دليل المعلم لمادة الكيمياء - الصف الثاني عشر علمي - الجزء الاول

hCG AdG - dG
o c
dG `` Y dG dG
2008 - 2007 hCG dG
IG HdG GQeEG dhO e eAGG

jG HQ Y gGHEG
QhRdG M CG
dG N dGY
YQdG MCG a
adG dG :dG bdG
LhHL cT jfdG Md AdG IOe J

dG
M J
G ae
jb ge
W MhQ :dG bdG
ALL
PRINTS
Td X HdG dH G L
J hCG jJ hCG dG Gg e AL CG f Rj
.TdG e N aGe hO jJ hCG Sh CH
jdG hL e
G c ee
O .............................................. dG g ` ddG c
h ...............................................................UN Ge
R ......................................................... j
............................................. dGh jQdGh LGG
..................................................FG M GQe AH
........................................... AGOCG Jh jdG dG
.............................................. dG ` G c
U ............................................AdG edG
hCG AG
8
dG
38
dG FGh FG dG fjCG
66
YGdGh VMCG
94
LhQdG bdGh IYdG-G Ije
126
YdG bW
152
YdG YS
176
CG
1 dG
2 dG
3 dG
4 dG
5 dG
6 dG
HGdG hGL e
jndG
n
o hCG Ao dG
ocSh o dG :hCG oIMdG

n
1 dG
dG
pdG oGfCG 1-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pqjhdGh psGh p dG o Me :ljS wY lf
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pHGPEG
o sY 2-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t YUG odG :lsY lIAGb
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p dG
o cJ 3-1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 p dG o LGe
9 ..................................................................................................................
13
15
25
26
33
2 dG
38
ps FG p dG
o s dG FGh
o
o fjCG
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ps FG p dG
o scG 1-2
48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p G oGdCGh Ao G :ls Y lIAGb
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p dd
o s dG FG
2-2
o
61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 p dG o LGe
3 dG
66
o YGdGh VMC
G
o
67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pYGdGh p VMCG FN
1-3
o
72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . osdG o YGdGh VMC
G :ljS w Y lf
o
77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pIn p G p G o cJh pVG oGOq e :lsY lIAGb
78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pYGdG-p VMCG ojf 2-3
83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pIYdG-p G oYJ 3-3
90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 p dG o LGe
4 dG
94
t LhQdG o bdGh pIYdG-p G oIje
95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
u LhQdG p bdG oeh o sFG odG 1-4
106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p dH psG p hGG o e :lsY lIAGb
107 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oGjGh
u LhQdG p bdG o j 2-4
110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p G Ap pH Qo NG :ljS w Y lf
118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pGQeEG pHJ dG
:lsY lIAGb
o
119 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 p dG o LGe
124
o s FdG
o YdG :ofdG oIMdG
n
126
pYdG o bW
5 dG
127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o js QGG Ao dG 1-5
141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p dG o s JGP
o LdG :ls Y lIAGb
142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pYd o aGdG idG
2-5
147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 p dG o LGe
6 dG
152
pYdG o YS
153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p YdG
o s Y 1-6
160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
u FdG p YdG o YS 2-6
170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p YdG pYS oIuKDG o eGdG :l jS w Y lf
171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .oIRqG
o G
u :ls Y lIAGb
172 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 p dG o LGe
176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pHGdG p hL
o e
180 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o Gh o gG
dG g - ddG c
AGOCG GTDe sJ
dG SSCG gG
uG j CG j
GdG e J dGh
Y q oj dG dG
uG SSCG
hH tJ G gG RnoJ
.dG VH s oJh AGOS
,SSCG gG Vd
U GJ J
.IAGdG Sh ITeh
VdG SdG YJ
uG bdGh q G
dG gG SG Y
dG be
.J Yh aG
H hGG J
fdG d Se
uG jhJh vjH
d dG SdH
Y cCdG e ,fQG
HGdG M Y
.Lh M FjdG
uG IRQdG jhdG Ohu J

.dG j dG S
uG ie dG LGe J
.dH UG AGOCG GTD
gG LGe `H a c oj
Y LGG h ,s Se H
ITG H hGJ jQh SCG
.Y J GQe EG j e Hh
`g
qe uaJ
LGe dG
g eT
GOdh dG
.a IOQGdG
t ie Ou e e QNG SCG J
G N e FdG gG
.iNCG FGdG e Z Y dG
dG dG bQCH GOG aoJ

.Ie hCG a OQh
AdH bdG jd GAGb
UN Ge
bY jJ EG dG IAGdG J
:N e edG G IH AdG
Ad ShCG Q G jhJ .1
IPNCe eh e N e
.jUe Y c Y
dG Y G qM .2
...ASGh
G acG H Y bdG .3
GkY G cd ,dG jQJ
,G acG g e Ie
QaCG dch ,AdG EG Odc
.gAGQBGh a GgS jdG AdG
cCG fhe ,cCG GQN
J
j
QdG e j G SGh jG G efH Ohj

u
Ggeh hG SdG GP IjG QdGh SdG
.eCGh edG YGb YGJ QdG g c .G dG
J Y G GdG YJ
.GqG H dH FH b JGhOCG
.G Hd JMe G q j
G hCG eG uJ
HdG MGe dG
.jG
QdG
G Gg Q J
Q e kje c
Qh Sc
.IjL iNCGh jhe
dG jG QdGh
qe J J
G VY
Ljo h .dG
g EG FGLEG
QdG eCG .dG
VY a jhG
bh .VGh H dc
QdG L Oqo T
eCG YGb Y
.edGh
G u j dch
qj Qd kWCG
e gJh J
.qG n pb
G aVEG J
Ve S k Ua
.aVEG HdG
dG Yj
G dGh
Je Y
jdGh Jh
H j dG
HdG Ff
.jG
G LSG YJ
egG ucJh JHM SGH
.JYh JJ Y
jdGh jQdGh LGdG

J jH gG LGe uU
Y uoJh b c J Y
.LGG uG
Y uG bdG dG Fe t
dG GQe JGe YCG GSG
.QG d
gG dG q e cDJ
.b c IOQGdG GOGh SSCG
eq D j jdG dG
dG ie d GQN
N e G e
Y J W GSG
.YVG GQNG
UdG q dG jQG J
e qM Y d d
N e H hCG JM
.jdG Me GASG
uG j Hch H
dGh d GQN
.dG jQdG OGYEGh
e Yu G LGGh FG qaJ
jQJ e uG dEG j
.FG M GQe jd
G dG jJ
Vhh ,dCG Y IQdG cG uG Y
bdG GSG Y ,G EG Ud N
.GG de e dGh ,FG VjdG
FG M GQe AH
uG aVEG LPdG FG Ohq J

,LPdG dCd HG FG e jdH
.SG jdh WG IOjd dPh
IQdG LPdG FG Qu oJ
q Jh dCG Y
.u dG GQe
LGe dG jQdG uaJ

N e IQG GQd jq Qa
.LPdG FG
Je
LGeh bCG LGe HLEG EG
SG
q eGdG eH IOLe dG
J M Lj c ,G c e
hCG ddG c IOLG AGS Fd
- fCGh jQdG c jf G
.e
dG eCG
vaVEG kjQJ dG LGe qeD J

.a VhG gG Y
dG LGe Fe
JLGH dG Y uG IY
FG e OY Lj ,dG
dG LPdG FH dG
.dG
LGe Yu G LGG eu D J
b cGdG gd eT
.dG QNG NdG
,gG SSCG Y FG qoJ

dG AGLCH JJ gh
.q dG LGdG e d
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c

e :Y d OGG
dh OGe e HdG
.g Wh Jc e
jQdG c bCG LGe GQhCG

LGe J :dG QdGh fCGh
M ,dG ge Y k jQJh aVEG
e LGc jQdG H uG sj
.Jh H uG j
j Y H
gj hCG uG
cG hCG cCd G
.dG OQh ge
dG c
IOe FGW Vj
GQG cG d
.G FGOCG G
kWCG J :QNG Ad SCG F

OGYE G e Qj SCG e
H FdG SCG ueoQ bh .GQNG
e dG AGOCG GTD GDS c j
.GGh HdG LQO cP
ec H dG GQNG J
Yq e GQN GSH dG Gf
HLEGh Oe e QNG J
.jdG FGh IdG
AGOCG Jh jdG dG
dG dO IOLG AGOCG Jh jdG dG GQSG XJ c M e Me
:ddG UCG EG G ch ddG c e x c IOLG jdG dG GfCG s J CG

4 bQ IQSG XJ N e AGOCG Gg J jh .eR N hCG H e hCG ge jN AfEG .1
.dG dH UG G IOLG zgG FGG J{
2 bQ IQSG Jh ,123 U ddG c OQGdG jdG dG e P AH hCG H J .2
.zG b e s G jG Qd edG Vh je{
c hCG ,65 U ddG c OQGdG jdG dG e ,G IQe hCG Jh fdG L .GC .3
dG H ITG IgG bJ Fb OH{ 3 bQ IQSG GSH J j ,117 U G
.zedG Z
IQSG N e 175 ,123 ,122 ,93 ,65 ,37 U ddG c OQGdG zHch H{ f s jo .
.dG dO jf ,zLGGh dG IOL jJ{ 11 bQ
c IOLG QdGh ,ddG c e ,170 ,110 ,72 ,13 U jdG dG dG Q .
.zjG fCG J{ 9 bQ IQSG J j ,fCGh jQdG
.jQdGh fCG c jf IOLG GQSG N e dG hG j .O
,zQdG G SCG M{ H e dG fGH J GQ HdG sJG GPEG :Me
QdG Sb je{ 2 bQ IQSG GSG N e J ,101 U fCGh jQdG c
.zG b e G jG
YCG Y IG dG GQSGh eG GQhCG H Vh N e dd REG e AfEG .`g
Y G id QGh G dG Y Ke IQU G Gg jh .G Gg d I
:ddG PdG e u Y Y REG e jh .SGQdG dG QGe
Sb je bH hCG ,MG bJ FGb hCG ,dG QNG bQh e :G gQj P .
.jG fCG J GQSG hCG ,G b e G QdG
HCG hCG ,d LQG GAGdG e hCG ,gG FGN e :G gQj P .
.jG QdG jQJ hCG ,G b e HG
.zREG e Od dG je{ 8 bQ IQSG XH G REG e J j :Me
JGdG dG
SfG dG e dG Gdh .FGOCG dGh IdG fG v JGP G cG gCG JGdG d
JGdG dG CH uG QTEG j .JGdG dG bOU HLEG dh uG f Y HjEG
.GMG S dG g a bOdG HLEG EG H ,LQO d
.zREG JGdG dG{ 7 bQ IQSG N e JGdG dG Xj :Me
dG
dG FSdG Y eo IQU dG
j CG dG edG dhGh jG QdGh
.a d dG GdG AKCG G e
e a e dG LGdG OQGe VJ
.dG LGdH Vd GQN
- uG c
dG
dG OGG H q dG dG OQGe oJ
.bG Yh G N eGSG
YJ dG OGH cJ dGh LGG OQGe

.qJ e J Y YJh ,dG Y uG
SG
q eGdG
edG VdG JGSG SG
q eGdG aJ
.cCG YH G bh QSG YJ dG
.d GkLe d eT If eDJ
N G j dG dG Gfh
.dG Gd SGQO
S JGSG SQdG OH aj
.SQd uG d jSh
d IG QaCG RJ
Y cdG LGdG G
.SQdG S AKCG
FdG ANCG Rp oJ
j CG dG ANCG
a .uG ZCG a
J EG dH
.G b e
SSCG gG u oJ
b G aG G
.dG ddG
J dG IQe AH
dd IcDe JGSG
.Oq V dSG
GSG bG jdG JGSG Ohu J

.SQdG S AKCG VdG QdGh adG
AdG edG
OGG e bCG c GSGh jdG QdG H J
WdG H dG Y sJ CG j .HCG Jh
.JQN ie J c GPEG jd G
q jG
.1
b e kH IG dG QdG d G J
.H uG
.2
e IN Fc Q Vd jdG WTCH fSG .3

.v a H dG hO ,be hCG
GPEG jo CG j AT G d{ IFGdG G d
.zd uG Vu j c
OGG WMG
GAGLEH dG EG GG OGM FdG dG Oj

c .ahG edG Oe e GC e GMG Y hCG S Z
H dG Y G Oj OM d SSCG G qGC
iH gG qGC MCG ) :OGG jdG QGh
.(v e c jdG
ahG Zh G SCG e d H F b j e h
.OGG g M MG H EG aVEH ,OGd
qGE ,OGG SCG L qbJ PEG ec d FdG g
. G ee H t J Y Yj eGSG qGC
Y dG e f ,OGG M SCG J Oq
N e dGREG OGG SCG H qGC c .dGREG
:ddG FGdG e IOSG
dM G OGG
edG EG IdG
qcJ .IG SQGh hdG M ke edG Y j

VdG j G REG AT CG dg d CG
.OM Y Lf
e mY Y c GPEG jQhV Z WMG CG J If g

.eCG
ud EG J .edG IOe FJ GQNG p LCG

.G dH dY LQO Gdf jdG
.edG Ve cSh G e J Lj
MG uSh e J Y ed N NOCG
.J H
.edG Y d eT N J
dG g .GQk a edG N Y dG uW
.qW GPEG uG h
e cCd J NBGh je NBH UG UdG GQOEG j

.edG efH edG
dh jdG H fGeh e U J Y p LCG

.dGh qdG AdEG
e cCG e edG e qcC d je NBGh J NBH dG

.TCG S
keBG G j e SSCG Y edH UG JGQYG b

.QGWh J Yh ue e ,d
q C H J d qfGC J fC dPh j eBG ATCG CG J

.eBG Z Am GLEG
OGG WMG
dM G OGG
iNCG QGdGh FGG
FGG AWEG SQ hCG jd j LGe QGSH p LCG

.e mQW ek hO
q .iNCG QGdGh
CG Lj h b QGdG Hh FGG AWEG Y jQdG EG

.jQdG g Fd Sb hCG q S
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G bJ bdG e c J fCG .G ANEG j M
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.YS Y Y Lj eh
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.iNCG IQU CG
hCG jG GHCG u J h e FGdG r RCGh QGdG Q eu CG

.S C J
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.jd
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AWEG SQ N e U IQH eGSG Y GTEG
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Y Qs oG G QNEG Y jM fG M fCGh ,dP Y
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q dhCG aSEG Y k jQJ J G ZT e en fCG

.(CPR dhCG aSEG)
OGG Y jdG
Z hJ dG UdG M OH UG UdG c uS
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dM G OGG
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.edG Qe e
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q LJ
c FbO 5 I u e H dG Z TTQ uf
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.SGQO S c jGH qJh dG Z TTQ oJ
dch (bO/dH adG IT b ) edG TO aG

.dG FH vS MGh TCG S c dG Z TTQ
TTQ eS d jQhdG fdG YCGh S oJ

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.edG Qe Y UG G
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c
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q dj
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(bGdG) bGdG dCG

ANSI
dG YGh G GhdG Y bGdG GQdG SG

hCG bdG hCG LdG bGh dG eCG qJ GPEGh . H hCG G U
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s jo ,bGdG GQdG GSG e kH
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.J
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.FdG
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14 U ,6-1 SCG ,dG LGe
35-34
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2-1 dG LGe
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36-34
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dH UG eG oJ IOY .44
e c eGG e GMH
c Gdj G O .hG
j ,dG e e EG dG
CG ,G e d e GMh
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37
2 dG s
FG dG fjCG
dG FGh
dG dG OQGe
j Q
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43 U ,Y VY
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77 U
,AG fjCG OLh Y dG 4 H
81 U
T
4 GC ,3 GC GC T
dd dG FG
M 3
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6 GC ,5 GC GC T
LGG OQGe
10 U ,2 dG QNG
O
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52 U
1-2
18 ,17 ,16 ,15
20 ,19
ef J
FG dG qcG
M 5
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65 U
60 ,44 U
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2 dG LGe
2-2
Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he
(CG) 38
G c
2
dG LGdG OQGe
J jQ
2-2 ,1-2 ,LP Fe
44 ,43 ,40 U ,aVEG LP Fe
6-2 ,5-2 ,4-2 ,3-2 ,LP Fe
58 ,55 ,53 U ,aVEG LP Fe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

64-62 U ,47-43 ,24-19 ,14-8 ,3-1 SCG ,dG LGe
1-2 dG LGe
64-62 U ,51-48 ,42-25 ,18-15 ,7-4 SCG ,dG LGe

2-2 dG LGe
OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T
G
38 c
3()
G c
ddG c
dG dO O
2 dG
FG dG fjCG
dG FGh
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fjCG qcG qJ j 1-2
id jG qcG H jCJh
H Gkq ,AG fHhP
dhdEGh jdG dhdEG
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YJ hM c uj
Hd FGW jh .SdG
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dG LQO JQG j 2-2
vYf ,dG LQO VfGh
jRSCG dBG j c .vVjQh
.RSCG dG Sh
SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
fjCG qcG Hh HGJ
dG e 6 dG) .gdGh
(TdG
gJh FdG dG Hc
(Y OG dG e 1 dG)
1 dG) dG ,jQG ,HGPEG
(dG Gg e
dG IQe AH
Y zSJ{ c cG :gP Y
J G EG WGh IQdG
bY d Ib L hCG c
e GSG dEG WG .SdH
d edG LGGh S
Vd dPh 1-2 d AGOCG GTDeh
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38
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:1-2 dG
FG dG qcG
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kfe
q vjQH ke G Y VYG
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Y IQhQb hCG LLR SCc
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G cJ GfQj CG G
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(bO 35) SuQO
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39
1-2 dG
d Ie Ia
C q J AG jCG scG hj eY
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u
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?jCdG Y dG j a
?jv b k dhdEG q J qcG CG
?GP
aVEG
Fe
LP
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fjCG e ke c .AG G
GQc e 1 mol HGPEG id j
?G
GG
H2O
Mg(ClO3)2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2ClO3(aq)

3 mol
.AG NH4NO3 J dOe cG 1-2

fjCGh feCG fjCG e ke c
e 3.5 mol HGPEG id j GdG
dG OdG e ?feCG Gf
e 3.5 mol HGPEG e dG fjCG
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GG
H2O
NH4NO3(s)
NH4+(aq)
+ NO3(aq)
jCG c e 3.5 mol

7.0 :fjCG dG OdG
40
1-2 dG
jH JGSG
fjCG qce{ 16 adG VYG
Z fjCG qceh Hhd Hb
dEG WG .G Y zHhd Hb
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G S dc .Ae 100 g
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j
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41
1-2 dG
dG
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J dG fjCG qcG d .HGPEG
dG LQO EG J ,Hhd Hb Z
.Gv L e cGJ Y
d Ie Ia
fCG G j CG Y UMG
qc J dOe Hc j
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j AG hj dG jCG
.a
L P{ 17 adG VYG
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e SGQ jJ G j
. fjCG
e LGh
,1 GDdG qM :J jQ
40 U
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f
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S HdG g .. ,77
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J
t Mj Sh .Iq e q c
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u
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42
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Y VY
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e 100 mL SrCl26H2O e 13 g PCG
d LLR SCc AG
7 g He SCc PCG .0.5 m cJ
d Ae 100 mL Na2SO4 e
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q j e AdGh ,G je AGJQGh
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CG b AGdG SGdG L .AG e
.jdG jhM eJ
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d dG g Y dG VdG
H dPh adG fjCG dOG
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GG
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43
FT C N
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,H VjQ Y fCG Y aU
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SO42(aq)
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.f
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P e Gej G O
M dEG WG .fjCG Yd
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.jCG YJ c j vd
e LGh
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44 U
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G dG EG J FL T
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?J g
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jJ
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k
edG GSG SCG MCG .G Y
G) VGaG OJ g H3O+
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k
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e FdG j .e TCH
dG e H+(aq) edG IOY IG hP
.Aqe fCH G
dG
H G dG G Mj b
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5 dG 19-5 dG u jh .4-2 dG
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.kUCG e fJ dG GQq dG e
45
1-2 dG
jH JGSG
d P{ 18 adG VYG
Vh jb dhdEG
j .G Y zdhdEGh
qce jCd je LQO G
K .Fe d J hCG
edG YGdG LGe G EG WG
d dPh ,1-2 hG fHhd
e d Hhd Hb Z NBG qce
J b .jv b k dhdEG q j AgCl
jc hCG (I) FdG jQc HLCG
jd fQG g SG .jQdG
Z c EGh ,qcG CH FdG IdG
e hj dG AG Ea Hhd Hb
.j
d Ie Ia
g Hhd HdG jCG qcG

jG qcG eh .b dhdEG
qcG CG M dhdEG
J AG jCJ dG jG
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dG
GJG e dM G G j
hCG fjCGh FGP Z IOe H ejdG
Z OGG J . jL
Y GJG dM EG Hhd HdG
GC S .Gd GvL e cGJ
G GJG M cCG G
.7 dG
46
1-2 dG
e LGh
47 U
3-1 SCG
q M :dG LGe
U ,47-43 h 24-19 h 14-11 h
63-62
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f
zAG fjCG OLh Y dG{
j HdG g .. ,81 U
,Fe3+ :g fjCG HQCG OLh G
. Ae qY e SO42 ,Cl ,Ca2+
HLCG/dG LGe
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YCG cdG hP G jh .J H Cl(aq) h H3O+(aq)
.cCG fjCG OY Y
JjL H jCJ dd ,V M HF .0.10 M HCl .
.a
j
u .(b M) HCl ,0.10 M .0.10 M CaCl2 .
QGe v c v fjCG Gk cJ d 0.10 M Cl h 0.10 M H3O+
0.10 M Ca2+ j
u Hhd Hb jCG e CaCl2 .0.20 M
.0.30 M QGe v c v fjCG Gk cJ QhH d 0.20 M Cl h
47
2O
Sr(NO3)2(s) H
Sr2+(aq) +2 NO3(aq) .1
NO3 fjCG e 1.0 mol h Sr2+ fjCG e 0.5 mol
SCGh G jQc g J
s CG dG eCa , .2
.AG Hhd Hb gch ,fhdG
HGdG e ibCG dG G jL H PdG c GPEG .3
.fjCG EG j AG Ea ,GG gdG
,jq C dG FL HF H ,FG G q J H HCl jCj .4
.jb a HF gdG HGdG C
1-2 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG
Y IAGb
be
IQcG dG jBG IQdG Y cG
,zG GdCGh AG{ dG IAGdG
jJ AG QhO G e bf K
.Gh QdG
48
1-2 dG
HLCG
FGdG cCGh GQk fG FGdG cCG AG .1
jG UH jh HGPEG Y IQe
.cGh
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) .2
Fe2+(aq) + SiO32(aq) FeSiO3(s)
Fe2+(aq) + CO32(aq) FeCO3(s)
cCj dG jG Y T .3
Mjh .MCG dG Qd a
Sdc ,iNCG jqa Oe jG
e gOLh f J ,UUdGh
.QG MCG dG QdG j
dfG Gqa Y jG OG .4
.Gh hdGh jG e
49
2-2 dG
:2-2 dG
dG FG
dd
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
j NaCl CG d v Y u H
SQdG jGH
C eG .AG t LQO
VCG .dG e f dH jAYh
jAYdG MCG EG G e Ic e
,SQdG Ia N ,bGQ .iG NGh
dG QfG e Mh jAYdG
Gj CG G EG WG .e c
NaCl `H G dG QfG S
.cCG YH
(FbO 40) SQu O
H SQ{ 5 GC adG VYG
Y zdG Fd
QdG dG SdG j .G
dch ,f je IQGM LQd dGc
jG je Z Ge e
bCG d QdG dG j .f
h .dG jd QdG dG e
VfG N e IgdG g Mf CG
Y Gh dG jG H dG
CG .dG jG Z IQGM LQO
VfG Y j GG CG MJ
Mj .dG LQO aQh dG LQO
FG H dG bdG G
.Fe dG
(QNG adG g VY)
50
2-2 dG
jH JGSG
QdG dG{ 19 adG VYG
Y zFe h f A
dG CG G Mj .G
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G O .dG Ad QdG
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q
d QdG dG e dG Ad
c IQGM LQO J CG LJ FG
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G eEH :IAGdG e
jOY dhn r Me GSG
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CG dEG WG .UdGh FdG
adG AH bQh Gfj
WG K ,zdG FG{ `H
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FG jCG OdG j
be L dG HQCG dG
QdG dG VfG) 2-2 dG
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jh .(RSCG dGh dG
UJh keh jdG ,CG OdG
.UN d iNCG
d Ie Ia
dhdEG e c CG EG TCG
FG KDJ dhdEGdGh
GKCdG CG d .dG
kM dhdEG be J a
.dG
51
2-2 dG
?J g
AdG e G FdG H J
dG IQGM LQO Y IG b Y
e J d IOe OGe LfE
IOG OGG J
s .FGS LQO
GG e dG gRJ dG ,d
dG e ,dG LQO J dG
(S) RcG XCG a .jdGh
dG Y JQb (c) hGh
,MGhdG H d GOc
J
q .HdGh MdG GfCG c
SCG GfCG c ,iNCG fGM
e d IOe OGe ,dG
g J .JhHGh JhdG
e kH dG GQH J
t e Y OGG
G dG FG KCdG
.G cH
hG JGSG
G Y G S 2-2 hG
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VfG CG cDj hG CG EG TCGh
,G dP Y TDq e g dG LQO
jG Z GH bY CG d dh
cGJ Y) G dhdEGdGh
IQGG LQO e jOY hTh
.hG Gg HGG coJ .(dGh
52
2-2 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
RcdG LQO OM 3-2
HGPEH dG ,C6H12O6 ,FG
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3.24C
:GG
e e
s de MG 3-2
485 g ,H2NCONH2 ,jQdG e 39.2 g
LQO OM K .dG SCG M e
.G Gg
11.3C ,1.35 m :GG
L G cdG OM 4-2
GPEG AG ,HOCH2CH2OH ,jEG
e .6.40C G LQO fc
HGPEG J dG jEG L c
?G Gg d AG e 500. g
L e 107 g ,3.44 m :GG
jEG
e LGh
,4-1 SCG qM :J jQ
53 U
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60 U
53
2-2 dG
bO 45:fdG G
J
g FdG dG Oe EG
gh ,HOCH2CH2OH jEG L
e Lh Ije Z FS IOe
G Gd .CGdG feh FGP UCG
fOCG LQO aj fC ,jJ a
LQO e YCG Z LQO H a
GQdG fU Uj .AG Z
jJ d GSH FS
Nh .dG GW JGQS u
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s LPdG jdG
Gg j .kM ,jEG L 50% h
jEG L e 1.116 kg Y G
de EG CG ,AG e 1.000 kg
L ac J .17.98 m G
fQe ,20C Y 1.1135 g/mL jEG
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G Z LQO Jh .f IQGG
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(28.1F hCG 33.4C ,jdG G
54
2-2 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
e 25.0 g Y j 5-2
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.jEG e 68.7 g ,HOCH2CH2OC4H9
?G Z LQO b e
40.8C
:GG
hG c e 5-2
HGPEG j dG CH2OHCHOHCH2OH
jd AG e 1.00 * 103 g
?104.5C fZ LQO
810 g
55
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2-2 dG
jH JGSG
dG{ 20 adG VYG
Mj .G Y zRSCG
Y jG L cM G
Uj
CG Y UMG .e T AZ
q
C ,bJ jRSCG CG EG G
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d mhe V SQ jdG
d j GPe G S .RSCG
Y V SQ e SG
bS) ?(CG) dG G
H G Gg KCJ id jRSCG
j GPe S (.RSCG d mhe
dG Y q G dG Gg OGR GPEG
j{ :dG EG GUd
?RSCG
q
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Y c Y f P GSH
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56
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(bO 35) SuQO
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fGL Y Gh dG d ,jOdG
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57
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aVEG
Fe
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102.6C
:GG
e 42.9 g Y Fe j 6-2
e 500. g HGe ddG Gf
.G LQO MG .AG
2.92C
:GG
58
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hG JGSG
CG G a e cCJ 3-2 hG
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G tf
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J hGdG EG WGh .zG{
hGdG eEH .d VG
VY N dH fSG
id Nj CG G Yh .qG
QaCG H ZEG hCG ,bdG Y hG
dG Y G uT .VY AKCG
eGSG H ,G d G
.SGQd dc
LQO VfG{ 6 GC adG VYG

.G Y zG dG
fjCG OY KCJ EG GUj
YO
q
LQO G qcG e fG
u
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59
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FT C N
Ae EG e aVEG CG G j b
W u jh dG LQO aj dG
j ,dP Y Y ch .dG
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Gg j .ke fhG d AG e
1.0 mol Y 5 L M j dG G
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Z LQO S ,GMCG MCG h
Y 0.1C `H Je G Gg e
H b gh .dG AG Z LQO
EG .dG eR Se
kaNG J
k
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(FbO 10) NG
jH J
jd H AGLEG G EG WG
e 500 mL RdG G cJ
Vh e GPEG dG e Fe
) .YS 12 I LdG
,3C QJ LQO d 0.90 m NaCl
LQO d 1.9 m NaCl h
CG e cCJ .(7C kjJ hJ
SH YhCG ej G
e GPEG ,G OH J Ic
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HLCG/dG LGe
Y dG LQO JQGh dG LQO
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G j a bCG c ()
LQO JQGh ,Gd bCG cdG Y ()
f GG Yh .bCG j fZ
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59 U
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0.744C
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.H PdG
bCG e) G > CG G > G .5
VfG j s e .(YCG EG
60
2 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(FbO 90 M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
51-41 SCG ,64 U Ye LGe 53-52 GDdG ,65 U bf J 56-54 SCG ,65 U Hch H 57 GDdG ,65 U jH J 58 GDdG ,65 U Y he fSG :d eN J 2 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
2 dG QNG Ad Fh ,10 U
52 U
LGG HLCG
CG
.5
CG
.7
.6
O
CG
CG
.1
.2
.3
.4
3 mol ,2 mol .8
Hhd Hb .CG .9
Hhd Hb .
Hhd Hb Z .
Hhd Hb Z .O
Hhd Hb Z .`g
Hhd Hb .h
Hhd Hb .R
Hhd Hb Z .
Hhd Hb Z .
Hhd Hb .
J Y a dG dOG .10
dG NGdG fjCGh qcG
.FG G FdG
61
2 dG LGe
GG jL e fjCG jJ .CG .11
.jG d f
qcG fjCG J ,dG .
,jCdG h .H Y H jCG
IOLe J dG fjCG J
.HGPEG b qcG
eH dG dhdEG Lj .CG .12
FG G fjCG T Y
GG HhP LQO J e G
dG dhdEG hj .AG
.a b M EG jCj fCG EG AG
jQc CG HLCG J b .
CG jQch LhQdG
jQa CGh ,jb dhdEG
SCG Mh LhQdG
.V dhdEG
fjCG qcG j
q L dG G .13
.fHhP id
EG Vh b dG e Oj .14
Ojh .jCJ hCG GG J LQO
c EG qceh dG e
.jG e IO c GG
.QdG dG j .CG .15
.dG LQO j .
.dG LQO aj .
.AdG Y RSCG dG jj .O
G e jRSCH AG .CG .16
G EG AdG N GkcJ bCG
.GkcJ cCG
G dG j eY .
kjhe G JQG Y dG
.RSCG d
. cM g d .
j jG Z dhdEG .CG .17
cCG dG LQO ajh dG LQO
cdG hP dhdEGdG j
.f
dhdEGdG e 1 mol j .
.G G e 1 mol
Z dhdEG e 1 mol jh
fjCG e 1 mol e cCG je
.G
PdG ib EG NG S Oj .18
.G fjCG H
62
2 dG LGe
2O
KI(s) H
K+(aq) + I(aq)
.CG .19
NaNO3(s) Na+(aq) + NO3(aq) .
MgCl2(s) HO Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) .
Na2SO4(s) HO 2Na+(aq) + .O
H2O
SO42(aq)
fjCG 2 mol ,1 mol I ,1 mol K+ .CG .20

2 mol ,1 mol NO3 ,1 mol Na+ .
fjCG
3 mol ,2 mol Cl ,1 mol Mg2+ .

fjCG
2
3 mol ,1 mol SO4 ,2 mol Na+ .O
fjCG
2O
Sr(NO3)2(s) H
Sr2+(aq)
.CG .21
2NO3(aq)
fjCG 1.50 mol

2O
Na3PO4(s) H
3Na+(aq)
PO3
4 (aq)
fjCG 2.00 mol

HgCl2(aq) + K2S(aq)
.CG .22
HgS(s) +2KCl(aq)
Hg2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2K+(aq)
+S2(aq) HgS(s) +2K+(aq)
+ 2Cl(aq)
K+ ,Cl Le fjCG
HgS SGQ
Hg2+(aq)
S2(aq)
HgS(s)
Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)
2NaCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)
2Na+(aq) + CO23(aq) + Ca2+(aq)
+2Cl(aq) CaCO3(s) +2Na+(aq)
+ 2Cl(aq)
Cl ,Na+ Le fjCG
CaCO3 SGQ
Ca2+(aq)
+CO23(aq)
CaCO3(s)
3CuCl2(aq) +2(NH4)3PO4(aq)
Cu3(PO4)2(s) + 6NH4Cl(aq)
3Cu2+(aq) + 6Cl(aq) +6NH+4(aq)
+ 2PO43(aq) Cu3(PO4)2(s)
+6NH+4(aq) + 6Cl(aq)
Cl ,NH+4 Le fjCG
Cu3(PO4)2 SGQ
3Cu2+(aq)
+2PO43(aq)
Cu3(PO4)2(s)
NO3 h K+ .23
63
2 dG LGe
CuCl2(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) .24
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + PbCl2(s)
Cu2+(aq)
+ 2Cl(aq) +Pb2+(aq) +
2NO3(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

+ PbCl2(s)
Pb2+(aq)
+2Cl(aq)
1.05C
4.50 m
.
.
PbCl2(s)
.CG .25
0.93C .
0.500 m .CG .26
2.00 m .
0.826C .CG .27
0.826C .
2.79C
334 g C2H4(OH)2 .28

5.07C/m .29
165.2C .30
.CG .31
0.0091C .
Ge 5.5 m . Ge 0.49 m .CG .32
Ge 3.0 m .
5.58C .
3.72C .CG .33
5.58C .
0.060C
1.3C
0.11C .34
12.0C .35
101.2C .36
0.64 m KI .37
0.475 m Ba(NO3)2 .38
0.930C .39
,H PdG ib H ,5.58C
.k e fjCG q J
, ,CG ,O
.40
.41
0.435 m CaCl2 .42

Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq)
.CG .43
CaCl2(aq) +2NaNO3(aq)
.SGQ j
s .
.YJ j .
HBr(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + .44
Br(aq)
2O
K2S(s) H
2K+(aq) + S2(aq)
.CG .45
GG fjCG e 0.825 mol

2O
Al2(SO4)3(s) H
2Al3+(aq)
3SO2
4 (aq)
GG fjCG e 0.75 mol

0.39C .46
64
2 dG LGe
CG j d ,G HLCG J .55
dhdEG Y c J
dG dG Gh G
.a fRGJ j eY CG
CG j d ,G HLCG J .56
H G J jW J
hCG KG GfCGh dG VdG
g dGREG J dG FGdG
dSCH jdG g fQeh ,dG
.iNCG dG
dG Y G HLCG J .57
Lj d ,dEG eG
,AHd UG
dG
u
,UG
Z J Y ,dhdEc
u
.dhdEGdG e
:Y he .58
VhdG G e VSG .1
G QdGh qbdGh
.pnpb e eqG
d G eEH .2
(4 m ,3 m ,2 m ,1m) cdG ee
dhdEGdh dhdE
qd dG LQO Sb K ,FT
Y dG jC
k G feEHh .e
fGe) GQd IOqG dG
.GSCG IOLG (qdG
SQj CG dG GtG e .3
:G
cGdG .CG
jG J .
G j e hCG GG J .
bh
u ,Y npa EG G b
u .4
uc K ,dG a Y GhOCG
.dG
3Pb2+(g) + 2PO43(l) Pb3(PO4)2(s) .50
8.29% ,0.410 m
1.10C .51
NO2(aq)
.52
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) +
0.376 m
.CG
ib J .fjCG H L ib OLd .53

.IcG dG ibCG G
J CG j d ,G HLCG J .54
G Y dG dG G
.Jfeh
u
65
HNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + .47
NO3(aq)
101.8C .48
2O
Na2CO3(s) H
2Na+(aq) + CO2
3 (aq) .49
+
,0.20 mol CO2
3 ,0.40 mol Na
.GG fjCG 0.60 mol
3 dG s
YGdGh VMCG
dG dG OQGe
j Q
edG hG
dG OQGG
74 ,68 U ,Y VY
?IYb hCG M g g 5 H
86 U
72 U ,jS Y f
8 GC ,7 GC
YGdGh VMCG FN
M 4
YGdG-VMCG jf
M
1-3
GC T
16 ,15 ,14 U ,Y VY
2-3
21
T
9 GC GC T
91 U ,dG TGdG 6 H
IYdG-G YJ
M 4
23 ,22
T
10 GC GC T
LGG OQGe
ef J
15 U ,3 dG QNG
O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
61 U
jH J
89 U ,75 U
cGJ LGe
3 dG LGe
3-3
Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he
(CG)
66
dG LGdG OQGe
J jQ
69
U ,aVEG LP Fe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

93-91 U ,39 ,26-23 ,15-11 ,4 ,2 ,1 SCG ,dG LGe

1-3 dG LGe
93-91 U ,38 ,27 ,21-20 ,16 ,7 ,5 ,3 SCG ,dG LGe

2-3 dG LGe
93-91 U ,37-28 ,22 ,19 ,9 ,8 SCG ,dG LGe

3-3 dG LGe
OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T
() 66
G c
ddG c
dG dO O
3 dG
YGdGh VMCG
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
VMCG :YGdGh VMCG j 1-3
J ,SgQCG YGbh
VMCG ,YGdGh VMCG
.dGh jdG YGdGh
Qd-fhH jf j 2-3
.jd jfh
H dG YdG j 3-3
dG YGdGh VMCG
.FG
SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
e 6 dG) FdG HGdG
(TdG dG
e 1 dG) FdG dG Hc
(Y OG dG
FdG OG Hc
Ud WdG Sh fRGeh
(Y OG dG e 2 dG)
Gg e 1 dG) dG FN
(dG
dG) FG dG fjCG
(dG Gg e 2
dG IQe AH
IQdG Y cG :gP Y
EG WG .YGdGh VMCG :ee
e c Y eCG Gej CG G
WGh ,dEG FdG G cGh
3-1 dG Gej CG G EG
G U cCd QOG e Zh
,eG eCG e d ,IYdG U hCG
SG dP H .Y d hCG
IQcG OGd cG FG
SSC
k G G HLCG uXh .eCG
.YGdGh VMCG FN jd
66
1-3 dG
:1-3 dG
VMCG FN
YGdGh
bO 180 M 4 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
S LLR SCc N G AH b
Ae 200 mL SGh ,400 mL e c
H gGMEG EG VCG .SCc c
fdG h ,feCG e Gb
M e K c
e c i u M .jQchQdG
c i NG ,G AH Y .SCdG
YS .dG TdG Qh jH SCc
dG CG Gj d G
HJ ZQ FH j
eGS dG MG .T
.68 U dG VdG kM
(FbO 10) uM
jH JGSG
Geq C j CG G EG WG 1-3 dG
CG c dCSG K .1-3 dG
IOLG VMCG H ASCG Ghj
hCG WG e ,G HhG
HhG g H .cGdG Y
.Jj EG J U bH
ASCG OY GMj CG dEG WG
aq J G j dG VMCG
CG VhCG .UdG bdG N e
Y fhe
s c d VMCG ASCG
j ka .e H bdG
jdG M Y JdG Y
SG jg d .HQSCG Mh
.UdG bdG Y r nfhe
q d
67
?J g
CG dG FdG qcG H
dG uj b .IQG IjT J
k e feCGh u e IOe GSG
eGQdG GRZ CG EG ,dG Y
YJ Y J chloramines G
OLG jOdG jQcg e feCG
.u G IOG
1-3 dG
(bO 30) SQu O
ASCG{ 7 GC adG VYG
YO .G Y zVMCG
eq G VMCG Yn f EG GUj
q
dG M khD J WG K ,adG
G O K eh ,f d jG
G e d jJ EG GUj
q
.cCG Gh FdG
jH JGSG
IYdG-G Tc u b 2-3 dG
e k s e kfd J IOe H
u H .IYdG e k kfdh ,G
e 2-3 dG IgdG dG v Y
.YGdGh VMCG e Z eh ,G
u d TGdG e Yk GfCG SG
VMCG kfGdCG J fCG
.YGdGh
Y VY
dddG d t J
dG W Y G WCG
U SQdG OH kHS IG
q
e Ib c EG VCG .67
d CG G MS .dddG
OQh MCG EG j
q TdG
dG Y j H ,(IYb) feCG
eCG SCdG V .G G
VGh GdCG J GPEG ,AH bQh
.G d
IQdG p Vh ,kje pJQG :edG
.bGdG
G TQ
u :dG e dG
.G SGh
U be
WdG S G Y VYG
e vjGC Gbj CG dEG WG K .Gqd
e vjGC h VMCG e Yj GqdG
GqdG g bGe Y GkOYG ,Yj
.WdG S
68
1-3 dG
d Ie Ia
ffCG ASCG uj fOCG gdG hG

cCG VMCG ASCGh cCG
.HG
cCG fCG SG cCG G SG
MdG FOdG
MdG FOdG
Rhj-g
-g
Rh- AT
j- AT
j- AT
G- AT
jG-H
-H
?J g
M e VMCG H
T VMC
G qJ ,HCN ,fShQdG
k
H J dH jh ,FK
VMCG J dG YGdG
.G FdG
hG JGSG
CG G EG WG 2-3 hG
ASCG H HJ eY IYb GMj
Rh-h j- MdH G VMCG
g J dG ffCG ASCGh
.VMCG
VEG LP e
hG s G bdG SG .1
:ddG cCG VMCG d 2-3
HIO
.CG
HIO4 .
GG
RhOjdG M .CG
jOjdG M .
e LGh
76 U
,12-11 SCG qM :dG LGe
91 U ,15
69
1-3 dG
bO 45:fdG G
(bO 15) SQu O
d Ie Ia
c FS g dG jdG M
Oq GG cCG e t jo h ,dG Yh dh
CG dP .dG L
k fEG FdG
QfG SGh YdG eGSG
Y GkTDe dG LfEG qoj H
.ObG
:j c U oJ SCG M
q j dG d kah dPh ,CH3COOH
cDJ dG g .jdG FdG
YG e AL G LhQdG CG
GC J H .cHdG d XdG
Gk J cCG jdG VMCG U
Y e .khCG G LhQdH
sj dG ,HQSCG M ,dP
Gd .jCd Hb LhQg nJqQH
dG .H2C6H6O6 dc U oJ
S ,HQSCG FdG
.TdG dG e
?J g
g jdG Mh jdG M
SSCG H GLGj GdG G
.G G
70
1-3 dG
J
M fCG hCG ,SdG jCG jo
e OY d ,G ,jQSdG
S a .jQhdG jG qcG
d jCG Gg j ,G
e j
s dG nucleotide JdG
H e e AL gh .RNA h DNA
Sa KK SjOCG e qcG
.jd bdG eu D j dG ,ATP
dG SCG M e Ic c
#dG SCG U J
jo QhH dG (vinylacetate)
Ojo dG #dG SCG H fEG
AdG OGeh UdG OGG U e
HQ oJh .t d fG OGGh
SCG M e dG dG
GAdG d RdG SCG cJ
.ZCGh
d Ie Ia
FG dG e J
dG HCl(g) e IHCG jQchQdG
fC IOM Jh kbhM j
HCl(aq) e edG j dd .fEG
.Fe FH Iq eCG
71
1-3 dG
jS Y f
e RG He aGJ
g scJ kfMCGh .YGbh VMCG Y
W IYb hCG M e G
h .dG feCG hCG c ,AH
IYdG hCG G uj G e
hCG qWc ,GkJ cCG N e GkAL
.GhCG d IsG FGdG
pJQGh bGdG IQdG V :edG
ee s .G jeh jRdG
QuM .gQNG OGG IOd G
OGe e IOe CG hJ
t e G
(hot plates) dG UGbCG WCG .G
ke SG .SG b J GPEG
.NdG LLdG GhCG e eJ
dG OGG V :dG e dG
c e sJ K ,jdG jhM
.G H FGdG
be
d Ie Ia
J CG AGG G GQhCG J CG H
Y G AG SG .AH G kWqN
a ITe J d dG IQdG eCG .Ie
dG dG Xd dPh ,jJh g
jJ CG EG IQTEG Q) .dG TGdH qG
fG EG kLY ODj S g hO IQdG
(.e jb FGQ
IQY bQh WTCG Z G eEH .(de TGc) d M K ,
q cJh G
J CG EG dG OGe e .1
.dOe hCG jYb
G FGdG G R .2
G R H ,eM G
G eh .qe G jYdG FGdG
G GOU a LQG FGdG
.qjYb e g G eh
j bH OLh Y qLG e .3
hCG G dG EG J U
CG M .FGdG d jYdG
H I dG OGe e
jhc IOe e jdG eCG .bdG
h jb jYb IOG CG Y a
.hG J CG
e LGh
,3 GDdG M :dG LGe
76 U
,10 GDdG qM :dG LGe
91 U
72
1-3 dG
bO 45:ddG G
(bO 35) SQu O
M d{ 8 GC adG VYG
Y zFT Fe jYbh
IOLG OGG e J .G
YGdGh VMCd FG dG
.FdG
?J g
J CG (QdG) QgRCG d
g GdCG CG dP ,IYb-M TGc
dG HdG M Y J QgRCG
QgRCG g .JdG a
j dG fSfCG U Y
G GtdG AGREG SH
CG EG g IQTEG Q .jYdGh
Y NBG g j MCG G
.fSfCG U
U be
,VMCG jCJ dG QhO ud
jCJ feEG J GP G CSG
bCG ,CH4 G e dG Z AG
.HCl LhQdG jQc jCJ e H
jH JGSG
Y Ggj G O 6-3 dG
e ,JhdG fG d a
d ,hdEd dG edG H
AG AH JhdG Jj c Guj
.fhQdG jCG d
73
1-3 dG
hG JGSG
CG G EG WG 3-3 hG
LhOG SCG oJ GP GVj
.dG VMCG Oe
dG
GJG fCG e S 7 dG
YGdGh VMCG J dG c
.dG
Y VY
UGh
IYdGh G Ib
u
Ib H bd G a e cCd
,FHdG UGh
IYdGh G
u
dG e Ye Y NG
.Ue IQb P jQH RL SGH
VMCG d f cdG SG
EG WG .dGh jdG YGdGh
c Ue
Gj CG G
u
VMCG Ib Gjh ,QNG q
.InoG YGdGh
je pJQGh bGdG IQdG V :edG
dd G ee q .G
GP Ue RL SG .gQNG OGG
J d dG ac Ue
q
GHj CG hO FdG IAGH d
.dG e Gkc
u Yh FGdG LG :dG e dG
SGh ,9 EG 5 e LhQdG bdG
.G G
74
1-3 dG
jH JGSG
GeCj CG G EG WG 7-3 dG
GQq P OY GMjh ,7-3 dG
LhQg jt C J Ghjh
,LhQdG
q
GSj CG dEG WG K .a MGh
,jQSdG FdG dG
,LhQg GQq P K OLh Ghjh
u
.jt C d Hb c
d Ie Ia
YGdGh VMCd FG dG
jCJ jG e b f ,dG
YdG CG h .G fjCG d
u
jG e Ea ,G g dG
.jCJ
jH J
bH Gj CG G EG WG
e gZh dGh G U
dPh ,RG IaGG G
V IOLG VMCG jg d
.G g fe
u
G j 3-3 hG SH
jb VMCG EG VMCG Gj CG
Gj CG dEG WG .V VMCGh
OGeh ,HdG U bH
IaGG G e gZh dG
YGdG jg d dPh ,RG
.G g fe
u V IOLG
CG d 4-3 hG SH
YGbh jb YGb EG YGdG Gj
.V
ndhL Gj CG G j
Y jG G Goj fH
H J e ,YGbh VMCG
.V hCG jb
75
1-3 dG
jH JGSG
Ghcj CG G EG WG 8-3 dG
j CG d q G e iNCG Gq a
.SdG d He S d
dG IQe AH
de G j eY :fQe
H khL GSj YO ,dG Gg
e ,YGdGh VMCG H fQG
FdGh FjdG FN M
.Jbh G JfjCGh
e LGh
76 U
,14 GDdG q M :dG LGe
91 U
1-3 dG LGe
bO 45:HGdG G
f
.. ,86 U z?IYb hCG M g g{
H HdG g G S
Y G dG Rd jW
GAk H Fb JJh ,jYdG dG
.YCG cdG EG kUh fOCG cdH
HLCG/dG LGe
.FG dG qJ H jCJ jdG VMCG .CG .4
qJ H jCJ CG VMCG Z e OGG , .
.FG dG
g jCd Hb LhQg GqQP Y jG qcG gMh .5
fjCG od jCJ hCG J dG qcG gMhh ,VMCG
.YGb g chQdG
.YGb g NH3 h NaOH ,dc d NH3 d ,M g HCl
.gOGjEG Ic iNCG eCG .M
h IYb d CH3OH
k
uoJ ,H2 LhQdG d GqdG e YJ ,eM bGe .CG .1

g ,AGh eCG od YGdG e YJ ,TdG d
.dhdEG
,cGdG Yh cGdG ,G ,WG e dG ,G .
.(jQchQdG M) JjQG M
ehdG M .
RehHdG M .CG .2
e YJ ,TdG d uoJ ,HU e ,qe bGe .CG .3
.dhdEG g ,AGh eCG d VMCG
.VG GOe ,G M ,dG feCG .
76
1-3 dG
(FbO 10 ) pKCG
Y IAGb
U be
Y jQchQdG M QhO bf
IOjR gJ c uH .dG g
SH oJ HGVG hM G
kAZ IG RJ c Vh .dG Y
M KCJ e f j vW
.NGO jQchQdG
HLCG
fCG H Jh jZCG g .1
.dG Y IYG
hCG ,IG Y VfG j .2
.eO f hCG ,dG hCG ,Qt J hCG ,CG
77
2-3 dG
:2-3 dG
-VMCG jf
YGdG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
j d IQU G Y VYG
j CG e c EG WGh ,e H
.dG Gg J HJ KK e Fb
g c e SSCG Fb cG K
f g j dG CG VhCG .HdG
e ,h IOe H Uh ZQ
.Th IgdG eh e M
CG YGdGh VMCG CG VhCG
.ahX H H UJ
(bO 40) SQu O
FT C N
OG Gj G O
LGJ b .dG g Y IOLG
RJ c Gad qe HU
fjCG Y LG dG
CG d VhCG .feCGh fhQdG
fjCG e c dM SG SGbC
k G
Y YRe dG CG d jQcG
IqQP qGC Y Iqce dh ,jCG ec
.LhQdG GqQP e
jOMCG VMCG{ 21 adG VYG
FK VMCGh JhdG
j .uG Y zJhdG
dG VMCG G
nJQq P hCG M LhQg IQq P Y
.M LhQg
78
2-3 dG
jH JGSG
Gu j CG G EG WG 9-3 dG
SgQCG jJ GSG GP
YdG J YGdGh VMCd
.dG Gg gdG FdG
d Ie Ia
e edG HU G LGj
qce CG jg j :ddG IdG
-fhH H ,IYc hCG c
ka .Os YJ Y GkOYG ,Qd
fe) c j CG AG j
.(JhH e) IYc hCG (JhH
c Yj AG
H2O + NH3
OH + NH4+
A1
B2
B1
A2
IYc Yj AG
H2O + HCl
H3O+ + Cl
A1
B1
B2
A2
GhRCG eH gRh HdG g

.A2/B2 h A1/B1 :j c IYdG G
.H a eCG e jG VS
U be
OMCG :HJ H bdG VhCG
.KKh FK ,JhdG Oue ,JhdG
fc GPEG Y ,ke ,G S
VMC
G L FdG VMCG
k
eCG Gej YO hCG .JhdG jOMCG
FKh JhdG IOe VMCG Y
.f bdG
dG IQe AH
Gej G O :GOG AH
,FK ,OMCG :MdG Y Jee
jJ jJ H ,Oe ,KK
,JhdG OMCG M :ddG HdG
KK M ,JhdG FK M
.JhdG Oe M ,JhdG
79
2-3 dG
FT C N
Oe G dOe J kfMCG
:dG dG Y JhdG
H3PO4 + 3H2O 3H3O+ + PO43
Yk fG d J b HdG g
KK j jQSdG M AL CH
G S .f bdG fJhH
.U Z VdG g GP
?J g
n Me Y jdG M jCj
Me b M S j M
M CG j Ggh .hCG jCdG
MG g j
u 0.10 M jdG
0.10 M h fhQdG jCG e 0.10 M
d .LhQdG jdG jCG e
jdG jCG j fdG jCdG Me
h V M S LhQdG
e A dG MdG JhdG
IOjR fdG MG g Y j .AG
VfGh fhQdG jCG cJ
.LhQdG jdG jCG cJ
IOLG FdG GfCG
H3O+ fhQdG jCG :J
u 0.10 M
jdG jCG ,0.11 M cH
,0.09 M cH HSO4 LhQdG
.0.011 M cH SO42 jdG jCGh
80
2-3 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
(bO 35) SQu O
d Ie Ia
GqQP OY CG kfMCG G j
Y dO j
u dG LhQdG
d ucGC .kV hCG vjb G c GPEG e
G e YG .dc d eCG CG
FK V M jg j Y
,JhdG FK b Mh ,JhdG
Mh JhdG OMCG b Mh
.JhdG OMCG V
81
2-3 dG
jJ{ 9 GC adG VYG
.uG Y zIYdG-G
d KdG jdG e J
.IYdGh
d Ie Ia
YGdGh VMCd KdG jdG EG

ja .H Y H e d
G gh ,dT cCG q j jd
UNh
FG Z YdG k dZ
k
.jdG AdG IOLG J
(FbO 10 ) NG
e LGh
82 U
,16 SCG q M :dG LGe
91 U ,21-20
2-3 dG LGe
HLCG/dG LGe
.SgQCG IYb ,NaOH .CG .3
dch Qd-fhH IYb ,H2O .
.jd IYb
IYb dch Qd-fhH IYb ,NH3 .
.jd
M ,JhH fe :H2CO3 .1
Yb ,JhH e :H2O
M ,fhdEG e hR e :AlCl3 .2
.jd
IYb ,fhdEG e hR fe :Cl
.jd
82
3-3 dG
:3-3 dG
IYdG-G YJ
bO 180 M 4 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
e M gQaCG Y G S
G Gg oj c .OdG c
oj HH ch .edG IG
.YGdGh VMCG Y
(bO 40) SuQO
zOdG YJ{ 22 adG VYG
CG Gj YO .uG Y
EG ODj jb IYbh b M YJ
.Aeh Oe e jJ
d Ie Ia
g aGG IYdGh aGG G

,YdG Gd GJ
J IYdGh G c CG M
1M GedG .Yd Y H
dOG a .jQNG g 1IYbh
c ,H2O e HF YJ q dG
H2O h 2M HF QYG eEH
LhdG j CG g g G .2IYb
.f dG edG aGG
83
3-3 dG
U be
MjEG GhCGj CG G EG WG
fCG e cCJh ,dG g Y IgdG
e HClO4 h HCl CG c j
,ibCG M
hCG jv b M
H
k
k
H j CG H2O CG ch
,H3O+ ,Cl CG c dch ,ibCG IYb
YGb H J CG ClO4
.VCG YGb hCG V
84
3-3 dG
hG JGSG
dG IdG{ 10 GC adG VYG
.uG Y zYGdGh VMCd
H tJ LQO Y G j
.YGdGh VMCG
CG G EG WG 6-3 hG
jv b kaGe M
,hG e GhQj
k
aGe IYbh kV kaGe Mh
k
G O .V aGe IYbh jb
,AG e YJ dOe f d Gj
c Ghej CG Y Lj M
IYdGh VCG G EG dOe
IYdGh ibCG G EGh ,VCG
dG G G id Ru Y .ibCG
YdG CG ,G L ,Vj
q
dH YdG H GaGj jdG
IYdGh VCG G g cCG
.VCG
U be
EG WG ,Ad jJeCG dG cCd
aGG G jg GhOj CG G
H UG YdG aGG IYdGh
.AG e jL
e LGh
89 U
18-17 SCG qM :dG LGe
91 U 32-31 h
85
3-3 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
(bO 35) SQu O
jH JGSG
GSj CG G EG WG 11-3 dG
jC hdEG dG edG H
GP Ghj G O .H jQdG
,jb IYc jQdG jCG j
kHS eSG H Y OYH
AG j c Ghj jC
k G YOh
jCG e YdG G S
.jQdG
jH JGSG
GhNCj CG G EG WG 12-3 dG
Gg IgdG jG odG QYG
aJ{ fCch ,dG
IqQP CG Guj CG dEG WG .zfhdEG
HGdG J CG oj GqQP Y hCG
CG oj GqQP qGC h ,aG g
HG g SG .ISG J
FdG aNd G a jd
.HQCG VMCG H G Ib
j e QH ,gdG HGdG a
e ibCG IqQP EG fhdEG GG
g J j ,iNCG IqQP EG HGG
VMCG dM h .SCG HGdG
L OGOj ,QdG d cCG
e QH OH HGdG e fhdEG
IqQH JG cCG GqQP OY OGOj
C ,ibCG VMCG J Gg .QdG
.VCG J OH HGdG
86
3-3 dG
VMCG{ 23 adG VYG
.uG Y zQd cCG
e fG
VMCG G j
u
.cCGh Qch LhQg
jH JGSG
,eQdG M H SQG 13-3 dG
c GPEG e Gbj CG G EG WGh
.SCG M e VCG hCG ibCG
FT C N
G Y j CG G e
a ,OH YG J M SdG
iNCG IQJh GkchQg IQJ J
J CG a e cCJ .kchg
Oe ,e jCG EG OJ chQg
T d jCG e j CG j ,GqQdG
J eCG .jCG qce Le
e e Y EG Oa chQg
.gJ HGH iNCG IqQP
U be
dOG Gj CG G EG WG
HCl H Yd adG fjCG
e Ghj CG jC
k G dEG WG .NaOH h
Os G G M dOG g H J
YJ r en G IOs G IYdGh
.OdG
87
3-3 dG
U be
nJ M Gj CG G EG WG
ej J OdG Y a
Fc IOe fG dOe e .e
SG hCG ,e hCG Y jW Y
GVG Vd Oe
G IjdG HdG UE hCG ,IG
.jYdG IjdG hCG
jH JGSG
,Gj CG G EG WG 14-3 dG
,h IOe W e eCG
CG VdG QdG g oJ c
.dOJ b NaOH h HCl FN
U be
eEG Qb GhOj CG G EG WG
g .G H G YVG
,IQdG QKBG a sJ YVG
dG jObG G jC
k G H
e d OG H Y C J CG
G dc J .G G
G G QKBG j e dJ dG
dG YVG J dG QNCGh
.SGh f Y
88
3-3 dG
dG IQe AH
Y G sj CG H :be
pLCG ,G H uG dG
d G dN j be
Y G G QKBG Y faj e
jODj CG dG QhdG bf .dG
QKBG e dG OdG YJ
.G G
(FbO 10) NG
jH J
jd hCG MGG CG d Vh
u
ObdG GMG Y G G
dc .jc FGT Y G
N AGdG cCGh Lhf Yj
G EG WG .g GMG Y
FdG OG e S Gj CG
UH GC J OG g .dG GP
CG jh .cCG ,LhdG ,jdG
.LhdGh jdG ScCH J
aGG AG e YJ g ScCGh
.HG VMCG d
u ,AGdG
e LGh
,3 GDdG qM :dG LGe
89 U
9-1 SCG qM :dG LGe
92-91 U ,22-19 h
3-3 dG LGe
bO 90:HGdGh ddG G
f
g .. ,91 U zdG TGdG{
IOG G S HdG
,MCG G GQhCG e fG
GQhCG e FGT d fejh
GQhCG g eSh ,pH Tc
.FT de OG pH QN
HLCG/dG LGe
.G g dG YdG .
fhdEG adG cCG GQq P J .3
b jj OH HGdG Y Gk H
.(d SCG j)
H2CO3 + Sr(OH)2 SrCO3 + 2H2O
.CG .1
HClO4 + NaOH NaClO4 + H2O .
2HBr + Ba(OH)2 BaBr2 + 2H2O .
2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O .O
+ 2CO2
CH3COO h ibCG G g H3O+
.CG .2
.ibCG IYdG g
89
3 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(FbO 90 M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
39-36 SCG ,93 U Ye LGe 40 GDdG ,93 U bf J 41 GDdG ,93 U Hch H 42 GDdG ,93 U Y he fSG :d eN J 3 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
.61 U
LGG HLCG
GC
CG
.6
.7
.8
.9
O
O
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
GdCG e u J YGdGh VMCG .10

VMCG .dhdEG q Jh TGdG
Gq dG e YJ ,eM Ge d
,H2(g) LhQdG RZ d dG
G d
u YGdG e YJh
,e Ge a YGdG eCG .AGh
e YJh HU eh
.AGh G d
u VMCG
e FdG VMCG dCJ .CG .11
dS P Yh LhQdG
g J J .YCG FHc
,~hQg FOdG GSH VMCG
K dG dG SG QL j
VMCG eCG .j~ MdG
90
3 dG LGe
LhQdG e dCa cCG
.(q a k dZ) dK Yh cCGh
gDhSCG J dG VMCGh
cCG cCG IQq P d j~ MdH
MdH gDhSCG J dG e
HNO3 jdG M
e ,Rh~
n
dG VMCG eCG .HNO2 RhdGh
~g FOdG Y gDhSCG
bCG cCG GQq P d Rh~ MdGh
j dG HG G e
M e,~g FOdG Y SG
RhQd Mh HClO RhQcdG
gDhSCG GC J VMCG .HClO2
j~ MdH Jh ~H FOdH
G e cCG cCG IQq P d
Y SG j dG HG
jQcdG M e ,~H FOdG
.HClO3 jQdG Mh HClO4
:FK VMCG .HLEG J .
:cCG VMCG .HBr ,HCl ,HF
.H2SO4 ,HNO3 ,HClO3
cCG H2SO4 jdG M q j .12
j ,Ad Yk Rf keYh Yk T
,hdG jJ ,ISCG YU
M .GQdG jQH ,jdG
j H3PO4 jQSdG
Yh Gh ISCG YU
M .d o ch ,fGG
Z ,je FS HNO3 jdG
.UCH JhdG j ,e
ISCG YU j
SdGh Gh GGh
M .IQu G OGGh UCGh
jC
k G jh ,HCl jQchQdG
ec j ,JjQG M
FGdG OGG J h qe
Rjo h .jjG SCG Jh
IG jC
k G jQchQdG M
M .dG Y gd
,Y M CH3COOH SCG
j dG Yh mU FS gh
.cGdG Yh G H LfEG
jh G G Lj gh
,SdG OGG YU
eh ,WCG d aVEc
.jd
91
3 dG LGe
H jdG VMCG jCJ .CG .13
G FG dG 100%
H dG VMCG jCJ H
.100% e H bCG
.HNO3 h HCl :jb VMCG .
.H3PO4 h HF :V VMCG
.G OH fjCG cJ .CG .14
NaOH(aq) ke .HLEG J .
IYb NH3(aq) H ,jb IYb
.V
,HCl e JhdG OMCG G .15
.AL c e a GkMGh kfJhH
H2SO4 e JhdG FK G
.AL c e KG fJhH
H3PO4 e JhdG KK Gh
.AL c e fJhH KK
jdG g VMCd jd jJ .16
Y noJ IOe Ca .TCGh ShCG
hCG SgQCG jf H M fCG
M jC
k G a Qd-fhH
d dG d ,jd jf H
.kU kFGO
uj kfJhH G CG H .CG .17
:dOG .aGe IYb
HF + H2O
H3O+ + F
.F aGG IYdGh HF g G
dG dG g aGG G .
.kfJhH IYdG J eY j
s
+
IYd aGG G g H3O ke
.H2O
J vjb G c c .CG .18
.V aGG JYb
j jb IYdG fc c .
.kV aGG M
CG kYf IQdG J .CG .19
.IYc hCG c eEG Yj
H2PO4 ke .HLEG J .
H3PO4 d aGG IYdG
Me ,c j CG h
.HPO42 d
u ,M jCJ
92
3 dG LGe
IYdG ,CH3COOH :G .CG .20
CH3COO aGG
H3O+ aGG G ,H2O :IYdG
aGG IYdG ,H2O :G .
G ,HCO3 :IYdG .OH
H2CO3 aGG
aGG IYdG ,HNO3 :G .
.NO3
HSO4 aGG G ,SO42 :IYdG
HS
.CG .21
H2S .
hCG jCJ jdG YGdGh VMCG .CG .22
NO3
.
.O
HNO3
aj d .G dH J
Y j ,jCJ Y dG G
CG aGG Gh aGG IYdG
e qj d dG jT fj
IYdG hCG dG G ae
.jdG
jQSdG M H IqQP c .
dHh cCG IqQH Je
IqQP SCG M d .jCJ CG
cCG IqQH Je a IMGh H
dG H GqQPh ,jCJ CG h
jCJ h C IqQH Je iNCG
M g SCG M ddh
.JhdG OMCG
GP jL e dCj HCl(g) .
QJ .jCJ gJ HGhQ
L Y dG Z jG jL
.jCdG d d HCl jL
LQO Y G Ib J .O
LhQdG c Y dh ,jCdG
HCl a .AG IOLG
H3PO4 jCj H ,c H jCj
.W H
jQchQdG M .CG .23
jchQdG M .
jdG M .CG .24
RjdG M .
jQdG M .
RhdG M .O
HI
.
H3PO4 .
HClO .O
93
HF
.CG .25
HBrO4 .CG .26
HClO2 .
3 dG LGe
(HJ)
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)
.O
H2SO4(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) +
.CG .27
2K+(aq) + 2OH(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
HSO4(aq)
HSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) +
+ SO42(aq) 2K+(aq) + SO42(aq)
+2NO3(aq) Ca2+(aq) +2NO3(aq)
SO42(aq)
+ 4H2O(l)
+ 4H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + OH(aq) 2H2O(l)
cCG hCG IG jCdG LQO .

.fdG IG e H
Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) KCl(aq) +
K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
adG fjCG dOG g dOG g

(.eoG UCH J dG
HNO3(aq) + LiOH(aq)
.CG .36
LiNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + NO3(aq) + Li+(aq)
+
OH(aq)
Li+(aq)
MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
+2Cl(aq) Mg2+(aq) +2Cl(aq)
6H3O+(aq)+ 2PO43(aq) + 3Mg2+(aq)

+ 6OH(aq) 3Mg2+(aq) +
cCG jCdG LQO

+ H2O(l)
H3O+(aq)
+HPO42(aq)
bCG g jCdG
HPO42(aq)
+ H2O(l)
H3O+(aq)
.VCG g jCdG LQO

jQahQdG M .CG .39
RbClO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Rb+(aq)+
CG G Y j .HLEG J .40
Y VMCG Y eCG Gj
CG Y .HBr hCG HCl e cCG
jJ H j dG dG Gbj
j dG dG dH e ,G
dGh keT j hCG jdG a
.G cCG OLh J

Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) .
BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Ba2+(aq)+ 2OH(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
+SO42(aq) BaSO4(s) + 4H2O(l)
Le fjCG Lj dOG g
g adG fjCG dOG Ea dd
.dG fjCG dOG f
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
2Cl(aq)
2OH(aq)
+ 2H2O(l)
3Na+(aq)
H3
O+(aq)
OH(aq)
2H2O(l)
3H3O+(aq) + 3OH(aq) 6H2O(l)
EG OJ KK Y dOG g b
UCH J dG adG fjCG dOG
(.eoG
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) +
.CG .30
H2(g)
O+(aq)
Zn(s) + 2H3
Zn2+(aq)
+ H2(g)
+ 2H2O(l)
2Al(s)+ 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq)
+ 3H2(g)
2Al(s)+
6H3O+(aq)
2Al3+(aq
+3H2(g)
+ 6H2O(l)
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g) .31
Ca(s) + 2H3O+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
+ 2H2O(l)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) +
O+(aq)
2Cl(aq)
EG ODj LG fjCG M)
:dOG
+ 2H3
Ca2+(aq)
PO43(aq)
CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ca2+(aq)+
+ 6H2O(l)
OH(aq) + H3O+(aq)
+ 2H2O(l)
+ PO43(aq) + 3Na+(aq)
+3OH(aq)
+ ClO4(aq) Rb+(aq) + ClO4(aq)
CH3COOH
.
H3PO3 .
jQcdG M .O
jQSdG M .`g
HBr .h
RhQcdG M .R
fHdG M .
H2SO4 .
3H3
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
+PO43(aq)
Cl(aq)
Na3PO4(aq) + 3H2O(l)
O+(aq)
.CG .34
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) .
N2O5(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) .
RbOH(aq) + HClO4(aq) .CG .35
.
H3PO4(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) .CG .29
2PO43(aq) + 12H2O(l)
+H2PO4(aq)
K+(aq)
H2O(l)
+
K (aq)+OH(aq)
.CG .28
Mg3(PO4)2(aq) + 6H2O(l)
H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) .38
H2PO4(aq)
2H3PO4(aq) + 3Mg(OH)2(aq) .33
+Cl(aq)
H3
+ 2H2O(l)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) +H2(g) .37
O+(aq)
+ 4H2O(l)
NO3(aq)
.O
O+(aq)+Cl(aq)
H3
.CG .32
H2O(l)
+OH(aq)
Na+(aq)
+ 4H2O(l)
Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + 2H2O(l)
EG ODj LG fjCG M)
:adG fjCG dOG
2H3O+(aq) +2OH(aq) 4H2O(l)
dOG EG OJ 2 Y dOG g b
UCH J dG adG fjCG
(.eoG
HNO3(aq) +KOH(aq) KNO3(aq) +
H2O(l)
+
+
H3O (aq)+NO3 (aq) K (aq) OH(aq)
K+(aq) + NO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
CG 93
3 dG LGe
(HJ)
e dG jdG M Nj .41
Hh .YdGh dG dG
Y e H j e QH ,LP
M c Ic J dG
N a G jdG
dd .edG YdG WdG
M fEG j CG
dG LQd Sc jdG
.dG Gg ObG dh
:Y he .42
h .hG Ia d u b
VG GOe CG Y jG
qc d g
,Al(OH)3 ,NaHCO3 e jYb
GOe e IOYh .Mg(OH)2
OGG e cCG hCG IOe Y VG
.HdG
H Gej CG G eEH
VG GOe d Ije
G qc J K eh
e jhG d aG
Y dG K ,VG GOe
CG SG dG Vd OG
.G e cCG dG e Oj
K ,Y npa EG G b
u
K .sbG Vha e bf
VS 4 dG SGQO CG d uH
dGh IjG Y dBG d
d SSCG dG S
.hG Gg
93
4 dG s
IYdG-G Ije
LhQdG bdGh
dG dG OQGe
j Q
edG hG
dG OQGG
100 ,99 U ,Y VY
25 ,24
T
13 GC ,12 GC ,11 GC GC T
114 ,113 ,107 U ,Y VY
97 U ,zjSCG Ije { 7 H
G SCG M { 8 H
101 U ,zQdG
110 U ,jS Y f
28 ,27 ,26
20 U ,4 dG QNG
O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
74 U
jH J
123 U
117 U
GjGh LhQdG bdG j

M 5
1-4
2-4
LGG OQGe
ef J
bdG eh FG dG
LhQdG
M 3
cGJ LGe
4 dG LGe
Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he
(CG)
94
dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe
J jQ
5-4 ,4-4 ,3-4 ,2-4 ,1-4 ,LP Fe
104 ,102 ,101 ,98 U ,aVEG LP Fe
6-4 ,LP Fe
116 U ,aVEG LP Fe

121-120 U ,32-24 ,16-10 ,9-6 ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe
1-4 dG LGe
121-120 U ,35-33 ,23-17 ,6 SCG ,dG LGe

2-4 dG LGe
OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T
()
94
G c
ddG c
dG dO O
4 dG
IYdG-G Ije
LhQdG bdGh
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
sjh AG tjC J Y j 1-4
LhQdG bdG e Y
.vVjQ
TGc Y c j
u 2-4
jWh ,YGdG-VMCG
bdG jd eGSG
AKCG ,dd LhQdG
.G GjG
SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
e 5 dG) FdG HG
(Y OG dG
Gg e 1 dG) dG W
(dG
Gg e 2 dG) HGG jt C J
(dG
OdG YJh YGdGh VMCG
(dG Gg e 3 dG)
dG IQe AH
-CG-CG hL
YCG CG jQCG
YCG
Y pH G cG :gP Y
Ghcj CG G EG WGh ,IQqdG
j fCG hj e hCG ,J e
hjj e J dEG WG .pH M
VMCH bYh ,pH M tJ
,1-4 dG Y G qj CG Hh .YGdGh
e Hch FGdG LGe dEG WG
VMCG pH Ve M sJ
hqOj e Hc dch ,YGdGh
.dG IAGb H Y QSG
94
1-4 dG
:1-4 dG
eh FG dG
LhQdG bdG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
L
k P Gj CG G EG WG
k SQ hCG k jJ ke hCG v SH
Ve g c ,AG jt C J u k VJ
Ghj CG dEG WGh .HG dG
HdG JGN AV HdG YdG
.YGdGh VMCG jf Y
(bO 35) SQu O
jH JGSG
JGdG jt C dG{ 24 adG k uXe
Me G EG WG ,zAd
AG jL e G
k U GOk Y CG c
dEG WG K .OH h H3O+ d

u jCj
e SQdG OH YSG e fQe
dG EG TCG .dG Gg e J e
.fjCG dG
d Ie Ia
jq C j ,dG AG e 5000 L M
.e Ib e AL EG
dG
[X] cdG eJ G S
.mol/L `H e
x cJ d
k
95
1-4 dG
hG JGSG
iNCG Ie hG Gg ucDj 1-4 hG
UJ id HdG hX j gCG
CG G EG WG .e qc
iG V Kw b tdG GMj
LQO cP gCG GcQjh ,50CEG 0C e
.IQGG
d Ie Ia
dG H G bdG
q J
hG ,dOGh jYdGh G
bdG Y cdG G eh .4-4
fG qTh IQqdG Y jhH ,ddG
.dEG G
+
[OH ] < [H3O ] :M
[OH] = [H3O+] :Oe
] > [H O+] :Yb
[
[OH
3
jH JGSG
YdG Oe cG 2-4 dG
f b H3O+ CG cCd ,dG qG
f b OH CGh ,(CG) AG YdG e
.() AG YdG e
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) (CG)
+
H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O (aq)
+ HCO3(aq)
Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) ()

+ 2OH(aq) + H2O2(g)
q j c Gqbj CG G EG WG
jg e c hM id [H3O+] h [OH]
.YdG
96
1-4 dG
d JGSG
FdG jdG YGdG HQ G e qd
YGdG g qJ .QhdG hH
1 YG UY GchQH
GchQH dch .(MOH Uh)
Uh) 2 YG UY H
.(M(OH)2
d Ie Ia
b OGOJ , EG M aVEG id
fjCG OY IOjd Gkfh ,dd .[H3O+]
e YS e kb Ea ,H3O+
dP OH cJ qa ,OH fjCG
dG g J ,25C Y .G
:VjdG bdG V
.[H3O+][OH] = 1.0*1014
?J g
YG UY GchQg c d
jo ,dd .Hhd Hb fdG
fjCG e dY cGJ H
S g Gg .AG chQdG
e e) G M GSG
.u o c hCG Vd Oc (Mg(OH)2
97
1-4 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
[OH] h [H3O+] e vc MG 1-4
0.01M HClO4
GG
[H3O+] = 1 * 10-2 M
[OH] = 1 * 10-12 M
hj Ba(OH)2 `d Fe 1-4
b e .1 * 1011 M a H3O+ cJ
?G jQe g eh ?[OH]
GG
[OH] = 1 * 103 M
5 * 104 M Ba(OH)2
FT C N
j CG a HU G b
1 * 102 OdG e UCG GOk Y 1 * 105
jdG jOdG Hc dEG WG
dPh ,0.00001 h 0.01 `d :d aG
.jOdG H NG cCd
e LGh
,4-1 SCG q M :J jQ
98 U
,1 GDdG q M :dG LGe
108 U
,8 , 5 ,1 SCG q M :dG LGe
,24 GDdGh ,120 U ,12-10
121 U
98
1-4 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
d eCG{ 25 adG VYG
.zLhQdG bdG qS Y OGe
bdG Ghj
u CG G EG WG
.Gh [H3O+] h pH H IOLG
FT C N
CG a HU G H b
.pH b VfG
J [H3O+] IOjR
k
,[H3O+] h pH H dG bdG cCdh
IOjdG CG a J dG XdG SG
OdG Y Y KCJ d jOdG MCG
GH b fT d fCG j Gg .NBG
1 u AL c Ea AGLCG 4 EG
dG
4
Ea AGLCG 8 EG GdG fT dh .UCG
1 S AL c
CGh ,UCG dG
1 e UCG
1 d ,84 e cCG 8 bdG
.
4
8
Y VY
cGdG fQe
[H3O+] H bdG jJ feEH
H dPh ,FG G [OH] h

k b SG .AH bQH je Ie
ae 14 EG W c d kfe
Y [H3O+] J H cG .jhe
EG 100 M e qbQh ,IG W
,f bdG jf e Ak GHGh .1014 M
,100 M EG 1014 M e NBG fG ubQ
G EG WG .[OH] Y qNh
W MCG Y [H3O+] e cGJ QNG
HG [OH] cJ IAGbh .IG
.NBG IG W Y QG cd
bdG Vd bQdG J
.pOH h pH H HG
?J g
cQGdG FdG q ,1909 Y
bdG S Vh e fQS .. QS
G IQY d ,(pH) LhdG
OGYCG qS SH dPh ,jYdGh
.Le
99
1-4 dG
ie { 11 CG fG adG VYG
OGG d jdG pH b
g Ghj CG G EG WG .zFdG
.dG
hG JGSG
,[H3O+]{ 12 CG adG VYG
O .zdd pOH ,pH ,[OH]
g H bdG Gj G
.HQCG SdG
H JQG EG TCG 4-4 hG
,hdG L dG bdG
dG pH j ke .a 25C Yh
pOH h 7.0 e bCG 25C Y G
pH :dG dG j Ggh 7.0 e cCG
.G dG pOH e UCG
dG bd TG dG
LGQ .25C LQO Y G dd
Y jYdG dd KG HG
.25C
Y VY
FdG OGG pH
1 M NaOH :ddG OGd qY M
q
dG IQe AH
AG IAGb G EG WG :e
bdG S GY j dG
eG Lh ,(pH) LhQdG
,3-4 dGh 3-4 hG q G
OGG pH j H SQ Vd
.FdG
M ,de feCG ,LLR IQ qb NGO

, qe Ae ,H Ae ,G
,J Y ,e Ae ,M ,G GOU
IQb 1 M HCl ,qN ,JH Y
OGG g e c pH NG .LLR
V .(dG TdG) pH Qh kee
SH U Y SdG jT
p OG .IOe c SG kJc ,f AH
IAGb K ,GdCG Me EG G
.IOe d pH b
.G
HCl d MG :dG e dG
uL .MdG eGSd NaOHh
K ,MGh AfEG FGdG H e FdG
CG b 9h 5 H G pH uY
.G J
e LGh
105 U
,16-12 SCG qM :dG LGe
120 U
100
1-4 dG
bO 45 :ddG G
aVEG
Fe
LP
.1 * 104 M HBr , pH MG
2-4
pH = 4.0 :GG
.5 * 104M Ca(OH)2 pH MG
2-4
pH = 11.0 :GG
101
1-4 dG
FT C N
TG b pH LhdG bdG qS CG
G Y Qsj a ,jQZdG e
.pH b t d G G GQOEG
bdG S Y t dG CG dP
j pH IMh QGe LhQdG
IY QG [H3O+] b VfG
k
b IOjR jC
k G jh .deCG
e d
.deCG IY QG [OH]
t
,[H3O+] b OGOJ pH = 7 EG pH = 0
e dGh
.Ie 10 000 000
q
b IOjR j pH = 14 EG pH = 0
jJ e) Iq e 1014 gQGe [H3O+]
.(Ie
d Ie Ia
(-)
, Je SG BG d
BG d .f H J dh
G H () G ,ke ,SG
EE G H Exp G hCG ,+/
...Ggh
aVEG
Fe
LP
[H3O+] a j pH e 3-4
?6.2 * 109 M jk he
pH = 8.21 :GG
pH b MG 3-4
.0.00074 M NaOH
pH = 10.87 :GG
102
1-4 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
Fe [OH] h [H3O+] MG 4-4
.pH = 9.0 LhQdG bQ
GG
* 109 M
[OH] = 1 * 105 M
[H3
O+]
=1
chQdG jCG cJ e 4-4

c GPEGh ?pH = 10.0 LhQdG bQ
?jQe g a ,Sr(OH)2 G
GG
[OH]
= 1 * 104 M
5 * 105 M Sr(OH)2
103
1-4 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
M [H3O+] b e 5-4
,dG d G jQchQdG
.pH = 0.45 LhQdG bQ CG k Y
GG
O+]
[H3
= 0.35 M
eT [OH] h [H3O+] MG 5-4

.pH = 8.7 LhQdG bQ
GG
[H3O+]
[OH]
= 2 * 109 M
= 5 * 106 M
d Ie Ia
IOLG iG J e SG
GOeh ,FdG HdG GY Y
OjE ,G jZCGh ,VG
.SdG Y de e
IU U Y V bf
GS u G aJ dG SCG
e qcC J .IQcG G SdG
J e OGG Fb J
dG dh pH Y Id SdG
SSCG Y G g U .cdGh
,MGh VZ d Sd eGSG
g H NGh HdG bf K
GSG g SSCG Y G
.a SdG
104
1-4 dG
VMCG pH{13 GC adG VYG
WG .zdGh jdG YGdGh
H bdG Y Gdj CG G EG
.jt C dG LQOh IYb hCG pH
hG JGSG
S Y G S 5-4 hG
CH kY NH3 h KOH rncJ hJ
Oj KOH OH fjCG cJ
Yh ,NH3 gcJ Ie 20
SCG M cJ jj f GG
d Ea dP eh .HCl cJ Y Ie 100
EG WG .f pH b dG
aNG g GXj CG G
tjC dG LQO hdG GhQd jgdG
.dGh jdG ,YGdGh VMCG H
e LGh
,6-4 SCG qM :dG LGe
105 U
,7 ,4-2 SCG qM :dG LGe
,32-25 SCGh 120 U ,9
121 U
1-4 dG LGe
HLCG/dG LGe
2.2 * 1012 M
.
pH = 2.35 .
1 * 108 M .CG .5
1 * 106 M .
5 * 107 M .
0.10 M H2SO4 < 0.10 M HCl < 0.10 M HF .6
M HF ,b M HCl ;b ,JhdG FK M H2SO4)

.(V
105
[H3O+] = 1.0 * 107 M .1

[OH] = 1.0 * 107 M
1 * 100 M H IOY [H3O+] j FG dG e .2
.1 * 1014 M h
Y [H3O+][OH] = 1 * 1014 M ,FG dG EG dH .3

[H3O+] = [OH] dOG dG h .25C LQO
.pH 7 CG 1 * 107 M jhj fEG CG
4.5 * 103 M .CG .4
1-4 dG
(FbO 10) p KCG
Y IAGb
dG
G dG a ,dG GJG
VY S ,(buffer solution)
.7 dG
qU be
QG NJ S Y G p S
aVEG J dG G e edG
b) .ke SGQdG c YGdGh VMCG
d IFGdG aVEG CG HLCG qJ
d pH c t J EG ODJ b
FdG Y uKD j CG dG dG
fG Lj dc .dG J G
CG e cCd ,SGQdG g AGLEG
gQNG j dG J Z iNCG eGY
.(gHh SGQdG AKCG HK J
HLCG
CaCO3 S G HLCG J
.1
J EG .AG pH b ad IYc
Oe Hb e uj AG M
dd k J a ,a HhdG EG HdG
eh ,UdG g fjCG cJ
.ke CG
ScCG J ,jdGh LhdG .2
GMG Y jRdG jdGh LhdG
e GRdG g J K ,QMCG ObdG
H q j e jd AGdG HWdG
.G
d Ie Ia
K C ,kOe OdG G j
kW AGdG OLG HdG cCG
.fHdG M jd AG e Yj
dG G ,G G e j
.OdG H fQe M cCG j
106
2-4 dG
:2-4 dG
bdG j
GjGh LhQdG
bO 225 M 5 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
Tc e Gb H eG
,SQdG AYEG e j b ,dddG
G Gg SG .e Ae 20 mL e
bQdG JG .AH bQh Y f Hd
bQdG uY ,G jGH h .d
feCG PGPH TQh
q ,k dY
IYb feCG CH G ucP .G
dG QX Ghj CG dEG WG .V
.gdG
jeh bGdG IQdG V :edG
ae Ghj CG G Yh .G
TQ .VdG e Y QeCG 3 Y J
Lh Y H H LdG e
.G
jhM bQdG dCG :jdG e dG
.jdG
(bO 35) SQu O
Y VY
dG TGdG
,QdG e G
dGh dG
q
.W TGc ,QRCG dGh ,QGh
jC
k G dG TGdG
GhGG Hh OQdG jJ GQhCG H
dG EG FdG j
q M ,AG
.SGdG e qJ K ,FdG hQ
u .cGdG
FGdG EG G e Gb H VCG
VCG .j e Mh (dG TdG)
EG dG feCG e kT mFH
.j e Mh TdG
dGh ,bGdG IQdG V :edG
AdG G Yh .G je
3 ae dG VdG e
q Y GkH
.bCG Y QeCG
FGdG q L :jdG e dG
d q G d pH q Yh ,G
.G S b 9h 5 H
107
2-4 dG
d Ie Ia
hCG YGc J jY qce TGdG

id fGdCG qJh .V VMCG
id hCG ,M e kfJhH HcG
.IYd kfJhH FYEG
?J g
.2 GM jn pG IQdG pH b J
M fEG Y IG J
g Y j dG HCl ,jQchQdG
.IG NJ dG jdG bh dG
J jG IQdG M LQO
e IG CG EG .G fCG d
e fCG jN j W AH
.dG
jH JGSG
dG TdG Qh SG 5-4dG
QOe e QdG Ae d (pH Qh)
,G Aeh ,ICG G dc ,
id G S . qG AGh
7.0 Y j b Ad pH CG ae
CG G EG WG .e H
dG Ae) .OHG Gg S Gbj
.vjYb j CaO dH dY dG
dG AGh .9h 8 H a pH hGj
(6 EG 5 e pH) vM j QdH
AG pH Mh .a HCl d
t dPh
AGd Ve
AZ hO J dG qG
k
dG AGdG CO2 H dPh ,7 Y j
,fHdG M kfe
u AG hj
.(H2CO3
108
2-4 dG
GdCG J ie{ 26 adG VYG
CG G EG WG .zTGdG
-G TGc J c GVj
.pH b Y fGdCG IYdG
FT C N
jdG e ,G H j b
CG ,pH Se GQhCG GeSG
qcCG .f jdH j MGdG TdG
Y pH Se bQh CG d
kW Jh ,TGc IY e je
a GkMGh kfd dh ,dG e Gke
.MGdG TdG j c
U be
G TGdG H cJ cG
j G EG WG .jYdGh
.IYdG-G Yd bGe
Y IYdG-G TGc d)
iNCG Y hCG COOH cHc
dh .kfJhH IYdG e Y IQOb
eCG YG e Y NBG
e kfJhH J CG NH2
.(G
H j FdG dG
.FdG TGdG
G MCG
G JH
dG MCG
109
2-4 dG
jS Y f
hL G Y Lj
e G
G d fH
s
hL dc .4h 3 JG
G
G d NBG fH
s
b Me ,d jh .6 IG e
q J b .pH b Seh Y d pH
K H ,7.0 Y qG AG pH b
.a FGdG HdG cCG
bG
H ,q bCG pH b J b ;7.0 + 0.2
.FGdG HdG cCG K
FGdG CO2 (3-4 hG LGQ ) 5.8-5.5
,jdG cCG c KG
u Hh
S dd ,pH b e uJ
FGdG CO2 d kah ,kb pH b
.KG
u hCG
GVG EG IQTEG HLCG s J b
kb AG ie JQGh ,jDhdG
se jJh ,Id Z f
Gv L jb IG J eY q e
j CG feEGh ,AYdG QGL e
Se SG .me Z AYdG b
bdG Nd L
k Qs eh Gk s e e
.SdG
FdG Y GOk YG HLEG J
s
.G
pH H GPEG .HLEG jS
q dG J b mFY ,FGO H 5.5
.M
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
e LGh
,1 GDdG qM :dG LGe
117 U
121-120 U
110
2-4 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
d Ie Ia
e NaOH e jb IYb Ije id

j ,dG hCG ,HCl e b M
dG dG Y kOe dG G
ae IYdGh G gnY j
.vFc
?J g
Lj bdG IjdG IjG Y
IYdG hCG G c H NCG
.f TdG Ij eRdG
dG IQe AH
G EG WG :dd Me
fSGh zIjG{ AL IAGb
EG GUj d ,9-4 ,8-4 ,7-4 TCH
fh equivalence points D adG f
.end points jdG
111
2-4 dG
?J g
qJ j
q ,TGdG H Y Y
jY OGe e N e dG
j dG RGG f e e
TdG Gg c h .MdG WG
Gg .kSGh fG ie d Ea , kN
bCG toj ,IjG d Tc fCG j
J dG iNCG TGdG e kJ
.IsM cCG jf f
d Ie Ia
e V YGb hCG VMCG Ije id

D adG f J ,jb VMCG hCG YGb
,OdG pH b Y pH b Y
M Ije id .dG G
u Hh
G
G Ea ,V IYb e b
u
idh .M e g D adG f Y
Ea V M e jb IYb Ije
e g D adG f Y G
G
u
.Yb
112
2-4 dG
jH JGSG
Ij e{ 27 adG VYG
adGh ,zjb IYb/b M
IYb/V M Ij e{ 28
jGd dG Ghj G O .zjb
CG EG GUj YO .dG pH
.eCG Gg OG g G Ib
Y VY
pH t J
MS
C eG IYdG-G Ije id
e 25 mL b .0.1 M NaOH
,Wh QhO Vh 0.1M HCl
NGO pH Se (OhdEG) b ZGh
c VCG .G pH
u Sh ,G
,jT AH MdG e NaOH e
pH bh aG NaOH c uSh
,dG IjG e SQG .dP AKCG
dG t dG CG EG GUj G O
e Ib aVEG id j pH b
.DadG f Y NaOH
dGh bGdG IQdG V :edG
.G je
FGdG u L :jdG e tdG
,9 h 5 H d jG pH uYh jhM
.G FGdG SG K
FT C N
jb IYb e ee c Ije id
,f cdG d V hCG b M e
cCG k M j fCG G j b
f EG Ud dG G e
Gg CG EG .dG H fQe D adG
OY HJ D adG f C j eCG
Oa .IYdG e OH G e
e 100 mL OLG G e
hj 0.01 M cH dG G
G e 100. mL OLG OdG
b CG dG H NGh .dG
dM 7.00 S OdG f pH
bh .jdG IYdG /dG G
jdG IYdG /dG G dM
.7.00 e cCG J
113
2-4 dG
bO 45 :ddG G
(bO 25) SQu O
FT C N
TdG d s J GPEG ,G j b
Gb aVEG CG ,e Gb aVEG Y
.M
k Vh cCG dG dG S cCG
M g TGdG CG gqcP
j ,dP Y AHh .YGb hCG VMCG
,b H TGdG g aVEG IYGe
hCG M e dEG e J
. e q bCG TdG d d IYb
TdG e c aVEG EG ,dP Y ka
bCG jdG f S ,RdG e cCG
c eSG d bO bCGh M
k Vh
.e bCG
Y VY
FdG S J
t
HU hj jdG d qH
MdG G FdG S IAGb
da jW OLh ,0.01 mL EG kHe
AG e kjJ 7 mL VCG .dH d
SfG KCJ dh .MS EG
IAVEG qS dG ,dG Y FdG
q Zh OSCG vSh kN SQG ,G
Qh b W OGeG Y 1 cm VH
N QdG H eCG .IU ie
G j H ,45 jhGHh MdG
.MdG Y kjOY OSCG
tdG S ,U H dP q GPEG
.bQd AdG G e Gkqeh OSCG
d dG i dG be GC bG
EG WG .G NG Y dG C G
... G J LGe G
IOGSd ,zG dG{ 60 U
Y tdG Sb IAGb M eG e
.MdG SG
114
2-4 dG
d Ie Ia
Ije Y AGLEH eb G e
be jd bO Zh jS dhCG
j .jJ H jdG f
IjH eb id d
AH Ghjj CG ,kM jG H
.a jdG f e HGbG Y jT
dG IQe AH
EG WG :MGG HJ qMCG
e 115-114 dG IAGb G
CG dEG WG K .H ddG c
Gd qe e Y Gfj
q
AGLEG GN ac Qh b Y
c Gj CGh ,IYdG-G Ije
hO MGh S Y gO IN
g Gj CG G uT .bJ
GG Gj CGh ,HSCH GG
,cCG hCG Jb JN EG jdG
WG ,FfG id .dP eCG qJ EG
H FGT EG bQdG Gj CG dEG
,MGh Y IN Y jT c
H FGdG g j dEG WG K
.MGe HJ J H YG
a FGdG GdOj CG G S
f GG Vh IOYE H
U cCJ d .UCG
hCG dG EG LdH GG JJ
.JMe JaO EG
115
2-4 dG
aVEG LP eCG
31.15 mL Lj HCl e ke c .1
?0.688 M cJ e
2.14 * 102 mol HCl :GG
dO j NaOH e ke c .2
?1.39 M H2SO4 e 20.0 mL
5.56 * 102 mol NaOH :GG
2.76 M KOH e M e .3
?KOH e 0.0825 mol Y j
29.9 mL :GG
aVEG
Fe
LP
RbOH e Y OJ 6-4
19.22 mL ` 25.00 mL M
?RbOH G jQe e .1.017 M HBr
0.7819 RbOH :GG
M Ba(OH)2 j 6-4
e 16.08 mL EG 29.96 mL
e .IjG Y cE 2.303 M HNO3
?Ba(OH)2 jQe
0.6180 M Ba(OH)2 :GG
jJh 0.83 M cJ N jd 6-4

NaOH e e 20.00 mL Ije
NaOH M e .0.519 M cJ
?jdG f EG Ud j dG
NaOH 32 mL :GG
116
2-4 dG
(FbO 10) NG
jH J
fhRe dOe Hc G EG WG
c Y rS .KOH e H2SO3 Ij
,1.0 M KOH e Sb
e e c e Yj KOH e ke ch
.H2SO3
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG M :J jQ
117 U
,4-2 SCG M :dG LGe
117 U
6 SCG qM :dG LGe
121-120 U ,35-33 h 23-19 h
2-4 dG LGe
HLCG/dG LGe
.4
14
pH
10
7
D adG f
5
4
0.030 M HCl .3
1
0
117
g aehdG QRCGh G JH .CG .1

.SG TdG
g dG MCGh dddG .
.SG TdG
6.67 * 103 M NaOH .2
20
40
60
mL HCl
80
2-4 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG
Y IAGb
bdG JQG G e bf
Gg KCJh ,GQeEG Hd LhQdG
IG dGh ,JGQeEG dG
e dG fG QKBGh HdG
.FdG G g
HLCG
bO 45 :eG G
f
zQdG G SCG M{
S HdG g .. ,101 U
.QdG G Ij G
Hd LhQdG bdG JQG .1

YGQd U Z j GQeEG
.YGQdG UG hCG FGdG JdG
LhQdG bdG JQG S Ojh
e gG JQG EG GQeEG Hd
fHdh .CaCO3 ddG fHc
,e fGL GQeEG HJ ddG
fJd IL Ie H a
2+
Hg h Pb2+ e ,edG dG GdG
e dG S M sJ dG
kMeCG d
u CO32 fHdG ffCG
dY a ,AG Hhd Hb Z
M J h dG dG
.aG G EG dG S
jQSdG H HdG e .2
EG jdG M aVEG .kfeCG cCG fC
J EG ODJ ,bH H J
G EG FdG NO3 GdG fjCG
G dGNG j CG j M aG
.ddG u dG GP NO2 jdG fjCG
,G jQSdG M aVEG eCG
SdG ffCG C ,kfeCG cCG a
fJc e J dG PO43
(Ca3(PO4)2
k e d Ca2+ ddG
kdY a AG Hhd Hb Z
G EG q j h dG dG
.aG
bO 45 :HGdG G
f
g .. ,97 U zjSCG Ije{
UGbCG Ij G S HdG
.jSCG
118
4 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG se
gG gCG dG g uJ
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
46-36 SCG ,122 U Ye LGe .47 GDdG ,122 U bf J GDdG ,123-122 U Hch H 49-48
51-50 GDdG ,123 U jH J .52 GDdG ,123 U Y he -
fSG :d eN J 4 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
QNG Ad SCG Fh ,20 U
.74 dG 4dG
LGG HLCG
GC
CG
O .1
.7
.2
.8
GC .3
.9
O .4
.5
AG jCJ Y dG fjCG OY C .10
.Gv L kb j k JGP
.(mol/L) jQH IOG cJ .11
1.0 * 10-7 M .CG .12
LQO JQH [H3O+] OGOj , .
.AG jCJ IOjR H IQGG
[OH] e cCG [H3O+] .CG .13
1.0 * 10-7 M e cCG [H3O+] .
119
.6
4 dG LGe
10 SSCd jQZdG dS
.CG .14
.fhQdG jCG cd
.pH = log [H3O+] .
S fCG EG ,HLCG J
s .
CH FdG VjdG G
H aoj dG SCG g jQZdG
,Od kjhe d 10 bdG
.7 g 107 jQZa
Oe .`g
Oe .CG .15
M .h
Yb .
Yb .R
Oe .
M .O
, ,CG ,O ,h ,`g , , ,.R .16
d dN qj dG pH ie .CG .17
.TdG
eEG g IYdG-G Tc .CG .18
.V IYb eEGh V M
TdG j G h
jCG dG e GJG dM
aj H3O+ aVEG .dG G
.e d H GJG
aJ OH IOjR Ea ,dHh
.NBG dG H GJG
.pH Se GSH .CG .19
.PH b jS J j .
TdG d gY j f g .CG .20
.IjG AKCG
f id dG u j CG .
.DadG
Td fG iG j CG .
.DadG f pH Y
IYb /b M ,HLCG J
s .21
~
hCG ,dG q J 7.0 pH ,jb
QRCG hCG G MCG hCG ,dddG
IYb /b M ,KhdG
G JdG ,7 e bCG pH :V
/V M ,KehdG QRCG hCG
,7 e cCG pH :jb IYb
M .dG MCG hCG dddG
hCG cCG pH :V IYb /V
.a Tc Lj ,7 e UCG
Y OLG e G T Hj .22.
.7 e bCG D aJ f e ,113 dG
120
4 dG LGe
.kjJ 8 EG 7 .23
[H3O+] = 3.0 * 102 M .CG .24
[OH] = 3.3 * 1013 M
[H3O+] = 1.0 * 1010 M .
[OH] = 1.0 * 104 M
[H3O+] = 5.0 * 103 M .
[OH] = 2.0 * 1012 M
[H3O+] = 5.0 * 1013 M .O
[OH] = 2.0 * 102 M
2.00
.CG .25
3.00 .
5.00 .
4.00 .O
8.00 .CG .26
5.00 .
12.00 .
7.00 .O
12.00 .CG .27
11.00 .
10.00 .
4.70 .CG .28
6.33 .
2.42 .
1 * 103M .CG .29
1.0 * 107M .
1 * 1011M .
1 * 105M .O
1 * 107 M .CG .30
1.0 * 103M .
1.0 * 1010 M .
1.0 * 108 M .O
5.9 * 105 M .CG .31
2.2 * 108 M .
3.3 * 1010 M .
2.0 * 103 M .CG .32
5.0 * 1012 M .
1.1 * 102 mol HNO3 .
0.69 g HNO3 .O
1.0 mol NaOH .CG .33
0.75 mol HNO3 .
0.10 mol Ba(OH)2 .
0.90 mol H2SO4 .O
121
4 dG LGe
7.50 * 102 M KOH .34
3.02 * 102 M HNO3 .35
8.0 * 104 M
.CG .36
1.3 * 1011 M .
7.00 .CG .37
3.00 .
12.00 .
5.00 .O
1 * 106 M .38
10.00 .39
.CG .40
3.1 *
.
1.1 * 104 M .CG .41
9.1 * 1011 M .
3.2 * 103 M .CG .42
3.1 * 1012 M .
10.08
103 M
4.84 .43
1.1 * 102HCl .44
.9.0 * 104 M Ca(OH)2 .45
.3.0 * 102 M .46
pH b FdG GdG Ou .47
FK G CG 50 mL h 25 mL Y
Pf Y hCG q dG jh ,JhdG
Pf Y dG dG jh ,hCG H+
13 dG b pH j .dG H+
.0.1 NaOH G e SJ dG
Hb Y dG dG fd J
j hCG JhdG SS fG
SCGdG Iha jR Jh .eOCG W
Y G dG Gh
dG edG jh .Y aG
dOe Y Yb pH `H j
dGREGh d aG G dG
.SCGdG Iha jR
jQchQdG M j
,PdGh jG SCG J Y
J OGG G j PEG
M ,jQchQdG M
.SCG e FGdG dGREG q J
.48
.49
122
4 dG LGe
CG j fCG EG .HLEG J
s .50
ucP .e ie V QJ
j J GSH G
.Fe
G ucP .HLEG J
s .51
edG jP SG IQhH
.L dGh ac jG
IQdG pH b J :Y he .52
fEH IG J .2 GM jG
j dG HCl jQchQdG M
dG jdG bh dG g Y
M LQO J .IG NJ
.G fCG d jG IQdG
W AH e IG CG EG
h .dG e fCG jN j
Mb hCG ,IFGdG VG je CG
HCl M Fa j ,IG
QG N
q J Y La ,IG
CG ,eAe cCG jZCG AfG
hCG ,IG M aJ dG jZCG
.IG M N Y J dG
G jJ EG G j
ujh ,gCGh hG GgCH
ASG d ek Y GQk WEG
Y G uRjh ,eG
. ASG AGLEG ujh ,dG
123
2 IMdG
FdG YdG
QdG Uh
.Ac e :SdG
M e SdG YJ :QdG SCG
.Cu2+ jd jdG
hH H e :dG SCG
.AG
124
125
5 dG s
YdG bW
dG dG OQGe
j Q
edG hG
dG OQGG
128 U ,Y VY
,Gq d YdG IQGG Sb 9 H

107 U
,pg fbh IQGG Sb 10 H
112 U
T
16 GC ,15 GC ,14 GC GC T
Yd aGdG idG
M
T
17 GC GC T
LGG OQGe
25 U ,5 dG QNG
O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
82 U
1-5
30 ,29
32 ,31
ef J
jQGG AdG
M 5
jH J
151 U
134 U
cGJ LGe
5 dG LGe
2-5
Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he
(CG) 126
G c
4
dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe
J jQ
4-5 ,3-5 ,2-5 ,1-5 ,LP Fe
138 ,130 U ,aVEG LP Fe
5-5 ,LP Fe
146 ,145 U ,aVEG LP Fe

149-148 U ,26-15 ,10-6 ,3-2 SCG ,dG LGe
1-5 dG LGe
150-148 U ,31-27 ,14-11 ,5 ,4 ,1 SCG ,dG LGe

2-5 dG LGe
OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T
G
126c
5()
G c
ddG c
dG dO O
5 dG
YdG bW
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
IQGG LQOh IQGG uj 1-5
QGG iG tdGh
jdG IQGMh YdG IQGMh
.GMG IQGMh
iG XJ c j
u 2-5
hM bd ,HhfEGh QGG
.KhM Y hCG Fc YJ
SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
dG e 1 dG) bdG M
(Y OG
6 dG) FdG HGhdG bW
(TdG dG e
4 dG) cG IOG bW jf
(Y OG dG e
Gg e 1 dG) dG cGdG
(dG
1 dG) d QGG iG
(dG Gg e
-CG-CG hL
YCG CG jQCG
YCG
126
1-5 dG
:1-5 dG
jQGG AdG
bO 225 M 5 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
,250 mL S LLR SCk c
C eG
AH 10 mL S kLqQe GkQh
CG GhcCj CG G EG WG .NdG
IQGG LQO d jAYdG c AG
jCGQ jAYdG CG dCSGh .f
IQGM IQU Y bW j CG
FJ H GfQj YO .NBG e cCG
.IQGG LQOh IQGG H
(bO 20) SQu O
a .IQGG e AdG j
fG Y g IQGG CG H
NG H OGG H bdG
CG NBG H jh .IQGG LQO
OGG H G bdG g IQGG
g IQGM LQO NG H
Vj b fCG d Vh
u .OGG
e gG e YdG d
.SGQO
FT C N
GSG kfMCG G j
cCJ .(IQGG LQOh IQGG) :eG
.eG H Nd HSG e
bdG Se IQGG LQa
.IOG e u Y d cG
n u Y H G bdG g IQGGh
n LQO NG H ,IOG
.JQGM
127
dG IQe AH
O .IQdG Y zIQGG LQO{h zIQGG{ n c cG :HQ
jdGh dG c Ghcd gP H Gej G
d gMCG j CG WGh .dG JH JG QaCGh
HQ U d TdG OJ CG hMh .IQdG Y JMe
e G AfG Yh .G QaCGh MhG QaCG H
,FdG Y aVEG H Gj YO ,dG Gg IAGb
dG Hh .VJ EG j dG AG Y IQTEG Gjh
fhcj AT c Gj CG G EG WG ,U b
.dG bGh HdG SSCG Y ,IQGG LQOh IQGG Y
1-5 dG
jH JGSG
,c CG cDd dG qXh 1-5 dG
e d ,OQHh NS e
Jh ,e e d dh .Y
.a fQd
J
(QddG hCG) QdcdG j
Ou jo .jZCG bdG i Sd
e s e c guaJ dG QddG OY
cCG e AGdG dP o YJ AGZ
G IQGG c Sb K ,Qdc
.YdG dP IQGc
Y VY
bQh SCc AG Z
e e Y IU bQh SCk c V
e GMj G Oh ,H d a
f EG iNCG SCk c
C eG .SCd j
.dG a G Y Vh ,AH
ka SCdG dH AG GC S
IQGM LQO hO SCdG IQGM LQO Y
.(233C) QdG GMG
Y OHG G EG WG .G
.je Y J a VdG dhW
AG c SG :dG e dG
ShDdG p QGh ,G G
.jdG jhM G
128
1-5 dG
hG JGSG
GeCj CG G EG WG 1-5 hG
IQGG H bdG Gjh hG
se g c ,IOG dMh YdG
GUj CG Y rS .1-5 hG
Hh YdG IQGG H bc dEG
.hG qj dG OGG FN
(eY hCG dG jah dG e)
U be
dG dG M G bf
YdG IQGG dOe XJ SGH
LQO tJ hCG ,(m) dG Fe
FGHG IQGG nLQO hCG ,(T) IQGG
.YJ (Tf hCG Ti) FdG hCG
FT C N
LQO tJ CG kdZ G j
cCG g ,c LQH q ,T IQGG
k f tdG e IMh 273 `H
G ucP .jdG jG LQdH
H IQGG LQO IOjdG CH
.C `H q f IOjdG J MGh
Y uoY e GPEG f g T j dHh
Vd bQCG EG b .K hCG C `H
j ,G S a .dG g
g 60C EG 20C e tdG
jHh .T = 60C 20C = +40C
e tdG j ,c EG IQGG LQO
:CG 333 K EG 293 K
T = 333 K 293 K = +40 K
YdG IQGG b kfMCG Jh

d ke jhe b Jh ,J/gC `H
`H fc EGh ,1-5 hG IG
.J/gK
129
1-5 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
c Sf S e b n
u So 1-5
.45C EG 30.C IQGM LQO e ,85.0 g
523 J dG eG dG Y N
.IQGM IQU Y bdG e
?SdG d YdG IQGG e .CG
Ou Ho GPEG bW e dG g J c .
?25C EG 45C IQGM LQO e
GG
0.41 J/gK .CG
7.0 * 102 J .
74 g c u Y IQGM LQO OGOJ 1-5
2.0 kJ UeG id 45C EG 15C e
IQGG e .IQGM IQU Y bdG e

?IOG d YdG
GG
0.89 J/gK
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :J jQ
130 U
,5 h 1 dGDdG q M :dG LGe
140 U
3 SCG
q M :dG LGe
149-148 U ,18-15 h
bO 45:fdG G
f
,107 U zGqd YdG IQGG Sb{
G S HdG g ..
.IOe Gqd YdG IQGG
bO 45:ddG G
130
1-5 dG
U be
jQGG AdG Oe be J
jdG GdG LG fS Ua
ed J CG dG
Y G S .FdG dOG
q eY dG eoG SG S
.jG dh G eoG Gg
GtJh Fc GtJ hM id
tJ Ea ,f bdG IOG dM
CG j jt dG d MG bdG
dG t dG j id QYG NDj
.dG bd
131
1-5 dG
jH JGSG
GJ{ 14 GC adG VYG
OQW YJ QGG iG
CG dEG WG .G Y zIQGd
QGG iG t dG Gj
dG H bdG Vh
u .JQTEG GhOu jh
dOe N e H `d jdG bdGh
HG H dG dG
,ke zFGHG bdG{ jJ .G
dHh .q HYG MEG
dOG GSG
H = HGdG HYG
edG IQTEG Y G c d
.H
FT C N
Y S GP L a Ajo e k dZ
{ hCG zHK IQGM LQO Y{ e
H aUG dG EG .zHK V
IQGG LQO Gt J J G
LoJ dG g cG idh .dGh
dGh IQGG LQO EG GdG
iG t dG CG dP ;FGHG
IQGG LQO Cch f j QGG
N t J CG Y GC j dGh
Y{ L Ea dP Y Ak H .dG
CG a J zHK Vh IQGM LQO
J FdGh FGHG YdG hX
.t J hO g c
FT C N
H `d ddGdG CG d ucCG
Z Gg C ,dG dS bdG CG J
JjL CG qH IOe a .
e G e LGQ .cM bW
.H `d ddG dG
132
1-5 dG
Gt J{ 15 GC adG VYG
Ue
YJ QGG iG
q
dEG WG .G Y zIQGd
QGG iG J CG c
t J
.Le b d IQGd Ue
Yd
q
U be
dG Lh SG G EG WG
H bdG Vd ,zG{ Y e
c hCG bdG ra n Yh H IQTEG
h G SG GPEa .YdG
bdG Uec ,eG) HdG
G bh .(IQGd UG YdG
g HM EG G j dG
.dG HM Y Sb
k (+) Le b
ra dM c j) G njo eYh
(IQGd IOQdG YdG bdG
dG e (-) bCG IjG G a
.UCG
133
1-5 dG
U be
G ddG FdG d u b
YOh OGG H jJ IQGM Y
eh ,OGG g e c QGSG Gj
.gQGSG M gqJj K
Al2O3(s)
1676.0 kJ/mol
CaCO3(s)
1206.92 kJ/mol
NO(g)
90.29 kJ/mol
O3(g)
142.7 kJ/mol
jH J
EG GUj CG G EG WG
jdG IQGM GhRCG e c e SG
.(kJ/mol `H Y sGh) fOCG sG
1.897 :SG ,C(s)
0.0 :aGG ,C(s)
0.0 :I2(s)
62.43 :I2(g)
0.0 :HCG ,P(s)
17.46 :MCG ,P(s)
296.84 :SO2(g)
395.77 :SO3(g)
H QU{ 16 GC adG VYG
Y zGtdG GfCG
CG c Gj rYOh ,qG
IOe GfC H J IQGG
.Fch Fja GtJ e
134
1-5 dG
jH JGSG
Qdc{ 29 adG VYG
d a
u .G Y zGMG
Sd RG Gg SG c
WG .GMG YJ NGdG bdG
e c Xh GVj CG G EG
,TG SCG :ddG QddG AGLCG
,AG ,jv QGM dhG LQG jhG
.eedGh ,u G
e LGh
140 U
148 U
bO 45:HGdG G
135
1-5 dG
J
Kh LhdG cCG hCG H GJd
dH gCG dG LhdG cCG
bY d GRda .dG Fc id
cCG hCG j
s .dG fEG
NGO dhRG TG N LhdG
cCG K EG jh
,GMG cu
q
dBG GJh .G LhdG
ahe Z dG Gg Y dhDG
2NO + O2 2NO2 YdG C ,ke
Gg e dEG j d jT AH j
.dG
136
1-5 dG
Gt J M{ 30 adG VYG
Y zdG bdG
W CG Gj YO .G
iG e Yd QGG iG
.YdG IQGM j Gd QGG
137
1-5 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
:dG Yd H b MG
2-5
2N2(g) + 5O2(g) 2N2O5(g)
:JHM ddG fdG SG

H2(g) + 12 O2(g) H2O(l)
Hf0 = 285.8 kJ
N2O5(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(l)
H0 = 76.6 kJ
12 N2(g) + 32 O2(g) + 12 H2(g) HNO3(l)
Hf0 = 174.1 kJ
28.4 kJ
:GG
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :J jQ
138 U
,6 h 4 dGDdG q M :dG LGe
140 U
148 U
138
1-5 dG
jH JGSG
Ghj CG G EG WG 5-5 dG
.pg fb dG dG Vj
u c
U be
L dG dG Y G S
cCG K jJ IQGM Sb
cCG hCG GMG IQGM dch ,HdG
jJ IQGM Sb H ,HdG
.ITe IQH HdG cCG hCG
139
1-5 dG
aVEG Fe M
aVEG FG u H G uc
c e 138 ,130 dG IOQGdG
.G
e LGh
,3-1 SCG q M :J jQ
140 U
2 SCG
q M :dG LGe
149-148 U ,26-19 h
1-5 dG LGe
bO 45:eG G
f
,112 U zpg fbh IQGG Sb{
G S HdG g ..
e G bdG Sd GkQdc
U cCH Sh .YJ KK
.HdG fH EG OSH pg fb
HLCG/dG LGe
:pg fb ek e .CG .6
12 O2(g)
H2O(g))
8(C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g))
9(H2(g) *
C8H18(l)
= 9(241.8 kJ)
H0
= 8(393.5 kJ)
H0
C8H18(l) 8C(s) + 9H2(g)

25 O (g)
+
2 2
H0
8CO2(g) + 9H2O(g)
= +224.13 kJ
H0 = 5100 kJ
103 g
1 mol = 22.8 mol .
mols C8H18 = 2.6 kg * *
1 kg
114.26 g
22.8 mol * (5100 kJ/mol) = 1.2 * 105 kJ
C8H18 e dL d
G hCG G bdG c g QGG iG t J EG .1

V Fc Y N q e f e IQGc
.HK
IQGc G hCG G bdG c g YdG IQGM EG .2
.YdG dP N
.qcG QGSG OGOj jdG dS OGORG c .3
N e ,q e Yd H b jW pg fb aj .4
.iNCG YJ e H `d IOG dG L
2.0 * 102 J .5
140
1-5 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG
Y IAGb
IQGM dh .G IQGM oJ
dG id ,bdG fE ,YdG
G dG GC bG .NdG LdG e
.dG JGP LdH
U be
dG LGe G EG WG
IOQdG YdH UG HdG
dPh ,d UG iNCGh IQGd
a J iNCG FGH d
bW fE L N EG AG aVEG
.IQGM IQU Y
oj OGe J G EG WG
bd G YdG NJ fCH
e EG .dG JGP LdG
G Y YJ gQe bdG
G chQg fE ,AGh
jG j GP .LhQdG RZh
G Yj) ?jOdG jQch
W jd AGdG cCG e dG
G G cCG e e
jQc aVEHh .AG e YdG e
g jJ ,jGh jOdG
(.G cCG e qG dG
?J g
e (24.30 g) Mg e MGh e e id
ad bdG e ac c J ,AG
IQGM LQO e Ae 1 L IQGM LQO
.100C EG adG
HLCG
:AG e IQGc G bdG c .1
1.0 g
(50.0 mL * )(4.18 J/gK)(75.0 K)
1 mL
= 15.7 kJ
G Yd
141
H0
b Ea ,dd
.15.7 kJ g
2-5 dG
:2-5 dG
Yd aGdG idG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
M
u ,SQdH ITG b
H2SO4 e 100 mL aVEH 9 M H2SO4
e Ae 100 mL EG H IQH qcG
IQGM LQO EG G OuH .jdG
.adG
G e eJ id GkQM c :j
OLH H2SO4 G SG .qcG
fG dM .a Se jJ
eGh ,AH fG be uN
jRb kjJe e Tb H
.IMGh I ej Se
Y AG e 100 g V ,dG
SH SCc NGO 0C IQGM LQO
VCG .JQGM LQO uSh jZQ
SCdG EG 9 M H2SO4 e 100 mL
LQO ,jdG e bO H ,b .cuMh
GG g Qc .qSh IQGG
Y G dG e 100 g kee
SCc NGO Ve 0C IQGM LQO
.SH
Y dG bdG CG d VhCG
kYJQG J AG H2SO4 HGPEG
J a ,hCG SCdG IQGM LQO
EG WG .fdG SCdG VfG
.FdG g J Gdhj CG G
EG IQTEG G HLEG J b
d eG (IQGc) bdG
.dG dG d QdG cdG
(HhfEG IOjR)
TO OLh e cCJ .jRdGh G
e kjb dG Z fh QGdG
Z GkeeJ SG .HdG be
EG WG .IQGG LQO Sb id FR
Y bCG Y QeCG 5 OHG G
.VdG e
d pH `dG qY :jdG e dG
.G J CG b 9 h 5 H
142
2-5 dG
(bO 35) SQu O
U be
hCG eCG Ghcj CG G EG WG
JM e FGdG OjORG J fCG
SCc c ,eCG g J b .edG
,AG dG hCG G HGPEGh ,LLR
G e U cM Va
c) e e kf cj
TEG ,(ke jdG bdG OL cM
.QdG e b
iG H GfQj G O
fQe e ,HhfEGh QGG
RedGh fj dG UGG
G GMdGh d eG
QGG iG CG Y ucQ .e H
EG .(kJ/mol hCG J/mol) bW GMH Sj
LQOh bW GMH Sj HhfEG CG
.(kJ/molK hCG J/molK) IQGM
dG IQe AH
GhRCG EG G b
q :f IAGb
Gjh ,H 2-5 dG GhCGj YOh
cCJ .gj dG oG M eY
TCGh hGG GhCGb b G CG
FG dch ,ac jhdGh
AGLCG jd J d ,LPdG
e GhRCG EG WG .SSCGh G
dG dG G be G
dG SCH F OGYEGh g
q S dG
Gh dG eCG MW hjj
H VGh Z GJ dG QaCH
.TdG
143
2-5 dG
jH JGSG
fC P{ 31 adG VYG
GP fCGh e HhfEG GP
dEG WG .uG Y zdY HhfEG
f G CG GMj CG
FGY bCG J HhfEG e
EG WG .HhfEG Y f g
,VjQ H dG fQe G
CG .dG Ic ke dh
Y ,(CG) dG Y J dG
S bGj Qq e Y j G
hj fCG G CG ,dG
Y J jC
k G dG CG ?G
?() dG
bO 45:fdG G
(bO 35) SQu O
dG fCG Y IG bdG cDJ

HhfEG J h Mh QGG iG
.YdG FJ Y hDe Mh
HM{ 32 adG VYG
c Vh
u .G Y zbdG
QGG iG GtJ HQ
hH vqc IG bdGh HhfEGh
.YdG
144
2-5 dG
(bO 35) SuQO
bY{ 17 GC adG VYG
QGG iGh HhfEG
WG .uG Y zYdG FH
iG Gt J HQ c ASG dEG
hH IG bdGh HhfEGh QGG
.YdG
hG JGSG
,T ,H `d H b NG 2-5 hG
G J dG dG Vd ,S
,Gk HCG dS J ,k FGO dS L
Y dH Gk e ,Le hCG dS J hCG
.IQGG LQO
aVEG LP eCG
YdG e d S b fc EG qbJ
jhe hCG UCG hCG dG e cCG ddG
.d
3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g) .1
S < 0 :GG
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) .2
S < 0 :GG
C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2(g) 6CO2 (g) .3
+ 6H2O(g)
S > 0 :GG
KNO3(s) K+(aq) + NO3(aq) .4
S > 0 :GG
145
2-5 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
fOCG Yd G0 b MG 5-5
g Vh
u .S0 h H0 b kee
IQGM LQO Y vFJ YdG S
?298 K
Cu2S(s) + S(s) 2CuS(s)
H0 = 26.7 kJ
S0 = 19.7 J/(molK)
f ,G0 = 20.8 kJ/mol :GG

aVEG Fe M
aVEG FG H G uc
c e 146 ,145 dG IOQGdG
.G
e LGh.
,1 GDdG qM :J jQ
146 U
,7-1 SCG qM :dG LGe
146 U
5-4 h 1 SCG qM :dG LGe
150-148 U ,31-27 h 14-11 h
2-5 dG LGe
HLCG/dG LGe
.HhfEG
.dS G J CG j ,v FJ YdG j d .5
.RdG e de EG dG IOG e MGh e
q jo .6
H b J ,Gdh .IQGd Ue YdG .S IQTEG Os .7
,G = H TS .dS J G ,dd FJ YdGh .Le
OGOj .Le J CG j S Ea .H > 0 h G < 0 CG h
UCG fCG j ,Yh .IQGH j eY fCG HhfEG
.G fCG e ek fG cCG
.c dS t J .1
hM L
u J HhfEG IOjdG .FGd Se g HhfEG .2
.FJ YJ
e FjdG dG t J hCG ,U HGPEG GG j b .3
EG FdG dG e hCG ,jRdG hCG FdG dG EG dG dG
.YdG N G OY IOjRh ,jRdG dG
iG n b t dG H HJ dG qdGdG g IG bdG .4
iG t dG H dG hJ gh .HhfEGh QGG
o dG b (dH) IQGG LQO V UMh QGG
146
5 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
41-33 SCG ,150 U Ye LGe 47-42 SCG ,151 U bf J 50-48 SCG ,151 U jH J 51 GDdG ,151 U Y he fSG :d eN J 5 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
.82 U
147
5 dG LGe
LGG HLCG
.4
GC
.5
CG
.cCG GdG bW .CG
.UCG GdG bW .
hCG G bdG c g H .CG
.1
.2
.3
.6
.7
Hf h ,Fc YJ N G
j dG QGG iG tJ g
e ,ce e MGh e j
q eY
Y SdG JM UY
g Hc h 1 atm V h 25C
dG QGG iG tJ
e MGh edG GMH
.IOG
MGh GMG IQGM qJ .
jdG IQGMh YG e
.dG e MGh
Gd Hf0 = H0 .8
d H M Yh .Yd Hf0
V j YGh GdG e
OY e d jdG IQGM b
.fhRG dOG Je
IG HGhdG OY t dG .9
eY HGhdG g ibh fGh
q
.GdG YG J
u
t dG CG Y pg fb j .10
Fc YJ C QGG iG
IN YdG AGS ,HK b
CG G e .GN IY hCG IMGh
Yd QGG iG t J f
dG jdG IQGM e kbfG
.GdGh Yd
(dS) ,j .11
.HhfEG IOjR J .12
.Le S h dS H .13
IQGG LQO Y TS j .14
fQH Y H G
k U G
O H IQTEG Ea dd .H e
IQGG LQO Y .G IQTEG
EG G
k c TS edG j b JG
j dHh ,H b Y jj LQO
FJ GQu J CG bh S IQTE
.YdG
148
5 dG LGe
3.6 * 103 J .15
570 K .16
35.2 J/Kmol .17
27 J/Kmol .18
IQGd OQW ,393.51 kJ .CG .19

IQGd OQW ,890.31 kJ .
IQGd Ue ,+176 kJ .
IQGd OQW ,44.02 kJ .O
,H2(g) +12O2(g) H2O(l) +285.83 kJ .CG .20
IQGd OQW
,2Mg(g) +O2(g) 2MgO(s) +1200 kJ .
IQGd OQW
Ue ,I2(s) +62.4 kJ I2(g) .
IQGd
3CO(g)+Fe2O3(s) 2Fe(s)+3CO2(g)
.O
,+24.7 kJ
IQGd OQW
Ca(s) +Cl2(g) CaCl2(s) +795.4 kJ
.CG .21
HY = +795.4 kJ
2C(s) +H2(g) +228.2 kJ C2H2(g)
HY = 228.2 kJ
S(s) +O2(g) SO2(g) +296.8 kJ
HY = +296.8 kJ
H = 117.6 kJ .22
+179.2 kJ
.CG .23
+106.5 kJ .
24.8 kJ .
2813 kJ .24
1560.6 kJ
.CG .25
3267.5 kJ .
1367.4 kJ .26
FJ YdG ,G = 345 kJ .27

Y FJ Z YdG ,G = 11 kJ .28
v FJ j fCG EG ,25C IQGM LQO
e cCG) JG IQGG LQO Y
.(63C
YdG j f ,G = 41 kJ .29
.v FJ
YdG j f ,G = 1.2 kJ .30
.v FJ
149
5 dG LGe
FJ Z ,115 kJ/mol .CG .31
FJ ,135 kJ/mol .
FJ ,623 kJ/mol .
FJ ,394.40 kJ/mol .32
G = 50.5 kJ ,f .33
e IQGd Ue YJ J EG .34
GkQhO ODj b HhfCG IOjR LCG
.vFJ YdG L Gkc
,H = 186.2 kJ ,H = 325.1 kJ .35
,H = 511.3 kJ
139 kJ .36
834.3 kJ/mol .37
,2SO2(g) +O2(g) 2SO3(g) +197.8 kJ .CG .38

IQGd OQW
,2NO2(g) +114.2 kJ 2NO(g) +O2(g) .
IQGd Ue
C2H4(g)+3O2(g) 2CO2(g) +2H2O(l)
,+1411.0 kJ
IQGd OQW
560.4 kJ .39
411 K e cCG .40
QGG dG IL jhM QddG .41

Y dG IQGG J a
,Fe VM PEG ,YdG
kH ,eeJ JQGM LQO
q jh
.G dG EG bfG e
663 J/K .42
.AYdG Je GRG C ,(A) .43

eY a G HhfEG OGOJ
.FGY cCG G JJ j
Y b jJh k Le j CG j .44
.25 J/K
LQO Y v FJ YdG j .45
Y FJ Zh G IQGG
.JG IQGG LQO
.FJ Z .46
.dG FGd Se HhfEG .47
LQO Y FGdG cG bJh
b J dd ,G dG
LQO Y Gk U dG QdG HhfEG
dG FGY OGOJ .G dG
h .dG EG bW aVEH
.HhfEG b j Hd
150
5 dG LGe
j d ,G HLEG J .48
dG e c Sb J CG
Y AG e ee c GSGh
G Y .adG IQGM LQO
,VG AG IQGM LQO Sb
K ,VG NGO dG e Vhh
QfG H AG IQGM LQO Sb
AG j e cCdG e ,dG e
G j CG j .Ie IQH
GOk heh
s ZdG SdG IOe e
YGj G CG e cCJ .AH
.edG YGb
j fCG EG ,G HLEG J .49
,u dG c Sb J CG
JQG j K ,Jh
NGO AG e q e c IQGM LQO
GSG e cCJ .QddG
OGeh eBG FGLEG G G
Qdc J .Iae
SdG e SCc GSH ,dH
.HCG YdG ZdG
j d ,G HLEG J .50
e ee c HGPEG J CG
e ee c jOdG SCG
IQGG LQO t dG Sbh ,AG
G IYGe e cCJ .dG
Se bGh AGJQGh ,edG YGd
.bH edG GOTQEG qJGh
:Y he .51
.hG Ia G EG ub
FdG YdG CH gucP
IQH
hCG ,IOdG J
q
dG cdG H EGh .IQGM
UG g XJ Y J
.dG G Yd
jZCG FM J eh
.dG JGP
IAGdG EG IOdG G EG WG
,ddG c e 141 U dG
J Pc Y OYGh
.JYhe
bf , Y a EG G b
J dBGh sbG Vha e
.hG
151
6 dG s
YdG YS
dG dG OQGe
j Q
edG hG
dG OQGG
155 U ,Y VY
YdG Y
M
FdG YdGYS
M 5
1-6
33
T
18 GC GC T
163 ,161 U ,Y VY
YS Y IKDG eGdG 11 H
117 U ,YdG
,YdG YS Y RG KCG 12 H
121 U
170 U ,jS Y f
34
T
19 GC GC T
LGG OQGe
ef J
29 U ,6 dG QNG
O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
88 U
2-6
jH J
cGJ LGe
6 dG LGe
Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he
(CG)
152
dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe
J jQ
1-6 ,LP Fe
158 U ,aVEG LP Fe

174-173 U ,17-16 ,14-10 ,7 ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe
5-6 ,4-6 ,3-6 ,2-6 ,LP Fe
169 ,167 ,166 U ,aVEG LP Fe
174-173
1-6 dG LGe
U ,20-18 ,15 ,9-8 ,5 SCG ,dG LGe

2-6 dG LGe
OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T
()
152
G c
ddG c
dG dO O
6 dG
YdG YS
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
bWh OdG jf Xj 1-6
dG dBG Ud dG
YdG L
.FdG
Y IKDG eGdG KCG Vj 2-6
u jh ,FdG YdG YS
,YdG g UJ c
.jdG fdG Y OYH
SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
dG e 1 dG) bdG M
(TdG
dG e 6 dG) HGhdG bW
(TdG OG
e 4 dG) jG cG jf
(Y OG dG
Gg e 1 dG) QG cdG
(dG
Gg e 1 dG) G IQGM
(dG
dG IQe AH
-CG-CG hL
YCG CG jQCG
YCG
CG G EG WG :gP Y
YS Ud FGW GMj
GcQd G YS .e M M
e Ia Y GktJ u YdG CG
YJ J dEG WGh .edG
iNCGh Ic YH Fc
eCG J b .jT AH
bf .jG GC U hCG dG W Y
g FGW G e
.kH hCG YS OGOJ YdG
152
1-6 dG
:1-6 dG
YdG Y
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
U M hCG ,jG P uXh
Vd ,SCG GYh (gumdrops)
CG VhCG I2 h H2 H YdG hM
cCG EG j H2 + I2 2HI YdG
G EG WG .Kh IN e
dG YdG GN J
:j c Gh
hCG H2 2H ,2H + I2 2HI (1)
hCG I2 2I ,2I + H2 2HI (2)
I2 2I ,H2+ I HI+ H (3)
H + I HI
(bO 35) SQu O
FdG YdG H
H YdG CG j ,ke .IMGh IN
j NO h CO2 jd NO2 h CO
.jG MGh OJ f
U be
FdG OGG j G EG WG
dGh ,I2 h H2 H YdG SdG
J .SQdG OH VJ
hCG JN keY FdG YdG
J g SdG FdG OGG .cCG
,YdG dBG e IN fG
OGG
u
m
Ye IOc FH J dGh
.M IN
153
1-6 dG
J
YdG dBG Y dG qFc c
c ,O3 hRhCG L j dG
Y dG (CFCs) HchQahQdG
c g FdG dBG .fEG Wf
:JCj
(1)
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
(2)
2ClO ClOOCl
(3)
ClOOCl ClOO +Cl
(4)
ClOO Cl +O2
AV SGH dG (CFCs) qj
uJ .IqG QdG GQP kfe
u ,dG
CG M .hRhCG AL J
t GqQdG g
c LfEG oOj UCG QdG IqQP
e ,g YdG dBG a Iqe
hRhCG jL Fd IaGe j
dg CG FdG Lh bh .aVEG
Y J b GkJ cCG dBG
.CFCs IO hRhCG tJ
154
1-6 dG
jH JGSG
eOdG{ 33 adG k uXe
zdqdG Z eOdGh dqdG
G CG Gj G O
bW GP JeOJ fc GPEG EG YJ
Gj G O .Se Gh
jG D adG fhdEG uKD J c
,(CG) dG YdG hM Y AB
.() h () dG KhM Yh
d cG bdG J
s b
GQq d jRGgG bW EG eOG
dG HGhdG J bh .v Fc JG
EG ODj b ,ac jRGgG bW d
.IjL HGhQ
Y VY
M hCG j IY P keoe
d Vh
u ,SCG GYh U
dG gG e Y
e MGdG ,HI jL Oj CG L
Gqbj CG G EG WG .NBG
Yh eOdG g H Ya
.NBG dG Ya
e LGh
,2 GDdG q M :dG LGe
159 U
1 dGDdG
q M :dG LGe
173 U ,10 h
dG IQe AH
dG LGe G EG WG :gP Y
be pLCG .G
sGh dG bH UG
s
q G fdG TCd G dG M
dG g Y AdG uS .5-6 h 4-6 dG
jh ,bG AKCG VJ aH k e
G EG WG K .JMe G
LPdG dCG M GHj CG L
k GhRCG G
.gq L dG MH fSG hCG 1-6
155
1-6 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
U be
dG YdG S G e uM
j K OY TEG id
gQhH dGh ,QdG e b TE
G e Ic b TE J
bdG fG c u H .bG
dG bW ad eSG IN c
.J dG Id eRdG
jH JGSG
bW dG{ 18 CG adG VYG
OQdG YdG H dG
.G Y ,zIQGd UG
YdGh
q
YJ dG bW CG Gj Yr O
YJ g cCG IQGd Ue
J G EG WG .IQGd OQW
dSh dG e JQG H dG
hS c Gbj YO .YdG hM
YdG dM dG e
QJ
t Vh qG EG WG .jdG
c fc d ,KhM e M
dG sG Yd IOhG
s bdG
.Ea e q bCG dG
156
1-6 dG
jH JGSG
Vd jG PdG uXh 5-6 dG
G
sd FdG dG d
s
YO K .5-6 dG j dG
Gg jd bdG J c Gj
.sG
U be
cdG j GP G S
GMj YO ?G
sd FdG
s
.G
sG U jd dSCG
s
157
Ea
1-6 dG
FT C N
dG HU G H b
YdG C ,GdGh YG H
eeCG gG c s j CG
id G SG e cCJ .Yh
dCG ,dG d J
.1-6 LPdG
U be
Ea HdG VJ G EG WG
aGG dG IOQGdG H ,Eah

ITG bh .1-6 LPdG dCd
c GPEG e tbJ dEG WG ,dCG H
.IQGd Ue
v CG GOk QW YdG
aVEG
Fe
LP
YdG bd dG dG SQG 1-6
,H = 30 kJ/mol `H UG
YG V .eQh ,Ea = 40 kJ/mol
e c b pYCGh .U bW ie
.Ea' h ,HY ,HeeCG
(kJ/mol) bdG
40
Ea
30
GdG
Ea
H
0
YG
eeCG
GG
H eeCG = +30 kJ/mol
HY = 30 kJ/mol
Ea' = 10 kJ/mol
158
1-6 dG
e LGh
,3-1 SCG q M :J jQ
159 U
,6-3 , 1 SCG q M :dG LGe
159 U
,7 , 4-1 SCG qM :dG LGe
174-173 ,U 17-16 ,14-11
1-6 dG LGe
HLCG/dG LGe
dG dG g SdGh ,bdG QGe b bCG G dP
IG Yd ,YdG dBG GN e IMGh IN j
s
.bdG QGe fOCG G uh ddG
.ac bW GP OdG j CG QhdG e ,YJ CG h .5
.OdG SG G jG J CG jh
.IOdG G jg jG ac J
eOdG e cCG GkOY CG dGh .b J bW GP dBG .6
.dG bW J Y IQOb jG
159
g dG bW .YdG L j dG GG S .1
G
sG .e
s
s qe EG YG jd eR bW fOCG
J M j dG q dG OdG Y j fG cJ g
.IjL HGhQ Jh
UCG HGhdG
q
c Y OdG NGdG GfCG MG GPEG YdG j .2
.H H dG G fch ,bdG e ac
eeCG YdG J bW H dG g YdG bW .3
.dGh
u H ,vFL sJh vFL HGhdG J
sG .4
s ,G
s
2-6 dG
:2-6 dG
FdG YdG YS
bO 225 M 5:G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(-)
(FbO 10) SQdG OH

Y dG MG KCJ Vh
u
QGe e V .dG e dTG
e AZ Y dG e e 2 g
hCG SdG AGLCG fG .W
G VuYh ,AdG e WG
d G CG MS .H d
,dG H BG G fG .j
.(f e) Se H kee
e GJ e j G CG S
g S J Y G uM .d
.FdG
dGh ,bGdG IQdG V :edG
OGG ac dGREG e cCJh .G je
AGLEG e e IGh G
G H aG CG cCJ .HdG
.QeCG 3 Y qJ HdG eh
G bJ H :jdG e tdG
IQGM LQO VfGh TG Y
jhM KG p QG ,G AdG
.jdG
(bO 35) SuQO
J
d ,Y eGSG OGG d
a .iNCG OGe e YdG EG e
dG GRdG oJ ,G S
WG Y aj RY L OjE
id cCdG h ,dG jQdG
dG S dch ,OG
.FHdG G cCdG e
160
2-6 dG
jH JGSG
QhO be G EG WG 6-6 dG
TG YS j AGdG Lhf
AG VG YdG ,HdG
.dG e ()
Y VY
YS Y IQGG LQO KCJ Vh
u
V .AG e Yj QGa
q Ub GQa
ShDc 3 e SCc c Ae 150 mL
V .250 mL e IMGdG S LLR
LQH Aeh ,hCG SCdG ke kAe
kAeh ,fdG SCdG adG IQGM
LQO uS .ddG SCdG kNS
.dG ShDdG e qc AG IQGM
c EG Ub
k VCG ,f bdG h
YS kee ,bdH GC HGh ,SCc
Hhd RdG edG uS .Se bJ
uj vfH kT SQG .ke Ub c
.YdG eRh IQGG LQO H bdG
dG IQe AH
Y ddG eGdG cG :tbdG FO
:IQqdG
YG f
RqG OLh
dG MG
IQGG LQO
cdG
c EG Gqbj CG G EG WG
hM YS Y KCJ eGdG d
WG ?a ,KCJ d c EGh .YdG
tbJ Hd G MCG j CG
g EG LQG .IQqdG Y FeR
.dG Gg G AfEG H bdG
d We Ghj CG dEG WG
c KCJ M gQaCG cCd hCG ,tdG
YS Y eGdG g e eY
.YdG
161
2-6 dG
jH JGSG
He cdG{ 34 adG VYG
Y zG eOdG
bdG Gj CG dEG WG .G
d VhCG .cdGh eOdG OY H
dG GdG HJ dG G CG
gh dG dG Ic c J
dG Gc e Ic c e J
MCG GdG OY OGR c ,dd .dG
OY OGOj c hCG dG jg
H AH Yh .GdG H eOdG
eOdG f S ,HK eGdG
g sc eOdG OY EG dq dG
dG OdG OGORG GPEG ,dd .f
eOdG OY OGOS eOd
.NBG g ddG
J
J cJ IOjR c d ,bGdG
JQG ODj b .YdG YS IOjR
hCG fL YJ EG Ye cJ
EG gQhH Oq D J bh .aJ YJ
g LGh d .FdG YdG AHEG
id FdG SG G
QhO e Fc Y Sb
Ye q K e Jh ,H
.Fc
FGKEG JGSG
bO 45 :fdG G
f
,zYdG YS Y IuKDG eGdG{
S HdG g .. ,117 U
IQGG LQO KDJ c uG
YS Y pH `dGh dG MGh
e Vd Oe QGa Ub YJ
.je
PGh gG
Uh cdG fCG Y H AGLEG G eEH
WG .glucose intolerance RcdG q Y V
QhO d dG FeR eCG jdG IAGb dEG
d bdG dG CG ch ,Y Rc cdG
dG Gg j CG j dG eh ,RcdG j
EG WG ,dP Y ka .dG g e bCd
Gd dG j T Y Gj CG uG
.LY jWh dG UJ b P Y
162
2-6 dG
bO 45 :ddG G
jH JGSG
fQe{ 19 GC adG VYG
H H2O2 tJ Yd GQG
CG G EG WG .z GRqM
Yd Ea b GfQjh Gj
Y rS .dG dG Gg Y G
SH GY H2O2 jJ S
a TCG e j dG H
IQGG c CG EG TCG .(UV) dG
,f g J H2O2 tJ id G
.qG YdG Qe Y dG H
Y VY
GRqGh tdG
RL Y H WCG KK V
3% e 10 mL SG .SCGdG VQdG
MCG EG VCG .U c H2O2
,1 M KI e Gb H dG
Y e Gb H dG dG EGh
fCG Y j a G dG
EG k T J h .catalase RJc
CG G EG WG .ddG dG
c gfQj CGh FdG GMj
.8-6 dG k be
dGh ,bGdG IQ qdG V :edG
.G je
Hh .dG NG :jdG e dG
G SG ,a GQdG tbJ
.G
Y he
hH jdG
,dG hG Ia d u b
cCG hdG SGQO
s J dGh
HfCG e G SdG
dGRE eAe
t
M e udJ SJ
t gh G
,HfCG J cBJ YS EG ODJ
bf .NBG EG M e dGSG IQhVh
M J J fGL G e
e jH G uc K G
WG K .VG M IAGdGh dG
G bdGh VhdG ZU dEG
.G g
163
2-6 dG
FT C N
CG YS fb CG G j b
SGH a j Fc YJ
.YdG dOe IOLG eG
CG j YJ CG YS fb CG cCG
.vj Ouj
dG
J dG GJG HGK 7 dG bj
H OsoJ fCG EG ,YdG fGb vjgX
.
,YdG fb Fe e eCG edG

SGbCG GSGh ,k edG e Sh
.jQG cGdG d
164
2-6 dG
id ,hj e k dZ fCG d Vh
u
YdG CG ,YdG Yd SGQO
J LhdG ScCG q J dG
J C dPh ,YdG JQ VJ
J
t VSH SQO b YdG
Iae J SGQdG fH CGh ,AGdG
jj iNCG eGSGh d
.hNBG AY
Y FdG YdG k b J
dG bWh ,T IQGG LQO e c
uj RqG OLh CH G ucP ,Ea
IQGG LQO J CGh ,dG bW e
dG jG eOdG f Y KDj
.G
bdG b RhJ
q
e LGh
,5-1 SCG M :dG LGe
170 U
,5 GDdG M :dG LGe
173 U
bO 45:HGdG G
f
,121 U ,zYdG YS Y RqG KCG{
SH G j HdG g ..
dN hjh ,e YJ YS
. GRqc IOe Ga d
165
2-6 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
YdG SGQO
2-6
2Mn2O7(aq) 4Mn(s) + 7O2(g)
G cCG HS cJ J Yh
,1.5 * 104 M EG 7.5 * 105 M e FdG
EG 1.2 * 104 e YdG OGORG
Gd YdG fb cG .4.8 * 104
.YdG
R = k[Mn2O7]2 :GG
eY fCG Lh ,A+B C YdG 2-6

e ,(A) `d hCG cdG Yj
e YdG qJ ,0.200 M EG 0.100 M
fb L .16.0 * 104 EG 4.0 * 105
.YdG Gd YdG HK MGh ,YdG
R = k[A]2
:GG
k = 4.0 * 103 M/s
166
2-6 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
dG YdG
3-6
A(g) B(g)
Gg YSh .hCG JdG e YJ g

eY 1.3 * 10-4 M/s hJ YdG
b e .0.040 M YG cJ j
?0.025 M kjhe [A] j eY YdG
GG
b e YdG qJ
.(0.025 M)/( 0.040 M) = 0.625
YdG a ,1 g JdG CG h
Ea dd ,f eG J H
J IjG YdG
4
.0.625 * 1.3 *10 M/s = 8.1 * 105 M/s
167
2-6 dG
bO 45 :eG G
U be
FT Yd IOu G GG EG
CG VaG .edG GMCG e dG
Y dhDe UTCG N e S
.jdG Ld e W J
jJ YH S dG CG MG
H cM C HCG dG YS Y
Ghj CG G EG WG .G
e e G Gd He eCG
.edG JM
e H YJ H dG eEH d
GG OG YdGh IMGh IN
.a YdG dOe EG dG N e
aVEG ee EG f fCG dPh
.d jQhV
FT C N
J YdG dBG e dG
bJ Ea ,Gk M C HCG g hCG IG
AT a dBG d e YS fb
Gg be J dh ,dG e
.dG
168
2-6 dG
aVEG
Fe
LP
IG P YdG YS fb EG 4-6
g C d G
u IMGdG
fhRG dOG cG .R = k[A][B]2
.C fEGh B e A Yd
A + 2B C :GG
g YdG YS fb CG Lh 5-6
GPEG YdG OGOJ ee CH .R = k[X]3
?eCG KK X cJ OGORG
.27 e YdG OGOS :GG
X Ye H YJ YS CG Lh 5-6
X cJ Yj eY YJ Z h
Ye id 4 QGe e jh
.YdG Gg YS fb cG .Z cJ
R = k[X][Z]2
:GG
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG qM :J jQ
U ,2-1 dGDdGh ,166 U
169
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174-173 U ,20-18
169
2-6 dG
jS Y f
fH hL G Y
Gg j CG j .MG d
c YdG Y IKDG eGdG hG
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GQdG Vh G Y :edG
N G jGe AGJQGh bGdG
Td HdG OGG HCG .HdG
.H d e Y I
u Gh
,k e FGdG u L :jdG e dG
dH MG .G SGh
fc GPEGh .M eGS fG
.jdG jhM eQG FU
U be
.OGG W .1-1
.qd dG MG .2
.YG cJ .3
.RqM OLh .4
Yj dG Zn e SCG Mg Yj .1-2
W EG .Cu e SCG QhH
.YdG YS Y KDJ YG
e jG dG Yj .2
e YJ e SCG cCG
IOjR CG dP .cCG e QdG
YS e jJ dG MG
.YdG
ddG cGdG e SCG Mg Yj .3
e jJ cdG IOja .G e
.YdG YS
J id SCG dG Yj .4
e jj RqG CG dP ,OedH
.YdG YS
HLCG/dG LGe
dOG e YdG fb Hc
YdG c GPEG eCG .YdG Gd FdG
Y G e H a GG Oe
.vY
Fc YJ f WCG sJ .5
L YS J .jdG uJ H
Y WCG Gd ,jdG Y YdG
.J NCd ,e IQGM LQO
.JdBGh YdG YS .1
LQO ,dG MG ,YG W .2
.GRqG OLh ,cdG ,IQGG
FdG YdG YS e jJ IOe RqG .3
kjH GkQe RqG uaj .J CG hO
Ge jJ ka RqG jh .bd
.qbCG J bW EG jH e
q
cJh YdG YS H HJ dG dOG .4
IMGh IN e YdG c GPEG .YG
170
2-6 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG
Y IAGb
?J g
HGQ q X ,VG dG fK M
Obh e EG j UUdG jEG
SJ CG EG .G GQdG
q dG RqG S Y UUdG
Z GRqG j IRqG G
q
jEG HGQ GSG bJ bh .dq a
H jC
k G dhRG UUdG
KGh Iq G UUdG KfG
q c qb e UUdG CG dP .d
.IN q U ce u j AGdG
FT C N
tdG EG kfMCG hRhCG fEG Oj
YdG Gg CG eh .NO2 `d FdG
G YdG YS Ea ,M j
G Ic LQO EG H
.b q c EG e j
s a ,jOYG
j e Ic c J
s dh
.NOx GRZ EG VOCs h CO aVEG
HLCG
fG Z RqG j .1
rndM Ye heterogeneous
RqG dM c ,rn rnFja
AfG H .jRdG YG e dG
YG a dG e j YdG
nFja ndM RqG Y
.
RH jC
k G j dG ,N2O j .2
CG d Qu ec ,dG
.SCG W
171
6 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
a uG Lh dG SCG H
.HU
24-21 SCG 175 U Ye LGe 27-25 SCG ,175 U bf J 28 GDdG ,175 U Hch H 29 GDdG ,175 U Y he fSG :d eN J ,6 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
,6 dG QNG Ad Fh .29 U
.88 U
172
6 dG LGe
LGG HLCG
O
CG
O
O
CG
.6
.7
.8
.9
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
J VGaG e Y g .CG .10

H YdGh eOdH
.jG
J bW GP J CG j.
dG bH YdG jhd
jG J CGh eRdG
dG SG H eOG
.YdG EG ODj
YG L J CG j .CG .11
bdG e jJ dqa eOd
fOCG Hh Yd NGdG
.YdG h RdG
.bd bCG G be .
eRdG dG bW J .12
c QG cCG IQGd UG dG
.dG YdG IQGM
e S d YdG e . .13
G e jh .be GN
e FdG dG Gg Oj CG
.IMGh IN jG
NO2 + O NO + O2 .14
dG gh ,dBG C HCG IG fEG .15

.dG Yd YdG O
(kJ/mol) bdG
.CG .16
80
Ea
60
Ea
GdG
H
20
YG
eeCG
HeeCG = +80 kJ/mol

HY = 80 kJ/mol
Ea = 100 kJ/mol
Ea = 20 kJ/mol
173
6 dG LGe
.
(kJ/mol) bdG
20
0
20
Ea
YG
Ea
GdG
40
eeCG
HeeCG = 40 kJ/mol
HY = +40 kJ/mol
Ea = 20 kJ/mol
Ea = 60 kJ/mol
.
(kJ/mol) bdG
70
Ea
Ea
10
0
YG
eeCG
GdG H
Y
HeeCG = +10 kJ/mol

HY = 10 kJ/mol
Ea = 70 kJ/mol
Ea = 60 kJ/mol
(kJ/mol) bdG
.CG .17
30
Ea
0
10
Ea
YG
H
eeCG
GdG
Y
HY = +10 kJ/mol
Ea = 30 kJ/mol
(kJ/mol) bdG
.
20
0
Ea
YG
Ea
GdG
95
eeCG
HY = +95 kJ/mol
A + B 2 C2 + D
.A hCG JdG .O
.B fdG JdG .`g
50
Ea
30
GdG
Ea
YG
eeCG
Ea = 50 kJ/mol
Ea = 115 kJ/mol
.18
R = k[B2]2
.21
JdG .B2 fdGh A U JdG .

.fdG g dG
YdG jJ [A] Ye R = k[A]2[B] .19
YS YJ [B] Ye ,4 = e
.YdG
R = k[A][B]2.CG .20
2.5 * 102 M2 min1 .
.
(kJ/mol) bdG
(kJ/mol) bdG
.CG
.CG
70
Ea
Ea
40
GdG
H
YG
eeCG
HeeCG = +40 kJ/mol

Ea = 70 kJ/mol
6.8 * 104 M2 min1.
174
6 dG LGe
.Ge 9 YdG
b fGh ,[A] b YJ GPEG.
YdG YS S .dG EG [B]
.dG EG
YS OGOS Se RqM SG GPEG .O
.YdG
.dG e .CG .23
IQGM LQO Y HCl jdG .
.320 K
.aQ JH jT .
175
.
(kJ/mol) bdG
YdG C) B hCG JdG .24

VfG id dG EG J
fdG JdG ,(dG EG cdG
id ,HdG EG fG YdG C) A
.(dG G cdG VfG
OJ f MGh e qe jJ .25
.KhM Z eCG jL N
Y YdG dBG CG jh
.H G bJ
aG OGd G W eDJ .26
EG Vd Ic S Me
H IQGT Ea dd ,cCG
.QfH j b k jS kYJ u J
nde CG .YJ f V Sb .27
e MGh e jd Yj RZ e
e S dG Ea RZ f
H RZ NO2 CG h .YdG QGSG
j ,dG Y N2O4 h MCG
dG IT J GSG eEH
.jC
k G
H qj Sh ,HLCG J
q .28
Gd G YdG :JCj e
.AGdG qe Jh ,MGhdGh
:Y he .29
VhdG G e bf
J EG QGG uLh K .bdGh
QN YG SGH QdG
H G j b .VhdG g
M QGeEG e QaCG
G uLh .HfCG NGO s
b GSG CG ,PdG GSG EG
hCG ,e SJ
t H fe HfCG
fC Gkf ,fHdG eCG e b
G Sd
SSCG G
t
u
GSQj G O .HfCG NGO
YS Y IuKD G eGdG KCJ
dGREG Y gKCJ ie Sbh ,YdG
.G SdG
t
20
Ea
0
Ea
YG
GdG
30
eeCG
Ea = 50 kJ/mol
J ,b f EG [A] fG GPEG.CG .22

.dG EG YdG
YS OGOS KH [B] b HV GPEG.
HGdG hGL
176
HGdG hGL
177
HGdG hGL
178
HGdG hGL
179
eh ge
180
eh ge
181
eh ge
182
eh ge
183

دليل المعلم لمادة الكيمياء - الصف الثاني عشر علمي - الجزء الاول

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دليل المعلم لمادة الكيمياء - الصف الثاني عشر علمي - الجزء الاول

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hCG AdG - dG

2008 - 2007 hCG dG

IG HdG GQeEG dhO e eAGG

LhHL cT jfdG Md AdG IOe J

LhQdG bdGh IYdG-G Ije

ocSh o dG :hCG oIMdG

t LhQdG o bdGh pIYdG-p G oIje

pYd o aGdG idG

uG IRQdG jhdG Ohu J

dG dG bQCH GOG aoJ

AdH bdG jd GAGb

cCG fhe ,cCG GQN

QdG e j G SGh jG G efH Ohj

jdGh jQdGh LGdG

uG aVEG LPdG FG Ohq J

LGe dG jQdG uaJ

vaVEG kjQJ dG LGe qeD J

,gG SSCG Y FG qoJ

dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c

jQdG c bCG LGe GQhCG

kWCG J :QNG Ad SCG F

:ddG UCG EG G ch ddG c e x c IOLG jdG dG GfCG s J CG

YJ dG OGH cJ dGh LGG OQGe

GSG bG jdG JGSG Ohu J

e IN Fc Q Vd jdG WTCH fSG .3

GAGLEH dG EG GG OGM FdG dG Oj

qcJ .IG SQGh hdG M ke edG Y j

e mY Y c GPEG jQhV Z WMG CG J If g

ud EG J .edG IOe FJ GQNG p LCG

e cCd J NBGh je NBH UG UdG GQOEG j

dh jdG H fGeh e U J Y p LCG

e cCG e edG e qcC d je NBGh J NBH dG

keBG G j e SSCG Y edH UG JGQYG b

q C H J d qfGC J fC dPh j eBG ATCG CG J

FGG AWEG SQ hCG jd j LGe QGSH p LCG

CG Lj h b QGdG Hh FGG AWEG Y jQdG EG

bdG QOe AWEG e) QGdG H GAGLE ke N

j H AGLEG AKCG Y Lj e jdG a qJ

QGfEG GQU Y G edG e gZh uG NCG

hCG QGfEG IQU J eY a Y Lj e uG j

hCG jG GHCG u J h e FGdG r RCGh QGdG Q eu CG

Ye jG GHCG .QGdG Q fh ATCG LJ

.NBG jH q GC J d ,QGdG J fCG

.JGdG L fL EG QGdG JGg bQCG V

.a FdG jRdG d Y QGdG Jg bQ j

Y kXe QOh .jG ae MU Y fH aM

HQe Z fC ICG eGSG Y IQhV ud VhCG

eGSGh jd ICe bCG EG AdG IQhH uG j

.dhCG aSEG Y k jQJ s J

q dhCG aSEG Y k jQJ J G ZT e en fCG

.NBG S C dh gQGJ OGG uM

e SJ edG TOh dG Z TTQ CG e cCJ

.JUGe Y k T j MCG d ,dG Z TTQ

.SGQO S c jGH qJh dG Z TTQ oJ

dch (bO/dH adG IT b ) edG TO aG

TTQ eS d jQhdG fdG YCGh S oJ

e Tj IHCG T fGN AGOCGh G jJ CG e cCJ

H IHCG T fGN J CG Vj hGG J M

e cCd SG SdG AGLEH YdG dH

Me aGdG AHEG N e qdG AGd G dG

b dSGh dG d eRdG OGGh Gq G jd d

IaGG OGG e CG GSH IM Y q J dM c doJ

.SQG GhO AfG Y Jh Mk U GG J

.eBG jhj HH fGh RdG GY