = -------200
Count the number of light globes that burn for less than 1000 hours. Write the formula.
4 5 6
Substitute 31 (number of times the event occurs) and 200 (number of trials). Calculate the relative frequency. Convert the relative frequency to a percentage. Make a conclusion about the quality of the batch of light globes.
Relative frequency = 0.155 Relative frequency = 15.5% More than 15% of the light globes burn for less than 1000 hours and so the batch is unsatisfactory.
remember
1. The relative frequency is used to estimate the probability of an event. 2. The relative frequency, usually expressed as a decimal, is a gure that represents how often an event has occurred. 3. The relative frequency is calculated using the formula: number of times an event has occurred Relative frequency = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- . number of trials 4. The relative frequency can also be written as a percentage and is used to solve practical problems.
489
15A
WORKED
Relative frequency
SkillS
Example
1 At the opening of the ski season, there has been sufcient snow for skiing for 37 out 15.1 of the past 50 years. Calculate the relative frequency of sufcient snow at the beginning of the ski season. Converting 2 A biased coin has been tossed 100 times with the result of 79 Heads. Calculate the to decimals relative frequency of the coin landing Heads. 3 Of eight Maths tests done by a class during a year, Peter has topped the class three Converting times. Calculate the relative frequency of Peter topping the class. 4 Farmer Jones has planted a wheat crop. For the wheat crop to be successful, farmer Jones needs 500 mm of rain to fall over the spring months. Past weather records show that this has occurred on 27 of the past 60 years. Find the relative frequency of: a sufcient rainfall b insufcient rainfall.
fractions
15.2 SkillS
HEET HEET
decimals to percentages
WORKED
Example
5 Of 300 cars coming off an assembly line, 12 are found to have defective brakes. Calculate the relative frequency of a car having defective brakes. Give the answer as a percentage. 6 A survey of 25 000 new car buyers found that 750 had a major mechanical problem in the rst year of operation. Calculate the relative frequency of: a having mechanical problems in the rst year b not having mechanical problems in the rst year. 7 On a production line, light globes are tested to see how long they will last. After testing 1000 light globes, it is found that 960 will burn for more than 1500 hours. Wendy purchases a light globe. What is the relative frequency that the light globe will: a burn for more than 1500 hours? b burn for less than 1500 hours? 8 multiple choice A study of cricket players found that of 150 players, 36 batted left handed. What is the relative frequency of left-handed batsmen? A 0.24 B 0.36 C 0.64 D 0.76 9 multiple choice Four surveys were conducted and the following results were obtained. Which result has the highest relative frequency? A Of 1500 P-plate drivers, 75 had been involved in an accident. B Of 1200 patients examined by a doctor, 48 had to be hospitalised. C Of 20 000 people at a football match, 950 were attending their rst match. D Of 50 trucks inspected, 2 were found to be unroadworthy.
490
10 During an election campaign, 2000 people were asked for their voting preferences. One thousand and fty said that they would vote for the government, 875 said they would vote for the opposition and the remainder were undecided. What is the relative frequency of: a government voters? b opposition voters? c undecided voters? 11 Research over the past 25 years shows that each November there is an average of two wet days on Sunnybank Island. Travelaround Tours offer one-day tours to Sunnybank Island at a cost of $150 each, with a money back guarantee against rain. a What is the relative frequency of wet November days as a percentage? b If Travelaround Tours take 1200 bookings for tours in November, how many refunds would they expect to give? 12 An average of 200 robberies takes place each year in the town of Amiak. There are 10 000 homes in this town. a What is the relative frequency of robberies in Amiak? b Each robbery results in an average insurance claim of $20 000. What would be the minimum premium that the insurance company would need to charge to cover these claims?
WORKED
Example
13 A car maker recorded the rst time that its cars came in for mechanical repairs. The results are in the table below. 3 Time taken 03 months 36 months 612 months 12 years 23 years more than 3 years No. of cars 5 12 37 49 62 35
The assembly line will need to be upgraded if the relative frequency of cars needing mechanical repair in the rst year is greater than 25%. Determine if this will be necessary. 14 For the table in question 13 determine, as a percentage, the relative frequency of: a a car needing mechanical repair in the rst 3 months b a car needing mechanical repair in the rst 2 years c a car not needing mechanical repair in the rst 3 years.
491
15 A manufacturer of shock absorbers measures the distance that its shock absorbers can travel before they must be replaced. The results are in the table below. No. of kilometres 020 000 20 00040 000 40 00060 000 60 00080 000 80 000100 000 No. of shock absorbers 1 2 46 61 90
The relative frequency of the shock absorber lasting is 0.97 for a certain guaranteed distance. What is the maximum distance the manufacturer will guarantee so that the relative frequency of the shock absorbers lasting is greater than 0.97? 16 A soccer team plays 40 matches over a season and the results (wins, losses and draws) are shown below. W W W D L L L D W L W D L D W W L L L D W W D L L W W W L D L D D L W W W D D L a Put this information into a table showing the number of wins, losses and draws. b Calculate the relative frequency of each result over a season.
Researching relative frequencies

Choose one of the topics below (or another of your choice) and calculate the relative frequency of the event. Most of the information needed can be found from books or the Internet. 1 Examine weather records and nd out the relative frequency of rain on New Years Eve in Sydney. 2 Choose your favourite sporting team. Find the relative frequency of them winning over the past three seasons. 3 Find the relative frequency of the stock market rising for three consecutive days. 4 Check the NRL or AFL competitions and nd the relative frequencies of win, loss and draw for each team.
492
Single event probability

In chapter 14 we discussed the chances of certain events occurring. In doing so, we used informal terms such as probable and unlikely. While these terms give us an idea of whether something is likely to occur or not, they do not tell us how likely they are. To do this, we need an accurate way of stating the probability. We stated earlier that the chance of any event occurring was somewhere between impossible and certain. We also said that: if an event is impossible the probability was 0 if an event is certain the probability was 1. It therefore follows that the probability of any event must lie between 0 and 1 inclusive. A probability is a number that describes the chance of an event occurring. All probabilities are calculated as fractions but can also be written as decimals or percentages. Probability is calculated using the formula: number of favourable outcomes P ( event ) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------total number of outcomes The total number of favourable outcomes is the number of different ways the event can occur, while the total number of outcomes is the number of elements in the sample space.
WORKED Example 4
Zoran is rolling a die. To win a game, he must roll a number greater than 2. List the sample space and state the number of favourable outcomes. THINK
1 2
WRITE S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} There are 4 favourable outcomes.
There are 6 possible outcomes. The favourable outcomes are to roll a 3, 4, 5 or 6.
Consider the case of tossing a coin. If we are calculating the probability that it will land Heads, there is 1 favourable outcome out of a total of 2 possible outcomes. Hence we -can then write P(Heads) = 1 . This method is used to calculate the probability of any 2 single event.
WORKED Example 5
Andrea selects a card from a standard deck. Find the probability that she selects an ace. THINK
1 2 3
WRITE
There are 52 cards in the deck (total number of outcomes). There are 4 aces (number of favourable outcomes). Write the probability.
P(ace) = P(ace) =
4 ----52 1 ----13
493
WORKED Example 6
In a barrel there are 6 red marbles, 2 green marbles and 4 yellow marbles. One marble is drawn at random from the barrel. Calculate the probability that the marble drawn is red. THINK 1 There are 12 marbles in the barrel (total number of outcomes). There are 6 red marbles in the barrel (number of 2 favourable outcomes). 3 Write the probability. WRITE
P(red) = P(red) =
6 ----12 1 -2
Some questions have more than one favourable outcome. In these cases, we need to add together each of these outcomes to calculate the number of which are favourable.
WORKED Example 7
On a bookshelf there are 4 history books, 7 novels, 2 dictionaries and 5 sporting books. If I select one at random, what is the probability that the one chosen is not a novel? THINK 1 There are 18 books on the shelf (total number of outcomes). 2 Seven of these books are novels, meaning that 11 of them are not novels (number of favourable outcomes). Write the probability. 3 WRITE
P(not a novel) =
11 ----18
Some questions do not require us to calculate the entire sample space, only the sample space for a small part of the experiment.
WORKED Example 8
The digits 1, 3, 4, 5 are written on cards and these cards are then used to form a four-digit number. Calculate the probability that the number formed is: a even b greater than 3000. THINK a
1 2 3 4
If the number is even the last digit must be even. There are four cards that could go in the nal place (total number of outcomes). Only one of these cards (the 4) is even (number of favourable outcomes). Write the probability.
WRITE a
P(even) =
1 -4
Continued over page
494
THINK b
1 2 3 4
WRITE b
If the number is greater than 3000, then the rst digit must be a 3 or greater. There are four cards that could go in the rst place. Three of these cards are a 3 or greater. Write the probability.
P(greater than 3000) =
3 -4
remember
1. The sample space is the list of all possible outcomes in a probability experiment. 2. The event space is a list of all favourable outcomes to a probability experiment. 3. The probability of an event is calculated using the formula: number of favourable outcomes P(event) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------total number of outcomes
15B
SkillS
HEET
15.3
Simplifying fractions
WORKED
Example
1 A coin is tossed at the start of a cricket match. Manuel calls Heads. List the sample space and the number of favourable outcomes. 2 For each of the following probability experiments, state the number of favourable outcomes. a Rolling a die and needing a 6 b Rolling two dice and needing a total greater than 9 c Choosing a letter of the alphabet and it being a vowel d The chance a baby will be born on the weekend e The chance that a persons birthday will fall in summer
495
3 For each of the following probability experiments, state the number of favourable outcomes and the total number of outcomes. a Choosing a red card from a standard deck b Selecting the winner of a 15 horse race c Selecting the rst ball drawn in a Lotto draw (The balls are numbered 1 to 44.) d Winning a rafe with 5 tickets out of 1500 e Selecting a yellow ball from a bag containing 3 yellow, 4 red and 4 blue balls
WORKED
Example
4 A coin is tossed. Find the probability that the coin will show Tails. 5 A regular die is cast. Calculate the probability that the uppermost face is: a 6 b 1 c an even number d a prime number e less than 5 f at least 5. 6 A barrel contains marbles with the numbers 1 to 45 written on them. One marble is drawn at random from the bag. Find the probability that the marble drawn is: a 23 b 7 c an even number d an odd number e a multiple of 5 f a multiple of 3 g a number less than 20 h a number greater than 35 i a square number. 7 Many probability questions are asked about decks of cards. You should know the cards making up a standard deck.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 09 J1
Q
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 09 J1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 09 J1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 09 J1
A card is chosen from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card chosen is: a the ace of diamonds b a king c a club d red e a picture card f a court card.
WORKED
Example
8 A bag contains 12 counters: 7 are orange, 4 are red and 1 is yellow. One counter is selected at random from the bag. Find the probability that the counter chosen is: a yellow b red c orange. 9 The digits 2, 3, 5 and 9 are written on cards. One card is then chosen at random. Find the probability that the card chosen is: a the number 2 b the number 5 c even d odd e divisible by 3 f a prime number.
WORKED
Example
10 In a bag of fruit there are 4 apples, 6 oranges and 2 pears. Larry chooses a piece of fruit from the bag at random but he does not like pears. Find the probability that Larry 7 does not select a pear. 11 The digits 2, 3, 5 and 9 are written on cards. They are then used to form a four-digit number. Find the probability that the number formed is: 8 a even b odd c divisible by 5 d less than 3000 e greater than 5000. 12 multiple choice A die is cast. The probability that the number on the uppermost face is less than 4 is: A
1 -6
WORKED
Example
1 -3
1 -2
2 -3
496
13 multiple choice When a die is cast, which of the following outcomes does not have a probability equal -to 1 ? 2 A The number on the uppermost face is greater than 3. B The number on the uppermost face is even. C The number on the uppermost face is at least a 3. D The number on the uppermost face is a prime number. 14 multiple choice A card is chosen from a standard deck. The probability that the card chosen is a court card is: A
1 ----52
1 ----13
3 ----13
4 ----13
15 multiple choice When a card is chosen from a standard deck, which of the following events is most likely to occur? A choosing a seven B choosing a club C choosing a picture card D choosing a black card 16 One thousand tickets are sold in a rafe. Craig buys ve tickets. a One ticket is drawn at random. The holder of that ticket wins rst prize. Find the probability of Craig winning rst prize. b After the rst prize has been drawn, a second prize is drawn. If Craig won rst prize, what is the probability that he now also wins second prize? 17 A lottery has 160 000 tickets. Janice buys one ticket. There are 3384 cash prizes in the lottery. a What is the probability of Janice winning a cash prize? b If there are 6768 consolation prizes of a free ticket for being one number off a cash prize, what is the probability that Janice wins a consolation prize? c What is the probability that Janice wins either a cash prize or a consolation prize? 18 A number is formed using all ve of the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 and 8. What is the probability that the number formed: a begins with the digit 3? b is even? c is odd? d is divisible by 5? e is greater than 30 000? f is less than 20 000? 19 Write down an example of an event which has a probability of: ---a 1 b 1 c 2.
2 4 5
20 A three-digit number is formed using the digits 2, 4 and 7. a Explain why it is more likely that an even number will be formed than an odd number. b Which is more likely to be formed: a number less than 400 or a number greater than 400?
497
Tossing a coin
E E E
Comparing probabilities with actual results

In this activity, we compare the probability of certain events to practical results. You may be able to do a simulation of these activities on a spreadsheet. 1 Tossing a coin -a If we toss a coin P(Heads) = 1 . Therefore, if you toss a coin, how many 2 Heads would you expect in: i 4 tosses? ii 10 tosses? iii 50 tosses? iv 100 tosses? b Now toss a coin 100 times and record the number of Heads after: i 4 tosses ii 10 tosses iii 50 tosses iv 100 tosses. Combine your results with the rest of the class. How close to 50% is the total number of Heads thrown by the class? 2 Rolling a die When you roll a die, what is the probability of rolling a 1? The probability for each number on the die is the same. Roll a die 120 times and record each result in the table below. Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 Occurrences Percentage of throws
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L Spre XCE ad
sheet sheet
Rolling a die
How close are the results to the results that were expected? 3 Rolling two dice Roll two dice and record the total on the faces of the two dice. Repeat this 100 times and complete the table below. Number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Occurrences Percentage of throws
L Spre XCE ad
sheet
Rolling two dice
Do you notice anything different about the results of this activity, compared to the others?
498
1
1 A die is rolled. Find the probability that the uppermost face is 4. 2 A card is drawn from a standard pack. Find the probability of selecting a jack. 3 A bag contains four $1 coins and seven $2 coins. Find the probability that a coin drawn at random from the bag will be a $2 coin. 4 A barrel, containing balls numbered 1 to 100, has one ball selected at random from it. Find the probability that the ball selected is a multiple of 3. 5 Five history books, 3 reference books and 10 sporting books are arranged at random on a shelf. What is the probability of a sporting book being on the left-hand end of the bookshelf? 6 A coin is tossed 10 times with a result of 7 Heads and 3 Tails. The relative frequency of this coin landing Heads is 0.7; true or false? 7 A coin is tossed 10 times with a result of 7 Heads and 3 Tails. The probability of this 7 coin landing Tails is ----- ; true or false?
10
8 In 60 rolls of a die, there have been 12 sixes. What is the relative frequency of rolling a six? 9 During a football season a team has won 15 matches and lost 5. Calculate the relative frequency of the team winning. 10 A car assembly line nds that ve in every 1000 cars have faulty paintwork. If I purchase one of these cars, nd, as a percentage, the relative frequency that the paintwork is faulty.
499
Writing probabilities as decimals and percentages

In our exercises so far, we have been writing probabilities as fractions. This is the way that most mathematicians like to express chance. However, in day-to-day language, decimals and percentages are also used. Therefore, we need to be able to write probabilities as both decimals and percentages. When writing a probability as a decimal, we use the same formula and divide the numerator by the denominator to convert to a decimal.
WORKED Example 9
If I select a card from a standard deck, what is the probability of selecting a heart, expressed as a decimal? THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE
There are a total of 52 cards in the deck (elements of the sample space). There are 13 hearts in the deck (elements of the event space). Write the probability. Convert to a decimal.
----P(heart) = 13 52 P(heart) = 0.25
The chance of an event occurring is commonly expressed as a percentage. This is the percentage chance of an event occurring. When writing a probability as a percentage, we take the fractional answer and multiply by 100% to convert to a percentage.
WORKED Example 10
In a bag there are 20 counters: 7 are green, 4 are blue and the rest are yellow. If I select one at random, nd the probability (as a percentage) that the counter is yellow. THINK
1 2 3 4
WRITE
There are 20 counters in the bag (elements of the sample space). There are 9 yellow counters in the bag (elements of the event space). Write the probability. Convert to a percentage.
9 P(yellow counter) = ----- 100% 20 P(yellow counter) = 45%
remember
1. Sometimes it is necessary to write a probability as a decimal or a percentage. 2. To write a probability as a decimal, we calculate the probability as a fraction, then divide the numerator by the denominator to convert to a decimal. 3. To write a probability as a percentage, we calculate the probability as a fraction, then multiply by 100% to convert to a percentage.
500
15C
SkillS
Writing probabilities as decimals and percentages
HEET
15.1
WORKED
Example
9 Converting fractions WORKED Example to 10 decimals
1 A die is rolled. What is the probability of rolling an even number, expressed as a decimal? 2 A barrel contains 40 marbles. There are 10 blue marbles, 15 red marbles and 15 white marbles. A marble is selected at random from the barrel. Calculate, as a percentage, the probability of selecting a red marble. 3 Write down the probability that a tossed coin will land Tails: a as a decimal b as a percentage. 4 A student is rolling a die. Write down each of the following probabilities as decimals, correct to 2 decimal places. a Getting a 1 b Getting an odd number c Getting a number greater than 4 5 For rolling a die, write down the following probabilities as percentages. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place. a Getting a 3 b Getting an even number c Getting a number less than 6 6 From a standard deck of cards, one card is selected at random. Write down the probability of each of the following as a decimal (correct to 2 decimal places where necessary). a Selecting the king of hearts b Selecting a spade c Selecting any 5 d Selecting a red card e Selecting a court card (any king, queen or jack the jack is also called a knave) 7 When selecting a card from a standard deck, what would be the probabilities of the following, written as percentages? Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place. a Selecting a jack of clubs b Selecting a diamond c Selecting any 2 d Selecting a black card e Selecting a court card
SkillS
HEET
15.4
Converting fractions to percentages
501
8 multiple choice A rafe has 400 tickets. Sonya has bought 8 tickets. The probability that Sonya wins rst prize in the rafe is: A 0.02 B 0.08 C 0.2 D 0.8 9 multiple choice In a class of 25 students, there are 15 boys and 10 girls. If a student is chosen at random from the class, the probability that the student is a boy is: A 10% B 15% C 40% D 60% 10 multiple choice Which of the following does not describe the chance of selecting a diamond from a standard deck of cards? ----A 13 B 0.13 C 0.25 D 25%
52
11 The diagram on the right shows a spinner that can be used in a board game. When the player spins the spinner, what is the probability of getting the following results (expressed as a decimal)? a A5 b An even number c An odd number d A number greater than one
5 4 3
1 2
12 The board game in question 11 has the following rules. A player spinnning a 2 or a 5 is out of the game. A player spinning a 3 collects a treasure and automatically wins the game. Write down the probability, as a percentage, that with the next spin a player: a wins the game b is out of the game c neither wins nor is out of the game.
Work
T SHEE
15.1
502
Range of probabilities
Consider the following problem: A die is cast. Calculate the probability that the uppermost face is a number less than 7. We know this is certain to occur but we will look at the solution using the probability formula. There are 6 elements in the sample space and 6 elements in the event space. Therefore: P(no. less than 7) =
6 -6
=1 When the probability of an event is 1, the event is certain to occur. Now lets consider an impossible situation: A die is cast. Calculate the probability that the uppermost face is a number greater than 7. There are 6 elements in the sample space and there are 0 elements in the event space. Therefore: P(no. greater than 7) =
0 -6
=0 When the probability of an event is 0, the event is impossible. All probabilities therefore lie in the range 0 to 1. An event -with a probability of 1 has an even chance of occurring or not 2 occurring. The range of probabilities can be seen in the gure at right. This gure allows us to make a connection between the formal probabilities that we calculated in the previous exercise, and the informal terms we used in chapter 14. The closer a probability is to 0, the less likely it is to occur. The closer the probability is to 1, the more likely it is to occur. 0 P(E) 1
certain almost certain probable fifty-fifty unlikely very unlikely impossible 0
1 2
WORKED Example 11
For the following probabilities, describe whether the event would be certain, probable, fty-fty, unlikely or impossible. -----a 4 b 0 c 18
9 36
THINK
-is less than 1 and is therefore unlikely 2 to occur. b A probability of 0 means the event is impossible. -----c 18 = 1 . Therefore, the event has an even 36 2 chance of occurring.
WRITE a The event is unlikely as it has a probability -of less than 1 . 2 b The event is impossible as it has a probability of 0. c The event has an even chance of occurring as -the probability = 1 .
2
4 -9
503
WORKED Example 12
In a batch of 400 televisions, 20 are defective. If one television is chosen, nd the probability of it not being defective and describe this chance in words. THINK
1 2
WRITE
There are 400 televisions (elements of the sample space). There are 380 televisions that are not defective (number of favourable outcomes). Write the probability.
P(not defective) = P(not defective) =
380 -------400 19 ----20
Since the probability is much greater -than 1 and very close to 1, it is very 2 probable that it will not be defective.
It is very probable that the television chosen will not be defective.
There are many situations where this will occur. You need to be able to recognise when you can and cannot measure the probability. You cannot measure probability when each outcome is not equally likely.
WORKED Example 13
State whether the following statements are true or false, and give a reason for your answer. a The probability of correctly selecting a number drawn out of a barrel between 1 and 10 is
1 ----- . 10 2 -b The weather tomorrow could be ne or rainy, therefore the probability of rain is 1 .
THINK a Each outcome is equally likely. b Each outcome is not equally likely.
WRITE a True, because each number is equally likely to be selected. b False, because there is not an equal chance of the weather being ne or rainy.
remember
1. Probabilities range from 0 to 1. A probability of 0 means that the event is impossible, while a probability of 1 means the event is certain. 2. By calculating the probability, we are able to make a connection with the more informal descriptions of chance. 3. The rules of probability can be applied only when each outcome is equally likely to occur.
504
15D
SkillS
HEET
15.5
Probability scale
WORKED
Example
11
1 For each of the probabilities given below, state whether the event would be impossible, unlikely, even chance, probable or certain. a
7 ----14
b e
10 ----13 37 ----40
c f i
3 -8 25 ----52 12 ----25
d 1 g
19 ----36
h 0
2 For each of the events below, calculate the probability and hence state whether the event is impossible, unlikely, even chance, probable or certain. a Rolling a die and getting a negative number b Rolling a die and getting a positive number c Rolling a die and getting an even number d Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a red card e Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting a spot card f Selecting a card from a standard deck and getting an ace g Reaching into a moneybox and selecting a 30c piece h Selecting a blue marble from a bag containing 3 red, 3 green and 6 blue marbles 3 Give an example of an event with a probability which is: a certain b probable c even chance d unlikely e impossible. 4 The probabilities of ve events are given below. Write these in order from the most likely to the least likely event.
7 ----13 8 ----19 9 ----18 13 ----20 6 ----25
5 By calculating the probability of each, write the following events in order from least to most likely. A Winning a rafe with 5 tickets out of 30 B Rolling a die and getting a number less than 3 C Drawing a green marble from a bag containing 4 red, 5 green and 7 blue marbles D Selecting a court card from a standard deck E Tossing a coin and having it land Heads 6 multiple choice The probabilities of several events are shown below. Which of these is the most likely to occur? A
1 -2
19 ----36
22 ----45
20 ----32
7 multiple choice Cards in a stack have the letters of the alphabet written on them (one letter per card). Vesna draws a card from the stack. The probability of selecting a card that has a vowel written on it could best be described as: A impossible B unlikely C even chance D probable
505
8 multiple choice For which of the following events can the probability not be calculated? A Selecting the rst number drawn from a barrel containing 20 numbered marbles B Selecting a diamond from a standard deck of cards C Winning the lottery with one ticket out of 150 000 D Selecting the winner of the Olympic 100-metre nal with 8 runners
WORKED
Example
12
9 In a batch of 2000 cars that come off an assembly line, 50 have faulty paintwork. A car is chosen at random. a Find the probability that it has faulty paintwork. b Describe the chance of buying a car with faulty paintwork. 10 A box of matches has on the label Minimum contents 50 matches. The quality control department of the match manufacturer surveys boxes and nds that 2% of boxes have less than 50 matches. Find the probability that a box contains at least 50 matches and describe this chance. 11 A box of breakfast cereal contains a card on which there may be a prize. In every 100 000 boxes of cereal the prizes are: 1 new car 5 Disneyland holidays 50 computers 2000 prizes of $100 in cash 50 000 free boxes of cereal All other boxes have a card labelled Second Chance Draw. Describe the chance of getting a card labelled: a new car b free box of cereal c any prize d Second Chance Draw.
WORKED
Example
12 For each of the following determine whether the statement is true or false, giving a reason for your answer. 13 4 a The probability of selecting an ace from a standard deck of cards is ----- . 52 1 b The probability of selecting the letter P randomly from a page of a book is ----- . 26 c In a class of 30 students, the probability that Sam tops the class in a Maths test is 1 ----- . 30 d In a class of 30 students the probability that Sharons name is drawn from a hat is 1 ----- . 30
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2
1 A coin is tossed. Find the probability of the coin landing Heads. 2 A card is drawn from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card selected is a diamond. 3 Three events have probabilities most likely.
1 10 -- , ----2 19
and
4 -- . 9
List these from the least likely to the
4 A tennis club has 40 members, of which 25 are female. If one member is chosen at random, nd the probability (as a percentage) that the member is female. 5 For the tennis club in question 4, what is the probability (as a decimal) that the member chosen is male? 6 A card is drawn from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card selected is either a king or a queen (as a decimal to 3 decimal places). 7 A card is drawn from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card selected is a picture card (as a percentage to 1 decimal place). Copy and complete questions 810. 8 If an event is certain then the probability of it occurring is 9 If an event is impossible then the probability of it occurring is 10 An event has a probability of described as .
9 ----- . 10
. .
The likelihood of the event occurring could be
Graphing results
1 Weather statistics Use the internet to nd the number of wet days in Sydney during each month of the last ve years. Copy and complete the table below for each month of the year. Year No. of wet days Relative frequency
Draw a radar chart to graph the month against the relative frequency of rain. 2 Sporting results Choose a sporting competition such as the AFL or NRL. Use the current or most recent season to calculate the relative frequency of each team winning. Choose an appropriate graph to display the results. (If you are using a spreadsheet, you can easily update your results each week.) 3 Topic of interest Choose a topic of interest. Research your area thoroughly and display your ndings in graph form.
507
Complementary events
When tossing a coin, we know there are two elements in the sample space. --P(Heads) = 1 and P(Tails) = 1 . The total of the probabilities is 1. Now consider a 2 2 slightly more difcult problem.
WORKED Example 14
In a bag with 10 counters, there are 7 black, and 3 white counters. If one counter is selected at random from the bag, calculate: a the probability of selecting a white counter b the probability of selecting a black counter c the total of the probabilities. THINK a There are 10 counters of which 3 are white. b There are 10 counters of which 7 are black. 3 7 c Add ----- and ----- together.
10 10
WRITE a P(white) = b P(black) =

3 ----10 7 ----10 7 ----10
3 c Total = ----- + 10 Total = 1
In any probability experiment the total of all probabilities equals 1. We can use this rule to help us make calculations. In the above example, the chance of selecting a black counter and the chance of selecting a white counter are said to be complementary events. Complementary events are two events for which the probabilities have a total of 1. In other words, complementary events cover all possible outcomes to the probability experiment. When we are given one event and asked to state the complementary event, we need to describe what must happen for the rst event not to occur.
WORKED Example 15
For each of the following events, write down the complementary event. a Tossing a coin and getting a Head b Rolling a die and getting a number less than 5 c Selecting a heart from a standard deck of cards THINK a There are two elements to the sample space, Heads and Tails. If the coin does not land Heads, it must land Tails. WRITE a The complementary event is that the coin lands Tails.
Continued over page
508
THINK
WRITE b The complementary event is that we get a number greater than 4.
b There are 6 elements to the sample space 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. If we do not get a number less than 4 we must get either a 5 or a 6. c As we are concerned with only the suit of the card, there are four elements to the sample space: hearts, diamonds, clubs and spades. If we do not get a heart we can get any other suit.
c The complementary event is that we do not get a heart.
We can use our knowledge of complementary events to simplify the solution to many problems. The probability of an event and its complement will always add to give 1. We can use the result: P(an event does not occur) = 1 P(the event does occur)
WORKED Example 16
Jessie has a collection of 50 CDs. Of these, 20 are by a rap artist, 10 are by heavy metal performers and 20 are dance music. If we select one CD at random, what is the probability that it is: a a heavy metal CD? b not a heavy metal CD? THINK a Of 50 CDs, 10 are by heavy metal performers. b This is the complement of selecting a heavy metal CD. Subtract the probability of selecting a heavy metal CD from 1. WRITE a P(heavy metal CD) = =
10 ----50 1 -5 1 -5
b P(not heavy metal) = 1 P(heavy metal) =1 =

4 -5
remember
1. The complement of an event is the event that describes all other possible outcomes to the probability experiment. 2. The sum of the probability of an event and its complement equals 1. 3. To calculate the probability of an event, subtract the probability of its complementary event from 1.
509
15E
WORKED
15.6 SkillS
Theoretical probability
HEET
Example
14
1 A die is rolled. a List the sample space. b Write down the probability of each event in the sample space. c What is the total of the probabilities?
2 A barrel contains 20 marbles. We know that 7 of them are blue, 8 are red and the rest are yellow. a One marble is selected from the barrel. Calculate the probability that it is: i blue ii red iii yellow. b Calculate the total of these probabilities.
WORKED
Example
15
3 For each of the following, state the complementary event. a Winning a race b Passing a test c Your birthday falling on a Monday 4 Match each event in the left-hand column with the complementary event in the righthand column. A coin landing Heads A coin landing Tails An odd number on a die A spot card from a standard deck A picture card from a standard deck Not winning 1st prize in the rafe A red card from a standard deck A team not making the last 4 Winning 1st prize in a rafe with 100 tickets An even number on a die Making the last 4 teams in a 20 team tournament A black card from a standard deck 5 For each pair of events in question 4, calculate: a the probability of the event in the left-hand column b the probability of its complementary event c the total of the probabilities. 6 You are rolling a die. Write down the complementary event to each of the following. a Rolling an even number b Rolling a number greater than 3 c Rolling a number less than 3 d Rolling a 6 e Rolling a number greater than 1 7 In a barrel there are balls numbered 1 to 45. For each of the following, write down the complementary event. a Choosing an odd-numbered ball b Choosing a ball numbered less than 20 c Choosing a ball that has a number greater than 23 d Choosing a ball that is a multiple of 5 8 In a barrel there are 25 balls, 15 of which are coloured (10 pink and 5 orange). The rest are black. What is the complementary event to selecting: a a black ball? b a coloured ball? c a pink ball?
510
9 multiple choice Wilson rolls two dice. He needs to get a 6 on at least one of the dice. What is the complementary event? A Rolling no sixes B Rolling 2 sixes C Rolling 1 six D Rolling at least 1 10 multiple choice The probability of rolling at least one six is mentary event? A
9 ----36 11 ----- . 36
What is the probability of the compleD 1
11 ----36
25 ----36
WORKED
Example
11 In a barrel with 40 marbles, 20 are yellow, 15 are green and 5 are orange. If one marble is selected from the bag nd the probability that it is: 16 a orange b not orange. 12 In a barrel there are 40 balls numbered 1 to 40. One ball is chosen at random from the barrel. a Find the probability that the number is a multiple of 5. b Use your knowledge of complementary events to nd the probability that the number is not a multiple of 5. 13 There are 40 CDs in a collection. They can be classied as follows. 18 heavy metal 6 rock 10 techno 6 classical If one CD is chosen at random, calculate the probability that it is: a heavy metal b not heavy metal c classical d not classical e heavy metal or rock f techno or classical. 14 In a golf tournament there are 40 players. Of these, 16 are Australian and 12 are American. If they are all of the same skill level, nd the probability that the tournament is: a won by an Australian b won by an American c not won by an Australian d not won by an American e not won by an Australian or an American.
511
15 After studying a set of trafc lights, Karen found that in every 100 seconds they were red for 60 seconds, amber for 5 seconds and green for 35 seconds. If you were to approach this set of lights calculate the probability that: a they will be green b you will need to stop. 16 In a game of Scrabble there are 100 lettered tiles. These tiles include 9 As, 12 Es, 9 Is, 8 Os and 4 Us. One tile is chosen. Find the probability that it is: a an E b a vowel c a consonant. 17 From past performances it is known that a golfer has a probability of 0.7 of sinking a putt. What is the probability that he misses the putt? 18 A basketballer is about to take a shot from the free-throw line. His past record shows that he has a 91% success rate from the free-throw line. What would be the relative frequency (as a percentage) of his: a being successful with the shot? b missing the shot?
3
1 A card is drawn from a standard deck and its suit noted. List the sample space for this experiment. 2 Andrew needs to ring Sandra but he has forgotten the last digit. Find the probability that he can correctly guess the number. 3 If Andrew knows that the last digit of a telephone number is not a 7 or a 0, what is the probability of guessing the number? 4 What is the probability of correctly guessing the 4-digit PIN number to a bank account card? 5 A bead is selected from a bag containing 3 red beads, 4 yellow beads and 8 blue beads. Find the probability that the bead selected is blue. 6 What is the probability that the bead selected in question 5 is not blue? 7 A number is chosen between 1 and 20. Find the probability the number chosen is a multiple of 3. 8 A number is chosen between 1 and 20. Find the probability the number chosen is a multiple of 5. 9 Find the probability that the number chosen is not a multiple of 5. 10 Find the probability that the number chosen is not a square number.
Work
T SHEE
15.2
512
summary
Relative frequency
Relative frequency describes how often an event has occurred. It is found by dividing the number of times an event has occurred by the total number of trials.

The probability of an event can be found using the formula: number of favourable outcomes P(event) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------total number of outcomes Probabilities are usually written as fractions but can also be expressed as decimals or percentages.
Probabilities range from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain). The use of a fraction for a probability can help us describe, in words, the chance of an event occurring.
The complement of an event is the event that describes all other possible outcomes to the probability experiment. The probability of an event and its complement add to give 1. The probability of an event can often be calculated by subtracting the probability of its complementary event from 1.
513
CHAPTER review
1 From every 100 televisions on a production line, two are found to be defective. If you choose a television at random, nd the relative frequency of defective televisions. 2 It is found that 150 of every thousand 17-year-old drivers will be involved in an accident within one year of having their drivers licence. a What is the relative frequency of a 17-year-old driver having an accident? b If the average cost to an insurance company of each accident is $5000, what would be the minimum premium that an insurance company should charge a 17-year-old driver? 3 The numbers 1 to 5 are written on the back of 5 cards that are turned face down. Michelle then chooses one card at random. Michelle wants to choose a number greater than 2. List the sample space and all favourable outcomes. 4 A barrel contains 25 balls numbered from 1 to 25. One ball is drawn from the barrel. Find the probability that the marble drawn is: a 13 b 7 c an odd number d a square number e a prime number f a double-digit number. 5 A card is to be chosen from a standard deck. Find the probability that the card chosen is: a the 2 of clubs b any 2 c any club d a black card e a court card f a spot card. 6 A video collection has 12 dramas, 14 comedies, 4 horror and 10 romance movies. If I choose a movie at random from the collection, nd the probability that the movie chosen is: a a comedy b a horror c not romance. 7 The digits 5, 7, 8 and 9 are written on cards. They are then arranged to form a four-digit number. Find the probability that the number formed is: a 7895 b odd c divisible by 5 d greater than 7000 e less than 8000. 8 A rafe has 2000 tickets sold and has two prizes. Michelle buys ve tickets. a Find the probability that Michelle wins 1st prize. b If Michelle wins 1st prize, what is the probability that she also wins 2nd prize? 9 A barrel contains marbles with the numbers 1 to 40 on them. If one marble is chosen at random nd, as a decimal, the probability that the number drawn is: a 26 b even c greater than 10. 10 A carton of soft drinks contains 12 cola, 8 orange and 4 lemonade drinks. If a can is chosen at random, nd the probability, as a percentage, that the can chosen is: a cola b orange c not orange.
-11 If an event has a probability of 5 , would the event be unlikely, fty-fty or probable? 9
15A 15A
15B 15B 15B 15B 15B 15B 15C 15C 15D 15D
12 When 400 cars are checked for a defect, it is found that 350 have the defect. If one is chosen at random from the batch, nd the probability that it has the defect and hence describe the chance of the car having the defect.
514
15E 15E 15E 15E
13 State the event that is complementary to each of the following. a Tossing a coin that lands Tails b Rolling a die and getting a number less than 5 c Choosing a blue ball from a bag containing 4 blue balls, 5 red balls and 7 yellow balls 14 A barrel contains 20 marbles of which 6 are black. One marble is selected at random. Find the probability that the marble selected is: a black b not black. 15 The probability that a person must stop at a set of trafc lights is of not needing to stop at the lights?
7 ----- . 12
What is the probability
16 On a bookshelf there are 25 books. Of these, seven are ction. If one book is chosen at random, what is the probability that the book chosen is non-ction?

1 multiple choice A number is chosen at random from the numbers 1 to 50. The probability that a multiple of 3 is chosen is: A
3 ----50
8 ----25
16 ----34
34 ----50
2 multiple choice
-The probability of a footballer kicking a goal is 5 . The chance of him kicking the goal could 8 best be described as: A unlikely B fty-fty C probable D certain
3 multiple choice An Olympic Games shooter hits a target with 46 out of 50 shots. The relative frequency of him hitting his target is: A 0.03 B 0.46 C 0.50 D 0.92 4 multiple choice The probability of a missile hitting its target is A
1 ----25 17 ----- . 25
The probability of missing the target is: D 1
8 ----25
17 ----25
5 Theo, Marcus, Olivia, Ben and Kelly are the nalists in a contest run by a music store. Two names will be drawn. The rst name will win two tickets to a Silverchair concert. a What is the probability that Marcus wins the Silverchair tickets? b Ben and Kelly agree that if either win a prize, they will take the other to the concert. What is the probability that Ben and Kelly will attend the concert? c What is the probability that neither Ben nor Kelly win the tickets?
CHAPTER
test yourself
15
6 A navy ship res 60 missiles at a target and hits the target 42 times. a Find the relative frequency of a missile hitting its target. b What is the relative frequency of a missile missing its target? c Describe in words the chance of a missile hitting its target.
Glossary
515
Glossary
Adjacent The side next to the angle used for reference in a right-angled triangle. Allowance An extra payment made to a worker for working in unfavourable conditions. Angle of depression The angle through which you must look down from the horizontal to sight an object. Angle of elevation The angle through which you must look up from the horizontal to sight an object. Annual leave A period of time that each permanent employee is allowed each year for holidays. Annual leave loading An extra payment of -17 1 % of the gross pay made to employees 2 when they take their annual leave. Appreciation The amount by which an item grows in value over time. Bar graph A graph where categorical data are displayed in horizontal bars, with the categories on a vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal axis. Bias Bias occurs when the results of a survey are inuenced by outside factors such as a poorly chosen sample. In such a case, one set of circumstances is more prevalent than in the wider population. Bimodal A set of scores for which two scores occur most often. Box-and-whisker-plot A method of graphically displaying a ve-number summary. The plot is drawn to scale with the box representing the interquartile range and the whiskers representing the range. Within the box, the median is also shown. Budget A list of a persons income and expenses. A personal budget is made to try to avoid spending more than is earned. A balanced budget is where income equals expenditure. Casual rate A higher rate of pay to compensate casual workers for the lack of holiday and sick pay. Categorical data Data which are not numerical and are put into categories such as types of car. Census Data gathered from the entire population. Central tendency A method for describing a typical score in a data set. There are three measures of central tendency mean, median and mode. Column graph Similar to a bar graph, but the data are displayed in vertical columns. Commission Payment made to a salesperson. A commission is usually paid as a percentage of sales. Complementary events Two events that cover all possible outcomes to a probability experiment. The sum of the probabilities of complementary events is 1. Compound interest A form of interest payment. The interest paid at the end of one period is added to the principal before the next interest calculation is made. Compound interest can be calculated using the formula A = P(1 + r)n. Compound value interest factor The amount to which $1 will amount under a compound interest investment. Compounded value see Future value. Compounding period The length of time between interest payments in a compound interest investment. Concentration The amount of one substance that is contained in another. The concentration of a mixture is usually stated as a mass/mass rate or a mass/volume rate. Congruent gures A special case of similar gures where the scale factor is equal to 1. Congruent gures are identical in shape and size. Continuous data Data that can take any value within a given range. Cosine ratio The ratio of the adjacent side and hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle. Cubic A function where x is raised to the power of 3. Cumulative frequency A progressive total of the frequencies.
516
General Mathematics
Cumulative frequency histogram A histogram drawn of the cumulative frequencies. No space is left before the rst column of a cumulative frequency histogram. Cumulative frequency polygon A line graph drawn from the corner of the axes to the top right corner of each column on a cumulative frequency histogram. Data Information before it is organised. Database An organised set of data on a population. Debenture A form of investment offered by private companies to raise money. Debentures are for a xed period of time and simple interest is paid. Decile A band of 10% of scores in a data set. Decreasing function A function for which the dependent variable decreases as the value of the independent variable increases. The graph of a decreasing function decreases from left to right. Deductions A sum of money that is deducted from an employees gross pay before receiving net pay. Dependent variable In a function, the dependent variable is the variable for which the value is obtained by substitution of another variable, the independent variable. Direct linear variation This occurs when one quantity varies directly with another. In other words, the value of one quantity can always be calculated by multiplying the other quantity by a constant amount. Discrete data Discrete data are where the data can take only certain values, usually whole numbers. Dividend A payment made to a shareholder in a company. The company distributes all or part of its prot by paying an amount per share called a dividend. Dividend yield This is the company dividend expressed as a percentage of the value of each share. Dot plot A graph where the data set is displayed as dots on a number line. Double time A penalty rate that pays the employee twice the normal hourly rate. Elevation A scale drawing of what a building will look like from one side.
Enlargement A gure is drawn similar to, but larger than the original. The corresponding sides will be in equal ratio and all corresponding angles will be equal. Equally likely outcomes These occur when each element of the sample space for a probability experiment is equally likely to occur. Event An occurrence that is being examined in a probability experiment. External sources Data sources that are used when data previously gathered, often by a different person, are used in the statistical investigation. Extrapolating Extending a graph so as to make a prediction about future trends. Favourable outcomes Elements from the sample space that meet the requirement for an event to occur. Five-number summary A summary of a data set consisting of the lower extreme, lower quartile, median, upper quartile and upper extreme. Frequency The number of times an event occurs. Frequency histogram A graph suitable for statistical (quantitative) data. It is a column graph drawn with scores or class centres on the horizontal axis and frequency on the vertical axis. A half unit (half column width) space is drawn before the rst column with no other gaps between columns. Frequency polygon A line graph often drawn on the same axes as a frequency histogram. The line is drawn from the corner of the axes to the centre of each column. Frequency table A table displaying statistical data. For ungrouped data the table will have columns for score, tally, frequency and possibly cumulative frequency. For grouped data the score column will be replaced with a class column and a class centre column. Function A rule that connects an independent variable with a dependent variable such that there is at most one value of the dependent variable for every value of the independent variable. Fundamental counting principle The number of elements of the sample space for a multi-stage probability experiment is found by multiplying the number of ways each stage can occur. This is the fundamental counting principle.
Glossary
517
Future value The amount to which an investment will grow under compound interest. Goods and Services Tax A tax that is levied on the price of all items other than fresh food. The GST is levied at a rate of 10%. Gradient The rate of increase (or decrease) in the dependent variable per one unit increase in the independent variable. Gross pay A persons earnings before any deductions are taken out. Group certicate A statement of gross income and the PAYE tax deducted from that income throughout the nancial year. It is given to the employee by the employer at the end of each nancial year. Grouped data A data set tabulated in small groups rather than as individual scores. Histogram A column graph that displays the frequency for a set of scores. Hypotenuse The longest side of a rightangled triangle. The hypotenuse is opposite the right angle. Income Money received by a person, usually in exchange for labour or the result of an investment. Income tax Tax that is paid on all income received. Increasing function A function for which the dependent variable increases as the value of the independent variable increases. The graph of an increasing function increases as we look at it from left to right. Independent variable In a function, the independent variable is the variable for which any value can be substituted and which will produce the value of another variable, the dependent variable. Indirect tax Any tax that is not paid directly to the government by the taxpayer. For example, the GST is an indirect tax because it is paid to the retailer who then passes it on to the government. Ination A percentage amount that describes the average rise in prices over one year. Information When data are processed, presented and conclusions have been drawn they become information. Interest A payment made for the use of money. It is paid to a depositor by a nancial institution or by a borrower to a nancial institution. Interest is usually expressed as a rate per annum.
Interest rate The percentage amount of interest paid per annum. Internal sources The person conducting the statistical investigation gathers the data. Interpolate Drawing a graph using data found at the end points. Interquartile range A number that represents the spread of a data set. The interquartile range is calculated by subtracting the lower quartile from the upper quartile. Investment bonds A form of investment offered by the State or federal government to raise money. Money is invested for a xed amount of time and simple interest is paid. Linear function A function that is a straight line when drawn. Line graph A graph used to show the way in which one quantity changes with respect to another. The graph is drawn by marking the data points on a set of axes and joining them with straight lines. Lower extreme The lowest score in the data set. Lower quartile The lowest 25% of scores in a data set. Mean The average of a data set, found by totalling all the scores then dividing by the number of scores. Median The middle score or the average of the two middle scores in a data set. Medicare levy A payment made as part of our tax system that covers the cost of basic health care services. The basic levy is 1.5% of gross income; however, low income earners pay the levy at a reduced rate. Mode The score in a data set with the highest frequency. Multi-stage event This occurs when there is more than one part to a probability experiment. For example, tossing two coins can be considered as tossing one coin then tossing another, therefore there are two parts to this experiment. Net pay The amount of money actually received by an employee after all deductions have been subtracted from the gross pay. Offset In a traverse study, an offset is a line perpendicular to the transversal. It is drawn from the transversal to a vertex on the area being surveyed. Ogive Another term for cumulative frequency polygon.
518
General Mathematics
Opposite The side opposite to the angle used for reference in a right-angled triangle. Ordinary rate The normal hourly rate for a wage earner. Outcome A possible result to a probability experiment. Overtime This is when a person earns more than the regular hours each week. PAYE Pay As You Earn. The method usually applied to the collection of tax. Payment by piece (Piecework) Payment for the amount of work completed. Penalty rate A higher rate of pay made to a person who is working overtime. Per annum per year Percentage chance The probability of an event expressed as a percentage. Percentage error The maximum error in a measurement as a percentage of the measurement given. Piecewise linear function A linear function that follows different rules for different values of the independent variable. Piecework see Payment by piece. Poll A collection of information obtained by questionnaire. Polygon A line graph displaying the frequency for a set of scores. Population An entire group of people or objects to which a statistical inquiry is applied. Power An index. The number to which a base is raised, indicating the number of times the base is multiplied by itself. Prex The rst part of a word. In measurement, the prex indicates the relative size of the units of measurement. Present value The current value of an investment. Prism A solid shape with a constant crosssection. Principal The amount on which interest calculations are made. Probability A number between 0 and 1 that describes the chance of an event occurring. Proportional to Two quantities are proportional to each other (in proportion) when one quantity can be found by multiplying the other by a constant amount.
Pyramid A solid shape with a plane shape as its base and triangular sides meeting at an apex. Quadratic A function with a greatest power of 2. Quality control A statistical process used by companies to ensure that their product meets the required standard. Quantitative data Data that can be measured. A numerical value can be assigned to them. Quartile 25% of the data set. The upper quartile is the top 25% of the data set and the lower quartile is the bottom 25% of the data set. Questionnaire A set of questions completed for a statistical investigation. Radar chart A type of line graph drawn around a central point. The categories are labelled in a circle and data points marked on each line emanating from the centre. The points are then joined. A radar chart is suitable to show a pattern that is likely to repeat. For example, sales made during each month of the year. Random sample The members of the sample are chosen by a method in which luck is the only factor in deciding which members are to participate in the sample. Range A number that represents the spread of a data set. The range is calculated by subtracting the smallest score from the largest score. Rate A comparison of two quantities of a different type. Rate of change The change in one quantity per one unit change in another. Ratio A comparison of two quantities of the same type. Reduction A similar gure, drawn smaller in size than the original. Relation A rule connecting two variables. Relative frequency A number between 0 and 1, usually a decimal, which describes how often an event has occurred. The relative frequency is found by dividing the number of times an event has occurred by the total number of trials. Retainer A xed payment usually paid to someone receiving commission. They receive the retainer regardless of the number of sales made.
Glossary
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Royalty A royalty is a payment made to the owner of a copyright such as a musician or author. The royalty is usually a percentage of sales. Salary A form of payment where a person is paid a xed amount to do their job. A salary is usually based on an annual amount divided into weekly or fortnightly instalments. Sample When data are gathered from a portion of the population, that is taken to be representative of the whole population. Sample space A list of all possible outcomes to a probability experiment. Scale factor A number by which the side lengths on the rst of two similar gures is multiplied by to obtain the measurements on the second of the gures. Score Each piece of quantitative data is a score. Sector graph A graph where a circle is cut into sectors. Each sector then represents a section of the data set. Each sector is the same proportion of the circle as the part of the data set it represents. Shares A share is a part ownership of a company. Shares are traded on the stock exchange and uctuate in value daily. The return from investing in shares comes from both the dividend and the share rising in value. Signicant gures The number of non-zero digits to which a number is approximated. Similar gures Two or more gures with corresponding angles equal and corresponding sides in the same ratio. Simple interest Interest that is paid without any interest payments being added to the principal before the next interest calculation. Simple interest is calculated using the formula I = Prn. Sine ratio The ratio of the opposite side and the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle. Standard deviation A measure of the spread of a data set. The standard deviation is found on a calculator using either the population standard deviation or the sample standard deviation. Statistical inquiry The process of gathering statistics. Statistics Numerical facts compiled to describe a data set. Stem-and-leaf plot A method of displaying a data set where the rst part of a number is
written in the stem and the second part of the number is written in the leaves. Step function A linear function for which the rule changes as the value of the independent variable changes. Strata A group within a population that reects the characteristics of the entire population. Stratied sample The group to participate in the sample is chosen so that is has similar characteristics as the entire population, for example the same percentage of men and women. Summary statistic A number such as the mean, median or mode which describes a data set. Systematic sample The members of the sample are chosen according to some organised pattern. Tangent ratio The ratio of the opposite side and the adjacent side in a right-angled triangle. Taxable income The amount of income upon which the amount of tax due is calculated. Taxable income is calculated by subtracting any allowable tax deductions from the total gross income. Tax deduction An amount that can be deducted from gross income before income tax is calculated. Tax deductions are allowed for work-related expenses and other items such as charity donations. Tax return A form completed by every taxpayer at the end of the nancial year, which states all income earned, any allowable tax deductions and all taxes already paid. The total amount of tax that should have been paid is then calculated. The taxpayer then either receives a tax refund or must pay a tax debt. Time and a half A penalty rate where the -employee is paid 1 1 times the normal hourly 2 rate. Traverse survey A survey done to calculate the area of an irregularly shaped block of land. A diagonal is constructed and offsets divide the shape into triangles and quadrilaterals from which the area can be calculated. Tree diagram A method of listing the sample space for a multi-stage probability experiment. The diagram branches once for each stage of the experiment at each level showing all possible outcomes to each stage.
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General Mathematics
Trial The number of times a probability experiment has been conducted. Trigonometry A branch of mathematics in which sides and angles of triangles are calculated. Ungrouped data Data for which each score is individually tabulated. Unitary method A method used in ratio and percentages. Upper extreme The highest score in a data set.
Upper quartile The highest 25% of scores in a data set. Value Added Tax Similar to the GST, a VAT is levied on the cost of goods and services in many countries. The rate of VAT varies from country to country. Wage A form of payment that is based on an hourly rate. y-intercept The value of y when a function crosses the vertical axis.
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CHAPTER 1 Earning money
Are you ready?
1 a 24 months b 156 weeks c 21 fortnights d 5 years 2 a $611 b $2619.39 c $27 493.44 d $876.92 3 a 0.34 b 0.79 c 0.04 d 0.672 e 0.0825 f 0.175 4 a $35 b $356 c $1620 d $571.25 5 a $12.84 b $32.25 6 12.25 hours or 12 hours and 15 minutes 7 a 14% b 65% c 20% 8 a $616 b $1176 c $2944 6 D 9 Name A. White B. Black C. Green D. Brown E. Scarlet F. Grey 10 13 15 16 1 4 7 10 $12.54 $422.62 a $349.65 a $471.20 $344.16 $95.04 $2692.31 $24.18 7 $9.68 Wage $416.16 $538.80 $369.63 $813.96 $231.30 $776.72 8 39 Hours worked 36 40 37 42 15 38 Hourly rate $11.56 $13.47 $9.99 $19.38 $15.42 $20.44
Exercise 1A Calculating salary payments

1 $1700 4 a $745 5 $1653.84 6 Annual salary $30 000 $39 500 $42 250 $54 350 $86 475 7 10 12 13 14 $23 920 C a $634.62 a $688 45 hours 2 $960 b $1490 Weekly pay $576.92 $759.62 $812.50 $1045.19 $1662.98 3 $4500 c $3228.33 Fortnightly pay $1153.85 $1519.23 $1625.00 $2090.38 $3325.96 Monthly pay $2500.00 $3291.67 $3520.83 $4529.17 $7206.25
11 C 12 D 14 $548.80 b 43 hours b $11.78 2 $518.70 5 $12.87 8 $4706.67 3 $218.40 6 $903.85 9 $846.15
Exercise 1C Commission and royalties

1 2 3 4 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 4 7 10 $2000 a $260 a $400 $1425 C a $4125 $950 a $390 B a $400 $625 a $300 D a $462.50 b $327 b $1200 5 $4140 8 $8125 b $5375 b $490 b $500 b $345 b $372.50 c $568.79 c $1360 6 B 9 $800 c $16 875 c $649 c $8000 d $8125
8 $32 500 9 $69 600 11 $14.28 b $17.63 b Karina ($16.38 per hour)
c $406.80 c Bonito ($705)
Exercise 1B Calculating wages

1 $518 2 Name A. Smith B. Brown N. Tran A. Milosevic L. McTavish 3 a $424.80 4 a $432 5 a $17.34 Hourly rate $14.52 $16.45 $15.95 $20.10 $18.04 b $566.40 b $499.50 b $225.42 Hours worked 40.5 38.5 37.5 41.5 36.5
Exercise 1D Payment by piece

$75.95 a $103.50 b $94.50 c $85.50 d $81 $175 4 $135 5 $325.50 6 $327 a $92 b $138 c $87.40 d $114.08 a $57.75 b $125.13 c $103.95 $22.80 a $11 b $27.80 c $19.32 a $134.40 b $16.80 a $174 b $21.75/h c $29.00/h $455.84 $3307.69 $570 $1840 2 $346.15 5 $32 406.40 8 $208.55 3 $740.38 6 $487.20 9 $60.30
Wage $580.80 $625.10 $598.13 $824.10 $649.44
c $501.5 c $600.75
1A 1D
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1 $16.95 4 $142.56 6
Name A. Nguyen
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Exercise 1E Working overtime

2 $22.84 5 $157.20 3 $28.70
Ordinary Overtime Hours rate rate Worked $8.90 $9.35 $11.56 $13.86 $22.60 Time and a half Double time Time and a half Time and a half Double time 4.5 6.5 7.5 6.5 5.5
Pay $53.40 $112.20 $121.38 $135.14 $248.60
12 a c d 13 a 14 a 15 a 16 a d 1 4 7 10 1 4 7 8 9
$2884.62 b $367.79 Union fees = $18.69; health insurance = $50.91 $1438.01 $516.80 b $2428.96 $880.77 b $4139.61 $466.20 b $81.59 c $464.55 $5269.23 b $922.12 c $96.15 $4315.28 2 $1663.08 5 $75.90 8 $436.10 3 $410.40 6 $19.02 9 $353.52
M. McDonnell F. Milosevic J. Carides Y. Robinson
$477.75 $235.35 $101.40 $2408.28
Exercise 1G Budgeting
$8.42 2 $52.31 3 $8.00 $346.15 5 $59.78 6 $484.19 a $240 b Check with your teacher. a $120.77 b $415.38 c $378.85 d Check with your teacher. a $181.60 b 5 Oct. to 4 Jan. c $29.35 d $14 a $198.17 b $60.70 c 55 d 1753 e 10 000 f 58 552 a $143.75 b 72 c 1.24c d 161 a $1007.70 b $90 000 c $91.90 d 4, $251.90 $761.54 2 $2592.31 3 $15 912 4 $22.29 a $522 b $594.70 c $588.24 a $442.80 b $220.80 $11.40 8 43 hours 9 $395.20 $798.50 11 $534 12 $340.75 $98 a $21.30 b $28.40 a $98.10 b $109 a $368.60 b $426.80 c $426.80 d $485 $590.24 18 $311.64 19 $4.05 a $1855.77 b $176.30 a $631.55 b $13.26 c $72.63 d $405.36 $135 23 $57.12 4 B c $572.57 c $1119.22
7 C 10 $543.52 13
8 A 11 $721.60
Time and a half hours 4 .5 5 4 6
9 B 12 $596.25
Double time hours
Name W. Clark A. Hurst S. Gannon
Ord. rate $8.60 $9.85 $14.50
Normal hours 38 37 38 37.5 36
Total pay $378.40
10 11 12
6 2 1.5 8
$482.65 $717.75 $754.70 $1518.90
Chapter review
1 5 6 7 10 13 14 15 16 17 20 21 22
G. Dymock $16.23 D. Colley $24.90
14 C 17 a $705.28 18 $455.78
15 A b $788.80
16 $595.20 c $928
Exercise 1F Additions to and deductions from gross pay

1 $360.90 2 Gross pay $345.00 $563.68 $765.90 $1175.60 $2500.00 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 $360.45 a $2519.23 $7.58 $56.02 a $511.10 a $2153.85 $56.12 $167.26 a $422.56 Deductions $89.45 $165.40 $231.85 $429.56 $765.40 b $1434.08 b $5.11 b $44.84 b $44.37 c $407.26 c $1448.41 c $310.07 Net pay $255.55 $398.28 $534.05 $746.04 $1734.60
Practice examination questions 1 B 2 C 3 B 5 a $554.40 b $685.30 d $2605.68 6 a $1830.77 b $164.77
CHAPTER 2 Units of measurement

Are you ready?
1 a d 2 a 3 a 4 a 5 a 6 a 500 cm b 6200 m c 2 kg e 6250 kg f 2 days b 208 weeks c 0.5% b 3.3% c 2.1865 b 0.002 c 48.81 $840 b $2375 c 3.225 12 : 5 b 10 : 3 c 4 : 13 8.5 m 0.75 L 480 min 0.9% d 118.3 d 1.093 75 L d 3:2
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Exercise 2A Units of measurement

1 a e i 2 a e 3 a d g 4 a d g j 5 6 8 9 11 7 cm b 6m c 5 km d 90 mm 1200 cm f 9000 m g 8.6 cm h 9200 m 2.4 km j 64 mm k 1125 cm l 22 mm 8 kg b 3t c 7000 kg d 5000 g 9.5 t f 2.35 kg g 5500 kg h 4840 g 2L b 11 kL c 4000 L 15 000 mL e 4.8 kL f 8.65 L 7900 L h 12 800 mL 4 min b 6h c 3 days 120 h e 420 min f 180 min 730 or 731 days h 36 months i 208 weeks --1 1 days k 168 h l 71 h 2 2
4 D 5 D 6 C 7 a 4.7 108 km b 7.4 1012 mm c 1.3 104 t d 2.4 103 g e 2.2 101 L f 3 103 s 8 a Check with your teacher. b 4 c 230 000 000 km 9 a 2.4 103 m b 9.1 105 km c 4.6 107 mm d 4.9 102 t 10 e 3.45 10 kg f 8.11 109 g g 8.9 104 kL h 1.09 1013 L i 7.1 106 mL 10 2.05 107 mm 11 9.43 1012 km
5200 mm long, 2400 mm wide and 2500 mm high 150 kg 7 1800 L 26 hours and 40 minutes A 10 C a Seconds b Litres c Centimetres d Kilometres e Tonnes 12 a Kilolitres b 410 litres per day
Exercise 2D Rates
1 a Distance/time b Money/mass c Money/time d Mass/capacity e Goals/games f Temperature/time g Distance/time h Mass/area i Money/capacity j Time/mass k Capacity/distance l Distance/time 2 a 90 km/h b $4/kg c 5 runs/over d 5/h e $16.25/h f 22.5 m2/kg g 7.5 m/s h $44.60/day i 7.7 km/L j 2.875 goals/game k 12.5 kL/day l 77.6 c/L 3 C 4 $27.40/h 5 130 beats/min 6 87 km/h 7 a 196.9 s b 16.3 m/s 8 7.2 km/L 9 12 L/100 km 10 C 11 $471.66 12 900 mL 13 800 g of rice 400 g of pink salmon 1 egg (nearest whole number) 80 g of butter 40 g of plain our 600 mL of milk 120 g of shredded cheese 100 g of breadcrumbs 14 200 g of brown sugar 60 g of oil 20 g of cocoa powder 80 g of self-raising our 80 g of plain our 60 g of choc bits 40 g of white chocolate 15 8 16 1.9 kg 17 a $14.40 b $72 18 54 km/h 19 a 25 m/s b 9 km/h c 8 L/km d 12.5 L/100 km 20 C 21 No, she has enough lawn food for only 40 m2. 22 a 9.6 km/L b 33.75 L
Exercise 2B Relative error

1 a 4.5 cm to 5.5 cm b 11.5 cm to 12.5 cm c 33.5 cm to 34.5 cm d 58.5 cm to 59.5 cm e 89.5 cm to 90.5 cm f 199.5 cm to 200.5 cm 2 a 35 m to 45 m b 85 m to 95 m c 245 m to 255 m d 295 m to 305 m e 995 m to 1005 m f 1995 m to 2005 m 3 a 5.25 cm to 5.35 cm b 9.75 m to 9.85 m c 7.15 km to 7.25 km d 4.95 mm to 5.05 mm e 9.85 km to 9.95 km f 0.05 m to 0.15 m 4 a 44.5 km to 45.5 km b 0.5 km c 1.11% 5 a 0.75% b 7.14% c 2.78% d 0.13% e 5% 6 a i 4 cm ii 3 cm iii 5 cm b i 12.5% ii 16.67% iii 10% 7 a i 40 mm ii 27 mm iii 52 mm b i 1.25% ii 1.85% iii 0.96% 8 a 1 h 15 min to 1 h 25 min b 5 minutes c 6.25% 9 B 10 C 11 C 12 D 13 a 29.5 m to 30.5 m b 19.5 m to 20.5 m c 98 m d 102 m e 2m 14 a 575.25 m2 b 625.25 m2 c 25.25 m2 15 750.4 mL 16 79.25 km
1 4 7 9 4.5 m 2 6800 m 9450 mL 5 240 s 560 cm 8 4000 cm 65.65 kg to 65.75 kg 3 6.8 kg 6 72 h 10 1.4%
Exercise 2E Percentage change

1 2 3 4 6 8 1 3 5 7 9 $742.50 a 24.9375 km b 547.4 kg c 3 h 21 min 36 s a 1 h 54 min b 2 h 16 min 48 s $181.50 5 225.625 kg Yes, each equals 66 kg. 7 $555.75 a $250 b 20% 546 cm 0.069% 1.79 108 15 kg/h $292.60 2 4 6 8 10 724.5 kg to 725.5 kg 0.028 cm 1.0 106 15.6 m/s $12.96
Exercise 2C Signicant gures

1 a c e 2 a d 3 a c 25 000 000 b 200 000 000 8 780 000 d 5000 700 000 f 287 0.033 b 0.004 c 0.001 50 6.257 e 68.3 f 0.0002 100 000 000 km b 150 000 000 km 147 000 000 km d 146 570 000 km
1E 2E
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Exercise 2F Using ratios

1 a 5:1 b 10:9 c 3:8 d 7:3 e 5:3 f 3:4 g 3:16 h 1:13 i 16:11 j 25:6 k 4:5 l 5:3 m 4:1 n 2:5 o 2:3 p 20:1 q 3:8 r 3:10 s 4:1 t 3:50 u 5:2 v 20:13 w 9:2 x 20:3 2 D 3 B 4 12 5 1050 6 1260 kg 7 a 7.5 L b 8.5 L 8 320 9 84 10 C 11 Tom gets $700 and Rachael gets $300. 12 Natalie works 21 hours and Kathy works 14 hours. 13 10 14 25 000 15 B 16 a 2:5 b 600 17 a $9.30 b 5:3 c Sandra $400 000, Kevin $240 000 18 Sand 75 kg, cement 50 kg and gravel 25 kg 19 a 4:5:2 b 12 20 a 4:5 b Vicky pays $80 and Monica pays $100.
4 a 2000 mm3 5 a 729 cm3 1 a d 2 a d 3 a d 4 a d 5 a d 6 a d 7 a 8 a d 9 B 12 a 13 a 64 cm2 8.41 m2 27 m2 109.34 km2 54 m2 20.37 m2 72 m2 216.32 km2 67.5 cm2 179.91 km2 20 m2 60 m2 140 m2 144 m2 80 m2 34.56 m2
b 3 m3 b 1824 cm3 b e b e b e b e b e b e b b 841 mm2 13.69 cm2 1026 mm2 130.9 m2 29.14 cm2 26.46 km2 612 cm2 3306 mm2 728.5 mm2 106.59 m2 4074 mm2 5.84 m2 36 m2 68.5 cm2
c 5 cm3
Exercise 3A Review of area

c f c f c f c f c f c f c c 12.96 km2 156.25 cm2 2914 cm2 40.32 m2 3116 mm2 6.845 m2 72.54 m2 6.4 m2 33.88 m2 0.585 m2 22.4 m2 26.82 cm2 104 m2 10 m2
10 A
1.5 m 12 m 15 m
Chapter review
1 a 9 cm b 600 cm c 6700 m d 4.8 km e 69 mm f 1125 cm g 9 kg h 9.5 t i 4840 g j 11 kL k 4.55 L l 12 800 mL m 5 min n 4h o 4 days p 96 h q 1461 days r 60 months 2 112 kg 3 a 33.5 cm to 34.5 cm b 8.85 kg to 8.95 kg c 450 km to 550 km d 2.245 L to 2.255 L e 795 km to 805 km 4 a 1.5% b 0.6% c 10% d 0.2% e 0.6% 5 a 6 107 km b 4 105 mm 8 c 1.47 10 m d 6.43 105 t e 8.739 101 t f 5.74 104 g 3 g 2.874 10 mL h 5.874 103 g 6 a 5.2 106 mm b 9.1 104 kg 10 c 3.45 10 kg 7 a 25 c/L b 40 km/h c $8.40/h d 1.5 h/kg 8 630 km 9 33 h 10 31.5 L 11 $891 12 a 3:4 b 4:3 c 3:5 d 8:5 e 25:4 f 1:6 g 2:9 h 3:10 13 $360 14 $600:$1400 15 a 7:3 b Yasmin $175 000, Carrie $75 000 Practice examination questions 1 A 2 A 3 B 4 B 5 C 6 a 20.5 m b 50 mm c 0.24% d 1.64 108 7 a 55 800 000 km b 0.09% c 3200 km/h
11 B b $960.77 b 180 m2
c 18 m long and 15 m wide
d 90 m2
Exercise 3B Calculating irregular areas from a eld diagram

1 a
B 25 25 20 15 A D C 10
b 1125 m2
2 a Check with your teacher. b 3727.5 m2 c 234 m 3 a 1925 m2 b 2667.5 m2
c 3650 m2 3 7 cm 6 16.83 m2 9 100 mm2
1 4 7 10 22.09 m2 2 140.65 cm2 12 m 5 1.645 m2 2 20.025 cm 8 336 mm2 1 cm2 = 100 mm2
Exercise 3C Solid shapes

1 Triangular prism 2 Triangular pyramid 3 a Rectangular prism b Rectangular pyramid c Hexagonal prism 4 Check with your teacher. 5
CHAPTER 3 Applications of area and volume

Are you ready?
1 a c 2 a 3 a 42.25 m2 9.12 m2 200 mm2 486 cm2 b 8.12 m2 d 34.2 m2 b 30 m2 c 5 ha b 952 cm2
6 a iii
b i
c ii
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7 a
5 a 17.5 m2 d 17.5 m2 6 360 cm2 9 36 cm2 1 3 5 7 9
b 70 e 30 L 7 28 cm2 10 95.6 m2 2 4 6 8 10
c 42.5 m2 8 B
b 0.44 m2 4224 m2 Square pyramid 486 cm2 568 cm2 29.52 m2 Triangular prism Triangular pyramid 236 cm2 160 cm2 c 228 cm3 f 598.29 cm3
Exercise 3E Volume of a prism

1 a 120 cm3 d 256.68 m3 2 230.95 m3 3 a 125 cm3 d 24 389 mm3 f 551.368 m3 4 a 72 cm3 d 56.448 m3 5 a 1357.2 cm3 d 3817.0 cm3 f 13.3 cm3 6 a i 12 cm2 b i 24 cm2 c i 4.59 m2 d i 12.48 m2 7 a 187.5 m3 d 6.324 cm3 8 a i 200 cm2 b i 99 m2 c i 204 cm2 d i 153 m2 9 B 12 a 504 000 cm3 13 101.25 m3 14 a 150.796 m3 15 a 175 m2 16 a 2.8 m3 d 27.5 cm 1 a 6666.7 cm3 d 11.25 m3 2 a 96 cm3 d 100 cm3 3 a 100 cm3 d 208 mm3 4 a 262 cm3 d 77 585 cm3 5 254.5 cm3 6 a 904.8 cm3 d 137.3 m3 7 6.37 cm3 8 A 11 335.1 cm3 12 a 7 cm d 707.9 cm3 13 a 565.5 cm3 14 14 cm3 15 a 52.4 cm3 b 228 cm3 e 286.74 mm3
8 a Square pyramid b Triangular prism
b 13.824 m3 c 2197 m3 3 e 179.406 144 m b e b e 4914 mm3 4050 mm3 339.3 m3 26 880.3 cm3 ii ii ii ii b 875 m3 ii ii ii ii 10 D b 504 L c 104.895 m3 f 4228.125 m3 c 29 772.9 cm3
c Cone
60 cm3 288 cm3 6.885 m3 156 m3 c 2280 m3 2000 cm3 792 m3 1224 cm3 1836 m3 11 D
b 150 800 L b 17.5 m3 b 2800 L
c $796.25 c 24 429 L
Exercise 3F Volume of other solids

b 9400 cm3 b 560 cm3 b 92 cm3 b 1810 cm3 b 2144.7 cm3 9 C b 2144.7 cm3 b 84.8 cm3 b 65.5 cm3 c 186 cm3 c 120 m3 c 700 cm3 c 2212 mm3 c 8181.2 m3 10 D c 1436.76 cm3 c 480.7 cm3 c 85.15 cm3
Exercise 3D Surface area

1 a 150 cm2 d 43.74 cm2 2 a 122 m2 d 95.98 cm2 3 11.92 m2 b e b e
486 cm2 c 6144 cm2 23 064 mm2 f 47.04 m2 107.5 m2 c 3276 cm2 1444 cm2 f 1274 mm2 4 28 125 cm2
2F 3F
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1 a d 2 a d 3 a
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Chapter review
27.04 cm2 559 cm2 180 cm2 700 m2
C 25 25 40 B 36 30 A D
b 112.77 cm2 e 787.5 cm2 b 141.05 cm2
c 2368 mm2 f 2.4 m2 c 78.125 cm2
CHAPTER 4 Basic algebraic skills

Are you ready?
1 a 46, 54, 62 c 48, 96, 192 2 a c 3 a d 4 a e 5 a 6 a 7 a y=x+3 y = 4x + 3 7g x + 11 18 b 25 f 12x b 3x b x = 39 b b 8, 13, 18 -- -d 1, 1 , 1 2 4 b y = 3x d y = 8 2x b 6y c 3gy e 15g + 17 f 4h + 4t 15 c 3 d 9 80 g 60 h 2 12ab c 5kp d 6m2n 15 c 4 d 7xy x = 17 c x=9 d x = 12
b 2897.5 m2
4 3417.5 m2 5 a Rectangular prism c Square pyramid 6 a
b Triangular prism
Exercise 4A General number patterns

1 a e i 2 a d g j 3 a d g j 4 a d g i 5 a d g j 6 a c e g i j 7 a d g j 8 a d 3 b 4 c 5 11 f 9 g 13 -2.5 j 1 4 15, 18, 21 b 18, 22, 26 37, 44, 51 e 44, 55, 66 58, 71, 84 h 1, 3, 7 ---11 , 11 , 13 4 2 4 1 b 2 6 e 5 9 h 7
3 -4
d 7 h 4 c 24, 29, 34 f 32, 41, 50 i 12, 14.5, 17 c 4 f 7 i 0.7
7 Triangular prism 8 a 105.84 cm2 d 18.18 m2 9 a 54 m2 10 a 75 m2 d 1316.8 m2 11 a 37.5 m2 12 a 274.625 cm3 d 984 cm3 13 585 cm3 14 a 48 cm3 15 a 10 800 m3 d 2339 mm3
b 25.98 m2 b 352 cm2 b 1650 m3 b 2344 b 24 389 mm3 e 368 cm3 b 798 mm3 b 10.95 m3 e 50 965 mm3
c 19.44 m2 c 340 m2 c 1 650 000 L
c 202.768 m3 f 57 906 mm3 c 5.29 m3 c 19 658 mm3 f 179 594 cm3 3 C c 360 cm2
6, 5, 4 b 22, 20, 18 c 24, 20, 16 16, 10, 4 e 1, 6, 11 f 6, 13, 20 29, 20, 11 h 25, 32, 39 --2.2, 1.5, 0.8 j 1, 1 3 , 2 1 4 2 2 b 3 c 4 5 e 7 f 3 2 h 2 i 13 1.5 32, 64, 128 b 81, 243, 729 1280, 5120, 20 480 d 1250, 6250, 31 250 4802, 33 614, 235 298 f 162, 486, 1458 48, 96, 192 h 1.6, 3.2, 6.4 85 683, 1 113 879, 14 480 427 20.25, 30.375, 45.5625 2 b 10 c 4 5 e 3 f 20 8 h 2 i 10 10 1 1 --b ----c 1 2 10 4
1 -5 1 -8 1 ----10
Practice examination questions 1 D 2 D 4 a 100 cm2 b 400 cm3 d
e h
1 -3 1 -2
1 ----20
g j
1 i ----10
9 a 100, 50, 25 c 6.25, 1.5625, 0.390 625 e 9, 3, 1 1 1 -g 1 , ----- , -------8 64 512 5 a 78.5 cm3 c 65.4 cm3 b 78.5 mL d 61
b 1, 0.1, 0.01 d 1.2, 0.24, 0.048 f 2.5, 0.125, 0.006 25 1 1 1 h ----- , ----- , ----16 32 64
i 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001 j 0.5, 0.05, 0.005 10 a 1st term = 2, 5th term = 14, 10th term = 29 b 1st term = 45, 5th term = 29, 10th term = 9
Answers
c d e f g h i j 11 a b c d e f g h i j 12 a d g j 13 a c e g i
1st term = 4, 5th term = 324, 10th term = 78 732 1st term = 192, 5th term = 12, 10th term = 0.375 1st term = 25, 5th term = 7, 10th term = 47 1st term = 6, 5th term = 18, 10th term = 33 1st term = 2, 5th term = 512, 10th term = 524 288 1st term = 48, 5th term = 3, 10th term = 0.093 75 1st term = 1, 5th term = 15, 10th term = 55 1st term = 1, 5th term = 25, 10th term = 100 Add 5 to the previous term. Subtract 3 from the previous term. Multiply the previous term by 2. Divide the previous term by 2. Add 7 to the previous term. Subtract 13 from the previous term. Multiply the previous term by 2.5. Divide the previous term by 7. Add 3 to the previous term. Multiply the previous term by 2. 19 b 6 c 32 80 e 11 f 4 12 h 9 i 27 36 2, 8, 14 b 2, 10, 50 45, 37, 29 d 2000, 400, 80 12, 7, 2 f 15, 6, 3 20, 4, 0.8 h 6, 30, 150 -- -80, 40, 20 j 6, 1 1 , 3 2 8 c 8 f 9 i 12
n Tn
1 9 1 3 1 4 1 2 1 5 1 1 1 2 1 9 1 5 1 5 1 13 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 5 1 1
2 16 2 9 2 6 2 4 62 25 2 4 2 2 4 36 5 17 3 17 10 85 2 4 3 26 4 81 2 25 3 27
3 23 3 27 3 10 3 8
4 30 4 81 4 18 4 16
5 37 5 243 5 34 5 32 3125 3125 5 25 5 10 20 180 25 77 50 299 100 805 12 4096 59 010 59 048 14 348 915 14 348 907 9 765 610 9 765 625
n Tn
n Tn
n Tn
n Tn
623 624 125 625 3 9 3 0 9 81 9 29 6 35 20 165 5 32 6 728 4 16 4 4 10 90 10 32 12 71 50 405 9 512 8 6560
n Tn
n Tn
4 a
n Tn
14 a 10 b 15 d 19 e 11 g 9 h 9 j 11 15 Check with your teacher.
n Tn
Exercise 4B Number pattern notation

1 a c e g i k 2 a c e g i k 3 a 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 9, 18, 27, 36, . . . 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . 36, 59, 82, 105, . . . 9, 8, 7, 6, . . . 93, 86, 79, 72, . . . 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . 5, 25, 125, 625, . . . 1, 13, 61, 253, . . . 6, 12, 24, 48, . . . 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . 4, 16, 64, 256, . . .
n Tn 1 7 1 1 1 9 2 14 2 5 2 14 3 21 3 9 3 19
n Tn
b d f h j l b d f h j l
4, 8, 12, 16, . . . 6, 12, 18, 24, . . . 7, 11, 15, 19, . . . --1, 1 1 , 2, 2 1 , . . . 2 2 17, 14, 11, 8, . . . 3, 8, 13, 18, . . . 3, 9, 27, 81, . . . 10, 100, 1000, 10 000 7, 9, 13, 21, . . . 6, 18, 54, 162, . . . 3, 9, 27, 81, . . . 1, 7, 5, 19, . . .
4 28 4 13 4 24 5 35 5 17 5 29
n Tn
n Tn
n Tn
n Tn
2187 59 010 2187 59 049 15 626 15 625 5 125
n Tn
n Tn
1 953 129 1 953 125 10 20
n Tn
n Tn
1000 8000
4A 4B
answers
527
answers
528
j
n Tn
Answers
1 1
2 0
96 24
10 80
920 360
a a a a a d 10 B 13 a d
5 6 7 8 9
11 b 26 b 8 b 4 b 50 b 0.097 656 25 Tn = 4n Tn = 36 3n
38 18 128 60 25
c c c c c
122 154 1024 100 3.125
d d d d
158 370 4096 224
9 10 11 12 13 14
-a 2 b 1.81 3 a 3 mL b 3.6 mL 9 mL 10 mL a 19.2 mL b 12 mL a 24.6 ideal weight b 31.6 overweight c 14.9 severely underweight
c 1.88 c 6.4 mL c 12 mL
12 C c Tn = 50 n f Tn = 3n 1 1 4 7 10 27, 33, 39 4p + 2q 35.34 1040.6
11 C b Tn = 3n 1 e Tn = 2n
2 Tn = 6n 3 5 m 8 7693.12
3 5r 6 3v 11w 9 3156.6
1 9, 11, 13 -3 1 2 5 15 7 731 8 2 Add 8 to the previous term. 4 2, 6, 14, 22, 30 6 2, 6, 12, 20, 30
1 1 3 7 7 23 10 35 15 55
Exercise 4E Multiplication and division of algebraic expressions

1 a 24 b 76 7 d q e p5 2 a 333333 b 44444 c 8888888 d mmm e yy f jjjjjjjjj 3 a q7 b x11 d 47 e a6 6 g 6b h 10d 8 j 27j 6 k 8k4 7 9 m 20x y n 20m5n9 p 48j 4k10 q 50p5q3 4 4 a a b b4 d e4 e 6g2 3 2 g 8j k h 4m3n j 9r3 k 12s2 b e h b e h k
20
c 92 f w3
Tn
9 Yes, it is the 19th term. 10 Tn = 40 2n
Exercise 4C Adding and subtracting like terms

1 a 2t b 3r c d 4x e 7q f 2 a m+m b n+n+n+n+n+n c s+s+s+s+s+s+s+s+s d w+w+w+w+w+w+w+w e y+y+y f r+r+r+r 3 a 12y b 19x c d 47j e 25k f g 8r h w i j 2w k 7s l mj n 6p o 4 a 10x + 7 b 4h 4 c d 3p + 7q e 5 + 4w f g 4j + 8k h 3x 15 i j 3a 8 k 17b 6 l m 10y 6 n 3c b o p 19e 4p q 20t 23s r 6w 8n
c f i l o r c f i l
39e 4k 4m 22m z 13k 13t 16b 26 4r 17 13d 8 2w c 22.46F c 6.93 f 4.31 c 176 f 75 i 85.4 iii $34.50 c 214.94 c 2.5
5 a d g 6 a
a 8k12 25p6q8 m4
12
d 12q4 g 1024w26 j 6m6
Exercise 4D Substitution
1 a 68F b 2 a 30 b d 136 e 3 1.335 4 a 600 b d 32.83 e g 100 h j 25.5 5 a C = 4.5 + 0.6d b i $7.50 ii 6 C 7 a 134.04 b 8 a 14 b 95F 29.2 973.14 8 236.6 80 $16.50 18 229.61 0.1
7 a m2 + m b d w4 4w e g 20q4 36q h j 12x6 + 6x7 k m 6x2y + 6xy2 n o 8p3q 8pq2 p q 18r7s8 18r4s6 r 14p5q5r 49pq4r6 1 a d g j m p z = 43 y = 266 x = 18 k = 22 u = 180 -c = 32 5 b e h k n q
g c 49m12 f 7776r15s5 i n19 c 3 ------f 5 4r 8v i 1 ---------l 21y 4 2f 2 8f c r7 + r2s f 21y9 + 7y5z2 i 5gh 20h5 l 4a2b2 + 28ab 25m5n5 15m2n7
y15 s3 35g10 24m2 63a5b9 54r4s3t10 c2 6h4 7p8q3 t3 --3 4 h 512n6 25x2y10 p6 4s5 128x20 2 -z 5m2 + 6mn p10 5p5q 9a5 18a4b4 18t2s3 + 54t 6
Exercise 4F Solving linear equations

w = 88 r = 48 p = 19 573 b = 16 f = 40 v = 30.4 c f i l o r q = 18 t = 331 e = 34 a = 12 d = 5.2 3 t = 6 ----10
Answers
2 B -3 a x = 43 5
-d x = 6 2 3
-b x = 63 7 6 e x = 3 ----13
-c x = 61 6
f x= c f i l
2 -9
4 a d g j
a=6 s=4 e = 2 r = 11.6
b e h k
q = 17 w = 17 d = 2 -f = 2 6 7
z=7 x = 24 c = 17 -v = 12 3
e f g h i j 2 a b c d e f g h i j 3 a c 4 a c e g h 5 a
mt = 6 p s = 1.55 5 a s = 15 d f = 52 g k = 105 j j = 20 6 a y = 10 d s = 20 7 a Correct d Correct g Correct 8 a a=2 d d=3 g g=5 j j = 34 9 D 10 a b = 5 d p = 10 g t=5 j g=5 -mz = 9 1 3 11 a s = 36 dv=4
-g x = 10 2 3
n g = 3 ----q y = 13 32 b e h k b e b e h b e h k b e h k n v = 119 p = 88 v = 12 p = 273 p=6 w = 18 Incorrect Correct Correct b=9 e=5 h=2 k=3 n=2 k = 26 n=4 g = 2 1 y = 2 ----18
o b = 12 -r h = 93 7 c f i l c f c f c f i l c f i l o r = 48 s = 48 g=0 m = 36 q = 12 m = 2.5 Correct Incorrect c=4 f=3 i = 9 l=9 h = 13 m = 31 r=5 v = 4 u = 3.95

3 -8
25, 36, 49 768, 3072, 12 288 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 15, 21, 28 18, 9, 0 5, 8, 13 Begin with 3 and to get the next term add 4 to the previous. Begin with 6 and to get the next term multiply the previous by 2. Begin with 12 and to get the next term subtract 7 from the previous. Begin with 800 and to get the next term divide the previous by 4. The square numbers. Begin with 3 and to get the next term multiply the previous by 4. Begin with 1000 and to get the next term divide the previous by 10. The triangular numbers. Begin with 54 and to get the next term add 9 to the previous. Begin with 1 and to get the next term add the two previous terms. 45, 37, 29, 21, 13 b 6, 18, 54, 162, 486 34, 22, 10, 2, 14 d 243, 162, 108, 72, 48, 32 7, 14, 21, 28, 35 b 5, 25, 125, 625, 3125 5, 13, 21, 29, 37 d 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 14, 8, 2, 4, 10 f 3, 9, 27, 81, 243 9, 99, 999, 9999, 99 999 19, 23, 229, 1283, 7789
n Tn 1 9 1 11 1 2 1 3 3 27 4 17 2 4 23 27 4 36 7 23 5 32 6 729 7 63 9 27 8 256 10 90 12 33 10 1024
b t=8
-e w = 22 9
c u=
f x=4 i p=2 b $12 b
h m = 6
n Tn
30x + 20 25x + 4 12 a -------------------- = ----------------5 4
n Tn
Exercise 4G Equations arising from substitution

1 2 3 4 5 6 b=7 a l = 19 b b = 5.75 a l = 14 b l = 54 a 10 b 26.7 d 23.3 e 9.4 a a=2 b a = 23 d n = 86 a R = 10 b d=6 d h = 6.7 e b = 8.5 g F = 59 h u=4 j a=8 a 10 km b 18 km a C = 1.5 + 2.2m b i $3.70 ii $12.50 c i 3 min ii 7 min d c c f c l = 2.8 37.8 20.7 n = 5050
n Tn
19 689 59 010 19 683 59 049
c w = 54 f D = 1080 i n = 16 c 8.5 km iii $19.10 iii 15 min
7 8
Chapter review
1 a b c d 20, 24, 28 96, 192, 384 16, 23, 30 3.125, 0.781 25, 0.193 125
6 a 4y b 17w d 6t e q 7 a 5m + 4n b 3a 5 d 16m 6 e 8x + 14 8 40 9 127 10 36.75 12 a w8 b a7 d 36q3 e 5p4 g 48x6 h 12r8 j 20a4b5 k 28g4h3 mb4 n f3 9r p 9y4 q ----s s 4a2 v a12 y k6 t 4m2 w 125m12 z 16q5
c f c f c f i l o
14r 14x 4k 2l 10m 16 11 120 24x8 30y2 30x12y10 48m5n6 9r3
r 4s2t4 7 u -------3 p3 x 27p9q15
4C 4G
answers
529
answers
530
Answers
13 a m2 + 3m c 4x8 2x3 e 12p3q 8pq5 14 a a = 67 d d = 966 g g = 33 j j = 16 mm = 9 p p = 65 15 a s = 5 dv=5 g y = 5 j b=8 16 a l = 8 -dr= 1 2
b e h k n q b e h k b
b 10p2 30pq d 6w5 6w3 f 21a14 63a6b2 b = 160 c c = 89 e = 12 f f = 76 -h = 27 i i = 11 9 k=9 l l = 9 n = 6.5 o t = 40 q = 12 r r = 35 t = 17.5 c u = 42 w=3 f x=9 z = 21.5 i a = 20 c=8 l d=8 w = 31 c F = 77
Exercise 5A Collecting data

1 a External b External d External e Internal g External h External 2 a Observation b Questioning d Observation e Questioning g Questioning h Observation 3 Check with your teacher. 4 Check with your teacher. 1 Make Holden Ford Nissan Mazda Toyota Mitsubishi 2 Mark 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 Mark 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099 c Internal f Internal c Questioning f Observation
Exercise 5B Organising data

Tally |||| ||| |||| ||| || ||| |||| || || Tally || |||| |||| | |||| |||| |||| ||| | Tally | || |||| |||| |||| ||| ||| || Frequency 8 8 2 3 7 2 Frequency 2 4 6 9 5 3 1 Frequency 1 2 9 8 3 2
Practice examination questions 1 B 2 B 3 B 4 D 5 a 441.6 b 21.8 8x 4 x 6 a x + y b ------c ------y2 2y 7 d x = 49
CHAPTER 5 Statistics and society

Are you ready?
1 Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 a 7 d 3 3 a Type of meat Lamb Beef Pork Chicken Turkey Rabbit Total b Tally III III| II|| || IIII II III Frequency 3 5 7 4 2 3
b 26 c Television e Reading and other Amount sold (kg) 10 45 5 15 10 5 90 Fraction

1 -9 1 -2 1 ----18 1 -6 1 -9 1 ----18
Angle size () 40 180 20 60 40 20 360
4 Check with your teacher.
Exercise 5C Displaying data

1
Frequency 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
i a ta n n d de For issa azd yo bish N M To itsu H Make of car M ol
Type of meat sold Rabbit (5) Lamb (10) Turkey (10) Chicken (15) Pork (5) Beef (45)
4 a 3.6%
b 0.16%
c 49%
d 0.3%
Make of car Holden Ford Nissan Mazda Toyota Mitsubishi
Answers
3
Number of students
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
5 6 7 8 9 Spelling test results
10
4
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Number of students
4 Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 Number of CDs 04 59 1014 1519 2024 2529 3034 3539 6
Tally ||| |||| | |||| | |||| | ||| ||| Tally ||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||| |||| | |
Frequency 3 6 6 6 3 3 Number of students 3 9 9 3 4 1 0 1
4 50 9 5 60 9 6 70 9 7 80 9 8 90 9 9 9
40
Maths exam mark
5
10 9 8 Frequency 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of people in a household Number of people in a household 1 2 3
0 11 9
Frequency
0 13
0 15
0 17
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 19
0 21
4 5 6
Number of customers
Number of students
Marks on maths exam 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Number of students
Exercise 5D Quality control

1 Accepted 2 Accepted 3 Unsatisfactory 4 Unsatisfactory 5 Unsatisfactory 6 Satisfactory
0 4 5 10 9 15 14 20 19 25 24 30 29 35 34 3 9
Number of CDs purchased Number of CDs purchased 04 59
Chapter review
1 a External b Internal d Internal 2 a Observation b Questioning d Questioning 3 Check with your teacher. c External c Observation
1014 1519 2024 2529 3034 3539
5A 5D
answers
531
answers
532
Answers
CHAPTER 6 Data collection and sampling

Are you ready?
1 a 6% 2 a 4600 3 a 135 b 21.6% b 840 b 69 c 8.54% c 1200 c 109.4775
Census Sample Census Random sample Systematic sample Stratied sample 18 The members of the committee are not in the same proportion as the members of the parliament. 9 4 Liberal and 2 Labor 10 A stratied sample is chosen to fully represent the characteristics of the whole population, whereas a random sample may not do this, especially if the sample is small. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Exercise 6A Target populations and sampling

1 Census every member of the population participates. 2 Sample 3 a Sample b Sample c Census d Census e Sample 4 a Sample b Census c Census d Sample 5 Sample 6 163, 176, 381, 495, 9 7 827, 211, 417, 554, 207, 26, 810, 781, 192, 371 8 Check with your teacher. 9 a Systematic b Stratied c Systematic d Random e Stratied 10 A 11 C 12 34 males and 16 females 13 Year 7 8, Year 8 8, Year 9 8, Year 10 6, Year 11 5, Year 12 4
Exercise 6C Bias
1 Check with your teacher. 2 Check with your teacher. 3 a Sample does not represent characteristics of population b No control over responses c Unrepresentative sample d Abnormal conditions e Only extreme groups in sample 4 The decrease in the value of the Australian dollar compared with the American dollar is accentuated by the large scale on the y-axis. The decrease is actually only 2 cents. The scale on the x-axis is not uniform (9 May, 11 May, 12 May). 5 What type of university tests? What do the terms consistently, majority, more effective, most other mean? No hard evidence has been provided to support the claim. 6 a There would be many more student drivers in Year 12 than in Year 11 perhaps also some in Year 10. b Students with part-time jobs are in lower year levels as well. c Residents not at the neighbourhood watch meeting have been ignored. d Other music students who play instruments and dont belong to the choir have been excluded. e The composition of cars in a shopping centre car park is not representative of the cars on the road. f Females have been excluded. g Users of the local library would not reect the views of teenagers.
Exercise 6B Population characteristics

1 Year 7 9, Year 8 11, Year 9 9, Year 10 8, Year 11 7, Year 12 6 2 36 men and 24 women 3 25 females and 15 males 4 2 senior management, 12 middle management and 36 clerks. 5 3 teachers and 47 students 6 Age Male Female 2029 3039 4049 5059 10 7 12 1 7 8 3 2
7 Year 7 16, Year 8 16, Year 9 14, Year 10 13, Year 11 12, Year 12 9 8 Major department store 60 votes, small department store 30 votes and small stores 2 votes 9 Year Boys Girls 7 8 9 10 11 12 9 10 10 9 7 6 9 11 10 8 7 6
Exercise 6D Types of data

1 a d 2 a d 3 a d 4 a b c d e f g h Quantitative b Categorical Categorical e Quantitative Ordinal b Ordinal Nominal e Nominal Continuous b Discrete Continuous e Continuous Quantitative, discrete Categorical, nominal Quantitative, continuous Quantitative, continuous Categorical, nominal Quantitative, continuous Quantitative, discrete Quantitative, continuous c Quantitative f Quantitative c Nominal c Continuous
Answers
6 7 8 9 10 11
i Quantitative, discrete j Categorical, nominal k Quantitative, continuous l Quantitative, discrete m Quantitative, discrete n Categorical, nominal o Categorical, ordinal p Quantitative, continuous q Quantitative, discrete r Categorical, ordinal s Categorical, nominal t Categorical, ordinal a Quantitative and discrete b Categorical c Categorical d Quantitative and continuous e Quantitative and continuous f Quantitative and discrete Categorical and nominal Categorical and ordinal Quantitative and discrete C Categorical and ordinal Quantitative and continuous
6 Check with your teacher. 7 a Categorical b Quantitative c Quantitative d Quantitative e Categorical 8 a Discrete b Continuous c Continuous d Discrete e Continuous 9 2000 10 750 11 a Barry 2667 Viet 1667 Mustafa 1571 b 1968 Practice examination questions 1 D 2 B 3 A 4 C 5 a Categorical b 1984 6 a Quantitative and continuous b Systematic c The data are inuenced by factors that dont make them representative of the whole population. d Take cans of paint from each of the ve machines.
CHAPTER 7 Modelling linear relationships

Are you ready?
1 a Not linear c Linear 2 a 3 3 a 7 4 a
1 -3
1 The question leads the responder to an expected answer of yes by using emotional words and ideas. 2 Should the tax rates for upper incomes be raised? 3 One side of the debate may be more motivated to call in, certain groups of the population may be misrepresented among viewers of this program, and low income groups may not feel they want to waste money on the phone call. 4 Random sample 5 Categorical and nominal 6 Quantitative and discrete 7 Quantitative and discrete 8 Quantitative and continuous 9 Check with your teacher. 10 Check with your teacher.
b
y
b Linear d Not linear c 3 c 2
b 5
y=x+1 1
Exercise 6E Estimating populations

1 3 4 5 6 4000 2 400 a 10 000 b 25 000 c 3663 No estimated population 20 000 a 625 b 500 c 625 a 833 b 1000 c 882 d 905 1 a Sample b Census c Census d Sample 2 Random sample where the participants are chosen by luck Stratied sample where the participants are chosen in proportion to the entire population Systematic sample where a system is used to select the participants 3 a Systematic b Random c Stratied 4 Check with your teacher. 5 Year 7 12, Year 8 12, Year 9 11, Year 10 10, Year 11 8, Year 12 7
Chapter review
y = 2x 4
6A 6E
answers
533
answers
534
c
Answers
y 6
8
Height (m)
2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
(10, 2)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 Years
y = 6 2x
Money earned ($)
600 500 400 300 200 100 0
(60, 600)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Hours worked
10 5 a x=4 b x=3 c x=
2 -5
Exercise 7A Graphing linear functions

1
M 500 400 300 200 100 0
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000
(1000, 6150)
Profit ($)
0 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Number of rolls of film
(5000, 250)
Exercise 7B Gradient and intercept

1 a 2 2 D 3 a
Payment ($)
0 00 00 00 00 00 P 20 40 60 80 10 0
b 16
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
c 3
d 0.5
2 a $400.00 3 Y
90 000 80 000 70 000 60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 0
b $475.00
Y = 80A
(1000, 360)
(500, 40 000)
0 0 00 00 00 00 00 2 4 6 8 100 10 No. of newspapers delivered
0 00 00 00 00 00 A 2 4 6 8 10
C = 1.5t (60, 90)
C 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
b 0.3 4 a 350
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 50 100 Profit ($)
c 60
(200, 300)
50 100 150 200 No. of patrons in a cinema
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 t
5 a $25.50 6 d
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
b $67.50
d = 15t (10, 150)
b 2: $2 increase in prot per person attending c 100: $100 cost is incurred before anybody attends the movie. 5 a
x y 0 4
y 6 5 4 3 2 1 (2, 6) y = 5x 4
1 1
2 6
11
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 t C = 4 + 1.5d (60, 94)
C 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 54321 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 d
c Gradient = 5, y-intercept = 4
Answers
Exercise 7C Drawing graphs using gradient and intercept

1 a Gradient = 2, y-intercept = 2 b Gradient = 3, y-intercept = 8 c Gradient = 4, y-intercept = 2
-d Gradient = 3 , y-intercept = 3 4 -e Gradient = 1 , y-intercept = 1 2 -f Gradient = 3 , y-intercept = 3 2
y 4 (1, 1)
4 3
y = 4 3x
7 a
y 6 (1, 3) 2 y = 6 3x x
y = 2x 3 1 2 (1, 1) x
1
b
1 1 2
y x 3 (1, 5) y = 2x 3
3 a
y 1
1 2
y = 2x + 1 (1, 3) x
y 4 y = x + 4 2 8 x
1
y = 3x 6
2 (1, 3)
y (1, 5) 0 y = 5x x
8 C 9 C 10 Some possible answers are: a y = 2x + 1 b y = 2x + 1 c y = 3x + 5 d y = 6x e y = 2x 1 f y=6 g y = 2x 1 Check other answers with your teacher. 11 Some possible answers are: -a y = x + 1 b y = 2x c y = 1 x + 1 2 Check other answers with your teacher.
y 2 4
y = 1x + 2 2
1 3 5 7 2 3 y = 3x + 6 -y= 1x3 2 2 4 6 8
(2, 3) x
3 5 y = 4 2x Check with your teacher.
5 a
y = 3x 1 4
9 Check with your teacher. 1

D 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
10 Line must pass through one origin.
(4, 2) 1
4 3
Exercise 7D Graphing variations
y (3, 1) 0
y = 1x 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 t
2 a
y = 3x 4 2
2 3 (2, 1) 4
n 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 p
b 1.5
c n = 1.5p
7A 7D
answers
535
answers
536
3 a
y 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Answers
3
Cost ($) 40 35 30 25 4 8 12 16 20 Number of calls Distance (km)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 x
b 8 4 a D
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 s
c y = 8x
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 Time (h) 5
Cost of printing ($) Pay ($)

Tax payable ($000)
b D = 3s 5
W 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 h L (L) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 50 100150200 No. of business cards
6 a
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 No. of hours worked
0 00 00 00 00 00 d (km) 1 2 3 4 5
b 30 L 7 a h (m)
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 g (m)
7
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
b 16.8 m 8
$US 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
c 1.6 m
0 00 00 00 00 00 A$ 1 2 3 4 5
Exercise 7F Simultaneous equations

1 4 kg of apples and 5 kg of bananas y 2 a y = 2x +1
10 8 6 4 2
Exercise 7E Step and piecewise functions

Fare ($)
2.80 2.40 2.00 1.60 1.20 0.80 1 2 3 4 Sections 5
0 108642 2 4 6 8 10 x 2 4 6 y=7x 8 10
2
Posting charge ($)
6.00 5.50 5.00 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Mass of parcel (kg)
b (2, 5) 3 a b 2x + 2y = 22
10 8 6 4 2
c Length = 8 cm, width = 3 cm
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 110 0 12 0 13 140 0 15 0
Income ($000) y x 0 108642 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 y = x 5 10
Answers
4 ab
s 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
s = 2t
7 a
y y = 2x 1
1 2
t + s = 750 t
0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
b
6 0
y (1, 3) 2 x
c Steve = $500, Theo = $250 5 ab M M = E 21

200 150 100 50 0
E + M = 135
y = 6 3x
E 50 100 150 200 6
y = 1x + 3 2
3 0
(2, 4) x
c English = 78, Maths = 57
Chapter review
1 a
c 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
8
Cost ($)
01 2 3 45 67 8 h
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Amount of petrol (L)
b $230 2
E 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
9 a
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 00 00 00 00 00 A 2 4 6 8 10
8 12 16 20 p
b 3
Cost per minute (cents)
3 a
c q = 3p
C ($) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 k (km)
10
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Profit ($)
c Gradient = 1, y-intercept = 3 5 a 500

400 300 200 100 0 100
Height (m)
b $56 4 a Gradient = 2, y-intercept = 1 -b Gradient = 1 , y-intercept = 2 2
0 00 00 00 00 00 2 4 6 8 10 Distance of call (km)

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 012 3456789 Time (years)
11
40 80 120 160 200 No. of cakes sold
12 a b
w 20 15 10 5 l 0 5 10 15 20
2l + 2w = 40 w = l 10
b 2.5, means that an extra $2.50 prot is made for every cake sold. c 80, means that there is an initial cost of $80 to run the stall which will be lost if no cakes are sold. 6 a Gradient = 3, y-intercept = 2 -b Gradient = 3 , y-intercept = 7 4 c Gradient = 1, y-intercept = 5
c l = 15, w = 5
7E 7F
answers
537
answers
538
Answers
Practice examination questions 1 C 2 B 3 D y 5 ae y = 2x 3

5 4 3 2 1
4 B
Exercise 8B Graphing simple interest functions

1 a
No. of years Interest 1 $400 2 $800 3 4 5
$1200 $1600 $2000
b 2 d y = 2x 3 6 a n
5 4 3 2 1 0 012 3456 m
c 3 f (2, 1)
Interest ($)
0 54321 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 y = 5 2x
2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
2 a c n = 0.6m b
No. of years Interest

16 000 14 000 12 000 10 000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
b 0.6
$1600 $3200 $4300 $6400 $8000
Are you ready?

1 a 0.12 2 a 61.88 3
25000 Population 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 1 2 3 4 Time (years) 5
b 0.08 b 97
c 0.045 c 5460
(5, 24883)
d 0.0625
Interest ($)
CHAPTER 8 Investing money
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Years
Interest ($)
(4, 20736) (3, 17280) (2, 14400) (1, 12000)
c 1600 d $16 000 3 a 6000

4000 2000 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
b
Interest ($)
800 600 400 200 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
4 a 5 5 a $72 6 a 7%
b 1.25 b $199.75 b 37.5%
c 1.5 c $75 c 0.25%
Exercise 8A Calculation of simple interest

1 $600 2 a $120 d $6656.85 3 a $2240 4 a $2400 5 $8648.80 6 a $5.25 7 a $448.63 8 $850.50 9 A 12 18 months 15 a $627.13 16 a $2250 17 $18 750 1 $800 5 $7000 9 53c b e b b $615 $90 $11 200 $12 400 c $21 420 f $684.47 c
Interest ($)
4000 3000 2000 1000
b $145.25 b $224.32 10 13 b b C $6250 $12 542.50 $13 500
c $9558.84 11 $131.86 14 C
-c 7 1 years 2
0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
d
Interest ($)
20 000 15 000 10 000 5000
2 $1260 6 $138 10 $173.58 3 $2700 7 $215.44 4 $1.90 8 $1998.75 4 288
0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
Answers
5 a
Interest ($)
400 300 200 100 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
Investment ($)
4000 3500 3000 0 0 1 2 3 Years 4 5
9 a d 10 B 14 a c 15 a c 16 a c
$1003.69 b $9111.56 c $181 402.12 $20 039.67 e $1 264 568.95 11 B 12 B 13 C $15 746.40 b $15 793.09 $15 817.40 d $15 833.99 0.0219% b $108 320.72 $8320.72 d $320.72 $4720 b $4726.24 Compounding interest
1 4 7 10 $2051.28 $429.69 $6792.58 $14 700.69 2 $17 253 5 $2315.25 8 $6805.66 3 $3437.50 6 $315.25 9 $6812.41
6 a
No. of years 1 2 3 4 5 Interest (5%) $1250 $2500 $3750 $5000 $6 250 Interest (6%) $1500 $3000 $4500 $6000 $7 500 Interest (8%) $2000 $4000 $6000 $8000 $10 000
Interest ($) 10 000 5000 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5 8% 6% 5%
Exercise 8D Calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values

1 $13 110 2 $12 580 3 $46 800 4 $2599.20 5 a $8385 b $9895.90 c $336 d $25 634.61 e $14 919.50 f $122 130 6 a 1.025 b 1.051 c 1.077 d 1.104 e 1.160 f 1.218 7 a $969.30 b $2583.36 c $7948.80 d $13 398 e $6670 8 D 9 C 10 $8636 11 3 years 12 a 1 year b 6 years c 5 years d 18 months e 4 years 13 16% 14 a 7% b 8% c 28% d 10% e 12% 15 a $15 000 b $16 110 c $16 290 d Bruce $5000, Keith $6100, Max $6290 e Bruce 50%, Keith 61.1%, Max 62.9%
7 a Whichbank = $37 500, Eastpac = $35 000, NZA bank = $30 000 b Whichbank = 7.5%, Eastpac = 7%, NZA bank = 6% 8 a
No. of years Interest (3%) Interest (3.5%) 1 2 3 4 5 $825.00 $962.50 $165.00 $330.00 $495.00 $660.00 $192.50 $385.00 $577.50 $770.00
Interest (3.75%) $206.25 $412.50 $618.75 $825.00 $1031.25
Interest ($)
1500 1000 500 0

0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
3.75% 3.5% 3%
Exercise 8E Graphing compound interest functions

1 a No. of years b
1 Future value $8400
Future value ($) 10 000 9500 9000 8500 8000 0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
2 $8820
3 $9261
4 5 $9724 $10 210
9 a $4500, $5000, $5200 b $875 10

Interest ($) 5000 4500 4000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Years
6.2% 5.8% 5.2%
2 a No. of years b
Future value ($)
1 2 3 4 5 Future value $12 960 $13 997 $15 117 $16 326 $17 632
30 000 25 000 20 000 15 000 10 000 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Years
Exercise 8C Calculation of compound interest

1 $6655 4 a $4630.50 d $13 503.78 5 $70 555.25 8 a 0.5% 2 $17 173.50 b $9274.19 e $12 588.72 6 $502 b $31 850.33 3 $2938.66 c $24 488.80 7 $14 059.91
c $25 900
8A 8E
answers
539
answers
540
Future value ($)
Answers
Future value ($)
3 a
25 000 20 000 15 000
5500 5000 4500 4000 0 0 1 2 3 Years 4 5
Annually Six-monthly
0 0 1 2 3 4 Years 5
b
Future value ($)
4000 3000 2000 0
Exercise 8F Share dividends

1 3 5 6 7 9 25c/share 2 $1.50/share 6c/share 4 29.27c/share a $1.224 million b $2.176 million c 43.52c/share a $9.28 million b $6.08 million c $0.76/share $3.276 million 8 4.57%
Dividend $0.56 $0.78 $1.20 $1.09 $0.04 Share price $8.40 $7.40 $23.40 $15.76 $0.76 Dividend yield 6.7% 10.5% 5.1% 6.9% 5.3%
3 4 Years
4 a
Years FV 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 $2060 $2122 $2186 $2252 $2318 $2388 $2460 $2534 $2610 $2688
b
2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Future value ($)
10 13 14 15 16
Years
2.91% a 6.6% a $1.44 8.5% a 0.59%
11 B
12 $364 b $1.06/share b $7.4906 million c 6.4c/share d 0.61%
b $10.64
Exercise 8G Graphing share performance

1 a
7.30 7.10 6.90 6.70 6.50 6.30 6.10 5.90 5.70
Future value ($)
1800 1600 1400 1200 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Years
Share price ($)
5 a
Compound interest earned ($)
Share price ($)
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Years
b Approximately $7.60 2 a 4.50

4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50
6 a No. of years
Interest (4%) Interest (6%) Interest (8%)
1 $320 $480 $640
2 $653 $988 $1331
3 $999 $1528 $2078
4 $1359 $2100 $2884
5 $1733 $2706 $3755

2.02 2.00 1.18 1.16 1.14 1.12 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.00
1 J 1 an F 1 eb M 1 ar A 1 pr M 1 ay J 1 un 1 Jul A 1 ug Se 1 pt O 1 ct N 1 ov D 1 ec J 1 an F 1 eb M 1 ar A 1 pr M 1 ay J 1 un 1 Jul A 1 ug Se 1 pt Oc t
b
Interest ($)
12 000 10 000 8000

0
3 4 Years
7 a No. of years
1 Annually $4240 Six-monthly $4244
2 $4494 $4502
3 $4764 $4776
4 $5050 $5067
5 $5353 $5376
Share price ($)
Interest (8%) Interest (6%) Interest (4%)
b Approximately $1.20
1 Ju 1 n J 1 ul A 1 ug Se 1 pt O 1 ct N 1 ov D e 1 c Ja 1 n Fe 1 b M 1 ar A 1 pr M ay
Month
1 M ay 1 Ju n 1 Ju l 1 Au g 1 Se pt 1 Oc t
Month
Answers
Future value ($)
4 a
Share price ($) 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00
1 Ja 1 n Fe 1 b M 1 ar A 1 pr M 1 ay Ju 1 n J 1 ul Au 1 g Se 1 p O 1 ct No 1 v De 1 c Ja 1 n Fe 1 b M 1 ar A 1 pr M 1 ay Ju n
28 000 27 000 26 000 25 000 24 000 23 000 22 000 21 000 20 000
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Years 8 9 10
Month
Share price ($)

14.00 13.50 13.00 12.50 12.00
Share price ($)
c Approximately $29 600 14 $1.93/share 15 $14.74/share 16 5.22% 17 1.6% 18 81.8 c/share 19 a 17.00
16.50 16.00 15.50
1 Ja 1 n Fe 1 b M 1 ar A 1 pr M 1 ay Ju 1 n J 1 ul Au 1 g Se 1 pt O 1 ct No 1 v De c
Month
b $14.50
b Approximately $18.00 20 $83.44 21 $149.90
Exercise 8H Ination and appreciation

1 $20 800 2 a $618 d $579.60 3 a $878.05 4 $117.90 7 $1.20 10 $500 b $48.15 e $932.40 b $901.76 5 $619 8 $122.80 11 $2350 c $1.91
6 $2.52 9 D 12 $2460
Practice examination questions 1 A 2 B 3 C 4 B 5 a $8130 b No. The investment will be worth only $8121.43. c No. Jaclyn could lose the money she has saved for her holiday. d $9345 e 24.6% 6 a $32 136.75 b $32 600 c $436.17
Chapter review
1 $1000 2 a $1296 d $4.05 3 a $7280 4 6.5% 6 a b $2820 c $42 e $7617.58 b $39 780 c $455 5 15 months
1 $450 2 $900 3 4 5
CHAPTER 9 Displaying single data sets

Are you ready?
1 a 145 cm c 20 cm 2 b 5 cm d 2 years
No. of years Interest
$1350 $1800 $2250

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
b
Interest ($)
4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Years
Score 20 21 22 23 24
7 9 10 11 12 13
c 450 d $4500 $2778.30 8 $5700.47 a $3932.39 b $12 596.90 c $14 457.96 d $23 851.00 e $5334.67 $756.94 a $12 024.02 b $12 052.04 c Compounding interest a $7866 b $13 216.44 c $4411.83 d $20 199.60 e $2599.20 a
No. of years 1 2 3 4
Future value $20 800 $21 632 $22 497 $23 397 $24 333
4 a 6 b 12.5 5 Key: 2 | 3 = 23 Stem Leaf 1 09 2 7 3 3348 4 56 5 2
1 Ja 1 n Fe 1 b M 1 ar A 1 pr M 1 ay Ju 1 n J 1 ul Au 1 g Se 1 pt O 1 ct No 1 v De c
Month
22 $7900
Frequency 5 8 7 2 4 c 61.5 d 9.4
8F
8H
answers
541
answers
542
1
Score 2 3 4 5 6 7
Answers
Exercise 9A Frequency tables

Tally ||| |||| |||| ||| ||| | Tally ||| |||| |||| |||| ||| | | Tally | ||| |||| || ||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| || | ||| | Class centre 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 84.5 Class centre 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||| || Tally || ||| ||| |||| | |||| | Tally | |||| |||| ||| | |||| | || | Frequency 3 4 6 3 3 1 Frequency 3 5 5 7 3 1 1 Frequency 1 3 6 2 3 5 14 5 4 2 1 3 1 Frequency 1 5 5 8 6 3
Class 10.510.9 11.011.4 11.511.9 12.012.4 12.512.9 13.013.4
Class centre 10.7 11.2 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.2
Score 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Exercise 9B Types of graphs

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Scores
2
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Maximum temperature
Score 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78
3
Wins (180) Draws (72) Losses (108)
Rent (120) Bills (90) Groceries (72) Car running costs (42) Savings (36) Population
Class 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099
16 000 14 000 12 000
Account balance ($)
2 Frequency 2 3 3 6 9 6 4 4
Class 0.60.8 0.81.0 1.01.2 1.21.4 1.41.6 1.61.8 1.82.0 2.02.2
700 600 500 400 300 200 J FMAM J J A S O N D Month
Categories of employment
Managers Professionals Para-professionals Tradespersons Clerks Salespersons Plant operators Labourers 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Weekly average earnings ($)
20 0 20 0 0 20 1 0 20 2 0 20 3 0 20 4 05 20 0 20 6 07
Year
Answers
8
No. of gold medals
18 16
4 a
September August July June
May
Frequency
Average monthly temperature (C) January 30 February December 25 20 March 15 November 10 5 0 October April
Frequency
l l i s s nk rne me yo ity ich ea ow le ou na nta ey en lsi ou Ro Tok o C un ntr osc ge Se elo tla ydn th He elb 960 64 exic 2 M Mo 0 M s An 988 Barc 96 A 0 S 04 A 52 M 1 19 M 97 976 98 Lo 1 92 19 200 20 1 1 1 84 19 956 68 19 1 19 19
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
No. of matches in a box 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Frequency 3 5 10 15 7 5 4 1
47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 No. of matches in a box
20 15 10 5 0
4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 30 31 32 33 34 35 Length of fish (mm)
6 a
10
Percentage of televisions being watched 12.00 am 80% 2.00 am 10.00 pm 60% 8.00 pm 6.00 pm 40% 20% 0% 6.00 am 8.00 am 10.00 am 12.00 pm 4.00 am
Time taken (seconds) 68 810 1012 1214 1416 1618 1820
Class centre 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Frequency 1 4 15 18 12 8 2
4.00 pm 2.00 pm
Exercise 9C Statistical graphs

Number of drivers (frequency)
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 Time taken (s)
7 a
No. of cars 0 1 2 3 4 Frequency 2 8 11 6 2 1
Frequency
0 1 2 3 4 5 Number of mistakes (score)
Cumulative frequency 2 10 21 27 29 30
2
Frequency
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 No. of children in family Cumulative frequency
No. of members
b
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Age
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 No. of cars
9A 9C
answers
543
answers
544
8 a
Answers
No. of jelly beans 48 49 50 51 52 53

Frequency 2 10 32 9 5 2
1 5.5, 15.5, 25.5, 35.5, 45.5 2 5, 20, 49, 86, 97 3 48 4 86 6 40 7
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Frequency Frequency
5 Grouped
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
5. 15 5 25.5 35.5 45.5 .5
5. 15 5 2 5 .5 3 5 .5 4 5 .5 .5
Score Cumulative frequency Cumulative frequency
Score
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
5 .5 15 .5 25 .5 35 .5 45 .5
9 a
Score
Cumulative Length (cm) Class centre Frequency frequency 45 56 67 78 89 910 Cumulative frequency 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 6 10 60 58 8 4 6 16 76 134 142 146
10 Ogive
Exercise 9D Range and interquartile range

1 a d 2 a 3 a 4 a b 5 a c 6 a d 7 a d 8 a d 9 a 5 b 9 c 1 6.94 e 89 4 b 5 c 6 49 b 30 c 23 Sydney 120 Collingwood 40 Collingwood, because the range is lower. 9 b 8 The range for machine A is large, only because of one extreme score. 5 b 25 c 53 15 e 74 5 b 9 c 2 4 e 32 2 b 1 c 2 1 e 4
Score 0 1 2 3 Frequency 26 31 22 8 3 Cumulative frequency 26 57 79 87 90
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 Length of oysters (cm) Class centre Frequency 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 6 25 70 61 30 8 Cumulative frequency 6 31 101 162 192 200
10 a
Lifetime (hours) 2025 2530 3035 3540 4045 4550

4
b
200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
22 .5 27 .5 32 .5 37 .5 42 .5 47 .5
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2 3 Score
Lifetime of battery (hours)
c 1 10 A
d 2 11 B
12 D
5.5 15 .5 25 .5 35 .5 45 .5
48 49 50 51 52 53 No. of jelly beans
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Score
13 B
Answers
14 a
IQ score 7585 8595 95105 105115 115125
Class centre Frequency 80 12 90 25 100 50 110 24 120 13
Cumulative frequency 12 37 87 111 124
3 Key 10 | 1 = 101 Stem 8* 9* 9* 10* 10* 11* 11* 12* 12* 13*
10* | 6 = 106
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Leaf 6 8 2 5 5 5 6 6 6 8 9 2 2 2 3 7 7 7 8 8 0 1 2 5 0 1 1 4 0 14* | 8 = 14.8
80 90 100 110 120 IQ Score
4 Key 14 | 3 = 14.3
c 50 d 10 15 a Maximum
temperature (C) 05 510 1015 1520 2025 2530 3035 3540
No. of days 4 22 95 124 94 19 5 2
Cumulative frequency 4 26 121 245 339 358 363 365
5 6
7 11
Stem Leaf 13* 8 9 14* 0 2 3 3 14* 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 15* 1 2 2 15* 5 6 7 9 1.95 a 8.4 s b Lower quartile = 7.8 s, upper quartile = 8.85 s c 1.05 D 8 A 9 D 10 B a Key 20 | 6 = 20.6 Stem Leaf 20 2 7 21 4 6 7 8 22 2 8 8 8 23 0 1 2 6 6 24 6 6 7 8 25 1 22.9 Lower quartile = 21.75, upper quartile = 24.1 2.35 Key 8 | 2 = 82
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 Maximum temperature (C)
c Lower quartile = 13, upper quartile = 22, interquartile range = 9 d Median = 17.5 e 011 16 Check with your teacher. Answers depend on class size.
b c d 12 a
Exercise 9E Stem-and-leaf plots

1 Key 0 | 6 = 6 Stem Leaf 0 6 1 3 5 7 8 2 0 0 5 6 6 7 8 9 3 1 2 2 8 4 3 6 5 2 2 Key 3 | 6 = 36 Stem 3 4 5 6 7 8 Leaf 6 7 8 8 9 9 0 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 0 2 2 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 6 8 8 1 2 5 2
Stem Leaf 8 2 4 5 5 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 10 1 1 3 3 7 11 0 0 1 4 5 12 6 6 13 2 b 100 c Lower quartile = 92, d 18
6 6 7 8 9 8 7
Upper quartile = 110
Exercise 9F Five-number summaries

1 8, 15, 16.5, 18, 25 2 a 23, 44, 81.5, 83.5, 92 b 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 c 8, 29, 45, 72, 93 3 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 4 40, 65, 72, 78, 100 5 a 13 b 5 6 a 122 b 6 7
35 40 45 50 55 60
c 26 c 27
9D 9F
answers
545
answers
546
8 a d 9 a d 10 B 13 a b 148 92 58 27
Answers
b 56 e 28 b 31 e 8 11 C 22, 28, 35, 43, 48

20 25 30 35 40 45 50
c 90 c 43 12 D
Chapter review
1
Score 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Class 3.54.0 4.04.5 4.55.0 5.05.5 5.56.0 6.06.5 6.57.0 Frequency 6 8 5 3 2 0 1 Class centre 3.75 4.25 4.75 5.25 5.75 6.25 6.75 Frequency 1 4 5 2 4 3 1 ABC (54) SBS (10) Channel 7 (96) Channel 9 (144) Channel 10 (56)
14 a 10, 13.5, 22, 33.5, 45 b

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
15 a
Class 120129 130139 140149 150159 160169 170179 180189
2
Cumulative Class centre Frequency frequency 124.5 134.5 144.5 154.5 164.5 174.5 184.5 4 3 4 6 2 2 7 4 7 11 17 19 21 28
b
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
12 4. 13 5 4. 14 5 4. 15 5 4. 16 5 4. 17 5 4. 18 5 4.5
4 iii 182
Friday
No. of hamburgers sold
c i 155 d 16 a
Class 1519 2024 2529 3034 3539 4044 4549
ii 140
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Monday 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Tuesday
Class centre Frequency 17 22 27 32 37 42 47 7 15 4 3 0 0 1
Cumulative frequency 7 22 26 29
Frequency
Thursday Wednesday
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of sales
29 29 30
b
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 17 22 27 32 37 42 47 Age
6 a
Class 50009999 10 00014 999 15 00019 999 20 00024 999 25 00029 999 30 00034 999
Class centre 7 500 12 500 17 500 22 500 27 500 32 500
c
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
d Check with your teacher.
Answers
b
Frequency
00 00 00 00 00 0 0 75 12 5 17 5 22 5 27 5 32 5
No. of people at a football match
7 a
Class 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089
Class centre Frequency 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 3 6 12 15 18 10
c
Cumulative frequency 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 English exam mark
8 a 7 9 a i 25 b i 62.5 c i 1.1 10 a 2 11 a 61
ii ii ii b b
b 159 c 1.4 24 iii 27.5 iv 3.5 43 iii 84 iv 41 0.7 iii 1.5 iv 0.8 Lower = 1, upper = 3 c 2 Lower = 54, upper = 70 c 16
d e 7 a d
34 i 23 45 7
Frequency
10 8 6 4 2 0
12 17 22 27 32 37 42 No. of admissions to hospital in a day
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
12 17 22 27 32 37 42 No. of admissions to hospital in a day
ii 13 b 15 c 35 e Check with your teacher.
CHAPTER 10 Summary statistics

Are you ready?
1 a 4.4 2
3 4 5
12 Key 2 | 1 = 21 Stem Leaf 2 1 1 3 4 8 8 8 9 9 9 3 0 3 4 5 5 5 6 8 8 8 8 9 4 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 4 5 5 5 6 8 9 a 28 b 38 c 12.5 6, 24, 41, 69, 91 0, 21, 26, 32, 50 a 43 b 43 c 14
0 2 4 6 8 1012 14 16 18 20
b 1.4125
c 75.4
10
13 14 15 16 17
3 a
Score 12 13 14 15
Frequency 2 3 3 3 2 1 4 2 Frequency 1 4 6 5 4
Practice examination questions 1 C 2 B 4 C 5 A 6 a

Class 1014 1519 2024 2529 3034 3539 4044
3 A
16 17 18 19 b Class 09 1019 2029 3039 4049
Class centre Frequency 12 17 22 27 32 37 42 7 4 7 5 4 1 2
9F 9F
answers
547
answers
548
Answers
4 Key 2 | 1 = 21 Stem Leaf 2 0 0 0 0 4 4 5 7 8 9 9 3 1 1 1 2 6 9 4 0 1 1 1 1 4 6 6 6 6 8 8 9
9 a
Score (x) 8 10 12 14 16 18
Frequency (f) 2 7 11 6 2 2 f = 30
fx 16 70 132 84 32 36 f x = 370
Exercise 10A Calculating the mean

1 a 5 b 26.5 d 7.72 e 376 2 72.6 3 125.7 c/L 5 Yes, mean mass is 45.035 g. 6 a Score Frequency
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 4 5 9 3 5 2 f = 30
c 74.25 4 1.81 m
fx 8 20
-b 12 1 3 10 D 13 a
11 B
Class centre (x) 35.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5 Frequency (f) 1 3 4 7 11 2 2 f = 30
12 C
fx 35.5 136.5 222.0 458.5 830.5 171.0 191.0 f x = 2045
Class 30 63 24 45 20 f x = 210 3140 4150 5160 6170 7180 8190 91100
b 7 7 a
No. of televisions sold 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
No. of weeks 4 4 3 6 7 12 8 2 4 2 f = 52
fx 64 68 54 114 140 252 176 46 96 50 f x = 1060
b 68.17 14 a
Time 50.0151.00 51.0152.00 52.0153.00 53.0154.00 54.0155.00 55.0156.00
Class centre 50.5 51.5 52.5 53.5 54.5 55.5
No. of swimmers 4 12 23 38 15 3 f = 95
fx 202.0 618.0 1207.5 2033.0 817.5 166.5 f x = 5044.5
15 16 17 18 19 20
b 53.1 Check with your teacher. a 14.1 b 3.4 a 6.6 b 30.67 166.25 a 12.5, 13.5, 14.5, 15.5, 16.5 a Class Class centre
110 5.5 15.5 25.5 35.5 45.5 55.5 65.5 75.5 85.5 95.5 1120 2130 3140 4150 5160 6170 7180 8190 91100
c 44.4 b 14.4
Frequency 12 6 5 7 9 9 5 5 5 7
b 20.4 8 a Score (x)

0 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency (f) 4 9 18 10 5 4 f = 50
fx 0 9 36 30 20 20 f x = 115
b 2.3
b 46.4
Answers
Exercise 10B Standard deviation

1 a d 2 a d 3 a d 4 a 5 a 6 a c 7 a c 8 a 2.29 b 2.19 c 20.17 3.07 e 42.44 26.94 b 2.14 c 57.51 0.26 e 96.04 Sample b Population c Population Sample e Population 616.6 b Sample c 270.97 1.44 b Population c 0.48 x = 4.9, n = 1.0 b x = 48.2, n = 1.2 x = 78.3, n = 2.3 x = 17.45, n = 3.69 b x = 14.95, n = 7.49 x = 56.02, n = 14.26 Brianna: x = 75, n = 3.69 Katie: x = 74, n = 18.28 b Brianna is more consistent because she has a lower standard deviation. B 10 C x = $1825, n 1 = 797 a 500 b x = 455.3, n 1 = 88.9 Crinkle, because the standard deviation in the weight of each pack is lower and therefore you are more likely to get the correct amount.
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
c 10
7 12 17 22 27 32 No. of sick days
13 a 5 d 0.4 14 a 17 d 72 15 a 4 16 17 17 a 1720 18 a Depth

(cm) 050 50100 100150 150200 200250 250300 300350 350400
b e b e b
8 110 148, 151 2.6 8
c 11 c No mode c 42, 44
b 2228
Class centre 25 75 125 175 225 275 325 375 Frequency 8 9 12 15 6 4 2 2 Cumulative frequency 8 17 29 44 50 54 56 58
9 11 12 13
Exercise 10C Median and mode

6 81 a 5 b 5.4 c 62 d 102 a 4 b 5.6 c The median is a better measure because one large score makes the mean larger than what is typical. 5 a Cumulative 1 2 3 4
Score 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Frequency 4 9 6 12 8 5 4 2 frequency 4 13 19 31 39 44 48 50
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
25 75 125 175 225 275 325 375 Depth of snow (cm)
c 152 19 a
Class $200$249 $250$299 $300$349 $350$399 $400$449 $450$499 $500$549 $550$599
Class centre 224.5 274.5 324.5 374.5 424.5 474.5 524.5 574.5
Frequency 8 4 6 6 4 2 6 4
Cumulative frequency 8 12 18 24 28 30 36 40
b 20 6 3 11 a
7 1
8 C
9 C
10 A
Days sickness 04 59 1014 1519 2024 2529 3034
Frequency 10 12 7 6 5 3 2
b $350$399 c 40
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 22 27 32 37 42 47 52 57 Weekly wage ($)
$360
1 6.2 6 77.5 2 6 7 78 3 5 8 78 4 2.25 9 1.12 5 2.39 10 1.12
b 1014 12 a 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, 27, 32
10A 10C
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Answers
Exercise 10D Best summary statistics

1 a $425 000 b $370 000 c $350 000 d The median, as the mean is inated by one large score and the mode is the lowest price. 2 a 7.1 b 7 c 7 d The mode, as it is the size that sells the most. 3 a 23 550 b 20 00030 000 c 10 00020 000 d 200
Cumulative frequency 150 100 50 0
Chapter review
1 a 5.2 2 a 7.025 3
Class 2124 2528 2932 3336 3740 4144 4548 4952
b 64.875 b 9.46
Class centre 22.5 26.5 30.5 34.5 38.5 42.5 46.5 50.5
c 7.7
d 35.8
Frequency 3 9 17 31 29 25 19 10 f = 143
fx 67.5 238.5 518.5 1069.5 1116.5 1062.5 883.5 505.0 f x = 5461.5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 Crowd number
e 21 000 4 B 5 a
Class 04 59 1014 1519 2024 2529
f Median
Class centre 2 7 12 17 22 27 Cumulative frequency 16 22 26 28 29 30
b 6.8 c 04 d 04 6 Check with your teacher; answers depend on groupings used. 7 a Class Cumulative
Class 115 1630 3145 4660 6175 7690
Mean = 38.2 a 31.1 b 23.2 c 0.445 a 29.9 b 26.4 c 18.6 a 71.8 b Population c 17.3 a 1.95 b Sample c 0.89 a x = 0.81, n = 0.42 b x = 67.25, n = 75.3 c x = 28.1, n = 1.2 d x = 27.5, n = 7.03 9 a 27 b 6 c 3.2 d 5.5 e 128 10 a 2 b 56 c 68.5 11 a Class Cumulative 4 5 6 7 8
Class 3039 4049 5059 6069 7079 8089 9099 centre 34.5 44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5 Frequency 18 34 39 45 29 10 5 frequency 18 52 91 136 165 175 180
centre 8 23 38 53 68 83
frequency 1 14 16 16 21 25
20 15 10 5 0
b i 42.2 c 25
ii 1630
iii 1630
b 5059 c 180
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
8 23 38 53 68 83 Age of patients
d f 8 a b c d e 9 a
27 e No Check with your teacher. Player A: 34.3 Player B: 41.8 Player B Player A: 32.5 Player B: 0 Player A Check with your teacher. 65 out of 80 earn less than the mean and another 10 only slightly more than the mean. Hence it is misleading. b The median and the mode would be useful in your submission as they are not distorted by the larger salaries as the mean is.
.5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 34 44 54 64 74 84 94 Score
d 58 a 2 b 23, 27 a 2 b 15, 18 4649 a 27.8 b 24.5 d Median 16 Check with your teacher. 12 13 14 15 Practice examination questions 1 A 2 A 3 D 4 B
c No mode
c 28
5 B
Answers
6 a
Income $50 000 $75 000 $75 000 $100 000 $100 000 $125 000 $125 000 $150 000 $150 000 $175 000 $175 000 $200 000 Class centre $62 500 Frequency 12 Cumulative frequency 12
11 2:3 12 200 13 2 000 000
Exercise 11B Solving problems using similar gures

1 6.25 m 2 a
$87 500
18
30
$112 500
26
56
h
$137 500 24 80
1m 9.5 m b 38 m 3 a 25 cm
$162 500
12
92
$187 500
100
h 170 cm 3m b 1:6 10 m a 20 km d 51.2 km a 4 cm d 68 cm D B 20 m 4 cm 50 cm c 10.2 m 5 B b 36 km e 3.6 km b 9 cm e 1.6 cm c f c f 6 60 km 26 km 1.6 km 4.4 cm 7.5 cm
b d f 7 a b c d e
$120 000 c 35 622 $100 000$125 000 e $100 000$125 000 mean Text A: x = 58.6, n = 25.1 Text B: x = 62.25, n = 11.8 Population because the whole classes results have been used. Text B Text B lower standard deviation Check with your teacher.
4 7 8 9 10 11 12
CHAPTER 11 Similarity of two-dimensional gures

Are you ready?
a 5:4 b 8:7 c 16 : 25 d 1:5 a XY b CAB 4 ABX = ACX (given) AXB = AXC (given) XAB = XAC (angle sum of a triangle) LABX ||| LACX (equiangular) 5 a 1:3 b 10 : 9 1 2 3 4
Exercise 11C House plans
1 a 20 m 25 m b 10 m 15 m 2 a 18 m 12 m b 6.75 m 4.5 m c Bed 1 4.5 m 4.5 m 3 a 8.5 m b 3.5 m c 40 4 Check with your teacher. 5 Check with your teacher.
Chapter review
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Check with your teacher. Check with your teacher. Check with your teacher. a Check with your teacher. b 2:5 20 cm 20 m 22.5 m a 400 m b 2.4 km c 3.4 km 80 m 128 m a 30 m 34 m b 10.8 m 14 m c 151.2 m2 3 B
Exercise 11A Similar gures and scale factors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Corresponding angles equal Corresponding angles equal Corresponding sides in equal ratio Corresponding sides in equal ratio Corresponding angles equal Corresponding angles equal They are similar. They are not similar. -a 2:3 b 11 2
-b 21 2
10 a 2:5
Practice examination questions 1 C 2 D 4 a 7.68 m b 12.5 m 5 a Check with your teacher. b 12.4 m long and 11.8 m wide
10D 11C
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1 2 3 4 5 a a a a a $2058 $495 25% $75
Answers
CHAPTER 12 Taxation
Are you ready?
b b b b
y y = 2x + 1 1 2 x 2 y 5 x y=5x 5 1 2
4 D 7 $3500
5 $106 000 8 $1550
6 $4600
$24 960 $862.50 12.5% $1400
c c c c b
$1012.50 $528 d $708.75 150% d 6.4% $250

y y = 4x 2 x
Exercise 12D Calculating tax

1 $5235 2 a Nil b $1901.25 c $3975.00 d $7896.00 e $23 740 f $71 200 3 a $32 639 b $4391.70 4 $9917.40 5 a $5280.00 b $534.00 c $5814.00 6 a $2977.50 b $17 280.00 c $30 590 7 $61.66 8 $477.23 9 C 10 B 11 C 12 a $38 674 b $6782.31 c $291.69 13 a $90 942.80 b $468.09 c $23 821.78 d $519.16 14 a Gross annual pay = $44 605 Total tax = $10 091.33 b $41 513.40 c $7676.60 d $2414.73 15 a $16 721.51 b Debt of $2401.56
1 4 7 10 $600 $385.05 $2034 $59 500 2 $360 5 $502.62 8 $4350 3 $442.01 6 Nil 9 $24 870
Exercise 12A Calculating allowable deductions

1 $1153.90 3 $1070.10 5 a $914 d $1560.20 6 a $1000 7 $3087.50 8 a i $30 000 b 20122013 9 $960 11 $712.27 2 $1624.55 4 $1451.43 b $1208.77 c $811.72 b $600 ii $18 000 c $360 iii $10 800
Exercise 12E Calculating GST and VAT

1 $3.56 2 a 23c d 13c 3 a 80c d 63c 4 $123.75 5 a $126.39 d $5.45 6 a $30.00 d $2.94 7 $98.50 8 a $1.90 9 $348.10 10 a $1.08 d $49.21 11 a $33 550 d $38 885 1 a i $10 b 50
40 GST ($) 30 20 10 0
b e b e b e b e
$6.89 $8.99 48c 34c $32.89 $6.47 $0.94 $9.86
c $9.85 c 9c c $16.17 c $47.00
10 $18 760 12 $40 074.50
Exercise 12B Taxable income

$43 754.25 a $16 879.20 $43 568.34 a $24 219.40 a $20 503.60 a $42 500 a $34 262.30 a $74 280 a $25 649 d $1349.40 10 A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b $15 736.50 b b b b b b e $22 262.60 $20 075.20 $2600 $498.24 $8737.46 $1470 $21 289.60
b 19c b $80.63 e $6.95 b $36 630 c $193.29 c $34 705
c c c c
$39 900 $32 204.06 $65 542.54 $1540
Exercise 12F Graphing tax functions

ii $20 iii $50
1 4 7 10 $2260 $1105.50 $41 771 $24 570 2 $1581.22 5 6 years 8 $22 660 3 $1650 6 $36 520 9 $37 525.80
0 50 00 50 00 50 00 50 00 50 00 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 Price ($)
Exercise 12C Medicare levy

1 $598.05 2 a $648.75 3 a $23 491 b $851.18 b $352.37 c $1410
2 a Nil b i $600 ii $3600 c i $3600 ii $9600 d i $26 600 ii $58 600 e i $58 600 ii $63 100 See graph at top of page 553
iii $18 600 iii $67 600
Answers
80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Income ($' 000) 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Income tax ($' 000)
Chapter review
1 3 4 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 $2865 2 $2148.43 a $12 600 b $9072 c $6531.84 6 years 5 $27 057.35 $43 883 7 $70 420 a $28 483.60 b $26 456.60 a $34 409.30 b $32 366.15 $585 a $232.50 b $435 c $712.50 d $1252.61 e $1485 a $1314 b $1515 c $3900 $7950.00 a Nil b $2003.55 c $5301.00 d $22 424.80 e $102 700 a $33 987.20 b $4796.00 c $509.81 d $5305.91 e $102.04 $882.28 a $40 255 b $7280.33 c $1100.92 $99 a $1.13 b $36.90 c 12c d $3.75 e $1.25 $22 21 $112.50
History of mathematics
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11 15 Samos Island Egypt and Babylonia c2 = a2 + b2 Patterns in music Plimpton 322 A set of numbers that obeys Pythagoras theorem a PR b YZ a 13 cm b 170 mm a 10.82 cm b 6.93 m a 5.7 cm b 1.9 m a 8.9 cm b 22.1 cm d 37.3 m a Yes b Yes B 8 C 9 13 m 3.73 m 12 2.2 m 13 7.5 m a Check with your teacher. c c c c c AB 61 m 14.20 km 3.9 m 47.4 mm
Exercise 13A Pythagoras theorem
c No 10 3.23 m 14 7.07 cm b 368 m
Exercise 13B Calculating trigonometric ratios

1 a 1.540 d 0.657 2 a 0.602 d 51.893 3 a 0.707 d 5.896 4 a 0.5 d 548.6 g 5.306 5 a 0.42 d 5.10 g 7.77 6 10 7 a 44 8 8640 9 a 4257 1 4 7 10 13 cm 6.409 m 133.55 6326 b 17.663 b 2.092 b 0.247 b e h b e h 0.9659 64 1.374 1.56 2.87 73.30 c 40.460 c 15.246 c 6.568 c f i c f i 1 1.301 15.77 0.09 0.38 0.87
Practice examination questions 1 B 2 D 3 B 4 a $33 280 b $32 161.80 c $482.43 d $4248.30 e $834.90 refund 5 a $330 b $360 c NZ$9.60 cheaper to pay on arrival in New Zealand
CHAPTER 13 Right-angled triangles

Are you ready?
1 a b c 2 a 3 a d 4 a 5 a 6 a Opposite AB, adjacent BC, hypotenuse AC Opposite PR, adjacent PQ, hypotenuse QR Opposite YZ, adjacent XY, hypotenuse XZ 6.9 cm b 25.1 cm 4.74 b 18.5 c 0.378 507.182 e 10.80 f 0.7643 x = 12 b x = 13.05 c x = 3.444 16 x = 24 b x = 0.36 c x = 540 24 b 47 c 27 d 87
b 80 b 3121 2 17.0 cm 5 0.8290 8 30
c 57 c 165 3 22.4 cm 6 11.0 9 73
12A 13B
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1 a
opp
Answers
Exercise 13C Finding an unknown side

hyp
12 a
12 400 m
b 85 m
adj hyp opp
adj
c 40
Chapter review
1 a 13.01 m b 18.65 cm d 15.65 cm e 2.30 km 2 98 km 3 66 m 4 a 0.7193 b 4.2303 d 8.1955 e 21.9845 5 a 54 b 51 6 a 7831 b 2634 7 a 37.9 cm b 3.8 m d 11.7 cm e 14.7 cm g 1.5 m h 4.9 cm j 7.5 m k 10.7 m 8 8.5 m 9 2.5 km 11 a 57 b 27 12 a 234 b 6137 13 39 14 24 15 23 m Practice examination questions 1 C 2 B 3 B 5 a 5.22 km b 54 6 a 7500 m b 736 c 3.58 m f 2.47 m c 2.7400 f 14.2998 c 53 c 1454 c 13.6 cm f 14.6 m i 15.6 mm l 5.3 km 10 63.9 m c 68 c 5935 16 57 4 A
c
adj hyp opp
148.1 mm 3 5.08 m 4 30.0 cm a 12.1 cm b 55.2 m c 9.43 km a 12.5 m b 89.3 mm c 10.1 m a 5.42 m b 1.35 km c 2.06 km d 18.4 mm e 3.20 cm f 66.5 m g 5.40 m h 5.39 km i 0.240 m j 41.6 km k 84.4 m l 13.2 cm 8 D 9 A 10 A 11 C 12 6 m 13 4.2 m 14 20 km 15 a b 30.3 cm 2 5 6 7
24 13.5 cm
16 a
1.4 m 60
b 1.6 m
CHAPTER 14 The language of chance

b 58 m
17 9.65 m 18 a
15 60 m
Are you ready?

1 a Fifty-fty b Likely c Impossible d Unlikely e Certain 2 a 26 b 4 c 2 d 1 e 4 f 12 3 a Unlikely b Fifty-fty c Impossible d Certain e Likely 4 BCA 5 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} b S = {H, T} c S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
c 15.5 m
1 4 7 10 1 2 3 4 17 cm 21.5 m 12.5 mm 17 m 2 22.4 m 5 32.9 cm 8 177.8 mm 3 26.5 m 6 25.3 m 9 97.5 m
Exercise 14A Informal description of chance

1 a Probable b Unlikely c Impossible d Fifty-fty 2 a Impossible b Certain c Even chance d Even chance e Probable f Unlikely g Impossible h Even chance 3 Check with your teacher. 4 More likely during school term 5 a More likely b Equally likely c Less likely d More likely e Less likely 6 Rolling a 6 Rolling a number less than 3 Rolling an even number Rolling a number greater than 2 7 Winning a rafe with 5 tickets out of 30 Selecting a court card from a standard deck Drawing a green marble from a bag containing 4 red, 5 green and 7 blue marbles Rolling a die and getting a number less than 3 Tossing a coin and having it land Heads
Exercise 13D Finding angles

a 30 b a 3248 b a 538 b a 50 b d 21 e 5 a 3948 b d 796 e 6 A 7 B 10 7531 11 838 75 453 5535 32 81 8059 631 8 C 12 13 c c c c f c f 81 3516 4527 33 34 1330 1928 9 37 13 435
Exercise 13E Angles of elevation and depression

1 5 8 9 10 26.8 m 2 3984 m 3 190 m 4 39.2 m 42.1 m 6 100 m 7 15 km Yes, the ladder needs to be only 28 m long. a 914 m b 868 m 39 11 21
Answers
8 9 10 13
Australia Carl Bailey because he has better past performances. A 11 B 12 C Probable 14 Unlikely 15 Fifty-fty
Exercise 14B Sample space
16 a S = {TJ, TS, TR, TM, JT, JS, JR, JM, ST, SJ, SR, S = SM, RT, RJ, RS, RM, MT, MJ, MS, MR} b 20 c 2 d 6 e 12 17 a 36 b
Total 2 3 2 4 3 5 4 6 5 7 6 8 5 9 10 11 12 4 3 2 1
1 S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} 2 a S = {Heads, Tails} b S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} c S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} d S = {a, b, c, d, . . . ., y, z} e S = {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat} f S = {Jan, Feb, Mar, . . . ., Dec} 3 a 52 b 15 c 44 d 1500 e 901 f 11 4 a S = {M, I, S, S, I, S, S, I, P, P, I} b 11 c 4 5 a 52 b i 4 ii 2 iii 13 6 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} b E = {5, 6} 7 a 100 b 40 8 D 9 B 10 D 11 a S = {NSW win, Qld win, draw} b 3 c No, because the teams may not be of equal ability. 12 a S = {20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 10, 10, 10, 10, 5}, 10 b S = {20, 20, 20, 20, 10, 10, 10, 10, 5} c S = {20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 10, 10, 10, 5} d S = {20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 10, 10, 10, 10} 13 Check with your teacher. 14 Check with your teacher.
No. of elements 1
c 6
Exercise 14D Equally likely outcomes

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No. The players are not of equal ability. No. The runners are not of equal ability. Yes. The number is chosen randomly. a Yes b No c No d Yes a True. The letter is chosen randomly. b False. On a page of writing, each letter of the alphabet does not occur equally often. B No, there are two chances of a boy and a girl, as they could be born in either order. a S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12} b No a 24 b No. The chance of each combination depends on peoples taste. a 10 b No. Each horse has a different rider and ability. c Yes. Yes. The selection of horse is made randomly.
1 4 7 10 Unlikely 100 10 4 2 Fifty-fty 5 18 8 1 3 Probable 6 3 9 0
1 4 6 7 8 Unlikely 2 8 1 5 Yes S = {BB, BG, GB, GG} S = {AL, AM, AJ, KL, KM, KJ} 9 9 6 3 3
Exercise 14C Tree diagrams
10 No
1 S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 2 S = {11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33} 3 S ={BBB, BBG, BGB, BGG, GBB, GBG, GGB, GGG} 4 a 12 b No 5 S = {13, 14, 18, 31, 34, 38, 41, 43, 48, 81, 83, 84} 6 S = {DZ, DM, DK, DS, ZD, ZM, ZK, ZS, MD, MZ, S = MK, MS, KD, KZ, KM, KS, SD, SZ, SM, SK} 7 S = {AM, AS, AL, PM, PS, PL, YM, YS, YL} 8 S = {CA, CR, CL, CK, AR, AL, AK, RL, RK, LK} 9 a Check with your teacher. b S = {HHHH, HHHT, HHTH, HHTT, HTHH, S = HTHT, HTTH, HTTT, THHH, THHT, THTH, S = THTT, TTHH, TTHT, TTTH, TTTT} c 6 10 C 11 D 12 B 13 The statement is not correct because there are four elements to the sample space. The one Head and one Tail can occur in either order. 14 a S = {22, 25, 27, 28, 52, 55, 57, 58, 72, 75, 77, 78, S = 82, 85, 87, 88} b S = {25, 27, 28, 52, 57, 58, 72, 75, 78, 82, 85, 87} 15 a 12 b 24 c 24
Exercise 14E Using the fundamental counting principle

1 2 3 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 50 625 a 4 1000 D 72 a 64 d 112 a 3 200 000 a 5408 36 a 100 000 000 c 1 000 000 96 a 1200 20 000 b 36 4 7776 7 B b e b b 144 384 240 676 c 12 5 6 760 000 8 1833 c 168
b 80 000 000 d 2 000 000 16 C b 550 19 307 328 000
Chapter review
1 Marcia will probably get a higher card. 2 a Probable b Impossible c Even chance d Unlikely e Unlikely
13C 14E
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Answers
3 Check with your teacher. 4 Hot weather 5 Rolling a die and getting a number greater than 1 Selecting a picture card from a standard deck Selecting a blue marble from a bag containing 14 blue, 15 red and 21 green marbles Winning the lottery with 1 ticket out of 100 000 tickets sold 6 Mark is most likely to win based on past performances. 7 S = {S, A, M, P, L, E} 8 a S = {Heads, Tails} b S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, S = 16, 17, 18} c S = {club, spade, diamond, heart} d S = {black, black, black, black, white, white, S = white, green, green, green, green, green} 9 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} b E = {5, 6} 10 a i 2 ii 1 b i 52 ii 32 c i 15 ii 11 11 S = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 12 36 13 a S = {56, 57, 59, 65, 67, 69, 75, 76, 79, 95, 96, 97} b 9 14 a S = {MN, MP, MR, MS, NM, NP, NR, NS, PM, S = PN, PR, PS, RM, RN, RP, RS, SM, SN, SP, S = SR} b 8 15 a S = {TCB, TCM, TCZ, TDB, TDM, TDZ, THB, S = THM, THZ, TIB, TIM, TIZ, KCB, KCM, S = KCZ, KDB, KDM, KDZ, KHB, KHM, KHZ, S = KIB, KIM, KIZ} b 15 16 a 8 b No. Each greyhound is not of equal ability. 17 a Each is equally likely, as the winning ticket is selected randomly. b Each outcome is not equally likely, as the teams have different abilities. c Each letter is not equally likely, as each letter is not used equally often. 18 759 375 19 20 20 272 21 160 22 a 10 000 b 500 23 a 100 000 000 b 94 109 400 Practice examination questions 1 B 2 C 3 C 4 A 5 C 6 a S = {RABM, RAHM, RADM, RFBM, RFHM, RFDM, RNBM, RNHM, RNDM, RVBM, RVHM, RVDM, SABM, SAHM, SADM, SFBM, SFHM, SFDM, SNBM, SNHM, SNDM, SVBM, SVHM, SVDM} b 24 c 6 d Certain e No. Each runner is of different ability. 7 a S = {GD, GK, GC, DK, DC, KC} b E = {GC, DC, KC} c 90
CHAPTER 15 Relative frequency and probability

Are you ready?
1 a 0.2 2 a 30% -3 a 1 4 4 a 25% b 0.75 b 65% -b 7 8 b 60% c 0.3 c 4% -c 4 5 c 62.5% d 0.85 d 12.5% 9 d ----25
-d 33 1 % 3
5 a Impossible b Fifty-fty d Impossible e Fifty-fty 4 --6 a ----b 2 c 1 15 5 3
c Certain d 1
Exercise 15A Relative frequency

1 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 0.74 2 0.79 3 0.375 a 0.45 b 0.55 4% a 0.03 b 0.97 a 0.96 b 0.04 A 9 A a 0.525 b 0.4375 c 0.0375 a 6.67% b 80 a 0.02 b $400 Yes, the relative requency is 27%. a 2.5% b 51.5% c 17.5% 40 000 km a Result Number
Win Loss Draw 15 14 11
b Win = 0.375, Loss = 0.35, Draw = 0.275
Exercise 15B Single event probability
1 S = {Heads, Tails}, 1 2 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, 1 b S = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, 3 c S = {a, b, c, d, e, . . ., y, z}, 5 d S = {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat}, 2 e S = {Jan, Feb, Mar, . . ., Nov, Dec}, 3 3 a 26, 52 b 1, 15 c 1, 44 d 5, 1500 e 3, 11 -4 1 2 5 a d 6 a d g 7 a d 8 a
1 -6 1 -2 1 ----45 23 ----45 19 ----45 1 ----52 1 -2 1 ----12
b e b e g b e b
1 -6 2 -3 1 ----45 1 -5 2 -9 1 ----13 12 ----52 4 ----12
c f c f i c f c
1 -2 1 -3 22 ----45 1 -3 2 ----15 1 -4 3 ----13 7 ----12
Answers
9 a d 10
10 ----12
1 -4 3 -4
b e
1 -4 1 -2
c f
1 -4 3 -4
c 12 a b c d
Probable d Unlikely True, as there are 4 aces from 52 cards in the deck. False, as each letter does not occur equally often. False, as each student is not of equal ability. True, as the name is chosen randomly.
11 a d 12 C 16 a 17 a 18 a d
1 -4 1 -4
b e 13 C b b b e
3 -4 2 -4
1 -4
1
1 -2
14 C
4 -------999 6768 -----------------160 000 1 -5 4 -5
15 D c c f
10 152 -----------------160 000 4 -5 1 -5
1 -4
4 -9
-, 1, 2
10 ----19
4 62.5% 8 1
5 ----------1000 3384 -----------------160 000 1 -5 1 -5
5 0.375 9 0
6 0.154 10 Probable
7 23.1%
Exercise 15E Complementary events

1 a S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} -b 1 6 2 a i
7 ----20
c 1
5 iii ----20
19 Check with your teacher. 20 a Because there are two numbers which could go in the last place. b A number greater than 400
ii
8 ----20
1
1 -6
1 ----13
7 ----11
33 -------100
5 -9
6 True
7 False
8 0.2
9 0.75
10 0.5%
Exercise 15C Writing probabilities as decimals and percentages

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 11 12 0.5 37.5% a 0.5 a 0.17 a 16.7% a 0.02 d 0.5 a 1.9% d 50% A a 0.2 d 0.8 a 20% b 50% b 0.5 b 50% b 0.25 e 0.23 b 25% e 23.1% 9 D b 0.4 b 40%
c 0.33 c 83.3% c 0.08 c 7.7% 10 B c 0.6 c 40%
b1 3 a Losing a race b Failing a test c Your birthday not falling on a Monday 4 A coin landing Heads A coin landing Tails An odd number on a die An even number on a die A picture card from a A spot card from a standard deck standard deck A red card from a A black card from a standard deck standard deck Winning 1st prize in a Not winning 1st prize in rafe with 100 tickets the rafe Making the last 4 teams A team not making the in a 20 team last four tournament 3 1 -- -- -- -5 a 1 , 1 , ----- , 1 , -------- , 1 2 2 13 2 100 5 b
1 -2 -, 1, 2 10 ----13 -, 1, 2 99 -------100
4 -5
Exercise 15D Range of probabilities

1 a d g 2 a c e Even chance b Probable c Unlikely Certain e Probable f Unlikely Probable h Impossible i Unlikely 0, impossible b 1, certain 3 -- , even chance ----d 26 , even chance 6 52
40 ----52
, probable
f h
4 ----52 6 ----12
, unlikely , even chance
g 0, impossible 3 Check with your teacher. 7 9 8 6 ----4 13 , ----- , ----- , ----- , ----20 13 18 19 25 5 A, D, C, B, E 6 D 50 9 a ----------2000 10
98 -------100
c 1 6 a Rolling an odd number b Rolling a number less than 4 c Rolling a number greater than 2 d Not rolling a 6 e Rolling a 1 7 a Choosing an even-numbered ball b Choosing a ball numbered greater than 19 c Choosing a ball that has a number less than 24 d Choosing a ball that is not a multiple of 5 8 a Selecting a coloured ball b Selecting a black ball c Not selecting a pink ball 9 A 10 C --11 a 1 b 7 8 8 12 a 13 a
1 -5 9 ----20 17 ----20 2 -5 7 ----10
b b e b e
4 -5 11 ----20 3 -5 3 ----10 3 ----10
c f c
7 B
8 D b Unlikely
3 ----20 2 -5 3 -5
d 14 a
, very probable b Even chance
11 a Very unlikely
15A 15E
answers
557
answers
558
15 a 16 a
7 ----20 3 ----25
Answers
b b
13 ----20 21 ----50
6 a c
29 ----50
7 ----20 1 ----24 3 -4 1 -------400
b b e b
1 ----10 3 -4 1 -2 4 ----------1999
c c
3 -4 1 -4
7 a d 8 a
17 0.3 18 a 91%
b 9%
1 S = {heart, club, diamond, spade} 1 -2 ----3 1 10 8 5 8

8 ----15 1 -5
4 7 10
1 --------------10 000 3 ----10 4 -5
9 a 0.025 10 a 50%
b 0.5 -b 33 1 % 3
c 0.75 -c 66 2 % 3
6 9
7 ----15 4 -5
11 Probable -12 7 . It is probable that the car will have a defect. 8 13 a Tossing a coin that lands Heads b Rolling a die and getting a number greater than 4 c Not choosing a blue ball 3 7 14 a ----b ----10 10 15
5 ----12
Chapter review
1 2 3 4 0.02 a 0.15 b $750 S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, E = {3, 4, 5} 1 1 a ----b ----25 25 d 5 a d
1 -5 1 ----52 1 -2
16
c f c f
13 ----25 16 ----25 1 -4 10 ----13
18 ----25
e b e
9 ----25 1 ----13 4 ----13
Practice examination questions 1 B 2 C 3 D --5 a 1 b 2 5 5
4 B c
3 -5
6 a 0.7 b 0.3 c The missile will probably hit its target.
Index
559
Index
abnormal conditions (sampling) 181 addition, algebraic expressions 1256 adjacent 423 algebraic expressions adding and subtracting like terms 1256 multiplication and division 1313 algebraic formulas, substitution into 127 allowances 6 analysing data 148 and drawing conclusions 159 angle of depression 445, 446 angle of elevation 4456, 447 annual leave 26 annual leave loading 26 appreciation 2645 area 7980 calculating irregular areas from a field diagram 856 area formulas 79 bar graphs 279 bias 180, 1834 in questionnaire design 180 sampling 1801, 1834 statistical interpretation 181 bimodal scores 344 box-and-whisker plots 30911 budgets 314 capacity, units of 48 casual rate 7 categorical data 186, 187 census 169 chance common descriptions of 462 informal description of 4579 see also probability experiments classes 274 collecting data 151, 16972 column graphs 1567, 279 commission 1113 complementary events 5078 compound interest 2414 calculating from a table of compounded values 24850 compound interest formula 243, 264 compound interest functions, graphing 2535 compound value interest factor (CVIF) 24850 compounded value of an investment (CV) 2414 calculating compound interest from a table of compounded values 24850 compounding period 243 concentration (of a substance) 634 cones, volume 103 congruent figures 366 constant of variation 216 Consumer Price Index (CPI) 264 continuous data 187 cosine ratio 4267 calculating 427 cube surface area 92 volume 97 cumulative frequency 285 calculating median from 3412 cumulative frequency histogram 285 cumulative frequency polygon 285 cylinders, volume 989 data 150 analysing 149, 159 collecting 151, 16972 displaying 1568 organising 1534 types of 1868 database 169 debentures 234 decile 296 decreasing function 206 deductions 25 see also tax deductions dependent variable 201, 205, 206 direct linear variation 216 direct proportion 216 discrete data 187 displaying data 1568 dividend yield 257 dividends 2578 division algebraic expressions 1323 index law 132 dot plots 277 double time 19 drawing conclusions 159 drawing graphs using gradient and intercept elements (in a sample space) 4623 enlargement factor 369 equally likely outcomes 4723 equations arising from substitution 13941 estimating populations 1912 events (probability) 4579 external sources (of data) 151 favourable outcomes 463 field diagrams 856 finding an unknown side (trigonometry) finding angles (trigonometry) 43842 five-number summaries 30810 frequency (of event) 458 frequency histograms 2834 frequency polygon 2845 frequency tables 2735 calculating mean from 3246 functions 201 fundamental counting principle 4768
21114
4314
560
Index
future value of an investment
2414
general term of the sequence 11922 gradient 2057 and constant of variation 216 and intercept to draw graphs 21114 graphing compound interest functions 2535 linear functions 2013 share performance 2602 simple interest functions 2369 tax functions 409 variations 21617 graphs bar 279 column 1567, 279 dot plots 277 drawing using gradient and intercept 21114 line 278 radar charts 27980 sector 158, 278 statistical 2837 types of 27780 gross pay 385 additions and deductions from 256 grouped data 273 calculating mean from 3267 groups 274 GST (Goods and Services Tax) 4056 histograms 2834 history of mathematics house plans 3746 hypotenuse 418 417
gradient and intercept 2059 graphing 2013 piecewise 219 point of intersection of two linear functions step functions 21819 lower extreme 308 lower quartile 293, 304, 308
2212
mass, units of 48 maximum error 523 mean 3237, 350 calculating from a frequency table 3246 calculating from grouped data 3267 measurement maximum error 523 percentage error 53 significant figures 5760 units of 4750 measures of central tendency 323 median 293, 2956, 304, 308, 3413, 350 calculating from cumulative frequency 3412 Medicare levy 3957, 404 misleading graphs 181, 1823 mode 3434, 350 multi-stage events 467 multiplication algebraic expressions 1313 index law 132 negative gradient 206 net pay 25, 385 nets, solid shapes 8990 nominal data 187 non-random sampling methods 180 non-response rate 181 number pattern notation 11922 number patterns 11516 observation 151 offset 85 ogive 285 opposite 423 ordinal data 187 ordinary rate (wages) 6 organising data 1534 outcome 457 overtime 1921 parallelogram, area 80 particular responses (sampling) 181 PAYE tax 385, 390 calculating 398402 payment by piece 1617 payment methods 3 penalty rates 19 per annum 3 percentage change 67 percentage error 53 pie charts 158, 278 piecewise linear functions 219 piecework 1617 polls 169
income 3 income tax 385, 404 see also tax payable (PAYE) increasing function 206 independent variable 201, 205, 206 index laws 1313 indirect tax 405 inflation 264 inflation rate 264 information 150 intercept 2078 and gradient to draw graphs 21114 interest 231 interest rate 231 internal sources (of data) 151 International System of Units (SI system) 47 interquartile range 2934, 2956, 305 investment bonds 234 irregular areas, calculating from a field diagram leading questions 180 length, units of 47 like terms, adding and subtracting 1256 line graphs 278 linear equations, solving 1347 linear functions drawing using gradient and intercept 21114
856
Index
561
polygon, frequency 2845 population standard deviation 3334 populations 169 characteristics 1746 estimating 1912 posing questions 150 positive gradient 206 present value (PV) 248 principal 231 prisms 89 surface area 923 volume 978 privacy and ethical issues 163 probability 457, 492 range of 5023 writing as decimals and percentages 499 probability experiments complementary events 5078 equally likely outcomes 4723 multi-stage events 4679 relative frequency 4878 sample space 4623 single-event probability 4924 using the fundamental counting principle 4768 proportional diagrams 450 pyramids 89 surface area 93 volume 103 Pythagoras of Samos 417 Pythagoras theorem 417, 41820 quality control 1601 quantitative data 1867, 273 quartiles 293 questioning 151 privacy and ethical issues 163 questionnaire design, bias in 180 questionnaires 169 radar charts 27980 random sample 1701 range 2923, 295 rate of change 205 rates 614 ratios 6971 rectangle, area 79 rectangular prism surface area 923 volume 98 relations 201 relative error 523 relative frequency 4878 report writing 159 retainer 13 rhombus, area 80 right-angled triangles angles of elevation and depression 4457 calculating trigonometric ratios 4238 finding an unknown side 4314 finding angles 43842 proportional diagrams 450 Pythagoras theorem 41820
royalties
11
salary payments 34 sample 169 sample space 4623 favourable outcomes 463 tree diagrams 4679 sample standard deviation 3345 sampling bias 1801, 1834 sampling methods 1702 scale factors 366, 369, 3746 scores 273 sector graphs 158, 278 sequences 11516 general term 11922 share dividends 2578 share performance, graphing 2602 shares 257 significant figures 5760 similar figures 3657 to solve problems 3712 similar triangles 365, 370 simple interest 2314 simple interest formula 231 simple interest functions, graphing 2369 simultaneous equations 2212 sine ratio 4256 calculating 426 single event probability 4924 SOHCAHTOA 433 solid shapes 8990 spheres, volume 104 square, area 70 standard deviation 3336 interpreting 3356 population 3334 sample 3345 statistical graphs 2837 statistical interpretation bias 181 statistical organisations 164 statistical processes 150 collecting data 151 organising data 1534 posing questions 150 statistics 149 stem-and-leaf plots 3025 step functions 21819 strata 171 stratified sample 171 substitution equations arising from 13941 into algebraic formulas 127 subtraction, in algebraic expressions 1256 summary statistics 3501 surface area 924 surveys 16970 privacy and ethical issues 163 sampling methods 1702 systematic sampling 171 tangent ratio 4235 calculating 4245
562
Index
target populations 169 tax deductions 3857 tax functions, graphing 409 tax payable (PAYE) 385, 390, 398402 tax return 385 taxable income 385, 3901, 3934 and Medicare levy 3957, 404 tax payable 398402, 404 telephone polls 181 time, units of 49 time and a half 19 trapezium, area 80 traverse survey 85 tree diagrams 4679 equally likely outcomes 473 trial (probability experiments) 487 triangle, area 7980 trigonometric formulas 424, 426, 427, 433 trigonometric ratios calculating 4238 finding an unknown side 4314 finding angles 43842 ungrouped data 273
units of measurement 4750 capacity 48 length 47 mass 48 time 49 upper extreme 308 upper quartile 293, 304, 308 value added tax (VAT) 406 vanishing point 900 variations, graphing 21617 volume cones 103 cylinders 989 prisms 978 pyramids 103 spheres 104 wages 67 working overtime 1921 written reports 159 y-intercept 207

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MATHS Quest

69 Using ratios 69 Exercise 2F 72 Summary 74 Chapter review 75 Practice examination questions 76

Teacher edition with accompanying eGuidePLUS

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2 Calculate each of the following. a $23.50 26 c $528.72 52

4 Find each of the following. a 10% of $350 c 18% of $9000

b 25% of $1424 d 12.5% of $4570

Multiplying a quantity (money) by a decimal

5 Calculate each of the following. a $8.56 1.5

Increasing a quantity by a percentage

Chapter 1 Earning money

Calculating salary payments

A lecturer is paid a salary.

WRITE Fortnightly pay = $46 800 26 Fortnightly Pay = $1800

There are 26 fortnights in a year, so we divide $46 800 by 26. Evaluate.

WRITE Annual salary = $3500 12 Annual salary = $42 000

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Calculating salary payments

Chapter 1 Earning money

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Computer Application 1 Spreadsheets

Chapter 1 Earning money

Commission and royalties

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Calculate the amount on which commission is to be paid. Find 2% of this amount.

Add the $300 to the commission to calculate Tonys pay.

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Commission and royalties

7 Converting a percentage into a decimal

Calculations with percentages

Chapter 1 Earning money

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

A person delivering to a letterbox is paid for piecework.

Chapter 1 Earning money

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Multiplying and dividing a quantity by a fraction

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Computer Application 2 Wages

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Investigating government payments

Chapter 1 Earning money

Additions to and deductions from gross pay

WRITE Weekly deduction = $324.60 52 Weekly deduction = $6.24

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

THINK a Multiply $14.75 (hourly rate) by 36 (hours worked). b

Chapter 1 Earning money

Additions to and deductions from gross pay

HEET HEET HEET

Maths Quest General Mathematics Preliminary Course

Chapter 1 Earning money

Computer Application 3 Wages template