dG AdG - dG c

dG - Y dG dG

2008 - 2007 hCG dG

IG HdG GQeEG dhO e eAGG

jG HQ Y gGHEG
QhRdG M CG
dG N dGY
:dG bdG
adG dG
N Wa .O

LhHL cT jfdG Md AdG IOe J

dG
M J
G ae
jb ge
W MhQ :dG bdG

ALL
PRINTS

Td X HdG dH G L
J hCG jJ hCG dG Gg e AL CG f Rj
.TdG e N aGe hO jJ hCG Sh CH

jndG
n

o hCG Ao dG

ocSh o dG :hCG oIMdG

n

1 dG

dG

9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pdG o GfCG 1-1

13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pqjhdGh psGh p dG o Me :ljS wY lf
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pHGPEG
o s Y 2-1
25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t YUG o dG :ls Y lIAGb
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p dG o cJ 3-1
33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 p dG o LGe

2 dG

38

ps FG p dG
o s dG FGh
o
o fjCG

39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ps FG p dG
o scG 1-2
48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p G oGdCGh Ao G :ls Y lIAGb
2-2
50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p dd
o sdG FG
o
61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 p dG o LGe

3 dG

o YGdGh VMC
G
o

66

67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pYGdGh p VMCG FN
1-3
o
72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . os dG o YGdGh VMC
G :l jS w Y lf
o
77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pIn p G p G o cJh pVG oGOe :lsY lIAGb
78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pYGdG-p VMCG ojf 2-3
83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pIYdG-p G
o YJ 3-3
90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 p dG o LGe

4 dG

94

t LhQdG o bdGh pIYdG-p G oIje

95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
u LhQdG p bdG o eh o s FG o dG 1-4
106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p dH ps G p hGG o e :ls Y lIAGb
107
110
118
119
CG

oGjGh u LhQdG p bdG o j 2-4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p G Ap pH Qo NG :
l jS w Y lf
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pGQeEG pHJ dG
:lsY lIAGb
o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 p dG o LGe
.................................................................................

124

o s FdG
o YdG :ofdG oIMdG
n
5 dG

pYdG o bW

126

127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o sjQGG oAdG 1-5
p
141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dG o s JGP
o LdG :ls Y lIAGb

pYd o aGdG idG 2-5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 p dG o LGe

142 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147

6 dG

152

YdG o YS

153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p YdG
o s Y 1-6
160 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
u FdG p YdG o YS 2-6
170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p YdG pYS oIuKDG oeGdG :ljS w Y lf
171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .oIRqG
o G
u :ls Y lIAGb
172 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 p dG o LGe
176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pHGdG p hL oe
180 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o Gh o gG

dG Ao dG
7 dG

t FdG oGJG

184
185
192
194
201
209
217

u FdG pGJG o W 1-7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LhdG pJ p xM Oo jEG :lsY lIAGb
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GuJG
o jfG 2-7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p eCGh pYGdGh p VMCG p d oGuJG 3-7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pHGPEG oGuJG 4-7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 p dG o LGe
...................................................................................................

8 dG

222

p GNGh pIcCG
o YJ

223 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oGNGh oIcCG 1-8

228 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pdCG pfGG Op L e pjdG pFGdG o dGREG :ls Y lIAGb
229 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m GNG-pIcCG pOe oRh 2-8
234 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o dG oeGdGh oIcDG oeGdG 3-8
m
236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GNG-pIcCG
o YJ :l jS w Y lf
238 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 p dG o LGe

9 dG

oFHdG Ao dG

242
243
246
254
255
260

264

FHdG Ap dG EG l Ne 1-9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (fG)
o ddG jG 2-9
p
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ObdG jN
o GQS :lY lIAGb
........................................................................................................
o dhdEG jG 3-9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 p dG o LGe
...........................................................................................

o jhdGh o jdG Ao dG :ddG oIMdG

n
10 dG

266

o fHchQdGh oHdG

267 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o gCGh pHdG Oo Lh 1-10

271 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o jdG
o qcG 2-10
276 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o G
o fHchQdG 3-10
286 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t YdG SG
o :lY lIAGb
287 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pG
o Z
o fHchQdG 4-10
296 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 p dG o LGe

11 dG

302
303
312
320
321
324
330
331

iNCG l jY
l qce
pjdG pqcG
o UCGh o XdG
o YG 1-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . psjdG pqcd iNCG lUCG 2-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o dGh (dhRG) pGQdG Oo bh :lY lIAGb
.........................................................................................................
o jdG oYdG 3-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GddG 4-11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .p dG o jdG oSdG :lY lIAGb
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 p dG o LGe
..................................................................

12 dG

338
339
343
351
355
358
359
1363
368

o jhdG Ao dG
IGdG 1-12
.........................................................................................................
t YTEG ofG 2-12
...............................................................................................................
t hdG o TEG 3-12
...............................................................................................
t hdG oefGh Qo fG 4-12
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lIAq H l js hf
:lY lIAGb
l LefGh ...l u l d dG
o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 p dG o LGe
...................................................................................................................
o Gh o gG
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t QhdG ohG
...........................................................................................................................

7 dG s

FdG GJG
dG dG OQGe
j Q

edG hG

dG OQGG
185 U ,Y VY
20 GC

83 U ,GJG 1 HdG

36 ,35

,SCG Ka M 2 HdG
88 U

FdG GJG W
M

GJG jfG
M 3

VMCG d GJG
eCGh YGdGh
M 3

GC T

199 U ,Y VY

201 U ,Y VY
38 ,37

T
22 GC ,21 CG GC T

HGPEG GJG
M 3

,HGPEG UM HK 3 HdG
93 U

LGG OQGe
ef J
6

U ,7 dG QNG O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
37 U

jH J
221 U

,203 ,197 ,191 U

216 ,208

cGJ LGe
7 dG LGe

1-7

2-7

3-7

4-7

Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he

(CG)

184

dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

J jQ
1-7 ,LP Fe

190 U ,aVEG LP Fe

191 U ,8-1 SCG ,dG LGe

221-218 U ,50 ,47 ,45 ,32-29 ,10-8 ,1 SCG ,dG LGe

1-7 dG LGe

200 U ,6-1 SCG ,dG LGe

219-218 U ,20-11 ,7-5 ,3-2 SCG ,dG LGe

2-7 dG LGe

208 U ,8-1 SCG ,dG LGe

219

4-7 ,3-7 ,2-7 ,LP Fe

215 ,213 ,212 U ,aVEG LP Fe

U ,25-21 SCG ,dG LGe

3-7 dG LGe

216 U ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,49-48 ,44-33 ,28-26 ,4 SCG ,dG LGe

221-218 U
4-7 dG LGe

OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T

()

184

G c
ddG c
dG dO O

7 dG

FdG GJG
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
dMh SfG YdG u j 1-7
.K GJG HKh ,GJG
q J dG eGdG KCG j 2-7
KCJ jh
,GJG GVG
q
.G jCG
,VMCG fGJG q j 3-7
Gh ,eCGh ,YGdGh
.Dq dGh , qG
UM HH OG Vj
u 4-7
G HG jh HGPEG
.H

SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
OG dG e 4 dG) GJG
(Y
Qd-fhH YGbh VMCG
(dG Gg e 3 dG)
e 4 dG) JGdG AG jCJh pH
(dG Gg

dG IQe AH
gdG dG k uXe :gP Y
Fb Gj CG G EG WG
cG .SfG fCG hj YH
WG .IQqdG Y G ge
J GMj CG G EG
SfG Yd
.edG IG h YdG

184

1-7 dG

:1-7 dG
FdG GqJG W
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
Y Ghcj CG G EG WG
dH SfG h v ej K
Yh ,dG QfGh AG e
hCG dG c SfG jNCG
dG .K OY GMG
Gj CG G EG WG ,SfG
d k e gk G FJ dG hdG
FJ G IQGG LQO :ke)
FJ JG IQGG LQOh ,q dG
G eCG SG .(QfG
eh dG SfG NOE
UN
gk G FJ dG IOG hdG
v
.q e d
(FbO 10) qM

Y VY
S qSH SCc EG S
S jNCG qSH SCc EGh 2 L
SCdG iMEG
C eG .50 mL hCG 100 mL
e KG EG WG .AH JdG
e vc pYCG .GYj CG G
:ddG dH gOhRh
u IU SCk c
,YSG Qb IdG SCc
C eG{
e SG K IdG SCc H
HdG IdG SCdG Ae e a
,f bdG dP aG .NBG qd
ke CG VGdG e) zGqe IY Quch
Ae ,hCG Iq G ,j a Gk MGh
S ,fdG IG .IdG SCc
dG qd HdG ,IdG SCdG
b c ,ZQdG IdG SCdH GC HG
Y GkQOb j d dh ,AG e
G iS ,GQhO IqY H .(re
,j e c CGh M b GJG CG
.AH ke SCk c ,Ie c
GSH ,VdG Gg J CG jC
k G
g .AG d dG SCc
?jC
k G dG g GqJG S
185

1-7 dG
(bO 25) SQu O

J
GQdG GfCG H qoj dG YdG
a qTCd VsJ eY ,dG
.SfG YdG Y e ,dG
TCG e G bdG J eY
j Yd eeCG G Ea dG
,dG g ,j
q M .kLJ cCG
dG jQc e uG dG
s Y
Vqe GQqdG J eYh .HCG
.YdG j dG TC

d Ie Ia

Y Jge dG GTDG e
hCG RZ J
t ,SfG Z YJ hM
.YdG N Hhd Hb Z IOe

FT C N
Y CH qG j e k dZ
f V hG J YdG
CG Y Ou T .GJG dM YJ
Kj ,dGh eeCG ,YdG
YH d ,GJG dM QGSH
t J CG g j dd .jhe
.GdGh YG q c

186

1-7 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
(bO 25) SQu O

qU be
dOG e Gbj qG O
g Y J dG edG FdG
u dG RedG a ,dG
GSG Ghj
u CG Y .peG
eh ,GJG Y dc hOG dG
.e m YJ GJH OG

jH JGSG
YdG YS{ 20 GC adG VYG
Y ze f edG He
nYS GfQj CG dEG WG .qG
.dGh eeCG YdG
Yd dG SdG CG qd VhCG
GJG dM vaCG j edG He
M Y Y j q ,(0 = G)
c f hCG ,GdG c IOjR
.YG

187

1-7 dG

d Ie Ia

J G
k c GJG HK j e QH
.jC
k G Ic GdG c

188

1-7 dG

jH JGSG
,3-7 dG GeCj G O

3-7 dG

CG j dG K c GPEG Y dCSG K
HLCG J CG j .sbJ b YdG
,dGh eeCG ,nYdG CG G
.jhe nYH hG Gj
fe
u Y VGh GJ GC J d Gg
.G dG

d Ie Ia

j GJG HK CG G qcP
Gg GqJG b fCH gqcP .Sb GMh
.4 dG Kw eGSG Y dG

hG JGSG
qWG G EG WG 1-7 hG
Gej CGh ,hG OY NBG Y
H .K `d b c SM dBG
,fCH Gj CG j jdG
H QdG ,aCG H GMj CGh
.GJG Hd HQCG dG

189

Ea

1-7 dG

FT C N
GSG G Y j e k dZ
c K d f (K) G
GJG HKh YdG HK :
hCG CG Vh .dH IQGM LQOh
H dGh ,k U Fe H j
c ehQ H ddGh ,K c Fe
.K

d Ie Ia

g eeCG YdG GJG HK b

GJG HK d VjdG SG
.XoG dG YdG

aVEG
Fe
LP
Y GJG N j ,25C Y 1-7
,6.4 * 103 mol/L PCl3
2.5 * 102 mol/L Cl2
HK b e .4.0 * 103 mol/L PCl2 h
?dG YdG GJG
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
PCl5(g)
4.0 * 102 :GG

2.0 L S AYh j GJG Y 1-7

,0.11 mol Br2 h ,0.36 mol H2 Y

GJG HK b e ,37 mol HBr h
?dG YdG
2HBr(g)
H2(g) + Br2(g)
3.5 * 104 :GG

190

1-7 dG
(FbO 10) NG

jH J
Fc Oe IY IQqdG Y cG
G EG WG K .GJG M q
Y hCG O c Gj CG
GJG HK J Hd dPh ,IU
e Ff GfQj YOh .dOe d
.iNCG Y e hCG ,jNBG qe
e LGh
,3-1 SCG qM :J jQ
190 U
,8-1 SCG qM :dG LGe
191 U
,10-8 ,1 SCG qM :dG LGe
221-218 U ,50 ,47 ,45 ,32-29
1-7 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
[Cl2]2[H2O]2 .4
K =
[HCl]4[O2]
193 .5
54.7 .6
3.53 * 103 mol/L .7

.1-7 hG IG K b Se hj ;1.836 *

191

102

.8

dGh eeCG YdG YS a J dG dG g .CG

. HK J YGh GdG cGJh ,rnjhe
EG GJG Y dG OGG cGd VjdG UG f .
dG S
q oC G EG ae wc ,YG cGd VjdG UG
.hRG FdG YdG ee hj
.Ic Gd dG dG J ,Ic K b J e QH
.Gf fc
s YG c C ,GvL Ic

.1

.2
.3

1-7 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG

Y IAGb
LhdG tJ Gqj G O
CG T EG sGh dG G
.JdG eJ

?J g
Hf IFL THh Hg e c f
S THh ,1918 S Hg ,Ad
.1931

qU be
C ,v f f Z G Lhf q jo
.gc j N2 KdG HGdG
q jo GP Gh
u jo CG G EG WG
b .LhdG d iNCG jW dG
IQGG LQO CG G HLCG q J
dG gudj dG ,jd JG
AL jdG KdG HGdG c
.LhdG
M q L SQO Y dG Gg j
G p S .dG G jdG
M dG g ff gS c
.CN fc Ja CG o K dh

192

1-7 dG

J
FdG ISCG c e d
EG IOY YGQdG AGG j ,eRdG
UG jhJ CG YGQdG GQhdG
u oG dG ha
hCG ,dUdG hCG ,SdG e Lhd
U e ,GOdG dG hCG G
nY Y dG g QhL .iNCG
g .Lhd e jH a LJ
.feCG EG G Lhf
u jdG
,S eL MH ,Gk NDe
q G jdG aVEG ,dGSCH
.dG HS QhL EG Lhd
iNCG U e K H jh
.RQCGh IQdc

d Ie Ia

Y feCG fE Hg Y J
dG Yh dG IQGG LQO
.SG RqGh

HLCG
.Oc
Se c fEG G e CG Lh
V gUY e feCG e
.200 atm

193

.1
.2

2-7 dG

:2-7 dG

GqJG jfG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G

(-)

(FbO 10) SQdG OH

oj eY Jd GJG f Vqj
LQO qJ eY hCG ,f hCG Ye dEG
GJG mFY a .dG hCG IQGG
GOk hCG s J .JdG Gg eh jL
N j M ,MLQCG Y j
adG MCG Y AbQR fb a
NBG dG Y AGM fb Nh
e a Lj .dH MLQCG RGa
GP PEG a MLQCG Y MCG dG
RGdG IOYE jW g .fRGJ
dG a e MGh q j CH J
j eY .MCG dG H QRCG
RGJ adG H SdG dG Gg
Y TdG JdG .jL e MLQCG
ehe J MCG dG e a hf
Jh QRCG dG e a H
f j c G S .be
qcP .GdG MCG dGRE GJG Fc
H EG g e eCG Gg CG G
.j Qj ja
(bO 30) SqQO

dG IQe AH
EG WG :dGh G j
IQqdG Y GSj CG G
GY IYCG KK e khL
hCG OdG prnY .zGJG jfG{
Y KCdG{ dG OdGh zuG{
Y KCdG{ ddG OdGh zGJG
KdG qG cPG .zGJG HK
LQO qJh ,cdG qJ ,dG qJ)
bH GhC G LGh (IQGG
.hG

194

2-7 dG

J
HhG Y JT d GC e j
(HoG hCG) HdG cCG H G
cCG K aVEG oJ .GY ICG
fHdG M AG EG HdG
:SfG YJ
H2CO3(aq)
H2O(l) + CO2(g)

V ,GY WG J
Gj dd .GJG Y GkJJ ,c
e d CG dG EG GJG
j IdG oJ eY .JdG KCJ
dG H GJG Ga dG
e jh ,CO2 `dG RZ a
,jCG
q
.G

FT C N
dG G ,Y H ,G jo
.GJG qKD J dG IOjR CH jo
c Y J j e k dZ d
t oJ ,jRdG fCG a .dG Gq J
g qKC J dG IMdG G
OGYCG a J dG G ,Gq dG
OGYCG Y YG j dG
GJ CG c .GdG j dG
YdG Qe Rd FG dG
NBG RZ aVEG J dd .M
k jfG u J
EG dP iOCG dh ,KCJ CG EG dGREG hCG
.dG dG t J

195

2-7 dG

FT C N
qcJ HU G H j
e FdG dG hCG dG dG ASG
GP aj fC ,GJG HK HJ
d VhCG .G g e ASG j
fC k HK j dG IOq G cJ CG
Y dG H ,IOG aH O
f J da .IOLG q c
e oJ dd ,VhG Gt dG ZQ
.QYG

196

2-7 dG
t dG KCJ{ 35 adG VYG
Y zq e f Y IQGG LQO
JQG CG c GMj YO .G
G GJG jj IQGG LQO
UG YdG CG) bdG SG
.(IQGd

d Ie Ia

IQGG LQO tdG KCJ Osj eY

IQGM T Y bdG qJ GJG Y
UG
G ) Yoe fCch
q
OQdG G ) f hCG ,(IQGd
.(IQGd
(FbO 5) NG

jH J
edG GJG dOe IQdG Y cG
:ddG

WG K ,X(g) + 2Y(g) Z(g) + IQGM

GS c Guoj CG G EG
:ddG VhG GqdG KCH GJG
EG jfG) UGG dH Z dGREG .CG
.(dG
.(jfG ) eN RZ NOEG .
.(dG EG jfG) AYdG M J .
jfG) IQGM T Y bW aVEG .O
.(QdG EG
EG jfG) Y e jG aVEG .`g
.(dG
.(jfG ) RqM aVEG .h
e LGh
,6-5 h 1 ,SCG qM :dG LGe
200 U
,3-2 SCG qM :dG LGe
219-218 U ,19-11 ,7-5
bO 45 :fdG G

197

2-7 dG

J
fjCG (softener) dG dGREG ILCG joJ
Y dhDG fjCa .dG AG e
fjCG g .Mg2+ h Ca2+ g AG r oY
oJ .SGhQ od HdG e YJ
Na+ fjCG Mg2+ h Ca2+ fjCH
RL NGO (resin) JGdG Y IOLG
onrnor J eY .(softener) dG dGREG
gj oj ,JGdG Y Na+ fjCG
N .NaCl e qce SGH
CG Na+ fjC oj jdG Y
.JGdG Y Ca2+ h Mg2+ fjCG
GC vY kJ q e Ggh
.JT d

jH JGSG
GfCG GMj G O 6-7 dG
CG dEG WG .dG IgdG G
CGh , dG SdG Y GHj
.GJG Oe SSCG Y gj

198

2-7 dG

Y VY
oG jCG KCJ
G jCG KCJ e vY VYG
ke M
q .dG g Y soG
e 50 g VH NaCl e ke k
SCc dG jOdG jQc
GW kFOg YOh ocuM .AG e 100 mL
ka s b TEG CG cCdh .dG
dG dG fK Ie G qM
IOG e H S .Sj
q rYO K
G SCc VYG .dG dG
SGh ,dG Yb NGO G eCG
.c QNG fCG FdG e fH
jQchQdG M Ib Ib VCG
.qcG
e eJ fG jT c :j
e Va hCG fG GPEGh .qcG G
,eG K .AH khCG a ,AT G
G G ,GRqdG JJ fCGh
e Tb hCG e TH
.d Iqeh
SJ
s GP Ghj
u CG G EG WG
Ghcj CG G Y .dG NaCl
.JT d GC e hCG G jCG KCJ
JQGh ,bGdG IQdG V :edG
J h .G jeh jRdG
.e GvL kjb Gj CH d
A G qN :dG e dG
.G SGh QdG

L P{ 36 adG VYG
Y zG jCG KCd
, H GMj YOh .G
kUCG OLe ,jCG aVEG u J c
.GJd M
k jfG ,G

199

2-7dG

jH JGSG
d q d P SG 7-7 dG
CG dEG WG .dG j GPe
jCG KCJ M j e Ghj
q
.JT d GC eh G

d Ie Ia

jYd GkJ 206 dG J

.jOdG SCG
e LGh
,4-2 SCG qM :dG LGe
200 U
,20 GDdG qM :dG LGe
220 U
2-7 dG LGe
bO 45 :ddG G
f
G Mj .. ,83 U zGJG{
jfG Y c dG Gq J
.G jCG KCJ hjh
GJG
u

HLCG/dG LGe
KCj .CG .5
dG EG jfG .
dG EG jfG .
QdG EG jfG .O
.HdG cCG K a H ,pH OGOS .6
fhQdG jCG e fHdG J
G a ,OG CO2 Y jd
.M bCG GP PEG

LQO hCG dG hCG ,cdG qJ

.IQGG
.jCdG V f hCG ,SGQ ,RZ J
q
J
t HGe H e jCG aVEG J
.jCdG J hCG SGQ
Cl

.CG
.

OH .

.1

.2
.3

.4

CH3

COO

200

3-7 dG

:3-7 dG

d GqJG
YGdGh VMCG
eCGh
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(bO 15) SQdG OH
Y VY
pH h 0.10 M HCl pH b
WG .FdG Qb .0.10 M CH3COOH
NG J Gdhj CG G EG
e HdG g YCG .pH b
.0.10 M NH3 h 0.10 M NaOH
dd FHdG UdG Vhh
Qb
u
.eG
(bO 30) SQq O

?J g
dG e SCG M J JCj
J dG (Acetum) SCG JdG
dG G g SCG M .zG{
.G GG d oj

dG IQe AH
GhCGj G O :dG ueo
Y a IOLG QaCG uf K ,dG
J CG j .ge jN T
YJh jq C dG HGK gG FGN
.Dq dG

201

3-7 dG

d Ie Ia

IdG dG GhP GJG HGK J

J dd .YG qLJ fGJG EG
J dG ,dG VMCd Ka b
.H 1.0 e bCG .v FL
GJG{ 37 adG k qXe
dG q ,zpH HMh
.FG g eG

hG JGSG
WG K 2-7 hG GeCj G O
:ddG SCG
+
GJG Y H3O cd j GPe
(j) ?jQG VfH
GJG Y G cd j GPe
(j) ?jQG VfH
?dP J c ?Ka d j GPe
j Gh dG CG )
dG dG Ea ,GJG HK J
(.f J ,Ka
Z dG{ 38 adG VYG
z qG dG He qG
GMj CG dEG WG .G Y
Y pH t J G dG hJ c
dG d ,YGbh VMCG aVEG
.dH pH b s J qG Z

202

3-7 dG

J
hCG jSCG jJ Nj e k dZ
d ddG SCG M
q j b j dG G C , ue
.IG GRGaE pH H dPh ,IG
M
n eCG qG G q j
e J eCG g ffCG .V
.jSCG jo dG H+ Fa

jH J
IgdG OG G
q j qG O
e m d GhOq jh ,dG g Y
.aGG fhH YGbh VMCG jg
.HGL Gqj CG ,dM c ,Y

d Ie Ia

g Kw = [H3O+][OH] CG G qcP
s dG Ad jCG UG HK
.4 dG be

FT C N
dG CH G j e k dZ
OYG Gg .pH b t J qG
a jo Ie c a .
k U d
.pH b q J EG IYb hCG M
G EG jo qG G d
:f
u eo a C ,q dG Gg fOCG
,G G dZ dO gMCG
.aG IYdG dO NBGh
e LGh
,4-2 SCG q M :dG LGe
208 U
,21 GDdG q M :dG LGe
219 U

203

3-7 dG
bO 45:fdG G
f
,88 U zSCG Ka M{
HdG g G Hj ..
b jh ,fjCG cH UG
.SCG jOdG Ka
bO 45 :ddG G
(bO 35) SqQO

d Ie Ia

IYbh b M e dG G
j dG Gh .M e g V
e g V Mh jb IYb e
b M e dG G eCG .Yb
.Oe a ,jb IYbh

FT C N
D dG H G e c j
YdG g D dG CG VhCG .ICGQdGh
AG jL a q J dG FdG
fjCG hCG fhQdG fjCG o d
jL WMEG ICGQdG d .chQdG
.GG H AG

jH JGSG
GeCj CG G EG WG 10-7 dG
d dG TdG d Ghj CGh dG
G W Y je ,
.e d fG
q IYdGh

204

3-7 dG

205

3-7 dG

FT C N
D aJ f CH kdZ G j
gY j dG dG g IjG
g dG g CG VhCG .7 hj pH
-dG G Gje dM a
,Y H ,DadG a .jdG IYdG
gY ihJ dG dG WH g
.IYdGh G e OGYCG

?J g
(2) L Y G e

vc CG h .zG G Y{ e
jOdG SCGh SCG M e
jOdG chQg H YdG f)
g OLe (SCG Mh
. qe g G Gg Ea ,G
,SCG M L Yj eY a
.Gkc GktJ pH `dG qj

jH JGSG
Ije e{ 21 GC adG VYG
Y zjb IYbh V M
c GMj CG dEG WGh .G
e jYb YdG Gg Ff J
pH CH G qcP .dOe dh
CG dEG WG .jYdG IOjH jj
gY ihJ dG D adG f Gaq j
G eh aG IYdG e
f Y ,G CG VhCG .q dG
SCG ffCG C Yb g ,DadG
o d AG D dG Yd J
c G S .chQdG fjCG
dG SdG Y dG SdG Gg j
IYb e b M Ije Y dG
.jb

206

3-7 dG

qU be
eCG Dq Ff GfQj G O
Gsj rYOh .G T H
zM{ fCch dG g naW
g Ff Ghj
q LGh .zIYb{h
jdG YGdG eCG :dG Y dG
jdG YGdG eCG ,jdG VMCGh
YGdG eCG ,dG VMCGh
YGdG eCGh jdG VMCGh dG
.dG VMCGh dG

d Ie Ia

Y dG G D q Ff tbJ EG
cCG j V IYbh V M
.iNCG eCG GfCG e HU

jH JGSG
Ije e{ 22 GC adG VYG
Y zV IYbh b M
c GMj CG dEG WGh .G
e M YdG Gg Ff J
Gg GfQj CG dEG WG .dOe dh
dEG WG .11-7 dG e dG SdG
f Y pH b J GP Ghj
u CG
.DadG

207

3-7dG
(FbO 10) NG

jH J
4-3 h 3-3 dhG EG G pLrQCG
Y Gj CG dEG WGh ,3 dG
,qK .IYb hCG M U bH
,IYb Mdh M Md GSH
GPEG Gbd dhG EG GhOj CG WG
G H YdG e G
q G c
vjYb CG ,vM k oproS IYdGh
.kOe CG
e LGh
,8-4 ,1 SCG qM :dG LGe
208 U
,25-22 SCG qM :dG LGe
219 U
3-7 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
.jv Yb kh OH
. ,R ,`g , ,
Yb .O
M .
Yb .
Oe .CG
Ca(OH)2 ,HF .
KOH ,H2CrO4 .CG
NH3 ,H2SO4 .O
Ca(OH)2 ,CH3COOH .
Oj CG EG jb IYb J K ,V H AdG j
e NBG dG j dG g Y .dG G f
Gg .e EG
q b a hCG eCG .g c dG G
Gg e Yh V M Y j a ,ke G j
.G

.5
.6
.7

.8

.fhQdG fjCG jo dG Yd ,Ka ,GJG HK .1

Gg e Yh ,V IYb hCG V M Y j
.pH `dG Gq J hjh ,IYdG J hCG G
hj dGh ,Kw ,Ad JGdG jt C dG GJG HK
[H3O+][OH] = 1.00 * 1014
.FGP e fjCGh AG jL H YdG g D dG

.2
NH+4 h NH3 ;HSh H2S . H3O+h H2O ;HCO3 h H2CO3 .CG .3
OHh H2O ;H3PO4 h H2PO4 .O
H3O+ h H2O ;OH h H2O .
jo fCG Dt h ;v M kh H3O+ j JdG D q

.4

208

4-7 dG

:4-7 dG

HGPEG GqJG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
foe Z d G Y VYG
jQch jOdG chQg e
c j Y rS .(II) SdG
dG MCG SG K .gOYG H
e cGO SGQ S
.NBG
q
Ghqj CG G EG WG .Cu(OH)2
J fjCG CG ch ,j dG
H L H Hhd Hb
HhdG T J H ,GOG
.iNCG GOG
(bO 35) SQq O

FT C N
zHhd Hb Z{ IQY GSG Oj
H CH OYG EG G H
OGe OLh Y VhCG .GkHCG hJ OGG
OLh CG dP ,Hhd vFf Hb Z
.M H GkU hj Ksp d qOG
,Y jd ,G e Ea dP e
.Hhd Hb Z OGG H QYG

dG IQe AH
e L
k GhRCG q Y :Ohe J
c Y .dG Gg IAGd G
eCG Y qcj CG hdG e e
qcj H ,fHhdG HM q J
q J eCG Y NBG uG
c j dP H .SdG HM
e f c M c NBd ue
.dCG

209

4-7 dG

J
IO G HhdG Hb CG e
feEG J fCch hJ qe
HhdG Hb Ea ,e IOSG
G J b M bCG EG fG
HhdG Hb ka .JeGSG d
.AYc Gke e ,Ld fG

FT C N
CG Ia ,L H ,G j
cd SC
x c eGSG j peoG
fEa ,dP e .GJG HK J
j f cGdG n pb CG k dZ j
c e oG fjCG OY J CG
AB2 fHhP fc GPEG ,ke .U IMh
Ea ,1 * 105 mol/L hJ TEG Y
CG ,dG g V S B cJ
dG g dG g CGh ,2 * 105 mol/L
HK J HJ j CG j
.GJG

d Ie Ia

AgCl `d GvL G Ksp b foJ

hJ AgCl e a 1.3 * 105 mol CH

J dG Gh .G e 1 L
fQe GvL U G dG g
dP d j .d qdG G e
.HhdG T G CG Vf CH
e d G fHhP Y qjh
d e kjJ hJ gh ,AG
.G

210

4-7 dG

hG JGSG
Ksp rnpb GfQj G O 3-7 hG

EG gfG qLh .hG IgdG

HGPEG U SGdG iG
d SGdG iG dHh (1050 103)
EG j 50 e SCv G CG VhCG .fHhdG
p ge bQCG
H
o
toJ ,Ggh .rndG
Hb Z ,dG jc e ,qcG
CG s d fCG LQd ,kjJ Hhd
IdG H qY IOG g e
e ac c gVhh VQCG
fjCG e GuL kb GkOY Ea ,AG
.G GvM S

211

4-7 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
,(II) jdG jd Ksp b e 2-7
hJ qcG fHhP CG k Y
?5.2 * 1012 g/100. g H2O
1.2 * 10-25 :GG
Ksp `d pdG g CG Y Oq T)
fc dh M fHhdG e HM
(3-7 hG Ie
fHd HGPEG UM HK MG 2-7
hJ fHhP CG kY ,ddG
.5.3 * 103 g/L H2O
2.8 * 109 :GG

e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :J jQ
212 U
,3-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
216 U
,27-26 SCG q M :dG LGe
220-219 U ,44-43 ,34-33
bO 45 :fdG G
f
.. ,93 U zHGPEG UM HK{
k G j HdG g
G jCG KCJh NaCl e ke
.NaCl `d HGPEG UM HK jd

212

4-7 dG
bO 45 :ddG G
(bO 35) SQq O

aVEG
Fe
LP
G jc fHhP e 3-7
Ksp b CG
k Y ,mol/L `H ,MnS(II)
?2.5 * 1013 hJ
5.0 * 107 mol/L :GG
e Zn2+ cJ MG 3-7
Ksp CG kY ,ZnS ,UQG jc e
.1.6 * 1024 hj UQG jd
1.3 * 1012 mol/L :GG

213

4-7 dG

jH JGSG
N tJ CG d Vh 13-7 dG
U IOe QX dch ,dG e
YO .SGQ J
t Y dO g dG
J
q GPEG GhQjh ,IQU c EG Ghj
.(`g)h ,(O)h ,() SGhQ J
q .SGQ
t J CG cQj G CG e cCJ
H GPEG SGQ J
t Y j qdG
idG IQdG EG fG) .k aU G
.(SCG

214

4-7 dG

d Ie Ia
NH+4

K+

Na+

, , fjCG eCG e
jdGh ,SCGh ,GdG
eh .Hhd Hb eCG ,GddGh
,GjdGh ,GchQdG
Hb Z SdGh ,fHdGh
.Hhd

FT C N
sce fHhP G qj eY
SSCG Y huj fEa qcG e
fjCG f CG Vjh ,qc
,d .scG f k FGO g G
cGJ Ea , d oJ eY
Y J G FGHG fjCG
G Yh G fe
q gcGJ
G Gg d Vh .Le dG dG
g Y LPdG dCd Vp
o J eY
.dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
20. mL e GPEG SGQ S
g 4-7
q

e 15 mL e 0.034 M NaCl e
?0.083 M CuNO3
.Sj
q CuCl ,f :GG
e q GPEG SGQ S
g 4-7
q
e 0.0014 M Ca(NO3)2 e 100. mL
?0.00020 M Na2SO4 e 200. mL
.Sj
q CaSO4 , :GG

215

4-7 dG
(FbO 10) NG

jH J
kH Ghj CG G EG WG
G GOG fHhP M G
cT Y Md Ghj
YO .fjCd
q
Ie J Qo
u J QhdG hG
jdG GdG :e .q fHhdH J
e Hhd Hb qce J
u VQCG
fHdG GY e k jJ ffCG c
G O .GjQdGh SdGh
aNG CG Gbjh MqdG GfQj
.H
e LGh
,2-1 ,dGDdG qM :J jQ
U ,2-1 ,dGDdGh ,214 U
216

,5-4 ,dGDdG qM :dG LGe

216 U
,28 SCG qM :dG LGe
221-219 U ,49-48 ,46 ,42-35
4-7 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
dOG g Mh HGPEG UM HK J dOe GSH
.GG jCG cJ HQ K ,jCG cJ EG dH
2.07 * 105
e bCG qdG jQdGh dG fjC jCG UG
.SGQ j
q d PEG ,HGPEG UM HK
e cCG nG jg fjCG UM C .LaF3 h CaF2 SS
q
.jQcG nd Ksp

.2

.3
.4

.5

lc e fjCd dG cGdG V UM
dOG jCG Gg eoe dG S
q oC G EG ae
.FdG
c aQh G IOLG fjCG cGJ V UM
.SG SCG EG cJ
Vh IQGM LQO Y iNCG IOe HhdG Y IOe IQb
e e c hJ dG GG H Y j .qe
.ke k d jG

.1

216

7 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g
u J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
SCG ,221-220 U Ye LGe 50-43
52-51 GDdG ,221 U bf J 54-53 GDdG ,221 U Hch H 55 GDdG ,221 U jH J 56 GDdG ,221 U Y he -

fSG :d eN J 7 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
dG QNG Ad SCG Fh ,6 U
.37 U ,7

LGG HLCG

CG
CG

.1

O
B h A GcJ j jGdG
.D hCG C `d OLh h ,bCG gqM
jcJ Ea B h A YJ eY
GOGOa D h C GcJ eCG .j
,B e A OG e j dHh
jf .D e C OG e OGOjh
jhe YdG J eCG
FY Jh .GJG j eY
eGO e HK D ,C ,B ,A cGJ
.f GJG hX

.7

.4
.5
.6

[C]x[D]y
K =
[A]n[B]m

.2
.3

.8

.CG .9
Gf EG YG
q ie .
e CG d .CG .10
dG .
eeCG .
dG .
eeCG .CG .11
217

7 dG LGe
dG QGWCG dG OGG .12
id J gcGJ C ;FdGh
dGREG hCG OGG g e c aVEG
.e c
eeCG ,YdG YS e jj .13
j ,mhe H ,dGh
.dH KCj GJG Y OGG cJ
eeCG .CG .14
eeCG .
e CG d .
eeCG .O
dG .`g
e CG d .h
e CG d .R
dG .
e CG d .`W
f j ,jj .CG .15
f j ,j .
f j ,f j .
jj ,jj .O
f j ,j .`g
f j ,f j .h
f j ,f j .R
j ,j .
f j ,f j .
GkqJ qJ GqdG g e .16
b d ,GdGh YG qc
.qJ ,f dG ,K
j
q eeCG YdG C ,mY V .17
u
k oe KG EG jRZ jL KK
.dG JQG Va dG JdG
V ,Yd dY cGJ .CG .18
.e IQGM LQO ,mY
dG ,Yd dY cGJ .
.e IQGM LQO ,d KCJ
dG ,Yd dY cGJ .
.Je IQGM LQO ,d KCJ
V ,Yd dY cGJ .O
.e IQGM LQO ,mY
V ,Yd dY GcJ .`g
.Je IQGM LQO ,e

218

7 dG LGe
bCG HLg cCG cJ S .19
.dG ie Y Y g
RZ J
t . .20
H3O+(aq) + HCO3(aq)
2H2O(l) + CO2(g)

SGQ J
t
Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) AgCl(s)

tjC dG V IOe J
t
H3O+(aq) + OH(aq) 2H2O(l)
Kw = [H3O+][OH]
Kw = 1.0 *

1014

.CG .21
.

:jdG YGdGh jdG VMCG eCG .22

oJ .ffCG h C q J fJdG
.7 hj pH CG dOe Fe d
.NaCl ke
YGdGh dG VMCG eCG
oJh ,a C q J ffCG :jdG
dP Y e .jYb Fe d
.CH3COONa
YGdGh jdG VMCG eCG
oJh a fJdG C q J :dG
dP Y e .M Fe d
.NH4Cl
YGdGh dG VMCG eCG
fJdG ,YdG :dG
Fe d J .Bq j ffCGh
hCG ,jYb hCG ,M J b
.CH3COONH4 :dP Y e .dOe
V dhdEG g SCG M .23
G jCdG V dHh
G H GJG j .FG
SCG fjCGh fhQdG fjCGh
e jOdG SCG .G
eY .AG J H sj jCG
M EG G Gg jo
SCG jCG cJ jj ,SCG
d QdG EG Gj GJG j
jjo jfG Gg .VhG JdG
G e fhQdG fjCG
.pH b aj

219

7 dG LGe
M cJ j GJG Y .24
H k Je jCoG Z SCG
jCGh fhQdG jCG GcJ j
SCG M .r e SCG
.V M g
Kb =

[NH+4][OH]

.CG .25

[NH3]

OY Lj PEG ,IU Kb b .
Y fjCG e v f b
.V IYb feCG .GJG
GJG dM g G G .26
e bCG cdG Y jh
G G cdG d .GG
e
hCG kJe j b FGP
k
.fHhdG H
.1 g/100 g H2Oe cCG :Hhd Hb .27
e bCG :Hhd Hb Z
H :HhdG dG .0.1 g/100 g H2O
.jqG jg
,Ksp e bCG fjCG UM c GPEG .28
j dh ,e Z G j
cCG fjCG UM c GPEGh .SGQ
CG EG SGQ a
,Ksp e
q
p
b M fjCG cGJ J
.GJG
0.67

.CG .29
0.52 .
3.1 * 102 .
1.4 * 1010 .30
0.110 M .31
0.0250 .32
7.14 * 1011 .33
1.1 * 1010
5.09 *

105

.CG .34
.

2.8 * 103 mol/L .35

7.1 * 107 mol/L
6.3 *

1011

.CG .36
mol/L .

5 * 104 = jCG UG .37

[SO42][Pb2+] =

SGQ j ,Ksp < jCG UG

Pb2+(aq) + SO42(aq) PbSO4(s)

220

7 dG LGe
8.56 * 1046 .38
3.1 * 107 mol/L .39

.SGQ j
s d .40
AgCl e SGQ S
.41
q
Fe(OH)3 e SGQ S
.42
q
Ca2+(aq) + CO32(aq)
CaCO3(s)
Ksp =

[Ca2+][CO2
3 ]

.CG .43
.

fjCG 8 ;1.3 * 1026 mol/L

.44

1.6 .45
5.2 * 107 mol/L .46
8.7 * 106 mol/L .47
6.1 * 108 mol/L hJ fHhdG .48

fHhP (fluoridation) IQrndG J

.SCG Ae jn
q ,e
FGH j a HLCG J
q
.IQnn dG
.SGQ j
s .49
1.2 g .50
Ksp = 4s3 ;[B] = 2s ;[A] = s .51

dG YdG .52
HLCG J
q .53
HLCG J
q .54
HLCG J
q .55
:Y he .56
.hG Ia G EG ub
GdG CG Y g jG
FdGh eOdG e ,dG
qH qJ ,gZh UUdGh
hCG dGREG IQhV JCJ g e .dY
c .G gcGJ N
GdG a Y CG Y jG
GjdG SJ J Y J
.fHdGh GchQdGh
VhdG G e VSG
G QdGh bdGh
.b e eqG
uc K ,Y a EG b
u
.dG

221

8 dG s

GNGh IcCG YJ
dG dG OQGe
j Q

edG hG

dG OQGG
223

U ,Y VY
39

T
23 GC GC T

fjCG G GNG 4 H
98 U ,edG

229 U ,Y VY

YJ ,jS Y f
236 U ,GNG-IcCG

40

LGG OQGe
ef J
10 U ,8 dG QNG

O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
49 U

jH J
241 U

233 ,227 U

cGJ LGe
8 dG LGe

2-8

GNG-IcCG Oe Rh
M

dG eGdGh IcDG eGdG

M

1-8

GNGh IcCG
M

3-8

Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he

(CG)

222

dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

J jQ

227 U ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,25 ,21-18 ,11-9 ,7-6 ,3-1 SCG ,dG LGe

240-239 U
1-8 dG LGe

1-8 LP Fe

233 U ,aVEG LP Fe

233 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

241-239 U ,28-26 ,24-22 ,14-12 SCG ,dG LGe

2-8 dG LGe

237 U ,6-1 SCG ,dG LGe

240-239 U ,17-15 ,8 ,5-4 SCG ,dG LGe

3-8 dG LGe

OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T

() 222

G c
ddG c
dG dO O

8 dG

GNGh IcCG YJ
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
GNGh IcCG YJ j 1-8
OGYCG YGb uXjh
.IcCG
,GNG-IcCG Oe j 2-8
.dG YdG jW GSH
cDG edG e q c QhO Vj 3-8
-IcCG YJ b G edGh
.GNG

SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
dG e 1 dG) ,IcCG OGYCG
(Y OG
dG e 2 dG) ,OG Rh
(Y OG
e 5 dG) ,FHdG ddG
(TdG dG
dG e 2 dG) ,WdG S
(Y OG

dG IQe AH
IcCG c cG :gP Y
be .IQdG Y GNGh
GSG G EG WG ,U
d jJ jd HdG Jee
H jdG
u S .e
tJ j eY kM dEG LdG
H UG FdG G
.S dG bCG gG

222

1-8 dG

:1-8 dG
GNGh IcCG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
e 1 dG IcCG OGYCG k jS LGQ
EG GQk a fGh ,Y OG dG c
,JdH IYb c Y ucQ .1-8 hG
Ou T .aVEG eCG Y G CSGh
Y 1-8 hG EG GLj CG Lh Y
.Jj Gaj M ,IQhdG
(FbO 10) uM

Y VY
FJ GNG-IcCG YJ
0.1 M KI e kjJ 7 mL VCG .1

RL Y dG p Vh ,H U EG
.SCGdG VdG
0.01 M KMnO4 e 7 mL VCG .2
.j H dG eGh ,dG EG
EG 1.0 M HCl e Gb H VCG .3
GLQCG dG CG Mh uM ,G
H SGQ jh
,JsM qJ KMnO4 `d
s
vqH G d jh ,MnO2 e f
.FGdG I2 e Gv
dO cQj G CG e cCJ
HJ K .gM dG GtdG
.226 dG Y qdG bH
EG 0.1 M KI VCG :dG e tdG
CG EG dP AKCG uM .KMnO4 `dG
e VCG K .edG c d j
u fCGh ,0.1 M Na2S2O3 e j
.jOj EG OdG c GN ,dP AKCG
SGh ,9 h 5 H j pH `dG VG
.G e G

223

1-8 dG
(bO 25) SQu O
YGb{ 23 GC adG VYG
YO .G Y ,zIcCG OGYCG
eG YGdG Gu jh Gj
j CG j dG IcCG OGYCG jd
hCG ,M d hCG sc Gk U Y
.jCG Y dG hJ CG j
OGYCG M{ 39 adG VYG
YO .G Y zIcCG
OGYCG jd eG YGdG Gqj
Y j CG j dG IcCG
CG j hCG ,M Y hCG sc GkU
.jCG Y IOLG dG hJ

jH JGSG
oj dG CG d uH 1-8 dG
e OY Lj CG d c
IdG g RqY .G IcCG M
OGYCG Y qG Y m GDS H
,H2S jdG H j dG IcCG
2
,+4 ,0 ,2) S2O2
3 ,S2O3 ,SO4 ,SO2 ,S8
.(+2 ,+3 ,+6

?J g
SJdG ehc FK jo
,1-8 dG d V s G JdG
u) dG We c RL
dG dG ie jd (nndG
T j eY .e d
mfjEG CG Ea ,ehdG FK
IcCG OY d dG hdH cCj OLe
e dM EG hdG noj H .+6
H q J dGh fOCG IcCG M
.Cr3+ `d NCG dG e ,
dG H dG tJ HQ dP H
.dG IOLG
e LGh
,1 GDdG qM :dG LGe
227 U

224

1-8 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
(bO 25) SQu O

?J g
,AdG jQJ IcCG J SG
Mj AdG c eY ,e H
j c dG FdG GMG YJ
L .cCG e Y dN
j cCG e GMG YJ
EG aVEG .fhdEG G dG
Y Y jo c eY ,dP
c ,JeN e q dG c ,cCG
Ic c C ,GNG J j
e H bCG c IOY J G e
IcCG GJ q oW ,kM .dG q dG
a dN j YJ
q GC Y GNGh
.GdG Y fhdEG ch fhdEG

FT C N
J ddGh LG dG CG
j a ,GNG-IcCG YJ
LG dG CH G
e gc cs J ddG dGh
ek SQ SG .Ye EG Ye
GP fhdEG CG u d s VJ
,v a s J dG a g ddG dG
C J LG dG CG M
OY e cCG j fJhdG OY
T d ,ke ,Na+ `dG jCG .fhdEG
.fhdEG 10 a d d ,+11 e jhf
_
+17 e jhf T d Cl `dG jCG dc
.kfhdEG 18 d aj d

225

1-8 dG

J
jQc g ,G u G jj
Y dCG e dG ,(NaOCl) jOdG
dG ja .GNG-IcCG YJ
OCl `dGh ,OCl `H cCJ dG u J
.Cl EG J
(s)dG jL + OCl(aq)
Cl(aq) + (s)dG Y jL
G EG WG ,bG e jh
cCd IcCG OGYCG GhOu j CG
dS hP cCG) .OCl QdGh
,2 JcCG OY j dd ,cCG FHc
(+1 g QdG IcCG OY CG M

qU be
p Gj CG G EG WG
U
dG VdG GdGh YG
hG Gej CGh ,223 dG Y
WG .IQs P d IcCG OGYCG jd 1-8
OGYCG Gt dG Ghj
u CG G EG
IcCG HJ ee IcCG
ga fhdEG e c rS .GNGh
e ch ,cCJ dG YG e e
dG YG e e c fhdEG
G fhdEG OY CG r ucGC .NG
fhdEG OY hj GNG
Rh j dd .IcCG IOG
Gg uG S kM .dOG
.fjh YdG

226

1-8 dG
(FbO 10) NG

jH J
G jT e IU b V
RL Y dG V .H U
e j e VCGh ,SCGdG VdG
G NCG .qdG d 0.1 M HCl
GMj YOh ,rnYG W Y
rnYdG Gj CG dEG WG K .YdG
dch ,GNGh IcCd sdG
.sFdG GNG-IcCG dOe
e LGh
,5-2 SCG qM :dG LGe
227 U
,3-1 SCG qM :dG LGe
U ,25 ,21-18 ,11-9 ,7-6
240-239
1-8 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
+2

+1

1-8 hG fG .1

Cu EG n j Cu h H

EG cCj H2 .
Cl EG n
r j Cl2 h H EG cCj H2 .
1

+1

j H ,fhdEG KK Ga j dG IcCG YJ .CG .5

fhRG dOG .GNG Y fhdEG KK c
.r naW Y 3+ hJ T LJ
.dOG naW Al MGh eh ,Na e KK Lj .
.G fhdEG OY hj IOG fhdEG OY .
.FdG dOG e aM j dd

GNG .`g
IcCG .h
GNG .R
GNG .

GNG .CG .2
IcCG .
IcCG .
GNG .O

GNG-IcCG .O
kGNG-IcCG d .`g

GNG-IcCG .CG .3
GNG-IcCG .
kGNG-IcCG d .

+3

227

+5

EG nj N h O2 EG cCj O .CG .4

1-8 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG

Y IAGb
e IQOdG jdG FGdG Qe EG
FGd HG h dCG fGG OL
g EG ,LhQdG jc
sce gh ,mercaptans fHcG
XdG YG Y jY
EG GLj CG G EG WG .SH
Y a Gjh ,jdG AdG c
dG fHcG H cJ
g JJ c GVj
u CGh ,iNCG
.H2S `H scG

qU be
AYCG fCG CG Y G j .1
SM oJ M
q SG
IcCG dM j eY jdG
SM
q d d .e
WG .JG JcCG dM jdG
jdG Y eCG Gj CG G EG
G IcCG dM c
IcCG OY GhOuj rYO .JGh
.H2S jdG
YdG KCJ HQ EG G uLh .2
bf dG IcCG H H2O2 e
.1 dG
GSG k c GPEG G CSG .3
.H2O2 `dG H Na2O2 e NBG Ye
H2O2 QNG CG e Gj CG
Y EGh aJ EG OSH vFL c
.fEdh fGd QV

HLCG
CG LhQdG chH CG QOCG .1
fG FGdG scG cDjo
GSG qa ,LhQdG jH
,eBG H ,Od LhQdG chH
.c L e G jdG FGdG
SSCG dG d ,HLCG J
s .2
oJ dG fG
q CG jo CG j
j K .GSd CG EG e
.fG
u k Se dG j CG
Y dG FG e dG J
.uM gj CG FdG SG
228

2-8 dG

:2-8 dG
-IcCG Oe Rh
GNG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
OG Rh kHS G OJ
s
JG Ia ehj bh .jH
.dG YdG G dG
,e HQe EG LG q gCG QXE
dG VdG YdG dOe cG
EG WGh ,IQdG Y 223 dG
.gfj CG G
_

MnO4 + I + H+ MnO2 + I2 + H2O

G dG S
MnO4 + 2I + 4H+ MnO2 + I2 + 2H2O

,dG EG dH fhRe dOG g

.dG EG dH fhRe Z d
dG YdG jW dP H SG
:g dG YdG) dOG Rd
2MnO4 + 8H+ + 6e 2MnO2 + 4H2O

(6I_ 3I2 + 6e h
(FbO 10) uM
Y VY

dOe Rd jQq P P GSG u L

M G S .GNG-IcCG
-IcCG dOe Rd jQq P P GSG
Z dG CG e SG .GNG
.PdG g qe

229

2-8 dG
(bO 20) SQu O

qU be
CG bGh Ghuj CG G EG WG
chQdG fjCGh LhQdG fjCG
dG YdG EG J CG
soe J dh M ,LG Y
dG c YJ .dOG
.OH_ `dGh H `dG a aj dG FG
+

dG IQe AH
GhCGj CG G EG WG :e
.zGNG-IcCG Oe Rh{ dG
HdG d k ,s nK e ,Gj CGh
.OG g e Rd fS dG
Rd eG jdG GfQj Yr O
J e GNG-IcCG Oe
dG c e 2 dG eG
.Y OG

qU be
Sh GhQj
u CG G j
Yr O .GNGh IcCG SGQd IYe
EG QdG e b ,jv OY ,Ghj
r n G iMEG Gfjh ,f
.zGNG{ `H iNCG Gh zIcCG{ `H
eCH OY c Ae G j
.SG t dG UJh

230

2-8 dG

d Ie Ia

Rd jW e cCG OLh e ZdH

jW Ea ,GNG-IcCG Oe
.g esG IMdG g dG YdG
IFa cCG g jdG g CG Gh
e SGh f Y J eEH C
dG dG YdG
.jYdG dG c ,G

jH JGSG
OGYEG uj dG Gg 4-8 dG
dEG J dG YdG AGLE jdG
fG dG .1-8 LPdG dCG
cGdG GLQCG dG EG G
G EGh ,MdG KMnO4 `d
Mh (II) jG jd dG Y
fjCG eGO eh .AYdG jdG
G a IcCd IaGe Fe2+
c cCJ CG O d .dG Y
Ea ,(III) jG EG (II) jG fjCG
H G S
u KMnO4 `dG Fa
G e HdH GC S K .gR
.MdG

231

2-8 dG

d Ie Ia

dG YdG EG dH
H2O h OH Ea ,YdG SdG
LhQdGh cCG Rd eJ
.dG GNG-IcCG YJ
j dG dOG W EG OH VCG
OY V VCG .cCG GQq P EG
j e VCG K .RdG cCG GQq P
fRG NBG dG EG H2O jL e
YJ ,dP Y e .LhQdG GQs P
G CrO2 fjCG e ClO fjCG
:j c YdG
IcCG
2(CrO2 + 4OH CrO42 + 2H2O + 3e)

GNG
3(ClO

+ H2O + 2e

Cl

+ 2OH)

FdG
2CrO2 + 2OH + 3ClO 2CrO42
+ 3Cl + H2O

232

2-8 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
EG K2Cr2O7 `d JdG dG s j 1-8
j eY ,Cr3+ jCd NCG dG
ehc Fd M
We c RL SJdG
OLh QN (nn dG u) dG
Rh cG .C2H5OH ,fjEG
,K2Cr2O7 :dOG
,CrCl3 ;YG g C2H5OH ,HCl
.GdG g H2O ,KCl ,CO2

GG
2K2Cr2O7 + C2H5OH + 16HCl
4CrCl3 + 11H2O + 2CO2 + 4KCl

(FbO 10) NG

jH J
YJ Y Gj CG G EG WG
Y dG GNG-IcCG
,HCGh OSCG GZJdG jdG
dG YdG Oe Gj CGh
GNG-IcCG dOe dch ,IXG
.sFdG
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :J jQ
233 U
,4-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
233 U
,14-12 SCG q M :dG LGe
241-239 U ,28-26 ,24-22
2-8 dG LGe
bO 45 :fdG G
f
fjCG G GNG{
j .. ,98 U ,zedG
jd GNG-IcCG Ije G
. cJ

233

HLCG/dG LGe
3Na2SnO2 + 2Bi(OH)3 2Bi + .3
3Na2SnO3 + 3H2O

YdG jW G GG JG .4
.GNG-IcCG Oe Rd dG

.dGh dG .1
G YdG g C .2
J OH `dGh H+ `dG fjCG Ea ,FG
aGj G G .k FGO IOLe
G .H+ `dG fjCG e Fa
.OH `dG fjCG e Fa aGj YdG

3-8 dG

:3-8 dG
eGdGh IcDG eGdG
dG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
edGh cDG edG njJ b
Y e) U L fH G
CG e EG WG .zfhdEH{ (ZQa
G CG VhCG .fhdEG e NCj
,fhdEG J L dG edG c
g j L dG edG c fCGh
cDG edG J NOCG .fhdEG
CG d J CH qG gPCG EG
JfhdEG fGa sJ dG ,G
edG fCG fCGh .cDG edG g
G j CG J fC ,G
fCGh ,SGH NG G .fhdEG
.SGH cCJ
(FbO 10) uM
GP Ghj
u CG G EG WG
(b cDe eY gh) hRhCG GSG
.OQdG AG dG d YH

hG JGSG

dG IQe AH
EG G b
u :LhOG dG
CG dEG WG .rKG e Y
AKCG .3-8 dG H Gdj
dG IdG EG Ghj YO de
Gj dGh () QTEH fj
CG j rnG c (?) IQTEH a
c a EG Ud rn j
Vh Y Y c uM .GdG
.dG Y S dG SCH Fb

LdG Y G uT 2-8 hG
GkL Goj M GkQGJ hG Gg EG
dEG b .GNGh IcCG njJ
dG g :e SCG MH hG
EG Br j eY GNG CG IcCG
eY CG cDe eY Br g ?Br2
fhdEG j CG Fe2+ j g ?pnoe
Yj eY ?Fe3+ EG j
s eY
j e qCG ,QdG e jOdG
?cDG edG

234

3-8 dG
(bO 30) SQu O
L P{ 40 adG VYG
Y zGNG-IcCG Yd
J c Gqj YOh ,G
fhdEG Jh fhdEG GqQdG
.GNG-IcCG YJ

hG JGSG
dG eGdG CG VhCG 3-8 hG
fhdEG dG J g jdG
dH kfhdEG da .dH
G g HQG .1+ jCG d
u
hdEG .d hdEG JdH
Gg GH ;2s1 hdEG g G
hdEG JdG dG j hdEG
CG VhCG .(dG) dG Rd G
e jb 2 h1 r n Y iNCG UdG
Ggh .hG Gg hCG OdG SCGQ
G C ,k Le j qCG j eCG
d YG g CG kHS GsJ
SCG j F `dG .e jq C J bW
d ,dd ,a ;dG eGdG OY
ke d CG j ,jv b k keY
j CGh ,kfhdEG C kV
CG Ghcj CG G Y .Gk cDe
CG e YCG hdEG G d QdG
CG j CG G edG .Y
Gg .CG OdG Lj f
.LiF d
s dHF2 `dG dG j

d Ie Ia

u ddG GQqdG IOe fjCG

JGQs P C ,IR IcDe eGY
,IO4 :dY IcCG OGYCG d jcG
.Cr2O72 ,CrO42 ,NO3 ,MnO4 ,ClO4

e LGh
,6 ,4-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
237 U
,4 SCG qM :dG LGe
240-239 U ,17-15

235

2-8 dG
bO 45 :fdG G

jS Y f
MnO2 `dG j ,H2O2 `dG tJ Y

.AdG YdG jd Rqc

GQf Gj CG G Y :edG
AKCG . jGe GhJj CGh ,bGh
.G j CG jo ,CuCl2 H
hM AKCG SCdG Gj G J
.YdG
OGG dGREG j :dG e dG
VCG .eQh dG e dG
CG Sd G EG 1.0 M NaOH
Cu(OH)2 H dPh ,SdG e jH
pH `dG VGh .dG OGG p QG ;dG
IY uNh ,9 h 5 H j H
SG K .AG e FH VCG
T ,G e sG dG
U H dUe SQe J CG
.e h U

qU be
2H2O2 O2 + 2H2O .1
3CuCl2 + 2Al 2AlCl3 + 3Cu

EG LhQdG chH cCJ .2

J
t dO .Ae EG NGh cCG
,G s dG gt J jDhQ cCG
.YdG QNG fCG EG dNOEG id
q a EG dpo NG (II) SdG fjCG
fjCG EG CG q a cCJh ,SdG
.(III) CG

236

3-8 dG

d Ie Ia

dG IMdG scG g GchdG

H 1 IcCG OH cCG a s j
g ,Na2O2 ,jOdG chH .2 e
.FT chH
e LGh
,5 GDdG q M :dG LGe
237 U
,8 h 5 r ndGDdG q M :dG LGe
239 U
3-8 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
v JGP Gk cDe Jh eo ech cDe
.v JGP kh
UdG g ibCG IcDG eGdG .6
QhdG hG YCG IOLG
UdG g .(dG GRdG ASH)
J dd .YCG hdEG H s J
.fhdEG c dS cCG UdG

237

M ,f d eGY jdG Gq dG .1
.f IcDe eGY LddG CG
UQG .CG .2
jG .
I2 e ibCG cDe eY g Cl2 ;f .3
F2 ,I2 ,Cu2+ .4
ec IOe dN J Y SdG Y .5

8 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
.HdG H a uG Lh SCG
SCG ,241-240 U Ye LGe 28-25
32-29 SCG ,241 U bf J 34-33 GDdG ,241 U Hch H 36-35 GDdG ,241 U jH J 37 GDdG ,241 U Y he -

fSG :d eN J 8 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
QNG Ad SCG Fh ,10 U
.49 U 8 dG

LGG HLCG

O
CG
O

.5

.6

.7
CG
.8

hCG GQq dG J :IcCG s Y .CG

.1
.2
.3
.4
.9

OY OGOjh fhdEG fjCG

J :GNG s Y .IcCG
q jh fhdEG fjCG hCG GQq dG
.IcCG OY
+
Na Na + e :IcCG .
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl :GNG

,R ,h , , ,CG .10
dGNG
JcCG q
q
Cl2

Na

O2

+1

+5

Cl
Cl2

O
H2

Cu2+

Zn

GNG .
IcCG .O

dOG .11

.CG
.
.
.h
.R
.
IcCG .CG .12
GNG .

238

8 dG LGe
0 EG 2 ,S

.CG .13
0 EG +4 ,S .
1 EG +5 ,Cl .
+3 EG +2 ,Mn .O
:IcCG .14
2OH+

IO3

IO4

+ 2e + H2O

:GNG
2H2O +

MnO4

3e-

MnO2 + 4OH

:FdG
H2O + 3NaIO3 + 2KMnO4
3NaIO4 + 2MnO2 + 2KOH

d .CG .15
fhdE V L Ib
s d .
dH jh ,d HdG D adG
.iNCG OGe d fhdEG
F2

.
Cl :VCG ,Ca :ibCG .CG .16
Br :VCG ,Al :ibCG .
F :VCG ,Na :ibCG .
f .O
f .CG .17
.`g
f .
.
K K+ + e :IcCG .CG .18
S + 2e S2 :GNG .
Mg Mg2+ + 2e :IcCG .
2F F + 2e :IcCG .O
H2 2H+ + 2e :IcCG .`g
O2 + 4e 2O2 :GNG .h
Fe3+ +e Fe2+ :GNG .R
Mn2+ MnO4 + 5e :IcCG .
kGNG-IcCG d .CG .19
GNG-IcCG .
kGNG-IcCG d .
GNG-IcCG .O
GNG-IcCG .`g
kGNG-IcCG d .h
kGNG-IcCG d .R
kGNG-IcCG d .
GNG-IcCG .

CsXeF8 ,XeO3 ,XeOF2 ,XeF2 ,XeF ,Xe .20

0

+1 +5 2

HNO3

.h
H2SO4 .R
Ca(OH) .
Fe(NO3)2 .
O2 .
+1 +6 2

H2
+1 2

H2O

+2 2 +1

+2 +5 2

239

Al
+2

MgO
+3

Al2S3

.CG .21
.
.
.O
.`g

8 dG LGe
0

+1 2

+1

2+1

K + H2O K+ + OH + H2 .22
2H2O + 2e 2OH + H2
K K+ + e
2H2O + 2e 2OH + H2
2(K K+ + 2e)
2H2O + 2K 2OH + H2 + 2K+
2H2O + 2K 2KOH + H2
+1

+32

+22

+12

2H+ + I + NO2 NO + I2 + H2O .CG .23

2I I2 + 2e
2[NO2 + e + 2H+ NO + H2O]
2HI +2HNO2 2NO + I2 + 2H2O
+3

+12

+1

+2

Fe3+ + 3Cl + H2S Fe2+ + .

1

2Cl + H+ + Cl + S
2[Fe3+ + e Fe2+]
H2S S + 2e + 2H+
2FeCl3 + H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl + S
+1 +6 -2

+1-2

+2 +6 -2

+1-2

H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2O + H2S .24

SO42- + 10H+ + 8e H2S + 4H2O
4[Zn Zn2+ + 2e]

4Zn + 5H2SO4 4ZnSO4 +H2S+ 4H2O

NH3 ,N2H4 ,N2 ,N2O ,N2O4 ,NO3 .25
SbCl5 + 2KI 2KCl + I2 + SbCl3

.CG
Ca(OH)2 + 4NaOH + 4ClO2 +C .

.26

4NaClO2 + CaCO3 + 3H2O

PbO2 + KCl + H2O + KOH

.CG

.27

KClO + KPb(OH)3
3KIO3 + 2KMnO4 + H2O

3KIO4 + 2MnO2 + 2KOH

3K2MnO4 + 2H2O 2KMnO4

+ MnO2 + 4KOH
5Cl + 2MnO4 + 11H+
5HClO +
I2 +

2Mn2+

10NO3

.CG

28

+ 3H2O

+ 8H+ .

2IO3 + 10NO2 + 4H2O

3NO2 + 2H+ NO3 + 2NO

+ H2O
M h L+ g GdG ,YJ

.CG
YJ .
+
T h P g GdG ,YJ .

.29

240

8 dG LGe
keY J CG kMG cCG g IOs G .30
p e
d IcDG eGdG .Gk cD
CG j dd gh ,GNG s Y
dG IOG EG CG ,fhdEG J
J JcCG M YCG LJ
.JcCG dM fhdEG
gc Br2 h Cl2 `dG ;YJ .CG .31
eY aGj .GcDe eY
.
Sn2+ .YdG H YJ j .
edG g Zn h ,cDG edG g
.G
Sn2+ + Zn Zn2+ + Sn

,fOCG c ,d J CG j .32
dG : IcCG M K
fOCG IcCG dM ,YG UCG
dMh (GNd) UCG dG e
UCG dG e YCG IcCG
.(IcCd)
cP j d .uG HLCG J
s .33
.fEG dJh dG YVG
Y eCG .qG HLCG J
s .34
cdG g LddG dG
.cCG f ,SG ,FdG
dd .L cDe eY cCG .35
L eY EG LG YJ
dGREG H AG EG aVE
,G G edG .cCG
.N2H4 jRGQdG g ,e H
L uG j b .36
dP e ,cQG GdGh YG
H Y kdO Gaqj CG j
WG .GNGh IcCG YJ
j .ddG Guj CG dEG
Y Gj CG gH uG
.YdG H Y ffEG
:Y he .37
.hG Ia ud ub
HQSCG M Y jG h
Y M fCG Y (C6H8O2)
U T Y dG e j
aM IOc jh ,HCG QH
.jd ch , jZCd
K ,Y a EG uG b
u
.sbG Vha e bf
241

9 dG s

FHdG AdG
dG dG OQGe
j Q

edG hG

dG OQGG
243 U ,Y VY
43 ,42 ,41

101 U ddG jG 5 H

49 ,48 ,47 ,46 ,45 ,44

24 GC

51 ,50

ddG jG
M 3

dhdEG jG
M 3

T
GC T

258 ,255 U ,Y VY

e jd FHdG AdG 6 H
106 U ,cBdG

FHdG AdG EG Ne
IMGh M

246 U ,Y VY

LGG OQGe
ef J
15 U ,9 dG QNG

O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
60 U

jH J
263 U

253 U

cGJ LGe
9 dG LGe

1-9

2-9

3-9

Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he

(CG)

242

dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

J jQ

245 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

261 U ,11-8 ,1 SCG ,dG LGe

1-9 ,LP dCe

1-9 dG LGe

253 U ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,40-28 ,21-12 ,7 ,5-4 ,2 SCG ,dG LGe

263-261 U
2-9 dG LGe

259 U ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe

262-261

U ,27-22 ,6 ,3 SCG ,dG LGe

3-9 dG LGe

OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T

()

242

G c
ddG c
dG dO O

9 dG

FHdG AdG
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
J dG dG OG Vj
u 1-9
.FchdG jG Y

,ddG G j 2-9
k Ve
u
.dG Lh ,cBdG
,dhdEG jdG j 3-9
,FHdG dG
k Ve
u
jd dG eGSGh
.dhdEG

SSCG gG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
dG e 3 dG) fhdEG
(TdG
dG e 5 dG) jCG J
t
(TdG
Gg e 7 dG) FdG GJG
(dG
8 dG) GNG-IcCG YJ
.(dG Gg e

dG IQe AH
Y G IY :gP Y
dEG uLh FHdG AdG SGQO
.FHdG IQGdG e be
Fb a Gj CG dEG WGh
FHdG IQGd G fdG
u
g Uh qj ch .gbjh
jQH rMCG eCG GPEGh .fG
u
p
.Ae OjGH rUh

242

1-9 dG

:1-9 dG
AdG EG Ne
FHdG
bO 45 IMGh M :G edG
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
.1-9 dG GeCj CG G EG WG
LQO JQG CG GMj CG dEG WG K
FdG bdG CG Y qj IQGG
dG VdG uf .WCG b IQGM H
.SCG
(FbO 10) uM

Y VY
Fchc N bdG
e 3/4 EG kee kHc
C eG .1
eG dG V .0.1M CuSO4
3/4 EG SCdG
C eG .250 mL SCc
.0.1 M ZnSO4
SdG e ke kMd V .2
,CuSO4 `dG (4 * 150 mm)
(4 * 150 mm) UQdG e M
k dh
.ZnSO4 `dG a
dH UdG
SCG HQG .3
q
gJ GPEG .ddG Mh dH
SCG YG ,ddG Y IAGb
.UdG
q
FdG bdH ddG IAGb HQG .4
.1-9 dG MG
e j e VCG :dG e tdG
.Zn(OH)2 Sd ZnSO4 EG 1M NaOH
IOG Vh SGdG uL ,G TQ
u
9 h 5 H pH VG .jdG dG
UG .G e G SGh
,J CG EG L H jM ee S
,dG GW CuSO4 uZh
uS .G TQh
q eG pRCG
jd mc H SGdGh eG
eG O .SdG cCG EG SdG
eGh SdG cCG Vh ,OJ
e dG FdG SG .jdG
.G

243

1-9 dG
(bO 30) SuQO

d Ie Ia

J eY FHdG bdG J
qbCG e d IOe e vFJ fhdEG
QH .cCG e d IsOe EG fhdEd
bdG J cCG G dG j e
.cCG dG

qU be
VdG FchdG G SG
G hCG ,HdG dG Y dG
IYc ,2-9 dG IgdG f
Guj G O .G AGLCG b
Y Gjh ,VJ SH dG
j jCG ?IcCG jCG :SCG
c ?fhdEd j GPe ?GNG
OfCG ge NOCG ?dG OJ j
e bdH jg Ou M ,OKdGh
.GNGh IcCG

d Ie Ia

Y dG dG g OfCG CG cCG
j dG dG g OKdG CGh ,IcCG
de j HGdG Gg .GNG Y
kfMCG k Le OfCG c d M k FGO
,(dhdEG jG G g c)
jG G g c) k dS kfMCGh
.(ddG

jH JGSG
Y jCG cM{ 41 adG VYG
,dG Y zee LM
Y fjCG c GMj YOh
GQq P dP J H ,ee LM
.GdG

244

1-9 dG
s L P { 43 adG VYG
jG GNG-IcCG Yd
Gsj YOh ,dG Y zsddG
OGG H dG YdG g
.dhdEG IOLG Jh ,bCG

qU be
eG LG Xh M be Qr OCG
G YS .Fchc N
GPEG j dG e Gbj CG dEG dH
CG G Y .eG LG jRCG
a v FHc GQk J udJ G CG Gj
IcCG ,dG YdG c GPEG
GNG-IcCG Yd GNGh
dH .NBG Y gMCG nde
S Y OfCG Y IOG fhdEG
j M OKdG EG d LQN
.GNG

?J g
fGO N fGO L QW
s 1836 S
QJ fE jQH hCG fc dG
,edG e jW Iq e N HK FHc
GdG d q e fc dd
.FHdG
cM G{ 42 adG VYG
Y zda N hdEG
G GhOuj CG dEG WG ,dG
QdG Gh ,dG hdEG cM
.FHdG
e LGh
,4-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
245 U
,1 SCG qM :dG LGe
261 U ,11-8 h
1-9 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
Mg(s) | Mg2+(aq) || Cu2+(aq) | Cu(s)

2I(aq) I2(s) + 2e .3

ddh ,f IcCG YJ g YdG Gg

.OfCG Y j a
Kj GdG ,dG YdG ;f
YJ fd
q Gj ,dG Y
.FdG GNG-IcCG

.4

(eG LG hCG) G IdG

H fjCG RGdG Y ad jQhV
dG qJ H ,dG f
b FchdG YdG bJh ,G
Qh J G IdG .GhCG
.G fjCG
Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2e :OfCG .CG
Cu2+(aq) + 2e Cu(s) :OKdG
:FdG YdG
Cu2+(aq) + Mg(s) Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)

245

.1

.2

2-9 dG

:2-9 dG

ddG jG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
CG dEG WG ,Y dG rb
u
gjf dG GhOCH Fb Gj
Y J .jQdG GSH
,jdG) eG jQdG GfCG
O .(dEG ,FdG ,dG IOYE HdG
hGh FGdG GVj dG
Lh e dPh ,jQdG GfCG
e Yk GfCG d uah .G f
.td ,GSG FT jQdG
(FbO 10) uM

Y VY
cGdG jQH
hCG ha jL hCG ,d IK MCG .1
.bCG S bGh ,J
Zn GdCG Sh Cu GdCG S bG .2
H d c ufh .1 cm * 10 cm
.dG
c Ib Zn dh ,Cu d NOCG .3
MdG a j .IdG e b
.qbCG Y 1 cm `H
.L EG kL IdG bCG V .4
SdG d Ud Qh e SG
UQG H IdG e hCG d
EG dG g HJ .fdG dG
.dG bCG L Uh j CG
(HG Z) G SdG d U .5
dh ,Ae OjGO W MCH
.OjGd NBG dH G UQG
N GPEG IH OjGdG gj CG j
.adG AGVCG
bGh IQf V .IdG cCJ :edG
. je pJQGh
Z{ `H IdG uY :dG e dG
.jdG eQGh zFGdG cCd dU
.GSG IOYE fG GdCG MG

246

2-9 dG
(bO 30) SuQO
H fQe{ 44 adG VYG
Gh dhdEG G
Gj YOh ,dG Y zddG
jG GfCG e f ddG G CG
YJ a j dG FchdG
GQk J Jh ,FJ GNG-IcCG
.v FHc
N P { 45 adG VYG
Y zaL Hc-UQN
g cJ Gsj YOh ,dG
a UQG j
u dG ddG G
.OKdG HdG jh
u ,OfCG
N P{ 46 adG VYG
YOh ,dG Y zaL jb
ddG G g cJ G
s j
G a KOH `dG j
u dGh
.dG dhdEG

jH JGSG
QhO Y G Cj b 5-9 dG
eG OGG CG VhCG .HdG S
OGG g .bCc J e k dZ (inert)
CG
k S uaJ d ,YJ
hCG dG IcCG YJ Y j
.dG GNG YJ

?J g
da hQfdCG fdG fCG ,1800 S
Fchc jQH hCG (1827-1745)
UQGh SdG UGbCG H ,dPh
UGbCG H J .UGe
ec
q
.e H qG TdG e b
EG WG .e H aGWCG Jh
Cu `dG Wf a Ghuj CG G
tjGC h cCj a qCG Gbj CGh ,Zn `dG h
GfQj CG G EG WG .j
dG cGdG jQH e da jQH
e kdZ .HdG dG VdG U
Hb H Nh jQH GJ j
G jQdG Ea ,dP e .Od
.ke dUe jN IsY hCG N g

247

dG IQe AH
hCG m Y H ,GhDhj G O :be
,FchdG jG M bCG ,H
QOCG ,dhdEG jGh ddG jdGh
q J gjQS M v U Tf
k
hCG YdG FHdG AdG GSG
CG Y jJ e scC J .edG IG
YJ Y eCG FchdG YdG
.GNG-IcCG

Ea

2-9 dG
N P{ 47 adG VYG
YOh ,dG Y zFdG
dG ddG G g cJ Gsj
,OfCG KOH h UQG a j
u
.OKdG HgO h HdG jh
u

J JGSG
iG hhP ,G j b
jJ EG j f e ,dG
jQdG e bdH JG JGQe
OjEG G j .Y ch
jQH J GhOC e
e d QU OjEG .J d
G fYEG FdG GhOCG
.dGh
CG G j ,dP EG aVEG
Gq jh ,jQd v VJ k SQ GSj
gH .LGh ddG UJ GWCG
hCG v FHc M
k e Ghj CG
NOEG c GVj
u CGh ,NBG GkRL
edG EG OSH ,jQdG
.RdG Y IOLG
N P { 48 adG VYG
rYOh ,qG Y zObdG
tj M ,ddG G g Gsj
,QGSH (O2 h H2) YG jhJ
m H ,(H2O) GdG dGREG tJ H
.UGe

248

2-9 dG

?J g
fjdG FdG QW
q ,1824 S
Humphrry Davey #jGO g
.jOKdG jG RL (1829-1778)
cBdG bG hCs G jdG g eSG
.jdG dG
e LGh
,5 h 1 dGDdG q M :dG LGe
253 U
,7 SCG q M :dG LGe
263-261 U ,39 ,33 ,15-12

249

2-9 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
(bO 25) SqQO

d Ie Ia

jJ HH ddGh ddG J EG
da hQfdCG jEG Fjd
jQH hCG da scQ .(1827-1745)
ec Fchc jN Iq Y H
VH U b fc N c ,UGe
q
e Hq e TdG e b
e Ubh SdG e Ub H
S U dG jQdG .UQG
.ddG jQdG UCG

?J g
WdG S Vh e hCG da c
.AHdH cG dG SG dG
H GqdG a JJ Fb gh
NG .FHdG QdG dJ Y JQb
fd j jqa H IQdG g
dG FHdG edG Ib jJh
.gqJ

250

2-9 dG

d Ie Ia

FchdG jd SdG hdG

1 M dG cJh 1 atm e V g
.25C g IOe IQGM LQO Y

251

2-9 dG

hG JGSG
GNG OL{ 24 GC adG VYG
SG .dG Y zSdG
f YJ CG jd hG Gg
EG G fG L
u h .J S
YCG e ,JQTEGh E0 b QGe t dG
dO Y G S .SCG EG hG
dO Yh ,E0 `d LdG JdG dG
H hG HQG .ddG JdG dG
,WdHh ,FHdG ddG
.jt C dG bHh fhdEG dHh
H e M SCG G Y WG
e Y dCSG K ,GNd GdG
.IcCd NBG dG
OL fQe { 49 adG VYG
Y z Gd GNG
OL GfQj CG dEG WGh ,dG
. Gd GNG
(-)

252

2-9 dG

d Ie Ia

.1 M d a sJ bG g
Y dG G OL b
j ,1 M Y gcGJ J d
.(Nernst) ff dOe GSG
(FbO 10) NG

jH jJ
j VJ SH G OhR
u
,12-9 dG ddG d He
jg Ou M .jq H j H d
dch ,dG e U dG Gq dG
.f N c dhdEG jg
.1-9 hG VdG GdG SG
G dEG Ghj CG G EG WG
jg GhOu j CGh ,fhdEG jS
dG YdGh OKdGh OfCG
FdG YdG dch ,Kj jdG
.d E0 bh
de LGh
,1 GDdG M :J jQJ
253 U
,4-2 SCG q M :dG LGe
253 U
,5-4 ,2 SCG q M :dG LGe
,40 ,38-34 ,32-28 ,21-16
263-261 U
2-9 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
3MnO2 +12H+ + 2Cr 3Mn2+ + 6H2O + .4
2Cr3+
E0= +1.95 V

qdG e cCG dH cCj cBdG OfCG .5

j a dc fCG h .jM OGG
CG e dH a qdG Gd fhdEG
.cCj

253

a j dG G g ddG G .1
.v FHc GQk J FJ GNG-IcCG o YJ
dG H G a g dG L .2
YJ e j G Gg QGe .dh
.J C dG GNG
K + Na+ K+ + Na .3
E0= +0.22 V

2-9 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG

Y IAGb

qU be
YOh Y EG G b
u .1
edG jdG GQdG Y ,Gj
cT e ,ObdG jQH Y
Gej Yr O .FdG GQdG
ObdG :dG jd ffEG
be ,jdG jW ,G
adG tbJ ,QdG IQhO IQdG
CG Y c dEG WG K .dGh
M Jee dG EG J
.d JQNG dG GQdG
dG dG dEG G uLh .2
rYO .LhQdG fE ,eG
,c M e dG GfQj
.gGhLh dG gFGah

HLCG
GfCG H hCG fG SG G PEG
LhQdG RZ fE iNCG ObdG
KfG g a ,IQdG a
d M .Obd iNCG GfCG g e
a IQdG LhQdG u N
RZ j c c d LM
RZ fEG .kUCG LhQdG
,jdG hCG ,dG GSH LhQdG
.FG IdG hCG dG RdG hCG
.OfCG Y LhQdG fjCG J
fjCG EG LhQdG RZ cCj
Y k FGO IcCG ,LhQdG
.OfCG

.1

.2

bO 45 :ddG G
f
uj .. ,101 U zddG jG{
fjh IOue da jN G
.fej
u K ,fejh

254

3-9 dG

:3-9 dG

dhdEG jG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
d FHdG AdG CG G NCG
.FHdG Ad GvL FT J g
e b Ad kY VY
d uH
k
.SdH jG hCG UQG
(FbO 10) uM

Y VY
0.1 M CuSO4 e 300 mL V .1
.500 mL SCc
13 cm dW e S W MCG U .2

e SGH SdG e e H
p ,MJ
d NBG dG Uh
.jQd LG dH
S e fK b W MCG U .3
e e H 13 cm dW e
e GSH (jG hCG) UQG
p ,MJ
dG Gd NBG dG Uh
.jQd ddG dH
a SGh ,dG dG V .4
J
q CG H .FbO 5 GM HdG
b Y IdG bdG H
G dG Vh Qa SdG
G H SdG b K GPEG)
.(S AGOS Ib Ea
S ,dG e dG dGREG H .5
.SdH W b OfCG
(bO 25) SuQO

jH JGSG
OfCG jg tdG Vh 13-9 dG
CG e scC J .dG H OKdGh
H gG QdG CG cQj G
j dhdEG Gh ddG G
j ddG G YdG CG
G YdG j H ,vFJ
dP jh .FJ Z H dhdEG
LQN Qe e FHc QJ QGeEH
d VdG SdG .jQdG e
eQ j 13-9 dG dhdEG
H jQd VdG IQGdG SQ
.OfCGh OKdG
255

3-9 dG
AdG{ 50 adG VYG
WGh ,dG Y zFHdG
Y WG K ,adG GeCj CG dEG
:ddG SCG
OGdG dG H Uj dG dG e 
(DhW OGG G g OKdG) ?DhW
OGdG dG H Uj dG dG e 
(AdG a g OfCG) ?H AdG
) ?G dhdEG f e 
(AdG a e
(J) ?OfCG d j GPe 
(OGOJ) ?OKdG d j GPe 
e LGh
,2-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
259 U
,6 SCG qM :dG LGe
262-261 ,27-22
bO 45 :fdG G
f
,zcBdG e jd FHdG AdG{
S HdG g .. ,106 U
fejh dhdEG N dG
.NBG H a Ad

256

3-9 dG
bO 45 :ddG G
jQd Pf { 51 adG VYG
,dG Y zSdG IQdG
.jQdG fe
q ac d VYGh

?J g
jQGdG ejdG HM CG ZQ
FchdG jG da CG uJ
LQO VfG e kfMCG J
jQH VfG Gg Ea ,IQGG
0.05% GM a g UUdG cG
CG a dG QYG j h ,1C d
.OQdG dG a dU Z jQdG
Lhd JQG EG dG LQEG
eY cCG J dG dhdEG
fjCG qJ .IQGG LQO J
J dd .d Sh cCG AH
,UdG Y dhdEG G IQb
VfG EG ODj qe ,ehe OGOJh
.QdG dJ Y jQdG IQb

257

3-9 dG

Y VY
KI `d FHdG dG

VY RL Y H U V .1
e 20 mL VCG .SCGQ
.0.1M KI
Tc e Gb H VCG .2
e Gb Hh dddG
.KI `dG EG dG
p .3
GSH 9V jQH b U
.dhe fe SCG
.KI `dG dG uK .4
J
t SGH OfCG Y I2 Y dG
dG OGdG EG FG-QRCG dG
H2 `dG ba .I2 `dG OLH dG u
c jh .OKdG Y c
OKdG e dH OH `dG fjCG
.ddd gdG dG QH
dG Gej CG d .5
jdG dG-YdG Hd YCG
.Kj
2I(aq) I2(aq) + 2e OfCG
2e+ 2H2O(l) H2(g) +2OH(aq) OKdG
GPEG EG j YdG CG M bf .6
eY .jQdH dG Uh s J
g YdG Gg CG e G j
N GSj Yr O ,FJ Z YJ
fhdEG V j .fhdEG S
I `dG fjCG cCJ M OfCG e
EG LQG IQGdG QY Y h
e H+ `dG fjCG J M OKdG
.H2 EG ,AG
e j e VCG :dG e dG
G SGh ,I2 GN 1 M Na2S2O3
.G e

258

3-9 dG

d Ie Ia

e CG J c CG G NCG
e 10% h 5% H g OGG jhJ IOYEG
e dCG e f dG fEG c
CG jd Ea ,dH .eG
dCG jhJ IOYEG CG c ,Fg b
.Mf KCG b
e LGh
,5-3 SCG qM :dG LGe
259 U
3-9 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
.JeN
Zn2+ + 2e Zn (E0 = 0.76 V) :g dG GNG YJ
Cu2+ + 2e Cu(E0 = +0.34 V)

Ea ,dP e .cCd 0.34 V EG j Cu ;vFJ cCj Zn

,j d 0.76 V EG Zn2+ j H ,vFJ j Cu2+
Ea ,0.76 V e bCG G dhG ddG fc GPEG ,dd
Zn Sh ;a Cu J S dH .S a Cu2+
.Zn2+ H G

259

.5

,LQN Qe e IdG ,bdG J ,dhdEG jG

.FJ Z GNG-IcCG YJ hM
qa Sjh ,qa jCG dN j Y FHdG AdG
.S Y U
ch da c dG IOYE HdG G J
FdG bdG
u eY da c J a .dhdEG
c J a G T Oj eY ;FHc bW EG
.Fc bW EG FHdG bdG a
dhdEG
u
e dCG qa uj YJ GME dhdEG jG J

.1

.2

.3

.4

9 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG se
gG gCG dG g J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
.HdG H a uG Lh SCG
SCG 263-262 U Ye LGe 40-32
44-41 SCG ,263 U bf J 46-45 GDdG ,263 U Hch H 48-47 GDdG ,263 U jH J 49 GDdG ,263 U Y he -

fSG :d eN J U 9 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
.60 U QNG Ad SCG Fh ,15

LGG HLCG
GC
O
O

.1
.6
O .2
.7
.3
O .4
GNG g YdG .Zn(s) g dG .8
.OKc YJ g dd
M Y j eG LG .9
,G f H fjCG RGdG
SGH dG cH j M
EG f N e jCG fG
.Fchc N iNCG
2Ag+ + Co 2Ag + Co2+ .CG .10
dch (AG fjCG) dhdEG jC
k G
.(AdG) e Ib
g NBG H dG FGa .HLCG J .15
SG GPEGh .gdG e aCG dG CG
dG Yj a ,cCG dH cCj q a
Ad IMGh S .dG dG b
kAe qJ GPEG J qdG (dG)
.Mj bh cBJ j CG a ,AdG
eGSG feEG g cBG OfCG FGa
J j M ,VQCG dG d
j HdHh ,dH dG hCG gdG
.hj eY cBG OfCG GSG

j Fchc N ddG G .12

.FHc bW udjh ,v FJ a YdG
jG Y eCG ObdG jNh jQdG
.ddG
CG ,CGG M e ,J ObdG N .13
CG hO FHc bW ,OhM H ,J
QGSH OhJ
s fC ,T IOYE bJ
.QGSH GJ Gfh ,JYH
dG GNG-IcCG YJ J .14
fCG a dd ;e bGe v FJ
fhdEG q Jh .da gh jN
g .NBG EG N f e dG N

.5

Co(s) | Co2+(aq) || Ag+(aq) | Ag(s)

2Au3+ + 3Zn 2Au + 3Zn2+ .
Zn(s) | Zn2+(aq) || Au3+(aq) | Au(s)
Hg2+ + 2K Hg + 2K+ .
K(s) | K+(aq) || Hg2+(aq) | Hg(l)

e FchdG G dCJ .11

dhdEG d b
IH hCG ee LH de
.e S dG H .e
N OfCG e fhdEG J
dEG OKdG H dG
J ,dG dOd .dhdEG
N e G f H fjCG
.dG IdG hCG eG LG
260

9 dG LGe
.OfCG g fC jQdG q a cCJ .21
J jQdG b CG MS dd
a jdG fjCG eCG .(cBj) c
G f IOLe fC dNG
GQP CG MS dH .OKdG
a b Y SJ
q jdG
.jdG
j ,FHc J Y N .22
GNG .OKdG Y GNG YJ
GfCG c OKdG Y k FGO j
.dG
fjCG e cCG dH AG j .23
cCG GNG L Ad C ,CG
.dCG fjCG e
Cd2+ + 2Cl Cl2 + Cd .24
0.40 (1.36) = 1.76 V

:g gG GP dG YdG
Ni2+

.25

2e

(E0=

Ni
0.23 V)

Zn2+ + 2e Zn h
(E0= 0.76 V)

Y 0.23 V EG j Ni2+ j d
,UQdG a cCj d .bCG
dd .bCG Y 0.76 V H EG j
UQG e L AW
H dhG ddG eGO e dH
.0.76 V h 0.23 V
,vFJ kYJ ddG G qJ .26
dhdEG G qJ H
.FJ Z kYJ
dhdEG Y FHdG AdG .CG .27
.S Y Gva SJ
u
OKdG g DhW OGG dG .
.OfCG g H AdG OGdG qdGh
Ni2+(aq) + 2Na(s)

.CG .28

Ni(s) + 2Na+(aq)
F2(g) + H2S(aq)

2F (aq) + S(s) + 2H+(aq)

3Br2(l) + 2Cr(s)

6Br(aq)

2Cr3+(aq)

2MnO4(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 5Co(s)

2Mn2+(aq)

+ 8H2O(l) +

+1.81 V

.
+1.77 V .O
261

.O

5Co2+(aq)

.CG .29
+2.73 V .
+2.48 V

(dG f L) dG L Sb .19
U e QNG L q j dd .Te H
,(SdG LhQdG b) SHE N d
dH NBG G f L Sb a
.LG Gg dEG
dEG IOe e Y dO dG f L .CG .20
.H+ e fQe GNd J CG
cCG ke g CG j c GNG L .
CG kV kMG j dd .GNG dEG
OL .IcCd dG YdG j
OLh J (dS cCG OL hCG) UCG
dEG VCG eh ,IcCG dEG cCG e
.GNG

Sb b H s j dG ,dG YdG .16

.IcCG j CG kMG cCG g ,0.42 V e
S dG CG Y J ddG IQTEG
LhQdG b) SHE e Uh GPEG GkOfCG
.(SdG
H k WQ kfe aG jG J .17
dG jG e LCG g PEG ,dhdEG
.dG J
T jd jQhdG bd Sb g .CG .18
.G Y FHc
SGH ,ddH G a Sj .
.dH Uj
s da

9 dG LGe
+0.53 V

.CG .30

+2.20 V

.
J .

Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) .31

Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)

.SJ
q dGh cBj dG d
.FJ E0 = +2.23 V .CG .32
Mg + Sn2+ Mg2+ + Sn
.FJ ,E0 = +1.27 V .
3K + Al3+ 3K++ Al
.FJ Z ,E0 = 2.28 V .
.FJ ,E0 = +1.02 V .O
Cu + Cl2 Cu2+ + 2Cl

S EG jdG jQdG .33

jQH G g c Hc
J Gg .Hc-UQG
jQH e UCG jdG jQdG
.Hc-UQG
.34

UQN-Hc jQH a OfCG YJ

Zn(s)

Zn2+(aq)

2e

.jdG jQdG a OfCG YJ

Zn(s) +

2OH(aq)

Zn(OH)2(s) +

2e

YJ j FdG jQH OfCG YJ

OKdG YJ d ,jdG jQdG OfCG
:g FdG jQH
HgO + H2O + 2e Hg + 2OH

dG OGG GfC g LG E0 b .CG .40

E0 bh ;H+ e cCG dH J
GNG j dG OGG GfC g ddG
.e SCG H+

da .WdG He Cd h Fe ; .37
.+0.01 V g G
2Al + 3Zn2+ 2Al3+ + 3Zn

.CG .38

E0 = +1.66 0.76 = +0.90 V

.U Zn Sh ,dG cBS
2Al3+ + 3Zn 2Al + 3Zn2+

E0 = 1.66 + 0.76 = 0.90 V

.YJ j ,f
jQdGh UQN-Hc jQH .39
OKdG YdG a j gc jdG
:dG
2MnO2 + H2O + 2e Mn2O3 + 2OH

L e bCG Al3+ GNG L C , .35

cCj dHh ,Sn2+ GNG
jdG Sjh dCG
.E0 = +1.52 V
Zn :OfCG ;Cd :OKdG .CG .36
Cd EG Zn e J fhdEG .
Zn Zn2+ + 2e
Cd2+

2e

Cd2+

:g FdG dOdG
Zn + Cd2+ Zn2+ + Cd

262

9 dG LGe
FHc bW jQdG J eY
.dG Y G Gg jh
jQhV g (II) UUdG jc
e .jQdG T IOYE Yc
e H
k Ea e fCG Hh ,dP
Y j (II) UUdG jc
OdG dG N jh dG
OJ ,jdG h Gg .IQd
,(II) UUdG jc c
IOYE ac ,dG Y IOLG
.jQdG T
.cCj Cr3+ .44
G j b .HLCG J
s .45
KdG FdG GqdG Y ee
Ghcj CG Y d .LfEG Wh
H gdGh dGh SdG
.FHdG AdG e Gqa
CG G Y .HLCG J
s b .46
jd dG ddG Gj
.jQdG e dGh
khL dG j CG j .47
CG j hGdG .fdG Vd
.SGQO H jNBG d J
,OfCG H CG Z j .48
QdG .OKdG H IdG J
Y JdG ddG S dCH
YdG .FchdG G
.g dG
Al Al3+ + 3e
Ag+ + e Ag
E0N = +2.46 V

:Y he .49
:hG Ia d b
e GfCG Y g jG
dGh G M e ,jQdG
,GSG h ddGh
.IOG M e hCG LQdHh
jQdG IOL CG d Vh
u
OGG W Y J IaG
CG EG gf dG .a eG
OG b Y a J IOG
jC
k G J H ,dEG UdG q dG
EG CG ,jQdG af dCe Y
J e QH f J jQdG
.q bCG dG J
t ge
VhdG dG e VSG
.b e edG bdGh
uc K ,Y a dEG dG b
u
.dG
263

:ddG dOdG
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

eY ;c H c jdG M
jQdG FdG ac J j
YCG FS fdG jQdG a j dd
fe jQH dG FdG e ac
.bCG
J CG j jQdG T IOYEG LCG e .43
e jbh IOLe YdG Ye
J ,UUdG cdG jQH .bCG
,e H (II) UUdG jc

cCG j ,UCG E0 b fc c .
. kWf
-IcCG YJ
u ,jdG IQhO N .41
,(ddG jdG J gh) ,FdG GNG
N .FHc bW EG FdG bdG
FHdG bdG s
n J dG IOYEG IQhO
-IcCG YJ Y Fc bW EG
.dhdEG jG u GNG
H fe J eY ,jQdG .42
N .scG jdG M Y ,J
e g c G j jdG

3 IMdG

jhdGh jdG AdG

QdG Uh
jhf L fe
u GQe :SdG
.HV aZ
YJ Ad P :QdG SCG
.fGQd dG QfG
YHQ FdG cdG :dG SdG
.d LhCG
hdEG e :dG SCG
ITd U N jdH Gd
.SCG

264

265

10 dG s

fHchQdGh HdG
dG dG OQGe
j Q

edG hG

dG OQGG

q gCGh HdG OLh 1-10

IMGh M

54 ,53 ,52

T
25 GC GC T

273 U ,Y VY

G fHchQdG
M 3

55

T
28 GC ,27 GC ,26 GC GC T

dCG MCG e hdG YJ 7 H

110 U ,fdCH fQeh

T
30 GC ,29 GC GC T

19 U ,10 dG QNG

O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
72 U

jH J
301 U

134 U

cGJ LGe
10 dG LGe

3-10

G Z fHchQdG 4-10
M 3

57 ,56

LGG OQGe
ef J

jdG scG 2-10

M

Jh LGe
IMGh M

(CG) 266
G c
4

dG LGdG OQGe
J jQ

LGGh dG LGh OQGe

270 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

297 U ,9-7 ,1 SCG ,dG LGe

1-10 dG LGe

275 U ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe

298-297 U ,13 ,11-10 ,4 SCG ,dG LGe

2-10 ,1-10 ,LP Fe

284 ,283 ,282 ,281 U ,aVEG LP Fe

4-10 ,3-10 ,LP Fe

294 ,292 ,289 U ,aVEG LP Fe

2-10 dG LGe

285 U ,6-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,35-32 ,29-28 ,20-19 ,12 ,6-5 ,3-2 SCG ,dG LGe

300-297 U ,43
3-10 dG LGe

295 U ,5-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,42-36 ,31-30 ,27-21 ,18-14 SCG ,dG LGe

301-297 U ,48-44
4-10 dG LGe

OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T

G
266c
5()

G c
ddG c
dG dO O

10 dG

fHchQdGh HdG
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
gdG HGhdG GfCG Ouj 1-10
QdG EG aVEH Hd
.Hd FdG sUBdG
dG Oujh FdG dG j 2-10
FdG GehjCG H
.SdG GehjCGh
G fHchQdG qj 3-10
cGdG H bdG kVe
Hh fdCd FdG
.JeGSG
Z fHchQdG qj 4-10
.FN sjh qG

SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
e 4 dG) hdEG JdG
(TdG dG
6 dG) gdG HGdGh dG
(TdG dG e
OGGh FGdG dG PdG
OG dG e 6 dG) dG
(Y
dG HGG FN
(dG Gg e 1 dG)

dG IQe AH

-CG-CG hL

YCG CG jQCG

YCG

EG WG ,-CG-CG hL k uXe :HQ

hOj hCG faj e J G
.Jsce gCGh HdG Y ae
,dG Gg IAGb e FfG idh
.FdG EG qJ e aVEG dEG WG
dEG WG SCG jd H GPEGh
ee h SCG g LGe
.iNCG ae QOe

266

1-10 dG

:1-10 dG q
q gCGh HdG OLh
bO 45 IMGh M :G edG
(FbO 5) SQdG OH
EG Ghj CG G EG WG
j e e GhOujh ,dG GOLe
dG GOLe e EG .Hc Y
bh .HdG Y NBH hCG H
OYG M be EG eCG Oj
f ,ka .qQMCG ObdG Y G
bdG aJ ObdG Gg Y f
h ,cG J h ,FHdG
dGh (FGdG) SdG YU
ucP .SCG dGh ,jdG e dCGh
Qe QMCG ObdG CH G
.Oh fh CGh ,Oue Z bd
(bO 40) SQu O

jH JGSG
:G { 52 adG VYG
Y zLhCG YHd P
AG P GMj rYO .uG
Gd GdGh GdG Ph GdG
GYSG b G CG e scC J .scG
Sg T g LhCG YHdG dG CG
d HQCG jGhdG YJ eY j
S . ae bCG OHCG KK
HQCG jGhdG Y Lj qY G
D aJ fhdEG) LhCG YHdG d
adG) jGhdG OHG S Yh (HdG
.(hdEG

dG

hdEG JdG LGe G Y

e ,6 dG dGh ,3 dG
Gd cCG a LCG e ,TdG dG
.dG

267

1-10 dG
HGdG{ 53 adG VYG
.qG Y zjjEGh jEG
CH jOMCG HGdG Gj YO
KdG HGdGh C=C FdG HGdGh

.rscG jg C=C

dG

6 dG e GYSG b G j

HGhdG CG TdG dG c e
.sG aCG e J
s jOMCG
Z aCG Y IOqG HhGdG Jh
soG Z aCG NGJ EG .se
HGdG aVEG HGdG j
q
.KdGh FdG

jH JGSG
SdG dG Vj
2-10 dG
s
GSG id dH qG aCd
c d GkMGh kfdH MCG .fddG
fddG jf qLh ,ue a
fdH HQCG c S
.ke WHG
u
KK c Sh
o ,LhCG YHQ kT
qoj a ,G sG dG fdH
. qG dG ke WHG fddG
fhdEG c ,fddG S
ae bCG IYe uG aCG
.
b qG CG e scC J 3-10 dG
GQd LhCG YHdG JdG GYSG
GQP XCG GPEGh .SG IQH HdG
YHQ v Sg kT SG HdG
aCG J f g a ,LhCG
?SG

268

1-10 dG

?J g
OLH Se
k jRGa
s S ,1772 S
;ZEG AYh NGO ,cCG
SG .HdG cCG K a
s
e e
SG
C
G
dP
e
jRGa
s
.ek HdG
UUdG bCG OLG aGG EG
EGh .dG e h G g
OGOj UUdG bC dG bQ
CG eh .aGG dG IOjH
e Ea dG OLe aGG
bCG e ooJ dG aGG
.GaCG oj UUdG

dG

O jf
fdG cGdG
u
e c o jo ,cCG hCG r s FH r n cJ
hCG r n r nfe JQG fhdEG
cdG fhdEG J .cCG
GOGeG Y Ve G FdG
Z fhdEG u .s G GQq dG
GSG V f iMEG VG
cGdG d hdEd dG edG
P VJ (jd cGJ) q FdG
hdEG SQ ia .gdG HGdG
CG VGaG
dP j IOe f H
k
cdG JQdG H S hdEG
G g ch .dG FdG
Gg t j VG Z fhdEG
.ac GMCG
k U VGaG

FN{ 25 GC adG VYG

.qG Y zaGGh SG
r nJg FN GHj CG dEG WG
HGhdH Hd n q UBdG JQdG
.e c s J dG

269

1-10 dG

?J g
jdd hdG cdG EG
H ,Gv L Ie j buckyballs
.dY V SG e bCG
GQq P iMEH Si ,dG GSG Y
jdd hdG cdG HdG
f cdG j buckyballs
SJH IQq P Vh Yh .Ue
u
Fa j hdG cdG ce
IQGG pLQO Y UG
gZh FG g EG .G
jdd hdG cdG
e IjL GfCG jJ Hk Ze
EG WG .jhOCGh (SdG) FGdG
HdG GQq P J j G
jdadG
.buckminsterfullerene

AdG fQe{ 54 adG VYG

aGGh Sd cdG
GfQj YO .qG Y zjddGh
HdG GQq P Wh dG SG AL
hdG FdG cdGh aGG
.jdd
e LGh
,4-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
270 U
,9-7 h 1 SCG q M :dG LGe
297 U
1-10 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
IOc eGSG Sh ,aGG Tg
.d
T FH cGJ ac jdd .CG .4
.UbCH T jhc
HdG GQP OY J .
.AG

.G OGG L HdG OLd .1

.sp ,sp2 .2
H aGG HdG GQP sJJ .3
J ,bQ SGS FU e W
dJ dh ;dG H jb
g Ib Jh
.H a H
u
.HdG dCG Ib dG HGhdG
H a H dG fG jh
u

270

2-10 dG

:2-10 dG
jdG scG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
.YG sMCG jH SQdG Gg GC HG
jY bQh Y SQdG jGH b SQG
e c V W kqHe kbhU
,hU c NGO IFGO SQG K .3.5 cm
K .e FGhO S NGO C G cGh
EG IFGdG e I N HQCG VCG
.HQCG HGhdG Y dd ,HG fGL
FGhdG e G NGO H G cG
EG IFGdG e GkMGh vN VCG K ,14 `dG
HGdG Y dd HG fGL MCG
e Y EG G b
u .jOMCG
bQdG e H Y c OhRh
u ,KK
OY cCG Gfj
q CG dEG WG .e e
,FbO 5 N G jG e
Qb .qac HGhdGh GqQdG ee
Ghuj CG G EG WGh ,FdG
S g iJ .KK OHCH jdG
b c EG NG S ch ?AT
?ka M
(bO 35) SQu O

d Ie Ia

Y G Yj PdG GSG EG
dG jd FdG cdG QJ
q
dG GSCG h .dG Gg bf
AG Ph GdGh GdG P e
g MCG oJ CG SG e .GdG
.VdG VGZC bCG Y PdG
GSH jC
k G PdG J h
J GYh GQdG d Gc
GSG h .HGhdG d SCG
d Mh dG e GdCG
G EG dH GC HG .G GQq dG
IQTEd Ic GY HQCG GSj CG
.LhCG YHdG d HQCG jGhdG EG

271

2-10 dG
aCG GP Hc IQP PdG Gg uS
Y eGSG h .
s G sp3
H MG .Gh SdG e CG
.dG N eGS PdG
,G dG hJ eG :edG
.dG J
t M

d Ie Ia

:g fjEd FdG dG

H H
HCCOH
H H

:jEG e Fd FdG dG
H

HCOCH
H

dG Yj G CG e cCJ
dGh OHCG FdG dG H
FdG dG j .OHCG KdG
jGhR Y j gh CH4 `d OHCG
H .HchQdG HGhQ H Fb
cCG jGhR OHCG KdG dG j
gh G qcP .109 H bGh
FdG dG ejh j
j gh ,Y CG jdG OGd
Ghuj CG ,OHCG FK U
.KK OHCG

dG IQe AH
IOe CG d a
q :fdG J
gQe catenation dG HGdG
p Sp Jh catena JdG dG

g HdG CG G NCG .chain

Y IQOdG UdG e OY e MGh
N e SSh M jJ
.iNCG Hc GQH JQG
M H j ke ,da
j HdG CG EG .dG HGdG
jJ Y JQb UdG e GS
.SdG

272

2-10 dG

jH JGSG
U G EG WG 9-10 dG
GYh Gc e fjEd P
J GYh dG Gc GSH
Ich AGM U Ic SG .SCG
Ic SGh ,O `d NBG kfd SGh ,C `d
U e G AfG H .H `d IU
c GdG aO dEG WG ,LP
P j P jd QJ
ZGdG Qd
dPh ,GdG AG
t
.GdG H J dG

d Ie Ia

GPEG e GQOEG G Y j b
hCG rjnehjCG u cdG dG fc
Y dd ,GkMGh kjL q fCG
jhJ feEG hCG QdG
XJ G
q
.PdG GSG hCG HGhdG
bO 45 :fdG G

Y VY
Ad PdG GSG G EG WG
.C6H14 dGh C5H12 dG GehjCG
ehjCG d FH kU GSj CG WGh
GehjCG OY Qoj c .fj
GehjCG OY e d G
dG GehjCG OY) ?d G
(dG GehjCG OY e cCG

d Ie Ia

GehjCH FdG GehjCG J

.jC
k G cdG

273

2-10 dG

hG JGSG
hG GeCj G O 1-10 hG
LQO aNG GMj K 1-10
K ,JdG nehjC dGh QfG
Y GkOYG NG Gg S Ghj
q
.jG H PdG ib

FT C N
dg CG uG j CG ddG e
,jOMCG HGhdG M IM fGQhO cM
hJ bh .FdG HGhdG M dh
Ad MG G FdG dG
G d ,HGdG GQhO f
U K SQG . GehjCG fCch
Y JH e FK-3,2 `d FH
fGQhO gG KK a J IQq dG
HGhdG cM VJ
q d ,Ad
:ke ,G dG
H
CH3

H
CC

CH3

CH3
CH3

KdG TCG CG d Vh
u
.G f Ad g G
.PdG ek e MG g Vh
u

274

2-10 dG

d Ie Ia

c GPEG e G Oj CG jo
,FK HGH JG jG
P H dPh ,r Sg p jr n ehjCG
H
u .H a H OHCG KK
Y c N e PdG
FdG HGdG Hc IQH Je
GPEGh . d GP IOe IH
MGh AL jhJ e G sj
j ,ek NBG AG Hjo H
.s Sg jn ehjCG M jG
e LGh
,5-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
275 U
,4 SCG q M :dG LGe
298-297 U ,13 ,11-10
2-10 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
GSG jo . , GQdG JJ c J c ,a GQdG
H aNG RGHE ,OHCG KdG PdGh FdG dG
JJh HGJ dG GQq dG JJ J fC ,GehjCG
.AdG

O , ,CG .4
QdG GQP JJ d ,C3H6Cl2 :f jG dG scd .5
.j HdG S Y

275

Ch ,Mh SS jJh J JJ C JGqQP Hb .1

UdG Hh J JJ Ch ,iNCG UH JJ
. JH
FH cGH d ,HG jG dG GP scG .2
JH HGJ GQP FdG GehjCd .GehjCG g
d ,f JdH HGJ GQP SdG GehjCd .
.k j GdG JGQP JJ
f J fC GehjCG H dG jG dG oJ ,CG .3

3-10 dG

:3-10 dG

G fHchQdG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
,d FdG dG IQqdG Y cG
EG WG .JdG ,HhdG ,jEG
HchQdG U Gqbj CG G
g SG .dG g dG
fdCG SS d FdG cGdG
c CG GhqcD j G O .fG
CnH2n+2 edG dG J U
tbJ G EG WG K .fdCd
15 e G
dCd jG dG
u
.Hc IsQP
(bO 35) SQq O

dG IQe AH
G EG WG :IAGdG e
eG Jh ,2-10 dG LGe
fe ge WQN hCG hL
CG G Y .zjY sce{ `H
FN M ee hG Gq jo
YGbh ,SSCG FdG cGdG
fHchQdG FNh ,dG
Y .Y eCGh JeGSGh G
iNCG a jCG J jC
k G G
.G fdCGh fdCc LJ
FH U SQ G Y ,G
k NCG
Jh LP eC I
CG G EG WG .U H
d FGN hCG dhGH Gj
c IjL ee dEG Gjo
.jdG scG SGQO GSJ
s

276

3-10 dG
Y zfdCG{ 55 adG VYG
cGdG Gj YO .uG
fHchQdG d HGhdGh FdG
.dG

hG JGSG
GeCj G O 2-10 hG
e :ddG SCG WG K 2-10 hG
M e j dGh sce c H dG
dG scG q f GPe ?GQq dG OY
p S K ?dG GH H Y J
GehjCG LJ GP G
hG s G fHchQd
hCG r nJQs P hCG IMGh IQP Y jGh
.Hc GQq P K

277

3-10 dG

d Ie Ia

IYb HchQdG jL J GPEG

fHchQg J CG eEa ,CnH2n+2
IOe HGhQ d j CG eEGh M
J .(s KK hCG s FK)
FdG HGhdG GP fHchQdG
C ,unsaturated G H KdGh
e Z a HdG GQP
.G YCG G EG LhQdH
Gg IG dG jW EG
Se gh ,IUPAC g dG
dG FdG ASCG CG EG .Y
,Hhd HhdGh ,jEd jEc
jCG dGh ,jjEd SCGh
.ee GJ ,fjEd

hG JGSG
IdG FOH{ 26 GC adG VYG
Y zfdCG e hCG
GQP OY j dEG WG .uG
,sc WCG dG HdG
.OdG Gd HG FOdG GSGh
ASCG{ 27 GC adG VYG
YO .uG Y zfdCG
ee ,fdCG J Y GHQj
HdG GQP OY Y J FOH
G- G aVEG K ,WCG dG
.dEG
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :dG LGe
285 U
,3-2 dGDdG q M :dG LGe
297 U

278

3-10 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
q

hG JGSG
Y{ 28 GC adG VYG
Y zG dG GP dCG
g Gj CG dEG WG .uG
J dG FOdG GSH YG
OLG HdG GQP OY Y
.dEG j- G aVEG K ,YG
FdG cGdG IQq dG Y cG
chCG e KK-5,4,2-jEG-3 `d
.ff e FK-2,2-JH-5 h
Y GhOu j CG G EG WG
.ac dCG

d Ie Ia

dG SQ id ,G e CG Vh
u
fHchQdG S Hc ,FdG
CG Ghcj CG G Y .khCG WCG
xN H qJ b WCG SdG
.e

279

3-10 dG

d Ie Ia

L CG Me G EG WG
Gg j .G- H J fdCG
CG c .FK HGQ OLh Y Y
g ,SG IOLGh dG bQCG
. e UCG

280

3-10 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
dG dG GP fdCG u S 1-10
:ddG

.CG

CH3CH2CH2CHCHCH3
CH3 CH3

CH3CH2CH2CHCHCH2CH2CH3 .
CH3 CH3
CH3CH2CHCH3

CH3
CH3CH2CHCHCH2

.O

CH3 CH3 CH2CH2CH2CH3

CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH3 .`g
CH3

:GG
g e FK-3,2 .CG
chCG e FK-5,4 .
JH e-2 .
ff e FK-4,3 .O
g e-3 .`g

281

3-10 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
d IG FdG dG SQG 2-10
:ddG jG e
H e FK-4,2 .CG
g e-3-jEG-4 .
HhH e-2 .

GG
CH3CHCH2CHCH3 .CG
CH3

CH3

CH3CH2CHCHCH2CH2CH3

CH3 CH2CH3
CH3CHCH3

CH3

IG FdG dG SQG 2-10

g e-4-jEG KK-4,3,3 `d

GG
CH3CH2 CH2CH3
CH3CH2CCCH2CH3
CH3CH2 CH3

jr n ehjC FdG dG SQG 2-10

.C7H16 `d r s FH

GG
CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH3
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

282

3-10 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
IG FdG dG SQG 2-10
.H e FK-2,2-jEG-3 `d

GG
CH3 CH2CH3
CH3CCHCH2CH3
CH3

e LGh
,3-1 SCG qM :J jQ
283 U
,5 h 3 dGDdG qM :dG LGe
285 U
,5 SCG qM :dG LGe
300-297 U ,35 ,33 ,29-28
bO 45 ddG G
q
(bO 35) SqQO

283

3-10 dG

aVEG LP eCG
:ddG G fdCG u S .1

.CG
.
CH3CH2

CH2CH3

M JH .CG :GG
M g jEG FK-4,1 .
IG FdG dG SQG .2
.M H

GG
CH3

284

3-10 dG

hG JGSG
CG G EG WG 5-10 hG
Y WG K ,5-10 hG GeCj
Z LQd j GPe :ddG SCG
GPe ?HdG GqQP OY IOjH fdCG
GqQP OY IOjH sFjdG dd j
H bG idG f e ?HdG
bY idG d gh ?fdCG jL
e scC J ?dCd sjG dG e
Z LQO CG G SG
GQP OY IOjH JJ fdCG
dG dc eCG Gg jo h .HdG
IQGM LQO Y dCd FjdG
dW c fCG G NCG .adG
dG G ib J dCG S
.fZ LQO JJh cCG

dG

ib LGe EG G MG qHQ
c e 6 dG dG PdG
.TdG dG

FT C N
dG CH G e dG j b
ZdG Yh ,GQUjdG t e J
q
fG
u jdG OGG H CG e
fCG gQe G dG h
AL fG
u dZ Ea ,GQUjdG
.jdGh JdG e
e LGh
,6 h 4 dGDdG qM :dG LGe
285 U
,12 ,6 SCG qM :dG LGe
300-297 U ,43 ,34 ,32 ,20-19
3-10 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
fdCG :eCG e .QNG dG dCG M HLCG J
q .4
,Je Z LQO d jdG HdG GQP S GP
.dG Uc s FfEG VGZC Jh
CH3

CH2CH2CH3

CH3CH2 CH3

.jOMCG HGhQ Y .1
CH3

.5

CH3CHCHCH2CH3

.2

CH3CCH3
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
CH3CHCH2CH3

,M JH eh M H .6
.gh H e-2
285

CH3

.JH e-2 ,H ,HhH e FK-2,2 .3

3-10 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG

Y IAGb
qU be
IQKEH IAGdG N G ge Ru Y
:ddG SCG
YU eG jdG e .1
H QH SJ) ?YdG SG
jW Y eRdG jJh ,FdG
(QdG
SG J jW HJ a .2
EG aJ jdG c) ?YdG
,HdG qce e HdG GQq P a
(gMd GQq dG g jJ K

HLCG
:Yd IG SG FN gCG .1
.QGG UdG Y JQbh ,HU

286

4-10 dG

:4-10 dG
Z fHchQdG
G
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
HdG aQe G e bf
,fdCd fG SdH G
J SdG g HdG GQP M
Uh .LhQdG GQH q e
U GP fHchQg fCH fdCG
IQdG Y cG .CnH2n+2 bdG
HhdG e d s jG dG
EG GUj G O K ,HhdGh
eh dG H NGh HdG
.dG s U dG hdG
(bO 35) SuQO
Y zdCG{ 56 adG VYG
g Gj YO .uG
FK HGQ Y jG dCG
.bCG Y IMGh

dG

jOMCG HGhdG e ibCG FdG HGhdG

.IdG M e V d d
ibCG () FGHG jOMCG HGda
e YCG HGQ bH J dd .H
eCG Gg q K .() e aVEG HGQ CG
.5 dG HGhdG bW LG

dG IQe AH
e NBG b cEG G EG WG :fQe
G Z fHchQdH UN dhL
,SSCG FdG cGdG FN jh
,eGSGh ,FGh ,dG YGbh
dCG Y eCG EG aVEH ,dGh
WG K .JehQCG fHchQdGh jdCGh
H ,fQd dhGL GSG dEG
.G Zh G fHchQdG

287

4-10 dG

d Ie Ia

j HU G H S
.Sg GehjCG dCd c GPEG e
d FdG dG SQ dEG WG
,Sg ehjCG IQU AL
.ah
HGhdG J H dCG sboj
GP HdG GqQP EG bCG FdG
G EG WG .UCG bQCG
H-2 FdG cdG fQe
(f Ad cdG c) H-3 h
g H-2 `dG) ?UCG g SG CG
FdG HGdG a J dG SG
(kbQ UCG HdG IsQP EG bCG

288

4-10 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
:ddG dCG u S

3-10

CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH=CH2

.CG

CH3
CH3CH=CHCH=CHCH3

CH3CHCH=CHCH2CH2CH3

CH3

GG
g-1-e-5 .CG
jOg-4,2 .
g-3-e-2 .

289

4-10 dG

d Ie Ia

H GdOj CG G EG WG
qce jEGh G n Y
Gq jo K ,JH-1-e-3-jEG-2
Y WCG dG ) dG dCG
scG SGh ,Hc GQP N
.(H-1-e FK-3,2

FT C N
ASCG IAGb id kdZ SdG j
e Jje Y HG FdG
a d dPh , Geh AGZ
.fe hCG eG IUPAC ASCG
dG G AGT Y dG h
IUPAC J GSH Jfe
q cJ
jdG qcG g CG cQj gh
Y dG ,W fc EGh
.IUPAC J GSH

jH JGSG
fQa-dCG IUPAC J 15-10 dG
-10,6,3,1-e KK-11,7,3 g
.jGJjOhO

J
,he dCG UCG gh ,jEG EG
jh .cGdG f Y hDe
cdG fCG c J YJ
Wda .jEG e cCG c VdG
NGO cCG YH J JcaCGh
oJh .jEH XM ,ScCG
H MdG H IMGh dJ MJ
e j c .jEG e RJ e
b QdG H IgdG g e cdG
dG jd ,jEd jJh f
.G Y VY b
e LGh
,3-1 SCG qM :J jQ
290 U
,3-2 dGDdG qM :dG LGe
295 U
,27-26 SCG qM :dG LGe
301-297 U ,48 ,37-36 ,31-30
290

4-10 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
f
fQeh dCG MCG e hdG YJ{
g .. ,110 U zfdCH
dG YJ qG Qj HdG
e hdG e G dGh G
.G d Gt dG N
bO 45 :ddG G

jH JGSG
e c U dG G G O
IOLG jjEGh jEGh jEG
c H fQe Y dEG WG K ,eeCG
HdG GqQP OY M e ,e
d edG dG K eh ,LhQdGh
.e

291

4-10 dG

aVEG LPf e
:JCj e c uS .1
CH
CH3CH2C=
CH3

.CG
.

CCH CHCH
CH3C=
2
3
CH3

CH=CCCH3

CH3

GG
jJH-1 .CG
jg-2-e-5 .
jJH-1-e FK-3,3 .
:JCj d FdG dG SQG .2
jJH-2 .CG
jH-1-e-3 .

GG
CCH .CG
CH3C=
3
.
CH3
CCHCH CH
CH=
2
3

292

4-10 dG
cGdG{ 57 adG VYG
Y zjd s fdG FdG
KCJ GMj YO .uG
dG ,VG Z fhdEG
HGdG Yh ,jdG M Y
.G
zjdG { 29 GC adG VYG
kbW G
q j YO .uG Y
.jd fdG cdG d IOe
dG{ 30 GC adG VYG
.G Y zjSCd FdG
dG FdG cGdG Gqj YO
.jSCG GQdG JJh HGdG qJ

?J g
cdG CH dc ZhCG jQOa YOq G
AL cG dG jd FdG
e c HK S d C s J M .G
eYh .j dG jP Y a j
dG G jdG CG dc QOCG ,aCG
g jdG L FdG cdG s
G jdH HdG GQq P J CG
h .pM
o HdG JsJG dG f
dc M L dG G eCG Gj
,dAd k VN jd FdG cdG
O eCG CG CG ,dH M c gh
EG jf ad dc YNG jM
.eCG

dG

d jdG U Hc IQP c EG
dG jd cJ Sdh .sp2 J
s FH n cJ OLh J j ,bdG
FK HGhQ e c j s fQ
e je Y dh .be
jd cJh dG M eG
dG c e 6 dG LGQ ,dG
.TdG

293

4-10 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
:j d FdG cGdG SQG 4-10
jH e FK-3,1 .CG
jH e-2-jEG-1 .
jH JH .

GG
.CG

CH3

CH3
CH2CH3

CH3
CH2CH2CH2CH3

k SG ddG ASCG e c o u 4-10

SG .JehQCG HchQd U Z
kah
k U k SG ASCG g e H
.IUPAC `d
jH e-2 .CG
jH e-5-jEG-1 .
jH JH-2-e-1 .

GG
jH e .CG
jH e-3-jEG-1 .
jH e-2-JH-1 .

294

4-10 dG

J
dhRGh G dG e c j
CG h ,ev S j dG jdG Y
Y Lj dG Gd .G
t
aG JOG Jg e eG
.eRdG jbdH fCG Y
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :J jQ
295 U
,1 SCG q M :dG LGe
295 U ,5-4 h
SCG q M :dG LGe
,47-44 ,42-39 ,25-21 ,18-14
300-297 U
4-10 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
CH2=CHCH=CH2

.CG .4
CCH CH .
CH3C=
2
3

CH2CH3 .

jdG M .

KK HGhQ .

.1

CH2=CHCH2CH3 .2

CH2CH3

CH3CH=CHCH3

dCG
dCG
jdCG

CH3C=CH2

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 .5
CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3
CCH CH CH
CH=
2
2
3

. jL kU d C ,GehjCG jG g J

295

FK HGhQ .CG

CH3
CH3

:e iNCG HLCG jC
k G h

,M HhH e ,HhH e-2 ,JH-2 ,JH-1 .3

M JH

10 dG LGe
dGh LGG
(bO 45 IMGh M)
dG
s e
gG gCG dG g
u J
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
SCG ,301-300 U Ye LGe 48-43
50-49 GDdG ,301 U bf J 51 GDdG ,301 U Hch H 52 GDdG ,301 U jH J -

fSG :d eN J 10 dG QNG ( O) dG dH
QNG Ad SCG Fh ,19 U
.72 U 10 dG

LGG HLCG

GQdG HGJ GehjCG FdG GehjCG

. JH a
a Hj GehjCG SdG GehjCG
a jh GQdG H HGhdG JJ
.AdG GQdG JJ
U a J S fG dG
.HK IMH IQhG scG
GQP a sJJ fdCG G fdCG
.M T Y HdG
. jL U d , .13

,AG GqQd G OdG .CG .11

.HGJ JJ dch ,YGfCGh
h A FdG cdG Vd .
.Z e ehjCG c
gdG HGdG g dG HGdG .12
SS jd f dG GQq d
.Mh
HdG e J
q sce fHchQdG
HCG q gh ,a LhQdGh
.jdG scG

.4
CG .1
CG .5
O .2
.6
.3
HQCG cQCG H VJ .7
.e LhCG YHd
.jddGh aGGh ,SG .8
HQCH Hc IsQP c JJ SG
.LhCG YHQ T Hc GqQP
HdG GQP JJ aGG h
h .bQ SGS FU H
UbC
G HdG GqQP qdDJ jddG
k
.jhc T
.JG QfG LQOh HdG .9
J
t dG HGdG gj .10
dG N e jdG OGG
TCH HGJ CG HdG GQd
FH cGJ dP Y jh .
,Yue SSh ,SS e IOue
.Mh

296

10 dG LGe
cCG OY G fHchQd .CG .15
HGhH JJ LhQdG GQP e
.HdG GQH jOMCG gJ
OY G Z fHchQd
dPh ,LhQdG GQP e qbCG
gJ HGhQ HQCG aGJ d
.HdG GqQP jOMCG
CG M ,e fdCG .
jdCGh dCG
J JehQCG fHchQdGh
.oe Z
JehQCG HchQg .CG .16
dCG .
jdCG .
dCG .O
CnH2n+2

.CG .17
CnH2n .
CnH2n-2 .
C7H16 .CG .18
C7H14 .
C7H12 .
HdG GQP OY IOjH .CG .19
.fZ LQO JJ fdCG
dG LQO JQG S EG .
sjG dG GP fdCG
dG G ib EG Oj IdG
(d J ib) .IdG
YG fdCd ddG dG jJ .20
.chCG bQ e
CH4 + 2O2 2H2O + CO2

.CG .21
2C2H2 + 5O2 2H2O + 4CO2 .
GehjCG d j CG kL feEH .22
id HGdG IQb H dPh ,FH
(M Z) fdCG .HdG GqQP
FGMG d Sg GehjCG J
q
GQhdG cM HK cJ Y
iNCG Mf e dCd .G
Sg GehjCG jJ feEG
cGJh ,FK HGhQ Y FGM
GehjCG d d jdCGh .HK
nY Y FGMG d Sg
HGdH Hc IQP c EG nJse
.KdG

297

Y ,M dGREH G e jdG dGREG EG .O

dd ,qeS jL oj ,IcCG jW
Y j dG jddH jc H j
.qS
HGhdG e ibCG IOY fjCG HGhdG J .`g
bdG e je EG LM gh ,gdG
.fjCG HGhdG d
cJ OLh j ,SdG ehjCG OLh .h
IG GQhdG cM AG HK
fdCGh dCG Y Yh ,HGdG M
fdCG jOMCG HGdG J ,G
.AG V fGQhdG cH

d ,Ve Z fhdEG aGd .CG .14

J .UG g d d SG
VG Z fhdEG
.AHd ku Ue aGG j FHc
dj W e aGG cJ dCj .
.H a H
J dCd jG dG sb c .
HQCG fdCG dd fZ LQO
.jRdG dG dG hCG
d tJ ib V EG dP Ljh
.dCG jL H

10 dG LGe
,gt dG dh ,cGdG fEG .CG .23
,(SdG) FGdG fEh
.jQdG eGSG P dGh
chCG d Obc j .
.SCG
cCG a j dG fhdEG .CG .24
.rJsQP e
VG Z fhdEG gJ .
fHchQdG QGSG
.JehQCG
jdG .25
CH2=CHCHCH3 .26
CH3

.
f g .O

f g .CG .27

f g .CG .28
FH GehjCG .
FH GehjCG .

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 .29
CH3CH2CHCH2CH3
CH3
CH3CHCH2CH2CH3
CH3

CH3

CH3CHCHCH3
CH3
CH3
CH3CCH2CH3
CH3
CH3

CH2CH3

CH3

H
C=C

(V)
H

g .CG .32
M g .
g e KK-4,2,2 .
ff e FK-2,2-JH-5 .O

.CG .33
H HH H H HH HH H

C=C
H

CH3CH2

CH3CH=CHCl

CH3

Cl
CH2CH3

.CG .31

CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH3

C=C

(V)

CH2CH3

CH2CH3

CH3CH2

()

.30

C=C

()

. hn

C=C

()

HCCCCCCCCCCH

H HH H H HH H H H

Cl

H
C=C

(V)
H

CH3

298

10 dG LGe
H-1 .CG .36
JH-2-e-2 .
H-1-e-3-jEG-3 .
jOg-5,1-e-2 .O
CH3

.CG .37

CH3C=CHCH2CH2CH3
CH3

CH3CC=CHCH2CH2CH3
CH3 CH2CH3
CH3CH2CH2

CH3

.CG .38

C=C
H

CH3CH2CH2

H
C=C

H
CH3

CH3
CH2CH3

C=C
H

CH3

CH2CH3
C=C

CH3

CH3

jHhH .CG .39

jH-2-e-4 .
jg-3-e FK-5,2 .
CCH CH CH CH
CH=
2
2
2
2

.CG .40

CH3CH2CH2CH2
CH3

CH3CH2C=CCH2CCH3

CH3

jH .CG .41
jH e YHQ-5,3,2,1 .
CH3

.CG .42
CH3

.CG .34

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3CCH2CCH3
CH3
CH3

H
HCH
H H
H H

CH3

CH3

299

CH3

CH3

JH ,U Z .CG .35
U .
g e-3 ,U Z .
U .O

HCCCCCH
H H
H H
HCH
H

10 dG LGe
H

.43

.CG

HCH
HH HH
HH H
HCCCCCCCCH
HH H H HH H H

CH3

CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH3

.cdG dG e C9H20 .
:edG dG e
CnH2n+2 = C9H2*9+2 = C9H20

He dG
.HLEG J
q .44
CH3

.CG

CH3CCH2CH2CH2CH3
CH3

g e FK-2,2
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CHCH2CH2CH3

g e-4
CH3

CH3CH2CH=CHCCH3
CH3

g-3-e FK-2,2
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3CHC

CCH3

H-2-e KK-4,3,2

CH3 CH3

CCHCHCH
CH3C=
3

jg-2-e FK-5,4
CCH CHCH CH
CH=
2
2
3
CH2CH3

jg-1-jEG-4
CH3

.O

CH3

jH e FK-2,1
CH2CH3

jH jEG

300

10 dG LGe
CH3

CH3C=CCCH3

.45

CH3
CH3

CH2CH2CH3

CH3CCH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH3
CH3
CCH CH CH .46
CH=
2
2
3

jH-1

CH3C=CCH2CH3
jH-2

CH=CCHCH3
CH3

jJH-1-e-3
.Sg GehjCG LJ .CG .47
CH3

CH2CH3

C=C

()
H

CH3

H
C=C

(V)
H

CH2CH3

.Sg GehjCG LJ .
.Sg GehjCG LJ .O
f scG .CG .48
.jn ehjCG d , sce .
.f cG .
.GehjCG .O
Y fHdG scG e .49
LhQdG Lj c .LhQg
,GchQdGh ,VMCGh ,AG
e c h ,feCG sceh
.jdG Z scG
IOjH LhQd jG dG J .50
.dCG HdG GQP OY
.G HLCG J
s .51
G eJ J CG j .52
SG e d s FdG cGdG
.jddGh aGGh

301

11 dG s

iNCG jY sce
dG dG OQGe
j Q

edG hG

dG OQGG
59 ,58

316 U ,Y VY

d FG gCG t J 8 H
114 U ,jdG e

UCGh XdG YG 1-11

jdG scG
M

jdG scd iNCG UCG 2-11

M 3

jdG YdG 3-11

IMGh M

63 ,62 ,61 ,60

T
33 GC ,32 GC ,31 GC GC T

321 U ,Y VY
65 ,64

T
34 GC GC T

GddG 4-11
M

66

T
35 GC GC T

LGG OQGe
ef J
23 U ,11 dG QNG

O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
84 U

jH J
337 U

306 U

cGJ LGe
11 dG LGe

Y heh Jh LGe
M
IMGh M :Jh LGe
IMGh M :Y he

(CG) 302
G c
2

dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

J jQ
2-11 ,1-11 ,LP Fe

310 ,307 ,304 U ,aVEG LP Fe

317 ,315 ,314 ,313 ,312 U ,aVEG LP Fe

311 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

334-332 U ,40-35 ,16-14 ,4 ,2 SCG ,dG LGe

1-11 dG LGe

319 U ,6-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,55-54 ,52 ,50-41 ,22-17 ,12 ,6-5 SCG ,dG LGe

336-332 U
2-11 dG LGe

323 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

337-332 U ,56 ,53 ,51 ,28-23 ,10-7 SCG ,dG LGe

3-11 dG LGe

329 U ,3-1 SCG ,dG LGe

334-332 U ,34-29 ,13 ,11 ,3 ,1 SCG ,dG LGe

4-11 dG LGe

OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T

G
302c
3()

G c
ddG c
dG dO O

11 dG

iNCG jY sce
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
XdG YG uj 1-11
scdG e qe kaUCGh
dG J jdG
.GjEGh ,dCG Gdgh
eGSGh FN j 2-11
fdGh GgdCG e c
,cHdG VMCGh
.eCGh GSEGh
jdG YdG uj 3-11
:HQCG YGfCG EG FdG
Gh ,aVEGh ,GSG
.KdGh
G GfCG sj 4-11
cGJ jh Gdd
.FNh FdG

SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
e 4 dG) fhdEG JdG
(TdG dG
FdG cdGh gdG HGdG
dG e 6 dG) jd
(TdG
dG) ,FdG YdG GfCG
(Y OG dG e 2
,fHchQd FdG dG
dG) ,jdG jG Jh
(dG Gg e 10

dG IQe AH
dG G GC j a :J
Ye EG WG ,2-11 h 1-11
.dG eCG dG e c J
eJ MCG EG WG ,FfG Hh
Y Nh .j CG dG
qc dG j CG QSG
ee G Ud dG LG
.cCG

302

1-11 dG

:1-11 dG
XdG YG
jdG scG UCGh
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
GH G e Y OhR
u
.n nfH qjch SCG J
e OY cCG J dEG WG K
Hc GqQP HQCG ee jG
G ucP .LhQg GqQP Yh a
,jOMCG HGH JJ HdG GqQP CH
LhQdG GqQP CGh ,KK hCG ,FK hCG
dG Gg Quc .a jOMCG HGH JJ
dK H dG e Jc aVEG H
GqQP JJ .cCG qJsQP d dPh
HGQ hCG jOMCG HGH cCG
fQe G EG WG .IMGh FK
.Ff
(bO 25) SuQO

d Ie Ia

chQdG Ye CG d ucCG
,OH chQdG jCG Y J OH
dG a cj fCG e ZdG Y
.f

303

1-11 dG

aVEG LP eCG
IdG FdG dG SQG .1
:j
jfH-3,2 .CG
jfJH-3,2,1 .

GdG
CH3CH CH CH2CH3 .CG
|
|
OH OH

CH2CH CH CH3
|
|
|
OH OH OH

hG JGSG
EG G b
q 1-11 hG
SQ Y c EG WG K ,Y
LQO He ddG d H e
.hG sG fdCd dG
f jQdG Y GSj CG dEG WG
ddG d (NBG H) vfH e
sdG dG Z LQO He
f dG dG Gedh .hG
:ddG scdG Z LQO jd
LQO ,74 ddG dG) fJH-1
dG) H dch (117.2C dG
.(36.1C dG LQOh ,72 ,ddG

304

1-11 dG

hG JGSG
SQ G EG WG 3-11 hG
HdG GQP OY H bd H T
G dG fHhP Hh
dG W KCJ Vd dPh ,hdG
.AG dG fHhP Y fHdG
fHhP b Ghj CG G EG WG
dG aVEGh LGG a iNCG c
.dG dEG

qU be
GM jdG OY d G S
e SG b fjEG CG e
GSG Uh .dG ObdG
dG S b dEG ghRdG
e uj scdG CG TCG eY ,VdG
OGY e hRhCG Y IqKD G KfG
uj eGSG CGh ,MdGh GQdG
,edG QhHh .hdG Y OYG e
LQdG H d eGdG g CG sJ
ghRdG GSG bjh .gCG e
g bCG SM
jQdG scdG
k
.jCG
:dG{ 58 adG VYG
WGh ,dG Y zhdG
Gd FdG cdG GMj CG dEG
Ye K Y j dG dG
.chQg

305

1-11 dG

J
SH j dG jfjEG-2,1 j
td IOe IOc jEG L
IOe gh .GQdG (GQJjOGQ) GOqe
gQGe YL CG dP ,sudG IjT
g J
s .Jb J e 100 mL
dchCG M EG dG IOG
Rd Gh dG j JdG
IM IOe jEG Lh .dG
e J LGhdG CG Y bh ,GdG
.HT
(FbO 10) NG

jH J
a me jJ G EG WG
.c Y ,G hCG dG
J jh G IAGb dEG WGh
IOLG ,zol{ h- `H G
dG Hh IUAPC J
IOQGdG alcohol c ch ,FdG
eCG e .FdG dG H
e fdG
LdG J FGS ,FdG
s
FGdGh ,G dG hCG fG
,(jEG dG hCG fjEG) dG
hCG jfHhH-3,2,1 jCG gGe
.hdG
bO 45 :fdG G

306

1-11 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
:ddG dCG Gdg uS

1-11
Cl
Cl
Cl
|
|
|
CH2CH2CH CH2CH .CG
|
Br
Cl
F
|
|
ClC CH2C CH3
|
|
Cl
F

GG
. hQc KK-5,3,1-ehH-1 .CG
hQa FK-3,3-hQc KK-1,1,1 .
.J
Gdd FdG dG SQG 1-11
:ddG dCG
hOj SN-3,3,3,1,1 ehH-1 .CG
.HhH
-2,2-hQc FK-4,3-ehH-6 .
.g hQa FK
GG
I
I
|
|
IC CH2C I
|
|
Br
I

.CG

F Cl Cl
Br
| |
|
|
CH3CCH CH CH2CH2 .
|
F

307

1-11 dG

qU be
e GLj G G EG WG
Gb ,FdG GJG Y qJ
H GJG Y KCJ GP eGY
,IqQdG OMCG cCG GRZ
,hRhCGh ,IsQdG FK cCGh
.dG dG W IOLG

jH JGSG
dG GdCG CG d ucCG 2-11 dG
H ,M jG dG GdCG u
cJ hdG RGHE g eSG
j G dEG WG .hRhCG
cJ a j dG aGdG WG
. e fOCGh ,bCG hRhCG

308

1-11 dG
:dCG dg{ 59 adG VYG
YO .dG Y zdG
dCG dd FdG cdG GMj
.Gg

J
G W hRhCG RZ bJ H
CFCs jdG GRH o SG ,dG
HCFCs Hc hQa hQc hQdG
g .HFCs Hc hQa hQdGh
,bCG Y LhQg IQq P Y OGG
;LhQdG Y CFCs H
G sJ HCFCs h HFCs CG c
q bCG fCG EG ,CFCs sJ c ek J
Gv L Ib Id G Jh GQk GSG
.v f

FT C N
Lj hRhCG CG udG j b
dh .dG G W Ic H
dEG LCH f b G hRhCG CG
W uj dG a fEa ,VQCG S
dG 3 mm Y S jj
.OdG G

309

1-11 dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
:ddG GjEG uS

2-11

CH3OCH3

.CG
CH3OCH2CH3 .
GG
jEG e FK .CG
jEG e jEG .
GjEd FdG dG SQG 2-11
:ddG
jEG HhH FK .CG
jEG M H e .
GG
CH3CH2CH2OCH2CH2CH3
CH3O

.CG
.

310

1-11 dG

hG JGSG
CG G dEG WG 4-11 hG
Y WG K ,4-11 hG GeCj
:YCG Z LQO d jCG :ddG SCG
dG dG d GdG jEG CG dG
Z LQO H Qb .dP a
u ?f
LQO d jEG U cG .dCGh jEG
.dG Z LQd He Z
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :J jQ
U ,2-1 dGDdGh ,307 U
310

,4-1 SCG q M :dG LGe

311 U
,4 ,2 SCG q M :dG LGe
334-332 U ,40-35 ,16-14
1-11 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
CH3OCH2CH3
Cl
|
CH2
|
Cl

.
.

.HhH ,JH ,jEG e jEG ,fjEG ,jfjEG-2,1 .4

c ,ROH .CG .1
jEG ,ROR' .
dCG dg ,RX .
fHhH-2 .CG .2
jEG e FK .
HhH hQa FK-1,1 .
OH OH
CH2CHCH3

311

.CG .3

2-11 dG

:2-11 dG
scd iNCG UCG
jdG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
d q b K ,Y EG G b
q
scd FH kU q J Y bQh
,fHhdG ,fHhdG :ddG jdG
G EG WGh .jfHhdG M
.scdG g H HdG Lh GhOu j CG
scG g CG HLCG s J b
Kh ,LhQg GQq P S Y
Je IMGh cCG IQs Ph ,Hc GQq P
.Hc IQq H FK HGH
KK GhOu j CG jC
k G G EG WG
b .KdG scdG H NG LhCG
IQq H Jj e Y NG scj
HGH cCG IQq H JdG HdG
.FK
(bO 35) SuQO

FT C N

dG IQe AH
e Y eCG J G EG WG :gP Y
e IQdG Y uS .jY qce e Ye ej
Guj CG G EG WG K ,eCG g e J
JGh ,XdG YG SSCG Y scdG g
VY AKCG G dEG Ld IQdG Y eCG
dEG WG ,dG Gg IAGb qdG cEG idh .dG
UC kah ,Jh eCG VY GSj CG
.jdG scdG

dG e IOY qdG LGj

,GgdCG ASCGh dG ASCG H
CG dPh ,ASCG jf HJ OLd
J H ,h~ `H J dG
H HdG IQhV cCG G~ `H GgdCG
.kVGh NG j d Jeh fCG
j b ,iNCG L eh L e Gg
sFdG dG Hc G Y
gdCGh dG e d IG
COH `H hCG j M ,SdG
k
fCG d qH ,CHO `H dGh
qj e d sFdG dG HH
.e d G

aVEG LP eCG
:dG scG uS .1
O
||
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH

fchCG :GG
312

2-11 dG
.fd FdG dG SQG .2
GG
O
||
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH

d Ie Ia

k dZ fHhH-2 qcG jo
iNCG fc OLh d ,fHhH
.a GqQP K e fe
s

aVEG LP eCG
dG Hc G EG WG .1
:ddG scd FdG
M fg .CG
fg-3 .
GG
=O
O
||
CH3CH2C CH2CH2CH2CH3

.CG
.

jH JGSG
GgdCG{ 60 adG VYG
WG .dG Y zfdGh
e c fHdG Ye jJ dEG
ce c Gu j CGh ,FdG dG
.kfc hCG Gk gdCG

qU be
HG G hG G Y qRh
CG d VhCGh .J dEG WG K
FT jdG scG e dG
cCG FdG FSCH qJ SG
M qj ke .G FSCG e
scdGh ,SCG M IOY jfjEG
FK G g zjEG{ qj dG
GSG SCG MCG eh .jEG jEG
g e dG CG FdG ASCG
,e jW ed ahe fc qcG
khGJ cCG JH FdG gASCG CGh
..FdG H

313

IUPAC

SG

FdG SG sFdG dG

2-11 dG

?J g
VMCG ASCG Qe e CG
Fd J ASCG g cHdG
.Y J Gf hCG M
JdG SG
G
Qd QG
formica eQa
eQa
dG
acetum SCG
SCG
G
jJH IHdG hCG jJH
butyrum
jfJH
caprum hHc YG
,jhHc
hCG ,jHc
jhHc

aVEG LP eCG
:ddG qcG u S .1
O
||
CH3C OH
O
||
CH3CH2CH2CH2C OH

.CG

.
GdG
jfjEG M .CG
jfdG M .

M{ 61 adG VYG
Y zjdG M :cHc
cdG GMj YOh ,dG
Y j dG dG Gd FdG
.cHc Ye K

dG

3 dG VMCG Ve bf

oJ cHdG VMCG CG h
FN CG uG j a e
Y J cHdG VMCG
c jdG Z VMCG FN
cG .jdG Mh jQchQdG
Yj c VJ dG jt C dG Oe
e (SCG c) cHc M
Yj dG f FdG YG
,Na2CO3) e jQchQdG M e
.(NaOH
314

2-11 dG

hG JGSG
VMCG{ 31 GC adG VYG
JdG a IOLdG cHdG
rYO ,dG Y zfGdGh
TCG .gQOeh VMCG g Gqj
:XdG YG e Yf OLh EG
Yh chQdG Ye
cdG M
jL cHdG
n
jG CG d Vh
u .dGh
Xh Y e cCG IOY d IsG
.IMGh
e LGh
,7 h 5-4 SCG q M :dG LGe
319 U
,17 SCG qM :dG LGe
335333 U ,46-41
bO 45 :fdG dG
(bO 35) SuQO

d Ie Ia

GfjEG jE FdG SG EG
SCG jEG g ethyl ethanoate
.ethyl acetate

aVEG LP eCG
:ddG GSEG uS .1
O
.CG
||
CH3CH2C OCH2CH3
O
.
||
CH3CH2CH2C OCH2CH2CH3

GG
GfHhH jEG .CG
GfJ HhH .
:ddG GSEd FdG dG SQG .2
GfjEG HhH .CG
Gfe JH .

GG
O
||
CH3C OCH2CH2CH3
O
||
HC OCH2CH2CH2CH3

315

.CG
.

2-11 dG
Y zSEG{ 62 adG VYG
cdG GMj YOh ,dG
.SCG eCGhjCG SEd FdG
dG{ 32 GC adG VYG
,qdG Y zGSEd FdG
d FdG cGdG G
q j YO
.Jfh GSEG

Y VY
GSEG e FGhQ
bGdG IQ qdG J CG Lj :edG
jeh ,jRdGh ,LdG bGh JJh
G j CG jh .G
,QGdG TO j CGh ,bGdG IQ qdG
U dM dG Z h
j ae Y Jh ,GSd
N e scC J .fK KK e cCG ZH
Ub SG .d Qe CG e adG
.v FHc J
S LLR SCk c
C eG :dG jW
EG uSh AH f EG 400 mL
ubQ .dG Ub Y dG LQO
,G Se QNG HfCG S
e 2 mL VCG .fOCG hG kee
dEG FS M c e 2 mL h c c
VCG ,kU G c GPEa .fCG c
jdG M e 1 mL VCG .e 1 g
j J dh .fCG c EG scdG
kN Gkf fCG c IYb fG HfCG
M HfCG V K UEG aH
e AGLCG bG .FbO Id NS Ae
c uKh ,FGhO S H TJ bQh
dG ShDdG e SCc c b AL
sLLR j S uZ .50 mL S
bQh WQh .QNG fCG c NGO f
NGO H dPh ,SEG GfCH TdG
.jdG H SCdG
fG
Md
q
G
dG
jJH
H
jJH
jEG
SCG
HhjCG
SCG
jEG
SCG
chCG
e dS
jEG jfjO

fCG
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

316

2-11 dG
H IG S Y ShDdG uJQ
FGhdG Gj CG G EG WGh ,N
j N eh ,QH e IYG
.dG MGH SCdG a AGdG
FdG
SEG

FGdG fCG

GJH eCG
e
GfJH jEG
SffCG
SCG eCGhjCG
Re
SCG jEG
J
SCG chCG
JH
dS e dG e f
GfjO jEG
Y

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

j LG :dG e tdG
1 M NaOH dEG VCGh 4 h 3 HfCG
10 H a pH `dG jd jdG e
e cCJ .G iG SG .11 h
,JSCG qJ b 6 fCG i CG
Z e c CG e vdN UCGh
i N EG VCG K ;Ye
5 H G pH uY .7 ,5 ,2 ,1 HfCG
G uN .1 M NaOH SH 9 h
.G SG K AH Ge Y

d Ie Ia

e IUPAC H eCG qJ
j ,G S Y .fdCd eCG
H methylamine eCG e SG
.aminomethane e eCG IUPAC

aVEG LP eCG
:ddG eCG u S .1
CH3CH2CH2N CH3
|
CH3

.CG

CH3CH2NCH2CH2CH2CH3

CH2CH2CH2CH3

GG
eCG HhH e FK .CG
eCG jEG JH FK .
.eCG Jd FdG dG cG .2

GG
CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2

317

2-11 dG

jH JGSG
Y zeCG{ 63 adG VYG
cdG Gj YOh ,G
CG dEG WG K ,eCG Gd FdG
A cJcGdG CG GaY c Guj
GdSG ch ,eCG g (batrachotoxinin)
GqQP C dK eCG g) U Y
b feCG dG LhQdG
.(dSG

J
alkaloids jdG TCG e J

aJ fC ,neurotoxins Y c
bGe Y acetylcholine dc SCG
eh .dG jG SG
ahJCG ,jdG TCG Y eCG
JdGh ,curare QGQdGh ,atrophine
aQGh ,caffeine adGh ,nicotine
dG codeine jOdGh ,morphine
,Cd qeh ,Fu c J
.jq M Geh

318

2-11 dG
YG{ 33 GC adG VYG
Y zFdG jdG XdG
UCG Gj YO .dG
JJh Uh ,jdG scG
eCG Hh a q XdG YGh
.FdG JeGSGh
e LGh
,6 ,3-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
319 U ,8
,6-5 SCG q M :dG LGe
,55-54 ,52 ,50-47 ,22-18 ,12
336-332 U
2-11 dG LGe
bO 45 :ddG G
f
e d FdG gCG tJ{
HdG g .. ,114 U zjdG
H FN G qS
,H fQjh ,JehQCG qcG
FG g NG Hjh
qXdG YG FN NH
.a NGdG

HLCG/dG LGe
fHdG Y LJ .fHc Y Y J e c .4
.dG HdG S NGO h ,gdCG HdG S W
.VCG jdG VMCG .5
+

R NH
2 + H2O RNH3 + OH .6
O
||
.O ,OH ,C H .7

fjCG Jh
u .fJhH FdG ddG a eCG g J .8
ah .kM cCG d jOdG fjCH T dG Le
J d jOdG Gb QLEH fjCG g J dG RdG
.dG dG J CG jOdG fjC j fG Vh a
GQTEG f a dG dG QGSG dEG dG g ODJ
.YH dG e dEG ODj e ,fG hO dG
319

O
||
SEG ,COOR ,RC OR' .O
O
O
||
||
c ,C ,RC R' .`g

.CG .1
O
||
cHc M ,COOH ,RC OH
O
O
||
||
gdCG ,C H ,RC H .
eCG ,NH2 ,RNH2 .

eCG e FK .

fH-2 .CG .2
jfJdG M .

O
||
CH3CH2CH2C H

O
||
CH3C OCH2CH3

.CG .3
CH3CH2NCH2CH3 .
CH2CH3

2-11 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG

Y IAGb
qU be
u j e dG e bf
Z dhRdG SG GPEG IQdG
SS Y be a Gke ,ddG
dh .chCG bQh dhRdG GMG
VH Ye V dG
Y LdG AGdG d
t Mh MGbG
Y je ,dhRdG GSG
.dG IAGdG a IOQGdG GAGLEG

HLCG
Sd Se g chCG bQ
.ObdG IOLh dhRG GMG
IAH chCG bQ aj MTBE
edG GMG ujh ,YCG
cCG hCG J
t hO ,dhRd
.d kjU j e ,HdG

.1

.2

320

3-11 dG

:3-11 dG
jdG YdG
bO 45 IMGh M :G edG
(FbO 5) SQdG OH

Y VY
j dG aVEG Yd VY Gg
.jdG FdG HGhdG QN
Oj M
u ,IHCG fGN ek e
jdG e 50 mL OdG e 1.5 g HGPEH
dG jR e 10 mL SG .G
RL a SCdG V .50 mL S SCc
Y Jj VYGh SCGQ VY
EG OdG e 3 mL VCG .TdG
q e ,dG S .Gv L cu Mh jdG
FdG HGdG EG OdG aVEG Y q j
Ggh .(fOCG q dG YdG H) jd
dd ,FK HGhQ dG jd CG j
.e Z gO g
O
||
CH2OC (CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3
O
||
CHOC (CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3 + 3I2
O
||
CH2OC (CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7CH3
O
I I
||
|
|
CH2OC(CH2)7CHCH(CH2)7CH3
I I
O
|
|
||
CHOC (CH2)7CHCH(CH2)5CH3
I I
O
|
|
||
CH2OC (CH2)7CHCH(CH2)7CH3

bGdG IQdG J CG j :edG

.G jeh jRdG JJh
e ac c VCG :dG e tdG
jR N dEG G Z dG jR
e Yj d ,OdG e G dG
G NGh ke FGdG uL .OdG
G e qJ d see AYh
.G

321

dG IQe AH
IAGb G EG WG :IAGdG ue
jN YSG e Jh ,dG
gG FGN GC J CG j .ge
j CGh ,jdG YdG GfCH
H YdG e f c G
.Se eCG AYEGh Uh

3-11 dG
(bO 40) SQu O
dG LQg{ 64 adG VYG
YOh .dG Y zgdG
e gdG VMCG YJ G
q j
dG Z gdG jd LhQdG
H dP HQG K ,e gO dEG
.dG VdG

J
LQdG Y bH IdG
e gO Oq Ge fE hydrogenation
OGG Mh FGdG e GAk H ,HdG
JdG jdG LQg EG .HdG g
dG gOh ,jLG e OGe J
QTCG .jJh J J dG
dG FGdG dG CG EG HCG
gdG e dY f Y j
.IQs V U GQk KBG j dG
fQe{ 34 GC adG VYG
gdG VMCd FdG cdG
.dG Y zdG Zh dG
Z gdG VMCG CG Gj rYO
Yh FK HGhQ Y J dG
CG M a ,bCG LhQg GqQP OY
Y J dG gdG VMCG
HGhQ Yh ,cCG LhQg GqQP OY
.a jOMCG
fe{
u 65 adG VYG
OGG gO a gdG dG
gO jJ dG dEG WG .zs FGdG
K .G Zh dG s FGdG OGG
.YCG dH HdG dEG WG

322

3-11 dG

d Ie Ia

e J CG G Yd
.chQdG Y Z Y
dg e ke LhQdG dg a
.v YU eh he YJ g dCG
e LGh
,4-1 SCG q M :dG LGe
323 U
,10-7 SCG q M :dG LGe
337-332 U ,56 ,53 ,51 ,28-23
3-11 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
eh ,eCG Y e LhQg IqQP e AG AL j
s .3
G cHdG Y e chQg Y
.cHdG
AV

CH3CH3 + Cl2 IQGM

CH3CH2Cl .4
CH3CHCl2 h ClCH2CH2Cl

.CG
CH3CCl3 h CH2ClCHCl2 .

323

.KdGh ,FdG HGhdG Y qGE aVEG YJ j ~ .1

.HGhdG g Y j e HchQg jEGh
(tdG f) FK HGQ jJ EG G YJ ODj ~
sjOMCG EG FdG HGhdG
t EG aVEG YJ ODj H
.(dG IOjR)
.OGOj .2

4-11 dG

:4-11 dG
GddG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
Gefe e dH jJ Y Vh
u
u H .(paper clips) Qh He GSH
s qN GdH jJ c
Gefe OG e Heh Yu eh
. H k e (Qh He)
(bO 35) SuQO

dG IQe AH
EG IOdG G EG WG :be
OGe e YG dG F
jGH gOGYEH Geb dG jY
dG G e bf .2-11 dG
C Lj b .GdH e J
s
GddG CG j eY udG
,dCGh ,dGh ,SdG sJ
.gdGh

324

4-11 dG

d Ie Ia

AL Ge jJ dG EG WG
dG (FdG HGdG) jEG
fCG Vh
q . hCG Fb IdG feEG
jL J Gg IdG YJ
jEG j FK HGQ EG jEG
dOG VY dG e qdh .iNCG
.a jL H IdG Yd jdG
.(IsM GkQhL G YdG j)
CH2=CH2 + CH2=CH2
(CH2CH2CH2CH2 )

jH JGSG
ddG GfCG{ 66 adG VYG
dEG WGh .dG Y zjEG
,HDPE FdG cGdG GfQj CG
FNh cPE h ,LDPE h
dG Y VYG K .JeGSGh
eY Y SH Y jhM
YO K .zHDPE{ edG Yh jhdG
dG Gg L dG dG Y Gj
GfCG e GkjhJ SCG SdG e
JQG HdG jEG dc ,iNCG
.(cPE)

325

4-11 dG

hG JGSG
GdH{ 35 GC adG VYG
YOh ,dG Y zaVEG
g ASCGh ,FdG cGdG Gj
d CG VaG .JeGSGh GddG
IQdG CH2=CHX cdG GP efe
Gj CG G EG WG .IdG Y
e d X `d FdG dG
.hG sdG GefdG

?J g
Y fG YG G EG
LQO Y uKD j q dG GddG
GdH dM h .GddG QfG
j ,ke ,vinyl polymers #dG
fG YG c J dG Ad
IQdG) S e IMGh L Y
,QfG LQO YCG ,(isotactic ,fG
YG OJ dG Ad jh
dG) fL Y bGG fG
LQO (syndiotactic AL hCG OG
dG Ad jh .Se QfG
Y bGe fG YG OJ
dG) fL c Yh e Z f
.QfG LQO fOCG (atactic G Z

326

4-11 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
(bO 35) SQu O

d Ie Ia

H FdG HGhdG CG d uH
4 h 3 HdG nJsQPh 2 h 1 HdG sJQP
HGhQ EG J
s ,jHhjCG AL a
nJsQP H FK HGQ Jh
,jOMCG
s
EG .IdG Y AKCG 3 h 2 HdG
QRCGh OSCGh MCG GdCG GSG
Y G Yj dOG
.dP

?J g
fCH GQWEG YU J aYo
M ,jdG AdG gCG RfEG
jj W eGSG AKCG QWEG j
IQhO QGO c ,IMGh IQs P Y S
.IMGh

327

4-11 dG

d Ie Ia

j neoprene jHdG QdG OLh

Hh gdGh jd ehe cCG G
.fHchQdG jG

J
dG fG ,fdG dG G H
G GNG f dG G Y
s J bh .ddG UGG P YdG
dG S jGH dG g
dG hdG bJ H ,VdG
,YdG G J j
G QTCG YGQR IdG IOjdh
dG GQWEG LdJ t d dch
dG G GSG qJ UCG
.YdG dh

328

4-11 dG

?J g
GddG Hh jdG feh Ib EG
C ,dCd OQdG dH GOGOJ
ddG jL j OQdG dG
.v qN J
H g JhdGh jG e vc EG
YdG EG fG) W GeCG
.(322 dG
e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG q M :dG LGe
329 U
,3 ,1 SCG q M :dG LGe
334-332 U ,34-29 ,13 ,11
4-11 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
CH2=CHCl

RM

nCH2=CHCl

#dG jQc

329

.CG .2

( CH2CH
)n .
|
Cl

#dG jQc H

C dPh ,jv QGM HdG SdG e q e HG J - .1

.jv QGM HdG Z ddG J H J b dG IQGM
.aVEG Yd jQhV FdG HGdG IMGh Xh Y Y j ,AL Nj eY Xh Y J d ,KdG Yd hCG IG
.YdG QGSd JdG

4-11 dG
(FbO 10) pKCG

Y IAGb
qU be
iNCG e J G EG WG
FN e kJ cCG FN GP
OGe Y HLEG J b .Jfe
u
,reinforced steel YG PdG e
LdG hCG LdG dCG) SZdG
IjG iNCG OGG iMEG hCG ,(dG
VjdG GhOCG YU eG
.G aMRh ,dG Ic Qc

HLCG
,IH SJ jW LCPs jL
eSG cCG gh mQGSH sJh
,SdG GfCG H jL e
.MGh JH TDu j Lh
e sdG OGdG c d
cdG J GbG qJ LCPs
SdG e N gh ,dDdG
dPh ,FdG QdG dHh OdG
H ,LCP e bQ W H
.OdG SdG e W

.1

.2

d Ie Ia

cJ j FdG QdG j eY
,e KG a hCG ,OHCG MCG FdG
dM c ,KdG OHCG dh
.dG QqdG

330

11 dG LGe
dG hGh dGh LGG
(bO 90 M)
dG se
gG gCG dG g uJ
.dG N bf dG GOGh
dG LGe
G g N bj CG ud
H a uG Lh dG SCG
.HdG
SCG ,337-336 U Ye LGe 56-51
58-57 DdG ,337 U bf J 60-59 DdG ,337 U Hch H 61 GDdG ,337 U jH J 64-62 SCG ,337 U Y he -

fSG :d eN J 11dG QNG ( O) dG dH

QNG Ad SCG Fh ,23 U
.84 U 11 dG

LGG HLCG
O .6
.1
.7
.2
CG .8
.3
.9
CG .4
.10
O .5
J jY sce dG - .11
hCG IMGh chQg Ye Y
.cCG
a JJ jY sce GjEG .IMGh cCG IQq H dCG Ye
jY sce dCG Gdg ,Qc ,Qa) Ldg IqQP a J
IQq P e cCG hCG IMGh (hH
AL a cCG hCG LhQg
.HchQdG
J jY sce GgdCG Y J fHc Ye Y
.HdG GQq P S W
J jY sce GSEG a sM cHc Ye Y
LhQg e dCG Ye
.chQdG
331

GOJ

11 dG LGe
qce cHdG VMCG Ye Y J jY
a JCJ dG XdG cHdG
.fHdG dG W
IdG GMdG g GefdG .GddG e J
s dG
GddG g aVEG GdH YJ N e J dG
dG GefdG H aVEG
.FK HGQ Y J
GddG g KdG GdH .KdG YJ N e J dG
ROH .CG .12
ROR

.
RX .

O
||
RCH .O
O
||
RCR' .`g
O
||
RCOR' .h
RNH2 hCG R2NH hCG RN R''
|
R'

LhQdG HGhdG OY OGOj dG a

bW Yj q e ,dG Gg jL H
.gd cCG aVEG
e Ggh .f Z sce GjEG C .
Qsj M FT jc eGSG j
u
.AdG GSG
a fHdG Ye OLh ZQ .
J fEa AGdG Y fdGh GgdCG
V Jh ,GgdCG a dG W a
Yn f j q e ,fdG a dG
.e

HGhQ AdG e jEG jL J

q .`g
a fHhP e jj e ,LhQg
dd ,HGhdG g k e J
u dh .AdG
a HGhdG d aVEG bW dEG
.H
LhQjO jfCH fdG cCj .h
fjEG IcCG e Gk c C HCG H dG
dG eq dG OGdG u Jh .f jfCH
sj CG b GQk GVCG fG IcCG Y
.e tdG e dG
chQdG Ye OY OGORG c .R

.R

LhQg JQq P Y AdG j .CG .13

j H cCG IQq H Je
IMGh LhQg IQq P Y fdG
JJ dd ,cCG IQq H Je
HGhQ OH H a AdG jL
.cCG LhQg
K Y hdG j .
jH J chQg Ye
cCG jL e LhQg HGhQ
j q e ,AGdG a OLG AG e
.HWdG e s e LQO
GqQP Y dG dG j .
jL H NGe jdG e
JQb e jj H ,jHhjCG ddG
.IQGdG e YCG LQO tJ Y
a ,LhdG IqQP sJ .O
fhdEG e hR OLH ,eCG
Jc j dG ,cdG Z
kcQJ ,AdG jL e LhQg
.dG a OH fjCG

332

11 dG LGe
,GjEG ,GgdCGh ,dG .22
,cHdG VMCGh ,fdGh
.GSEGh
aVEG YJ .23
.KG ,MGh .24
hCG IQP qJ ,GSG YJ .25
LhQg IqQP qe GqQP Ye
J ,aVEG YJ h .AdG
FK HGQ EG GqQP Y hCG IqQP
.jOMCG HGhQ jd KK hCG
CG j h ,tdG qJ dG .26
.aVEG LhQg GqQP j
KJ .27
jj .28
J Sh HLCG J
s .29
,RdG ,dG :dG G
G eCG .dG G
dG ,jEG dG :a ,YdG
.jdG ,YdG
.KJh aVEG .30
qN jL Y HDPE j .31
jL Y LDPE jh ,UGe
cPE H ,UGJ
q bCG Ye
v
.He jL Y
IQq P Y jHdG efe j .32
e Y Qc
.jHhjCG
Xh Y Y j fC , .33
.IMGh
O H
|| |
CN .34

fe .CG .35
jfHhH-2,1 .
fJH-2 .
fg-2 .O
CH3CHCHCH2CH3 .CG .36
|
|
OH OH

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH

.
CH2CHCH2 .
|
|
|

OH OH OH

CH3CH2OH

.O
e hOj .CG .37
jEG hQc FK-2,1 .
FK-3,3-ehH FK-2,2 .
JH hOj
Hh ehH K-1,1,1 .O
333

O
O
||
||
H2O
RCOH
RCO + H+

.CG

.17

VMCG g cHdG VMCG .

.V
cHdG Y Y GSEG .18
GQq P e dCG Ye a qM dh
.chQdG Ye a LhQdG
LhdG .19
.20
O
O H
||
|| |
RCOH + RNH2 RCNR + H2O

VMCGh ,fdGh ,GgdCG .21

.eCGh ,GSEGh ,cHdG

gh ,hdG GSG e uj ghRG .14

Y IAc q bCG ,Obc d ,cCG aH j
.AG dch dhRG
CFCs qJ id J dG ,QdG GQP LJ .15
EG dh
q hRhCG jL ,G
Y j dG hRhCG cJ a .cCG
dG a TCG e VQCG jM
.IQdG
Hc IQq H dG cCG IQq P JJ .16
cCG IQq P JJh .LhQg IQPh
.Hc nJQs H GjEG

11 dG LGe
CH3CHCHCHCH3
|
|
|
Cl Cl Cl
ICHCH2CH3
|
I
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2F

.CG .38
.

Cl
|
FCH C CH3
|
|
F Cl

.O

jEG HhH FK .CG .39

jEG e jEG .
jEG JH FK .
jEG jEG JH .O
CH3OCH3

.CG .40
CH3OCH2CH2CH3 .
.
CH3CH2CH2CH2OCH2CH2CH3
CH3CH2OCH2CH2CH2CH2

.O

CH3CH2CH2

fjEG .CG .41

fH .
fHhH .
fJH .O
O
||
HC H
O
||
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH

.CG .42

.
O .

CH3
|
||
CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH
O
||
CH3CH

.O

fHhH .CG .43

fJH .
fH-2 .
fH-3 .O
.CG .44

O
||
CH3CH2CCH2CH2CH3
O
||
CH3CCH2CH2CH3 .

.
O
||
CH3CCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
O
||
CH3CCH2CH2CH2CH3 .O

234

11 dG LGe
jfHhdG M .CG .45
jfdG M .
jfdG M .
O
||
CH3CH2CH2COH

.CG .46
.

O
||
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2COH

.
O
||
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COH

GfjEG e .CG .47

Gfe e .
GfHhH jEG .
GfH jEG .O
O
||
CH3COCH2CH2CH2CH3
O
||
HCOCH2CH3
O
||
CH3CH2COCH2CH2CH3

.CG .48
.
.

O
||
CH3CH2CH2COCH3

.O
eCG e .CG .49
eCG jEG FK .
eCG e jEG .
eCG e KK .O
.CG .50

CH3CH2CH2CH2NHCH2CH3
CH3CH2NH2

.
CH3CH2NCH2CH3 .
CH3
CH3CH2NHCH2CH2CH3

.O

M .CG .51
M .
KJ .
KJ .O
fg-3 .CG .52
GfjEG HhH .
jfff M .
eCG e FK jEG .O
fg .`g
jEG HhH jEG .h
hQc FK-1,
Kc1hQFHJ-ehH
3 .R
JH
M fg .
335

11 dG LGe
GSG .CG .53
aVEG .
aVEG .
aVEG .O
CH2CHCH2 .CG .54
Cl

Cl Cl

CH2CH2CH2CH3

OH
CH3CH2OCH3 .
O
||
CH3CH2COH .O
O
||
CH3CH2COCH3 .`g
CH3NCH3
|
CH3

U .CG .55
H ehH FK-2,2 ,CN .
GfjEG H ,CN .
U .O
KJ .CG .56
aVEG .
GSG .
M .O
LQO aj jEG dG OLh .57
t J LQO jh AdG Z
.IQdG (QJjOGQ) O
q e
Ye Y j fC ,f .58
.chQg
J CG j ,HLCG J
s .59
n M scG d cdG dG
GOk Y e c r n Je jH
e QdG GQq P e
Cl
Cl

Cl
Cl
Cl

,jCH js G s G Fd J
Y Iq G GKCdGh jdG e uj
.dG
bf K ,Y a EG uG b
u
.hG J dBGh Vha e
:Y he .63
.hG Ia uG EG u b
Id qGh qWG dG CG Y jG
u U s Fc OGe e qe je g
d LQG dG N
k

eq b dG QdG eJ c Y aGh .61

fCG e cCJh ,gJ b G
.eRdG GAGLEG s j
:Y he .62
.hG Ia ud u b
e 200 e cCG J j fCG Y jG
jh .dG jv S SdG e W
SdGh .jhdG s d a 6% RGj e
dG qj SH g qdG M
,T) SG hdG h .s dG
LQO EG SdG qj (...cCG ,HWQ

dG gCG jC
k G qJ CGh
e dG dGh ,HdG YdG
gQGVCG gh ,kM PCBs `dG GSG
qS Y dG G sdG
dGh q HUh ddG
.e
qJ CG j d ,HLCG .60
vjM udG Z SdG
IOYEG dEG LdGh (non-biodegadable)
vjM dG OGdG jhJ
.(biodegadable)
336

11 dG LGe
XJ hG j tdG QdG aGLJehc
N e fG
q OGG gCG Y khCG
QdG Y f UeG
e
q d Rf jh e je OLh
.standard Sb IOc
AGdG d e q Y j ,(fG
q cdG QNG j)
q
OGH a fG
OGG
fQeh
q
e ,kHS
q dG SdG
jG e Rf bh dG M
SdG OGG dM G
.f
K ,Y a EG uG b
u
J dBGh Vha e bf
.hG

bf K ,Y a EG uG b
u
.hG J dBGh Vha e
:Y he .64
.hG Ia uG EG u b
jZCG EG aG fG
q CG Y jG
,fd u d jZCG EG J OGe g
J h ,cCG HZe J H
,q YUG feh
u q W fe
q EG eEG
AG Hhd Hb fe
q EG hCG
.AG Hhd Hb Z feh
q

337

IOjR N e IhGWh ef cCG J

Id qWG d j .a G q c
:Y j CG
hG e AH qWe OGe .dfdG hCG
(5.5) Id Fe pH Y a OGe .QG JdG jdG H e
(jY jR) jdG FGd e OGe e cCd feh Id
u OGe .(C ea) HQSCG M
.SG eY -

12 dG s

jhdG AdG
dG dG OQGe

edG hG

dG OQGG

j Q

68 ,67

IGdG 1-12
M

YTEG fG 2-12
M 3

hdG fG Ic 9 H
117 U ,QdGh gGQdG GSH

T
37 GC ,36 GC GC T

,YTEG dG c 10 H
121 U ,zjqd H{

352 U ,Y VY

355 U ,Y VY

70 ,69

73 ,72 ,71

LGG OQGe
ef J
27 U ,12 dG QNG

O
,QNG Ad SCG F O
102 U

jH J
362 U

345 U

cGJ LGe
12 dG LGe

hdG TEG 3-12

M

hdG efGh hdG QfG

IMGh M

4-12

Jh LGe
IMGh M

(CG) 338
G c
2

dG LGdG OQGe
LGGh dG LGh OQGe

J jQ
1-12 ,LP Fe

342 ,340 U ,aVEG LP Fe

2-12 ,LP Fe

347 U ,aVEG LP Fe

342 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,51-48 ,46 ,42-33 ,12-11 ,7 ,5 ,2-1 SCG ,dG LGe

362-360 U
1-12 dG LGe

350 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

,47 ,45-43 ,22-13 ,9-8 ,6 ,4-3 SCG ,dG LGe

362-360 U
2-12 dG LGe

354 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

361-360 U ,26-24 ,10 SCG ,dG LGe

3-12 dG LGe

357 U ,4-1 SCG ,dG LGe

361 U ,32-27 ,23 SCG ,dG LGe

4-12 dG LGe

OQGG dO
dG QdGh fCGh jQdG c
fe aT T
HCGh OSCH aT GC T

G
338c
3()

G c
ddG c
dG dO O

12 dG

jhdG AdG
Gf) dG EG eT If
(dG
QGSG Y IuKDG idG Ouj 1-12
Hc c ujh ,IGdG
.fhRG jhdG OG
fG GfCG j 2-12
HM jh YTEG
.Fd dG Y qe
TEG GNG IQb sj 3-12
Y dG Wh ,hdG
dG jh .TEG
.hdG TEd FdG
QfG H dG uj 4-12
jh ,hdG efGh
Gh dG JeGSG
.bd QOc

SSCG gGh GG
gG LGe EG G j
:ddG
e 3 dG) bdGh dG M
(TdG dG
dG e 6 dG) Qq dG cdG
(TdG
e 4 h 3 dG) bdG GMh
(TdG dG

dG IQe AH
CG G EG WG :gP Y
Je kLh c Geuj
EG WGh ,jJh jhdG AdG
.IQdG Y QaCG J gMCG
Va QHG Y G uT
Y sdG QaCGh jQdG M
.IQqdG

338

1-12 dG

:1-12 dG
IGdG
bO 90 M :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
WG K ,IQdG QGSG b SQdG GC HG
YdG H GfQj CG G EG
J .jhdG YdGh FdG
bdG Ic Gt J jhdG YdG
S a .FdG YdH fQe
f gh ,jJjdG q jo ,dG
hJf Y JQP LhQd
efG Y v SSCG GOk bh ,MGh
c jJjdG e 1 g Lj .hdG
efG j .dG Ae e 30 L
dG Ae e 30 L OLG jJjdG
e dG bdG OJ bdG e c
.dhRG e 9000 L GMG
FdG YdG a UdG J
dh ,JGdGh YdG a f g
dEG dG j
q jhdG YdG a
L c hCG a id NBG Y
.IGdG a jqQP hO
(FbO 10) uM
GSG c udG e LGQ
YdG N Gt dG Vd OG
GSG dG e CG YCGh .FdG
N Gt dG Vd jC
k G OG
.hf YJ
(bO 25) SuQO

d Ie Ia

dG GeSG b G CG e cCJ
(jQq dG dG e dh) Fd jQq dG
.dG d HM id

339

1-12 dG

jH JGSG
d HdG bW{ 67 adG VYG
d u Hh ,dG Y zjf
bG .dG OdGh HdG bW H bdG
G EG WGh ,Y Y SCk GQ SdG
GPEG IU Ic QGSG e GhOuj CG
uS .dG Y jH sd cJ
bd b bCG IdG g QGSG f
jC
k G S dG ,jd hdG HdG
.GQk GSG cCG IGd

?J g
IqQP IGf Ouj dG g Y dG EG
.GkQGSG cCG IGdG fCG Y jG
LhQdG H UdG CG hGh
dG J
t MGe N fJ
s ,jGh
q S dGh ,efH oJ Y
e SG H .kM be
g ,hdG ObdG e Jfe
u
GQfG e dG j PEG ,dG
hM h ."dG qJ Fg
FdG GQfG g bW J "dG
.jG e kK cCG UdG

aVEG LP eCG
32S IQd hdG HdG bW MG .1
GPEG ,16
q
g G jqQdG c CG Y
.31.972070 amu
4.36 * 1011 J :GG

e hdG HdG bW MG .2
jQq dG dG CG Y GPEG ,168O GQP
.15.994915 amu g 168O `d G
1.23 * 1013 J/mol :GG
jf d hdG HdG bW MG .3
G jqQdG dG CG Y GPEG ,55
25Mn `d
55
.54.938047 amu g ,25Mn `d
1.41 * 1012 J/nucleon :GG
e LGh
,1 GDdG q M :dG LGe
342 U
,2 SCG q M :dG LGe
362-360 U ,51-49 h 37-33 h
340

1-12 dG
bO 45 :fdG G
zQGSG f{ 68 adG VYG
CG dEG WGh ,G Y
fhJdG OY H bdG Gj
.IqdG Fd fJhdG OYh

d Ie Ia

Ib fCH jC
k G jhdG IdG J
.GvL Ic jhf
jZ a Ve hdG QGSG
dc a n/p dG Jh .dG
.hdG QGSG Uh a Y

jH JGSG
CG dG j CG j 3-12 dG
a fJhdG d LdG dG
e aj a JhH c J IGdG
Y Lj ,dHh .iNCG fJhdG
adG Gg Y qJ CG jhdG IdG
IGdG J d JhH-JhH
J IdG jfCG ah .Se
aJ dd ,Gk L HQe fJhdG
J a ,JShc ib N
Y AHh .jhdG IdG H HPe
H dEG LM g J dP
H jhdG IdG e jJ fhJf
IGdG c ch .IGdG Sd j
J a ,fJhdG H adG YJ
adG ib a ,Pd HQe
LM g J dHh .cCG H H
e jJ fhJdG e cCG OY dEG
.IGdG QGSG eh jhdG IdG

?J g
f fCG ,jv f ,jhdG IdG QJ
t j
.jdG H SSCG G Od
e je G G Zj b
SSCG G M dG
.jhdG IdH WJQGh

341

1-12 dG

d Ie Ia

zG{ j J Fe M id
qQdG OdG uXh ,jhdG dOdG a
dG hCG ddG IqQdG jg jd
,cCG hCG 1 qQdG OdG c GPEa .dG
OdG c GPEGh .GkY dG j
GPEGh .kfhJf dG j GkU qQdG
L) kfhdEG dG j ,1 c
,qH L e d jdG S .(qH
Gg e OdG dG a hjRdGh
.dG

aVEG
Fe
LP
:ddG OG cCG
238 U
92

1-12

? + 234 Th

90

.CG
37
37
?
18Ar + 17Cl .
GG
4He .CG
2
0
1e .

e LGh
,2-1 dGDdG qM :J jQ
342 U
,4-2 SCG qM :dG LGe
342 U
,7 ,5 ,1 SCG qM :dG LGe
,48 ,46 ,42-38 ,12-11
362-360 U
1-12 dG LGe

HLCG/dG LGe
2H
1

.CG .3
12C .
6
0
1e .
.fhJf Sh fJhH KK 93Li .4
dHh ,hdG QGSG f a j gh
.e Z j

eh dG IsQdG c H dG g .1
fhJdGh fJhdG e JL c
.fhdEGh
fhJdG e Oe OY dEG LM dg .2
.IGdG Sd j H jhdG IdG IOjd
OY H dG J IdG GqQdG ah
jhe (np ) fJhdG OYh fhJdG
dG g Jh ,Iqe fEG CG ,1:1 `d
1:1.5 IdG GqQdG a
342

2-12 dG

:2-12 dG
YTEG fG
bO 135 M 3 :G edG
bO 45 :hCG G
(FbO 10) SQdG OH
H UdG 66 adG VYG
GbG dG dEG WGh ,QGSG
Z IGdG LH NJ e FGW
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354

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356

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6.25 g .43
0.938 mg .44

361

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0.0313 g .45
239Pu
94
13C
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1n
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.
139Ba .O
56

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.

232Th
90

42He + 228
88Ra .47

228Ra
88

10 +

228Ac
89

10 + 228
90Th

228Th
90

42He +

228Ac
89

224Ra
88

(QGSG f QN) 1:1.55 .CG .48

(QGSG f V) 1:1 .
(QGSG f V) 1:1.15 .
(QGSG f QN) 1:1.60 .O
1.21 * 1012 J/nucleon .49
8.77 * 1028 kg .50
2.24 * 1011 J/mol .51
cCG hf L d HdG bW J .52
HdG bW e QGSG Sb a bO
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JhH-hJdG f ,C 126C .53
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fJhdG e LhR OY d ,CG .54
.fhJdGh
238-fGQdGh 40-SJdG .CG .55
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239-fGQdGh 42-SJdG .
dEG dH ,d GL GQN
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f v FL HfJ OM bh .56
Y LCG ,eBG Z a hCG QNG
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.dG edG
bdG Yhe H s J .57
hCG QjdG GSG LefG
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h .Gv L NdG LefG OGdG
jW Ie OGdG g e AGMG Gj
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fCGh dG e x c jJ Y
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362

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363

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364

Gh gG

365

Gh gG

366

Gh gG

367

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368

QhdG hG

369