Sophie Lancaster 22-1-13 Health Skeletal System Notes Without a skeleton people would, be a little heap on the oor,

, much like a jellysh out of water. Bones = living organs that help maintain the internal environment of the body Skeletal system consists of: bones other structures that make up the joints of the skeleton tissues (form ligaments and connect bone to bone) bone tissue cartilage brous connective tissue Functions: 1. Provides a framework to support the body. The skeleton is then moved by the muscles that are attached to the bones. 2. Protects internal organs from mechanical injury. Ex. rib cage protects the heart and lungs 3. Contains and protects red bone marrow which is the primary blood-forming tissue. 4. Provides a storage space for leftover calcium. This calcium may be removed from the bone so that normal blood calcium level is maintained. This is necessary for the proper functioning of muscles and nerves and in blood clotting. Types of Bone Tissue: Bones are tissues. Osteocytes: bone cells regulate the amount of calcium put in or taken out of the bone matrix Calcium salts and collagen make up the matrix (the substance between cells or in which structures are embedded) of bone. Calcium salts = calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate Give bone the strength it needs to protect and support the body. Bone matrix: non-living changes constantly Calcium in the diet replaces calcium that is taken from the bones and put into the blood. contains: calcium, phosphorus, protein Compact Bone: looks solid very precisely structured Made of osteons or haversian systems, Haversian canals (central part of haversian systems) contain blood vessels. Haversian systems contain: osteocytes bone matrix blood vessels Spongy Bone: looks like a sponge has visible holes or cavities Osteocytes, matrix and blood vessels are present but are not arranged in haversian systems. cavities often contain red bone marrow Red bone marrow produces: red blood cells platelets ve kinds of white blood cells

Classication of Bones: 1. Long Bones: bones in the arms, legs, hands, feet (not wrists and ankles) diaphysis: the shaft of a long bone made of compact bone is hallow contains yellow bone marrow epiphyses: the ends of the long bones made of spongy bone but covered with a thin layer of compact bone Red bone marrow is present in the epiphyses of children but is replaced by yellow bone marrow in adult bones. 2. Short Bones: bones of the wrists and ankles 3. Flat Bones: bones of the ribs, shoulder blades, hip bones and cranial bones 4. Irregular Bones: bones of the vertebrae and face Short, at and irregular bone are all made of spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. Red bone marrow is found in the spongy bone. Joints are covered with articular cartilage which provides a smooth surface. The rest of the bone is covered in periosteum. Periosteum: a brous connective tissue membrane whose collagen bers merge with those of the tendons and ligaments that are attached to the bone anchors the bones, tendons, and ligaments contains blood vessels that enter the bone contains osteoblasts that become active if the bone is damaged Embryonic Growth of Bone: Bone matrix is produced by osteoblasts. Blast cell = a growing or producing cell Osteo = bone Skeleton is rst made of cartilage and brous connective tissue Production of bone matrix (ossication) begins in the center of ossication found in each bone. Center of ossication --> bone growth radiates outward --> calcium slats are deposited into the collagen of the model of the bone skeleton not complete at birth A baby has brous connective tissue remaining between the bones of the skull = fontanels (soft spots) Function of fontanels: Allows babys head to be compressed during birth without breaking the cranial bones. permit growth of the brain after birth Fontanels are gone at age two. Bone matrix is created by osteoblasts in the diaphyses of the long bones and in the center of the short, fat and irregular bones. Epiphyseal discs: the junction of the diaphysis and epiphysis, where growth takes place in the long bones made of cartilage The cartilage is slowly turned to bone (bone lengthening). Between the ages of 16 and 25 the epiphyseal discs are completely bone = closure of the epiphyseal discs. Bones contain osteoclasts. Clast cell = a destroying cell dissolve and reabsorb minerals of bone matrix (resorption) Resorption takes place in the embryonic long bones to form the marrow canal. Red bone marrow is formed in the long bones but is replaced by yellow bone marrow after birth. Red bone marrow stays in the spongy bone of short, at and irregular bones.

Factors That Affect Bone Growth and Maintenance: 1. Hereditary: Each person has a maximum height inherited from both parents. many genes are involved 2. Nutrition: Nutrients are the raw materials in which bones are made. Calcium, phosphorus and protein go directly into the bone matrix. Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus by the small intestine. Vitamin A and C are necessary for the ossication (creation) of bone matrix. Without these and other nutrients bones cannot grow properly. Malnourished children may not reach their genetic potential for height. 3. Hormones: Several hormones contribute to bone growth and maintenance. Hormones included in skeletal system: growth hormone thyroxine parathyroid hormone insulin These hormones help regulate: cell division protein synthesis (creation) calcium metabolism energy production Estrogen and testosterone (sex hormones) bring along the end of bone growth. 4. Exercise or stress: Exercising --> bones bear weight (what they are supposed to do) Not exercising --> bones lose calcium faster than it is replaced Bones that arent exercised become thinner and more fragile. Fractures and Their Repair: fracture = bone has been broken different fractures are classied by extent of damage Simple (closed) broken parts still in normal anatomic position surrounding tissue has minimal damage skin is not pierced Compound (open) broken end of bone is moved pierces the skin may be extensive damage to surrounding blood vessels, nerves, and muscles Greenstick bone splits longitudinally Children's bones tend to splinter not fully break because they contain more collagen than adult bones. Comminuted two or more intersecting breaks create several bone fragments Impacted broken ends of the bone are forced together bone fragments may be created Pathologic (spontaneous) bone breaks without apparent trauma may be related to bone disorders like osteoporosis The Repair Process: All fractures must be repaired in order for bones to have their normal function again. Fragments of dead or damaged bone must be removed before bones can be reconstructed. Most bones have a good blood supply so the healing process is relatively rapid. other factors that inuence repair: age (ex. elderly have slow healing of fractures)

 general state of health (ex. people with poor health have slow healing of fractures) nutrition (ex. if your diet is not sufcient in the things below you can have slow healing fractures) A nutrition sufcient in calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D, and protein is important. The Skeleton: Axial Skeleton: forms the axis of the body Axial skeleton contains: skull vertebral column rib cage Appendicular Skeleton: supports the limbs (appendages) Appendicular skeleton contains: arm bones leg bones shoulder girdle pelvic girdle Joints = bone connected to other bones by ligaments (strong cords or sheets of brous connective tissue) Sprain = stretching or tearing of the ligaments causing the joint to be weak and unsteady Ligaments are necessary to keep our bones in the proper positions and to keep us upright or to bear weight. 206 bones in total Skull: Articulates = the state of being jointed The skull contains: 8 cranial bones forms the brain-case that protects the brain, eyes, and ears frontal bone forms the forehead and anterior (front) part of the top of the skull parietal bones (two) parietal = wall forms the posterior (back) top and much of the side walls of the skull temporal bones (two) on the side of the skull contains the ear canals, a middle ear cavity, and an inner ear labyrinth occipital bone forms the lower, posterior (back) part of the brain-case sphenoid bone (base of brain-case) Shaped like a bat where one of the wings is on the side of the skull between the frontal and temporal bones. here is where the pituitary gland is stored (in the body of the bat) ethmoid bone (base of brain-case) forms the roof and upper walls of the nasal cavities and the upper part of the nasal septum 14 facial bones mandible is movable --> because it forms a condyloid joint with each temporal bone maxillae two upper jaw bones that from the roof of the mouth (hard palate) Sockets for the roots of teeth are found in the maxillae and mandible. nasal bones (two) form the bridge of the nose join with the frontal bone lacrimal bone found in the medial (situated in the middle) side of each orbit

 contains the lacrimal sac = passageway for tears zygomatic bones (two) forms the point of a cheek joins with the maxilla, frontal bone, and temporal bone palatine bones (two) posterior (back) portion of the roof of the mouth (hard palate) vomer plow-shaped forms the lower part of the nasal septum joins with the ethmoid bone conchae (six) on either side of the vomer three small bones in each middle ear cavity the hyoid bone that supports the base of the tongue All joints between cranial bones are sutures (immovable joints). The sawtooth edges of adjacent bones t into each other --> this prevents sliding or shifting of the bones if the skull receives a blow or pressure. Paranasal sinuses: air cavities located in the maxillae and frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. open into nasal cavities make the skull lighter (air is lighter than bone) provide resonance for the voice --> more air vibrates --> deepened pitch of voice Mastoid sinuses: air cavities in the mastoid process of each temporal bone open into the middle ear Auditory bones (three) within each middle ear cavity malleus incus stapes These three bones transmit vibrations from the eardrum to the receptors in the inner ear as part of the hearing process. Vertebral Column: also known as the spinal column or backbone made of individual vertebrae names of the vertebrae indicate where they are in the spinal column cervical vertebrae (seven) within the neck First vertebra = atlas (articulates with the occipital bone to support the skull and forms a pivot joint) Second vertebra = axis This pivot joint allows us to turn our heads side to side. thoracic (twelve) Form joints with the ribs on the posterior (back) side of the trunk. lumbar (ve) largest and strongest bones of the spine found in the small of the back sacral (ve) fused to sacrum (one) permits the articulation of the two hip bones (sacroiliac joints) small coccygeal vertebrae (four to ve) fused to coccyx (one) remaining piece of the tail vertebrae some muscles of the pelvic oor are anchored to it All vertebrae join together and are connected with ligaments to form a exible backbone. supports the trunk and the head form the vertebral canal Vertebral canal = continuous tunnel with the bones that contains the spinal cord and protects it from mechanical injury. The vertebrae bodies are what support the trunk and the head.

 Adjacent vertebrae are separated by discs of brous cartilage. cushion and absorb shock allow some movement between vertebrae Normal spine has four natural curves. Cervical vertebrae = curved forward Thoracic vertebrae = curved backward Lumbar vertebrae = curved forward Sacral = curved backward These curves center the skull over the rest of the body --> enables a person to walk upright. Rib Cage: consists of 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum (breastbone) All of the ribs articulate posteriorly (backwardly) with the thoracic vertebrae. First seven pairs = true ribs articulate with the manubrium and sternum by means of costal (relating to the ribs) cartilages Next three pairs = false ribs their cartilages join the 7th rib cartilage Last two pairs = oating ribs do not articulate with the sternum at all Functions of the rib cage: encloses and protects the heart, lungs, liver, spleen ribs are pulled upward and outward by external intercostal (relating to the ribs) muscles --> enlarges chest cavity --> expands the lungs --> INHALATION The Shoulder and Arm: shoulder girdles attach arms to axial skeleton Each shoulder girdle consists of: scapula (shoulder blade) large at bone Has several projections that anchor some of the muscles that move the upper arm and the forearm. Forms a ball-and-socket joint with the humerus (upper arm bone). clavicle (collarbone) acts as a brace and prevents the shoulder from coming too far forward humerus long bone in the upper arm forms a ball-and-socket joint with the scapula forms a hinge joint (the elbow) with the ulna (forearm bone) permits back and forth movement only ulna forearm bone on the little nger side radius forearm bone on the thumb side The radius and ulna form a pivot joint (permits the turning of the palm up and down). The radius crosses over the ulna which allows the hand to perform a great variety of movements without moving the entire arm. carpals eight small bones in the wrist sliding joints between them permit a sliding movement metacarpals articulate with the carpals ve bones in the palm of the hand The joints formed by the carpals and metacarpals make the hand very exible at the wrist. Thumb is most movable nger because of a saddle joint which allows the thumb to cross over the palm and permits gripping.

 phalanges bones of the ngers two in each thumb three in each nger between them are hinge joints The hinge joints permit the movement in one place. The Hip and Leg: pelvic girdle (pelvic bone) consists of two hip bones articulate with the axial skeleton at the sacrum ilium ared upper portion that forms the sacroiliac joint ischium lower, posterior (back) part that we sit on pubis lower most anterior (front) part Pubic Symphysis = where the two pubic bones articulate (with a disc of brous cartilage between them) acetabulum socket in hip bone that forms a ball-and-socket joint with the femur deep joint because the hip is a weight-bearing joint Hip joint is not easily dislocated because the acetabulum is a deep socket. femur long bone of the thigh forms a hinge joint (the knee) with the tibia of the lower leg patella also known as the kneecap anterior (in front of) to the knee joint enclosed in the tendon of the quadriceps (a large muscle group of the thigh) tibia weight-bearing bone of the lower leg bula not part of the knee joint does not bear much weight Leg muscles are attached and anchored to the bula and it helps stabilize the ankle. The bula and tibia do not form a pivot joint like the radius and ulna and this is because it is a better stabilizer of the lower leg and foot that way; as well it is better at supporting the entire body if there is no pivot joint. tarsals seven bones in the ankle larger and stronger than the carpals in the wrist gliding joints do not provide as much movement as the ones in the wrists calcaneus = largest tarsal also known as the heel bone metatarsals ve long bones of each foot phalanges bones of the toes two in each big toe three in each of the other toes form hinge joints The foot has two major arches, longitudinal and transverse, that are supported by ligaments. We have these arches so that we walk completely upright. The arches provide spring or bounce in our steps.

Osteoporosis: In normal bone tissue calcium that is taken out of the bone to maintain normal blood calcium levels is replaced in the bones at a rate equal to its removal. Osteoporosis = excessive loss of calcium from bones without sufcient replacement Contributing environmental factors: smoking insufcient calcium in the diet inactivity lack of sex hormones Most common in elderly women, because at menopause estrogen levels decrease sharply. bones lose calcium --> become thin and brittle --> fractures are more likely to occur degenerative (loss of function in the organs or tissues) bone disorder Several medicines are available that diminish the rate of bone loss. Exercise and have enough calcium in your diet and you are less likely to get osteoporosis. Herniated Disc: extreme pressure --> may rupture a disc (made of brous tissue and separates vertebrae) --> force nucleus pulposus out --> puts pressure on a spinal nerve --> herniated disc or ruptured disc --> may be very painful and could impair function in the muscles supplied by the nerve May happen if someone lifts a heavy object with their back instead of their legs. often called a slipped disc (but disc usually isnt moved out of position) Healing can occur naturally if the damage is not too severe and the person rests. Sometimes surgery is needed to remove the disruptive nucleus pulposus. Abnormalities of the Curves of the Spine: Scoliosis: abnormal lateral (from side to side) curvature may be present from birth result of having one leg longer than the other result of chronic poor posture in childhood when vertebrae are still growing usually thoracic vertebrae are affected --> places the rib cage to one side In extreme cases the abdominal organs are compressed and the expansion of the rib cage during inhalation is impaired. Kyphosis: exaggerated thoracic curve hunchback Lordosis: exaggerated lumbar curve swayback Usually result of degenerative bone disorders like osteoporosis or tuberculosis of the spine. Damage to vertebrae is hard to correct so these disorders should be thought of in terms of prevention rather than cure. Arthritis: inammation of a joint many types of arthritis but we only know two: osteoarthritis: occurs as people get older articular cartilage gradually wears away in bones that have borne weight for many years joint becomes rough --> joint becomes stiff and painful large, weight-bering joints are subjected to this type of arthritis (ex. knees, hips, or ankles) rheumatoid arthritis (RA): may begin in early middle age RA is an autoimmune disease = the immune system mistakenly directs its destructive capability against part of the body the cause of this autoimmune disease is not certain often starts in joints of the extremities (ex. ngers) affects the synovial membrane --> joints become stiff and painful

may get so bad the joint fuses together and loses all mobility autoimmune damage may occur in the heart and blood vessels people with RA are more prone to heart attacks and strokes right now there is no cure for autoimmune diseases

Joints -- Articulations: Joint = where two bones meet or articulate The Classication of Joints: based on the amount of movement possible synarthrosis = immovable joint (ex. joint between two cranial bones) amphiarthrosis = slightly movable joint (ex. joint between two vertebrae) diarthrosis = freely movable joint largest group of joints includes the: ball-and-socket joint, the pivot joint, hinge joint, and others Synovial Joints: All diarthrosis (freely moving) joints are synovial joints because they share similarities in structure. Articular cartilage on the surface of each joint provides a smooth surface. Joint capsule is made of brous connective tissue and it encloses the joint in a strong sheath (like a sleeve). Synovial membrane lines each joint capsule and secretes synovial uid into the joint cavity. Synovial uid is thick and slippery and prevents friction as the bones move. Bursae (bursas) are small sacks of synovial uid between the joint and the tendons that cross over the joint. permit the tendons to slide easily as bones move Bursitis is when the joint is used excessively and the bursae becomes inamed and painful. Aging and the Skeletal System: people get older --> bone tissue loses more calcium than is replaced --> bone matrix becomes thinner --> bones become more brittle --> fractures are more likely with mild trauma As people get older this may happen: Erosion of the articular cartilages of joints; especially in weight-bearing joints such as the knees and active small joints like those in the ngers.