General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS

2010-11
General Agriculture
For ICARs EXAMS, JRF, SRF, ARS & IARI Ph. D. Exams
(Based on Authorized and Current information)
Compiled by : Roop Singh Maitry (Ph.D. Scholar, WST, I.A.R.I.) Special thanks to Ajit Uchoi (Ph.D. Scholar, PGR, I.A.R.I.)
Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi-110012
Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com
CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Indian Agriculture: At A Glance Horticulture Biochemistry Microbiology Crop Physiology Entomology Agronomy Agricultural Economics Plant Pathology Genetics and Plant Breeding Statistics Soil Science Agricultural Extension Crop Biotechnology Environmental Science Seed Technology Agricultural Engineering Agricultural Physics History of Agricultural Research in India 20. Agricultural Points
PREFACE
Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. In India, the competition in agricultural education is increasing day by day. The competitive examination is an only routine procedure of admission in Agricultural Universities, viz. Central Agriculture University (CAU), State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI). The competitive examination is also an only routine procedure of recruitment in agricultural job/posts, viz. Agricultural Research Services, State PSC and UPSC. Thus, one has to prepare him/herself very strongly for these competition exams and for the success, need to read authentic and authorised reading materials. The knowledge of general agriculture is very essential for every competition exams related to agriculture. Many authors are attempted to compile the notes/books of general agriculture, in which, TNAU notes is well famous. Other books were also made impact on the readers. But still no book is there with authentic and authorised information. Therefore, I and my friends feel need to write this book. This book has been so as to serve, as best as possible to aim of writing this book. Here, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to the person who prepared the TNAU notes with his /her hard work. I am highly thankful to Mr. Ajit Uchoi who helped me for material collection and typing. Finally, I wish to thank all the friends, who encouraged me to compile this book, Deepak Gupta, Gopal Mahajan, Somnath Holkar. And also thanks to other friends for there, cooperation, Ramnna, Datta, Imtiyaj.
References: 1. Handbook of Agriculture- ICAR (new edition) 2. General Agriculture- Muni raj Singh (new edition) 3. Economic Survey of India- Govt. of India (2009-10) 4. India-2010 5. ICAR websites 6. TNAU notes 7. Fundamentals of Soil Science-ISSS

1. INDIAN AGRICULTURE: AT A GLANCE (2010-11) Indian Agriculture-2010: A record production of 233.88 Million tons of food grains in 2008-09 Contribution to Growth rate in GDP 4.7% (2007-08), 1.6% (2008-09) Contribution to GDP 16.4 % (2007-08), 15.7% (2008-09) Share to total imports 2.95% (2007-08), 2.74% (2008-09) Share to total exports 12.05% (2007-08), 10.23% (2008-09) Contribution to total Employment- 52% (2008-09) MSP increase in 2008-09 over last year: Wheat-8% (lowest) Ragi-58% (highest) India supports(of worlds): Total geographical area-2% population- 18% Livestock-15% Forest-1.5% Total Geographical Area (TGA) 329 M.H Potential for Biological Production - 265 M.H Per Capita land availability-0.37ha (1991-92) Per Capita Agri. land availability -0.16 ha(1991-92) Net cultivated area- 143 Mha Irrigated area-56.3 Mha National Commission on Farmers-2004 (Chairman- M.S. Swaminathan) National Horticulture Mission-started 2005 National Bamboo Mission-started 2006-07 NRAA- National Rain fed Area Authority, since 03/11/2006 National food security mission-started Rabi, 2007 RADP- Rain fed Area Development Programme, Since 20 March, 2008 All India avg. fertilizer consumption- 128.8 Kg/ha (2008-09) Highest avg. fertilizer consumption- Punjab (212Kg/ha) Lowest avg. fertilizer consumption Arunachal Pradesh (5 kg/ha) Nutrient consumption ration (NPK), 2007-08)- 5.5:2.1:1 NPMSF- National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertilizer, 2008-09 ISOPOM-Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm & Maize, started since 1st April, 2004 Kisan Call Centre(KCC),started since 21st Jan 2004 (toll free No. 1551) DMRI- Directorate of Marketing Research and Inspection, Nagpur , Maharashtra First livestock census conducted in India: 1919 Rank of India in Silk production-2nd (1st-China), - 18,320 MT Provides about 65% of the livelihood Contributes 21% of Total Exports, and Supplies Raw materials to Industries Growth Rate in production - 5.8% About 75% people are living in rural areas and are still dependent on Agriculture. About 43% of Indias geographical area is used for agricultural activity. Organizational Setup of ICAR: (Present scenarios-2009-10) Union Minister of Agriculture is the ex-officio President of the ICAR Society. (Present- Sharad Pawar)
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Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research & Education Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India & Director-General, ICAR the Principal Executive Officer of the Council. (Present- Dr. S. Ayyappan) Agricultural Scientists' Recruitment Board, Chairman-Dr. C. D. Mayee (Plant Pathlosist) Deputy Directors-General (8) Additional Secretary (DARE) and Secretary (ICAR) Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor Assistant Directors-General (24) Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, New Delhi Directorates/Project Directorates - 25 (with upgradation of 12 NRCs) National Bureaux 6 (New-NBAII, Bengaluru and NBAIM, Mau, UP) Deemed Universities status -6(New- NAARM, Hydrabad and NIASM, Malegaon, Maharastra) National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) [formerly Project Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC)] is a nodal Institute at national level for research and development on all aspects of work on harnessing resources of insects including biological control of crop pests and weeds, training, information repository, technology dissemination and national/international cooperation.(2009) National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganism(NBAIM), Mau, UP (2005) There are 44 Agricultural Technology Information Centres (ATIC) established under ICAR institutes. ICAR Introduced revised curricula and syllabi for 95 disciplines in Masters and 80 disciplines in Doctoral programmes. The Handbook of Agriculture updated as 6th edition (2009). NIASM (National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management), Malegaon, Maharastra,2008 Established a network of over 568 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK).(upto Dec.2009) Deputy Director General (Natural Resource Management): Dr. A.K. Singh, Union Minister for Agriculture: Shri. Sharad Pawar Minister of State for Agriculture: Prof. K.V. Thomas. New Director-General of ICAR: Dr. S. Ayyappan
Handbook of Agriculture (New entry-2010): Father of Hybrid rice in India- Dr. E.A. Siddiqe st Milk production in India (Highest over World)-108 Mt.(2009) and 1 rank in world. Milk Availability (g./person/day)- 245 (2007-08), 258 (2008-9) Food grain production (Mt.)-233 Mt nd Fruit production - 63 Mt (2007-08) 2 rank nd Vegetable production -125 Mt (2007-08) 2 rank Agriculture accounts .% of National work force-52 Project Directorates-25 (upgrated NRCs-12) SAUs-45 National Research Centres (NRCs)-17 AICRPs-61 National Institutes-6 (very Imp.) Central Institutes-49 Directorate of Women in Agriculutre-Bhuwneshwar, Orissa Directorate of Floricultural Research- New Delhi Directorate of Information and Publication in Agriculture- New Delhi AICRP, NSP-crops, New Delhi AICRP, Arid Zone fruit-Bikaner
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AICRP, NSP-vegetable,Varanasi AICRP, Pestiside residue, New Delhi AICRP, Agrometeorrology, Hydrabad
General Agriculture (New, ICAR wbsites): Sahbhagi Dhan - new varieties of rice capable of withstanding drought. Water submergence variety of rice- Swarna-Sub 1, can survive for 14 days under water. To ward off threat to wheat production from the globally spreading menace of resistant varieties of wheat stem rust- Ug99,DBW 17, PBW 550, Lok 1, and Turja identified. In potato, dry matter-rich variety Kufri Frysona developed for making French Fries. Cloned and surviving buffalo calf, GARIMA, produced for faster multiplication of selected highly productive animals. For Bird Flu diagnosis, High Security Animal Disease Laboratory, Bhopal, conferred OIE-international recognition. Devised drip and sprinkler irrigation systems saving water (30-50%), labour (50%), fertilizer (30-40%) and increasing yields (12-76%). Leaf Colour Chart (LCC), a simple device for nitrogen management saves 15 kg N/ha in rice. Tractor-mounted cumin planter saves 30% seed. Motorized aril extractor developed for pomegranate. The first systematic work on SRI began at TNAU, Tamil Nadu in 1993. Golden rice: Produced by combining genetic material from daffodils, Ervinia vredivora, Agrobacterium tumifacience and Japonica rice. by Professor Ingo Potrykus and Dr. Peter Beyer (Germany,1999) Purpose of golden rice- to provide a new, alternative intervention to combat Vitamin A Deficiency. General Agriculture by Muniraj Singh (New Entry): National Biodiversity Board-New Delhi Camel crop-Sorgum Natural Genetic enginner-Agrobacterium tumefacience Pashmina (Winter cloth) obtained from- Goats Law of Tolerance Sheford Oleresine- Chilli Keshar(sefforon) belongs family-Iridaceae st World Food Prize,1987 (1 Indian)-M.S. Swaminathan for Green revolution nd World Food Prize,1989 (2 Indian)-Vergese Kurien for Milk revolution th World Food Prize,2000 (5 Indian)-S. K. Khus for Quality Protein Maize st World Food Prize, 2009- Gebisa Ejeta (Ethiopia) for 1 sorghum hybrid for drought and srtiga weed. Mychoryza increase availability of Phosphorus Water Requirement of irrigated wetland rice-1500 mm Nurient mobility concepts-Bray PUFA conent is highest in Sunflower Pseudocereal-Buckwheat First Agri. Chemist of ICAR-J W Leather Pulse crop doesnt fix N-Rajma Avg Milling recovery of Rice-60%
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Informatics in Agriculture: IT Plan for Agriculture Sector (AGRISNET) was submitted to Ministry of Agriculture in 1997 to establish Indian Agriculture on-line and revised in 2000. AGMARKNET-Agricultural Marketing Information Network NADAMS-National Agricultural Drought Advisory and Management Systems AgRIS-Resources Information System APHNET-Animal Production and Health Informatics Network ARISNET-Agricultural Research and Information System ACINET: Agricultural Credit Informatics Network E-chaupal estabilished by Indian Tobacco Comp. (ITC) for M.P. VERCON (Vitrual Extension, Research and Communication Network) developed byFAO,2001 Soya-Chaupal is for weather, farming practice and Market price of Soybean in M.P. ICT- Information and Communication Technology ARIS- Agricultural Research Information System, est. by ICAR, 1995 Nanotechnology in Agriculture: coined by-Nario Taniguichi (1974), at Univ. of Tokyo, Japan Nanotechnology is Understanding and control of matter at dimension of 1-100 nm Example of Nano based Smart Delivery System-Halloysite Nano Pesticide-Nano Particles(NPs) of ZnO, Sio2 and TiO2 used for Bacteria & Green Algea Nano Particles used for reclamation of heavy Particles-Amphiphylic Polyurethane,Zeravalent Iron (nZVI), and Nano sized Zeolite. Crop Biotechnology. TM First transgenic plant-Flavr Savr tomato for delayted ripining was realeasd for commercial cultivation in 1994 by Calgene (Compony). Final Approval Committee for release of transgenic crops in India- GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) Area under transgenic plant in World (2008)-125 Mha, 139 Mha (2009) th st nd rd Rank of India for transgenic plant -4 ( 1 -USA, 2 -Mexico, 3 - Argentina) Crops having highest transgenic plant cultivation area- Soyabean> Corn>Cotton Area under Bt-cotton: 7.5 Mha(2008), 8.4 Mha (2009)(86% of cotton area) First genetic engineering compony est. 1976, Genentech First transgenic crop- tobacco Irrigation in India-2010: National water awards (2007)-Hiware Bazar Gram Panchayat, Ahmadnagar, Mharastra Area under micro irrigation system in india (2008-09): 3.88 Mha Area under Drip in India (2008-09): 1.42 Mha (highest area-Maharashtra) Area under Sprinkler in India (2008-09): 2.45 Mha (highest area-Haryana) Water year-2007 Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Advisory Council (ARGWC)- constituted in 2006 National Institute of Hydrology- Roorkee, Uttarakhand World Congress on conservation Agriculture, 2009- held at New Delhi ITK in Agriculture: Bael fruit can be used to contol rice blast Cow urin used for wheat termite control , sorghum smut control Indias position in world Agriculture Rank Total Area :Seventh Irrigated Area : First Population :Second
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Economically Active population : Second Total Cereals : Third Wheat :Second Rice :Second Coarse grains : Fourth Total Pulses : First Oil Seeds : Second Fruits and Vegetables : Second (first-China) Implements (Tractors) :Third Milk : First Live Stock (castles, Buffaloes) :First WORLD AGRICULTURAL SCENARIO Rice : China > India > Indonesia Maize : USA >China >Brazil Wheat : China > India >Usa Groundnut : China > India Sugarcane : Brazil > India Total Cereals : China > USA > India Coarse Cereals: Usa > China > Brazil > India Total Pulses : India -1st Mustard & Rapeseed: China > Canada > India Fruits & Veg : China > India Cotton : CHINA > USA > India Tobacco : China > Brazil > India Tea, Jute & Allied Fibres: India -1st Coffee :India-6th Cattle Population: 1st (16.5%) Buffalo Population: 1st (56.7%) Milk Production: 1st (15%) Egg Production: China>USA>Japan>India Total Area of India-329 m ha-2.4% of world-7th position Total Arable Land-162 m ha-2nd after USA Total Irrigated Area-58 m ha-21% of world-1st position Human Population-102.5 Crore-17% of world-2nd after China INDIANS WHO SECURED WORLD FOOD PRIZES: 1987 - Dr MS Swaminathan- architect of Indias green revolution 1989 -Dr Verghese Kurien Milk cooperatives 1996 - Dr Gurudev S Kush improved yield potential of rice 1998 Mr B R Barwale Founder of MAHYCO 2000 Dr Surinder K Vassal Developed quality protein maize 2005 Modaduga v Gupta For Aquaculture SOME IMPORTANT YEARS: 2004-International year of rice 2005-International year of micro credit 2006-International year of desert and desertification 2007-International year of water (theme-more crop per drop) 2008-International year of potato 2009-International year of fibre 2010- International year of Biodiversity PER CAPITA AVAILABILITY (2009-10)
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Cereals 409.9 gm/day Pulse -29 gm/day Milk - 245 gm /day. Minimum requirement of milk 240 gm/day
World Green Revolution: Increasing the wheat production that began in Mexico in 1945. The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former USAID director William Gaud. CIMMYT , Mexico - the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center. Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars. HYVs or high-yielding varieties - A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar (Norin 10 wheat) which yield 10 times more than that of traditional rice. Father of the Green Revolution- Norman Ernest Borlaug (Birth-March 25, 1914 and Death - September 12, 2009 (aged 95) Dallas, Texas (USA). An American agronomist and Nobel laureate who has been deemed the. He received his Ph.D. in plant pathology and genetics.) Father of the Green Revolution in India- M. S. Swaminathan (Mankombu Sambasivan Swaminathan, born August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu.) Father of the Ever Green Revolution in India (1995) - M. S. Swaminathan. Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops for Green Revolution. The land Mark of Indian Green Revolution- IARI, New Delhi "Miracle Rice"-IR8 - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by IRRI. Crossed between an Indonesian variety named Peta and a Chinese variety named Dee-geo-woogen. CROP PRODUCTION SCENARIOS IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2008-09): Total foodgrains production in 2008-09 was estimated at 233.88 million tonnes as against 230.78 million tonnes in 2007-08. Current trends in Indian agriculture: 10th largest economy in terms of GDP 10th in world plant biodiversity (4th in Asia) India is in 4th position in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Leading state in production and area of crops: Rice WB> UP, Punjab (Productivity) Wheat UP> Punjab, Haryana (productivity) Pulse s MP (production), Haryana (productivity) Oilseed MP>AP, TN (productivity) Groundnut Gujarat (production), TN (productivity) Mustard Rajasthan Cotton Maharashtra Jute West Bengal Coffee Karnataka Tea Assam Rubber Kerala> Tripura Potato UP Onion Maharashtra Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh (production), Tamil Nadu (productivity) Maize Karnataka Soybean MP(production), AP (productivity)
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PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS: CROPS 2006-07 Rice 93.43 Wheat 75.80 Coarse cereals 30.66 Cereals 199.89 Total pulses 14.20 Total food grains 214.09 Total oilseeds 24.29 Sugarcane 355.52 Cotton 226.3 lakh bales
2007-08 96.69 78.57 40.76 216.02 14.76 230.78 29.75 258.84 246.84 lakh bales
2008-09 99.15 80.58 39.48 219.21 14.66 233.88 28.15 231.56 231.56 Lakh bales
CROP PRODUCTION 2009-10 (Based on Advance Estimate) Kharif foodgrains production - 98.83 Mt Kharif rice production - 71.65 Mt., a decrease of about 15 per cent over 2008-09 Total kharif production of coarse cereals- 22.76 Mt. Total production of Kharif pulses- 4.42 Mt. Total kharif production of the nine Oilseeds- 15.233 Mt. Sugarcane production- 249.48 million tones Cotton production- 23.66 Million bales (of 170 kg each) Production of jute and mesta- 10.243 Million bales (of 180 kg each) Highest/Lowest production yearCrop Year (highest) Year (lowest) Food grain 2008-09 2002-03 wheat 2008-09 2002-03 Rice 2008-09 2002-03 Pulse 2003-04 2002-03 Nine Oilseed 2007-08 2002-03 Sugarcane 2006-07 2003-04 Cotton 2007-08 2002-03 AREA COVERAGE 2009-10(Based on Advance Estimate) Kharif total foodgrains -66.78 Mha India ranks first in world milk production. Production of sugar in 2008-09 sugar season declined by about 11.62 Mt. Allied sector Production figure in 2008-09: Milk - 108.5 million tonnes Eggs- 55.6 Billion, Wool - 42.7 Million kg Meat-3.8 Million tones Fish production- 7.6 million tones Silk production -18, 324 Kg MSP-2009-10 (Rs.per Quintal) Paddy- Rs.1000/ Jwar- Rs.860/ Arhar- Rs.2300/ Cotton - Rs.2500/ Wheat- Rs.1100/ Gram- Rs.1760/ Sugarcane -Rs. 129.8/-
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Barley- Rs.750/-
LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION & AREA OF CROPS:2008-09 Productivity Crops Prod. Leading Prod. Area (Mt) state (Mha) (Kg/Ha) Rice 99.15 WB>AP>UP 45.35 2186 Wheat 80.58 UP>PNJ>HR 27.88 2891 Maize 19.29 AP>KN>RJ 28.19 2355 Jwar 7.31 MH>KN>MP 7.68 Bajra 8.83 RJ>UP>GJ 8.74 C. Cereal 39.48 RJ>MH 27.62 Cereal 219.21 22.37 T. Pulses 14.86 MH>MP>AP 7.97 655 Chickpea 7.0 MP>MH>AP 7.97 Lentil 0.81 UP>MP 1.31 Pig.pea 2.3 MH>KN 3.4 T. Food 233.8 UP>PNJ>AP 123.22 Grain T.oilseed 28.16 MP>MH>GJ 27.46 Soyabean 9.9 MP>MH 9.52 G. nut 7.34 GJ>AP 6.22 Mustard 7.37 RJ>UP 6.19 Sunflowe 1.25 KN>AP 1.83 Sugarcane 273.93 UP>MH 4.4 Potato 28.43 UP>WB Cotton* 23.6 GJ>MH 9.41 419 Jute* 10.41 WB>BHR 0.91 Coffee KN Tea Assam Rubber Kerla Onion MH *Million Bales POINTS NEED TO REMEMBER Indias rank in fertilizer consumption- 3rd Per ha NPK consumption-128 kg CV of South west Monsoon in 2009- 10% MSP given by CACP CACP stands for - Commission on Agriculture cost and Prices FCI Buffer stock, Oct 2009- 16.2 Mt Swaljaldhara is drinking water project, 2002 Hariyali- watershed development program est. 2003 NAREGA changes to MAREGA (Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guaranty Act) 2005 The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights (PPV&FR) Authority, established in Nov., 2005 at New Delhi (Chairaman- S. Nagrajan) National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertility (NPMSF), has been introduced in 2008-09 Total No. of Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs)in India-750 (2008-09) Total irrigation potential in India- 102.77 million ha by March 2007
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Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97 NAFED -National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited CCI- Cotton Corporation of India The Macro Management of Agriculture Scheme (MMA) was formulated in 2000-01 National Food Security Mission (NFSM) has been launched from the rabi 2007-08 to enhancing the production of rice, wheat and pulses by 10, 8 and 2 million tonnes respectively by the end of the Eleventh Plan Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCC) was introduced in August 1998 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) - launched in August 2007 National Bamboo Mission (NBM)- commenced in 2006-07 National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH) Chairman, Planning Commissions- M. S. Ahuliwalia Chairman of National Commission for Farmers - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan Indias Rank 1st Milk, Coconut, Tea, Banana, Mango, Cashew nut (export, import and processing) and Pulses 2nd Rice , Wheat, Cotton, Fruit and vegetable 3rd Tobacco, rubber, Egg and fertilizer Consumption of Pesticide is maximum o Imported Pesticide: Carbaryl followed by cholorpyriphos o Indigenous Pesticide: BHC followed by Monocrotophos & Endosulfan Export of Agro chemicals o Maximum (in terms of rupees): Cypermethrin followed by Endosulfan, Phosphide & Lindane The top Agrobusiness company: Novartis (Hindustan Ciba-Geigy & Sandoz) Total production of pesticides in India : 95,000 tones (2007-08) Number of pesticides registered in India: L55-(as on 31/12/99) Number of technical grade pesticides manufactured in India: Plant Protection adviser to GOL: Dr. R. L. RAJAK. Insecticides Act: 1968 (Thakur committee recommendation) Insecticides rules : 1971 Brown revolution Promotion of Agro Industries Dvt. Pink revolution Promotion of onion production Yellow revolution Promision of oilseeds production The word green revolution was coined by William Gadd Father of Green revolution Norman E. Borlaoug. Father of Green revolution in India Dr. M.S. Swaminathan Father of hybrid rice production: yuvan long ping First laureate of the world food prize: Dr. Swaminathan World Food prize 1986 Rice breeders: Dr. H. M. Beachell o Dr. Gurdev singh khush NCIPM National Centre for Integrated Pest Management IARI, New Delhi CPPPTI Central Plant Protection Training Institute Hyderabad The largest per hectare pesticide consuming country Taiwan Total number of pesticides banned in India = 29 Recently banned - Phosphamidon Highest consumption cotton 54% followed by paddy 22%
RECENT INSECTICIDE DATA (Updated up to Nov, 2009) Number of insecticide included in insecticide schedule- 787
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Pesticides Banned for manufacture, import and use - 27 Pesticide / Pesticide formulations banned for use but their manufacture is allowed for export - 2 Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and use - 4 Pesticide Withdrawn - 7 No. of pesticides refused registration - 18 Pesticides restricted for use in India 13 Insecticides approved by the registration committee for protecting buildings from termites : Chlorpyriphos 50% EC, Ethion 50% EC, Imidacloprid 30.50% SC, Lindane 20% EC. Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control termites in agricultural crops under the insecticides act, 1968 : Chlorpyriphos 20 EC, Endosulfan 35 EC, Imidacloprid 17.8 % SL. No. of Insecticides approved by the registration committee to control household pests in houses under the insecticides act, 1968 - 39.
RECENT HORTICULTURE DATA (2009-10) %Share of Hoti. Crops in Production Vegt. (60%) < fruits (31%) < Plantation crops (5%) %Share of Hoti. Crops in Area Vegt. (40%) < fruits (30%) < Plantation (15%) Fruits: leading crops o Area: Mango>citrus>Banana o Production: Banana> Mango>citrus o Productivity: Papaya> Banana>Grape Fruits: leading State o Area: MH>AP>UP o Production: AP>MH>TN Vegetable: leading crops o Area: Potato>Onion>Tomato o Production: Potato>Onion>Tomato o Productivity: Tapioca> Cabbage >Potato Vegetable: leading State o Area: WB>UP>Bhr o Production: WB>UP>Bhr Indias rank in the fruits production 2nd (1st - Brazil) Indias rank in the vegetables production - 2nd (1st -China) India is the largest producer of 1. Mango, 2. Banana, 3. Sapota, 4. Acid Lime, 5. Cauliflower India is the 2nd largest producer of 1. Onion, 2. Potato Per capita fruit Recommended : 120 gm/day/person Per capita fruit Availability : 70-80 gm/day/person Per capita vegetables- Recommended : 275 gm/day/person Per capita vegetables- Availability : 120 gm/day/person IARI Ph.D. General Agriculture 2009-10 (Answer based on given MCQs) Highest procurement of wheat in 2009 was-17.8 Mt Contribution of agriculture to GDP is- 22 IVLP stands for- Institute Village Linkage Programme Which one of these is major constituent of poultry feed? Maize In binomial distribution Mean > variance
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Bordeaux mixture is Fungicide Which of the following is used to turn over the soil? Mould bould plough NBFGR-National Bureau for Fish Genetic Resource is situated at- Lucknow Which of the following is not bio-control agent? Xanthomonas Which of the following is complex fertilizer? Urea ammonium Phosphate Soil having ESP (Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) greater than 15 are Alkali soil Rain, mist, fog and cloud all these phenomena occurs in Troposphere Farming system is All agril. Inputs and commodities Which nutrient helps in Biological Nitrogen Fixation?Mo Silt is intermediate between Sand and clay First CO2 acceptor in C-3 pathway -RuBP carboxylase From 1960s onward which of the following operation is in effect for milk?-Operation flood CIMMYT works on-Maize and wheat Which of the following is highly salt tolerant fruit crop? Date palm Price fixed by government recently for agricultural products Minimum support price If farmer has only one irrigation is available for wheat crop, at which stage it is recommended CRI Disease occurring regularly in the same area is called as Endemic Which of the following is essential component of nucleic acid and protein? N Widely cultivated wheat species in India after T. diococcum Banana is Auto triploid Which crop in India has maximum area under irrigation? Rice Which of the following is not found in plant cell? Glycogen Family of cotton is Malvaceae Certified seed is produced from Foundation seed In prophase which is correct Elongated threads like chromosome Indian Agriculture: General View LAND RESOURCES IN INDIA Total Geographic area- 328.74 million Hectare (2.4% of world area) Average annual Rainfall- 1195 mm Total cultivated area 142.6 mha (46.6% of total area) Gross cultivated area 192.62 m ha Total irrigated area 57 m ha Gross irrigated area 79.5 m ha Total area under forest -68.97 m ha (22.5%) The generated rainfall volume 400 mha m Per capita availability of agricultural use land 0.30 hectare Cropping intensity 135.1 % Area sown more than once 50.02 mha The generated runoff volume 185 mha m Total area under horticultural crops 12 mha Maximum area under irrigation- Ganga Basin
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Total cropped area occupied by food grains- 76% Area under pasture cum grazing land 11.30 mha (4%) Area under cultivable wastelands- 14.63 (5%) Area under tree crops and graves 3.6 mha (1.2%) Area under fruit cultivation - 4 mha Area under vegetable cultivation 6.09 mha Fertilizer consumption (kg/ha) 98 Percentage of arable land under irrigation 34.8 Contribution of agriculture to GDP 16-18 % Contribution of Horticulture to GDP 28-30 % Number of agro climactic zones in India (Planning commission)- 15 Number of agro-ecological regions (NBSS and LUP) 21 (now 20) No of Hot spots of Biodiversity in India 3 (Western ghat, the NEH region and the Himalayas
WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA Catchment area of the rivers in India is 252.8 M ha The Ministry of water Resources, Govt. of India has divided the country into 20 river basine Total volume of precipitation 400 M ha.m Percolation is 215 Mha.m, immediate evaporation 70Mham and surface run off is 155Mham. Usage of ground on full dev 42.3Mha m Usage of surface water on full dev 80Mham Storage reservoirs and tanks 73Mha m Diversion works & direct pumping 15Mha m Water flowing back to sea-92Mha m Out of 42.3Mha m ground water receives 11.5Mha m is used for irrigation The yearly average stream flow in our country is 1869Km cube A total of 1050 Km cube of unhzable quantum of surface & ground water is available for irrigation. A surface water storage of 1.4Km cube has been created and another 72Km cube will be available after completion of on going projects an another 132Km cube will be available from projects under constructions, making the total available water to 378Km cube in the country.
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2. HORTICUTURE
Cultivation/Production of Mango B. N. : Mangifera indica Origin : Indo-Burma Fruits type : Drupe Edible part : Mesocarp Main Nutrient: Vit. -A (46660 I U) Main varieties: Remarks 1. Mallika : 2. Ainrapali : HDP, Dwarfing, developed by IARI 3. Lal Sundari :Coloured variety, developed by IARI 4. Niranjan : Off season bearer 5. Mandhulika : Off season bearer 6. MDCH-2 : Off season bearer 7. Arka Aruna : Free from spongy tissue 8. Arka Puneet : Free from spongy tissue 9. Arka Anmol : Free from spongy tissue 10. Arka Neelkiran : 11. Sindhu : Seedless 12. Dashehari : Best North Indian cultivar 13. Chausa : Sweeten, Very late varieties 14. Neehun :Best combiner, Very late varieties 15. Kalepadi : Dwarfing 16. Totapuri : Red small, Dwarfing Propagation : Veneer Grafting Intercrops : Papaya, Phalsa, Onion, Tomato Sex forms : Male & Female (Andromonoceious) Pollinator : Housefly Maturity indices : 1. Specific gravity (1.01-1. 02) Flowering to Harvest : 90-120 days Major pest : Hoppers Physiological Disorders: 1. Malformation: o Due to low temperature o Control by 1. Deblossoming, 2. Spray of NAA @ 200 ppm, 3. Resistant cultivars- Bahaduran, Aliff, Haichi, Manjeera. 2. Black tip: o Due to gases from brick kilns (SO2, NO2 and Acetylene) o Cultivars with more lenticels/ unit are susceptible o Control : Borax spray 3. Alternate bearing : Control: Paclobutrazol @300 ppm (or) Kutar @ 5 gm/ tree by, Soil as well as foliar spray 4. Spongy tissue: Convection heats 5. Internal Fruit necrosis: B deficiency. Cultivation/Production of Tomato: Tomato Famous as Family Origin : Lycorpersicon esculentunn, :Wolf Apple : Solanacae : Peru
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Fruit type : Bery Main Nutrient :(rich in Vit.- A) Main Varieties: 1. Pusa ruby 2. Pusa Early Dwarf 3. Sioux 4. Marglobe 5. Supreme (Seln-120) Hybrids : 1. Arka vishal, 2. Arka vardan (Registant to nematode), 3. Vaishali (Indo-American Hybrids), 4. Rupail (Indo-American Hybrids) 5. Naveen (Indo-American Hybrids) Seed rate Spacing Maturity Major pest Major Disease BER Cold set Hot set
6. Pusa Gaurav Processing 7. Arka Vikas 8. Arka Saurab 9. Arka Ahuti 10. Arka Ashish
: Normal: 300-350 gm/ha, and (Hybrid: 70-90 gm/ ha) : 60x60 cm and 90 x 90 cm : Colour development : Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armijera) : Tomato Spotted wilt virus (TSWV), Damping off, (Vector Thrips) : Blosoom-End-Rot (due to Calcium deficiency.) : eg. Pusa sheetal, Pusa Hybrid-2 : eg: Pusa Hybrid-1
Cultivation/Production of Rose: B. N. : Rosa hybrid Family : Rosaceae Propagation :T- budding Type : 1. Hybrid Tea: Hybrid perpetual Tea Rose-(Large solitary flowers) 2. Floribunda: Hybrid tea Olyanthes Medium flower on clusters. Export Varieties: First Red Golden Times, Mercedes, Belinda, Sonia, Milan, Red Success, B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Chitra. Cultivation/Production of Cauliflower: Edible part :curd (Prefloral apical meristem) Operation : Blanching in cauliflower Disorders : Whiptail- Mo deficiency Browning Boron deficiency Varieties : Pusa snowball, Pusa katki, Pusa deepali, Early Kunwari. General Horticulture: Fruit types: Type 1. Berries 2. Drupe 3. Hesperidum 4. Amphisarca 5. Balusta 6. Pome (false fruit) 7. Pepo 8. Single seeded berry
Example : Grapes, Guava, Phalsa, Tomato, Brinjal, Chitiles : Mango, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Apricot : Citrus : Wood apple, Bael : Pomegranate : Apple, Pear : Cuarbits : Dates
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9. Single seeded nuts : Litchi 10. Sorosis : Jack, Mulberry, Pineapple 11. Syconium : Fig 12. Efaerio of better : Annona sp 13. Ekaerro of Drupe lets : Strawberry Commercial Method of Propagation: Fruits Method 1. Mango : Venner Grafiting 2. Banana : Sword suckers 3. Citrus : T/ shield budding 4. Grapes : Hard wood cutting 5. Guar : Stooling/ Mound layering 6. Litchi. Programme to : Air Layering 7. Acid lime, Phalsa, Mangosrein : Seed 8. Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum : T budding 9. Anola : Patch budding 10. Strawberry : Runner 11. Pineapples : sucker, slips Nutrients, Deficiency symptoms and Sources: Type 1. Vitamin-a (Retinal) 2. Vit B-1 (Thiamin) 3. Vit B-2 (Riboflavin) 4. Vit C (Ascorbic acid) 5. Vit D (Calciferol) 6. Iron 7. Calcium 8. Potassium 9. Phosphorus 10. Iodine Deficiency Night blindness (xerophthalmia) Beri-beri Dry Skin Survey Rickets Goatee Source Fruits: Mango, Papaya, Japanese Persimmon Almond, Apricot, Cashew Bael, Passion Fruit, Jack F: Barbados Cherry, Orange, Guava V: Chitlies, Bittergourd Amla V: Greens Dates, Currants, Caronda, Green Litchi, Banana, Carols, Tomato Banana, Greens Carrot, Tomato, Spinack Onion Okra
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3. BIOCHEMISTRY
Major group of compounds found in a cell are carbohydrates and their derivatives, fats and their derivatives proteins and their derivatives, nucleic acids.
1. CARBOHYDRATES Organic compounds with a general formula (CH2O)n Carbohydrates can be classified into 3 categories, (a) Monosaccharides (b) Oligosaccharides (c) Polysaccharides (a) Monosaccharides Trioses: Trioses are simple sugars derived from hydrolysis of oligopolysaccharides have C atom ranging from 3-9 (eg.) They are of two types (a) Aldoses, (b) Ketoses Aldoses: Sugars with terminal CHO aldehyde group aldotriose- Glyceraldehyde (simplest sugar) o Aldoterose- Erythrose, thresose o Aldopentose Arabiose ribose deoxyribose o Aldohexose Glucose, galactose, mannose Ketoses: Having >C=O group Ketotriose: Dihydroxy acetone simplest keto sugar Ketohexose: Fructose It is the sweetest among all the sugars. (b) Oligosaccharides All derived from combination of two or more monosaccharides units Depending upon the number of monosaccharides presence they can be classified as (I) Disaccharides: eg. Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose, cellobiose (II) Trisaccharides: eg. Raffinose (III) Teirasaccharides: eg. Stachyose Sucrose: Produced from alpha glucose beta fructose by alpha. 1.2. glycosidic linkage. It is a Non- reducing sugar. Maltose: Consists of 2 units of glucose linked together by alpha 1.4 linkage reducing sugar found in germinating seeds largely. Cellobiose: Consists of 2 units of glucose but the bond involved is beta, 1.4 linkage. It is a reducing sugar. Lactose: Consists of one molecule of beta D glucose and one molecule of beta D galactose linked together by beta 1.4 linkages. Stachyose: It is a tetra saccharide consists of one glucose and one fructose and 2 galactose. (C) Polysaccharides Molecular weight in kilo Daltons (kd) (a) Storage polysaccharides: In plant consists of amylase, amylopectin. (It is polymer of glucose). Amylase is un-branched chains of glucose units joined by alpha 1.4 linkages. The chain is nonlinear, but it is helical one. Amylopectin: Highly branched, Bond types: Alpha-1.4 linkage but at the branching points alpha 1.6 linkage is present. Glycogen: It is present only in animal cells. It is just like starch, but heavily branched and compact and it contains both alpha 1.4 and alpha 1.6 linkages. (b) Structural Polysaccharides Cellulose: Polymer of glucose joined together by beta 1.4 linkage
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Hemicellulose: Polymer consisting of L-arabinose. D-glucose, D-galactose, DXylose, along with uranic acid (galacturonic acids) Pectin: Polymer of galacturonic acid. Normally present in cell walls as calcium Pectate
2. PROTEINS The name was suggested by Berzelius This name is derived from Greek Proteins means first rank Proteins are polymer of amino acids. Each amino acid is linked with another one by peptide -C=O-NH2 bond. Different structural levels: Primary structure- it is the linear arrangement of amino acids. Secondary structure- It is the structure found by linear Polypeptide chain which folds in a regular fashion. This may be of two kinds (1) alpha helix (2) beta pleated sheet. These secondary structures are produced by interaction between neighboring amino acids of same chain. Quaternary structure: The structure produced by association of more than one polypeptide Examples for some commonly occurring proteins Structural proteins : o Collagen: Muscle protein o Keratin: In hair and wool and nail o Fibroin: In silk o Elastin: Found in insect wings o Regulatory proteins : Enzymes o Transport proteins : Myoglobin, Haemoglobins Another classification of proteins: Simple proteins Contains only ordinary amino acids Conjugated proteins Proteins that contain non amino acid Components in addition to amino acids these additional factors are called prosthetic groups. Examples: o Nucleic proteins Nucleic acid and protein chromosomes o Glycoprotein Protein and sugar units o Lipoproteins Protein and lipids o Metalloproteins - metals and proteins haemoglobin 3. ENZYMES These are special classes of proteins. Enzymatic activity was first discovered by BUCHNER (Zymase was the first found initially from Yeast) The term enzyme was coined by W. KUHNS Terminologys Holoenzymes Apoenzyme + Prosthetic group Apo-enzyme =Without prosthetic group Legend = Any substrata that binds with an enzyme Active site = The site responsible for analytic molecule Regulatory site = the site other than catalytic use where the regulatory. Characteristics of an enzyme: * Specific, Protinacious, colloidal nature, sensitive to temperature. * Enzymes do not change the equilibrium level. But quickens it.
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Mechanism of action of enzymes: o The lock and key model was proposed by Fisher o It lowers down the activation energy. Some special classes of enzymes. Allosteric enzymes: are regulatory enzymes which have more than one polypeptide o This type of enzymes have a well developed regulatory mechanism o They produce a sigmoidal curve (instead of classical parabolic curve) Isozymes: They are different enzymes which catalyze the same reaction in different tissues. They are different in molecular weight and exercised from different genes. Ribozymes: They are catalytic RNA with enzymatic property (non protein) Factors affecting activity of enzymes are Temperature. PH. Ionic strength. Water content.
4. VITAMINS The term vitamins was introduced by FUNK Classification: 1. Water soluble: Vit. B complex (B1, B2, B12) C 2. Niacin: (nicotinic acid) 3. Fat soluble: Vit: A. D. E. K. Vitamins and their deficiency symptoms Vitamins Deficiency symptoms A (Retinal) :Xerophthalmia or dry Deonatosis (dry scaly skin) ,Night: blindness because of reduction in red cone cells B1 (thiamine) :BERI-BERI (Extreme weakness, pain in joints) B2 (Riboflavin) :Ariboflavinosis (Blurred vision, cracks on skin at angle of mouth) B12 (Cyanocobalamin) :Pemiocin anemia (Reduction in RBCs) B6 NIACIN (Nicotinic :Pellagra (Black Tongue) acid (Peridoxin) C (Ascorbic acid) :Scurvy D (Calciferol) :Rickets (Pigeon chest in children), Osteomalacia (adults) E (Alpha Tocopherol) :Sterility Vitamins mainly act as cofactors for enzymatic activity.
5. NUCLEIC ACIDS CLASSES DNA Deoxyribose RNA Ribose Nucleoside = Sugar (Ribose/ Deoxyribose) + Nitrogenous base Nucleotide = Nucleoside + phosphate group Types of Bases o Adenine o Thymine/ uracil (RNA) o Guanine o Cytosine Nucleic acid: Frederick Mischer: Waston & crick B DNA 9right handed helix) Bacteriophages single stranded DNA Non-genetic RNAS
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t-RNA- Transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to Ribosome m-RNA- 5% carries the message from genes (DNA) r- RNA Ribosomal RNA- Part of Ribosome (work benches of protein synthesis.
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4. MICRO BIOLOGY
History Anton van Leeuwenhoek : invented the simple (single biconvex lens) in 1674, Discovered Bacteria/microbial world Louis Pasteur : Postulated the germ theory of disease, Pasteurization Spallanzani : First to provide evidence that micro-organisms do not arise spontaneously in organic in fusions Robert Hooke : Discovered compound microscope Robert Koch : Koch postulates for test of disease Alexander Fleming (1929) : Discovered antibiotic penicillium Iwanowsky (1892) : Discovered Virus working with an extract from tobacco plants infected with mosaic disease Beijerinck (1898) : Named virus (infectious poison agent) Brefeld : Developed pure culture techniques for isolation of micro-organisms Hesse : First introduced agar as a solidifying agent in culture media Petri : Designed and developed glass dishes known today as petridishes Edward Jenner : Developed vaccine for Small pox ROBERT HOOK used the word CELL ROBERT BROWN used the word NUCLEUS M. SCHLEIDEN & SCHWANN Cell Theory Haeckel proposed PROTISTA Whittaker 5 kingdom classification 1. Monera Prokaryotes 2. Protista Unicellular Eukaryotes 3. Plantae (Photo syn.) Multicellular plants and higher algae. 4. Fungi (adsorption) Multinucleate higher fungi. 5. Animalia (ingestion) BERGYs manual of systematic bacteriology is the standard for taxonomy Eukaryotic: Protozoa, fungi Prokaryotic : Bacteria, actinomycetes, BGA SIZE (approx.): o Bacteria 0.5-3.0 micro m o Fungi 1.5-10 micro m o Protozoa 2-200 micro m o Viruses 100-600 nano in MLO 0.1-0.3 micro m o Algae 0.1 micro m (BGA) to x feet (higher algae) o First living cell e800 million year ago. o First prokayotic cell 1400 million years ago (achaean cra) Sterilization: o A Physical agent: High Temp. dry heat; 1800 C; 1.5 HOURS 2 HOUR - Moist heat; 15-20 min (121.6c) - 15 pounds / inch pressure Pasteurization (with milk) o Low temp High time 62.8c (30 min) o High temp Low time 71,7c (15 second) o L. T. Microbistatic (-4 to 7c) o H. T. Desiccation o Osmotic Pressure o Radiation U. V. (2650 A- Lambda) o Gamma rays. (Co 60)
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o X-rays (5000-1,30,000 rads) o Chemical agents 1) Phenol compound cell wall; cyto. Membrane: protein denaturation 2) Alcohols Protein, cytoplasmic membrane 3) Iodine, chlorine, - Enzyme destruction. Amino acids 4) Aldehyde- amino acids + enzymes 5) Ethylene oxide (Gas) Enzyme + Amino acids o Chemotheraputic agents: 1) Arsenic- for Syphilis (by Ehrlich) 2) Sulfonamide for bacterial infection (by Domagk) Antibiotics:o Penicillin Penicillium sp G + ve; cellwall synthesis o Tetracycline - S. aureofacines G + ve, G-ve; Protein synthesis o Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis G + ve, cell wall synthesis o Chloramphenicol S. venezuelae G + ve; G-ve, Protein synthesis o Cycloheximide S. venezuelae, protein synthesis, Eukaryote o Nystain S. nouresii Eukaryote membrane o Erythromycin S. nouresii fungi Prokaryote o Erythromyci S. erythreus G + ve, G-ve, Protein synthesis o Neomycin S. fradiae G + ve, G-ve, protein synthesis Non legumes Alnus, casurna, Myrica Frankia Associative Symbiosis Azpospirillum Symbiosis Rhizobium Stem and root nodules Sesbania, Azorbizobium caulonodans, Azospirillum and Azotobacter- Cereals, oil seeds, vegetables, horticulture - Seed treatment : 200g/ 10-12 kg seeds - Seedling treatment : 1-2 kg/ ha - Setts treatment : 2-3 kg/q - Soil treatment : 4-5 kg/ha Microscopy: 1. Dark field microscope: Specimens are unstained, appear bright in a dark background Applications- For gross morphology in the living specimen 2. Phase contrast microscope: Unstained live microbial cells can be studied through this microscope Applications For revealing cellular structures in living cells Enables to view living cells more clearly Causes a slight loss of resolution 3. Bright field: Specimen is stained or unstained Used for studying gross morphology of yeasts, molds, algae etc. 4. U V microscope: Appearance of specimen Fluorescent Application For differentiating cellular components 5. Fluorescence microscopy: Used for detecting specific types of antigens using an antibody tagged with fluorescent dye 6. Electron microscope: Uses electromagnetic lenses and an electron beam Resolving power and magnification is much higher than any light microscope Viewed on fluorescent screen
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7. Transmission electron microscope: Contrast results from differential scattering of electrons by the specimen Staining is done with salts of heavy metals as uranium. Tungsten 8. Scanning electron microscope: Provide three dimensional image of the object The surface topography of a specimen can be determined with a clarity and depth which is not possible by any other method The Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen constitutes about 78% of the earths atmosphere The nitrate form of nitrogen is mostly used by plants a) Nitrification Process of conversion of ammonia into nitrate Examples Nitrosomonas(ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacteria(nitrite to nitrate), Aspergillus, Penicillium b) Denitrification Reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide Occurs in waterlogged anaerobic soils Examples Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas Biological Nitrogen Fixation: Fixation of the inert atmospheric elemental nitrogen by micro-organisms through a reductive process Accounts for about 70% of the total nitrogen fixed in the biosphere Restricted to Bacteria only a) A symbiotic / Free living Nitrogen fixation: Aerobic Azotobacter, Blue green algae (BGA) Anaerobic Clostridium, Chlorobium, Rhodospirillum etc. b) Symbiotic Nitrogen fixation: Example Rhizobium, Bacillus etc. Important points: Nitrogen fixing enzyme Nitrogenase (First discovered in 1960 from Clostridium pasteurianum) Nitrogen fixing gene Nif genes Elements involved in nitrogen fixation Molybdenum Co-factor needed for nitrogen fixation Cobalt (Co) Non legumes Alnus, Casuarina, Myrica, Frankia sp Stem and root nodules Sesbania, Azorhizobium cauloncians Leguminous crop not fixing nitrogen Rajma (Phaseolus vulgaris) Phosphorus cycle Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium Sulphur cycle Thiobacillus, Arthrobacter, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans Red pigment in the root nodules is known as Leg haemoglobin Bacteria not responsible for N-fixation- E.coli Nif gene is associated with Rhizobium bacteriod Nitrogen fixation in rice field occurs due to presence of Anabaena (BGA)
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5. CROP PHYSIOLOGY
a) b)
RESPIRATION
Respiration in plants consists of Glycolysis & Krebs Cycle and ETC (Electron Transport Chain) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm & Krebs cycle and ETC in the mitochondria Glycolysis is anaerobic. Total ATP synthesis from on molecule of glucose in respiration is 36 ATP (Net gain) Gross production is 38 ATP Total ATP synthesis in glycolysis is 4 / glucose (Net gain 2 ATP) Krebs cycle is also called as citric acid cycle or TCA (tricarboxylic acid cycle) Final product of glycolysis is pyruyate. Anaerobic respiration pathway products are ethanol and lactic acid. CO2 molecules are released from the mitochondria during respiration. Krebs cycle starts with acetyl coA and oxaloacetate Election transport chain is present in the cristae of mitochondria where: ATP is synthesized in respiration. The high energy compound synthesized during respiration is by oxidative phosphorylation of ADP with P (inorganic phosphate) Cytochromes are electron carriers involved in the respiratory election transport chain Energy content of molecule of glucose is 686 KCAL or 2870 KJ 1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL 1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL The energy currency of the cell is ATP Occurs in all living organisms except virus Catabolic process and oxidation-reduction reaction Raw materials used are glucose and oxygen During the breakdown of glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed Respiratory Quotient ratio of Co2 evolved to ratio of O2 evolved, normal in plants 0.97-1.17 36 ATP molecules are formed on complete oxidation of a glucose molecule through hexose monophosphate shunt cycle The net gain of energy by anaerobic respiration is 2 ATP molecules 1 molecule of ATP = 7.6 KCAL 1 molecule of NADH2 = 52 KCAL The no of Co2 molecule released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is zero The ratio of energy released between anaerobic and aerobic respiration is 1:18 Glycolysis: Called as EMP pathway (Embden Meyerof paranas pathway) refers to degradation of glucose to two pyruvic acid molecules Occurs in cytosol of cytoplasm Common for aerobic and aerobic respiration Pyruvic acid is the end product of Glycolysis Total ATP synthesis in Glycolysis is 4 glucose (Net gain 2 ATP) Krebs cycle: Also called TCA cycle, citric acid cycle, organic acid cycle, mitochondrial respiration The first stable product is citric Krebs cycle occurs in matrix of mitochondria-aerobic condition Krebs cycle starts with acetyl COA and oxaloacetate In Krebs cycle, the mineral activator required for enzyme aconitase is Fe
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c) The only 5 C compound in TCA cycle is - Ketoglutaric acid Electron transport chain: Also called as respiratory chain or oxidative phosphorylation In general, it is found inside the mitochondria The process occurs on the inner membrane of cristae
PHOTOSYNTHESIS Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 1012 Total carbon fixed by ocean per year =273 1011 Blackmann Explained the law of limiting factors Calvin (1954) Traced the path of carbon in photosynthesis and gave the C3 cycle Hatch and Slack (1965) Reported C3 pathway for carbon dioxide fixation in certain tropical grasses The reduction of Co2 to carbohydrate level needs assimilatory products such as ATP and NADPH + H+ Reduction of Co2 occurs in dark but the production of assimilatory powers is light dependent Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b Important accessory pigments in plants are carotenoids and xanthophylls Light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in thylakoids or Grana Dark reaction of photosynthesis take place in stroma Photosynthesis is an oxidation-reduction process a) Calvin cycle (C3 plants): The Co2 acceptor is Ribulose 1, 5- diphosphate The first stable product of photosynthesis is a 3 carbon compound Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) For synthesis of one glucose molecule 18 ATP are required Photorespiration is present and easily detectable Bundle sheaths cells are unspecialised The enzyme RUBP carboxylase or Rubisco is found in chloroplast stroma and is the most abundant protein on earth Examples of C3 plants Wheat, Barley, Oat, Rye, Rice, Pea, Soybean b) Hatch and slack cycle (C4 PLANTS): The Co2 acceptor is phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) Oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) is the first stable product Photorespiration is present only to a slight degree or absent 30 ATP are required for the synthesis of one glucose molecule The most distinguishable anatomical feature of the leaves of C4 plants is the presence of bundle sheath cells containing chloroplasts The bundle sheath cells lack Grana in their chloroplast Leaves of C4 plants show Kranz type of anatomy PEPCO enzymes are present in C4 plants C4 cycle is found only in certain tropical plants C4 plants are about twice as efficient as C3 plants in converting solar energy into the production of dry matter Example of C4 plants sugarcane, maize, pearl millet, Cyperus rotundus etc. c) Crassulacean acid metabolism cycle (CAM cycle): Occurs in mesophyll cells Most (not all) CAM plants possess the succulent habit Examples Bryophyllum, Opuntia, Agave, Pineapple etc. Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 x1012
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Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011 Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) = 400to 700 nm Major photosynthetic pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b Important accessory pigments is plants are carotenoids (1) caroteins, (2) xanthophylls Co2 concentration in the atmosphere is 350 ppm Photosynthesis reaction : Co2 + 2H2o + light =C6 H12 O6 + H2O + O2 Two parts of photosynthesis: Light it action or hill reaction takes place in grana of chloroplast dark reaction of Calvin Cycle takes place in stroma of chloroplast The products of the light reaction are ATP and NADPH2 Three types of Photosynthesis Mechanisms C3 pathway or reductive pentose pathway or Blackman reaction (Calvin cycle): Rice, Wheat, Pea, Soyabean, Barley. C4 pathway (Hatch sack pathway or Dicarboxylic acid pathway): Sorghum, Maize, Sugarcane or B-carboxylation cycle or cooperative Photo synthesis CAM pathway (Crassulacean acid metabolism) (Pineapple, opuntia, Agave) The most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2 fixation is Rubisco (Ribulose-bi phosphate carboxylase). Rubisco is also the most abundant protein in the world. C3 plant first enzyme in CO2 fixation: Rubisco C4 Plants first enzyme in CO2 fixation: PEP carboxylase Water use efficiency: CAM>C4>C3 In photosynthesis light energy is converted into chemical energy Light reaction takes place in the Thylakojds and dark reaction takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast Higher productive plants: C4 (Maize, S. Cane, sorghum) High productive plants: C3 (Wheat, Rice Pulses) Low Productive plants: CAM (Pineapple) C4 plants two types of photosynthesis cells; Mesophyll cells and bundle sheath cells (Kranz type leaf anatomy) Photorespiration occurs in C3 plants in light only. Normal respiration/ Dark respiration occurs in all cells all the time in all the plants. Calvin cycle & Hatch Slack pathway occurs in chloroplast Chlorophyll molecule contains Mg3+ion in its structure Photosynthetic rate is the highest in C4 plants The processes of formation of ATP in chloroplast with the help of light is called as photophosrylation or photosynthetic phosporylation. First product of photosynthesis 3 PGA in C3 One NADH2 will prpoduce 3 ATP One FADH2 will produce 2 ATP PHOTORESPIRATION Refers to production of Co2 in respiration from 2 C compounds in presence of light Reported only in green cells such as Beta, Phaseolus, glycine, Oryzae, Pisum, Gossypium, Capsicum, Helianthus etc Discovered by DECKER in tobacco plants Substrate for photorespiration is glycolic acid (2 c) and hence called as C2 cycle or glycolate metabolism It occurs in between chloroplast, cytosol, peroxisome and mitochondria
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It occurs in C3 plants and temperate plants The presence of photorespiration process decreases the photosynthetic efficiency of plants Photorespiration is said to be highest in Rice Serine amino acid is produced in photorespiration Photorespiration involves more than one organelle In photorespiration, NAD is reduced to NADH2
MINERAL NUTRITION Essential element (criteria proposed by Arnon and stout) (1) In the absence of that element, plants is not able to complete its life cycle (2) The element should not be substituted by other element (3) Element should form a part of any molecule or constituent of the plant. Beneficial element They do not form the constituent of plant can grow without it but if present it is advantageous to the plant Macronutrients: C, H, O, N, S, Ca, Mg, K, P (>100 g/g dry matter) Micronutrients : Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo (100 g/ g dry mater) Mobile elements: N,P,K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Cl, Zn and Na Immobile elements: Bo, Fe, Ca, Cu, S Beneficial elements: Co, Sl, Selenium, Na, Ni Cobalt: Legumes Silicon: Rice, Maize Nickel: Legumes Criteria of the essentiality of mineral elements propose by Arnon and stout Atleast 60 elements are present in plants out of which only 16 are essential Carbon: (46% dry weight basis) o Source: Co2 from the air o Function: Most of the compounds in the living cells are C-containing. Oxygen: (50%) o Source: O2, Co2, H2o o Function: The most abundain elements by weight in plants Required for all compounds in plants. Hydrogen: (6%) o Source: H2O o Function: Most abundant elements by number of atoms Present in all the compounds in the living cell component of H2O Nitrogen: 1.5% o Source: NO3, NH4 in the soil solution, Legumes through N2 fixation. o Function: All the crops prefer No3-(Nitrate) except Rice which prefers NH4 + (ammonium) o Components of nucleic acid. Chlorophyll molecule, Proteins o Deficiency: Pale yellow leaves & reduced growth redleaves in cereals o Red colour develops in Apple due to the anthocyanin production o Root lengthening in wheat o Excess Nitrogen leads to vegetative growth, delay in flowering Phosphorus: (0.2-0.8%) o Source : H3PO4 & Hpo4 from the soil solution o Function: Component of nucleic acid, Phospholipids (Membranes), ATP o Deficiency: variable colour development in leaves (Dark green) reduced tillering & leaf fall. Anthocyanin produced give pink colour. Potassium:
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o Only present in plants as K+ not bound to any components o Function: Stomatal closing & opening o Disease resistance o Osmotic adjustment, needed for cell elongation o Deficiency: rosette, die back in plants Chlorosis: o Stunted growth & Thin shoots o Tip burns & leaf scorch in older leaves Magnesium o Constitutent of chlorophyll o Activates many enzymes o Deficiency: Older leaves affected Cholorosis. Sand drown disease in tobacco Sulphur: 0.1% o Source: Soluble sulphates o Functions: Aminoacids (Cystein and Methonene) o Coenzyme A o Volatile Oils o Deficiency: Downward cupping of leaves e.g. tobacco, Torr, Tea, o Tea yellow disease o Chlorosis Calcium: o Functions: Calcium pectate is present in the middle lamella of the cell wall o ATPase activator o Counteract metal toxicity o Deficiency: Young leaves are mostly affected o Hooked tips & distort leaves Iron o Component of cytochromes, Catalase, peroxidase o Deficiency: L o Intervienal Chlorosis (iron Chlorosis) o Leaf bleaching (S. Cane)
Deficiency symptoms of Elements: N: general starvation Fe: Intervienal chlorosis e.g. S. Cane Mn: Grey speck Disease of oats, pahla blight of sugarcane, marsh spot of pea Copper: Die back disease of citrus or exanthema, Reclamation, white tip disease Zinc: Mottled leaf of citrus, drenching of citrus Little leaf/ Rosette as in Apple, Pine, Peach walnut, citrus etc, white tip of maize Khaira disease of rice Molybdenum: Whip tail of cauliflower and brassicae, scald of legumes Boron: Heart rot of sugar beet and marigold Canker of table beet Browning & Hallow stem of cauliflower Cracked stem of alfa-alfa Hard fruits of Citrus Top sickness of Tobacco Water core of turnip Phosphorus: Sickle leaf disease Calcium: blossom End Rot (BER) in tomato and Tip hooking in cauliflower PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS:
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Thiamann suggested the use of term Phytohormone in plants Phytohormone are organic substances which are naturally produced in plants AUXINS (weakly acidic growth hormone): Auxin was named by KOGL. It is a Greek word derived from Auxein which means to grow Naturally occurring Auxin IAA Synthetically produced auxins are NAA, IBA, 2, 4 D, MCPA Anti-auxins Naphthythalamic acid (NTA) , Ethylene chlorohydrins Active sites of auxins shoot tip region, coleoptiles and developing embryos etc. The Auxin synthesis occurs rapidly in green leaves in presence of light than the in the dark Tryptophan is the precursor of IAA and zinc is required for its synthesis Translocation of auxins is polar The site of Auxin transport is located on the plasma lemma Avena curvature test and split pea stem curvature test are the bioassays that are generally used for auxins Role of auxins: 1. Promotes apical dominance 2. Increases cell division in cambium 3. Promote the elongation of cells 4. Auxin increase in shoot and decrease in root 5. Induces uniform flowering in pineapple 6. IBA promotes rooting of cutting GIBBERELLINS: Second important growth hormone found in plants Discovered by KUROSAWA (1926) First isolated from Gibberella fujikuroi, the causal organism of foolish seedling of rice or commonly called Bakanae disease of rice. Gibberellins are CYCLIC DITERPENES with gibbane skeleton Gibberellins moves in both xylem and phloem Chemically gibberellins are related to terpenoids and its precursor is N- Kaurene Anti- gibberellins: phosphon D, Cycocel (CCC), Maleic hydrazide, paclobutrazol Role of gibberellins: 1. Breaking of dormancy 2. Induction of flowering in long day plants 3. Promotes male flowers production 4. Enhances seed germination 5. The most important effect of GA is the stem elongation i.e. GA induces internode elongation or sub apical elongation CYTOKININS: Plays a key role in higher plants and moves through xylem Miller and Skoog identified kinetin Term cytokinin proposed by Letham (1963) The first naturally occurring hormone identified Zeatin Root tip is an important site of cytokinin synthesis Precursor of cytokinin is either adenine or adenosine i.e. purine bases Mobility is polar and basipetal Role of cytokinin: 1. Initiation of cell division 2. Delay of senescence 3. Induce flowering in short day plants
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4. Promotes stomatal opening 5. Promote femaleness in male flowers ABSCISSIC ACID (ABA): Naturally occurring growth regulator It acts as stress hormone ABA first identified by WAREING (1965) Lunalaric acid found in algae and liverworts acts similar to abscissic acid Violoxanthin serves as a precursor for biosynthesis of ABA Biosynthesis of ABA also takes place through mevalonic acid It is a terpenoids Bioassays are rice seedling growth inhibition test and inhibition of amylase in barley endosperm Role of ABA: 1. Induces bud dormancy and enhances the process of abscission 2. Senescence of leaf is promoted by ABA 3. Stimulates the release of ethylene 4. Brings the closure of stomata during water stress 5. ABA is called ANTI- GIBBERELLIN. ETHYLENE: It is known as RIPENING HORMONE Production increased with increase in respiration rate Auxin increases ethylene level in plants Naturally occurring volatile hormone BURG (1962) established that ethylene is the only gaseous growth regulator Maximum ethylene is formed in ripening fruits and senescing tissues Biosynthesis of ethylene occurs from methionine which is a sulphur containing amino acid Inhibitors of ethylene synthesis are amino-ethoxyvinylglcine Bioassays for ethylene are triple pea test and pea stem swelling test Role of ethylene: 1. Responsible for fruit ripening with increase in respiration 2. Induces uniform flowering and ripening in pineapple 3. Inhibits stem elongation and cause abscission of leaves 4. Induces fruiting in ornamental plants 5. ETHEPHON- increase latex flow in rubber OTHERS: Glysophosine used to ripen sugarcane Florigen (flowering hormone) initiation of flowering in plants Traumatic acid (wound hormone) found in injured portions of a plant Xanthoxin destruction product of Violoxanthin and forms ABA Brassins steroid, isolated from pollen grains of Brassica Jasmonic acid Methyl ester in jasmine, inhibits growth and promote senescence Important points: Potassium ions (K+) play an important role in the opening and closing of stomata Plant transpirants colourless plastics, silicone ols, phenyl mercuric acetate, Absiccic acid, Co2 etc. Porometer is used for measuring transpiration The growth is maximum during exponential phase Transpiration takes place through stomata, lenticels or cuticle Guttation refers to exudation of water from plants in the form of liquids
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Short day plants soybean, potato, sugarcane, cosmos, chrysanthemum, tobacco, rice, onion, upland cotton, strawberry, datura etc Long day plants spinach, lettuce, radish, alfalfa, sugar beet, opium, poppy, oats, wheat etc. Day neutral plants tomato, cucumber, cotton, pea, sunflower, maize etc. Vernalisation refers to method on inducing early flowering in plants by pretreatment of their seeds at very low temperature Hormone responsible for vernalisation is vernalin Water use efficiency is highest in CAM plants followed by C4 and C3 plants Photosynthetic efficiency is highest in C4 plants To make one molecule of glucose, 6 turns of Calvin cycle are required The efficiency of photosynthesis is 40 % The ratio of photosynthesis to respiration during day time is 10:1 In most succulent plants, Co2 is fixed by the activity of PEP carboxylase The ratio of Co2 reduced and oxygen released during photosynthesis is 1:1 DCMU is an example of photosynthetic inhibitor The products of light reaction are ATP and NADPH2 Major form of carbon transfer in plants is by sucrose For photosynthesis, the visible range of spectrum between 250 to 750 nm is essential
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6. ENTOMOLOGY
PESTS OF SUGARCANE 1) Shoot borer: Chilo infuscatellus (crambidae) or early shoot borer Number of feeding punctures near the base of shoot. Rotten portion of straw colored dead heart emits offensive odour. It can be pulled out eastly. Control: Earthing up during early stage. - Trash mulching - Trichogramma Chilonis Soil application of Gammas HCH emulsion @ 1 kg a.i./ha over the cane sets in famous at the time of planting Granulosis Virus can also be used 2) Top borer: Scirphophaga excerptalis (Pryalidae) Midrib tunnelling. Shot holes on axial bud growth leaves, dead heart and can be pulled out easily and given bunchy top appearance, Acrial root formation. Control: i. Avoiding of frequent irrigation ii. Carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./ha synchronizing with brood emergence iii. Trichogramma japonicum iv. Pre-pupal parasitoid Isotima Javensis v. Resistant var: COJ67, CO 1007 3) Internode borer: Chilo sacchaviphagus indicus (crambidac) Attack starts from 4th months onwards. Internodes constricted and shortened with many bore holes: fresh bore holes with wet frass, stunted growth. Major pests in peninsular India. Hardening of internodes. Control: Detrashing at 5.7 & 9th months -T- chilonis @ 3.5 cc/ha/fortnight from 4th month until a month before harvest. 4) Gurdaspur borer: (Crambidae) Acigone steniellea Two phases: Gegarious phase feed on first internode from to & may larvae enter into the core through single hole. Solitary phase dispersed to other came by silhen treads. 5) White grub: Holotrichia consanguinea: H. Serrata. (Meloionthidae Anomula begglensis (Rutelinae) Drying of crops : Yellowing & nibbling of leaves: roots eaten away. Control: Netarhizium onisopliae o Pudding & crop rotation o B. Popillae milky disease 6) Termites: Odentotermes spp: Microtermes obesi Older leaves dry up first & cane falls down if disturbed. Filled with moist soil inside the papery rind. 7) Sugarcane scale: Melanaspis glomerate: (diaspridiadae) Grayish block appearance of stem. Reduced yield, juice quality of Jaggery production Control: Detrashing & Trash burning. 8) Leaf hopper: Pyrilla perpusilla (Lophopidae) Yellowish white spots on leaves; sooty mould on later stages. Control: Externel parasitoid: Epiricarlia melanoleuca (Ephpyropidae) Green muscardine fungus: Aceria sacchari (Eriophyidae) Forming a circular Ereneum gall in the inner side of the leaf sheath
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PESTS OF WHEAT The rabi crops which are seriously damaged by white grub beetle are wheat and potato. Wheat shootfly: Atherigona naquii Ghujia weevil: Taenymecus indicus is a pest of wheat, barley gram and mustard. The adult weevils cut to germinating seedlings grub feed on soil humus. Wheat aphid: Macrosiphum miscanthi Wheat gall nematode or ear cockle nematode: Anguina triticl Bacterium associated: Corynebacterium tritici Seed galls/ Thundu disease/ yellow ear rot (Bacterium+Nematode) o Mgt. Hot water treatment of seeds at 500C for 2 hrs. Wheat stems borer: Sesamia inferens (Noctuidae). PESTS OF RICE Yellow stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulas (Pyraustidae) - Deed heat in young seedlings - White earhead in panicle stage. No grain formation. - Monophagous pest Control: Parasitiods: Tetrastichus Schoenobii; egg parasitiod Trichogramma Japonicum o Destruction of stubbles o Host plant resistance: TKM 6 resistant variety contains Penta deconal & silica. o Pheromone Oviposition deterants in rice for stem borer Gall fly or gall midge: Orseoeoa oryzae (Cecidomyiidae) o Silver shoot or onion leaf which is a modified leaf sheathcaused by maggot. o Bio control agent: Playigaster oryzae Leaf folder: cnapholocrocis medinalis (Pyraustidae) o Longitadial folding of leaves & drying of leaves by larva. o Control: Avoid use of excess nitrogen o Parasitoids: Trichogramma Japomcum Green leaf hopper: Nephotettix virescens (Cicadellidae) o yellowing of leaves o Vector of rice Tungro, Yellow dwarf, Transitory yellowing Brown planthopper: Nilaparvata lugens (Delphacidae) o Hopper burn drying burning symptom in young plants. Circular patches of drying. Vector of grassy stunt. Ragged stunt and wilted stunt. o Avoid use of excess nitrogen o Resistant varieties: Py3, CO42, Mudgo (low aspargine content) o Resurgence causing pesticides: Acephate, Fenthion, Phosphamidon, synthetic Pyrethriods, Methyl demeton o Predators: Cyrtorhimus lividipennis Lycosa sp. Microvetia sp. Ear head bug: Leptocorisa acuta: L. oratorius (Gundhi bug) (Alydidae): chaffy grains with black spot. Feeds on tender stem. Peduncle and milky grains leads to chaffy ear head. o Control: Fenthion 100 EC 200 ml o Malathion 5% dust @ 10 kg/ha. o Clean cultivation- removal of weeds & grasses. Rice root nematode: Hirschmaiviella oryzae (Mentck disease) White up rematode or spring dwarf nematode: Aphelexhcopdes besseyi hot water treatment of seeds at 520C for to min.
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Rice stem nematode: ditylenchus angustus Larva disease in rice. Rice case worm: Nymphula depunctalis Larva with in tubular cases. Floating on water.
PESTS OF COTTON: consuming 54% of total inscticide in India though the area under cotton is only 5% 1) Cotton jassid or leafhopper: Amrasca devastans (A.biguttula biguttula cicadellidae) Hopper burn yellowing, curling, bronzing & drying. 2) Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Aleyrodidae) Shedding of leaves, stunting of plants, bud boll opening and poor quality lint., contamination of lint with honey dew and sooty mould appearance. Vector of cotton leaf curl virus disease in Punjab. Whitefly outbreak on cotton in AP during 1985-86. Outbreak was due to indiscriminate use of insecticides particularly synthetic pyrethroids against Heliothis. 3) Spotted bollworm: Earias vitella Spiny bollworm: Earias insulana (Noctuidae) Symptom: Boring of terminal shoots of young, plants Flaring of squares and boring of young bolls frass at the entrance hole. Moths are green in colour. 4) Pink bollworm: Pectinophora gossypiella (Gelichidae) Symptom: Rosetting of flowers Eating of seeds Double seed formation, Locular burrowing Diapause during winter 5) American bollworm: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae) Large, circular bore holes with faecal pellets. Larvae feed by thrusting their heads alone inside. 6) Red cotton bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Pyrrhocoridae) Roting of bolls: water soaked spots Lay eggs in soil Bacterim associated: Nematospora gossypii staining of hint. Control measures: All pests Crop rotation with cereal: i) Bhendi should not be grown in rotation o ii) Yellow sticky trap for monitoring whitefly o iii) Whitefly tolerant var. LPS 141 and Supriya o iv) Pheromone trap for PBW (Gossyplure) Pheromone trap for Helicopiveria (Helilure) Biological control: o Trichogramma chilonis against bollworms o Spodoptera NPV 250-500 LE/ha (1 LE=6x109 POB= 3 larvae) o Helicoverpa NPV o B.t. Formulation against early instars of bollworms o Synthetic pyrethriods should be used only during peak flowering and boll formation stages. 7) Stem weevil: Pempherulus affinis Stem gall near the base of the plant MCU 3 resistant variety Control soil application of granular insecticide/Neem cake
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PESTS OF CHICK PEA (BENGAL GRAM) Helicoverpa armigera Gram pod borer or gram caterpillar consume foliage and developing pods. Greasy cutworm, Agrotis ypsilon (Noctuidae) Cut the stems at ground level TERMINOLOGY: Regular pest: Occur most frequently on cultivated crops Eg.: cotton bollworms, Brinjal fruit borer Occasional pest: Occurring less frequently Eg.: case worm on rice Seasonal pests: Occurs in a particular season of year Eg.: red hairy caterpillar on groundnut Persistent pest: Occurs throughout the year on crops Eg.: chilli thrips, Rose thrips Sporadic pests: Occurs in a few isolated localities Eg.: Gall midge on rice in Madurai area Endemic pests: Occurs in same Agril. Area year after year Eg.: nematode on potato in Nilgris Migratory pests: Moves from one area to others and causes damage Eg.: Locust Epidemic pests: Occur in particular area/season in severe form Pandemic pests: Occur in a large geographical area/entire country or continent Eg.: locust outbreak Pesticide calculation: 1) Apply 0.75 kg a.i./ ha of 3% carbofuran granules Formula: Rec. Dose of ai./ha x 100 % al. of formulation 0.75x100 =25kg granules/ha 3 2) Quantity of Malathion 50 EC required spraying 1 ha of field, o.5% strength Pesticide V1 x N1 = V2 x N2 (Spray fluid)
V1 = V2 x N2 (500 lit of spray fluid in required/ha) N2 500x0.5 = = 5 liters 50
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7. AGRONOMY
PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY: 1. CLIMATE AND ITS INFULENCE ON CROPS Weather is a condition of atmosphere at a given place at a given time Climate is a weather condition over a given region during a longest period. Structure of atmosphere Troposphere- statosphere- Mesosphere lonosphere par All weather phenomous like rain, fag, above mist occur in Troposphere zone found in stratosphere. Solar constant: Energy falling in one minute is a surface area of one square cm at the outer boundary of atmosphere. It is equivalent to 1.94 cal/cm2 /min. Photosyntheticaly Active Radiation Photoperiodic effect influence of crop growth by the relative length of day and night especially for floral inition Long day plant plants require long day (>14 hrs.) for floral inifiation (eg. Wheat, Barley, Oat) Short day plant Plants require shorkerday (less than 10 hrs) ( eg. Rice, Sorghum Maize) Neutral plants cotton, sunflower, buck wheat Average rainfall in India (120 cm) Rain bearing clouds cumulonimbus, cumulus. Rainy day if the rainfall received is more than 2.5 mm on a particular day it is called as rainy day. Instruments o Radiation: Pyranometer: Pressure : Barograph o Photosynthetically active radition: quantum sensor o Temperature: Thermograph: Humidity-Psychrometer (or) hygrometer o Dew: Darosometer: water table: Pizometer rain Raingauge o Soil moisture : Tensiometer Chemical used for cloud seeding Silver iodide for cold clouds sodium chloride for warm cloud Indian Meteorological organization situated in PUNE Isotherm Lines of equal temperature Isobar Lines of equal pressure Isohyets- Lineo of equal rainfall Isotach Lines of equal wind speed Kharif season crop- June to September crops (sorghum, maize, rice, cotton, pegion pea, other pulses, ground nut) Rabi season crops crop grown during winter (October March) eg. wheat, chickpea, oat, barley, sun flower. 2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT C3 plant eg. Rice, wheat , cotton, soybean Enzyme- ribulose 1.5-bisphosphate carboxylate photorespiration is high in C3 plants (Rubisco) C4 Plants- sugarcane, maize, sorgham pearl millet enzyme PEP Carboxylase CAM- Pine apple; sisal, ogave Plant growth regulators (commercial use) in Agriculture. Abscisic acid- Cotton defoliatant; 2.4, -D- herbicide
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Glyphosate Sugarcane ripener: gabbroic acid seed less grape NAA- fruits thinner, flower initiation MH Succur control in tobacco, Ethelene ripening of fruits
3. SOIL & FERTILIZER Soil fertility Inherent capacity of soil to supply adequated nutrients Soil Productivity Capacity of soil to produce in terms of yields. Soil texture relative proportion of soil particles i.e. clay silt. And sand Soil structure arrangement of soil particles Particle dimension: Sand 0.2 to 0.02, silt 0.02 to 0.002 Clay < 0.002, gravel> 2mm Crumby structure is better for crop cultivation Pore space occupied by water and rain Total pore space is more in clay soil Bull density weight of soil per unit volume- 1.5g/cm3 Particle density weight of solid portion of soil per unit volume 2.6g/cm3 % pore space Particle density bulkdensity -----------------------------------x 100 particle density Soil air- Co2 concentration over 0.3% Well decomposed organic matter is called as humus Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration for organic matter 12:1 o Legume 23:1 cereals 90% FYM : 100 Soil water: Field capacity the soil moisture held by the soil against gravitation Force: energy status - -0.1 to 0.33 bar Available soil moisture: -0.33 bar to 15 bar =1569 g Annual fertilizer consumption: 16:18 MT Per ha fertilizer consumption = 76:8 kg/ha Fertilizer : Organic fertilizer urea; Neutral fertilizer CAN 9calcium ammonium nitrate) Recommended ratio of NPK for crops 4:2:1 NPK At present India to consumption ratio: 9:3:1 NPK Per area fertilizer consumption more in Punjab union feretory Pondichery. Total pesticide consumption Deficiency disorders: Mn. Gray speck in oat, Marsh spot in pea, pahala blight in sugarcane Cu. Reclamation disease in cereals Zn. Kharif in rice, white (bud) in maize, Frenching on citrus Mo. Whiptail is cauliflower Mg. Is a constituent of chlorophyll Bo. Browning of cauliflower Symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria: Rhizobium Gene responsible for N fixation Nif genes Micro element needed for N fixation Molybdenum Free living N fixing bacteria Azotobactor, clostridium Micro organism associated with casuavina frankia Conversion of ammonia to nitrite Nitrosomonas, Conversion of nitrite of Nitrate- Nitrobacter
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4. TILLAGE Tilth physical condition of soil resulting from Tillage Implements used for primary tillage: country plough , Mouldboard, Plough, Bose plough Implements used for secondary tillage ( blade harrow, disc harrows tractor drawan ultivator) Breeding sub soil chisel plough Pudding Wet land puddler, tractor drawn cage wheel Sowing Mechanical seed drill Weeding Japanese rotary weeder Net sown = 143 mha (1998) and 142.22 mha 1999 Rainfed = 92 mha (1998) Irrigated = 50 mha, 25 mha (37.6%) 5. IRRIGATION Potential area under irrigation 89.44 mha Major irrigation project Project covering more than 10,000 ha of command area Medium 2000- 10,000ha Minor irrigation project less than 2000 ha 1 ha cm = 1 lakh liter of water 1 cubic metre 1000 litre of water 1 cu feet 28.32 liters Duty of water Number of hectare irrigated by constant flow of one current of water Delta Total depth of water irrigated by one ha. Transpiration gaseous loss of water from the surface leaf Evapotranspiration Evaporation + Transpiration Water use efficiency Ratio between yield and Evapotranspiration or WUE = Y/ ET Consumptive use Irrigation efficiency more in clay soil. less the sandy soil Type of irrigation Flooding rice, check basins wheat finger millo (ground pit) Basin method Fruit, crops: furrow irrigation, cotton, sugarcane tobacco, vegetables; sprinkler undulated areas Important river project: Rive Name of the project states benefited 1. Damodar Damodar valley project West Bengal 2. Sutlet Bhakra; nangal Punjab, H. P Rajasthan (Indira Gandhi) 3. Kosi Kosi Dam Bihar/Nepal 4. Mahanadi Hirakund (largest dam Orrisa in the world) 5. Krishna Nagaarjuna sagar Andra, Karnataka 6. Tungabhadra Tunga bhadra project KN, AP 7. Chambal Gandhi sagar, Kota Borrage MP. Rajasthan (Ranna pratap sagar) Water requirement of crops: Rice 1250 mm wheat 300-400 mm groundnut 550-600. sugar cane 2250-2500mm 6. DRY FARMING The practice of crop production entirely with rainwater received during the crop season in low rainfall (<800mm) areas is called as dry or dryland farming.
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Arid climate: Extremely dry climate with an annual average precipitation usually less than 250 mm. Seed hardening: Process of subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate cycle of wetting and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Proline: Chemicals, K2H2SO4, KCL 0.5 is an amino acid which is increased in plants during drought. Water harvesting Collecting and storage water on the surface of soil for subsequent use. Antitrans pirants Any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing water loss. Types: o Stomatal closing type- Phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA) o Film forming type Mobileaf, Silicone oil o Reflectant- Kaoline spray o Growth retartent cycocel
7. HERBICIDES Selective herbicide Kills only targeted plants on weeds while crops are ont affected Eg. Siomazine, atrazine, 2,4-D butachlor, alachlor, fluchloralin, pendimethalum MCPA, Glyphosate, Propanil Non Selective herbicide Kill all vegetation that they come in confact. Eg. Paraquat, Diquat. Systemic herbicide: Systemic herbicide move within the plant Eg: Atrayine, simayibne, propanil, 2.4-D MCPA, Glypthocte Butachlor, Fluchloralin. etc. Contact herbicide Kills plants when they come in contact with plants Eg. Diquat, Paraquat. Pre-emergence application application of herbicide before the emergence of weeds. (c4) Paraquat, Diguat, 2.4-D, Propanil, Isoproturon, Glyphosate . Pre Planting incorporation application of herbicide before sowing of crops eg. Fluchloralin. Soil sterilenths (eg.) Diuron, Atrazine, Methyl bromide Effective herbicides on Monocotylidous weeds eg. Delapon, Fluchloalin. Herbicides which have low residual toxicity- Diquat paraquat Herbicides which have high residual toxicity Diuron, Atrazine. Parasitic weeds Weds which derives foods directly from the host plant Total stem parasite Cuscuta associated with lucorn crop Partial stem parasite Loranthus associated with tree crops Total root parasite Orabanche associated with Tobacco Partial root parasite Striga associated with sorghum Aquative weeds Weeds growing in water bodies eg. Water hyacinth, hydrilla, Salvania, cattail weeds. Allelopathy One plant having detrimental effect on other plants by releasing root chemical through roots. 8 . CROPPING SYSTEM Mono Cropping Growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year Multive cropping Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one calender year. Inter cropping Growing 2 or more crops simultaneously with definite row arrangement.
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Sequential cropping- Growing at low or more crops in sequate on the same piece of land in a farming year. Cropping Intensity Ratio between grass sown area and Net sown area is Gross Sown Area X 100 Net sown ares =131.2% Zaid cropping Growing of crops in between Kharif and rabbi season Jham/ shifting cultivation The slash and burn type of cultivation in the hill treats of North Eastern Region. Catch crop Quick growing crop incidentally planted and harvested in between two major crops, mainly to utilize residual fertilizer Cover crop Crops which are grown primarily to cover the soil and to reduce the loss of moisture and eroion Multy storey cropping- system of growing together crops of different heights at the same time on the same piece of land (eg.) coconut + Pepper + cocoa + Pineapple
9. WEED MANAGEMENT Weed : is an unwanted plants, a plant out of place Classification of weeds 1. Based on duration: (a) Annuals Complete their life eyclein one year eg. Phaloris monr, Echinocloa colonum, Amaranthus (Pig weed family) (b) Binneal weeds complete their life cycle in five years (eg.) Alternanithra echinata; Eichorrutim intybus Perennial weeds More than 2 years (eg.) cynodam dactylon, cyperus rotundus 2) Based on Morphological Characters: (a) Grasses weeds belong to the family of graminance
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PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION: 1. SUGARCANE The sugarcane flowering in called as Arrowing, Sacharum Spontoneum wild type cane - Called as Noble can used for chewing purpose S. officinarium - Sugarcane which takes 18 months for harvesting usually Adsali sugarcane planted in June/July (kharif) - It takes 12 months for maturity. Usually planted in Eksali sugarcane December/ January is south India Feb/Apri in North India (Due to late harvest of Rice) - is the instrument used to the maturity of sugarcane Brix Brix Meter meter madding of 18-22% is ideal time before harvest sugar or sucrose content of cane 10 % - U.P 957% area, 47% products ) Largest area and Production - Tamil Nadu Highest productivity - 3 budged set 25-30000 sets 2 bud 45-50000 sets and single Seed rate budded : 1.25000 - 90 cm between the rows Spacing - 270:150:120 kg kg a.i./ha Fertilizer - Glyphosine 5 kg / ha Sugarcane ripener - Sorghum halapense, Cynodan dectylon cypones Weeds - Atrazine @ 1 kg a.i./ha Herbicides - 2,4-D Post emergence - Red rot resistant var Co 1148, co 19,B17 Varieties - co 52-7, 449 Smut resistant var - COC 671 (highest sugar %) Wonder cane - North India 60-100 t/ha Yield - 120-140 t/ha South India (Tn) 2. Wheat Triticum aestivum Are 7 mha. Production 70.8 mt. Highest production- UP; Highest productivity Punjab, protein 11%, Protein of wheat is called as glutelin. Three groups of wheat are (1) Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat) 87% of area (2) T. durum (Macroni wheat) 12% of area (3) T. dicoccum (Emmer wheat) 1% area. Varieties Normal sown- Kalyansona, Sonora 64; Lermaroja Sabarmathi sonora (Mutant var), Arjun, Heera Late Sown Sonalika Season Normal sown 1 fortnight of November Late sown II fortnight of November Seed rate- 100 Kg. Spacing 22.5 cm between rows, No spacing between plants, depth of sowing, depth 5 cm dwarf varieties, Critical period for irrigation Crows not initiation stage (20-25 DAS) Weeds phalaris minor, wild oat, Herbicides- Isoproturon, 2.4 D (post emergence) Fertilizer 80: 40: 40 kg NPK/ha Yield - Average 2500 kg/ ha Gene responsible for dwarf in wheat Norin 10 3. Rice
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Oryza sativa Area 40 mha, production 86 mt. Highest production and productivity west bengal protein content 7% Gene responsible for dwarf varieties DEE-geewoo-gen Three types- 1) Indica (long stem which had lodging tendency) 2) Japanica (short stem which has no Lodging Tendency) 3) Japanica ( wild type) Three types of rice culture Upland, Low and Deep water rice Upland Seeds are sown directly of the main field. 60% of area is under upland. Seed rate 100 kg. Wet or transplanting system- Nursery area 1/10 area of main field Dapog method of Nursery Originated from philippines, 30-40 m2 is enough for planting one hectare Seed rate 40-50 kg/ha, spacing short duration var 20x10. medium duration var 20x15 Fertilizer 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha. Zn 25 kg/ha Season human rice May -June harvested in Oct./Dec. AUS rice- sown in March/ April harvested in July/August Boro rice- December/ January harvested in April/ May Weeds Echinocloa colonum, E.gresgali Herbicides Pre emergence Butachlor (machete) Varieties Taichung Native (TNI) is first developed dwarf variety in rice Drought tolerant variety- Bala, Bhavani Blast resistant var. Jaya. Rasi, CO-14 BLB resistant TKM-6 Salt resistant Jaya, Ratna Super rice- Lunisree is a variety developed by CPRI Deep water rice- Pankaj, Jaganath Yield National average 1750 kg/ha
4. Bengal gram (Chickpea) Cicer arietinum Area 7.87 mha. Production 4.5 mt. It occupies an are 33% of area under pulses and 40% of pulse production Leaf contains Malic acid which is used for during stomach disorder Season-II fortnight of October/ Spacing 30x10. seed rate 100kg fertilizer 20 kg N, 60 Kg P/ha: depth of sowing 7-10 cm Nipping Plucking of apical buds on 30 DAS to encourage lateral branching Harvest- duration 150 days, average yield irrigated 1500 kgs, rainfed 400-500 kg 5. Redgram/Arhar/Pigeonpea- Cajanus cajan Season-June/July, Seed rate-15 kg/ha, spacing- Extra early var 50 x30, Early var 75x30, Long duraation-90x30 Varieties- Pusa Ageti, prabhat, Mukhta (Wilt resistant) Ground nut, Arachis hypogea Origin Brazil Largest producer- Gujarat; Oil 40-50%, Soil Sandy loam Season June/July 9kharif), Seed rate 120 kg for spreading type, 110 for bunch type, Spacing- 45x1- (Spreading), 30x10 (Bunch) Fertilizer 20-40; 40-90; 20-40 kg NPK/ha, Gypsum- 400kg/ha spreading type has Dormancy, to beat dormancy GA3 is used Bunch type tends to germinate in the field itself before harvest to arrest this M(malic hydraouide) is used. NAA @ 40 ppm on 40 DAS for floral initiation
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Aspergillus flavus is the fungi which affect kernal during shortage, Afalotoxin is produced by this fungi so the kernal be comes bitter in taste.
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8. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
Australia has the maximum arable land per person The Indian Food grains storage management and Research Institute is located at HAPUR, UP The world first agricultural census was conducted in 1930 The headquarters of Directorate of marketing and Inspection (DMI) established in 1935 is located at Faridabad, Haryana The Agricultural produce (Grading and Marking) Act was passed in 1937 Agriculture Price Commission (presently, CACP) declared prices every year on Minimum support price The most limiting factor of production in Indian agriculture is capital The govt. Determines the support prices of crop products on the recommendation of Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices The demand for agricultural products in general is Inelastic The apex body for institution finance for agriculture in India is National Bank For agriculture and Rural Development The earlier name of WTO was GATT AGMARK is an indicator of Purity. Established in 1937 The govt. Of India set up planning commission in march, 1950 The price below which the producers are not ready to sell is known as Reserve price NABARD was set up in July 1982 The highest per capita income of farmers is in Punjab The scheme of Regional Rural banks (RRBs) was launched in India on 2nd October, 1975 The Reserve Bank of India Act for its establishment was passed in the year 1934 The Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCCS) was introduced in 1998-99 The national Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) was introduced in the country from : Rabi 1999-2000 The net capital ratio is given by : Total assets / Total liabilities The minimum wages act was enacted by the govt. Of India on 1948 Farm machinery and equipments are an example of Working assets NABARD was established on 12th July, 1982 on the recommendation of Shivaraman Committee Cooperative movement in India was started in 1904 The headquarters of Asian Development Bank (ADB) is at manila The National Agriculture Policy (NAP) was announced on 28th July, 2000 The Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommends the minimum Support Prices for 24 important crops. The period of 11th five year plan in India is 2007-2012 The chairman of National Development Council (NDC) is prime minister Value added tax (VAT) is a direct and Indirect tax The governor of Reserve Bank of India is D Subba Rao
RATIO METHODS A. Capital Ratios: 1. Net capital Ratio = Total assets Total liabilities
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Working assets + Current assets 2. Working capital Ratio= intermediary liabilities + current liabilities Current assets 3. Current ratio = Current liabilities Deferred liabilities 4. Debt equity ratio = Net Worth B. Income Ration: Gross income 1. Rate of turn over = Total assets Total returns to fixed farm resources 2. Net income per acre= Total acres C. Cost Ratios: Total expenses 1. Gross ratio= Gross income Fixed expenses 2. Fixed ratio= Gross income Operating expenses 3. operating ratio= Gross income D. 1. Adjusted crop yield = Crop yield index X Cropping intensity on the farm Cropping intensity in the area Potential net income per hectare on the farm 2. System index = Average net income per hectare in the area X 100
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Cost concepts in farm Management 1. Cost A1 = Value of casual labour + attached labour + hired bullock labour + imputed value of owned bullock labour + hired machine labour + imputed value of owned machine labour + seed + manure and fertilizers + plant protection chemicals + irrigation charges + interest on working capital + depreciation + land revenue. 2. Cost A2 = Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in land, if any 3. Cost B = Cost A1 + imputed rental value of owned land + interest on owned land capital 4. Cost C = cost B + imputed value of family labour Cost c is also called gross ocost or total cost of cultivation. All cost that paid out for the factors of production. AGGREGATE MEASURES A. 1. Net operation income = Gross income (Operating expenses + depreciation on working assets) 2. Net farm income = Net operating income (fixed expenses + depreciation on lixed assets). B. Income measures in relation to different cost concepts 1. Farm business income = Gross income cost A1 2. owned farm business income = Gross income cost A2 3. Family labour income = Gross income Cost B 4. Net income = Gross income cost C 5. Farm investment income = Net income + rental value of owned land + interest on owned Fixed capital. FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS A. Test Ratios: Total current assets 1. Current ratio = Total current liabilities Total current assets + intermediate assets 2. Intermediate ration = Total current liabilities + intermediate liabilities Total assets 3. Net capital ratio = Total liabilities Cash receipt accounts receivable + Securities in more than one year 4. Acid ratio = Total current liabilities Current liability 5. Current liability ratio = Owners equity
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Total debts. 6. Debt equity ratio = or Leverage ratio Owners equity Owners equity 7. Equity to asset value ratio = Total asses value
FINANCIAL TEST RATIOS A. Input-Output ratios: Operating expenses 1. Operating ratio = Gross income Fixed expenses 2. fixed ratio = Gross income Total expenses 3. Gross ratio = Gross income B. Investment to income ratio: Gross income 1. Capital turn-over ratio = Average capital investment Net return to capital 2. Rate of return on investment = Average capital investment C. Annual fixed cost 1. Break-even point (BEP) = Selling cost per unit variable cost per unit 2. Margin of safety = Total output output at break even point = Total revenue revenue at break even point Break even point out put 3. Percentage of margin of safety = Volume of output X 100
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INVESTMENT ANALYSIS (CAPITAL BUDGETING) A. Time value of money: 1. Future value of present money, A = P(1 +I)1 Where. A = future value of present sum invested in the project P = Principal amount invested in the project i = rate on interest t = no. of years of life of the project A 2. Present value of future money . PW = (1 + I)1
(1 +I)1 - 1 3. Future value of annuity, A = F i Where, P = annual investment 1 + (1+I)1 4. Present value of annuity. PW = P I PROJECT APPRAISAL A. Undiscounted measures: 1. Ranking by inspection 2. Pay back period, P = 1/F Where, 1 = investment amount E = annual net cash revenue 3. Proceeds per rupee of outlay 4. average annual proceeds per rupee of outlay B. Discounted measures: N B1 t=1 (1-i)n 1. Benefit/Cost ratio = (BCR) n C1 t=1 (1-i)n Where1 B1= benefit in year C1= cost in year N= total no. of years of projects life I= discount rate
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N (B1 C1 2. Net present value/worth, NPV/NPW = t=1 (1 + I)1 3. Internal rate of return, IRR = NPV 4. Profitability index, PI = co 1 = co 1 = co n t=0 cr (1+I)t
Where, cr = total capital required Co = initial capital expenditure
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9. PATHOLOGY
Plant Pathology Father of Plant pathology- Anton De Bary Father of Indian Plant Pathology- E. J. Butler An Indian whose name is associated with wheat rust- K. C. Mehta Irish Famine(1845)- Due to late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans) Bengal Famine(1943)- Due to brown spot of rice (Helminthosporium oryzae) Father of plant virology- Beijerinck Father of plant Bacteriology- E. f. smith Most imp disease of rice- Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) controlled by Hinosan, Kitazin, Blasticidin, Beam. Kresek phase- Bacterial leaf blight of rice (Xanthomonas oryzae) Bakanae disease of rice (Foot rot)- Gibberella fujikuroi (Also known as Foolish seedling disease-symptom: plant become very tall) Sheath rot of rice- Sclerotium oryzae Rice Tungro- A virus transmitted by Nephottetix virescens Ufra disease of rice- By nematode (Ditylenchus angustus) Most pathogenic bacteria are gram negative and rod shaped Gram positive plant pathogenic bacteria: Corynebacterium/ Clavibacter (tundu disease of wheat) Tundu disease caused by- Bacteria and nematode (Anguina tritici) association, a complex disease Plant viruses are mostly single stranded RNA Virus contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, never both Virus contain nucleic acid 5 % and protein (nucleoprotein)- 95 % (TMV) Tobacco mosaic virus is single stranded RNA- Rod shaped transmitted by sap or mechanically Single stranded DNA plant virus- Gemini virus Double stranded RNA virus- Reovirus Double stranded DNA virus- Caulimovirus Total stem parasite- Cascuta (Dodder) Partial stem parasite- Loranthus Total root parasite- Orobanche Partial root parasite- Striga Bacterial cell wall is made up of Murein/peptidiglycan Karnal bunt of wheat discovered by- Mitra et al., in 1931 A disease affecting wheat export from India- Karnal Bunt (Neovossia indica / Tilletia indica) Wheat: a. Stem Rust (Black) - Puccinia graminis tritici- Alternate host: Berberi (Berberis vulgaris) b. Leaf rust (Brown) - P. recondita, Alternate host: Thalictrum sp. c) Stripe rust (Yellow)- P. striiformis Rust disease is controlled by Plantvax- a systemic fungicide Smut disease is controlled by- Vitavax (a systemic fungicide) Wheat rust in India survive in the southern hill (Nilgiri) and in Northern hill (Himalaya) in the form of Uredospore Loose smut of wheat- Ustilago nuda tritici (Internally seed borne, controlled by Vitavax, solar Heat Treatment) Molya disease of wheat- Nematode- Heterodora avanae Black arm of cotton- Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum
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Red rot of sugarcane- Collectrichum fulcatum Grassy shoot- Phytoplasma Sporadic- Occurs irregularly in a place at low level Endemic- Occurs every year in a confined area at some level Pandemic- Occurs over a few countries or few continents Epidemic- Occurs over a large geographic area in short time at a devastative level Viroid- a plant pathogen made up of only RNA (single stranded). No protein is there Prions- Infectious protein molecule Potato- 1. Spindle tuber disease (1st discovered Viroid disease) Other Viroid disease- Coconut cadang cadang, Citrus exocartis Disease caused by Phytoplasma(MLO)- a. sandal spike b. sugarcane grassy shoot c. Brinjal little leaf d. Sesamum Phyllody e. coconut root wilt Disease caused by Spiro plasma (Phyllody)- Citrus stubborn Viral disease- Bunchy top of banana- Pentalonia nigronervosa Crown gall of stone fruit- Agrobacterium tumefaciens Fire blight- First bacterial disease discovered- Erwinia amylovora Ergot of Bajra- Claviceps microcephala (purpurea) Green ear disease of Bajra- Sclerospora graminicola Wart of potato and Golden nematode- Endemic pest, domestic quarantine Bunt- Tilletia foetida. T. caries Fungicide- Bordeaux mixture discovered by Millerdat Systemic fungicide- Van Schmelling & Marshal Kulka Pomegranate blight- Xanthomonas campestris pv. punica. Recently epidemic in Maharashtra Panama wilt of banana- fungal disease Moko disease of banana- Bacterial disease Soft rot of potato- Erwinia carotovora Kalisena- Bio formulation of Aspergillus niger N27 to control soil borne disease, developed in IARI Gene deployment for control of Rust- by Nagarajan Seed gall wheat- Nematode, Molya disease, Anguina tritici Destructive insect pest act- 1914 Cyanobacteria-BGA-prokaryotic Powdery mildew- controlled by sulphur fungicide Apple scab caused by- Venturia inequalis (perfect) Spilocaea pomi (fungi) Scab of potato caused by- Steptomyces scabies (Actinomycetes) Electron Microscope discovered by Knoll and Ruska (1932) Crystallization of Virus Stanley (1935) First book on plant pathology written by Julius Kuhn (1858) Wart disease of Potato is endemic to Darjeeling only Plasmid extra chromosomal fragments found in bacterial cells Gene to gene Hypothesis proposed by Flor (1955) in linseed rust
PLANT PATHOLOGY IN INDIA: K. R Kirtikar was the first Indian scientist who collected many Fungi and identified them E. J Butler (1910) did detailed studies of Fungi and diseases caused by them. He wrote a book Fungi and Diseases in Plants E. J Butler is called the Father of Modern Plant Pathology in India J. F Dastur (1886-1971) was the first Indian plant pathologist to study in detail on fungi and plant diseases
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B. B Mundkar identified and classified the smut fungi found in India The Indian Phytopathological society is founded by B. B Mundkar in 1948 Dr Karam chand Mehta (K. C Mehta) of Agra college discovered disease cycle of cereal rust in India Prof. Jaichand Luthra and Sattar developed solar heat treatment technique of seeds to control loose smut in wheat M. J Thirumalachar performed extensive studies on rusts and smuts in India. Developed antibiotics like Oreofungin and Streptocyclin Introduced from Srilanka England Australia Srilanka Holland Europe U.S.A U.S.A Year 1876 1940 1940 1952 1960s 1970s -
INTRODUCED DISEASE INTO INDIA: Name of disease Leaf rust of coffee (Hemileia vastatrix) Fire blight of apple (Erwinia amylovora) Flag smut of wheat (Urocystis tritici) Bunchy Top of Banana (viral disease) Wart disease of Potato (Synchytrium endobioticum) Onion smut (Urocystis cepulae) Golden nematode of potato Groundnut rust Citrus canker
Mycoplasma: Larger than viruses but smaller than Bacteria Devoid of cell wall and cytoplasm Enveloped by a lipo-protein plasma membrane Highly resistant against the antibiotic Penicillin but is sensitive to Tetracycline antibiotic Tetracycline used to control Mycoplasma First isolated from sheep infected by Pleuro pneumonia and therefore called PPLO (Pleuro pneumonia like organisms) Most of the yellow diseases of plants are caused by Mycoplasma E.g. Witches broom of Potato, Mulberry dwarf and Aester yellows etc. Miscellaneous: Virus = Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) + Protein (outer cover) Lipo-virus = Nucleic acid + protein + lipid e.g. Influenza virus Animal virus (Bacteriophage) = DNA + Protein Plant virus = RNA + protein Viroid = nucleic acid only Plant Viroid = RNA only BACTERIOPHAGES: Discovered by F. W. Twort (1915) and Felix de Herelle (1917) Contains nucleic acid (double stranded DNA) It has two parts viz tail and head The tail is composed of protein only. The head has outer coat of protein and inner core as DNA VIRIOD: Term viriod used by T.O Diener Naked nucleic acids without protein coat Consists of only RNA
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These miniviruses are the smallest known agents of infectious disease Potato spindle was the first disease reported to have been caused by a viriod Infectious in plants only Examples Citrus excortis viriod, chrysanthemum stunt and chlorotic mottle viriod Virions: Individual, completed and infectious nucleoprotein particles of a virus In short, virus particles are called Virions Also called nucleocapsids Prions or slow viruses: Smallest proteinaceous infectious Contains protein only Example Mad cow disease, Alzheimers disease Nanometre is the unit for measurement of viruses DISEASES OF RICE/ WHEAT/ COTTON/ SUGARCANE/ PIGEON PEA Diseases of Rice: 1) Blast - Pyricularia oryzae: air borne: edifenphos/ Hisoses 0.05% Magnaparthe grisea) 2) Brown spot - Helmininosporium oryzae; Seed borne; common fungicide Bipoloris oryzae (Cochlioboltus miyabeanus) 3) Bacterial blight - Xanthomonas campestris pv.- orzyae Seed and any antibiotic infected debris streptomycin + tertacyclin Symptom : Kresek in seedling stage 4) Foot rot (or) - Gibberella fujikorai; seed lime; common fungicide Foolish seedling disease (or) (Fusarium Moniliforme) Bakanae disease 5) Sheath blight (or) - Rhizoctonia solani; Soil borne; Cultural practice + fungicides Leaf smut - Enteloma oryzae 6) Stem rot - Sarocladium oryzae (Leptosphaeria salrini) 7) Udabatta disease - Ephelis oryzae (Balansia oryzal) Hot water 8) False smut or Green smut - Ustilaginoidea virens 9) Bunt - Tilletia barcleyana (Neovosia horrida) 10) Rice tungro virus - Vector Nephotetti cinticeps: N. virescens (GLH) reduced tillering and orange discoloration 11) Rice yellow dwarf - Phytoplasma starting, leaves remains green in colour 12) Ufra disease - Ditcylanchus angustus 13) Pan sukh (dry physiological leaf disease) 14) Kaira disease - Zinc deficiency. 1) 2) 3)
i. ii. iii.
Diseases of Wheat Stem rust Leaf rust (Brown, rust) Yellow rust Control Sulphur dust Plant vax (oxy corboxin) Loose smut
- Puccinia graminis tritici - P. graminis recondita - P. graminis striiformis (stripe rust) (air borne)
Ustilago tritici internally seed borne solar heat Treatment. Hot water treatment (vitavax, carboxin)
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Hill bunt Tilletia foetiaa Externally seed brone T. caroues v. Kornal bunt - Neovossia indica Soil & air brone vi. Flag smut - Urouystis gramininis-Seed & soil borne Control for smut & bunts Seed treatment with Agresan 2g/kg. Benomyl spray for bunts (1) Exerlite - Angiuna tritici (2) Tundu (Yellow ear rot) - Corynebacterium tritici Anguna tritici (3) Molya (or) cereal - Heterodera avemae root-eel worm
iv.
Diseases of cotton :
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Wilt Wilt Root rot Blackarm Stenosis or smail leaf Anthrocanose Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum Verticillium dahliae Macrophomina phaseoline Xanthomonas compesttris Pv. Maliacearum (x, axnopodis new name) Spray 500 ppm streptomycin sulphate MLO (mycoplasma like organisms) vector-jassid Colletotrichum capsici Physalospora tucumanensis Spread through setts 0.1% Carbendaym- sett treatment Ramularia areola Acid delinting
Grey or Areolate mildew Common control
Diseases of Sugarcane: Red rot - Colletotrichum falcatum Physalospora tucumanensis Spread through setts 0.1% carbendays sett treatment. Smut - Ustilago scitaminea remove infected clump & dip in hot water avoid ratooning Sett rot (or) Pineapple - Ceratocystis paradoxa Gummosis or gumming disease - Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vascularum Red stripe - Pseudomonas rubrilineans Mosaic - Virus vector - Rhopalosiphum maidis Grassy shoot - MLO (Myoplasma Like organisms) vector Proveista moesta Hot water treatment 52% c 1/hr. Aerated steam therapy 54%C for 8/hr. Root knot nematode - Meloidogyne sp. Fusarium Oxysperium j. sp. ciceri Macrophamina phasoline Asehochyta rabei seed borne
Bengal gram: (1) Wilt (2) Root rot (3) Blight
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10. GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING IMPORTANT POINTS: 1717: Thomas Fairchild produced the first artificial hybrid popularly known as Fairchilds mule by crossing carnation with sweet William Dwarfing gene in rice Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen (Japonica rice, Taiwan) Dwarfing gene in wheat Norin 10 (Japanese variety) Tift 23 A source of Cytoplasmic male sterility in pearl millet Kafir 60 source of CMS in sorghum Non-traditional area of wheat cultivation West Bengal Non-traditional area of Rice cultivation Punjab Gregg 399 is an important source of genetic male sterility in cotton Exotic varieties of wheat Sonara 64 and Lerma Rojo Wheat variety resistant to all the three rust sparrow Wheat variety susceptible to all the three rust Agra Local Exotic varieties of Rice Taichung Native 1 (TN1), IR 8 introduced in India in 1966 Autotriploid (3x) E.g. banana Triploid Apples, Watermelons, sugar beets Autotetraploid potato Autopolyploid ornamental plants, sweet potato, oat, alfalfa Allopolyploids wheat, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, rapeseed etc Allohexaploid common bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) Allotetraploids cotton and tobacco Man made cereal Triticale (rye wheat) Maize is called the Drosophila of crop plants Examples of secondary introduction wheat: kalyan Sona and Sonalika selected from introductions from CIMMYT
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL ORGANELLES

Organelles * Cell wall Structure * Found between middle lamella and plasmalemmas * Have primary cell wall, secondary cell wall (3 layers) * Made up of cellulose microfibrills * Lipid bilayer model of Davson Danieli, (1935) where protein molecule arranged outside * Double membrane with pores The chief function Shape: strength and Rigidity
* Plasmamembrane
To regulate the movement of various molecules into & out of cyloplasm * contains genetic material * Communteat with Cyptoplasm (ER) *DNA-genetic material * Site of RNA * With material for building DNA + MRNA
* Neucleus (1993, Robert Brown) Nuclear membrane * Chromatin * Nueleolus * Nucleoplasm Cytoplasm
*Thread like (DNA + Nucleoprotein) * Globular synthesis
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* Ribosome - 80s size (Animal & Plant) - 70s size (cukaryotic organelles) & prosktuyotes -Network like in cytoplasm rough (ER) with Ribosome Smooth (ER)-without Ribosome * Cylindrical body dia: 0.2-1p length 3-10p * Inner folded membrane (Cristae) * Matrix inside * Biconvex lens shaped (5m*dia) * Have membranes (grana and stroma lamellae) Site of protein Synthesis
* Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Porter, 1948) * Mitochondria (Benda.) (Power house of cell)
* Protein Syn; aid in protein modification * Lipid synthesis site * Production of ATP through the krebs cycle & electron transport chain * -exudation of long chain fatty acids * Chlorophyll photosynthesis * Grara & storma lamellae with thousands of quastacomes (Electron transport & photophosphorylation) * Storma consists of enzymes of dark reaction
* Plastid when Differentiated Chloroplast (With chlorophyll)
(Colourless plastid leucoplast)
* Membranes * Golgi body apparatus/ dictyosome in plants (Camillo golgi, 1822) *Lysosome (Duve, 1955) *Vacuole * Sac of digestive enzyme / Digestive vacuoles * Membrane (Tonoplast) bound
* Shipment in transport vesicles (Packaging) & transport * Cell destruction if captured * Storage deposit for water metabolites and product * turgidity of cell Form poles of spindle apparatus Have compounds for building macro molecules
* Centriole
Rarely present in Plants
* Cytosol/ hyaloplasm The fluid protein of cytoplasm exclusive of organelles II Mitosis & Meiosis Stages 1. Prophase: Mitosis (*Equational division) Chromatin condensation Chromosomes visible Nucleolus & Nuclear envelop disappear
Meiosis (*Reduction division) 1. Meiosis I 2. Meiosis II I. Meiosis I : A. Prophase 1
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2. Metaphase :
Chromosomes are arranged in equational plate Move to opposite pole Chromosomes form into two groups
3. Anaphase: 4. Telophase: 5. cytoplasmic division
a. Leptotene : Chromosome look thin thread (of loss ball shape because of condensation b. Homologous chromosome begin to pairsynapsis/ synaptonemal complex found c. Pachytene: complete bivalent tetrad. Crossing over Chiasmata can be seen as the result of spearation of homologous Chiasma terminilization d. Diakinesis: Chromosomes reach maximum condensation, nucleolar membrane disappear, spindle begin to form Metaphase I: Bivalents orient at random on the equatorial plane. Anaphase I: The centromeres do not divide continue to hold sister chromatids together - Because of cross over, sister chromatids no longer be genetically identical. Homologues more to opposite pole - This movement reduce the chromosome number from the diploid condition (2n) condition to Haploid (n) state. Telephase I : This divide the diploid cytokinesis mother cell into 2 haploid daughter cell. Meiosis II (equational division similar to Mitosis 1. Haploid cells mitosis (Meiosisll) 4. Haploid cells.
Significant difference between Mitosis and Meiosis

SN 1. Mitosis Equational division separation sister chrmatids One cytokinesis per karyokinesis No synopsis: No chiasmata form No genetic exchange between homologues (crossing over) & gastric recombination 2 daughter cells/ cycle Genetic content of product identical to mother cell. : Meiosis Relational division- separation of homologues Equational division- Separation of sister chromatics Two cytoplasmic division These do occur 4 gametes/ spores per cycle Not identical in terms of 1) Chromosome No. (Haploid) 2) Consent (crossing overrecombination
2. 3. 4. 5.
: : : :
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6. Occar in somatic cell : Specialized cells of germ line
Ploidy Level in Seeds Embryo-2n Endosperm 3n Testa-2n Aleuron 2n Post-mendalian era: devries, correns, Tschemark- Rediscovery of mendehan principles (1900). Sutton & bovery chromosomal theory of inheritance (1903). Bateson term GENETICS (1905) - Epitasis interallelic intraction (1909) Histones are velly charged proteins on which velly charged DNAs are coiled. 5 types of Histones are available. Hetro chromatin Darkly stained Euchromatin lightly stained -genetically inactive -genetically active Chromosome named by waldayer a neucleoprotein Chromosome discovered by strasburger (1875) Parts of chromosome (1) Centronere (2) Telomere (3) Nucleolar organising region (4) Arms. Sources of new variation : (1) Independent assortment (2) Mutation (3) Recombination cause of C. over (d) Poly Ploidy (5) Somoclonal variation DNA Replication Semiconservative model Proposed by Watson and Crick Base + Sugar Nucleoside Base sugar + PO4 Nucleotide A= T; G=C A+G=T+C Opposite strands are running in antiparallol way Codon: Triplet sequence found in m RNA and codes for single amino acid anticodon: Corresponding (complementary) triplet seq in t RNA start + codon: AUG stop/ Non sense/ termination codon: UAA, UAG, UGA. Genemutiation Addition of a base Mutation Deletion of bases Frame shift mutation Chromosomal Substitation of bases mutation Muller first used X-rays as mutagen Natural mutation is of low frequency 10-6 Muton The unit in which mutation occurs Inbred- Progeny of a single cross fertilized heterozygous individual Xenia effect of pollen on endosperm expression Metaxenia effect of pollen on seed coat colour Pure lime are homozygous and hemogenons in nature Clone group of individuals descending from a single plant through several reproduction. X = Basic chromosome number = Monoploid number = Genome number n = Haploid number = Gametic number ex.: Triteum aestinum, 2n = 6x = 42 n = 21 (42/2), X = 7 (42/6) Genome All the chromosomes of a diploid species that are distinct from each other with reference to gene content and morphology. Superiority of F1 hybrids over both of its parents : Heterosis Isogenic lines: Two lines differing for a single locus Parthenogenesis: Embryo originates from unfertilized egg. Parthenocarpy : Development of fruit without fertilization , ex.: Banana
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Aneuloidy : Changes in the genome with reference to individual chromosomes. Ex. Monosome (2n-1), Trisomy (2n=1), Tetrasomy (2n=2) Euploidy : Changes in the genome with reference to a set of chromosomes genome. Ex.: Triploid-3x, Tetraploid- 4x. Test cross: F1 x homozygous recessive parent. Backcross : Repeated crossing of hybrid progeny back to one of its parents Pleiotrophy : Single gene governing multiple traits. Apomixis: A type of asexual reproduction in which embryo development and seed formation take place without fertilization and with or without meiosis.
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11.
1) AVERAGES: No Average 1 Arithmetic Mean 2 Harmonic Mean Geometric Mean Median Mode
STATISTICS
Uses To calculate average yield, SD, and correlation and regression coefficients. When deal with Rate, price and speed
Definition Sum of all values/No. of values I (1/x1+1/x2++1xn) (1/n) (X1*X2**Xn)1n Middle most item of all values Most frequently occurred item
3 4 5
When deal with relative changes Ex. Bacterial growth, cell division For open ended class datas Intelligence, Ability and Efficiency.
Typical soil type, cropping pattern in a locality, and shoe and shirt size in business Symmetrical distribution: Mean = Median = Mode Moderately skewed distribution: Mean Mode = 3 (Mean Median) 2) MEASURES OF DISTRIBUTION: Coefficient of variation = (SD/ mean) X 100 3) SKEWNESS: Lack of symmetry 1 = m23/m32. Y1= b1 Symmetrical distribution Y1=0 Negatively skewed Y1= -Ve Negatively skewed Y1= +Ve KURTOSIS A Measure of peakedness or convexity 2= 4/32 Y2=2-3 Normal distribution - Y2 = 0 Platykurtic - Y2= -Ve Leptokurtic - Y2= +Ve 4) REGRESSION AND CORRELATION a) Correlation: To study the association between two or more variables Properties of correlation coefficient: 1. It lies between 1 to +1 if it is 0; There is no relationship between variables 2. Independent of change of scale and origin of the variables. 3. It is geometric mean of two regression coefficients. 4. The degree of relationship between two variables is symmetric i.e. rxy = ryx b) Regression: To measure the average relationship between two of more variables. Properties: 1. It gives the nature of relationship between two variables. 2. It gives the cause and effect of relationship 3. Regression coefficients are not symmetric, bxy byx 4. It is independent of change of origin but not of scale 5) PROBABILITY Probability ranges from 0 to 1 No of favorable cases Probability = --------------------------------------Total no of equally likely cases
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Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0 Eg. Probability of 7 in throwing a die 0 Additive theorem (I) Mutually exclusive events P (A or B) =P (A) +P(B), where P(AB)=0 (II) Not mutually exclusive events P (A or B)=P (A) +P (B)-P (AB) Multiplication theorem (I) P (A and B)=P (A) X P(B)
6) DISTRIBUTION a) Binomial Distribution (BD) Random variable of BD is a discrete one BD has Bernoulli trials containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failure) The BD is P (X)=n Cxpxqn-x Where n = no of trials p = probability of success q = probability of failure x = no of successes in n trials Mean (np) variance (npq) If n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal distribution. When n> 20; p<0.05, BD approaches Poisson distribution. b) Poisson Distribution (PD) (the law of improbable events) PD discrete probability distribution e-mmx P(x) = -------------X! Where x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 e = 2.7 m = mean (np) Mean (np) = variance (npq) p 0; q 1 Uses of PD Printing errors in a book No of deaths in a district in a given period Arrivals of trucks aeroplanes at terminals Telephone calls c) Normal Distribution (ND) ND continuous probability distribution Standard deviation of a sample = Tv Where, s = SD of population n = sample size The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical Mean = median = mode Area under standard normal curve = 1; mean = 0; SD = 1
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7) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Experimental error : the variation due to uncontrolled factors Treatment : the objects of comparison Replication : allocation of treatments to the different experimental units by a random process Local control : the principle of making use of greater homogeneity in groups of experimental units for reducing experimental error Critical difference : (standard error) diff. X t value for error df at 5% or 1% level SN 1 2 3 Type Design CRD RBD LSD Where, N = total no. of observations n = no of treatments r = no. of replications Split Plot Design: To study effects of 2 or more factors requiring different plot sizes E. g. to study agronomic practices with fertilizer treatments Factorial experiments: To study the effects of two or more factors and their inter relationships 8) TEST OF HYPOTHESIS Hypotheses : assumption about a population parameters Null hypothesis : Ho (No significant difference between two parameters) Altemative hypothesis : Ha (significant difference between two parameters) Errors: Type I error: hypothesis is true but our test rejects it Type II error: hypothesis is false but our test accepts it 9) TESTS OF SIGNEFICANCE (Small sample < 30) SN Type of Test 1. Students t test 2. 3. 4. Z test F test CHI2 Uses Small samples Large samples To test the proportions and variances Test of independence, test of goodness of fit, test homogeneity of Type of material Homogeneous experimental Error degrees of freedom N-n (n-1) x (r-1) (n-1) x (n-2)
Variation in one direction Variation in two directions
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12. SOIL SCIENCE

ROCKS: Earth crust consists of the elements Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron etc. in the decreasing order of their amounts. Rocks are basically divided into 3 types. Igneous Rocks: Granite, Basalt (Deccan Trap), Gabbro, Pumice, Rhyolite and Tracheolite Acidic igneous rocks contain 60-75% quartz e.g. granite. Basic igneous rocks contain less than 50% of quartz e.g. Basalt. Sedimentary rocks: Limestone, sandstone, Shale, Dolomite and Conglomerate. Metamorphic rocks: are formed from Igneous and sedimentary rocks e.g. marble, gneiss, Schist, graphite, slate. Important conversions: Gneiss is formed from Granite. Marble from Limestone, Graphite from Coal, Slate from Shale Quartzite from quartz or sandstone. SOIL: Soil Origin, Weathering, Morphology, Factors and Processes of soil formation Rocks are the chief sources of soil parent materials over which soils are formed. Soil is formed from weathering of rocks. Weathering = Disintegration + Decomposition Disintegration breaks consolidated rocks into unconsolidated parent materials, which on further breaking and chemical decomposition forms soil. Physical weathering involves agents such as temperature, Water, wind, Plant and animals and processes such as exfoliation (surface peeling off of rocks), alternate wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, burrowing of animals, root penetration, etc. Water, on freezing, expands 9% by volume. Chemical weathering reactions- Solution, hydration, Hydrolysis, carbonation, Oxidation and reduction. Hydrolysis is the most important chemical weathering process. Geo-chemical weathering is the weathering taking place at the layers down below whereas pedo-chemical or pedogenic weathering is the one taking place at the surface and subsurface layers. Soil found at the site of formation- sedentary soils, whereas soils found far away from the site of formation are called Cumulous or transported soils Agent of transportation & name of the soil formed: River water-Alluvium, Lake water- Lacustrine, Seawater-Marine, Wind-Aeolian if coarse and Loess if fine particles, Gravity-Colluvium, Ice-Moraine. Stages of soil formation- Infancy, youth, maturity and old age: Soil wherein there is continuous deposition of materials always remains young e.g. Desert soils and alluvial deposits. Pedology is the study of origin, formation and geographic distribution of soils in nature whereas Edaphology is the study of soil in relation to crop growth. Soil profile is the vertical section of soil through all its horizons and it extends up to its parent materials. A pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognised as a soil individual and it is edimensional. The horizontal layers in a soil profile are called horizons. Typically there are 4 horizons O, A, B and C. O horizon is the organic horizon found in the forest soils. A horizon is below O horizon out of which A2 layer is called illuvial horizon. B-horizon is found below A horizon and is mostly called illuvial horizon. Elluvial layer is the one wherein soil materials are removed whereas illuvial layer is one wherein soil materials removed from other layers are deposited. C- Horizon consists of unconsolidated parent materials.
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Below the C-horizon is found the R layer, which is known as the Bed Rock. Solum = A+B horizons Regolith = A+B+C horizons The study of the soil in the field condition with the help of various morphological characteristics is called Soil Morphology. Dokuchaiev, the father of Soil science, gave the factors of soil formation, which were later, modified by Jenny. The five factors of soil formation are Clorpi Climate and organism (Active factors), Relief or topography, parent material and time (passive factors). There are various processes of soil formation out of which two are importantLaterisation and Podzolisation. Laterisation occurs in warm humid tropical conditions whereas Podzolisation occurs in the cold humid temperate conditions. In Laterisation, Silica (SiO2) is removed from the A horizon and sesquioxides are left out in the A-horizon whereas in Podzolisation, sesquioxides are leached from the A horizon and silica is left out in upper layers. Laterite is used for preparing bricks Laterites are very well weathered soils whereas laterite soils are still undergoing some weathering to become laterites. Nature and composition if soil: Soil is a 3-phase, particulate, disperse, porous, open and heterogeneous system Ideal soil contains 50% solid matter (45% mineral matter and 5% organic matter) and 50% pore space (25% air and 25% water). Out of the 3 phases, Solid phase is the constant phase in terms of composition. There are basically 3 soil separates viz., sand, silt and clay. There are two systems of classifying the sizes of these separates. International System given by Atterberg Coarse sand 2mm 0.2 mm, Fine sand 0.2mm to 0.02, silt 0.02mm to 0.002mm and clay less than 0.002mm or less than 2 microns. USDA system Gravel 2mm and more, Very coarse sand 2-1mm 0.2mm, coarse sand 1.0 to o.5mm, medium sand 0.5 to 0.25mm, fine sand 0.25 to 0.1mm, very fine sand 0.1 to 0.05mm, silt 0.05 50 0.002mm and clay less that 0.002mm. India follows International system of particle size classification. Physical properties of soil: The relative proportion of the various soil separates is called soil texture. There are 12 textural groups. Light textured or coarse textured soils are easy to plough whereas heavy textured or fine textured soils are difficult to plough. The 12 textural groups from light or coarse textured to heavy or fine textured soils is sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay and clay. Gravel is neither a soil separate nor one of the soil textures. Particles greated than 2mm are not considered soil. Textured is determined by International Pipette and Bouycous Hydrometer method. Stokes law is applied in the determination of soil texture. Silt has intermediate characteristics between sand and clay. Clay is called the active fraction of the soil. It is made up of alumino-silicates. Soil texture is a static property i.e. it cannot be changed. Soil structure is the arrangement of soil aggregates or primary and secondary particles. Grade denotes the durability or stability of the aggregates structureless, weak, moderate, strong and very strong.
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Class of soil structure denotes size of the aggregates: very fine, fine, medium, coarse and very coarse. There are 4types soil structures: platy, prismatic or columnar, angular or sub-angular blocky and spheroidal (granular and crumb structure). Structure is denoted in the order of GRADE-CLASS-TYPE. Structure of the soil can be easily changed by management practices. Loamy texture and granular or crumb structure is best suited for agriculture crops. Bulk density (Apparent density of soil is the mass of unit volume of soul including the pore space. Particle density (True Density) is the mass of unit volume of soil without pore space. Bulk density (A) is approximately half that of particle density. So bulk density is always lower than particle density value of Bulk Density is 1.4 to 1.8 Mg/m3. Bulk density increases on compaction whereas it decreases on addition of organic matter. The particle density (T) of soils is around 2.65 Mg/m3 due to dominance of quartz whose density is also of the same value. Porosity percentage pore space is given by the formula 100x(T-A/T). Values: Sandy soil +30% clay soils =50-60% and loams = 40-50% Macropores are greater in coarse textured soil and are occupied by air while micropores are greater in fine textured soils and are occupied by water. Soil colour: It is found out using Munsell Colour chart. Three variables are used to denote soil colour .They are hue-dominant Wavelength, Value-relative lightness of the colour and chroma-purity of the colour. Plasticity and cohesion: Plasticity is the capacity of the soil to change its shape under moist conditions. Cohesion is the capacity to stick together. Plastic soils are cohesive. Soil Colloids: The two phases are the dispersed phase (clay and humus) and dispersion medium/water). Soil colloid is made up inorganic colloid-clay and organic colloid-humus. Particles smaller than I micron are said to exhibit colloidal activity. Colloidal property increases with decrease in diameter. Colloids exhibit the property of sacrificial activity such as the capacity to hold solid, gases, salts and ions. Soil colloids have high exchange capacity, which increases with silica sesquioxides ratio. Soil water: Water has maximum density at 40 C. One molecule of water is attached to four molecules in the neighborhood. The diameter of water molecule is 30A (3x10-10m). Water has high dielectric constant of 80. Its surface tension is 7.2x10-2N/m. Structure of water molecule is hexagonal lattice and the angle is 1040 50. Soil moisture constants: Hygroscopic water, capillary water and gravitational water. Water held at tension of more than 31-atm is called hygroscopic water. It is not available to the plants. Water held below 1/3rd atm is called gravitational water and it is drained from the soil due to gravity. Water held at tensions beyond 15- atm is not available to the plants. 15 atm represents the wilting point.
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If water is allowed to drain by gravity after supplying water, some water remains even after drainage due to gravity. It is called field capacity. Water at field capacity is held at 1/3red atm. Water held between 1/3rd and 15 atm is called available water Water in soil moves in response to difference to tension or pressure. More water means less tension and less water is held at more tension. So water moves from low tension to high tension. Darcys law in soil deals to hydraulic gradient. Soil air: Soil air contains 10 times carbon dioxide as that of air. Ideally 2/3rd of soil pores are filled with water and 1/3rd with air. Ficks law deals about the diffusion of gases in soils. Submerged soils contain less oxygen. Soil air is characterised by ODR-Oxygen Diffusion Rate. Soil temperature: In soils, heat is mainly transferred through conduction Fouriers law deals with heat conduction in soils. Sandy soils absorb more heat than clayey soils because the specific heat of water (heat required to heat a substance) is 4-5 times that of soil particles. Soil temperature is used at family level categorization in soil taxonomy. Chemical properties: pH is the negative logarithm of H ion concentration. Sorenson gave pH scale. There are two types of acidity in soil-active acidity and potential acidity. pH measure only active acidity. Potential acidity forms the bulk of the soil acidity. It is greater than active acidity. Soil pH is also soil reaction. Soil with pH less than 6.5 are acidic, 6.5 to 7.5 are neutral and above 7.5 are alkaline. One unit change in pH changes H ion concentration by 10 times, 2 units by 100 times and so on. Electrical conductivity: Measure of soluble salts in mmhos/cm or dS/m in solubridge or conductometer. Ion exchange: Most important process occurring in soil Ion exchange is a reversible pros\cess. Soil colloids are the seat of ion exchange. Cation and anion exchange respectively. CEC is measured at pH 7 & expressed as meq/100 g of soil. CEC varies greatly with nature and amount of clay and OM. Knolinite has 3-10, Illite 10-30, Montmorillionite 80-150 and Organic matter greater than 200. Base saturation: BS ={(Na+ +K++Ca+++Mg++)/CEC}x100 Fertile soils are saturated with Ca++ and Mg++ ions. If soil is saturated with more than 15% exchangeable sodium, than that soil is called Alkali soil. If soil is saturated with H+ ions. Then the soil is said to be base unsaturated or acidic. Organic matter: OM on decomposition by humification process gives humus. Humus is amorphous an nature. In India OM is very less because of tropical and sub-tropical climate. In hilly and altitudes, OM is above 1% in mangroves it is 10-30%. CN ratio of OM is 10:1 whereas that of Indian soils is 5:1 to 25:1 with an average of 14:1 Histosols are called Organic soils.
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Organic matter decomposition stages: First sugars & starches followed by proteins followed hemicelluloses, cellulose and fatty acids and finally lignin and waxes. Biological properties: Bacteria > Actinomycetes> Fungi > Algae The smell of soils after fresh showers is due to Actinomycetes. Bacteria occur in neutral to alkahne pH. Fungi in acid pH and Algae in shade areas. Symbiotic N fixer Rhizobium in Legumes, Non-symbiotic or Free living is Arotobacter. In paddy algae or Azolla fixes N. The amount of N fixed is 50-I50 Kg. In plant N is fixed as R-NH2, which is converted to ammonia. The ammonia is converted so nitrite first by Nitrosomonas or Nitrosococcus, followed by Nitrite to nitrate by Nitrobacter. This process is called Nitrification. Some of the nitrification Inhibitors are N-Serve and AM. Optimum condition for nitrification process is field capacity and pH above 5. Mineralogical Properties: There are primary, secondary, accessory and amorphous minerals. Primary mineral: Order of occurrence Feldspars> Quartz> Mica> Limestone> Hornblende and augite> Olivine and serpentine Serpentine is hydrated silicate of Mg. Secondary minerals: 1:1- one silica and one alumina layer. Kaolinite, Halloysite and Dickite 2:1 Two silica and one alumina layer: Montmorillionite (expanding), Vermiculite (Slightly expanding) and Illite (Non-expanding and 15% of silica is replaced by Al3and K+ ions) Illite is also called as hydrous mica. 2:1:1 or 2:2 Chlorite. The crystal unit is composed of one 2:1 unit (like mica and Montmorillionite) and one octahedral unit, Brucite {(Mg3 (OH)6}. Accessory minerals: B- Tourmaline, F-Topaz, P-Apatite, Ti-Rutile and Anatase. Amorphous clay mineral: Allophane. Found in Soil order Andosols. Negative charge is due to exposed surface of clay and isomorphous substitution. Soil survey, classification and soils of India: There are two types of soil survey- Reconnaissance soil survey and detailed soil survey. In RSS1 19 = 1 mile. Toposheets of 1:50,000 to 1:1,00,000 or aerial photo of 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 is used. Observations are once at 3-6 Kms. DSS: 19 = 8 mile or 19 = 16 mile. Cadastral maps of 1:5000 to 1:8000 or Aeria: photo of 1:10,000 is used Observation are once at - Km. Forest area is surveyed by RSS. Soil classification: India, from 1969, follows USDAs Comprehensive system of soil classification called soil Taxonomy. It is type of multi-category classification wherein there 6 categories: soil order, suborder, great group, sub-group, family and series. There 12 order and the lastly added 11th and 12th orders are Andosols and Gelisols respectively, Andosols are found in volcanic cruption areas and contains high content allophane. Gelisols are found in arctic regions. The two largest orders in India are Inceptisols followed by Entisols. Soil of India: Largest area is occupied by alluvial soils 75 Mha.
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Black soils 9Vertisols mostly), 72 Mha, are characterised by Gilgai (shining surface), Micro- relief (ups and down), self-churning, smectite (expanding clays) and they are the Russian equivalent of Chernozems. 2/3rd of TN is of red soil. the parent material for red soils is mostly granite. Laterite is older than lateritic soils. Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils. Laterite means brick. Desert soils come under Aridisols. Problem soils occupy 10 Mha. Saline soils- 7.2 Mha and alkali soils- 2.8 Mha. Problem soils are highest in UP. Saline soils are formed mainly in aird and semi-arid regions due to rising of salt level in the water table. Also it is due to secondary salinisation due to poor quality irrigation water. Type of soil pH EC(dS/m) ESP (%) Saline < 8.5 >4 < 15 Alkali > 8.5 <4 > 15 Saline-Alkali < 8.5 >4 > 15 Saline are called white alkali soils and are said to cause boron toxicity. Treated by leaching. Alkali soils are called black soils and are reclaimed by applying Gypsum Saline tolerant varieties: rice, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum and millets. Sensitive crops: Pulses and oilseeds. Acid sulphate soils: pH less than 3.5 due to Liydrogen Sulphide gas production, found in Kerala and Sunderbans. Causes AKiochi disease. Cat clays are associated with these soils. Acid soils have very low pH. Reclaimed by liming with limestone or calcite (CaCO3), Dolomite CaCO3. MgCo3. 2H2O. slaked lime Ca (OH2) and Burnt lime or quick lime CaO. SAR= Na+ (Ca++ + Mg++) /2 Soil Management: The optimum physical condition of the soil for crop growth is called soil tilth. Other practices are choice of crops, following land capability classification, conserve soil and water, avoid salinity, alkalinity and water-logging, adopt crop rotation especially with legumes, apply soil amendments and follow balanced fertilization. Soil Testing: Mainly to test the fertility status of the soil that is to find out the nutrient deficiencies and soil amendments. Half a Kg soil sample is taken and analysed for pH, total soluble salts by EC, Organic Carbon by Walkley and Black Method, Available N by alkaline permanganate method, avai P by Olsens or Brays Method, avai K by Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate method. pH below 6 is termed acidic, 6-8.5 neutral to saline, 8.6 to 9 tending to be saline and pH above 9 is termed as alkaline. Total soluble salts: EC in dS/m: Below 1is normal, 1-2 critical for germination, 2-4 critical for growth of sensitive crops, above 4 injurious to most of the crops. Soil test report gives soil texture, pH, EC, OC, Avai NPK, Gypsum and Lime amount to be added, Green Manure/Compost in the Flooding and draining.
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STATUS OF AVAILABLE NPK IN SOILS Nutrient LOW MEDIUM HIGH Organic carbon Below 0.5% 0.5 0.75% >7.5 Available N (Kg/ha) <280 280-560 >560 Available P (Kg/ha) 10 10-25 >25 Available K (Kg/ha) <110 110-280 >280 Soil Fertility, manures and fertilizers: Soil productivity and fertility are synonymous terms. Soil productivity is soil fertility + something. There are 16 essential elements for plant growth. There are divided into Macro and micronutrients based on the amount of plant uptake. Major nutrients consist of Primary elements. Beneficial elements are I, Se, Ga, AI. Ballast elements are AI and SI. Arnon gave the criteria for essentiality of the nutrients and Nicholas gave the term functional or metabolic nutrients. Law of minimum was given by Father of AG. Chemistry Leibig and Law of Diminishing Returns was given by Mitscherlich. Nutrient such as nitrate, chloride and sulphate are not absorbed by the soil colloids and remain mainly in the soil solution. Diffusion mechanism enables nutrient movement without the movement of water. It is the mechanisms predominant are supplying most of the P and K to plant roots. Nitrogen role: greenish colour, efficient utilization of P and K. Its def symptoms (yellowing) occur in the older leaves because of its high mobility, Def hastens maturity whereas toxicity delays maturity because of prolonged vegetative flush, succulent, leathery growth and also causes lodging. Toxicity also impairs the quality of barley, tobacco, sugarcane and fruits. Nitrogen is available both in anionic and cationic form. Phosphorus promotes root growth, new cell formation, formation of grains and maturation of crops, influences the vigour of plants and improves the quality of the crops, increases resistances to diseases, N fixing in legume crops. Its deficiency causes reddish or purplish discolouration of stem and foliage due to abnormal increase in the sugar content and formation of anthocyanin. Potassium: to resist pest and diseases, cold and adverse conditions, starch production and production and translocation of sugars, improves the quality of tobacco and citrus. Luxury consumption is noticed. Deficiency symptoms ringing of alfalfa leaves with rows of small white spots: reddish brown discolouration of cotton leaves, drying, scorching and curling of leaf margins in potato and interveinal chlorosis and firing along the edges of maize leaves. Nitrogenous fertilizers: Sodium Nitrate: 1st nitrogenous fertilizer. Chilean Nitrate 16% N in nitrate form. Particularly useful in acid soils Ammonium sulphate: 20.6% and 24% S. When close to seeds affects seed germination Anhydrous Ammonia contains highest N content of 32%. Urea contains 46% N and non-proteined organic form of N, amide form of N1. Ammonium nitrate: 33-35% N (half as nitrate form and other half as Ammonical form), acidulating and explosive. Nitro-chalk is obtained by mixing Ammonium nitrate with about 40% limestone or dolomite. It has 20.5% (50% in Ammonical form and 50% in Nitrate form). Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate: Ammonium Nitrate + Ammonium sulphate. Contains 26% N (3/4th in Ammonical form and 1/4th in nitrate form.
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Ammonium chloride: 26% N, possesses good physical condition, similar in action to ammonium sulphate, not recommended for tomatoes, tobacco and other such crops. CAN: Calcium Ammonium Nitrate Kisankad 25-28% N (1/2 ammonical and nitrate). Slow release N fertilizers: Neem coated urea, Tar coated urea, urea formaldehyde (urea form), Urea super granules, etc. Dried bone meal 10-12% highly available N. Phosphatic fertilizers: Rock phosphate: 25-35% water Insoluble Phosphoric acid. Bone meal contains 2025% P2O5. Super Phosphate: Most widely used water-soluble P fertilizer in India. SSP: 16-18% P2O5,DSP-32% P2O5, TSP-44-49% P2O5. Citrate soluble P: Dicalcium phosphate- 35-38% P2O5 Basic slage 6-20% P2O5 byproduct of steel industries. Gypsum: 20% S and 23% Ca. Potassic Fertilizers: India imports K fertilizers mainly from Germany and France. MOP: KCI 50-63% K2O SOP:K2SO4 48-52% K2O. Wood ash 5-6% Potassium carbonate. Complex fertilizer: Diammonium Phosphate: (DAP) 18:46:0 Suphala: Nitro phosphate 20:20:2, 15:15:15, 18:18:9. Manures: FYM has 0.3%, 0.15%, 0.3% N, P2O5 and K2O. 1 tone of cattle dung can give only 2.95 Kg of N, 1,59 Kg of Phosphoric acid and 2.95 Kg of potash. Night soil is also called Poudrette. Soil erosion and conservation: Soil degradation is defined as the loss in soil productivity due to physical, chemical and biological deterioration. Causes are excessive pressure on land to meet the growing demands of population . They are in the form of over exploitation of natural resources like overgrazing, excessive deforestation, faulty methods of agricultural practices, shifting cultivation or Jhuming. There are 2 types of soil erosion Normal crosion (geological crosion) and Accelerated erosion. In normal erosion, rate of soil loss = rate at which soil is formed. Accelerated crosion is one where rate of soil of loss is far greater than the rate at which it is formed. Area affected by soil degradation is 187.9 Mha (57.1%) of the total geographical area. Deterioration in the form of water erosion (148.9 Mha), Wind erosion (13.5 Mha), chemical deterioration 13.8 Mha, Physical deterioration like water logging (11.6 Mha) and Biological deterioration. Water erosion: Erosion by water splash erosion, sheet, rill, gully, stream bank and landslide erosion. Splash erosion is the splashing effect of raindrops on soil particles. Sheet erosion is not clearly recognised but can be seen as muddy run-off. Rill erosion leads to formation of finger like rills and gully crosion is the severe form of rill erosion wherein grooves form deep channels called pullies. Land becomes unfit for cultivation.
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Size of gullies:
Specifications Symbol Description G1 Very small Up to 3 m deep and 18m bed width. Side slopes vary G2 Small Up to 3m deep and greater than 18m bed width. Side slope very G3 Medium Depth between 3 and 9m. Bed width greater than 18m. Side slopes uniformly sloping between 8 and 15% G4 Deep and (a) 3m-9m deep. Bed width less than 18m. Side slope vary. Narrow (b) Depth greater than 9m. Bed width varies. Side slope vary, mostly steep or even vertical, with intricate and active branch gullies. The mechanism of water crosion is detaching effect of raindrops and surface flow of water carries the detached soil particles to far places. Wind erosion: Wind erosion normally occurs in arid and semi-arid regions. 3 types of soil movement are seen in wind crosion : saltation, suspension and surface creep. Saltation is the most important process in wind erosion and control of wind erosion is mainly based on elimination of movement in saltation. Particles of size 0.1 to 0.5mm are lifted. Major portion of soil carried by wind is moved in a series of bounces called saltation. Suspension: Very fine particles less than 0.1mm in diameter are carried into suspension over long distances. They are kicked up into air by action of particles in saltation. Surface creep: Particles larger than 0.5mm but smaller than 1.0mm are pushed and spread along the surface by impact of particles in saltation to form a surface creep. The mechanism of wind erosion is Initiation, transportation and deposition. Factors affecting soil loss: Universal soil loss (USLE) was given Weischmeir and Smith. A= RKLSCP where A denotes soil loss in the , R-Rainfall erosivity, K-soil erodibility, L-slope length, S-slope%, C-crop management factor, P-Soil Management factor. Soil loss is calculated by comparing soil loss with an ideal plot of 22m long (72 ft) and 9% slope. Rainfall crosion index = Kinetic energy of the storm x Max 30 minute intensity Intensity of the rainfall is more important than duration and frequency of rainfall in causing soil loss. Soil texture, structure, infiltration, permeability, organic matter content etc affects soil erosion. Lateritic soils are less erodible than black soils. Speed and extent of run-off is decided by slope% and length. Velocity of water flow is proportion to square root of slope% or vertical drop. Hence if land slope% is increased 4 times then velocity is doubled. If velocity is doubled, erosive power of How is increased by 4 times i.e. erosive power is proportional to square of the velocity. Size of the particles carried by the flow is proportional to the 6th power of the velocity of flow. If velocity is doubled, size of the particles carried is increased by 64 times. Quantity of soil transported is proportional to the 5th power of the velocity of flow. If velocity is doubled, then quantity of soil transported is increased by 32 times.
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So erosion is geometrically increasing with slope%. Loss of plant nutrients increases with increase in degree of slope. Soil loss is less when land is left undisturbed under a natural cover and soil loss increases steeply when vegetation is removed and land is cultivated. Legumes and grasses are stronger in preventing soil loss. Monoculture of cereals should be avoided. Some important e.g. of order of soil loss. Cultivated bare fallow Maize wheat under Natural grasses Fallow land up and down cultivation Cultivated fallow > Jowar > natural cover Overgrazed fallow or Maize > Natural fallow Soil And Water Conservation Measures The key to soil and water conservation is to follow land capability classification Land capability classes are based on intensity of hazards and limitations. As class increases, the intensity of limitations increases. Class V has no crosion hazard but it is placed in class V only due to the fact that it limitations are practically difficult to remove. Class VIII includes Bad Lands rock outcrops, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, river washes, mine spoils and other nearly barren lands. The colours for the various classes from I to VIII are Green, yellow, Brown, Pink, Grey, Orange, Red and Purple. Sub class indicates dominant limitation and is denoted by e, w, s, c e for erosion, w for wetness, s for soil limitations and c for climate. If two limitations are found, the dominant limitations are written first. The order of priority in case of equal extent of limitations is e, w, s, and c. Arid lands start with class IV, semi-arid with class III or IV, sub-humid where crop yield is affected frequently by drought with II or III, Humid climate with occasional dry spells with II and humid climate with well distributed rainfall with CLASS I. Soil and water conservation measure are divided into Agronomic and Engineering measures. Agronomic measure: The principles are to intercept raindrops and stop splash effect, to increase intake rate and to stop overland flow. 1. Contour farming: It is farming across the slopes along the contour bunds within 6% slope, Important examples of soil loss: Maize + cow pea (Contour cultivation) < maize (up and down cultivation). Potato (contour cultivation) < Potato (up and down cultivation) 2. Mulching: synthetic and natural. 3. Selection of crops: crops selected should provide maximum cover of soil. Legumes are very effective particularly cowpea and mung. Crops can be divided into crosion resistant (Ground Nut) and crosion permitting crops (URAD). Important e.g. of soil loss: Urad > Maize > Gora paddy > G. Nut. o Jowar > Black gram > G. Nut. Biditobacco- fallow > Sun hemp- Biditobacco-fallow> Bajra-fallow> Bajra-Mung. 4. Strip cropping: Alternate strips of erosion resisting and erosion permitting crops. Wind strip cropping is growing alternate rows of tall and short crops across the direction of wind. 5. Mixea cropping: Better protection and yield than strip cropping.
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Engineering measures: To increase the opportunity time and to divide the long slopes into short ones so that the velocity of flow is reduced. The methods are basin listing using basin leister (excavate some soil to allow rain water to enter), sub-soiling (to remove the surface hard pans),contour bunds upto 6% slope, graded bunds in rainfall areas with a vertical interval of 0.3 (s+3) where S is slope %, Bench terracing (series of benches or platforms, Grassed waterways using Pannicum repans, Brachaeria mutical or cyanodon. Gully control measures: Check dams, sodding, Gully plugging with brush woods, wire meshes, sand bags, boulders, live hedges (Vetiver), bricks masonry items, etc earthen plugging. In case of small gullies, diversion check bunds and in case of medium gullies, cheek dams at vertical interval of 1.2m and terracing the side slopes are done.
1.
Soils of India
Red Soils (Alfisols): Red colour in red soils due to the presence of various oxides of iron Light texture, porous structure, deficient in organic matter Absence of lime and low soluble salts Slightly acidic to neutral in reaction pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.5 Rich in Kaolinite (1:1) type of clay minerals Formed from ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks The parent material for red soils is mostly granite It covers an area of 117.2 m ha (36 %) Distribution Areas of Madras and Mysore, part of A.P, M.P, Orissa, Bihar, Santhal paragana (Bihar) , Mirzapur, Jhansi district of U.P Red soil in Tamil Nadu occupies the largest area. Black soils (Vertisols) : Covers an area of about 74 m ha accounting for 24 % of the total geographical area Generally rainfed The soils are dark or dark brown in colour Developed from Basaltic rock under semi arid condition The soils are locally known as Regur or black cotton soil, deep black soil, and medium black soil. The texture ranges from sandy loam to heavy clay. One of the characteristics of the swells on wetting during the season and shrinks and cracks in summer season The base exchange capacity of deep black soil is quite high The pH varies from 7.5 to 8.5 The soils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and they are rich in potash and lime The clay content ranges from 40-69 % and occasionally upto 80 % Cation exchange capacity is 35-50 meq/100g soil Rich in montmorillonite and beidelithoc group of clay minerals Occurrence Maharashtra, Gujarat, M. P, Rajasthan, U.P, A.P and Madras Alluvial soils (Entisols): Soils of recent origin It is grey or greyish- brown in colour and texture of alluvial soils is sandy loam to clay loam Most fertile soil Base exchange capacity is comparatively low and pH varies from 7.0 to 8.0 Occupies the largest area i.e. 75 m ha
2.
3.
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The alluvial soils are found in the areas of Rajasthan, Punjab, U.P, Bihar and West Bengal Sufficient in P and K but deficient in Nitrogen and organic matter 4. Laterite and lateritic soils (Ultisols): Occupy 25 mha of the total geographic area Texture of top soil is loamy or clayey. Associated with undulating topography in region with a relatively high annual rainfall It is deficient in lime and are slightly to moderately acid in reaction The pH values from 5.0 to 6.0 They are low in base exchange capacity Laterites are the oldest or most weather soils Predominate in Kaolinite type of clay minerals Deficient in P, K, Ca, Zn, B etc Shifting cultivation is mainly practised in these areas Desert soils (Arid soils): Covers an area of about 29 m ha Developed in Arid regions. It is mostly sandy Desert soils contain large amount of soluble salts and varying proportion of lime They have a high pH and are very poor in fertility constituents Composed of Quartz but feldspar and horn blend grains also occur with a fair grains also occur with a fair proportion of calcareous grains Desert soils are largely found in parts of Rajasthan, South Punjab and in the range of Kutch. Saline and Alkaline soils: Developed in the arid and semi arid regions Poor drainage is also responsible for their development Saline are called Alkali soils and are said to cause Boron toxicity. Treated by leaching Alkali soils are reclaimed by applying Gypsum Pulses and oilseeds are very sensitive to this soils Saline soils occupies 7.2 m ha and alkali soils 2.8 m ha Highest in Uttar Pradesh pH is greater than 8.5 Difficult to manage Exchangeable sodium percentage is more than 15 Electrical conductivity is more than 4 mm hos/cm Occurrence- Indo-gangetic alluvium in the north and the deltic region Forest and Hill soils: Estimated to be 75 m ha Occurrence Himachal Pradesh, J& k, U. P, Uttarakhand, Bihar , Maharashtra, Kerala and North Eastern Region
5.
6.
7.
Important points to remember: Soil profile A vertical section of the soil body which shows different layers Soil texture The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay Soil structure Arrangement of soil particles e.g., granular, columner, compact Solum A+B horizon Regolith A+B+C horizon
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A well developed soil have : A, B, C horizon The most abundant soil found in India is alluvial soil Anion exchange capacity is found maximum in the case of Kaolinite Cation exchange capacity is found minimum in the case of Kaolinite Black soil is the second largest group of Indian soils Cation exchange capacity is highest in Montmorillonite Denitrification is more in water logged soils In no tillage systems, the surface soil layers have high bulk density Lime is used for reclamation of acidic soils Maximum absorption of water by roots takes place through the root hairs Maximum population of microorganisms found in soils are Bacteria Most resistant mineral present in soil is Quartz Montmorillonite (2:1), illite and Kaolinite (1:1) are clay minerals Pedology study of soil development Gypsum or sulphur is used for reclamation of saline soils The most abundant mineral present on the earth is Feldspar pH the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in the soil Tolerance of soil salinity in crops Barley> wheat > Beans>Upland paddy Igneous rock- Granite, Basalt; Sedimentary rocks sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite; Metamorphic Rocks marble, slate Check basin irrigation method is best suited for undulating topography Red soils are best suited for irrigated agriculture Carbon: Nitrogen (C:N) ration of normal soils -10-12:1 The maximum moisture is available to plants at field capacity The main source of heat for soils is solar radiation Number of master horizons in soil are -5 Micronutrient defiant in Indian soils Zinc Fertilizers not produced in India Muriate of Potash Degree of soil salinity is indicated by its Total soluble salt content Maximum saline and alkali soils are found in Uttar Pradesh Alkali soils are generally found in Arid and semi-arid climate Gravitational water is less available for plant or not available (-0.1 to 0.3 bar) Capillary water- water held between 0.1-31 bars, most available for plant growth, capillary water held between 15 bar is easily available to crop production Hydroscopic water- water is held below permanent wilting point, except few microbes, all plants fail to absorb hydroscopic water. Dark colour of soils is due to presence of Titanium and Mn Total essential nutrients 17. Recently added mineral is Ni. Ultra micro nutrient Molybdenum Among the soil fauna, protozoa are the most abundant Edaphology Study of relationship between plant and soil Petrology study of Rocks
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13. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Ext. Education is the process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour Grow more food campaign (1947) Grow more food enquiry committee (1952) Etawah pilot project, Etawah dist. of UP, (1948), fore runner of community dev. Project in India, started by Albert Mayer Community Dev, project (1952) National extension service (1952) Panchayat Raj System (PRS), Balwant Roy Mehta committee, introduced PRS (3 Tier, Dist->, Block->, Village), 2 Tier by Ashok Mehta committee. First Agricultural University as SAU, G.B.Pant AU. (1960), Uttaranchal IADP (Intensive Agr. Dev. programme)1960 IAAP (Intensive agri. Area Prog.)----1964 HYVP (High yielding variety prog.) for wheat and paddy---1965-66 SFDA (Small Farmer Dev. Agency) ---1971-72 Rural Credit Review Committee----1960 NDP (National Demonstration project.)---1960 DAAP (1970-71) forth five year plan Drought prone area programme 1970-71 Command area development programme - 1974 Tribal area development Programme---1972 Training and Village system----1974 KVK(first was in Pondicherry, TNAU) Teaching by doing, 1974 TRYSEM (Training Rural youth for self employment)15th Aug. 1979 IRDP(integrated rural development program me) ---2nd Oct.1980-81 JRY (Jawahar Rojgar Yojana) started by Merging National Rural employment prog and Rural Landless employment guarantee prog. ---1989 Employment Assurance Scheme.Oct 1993 ICAR started IVLP (Institute village linkage prog.)1995 Forming System Research Extension ---1970 Lab to land Programme and National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) 1979 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) 1998 National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) 2006 Important Projects and Associated Persons Name of Project Associated persons : F.L Brain Gurgaon project : Rabindranath Tagore Shantiniketan : Daniel Hamilton Rural Reconstruction : Spencer Hatch Marthandom Project : Mahatma Gandhi Sewagram : Albert Mayor(first project) Etawah pilot project : S.K Dey Nilokheri experiment : S.K Dey Majdoor Manjil : S.K Dey Community Development : S.N Gupta Indian village scheme : Kalwar and Subramaniam National Demonstration scheme(NDS) : Deskmukh Young farmer association : B.R Mehta 3 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Rajasthan) : Ashok Mehta 2 tier Panchayat Raj(first in Karnataka)
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T & V system : Daniel Benore
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14. CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY

Plant tissue culture: Father of plant tissue culture Haberlandt (German) Practical demonstration of totipotency by vasil and Hildebrandt (1964) Micro propagation technique was first devised for Orchids Morel and martin meristem culture. Apical meristems. Used for production of disease free plants Anther culture Maheswari and Guha Molecular markers: These are heritable difference in the nucleotide sequence of DNA at particular position on homologous chromosome Detected by southern blot reaction and PCR reaction Southern hybridization developed by E. M southern (1975) Polymerase chain reaction by KARY MULLIS (1985) Types: 1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP): First marker (1980) Co-dominant in nature Highly reproducible 2. Sequence Tagged sites (STS) Robust markers used in human and plant genome mapping 3. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD): Dominant marker Non reproducibility 4. Sequence tagged Microsatellite Sites (STMS): Co-dominant and reproducible Used for developing a physical map 5. Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP): Co-dominant 6. Single Nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs): Used for genotyping human population for certain genetic diseases. Genomics: First bacterial genome sequenced (1995) Haemophilus influenxae First multi-cellular organism sequenced Caenorhabditis elegans First plant sequenced (2000) Arabidopsis thaliana First crop plant sequenced Rice Transgenic: An organism where a foreign gene is involved First transgenic developed in - Tobacco First transgenic crop plant Flavr savr tomato for delayed ripening (1994 for commercial cultivation) by calgene company Global transgenic covers mainly six crops i.e. soybean, corn, cotton, canola, squash and papaya Common traits engineered herbicide, Insect (only cry genes from Bt) and virus resistance Transgenic crop cultivated area is highest in USA (59%) followed by Argentina, Canada and Brazil Crops having highest transgenic cultivation area is soybean followed by corn and cotton In India, only transgenic crop cultivated commercially is cotton
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In India, released of transgenic variety is approved by Genetic Engineering Approval committee (GEAC) under ministry of environment and forest. Biosafety procedures for transgenics are governed by Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1986.
Higher plants whose genome has been sequenced: Type Relevance Year of completion 2000 2002
Organism
Genome Number Organization size of genes predicted Arabidopsis Wild Model plant 120 Mb 25,498 Arabidopsis thaliana mustard Genome Ecotype:Columbia Thale Cress Initiative[23] Oryza sativa ssp Rice Crop and 420 Mb 32Beijing indica model 50,000 Genomics organism Institute, Zhejiang University and the Chinese Academy of Sciences Oryza sativa ssp Rice Crop and 466 Mb 46,022Syngenta and japonica model 55,615 Myriad organism Genetics Physcomitrella Bryophyte Model 500 Mb 39,458 US Department patens organism of Energy early Office of diverging Science Joint land plant Genome Institute Populus Balsam Carbon 550 Mb 45,555 The trichocarpa poplar or sequestration, International Black model tree, Poplar Genome Cottonwood commercial Consortium use (timber), and comparison to A. thaliana Vitis vinifera Grapevine Fruit crop 490 Mb 30,434 The FrenchPN40024 Italian Public Consortium for Grapevine Genome Characterization Carica papaya Papaya Fruit crop 372 Mb 28,629 Hawaii 'SunUp' Agricultural Research Center and others Cucumis sativus Cucumber Vegetable 367 Mb 26,682 Chinese 'Chinese crop Academy of long' inbred Agricultural line 9930 Sciences, Beijing Glycine max Soybean Protein and 1,100 46,430 Purdue Soyabean oil crop Mb University Soya Zea mays ssp Corn Cereal crop 2,800 32,000 NSF mays (maize) Mb
2002 2008
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010 2009
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B73 Brachypodium distachyon purple false brome Model monocot (grass) 272 Mb The International Brachypodium Initiative 2010
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15. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Ozone layer is mainly found in the lower stratospheric layer, more appropriately 25 km height from the ground Troposphere and stratosphere contain 99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere World agriculture started about 10,000 years back Indian agriculture started about 6000 years back First biosphere reserve in India is Nilgiri biosphere reserve Among different Biogeochemical cycle, only phosphorus does not have any atmospheric reservoir Red Data Book related to categories of threatened, endangered, extinct species Biogas contain 50-60 % methane Green house gases Co2, CH4, N2O, CFC Of all the green house gases carbon dioxide contributes for maximum in Global warming Green house gas produced in rice field is Methane Jatropha is used to produce Bio fuel Itai-Itai and Manimata disease is due to Cadmium and Mercury Toxicity. Kyoto protocol signed in 1997, adopted in 2005. 1 kg weight fish has 1 80 mg DDT in body what be in ppm - 80ppm Which chemical is used for preservation benzoic acid After Bhopal gas tragedy use of which pesticide was banned Aldicarb Lactose is glucose + glactose Blue asbestos has a) sodium iron silicate b)sodium aluminium silicate c) silicon aluminium sulphate d) none ans a) In lithosphere which has maximum concentration: Fe/O/Si/Na (46.6%)>Si (27.72%)>Al (8.13%)>Fe (5%)>Ca (3.63%)>Na (2.83%)>K (2.59%)>Mg (2.09%) up to 16 Km of earth crust. Upper 5 Km of earth crust contain 74% i.e. 3/4th Sedimentary rocks(shale 52%+sand stone 15%+limestone & dolomite 7%), 18% Igneous rocks (granite 15% + basalt 3%) and 8% other rocks are found in whole earth crust contain 95% igneous rocks and 5% sedimentary rocks (shale 4%, and sandstone 0.75%, limestone 0.025%) Biodiesel is produced from: trans-esterification of vegitable/animal lipid or oil is a monoalkyl ester of long chain fatty acid Ethanol is produced from: fermentation of charbohydrate containing matter eg Corn, Sugar cane In India 10% blending is done in gasoline. Metals have: a) unfilled p orbital, b) unfilled d orbital, c) both a & b, d) none ans-b Acid rain has pH: a) 5.6, b) 5.8, c) 5.4, d) 4 ans-a 2 Cattle population per 100 Km is maximum in: a) Bihar, b) Haryana, c) UP, d) Maharashtra Ans-b Orange is resistant to: a) HF, b) NH3, c) NO2, d) SO2 Cd is present in which fertilizer: phosphatic fertilizer Natural radiation contribute what % of total radiation 83% Which one is extinct whale: killer whale/ sperm whale/ blue whale/ Indian dolphin Who said environment can satisfy the need not the greed: a) MS Swaminathan b) Manmohan Singh c) Mahatma Gandhi Ans- c Fecundity means: ability to reproduce Ability to maintain internal stability is called: Homeostasis
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Agent Orange is the code name for a herbicide and defoliantcontaminated with TCDD N2O can be detected by: a)FID b)TCD c) ECD d) All ans-c Spectrophotometer is based on principle of: absorption spectrum Biogas contain: 60% Methane and 40% carbon dioxide Bird evolves in- Jurassic period (150 millions year ago) Coca cola contain SnCl2 which is: emulsifier/ antioxidant/ stabilizer ans-b Largest source of S is: volcanic eruption Convert 0.09 ppm to mg/m 3: 1ppm= mg/l = mg/1000cc = mg1000000/1000m3= 1000mg/ m3 ans=90 Convert 9 ppm to %: 1ppm= 1/106 so in % 1 x 100/106 = 10-4 % Ans= 9 x 10-4 Definition of Niche: functional role of a species in an ecosystem Cybernetics: science of control or regulation Vienna convention on protection of ozone layer was held in year: 1985 Highest CEC in which soil: sandy/ clay/ loamy ans-b Degradation of pesticide is maximum in which soil : sandy/ clay/ loamy ans-b Denitrification occur in which type of soil: water logged/ anaerobic condition Bioaccumulation occur due to: fat or lipid solubility Traditional detergent contain: phosphorus/ sulphur/ nitrogen ans-a Hg retention time in soil: Jet stream has sound intensity: Sulphur contain of diesel is: Ethanol + petrol = % of O2 What get leaked in ship wreck at Haldia in 1993 soda ash Radioactive nuclei involved in Delhi health hazard in 2010- Co-60, gamma radiation, 5.25 year half life Full form of PCBs: polychlorinated biphenyls What is biodiversity index: A Q I- Air quality Index- 0-500, higher the AQI poor the quality of air W Q I- water quality index 1-100, higher the WQI better the quality of water, detrmined by 9 parametrs (pH, BOD, Fecal coliform, nitrate, phosphate, TDS, temperature change & turbidity) SQI soil quality indicator What is bio-concentration factor (BCF) % of bioaccumulative substances in tissue of aquatic organism in relation to concentration of that substance in to environment i.e. water whwre organism live = Corg/Cinv X 100, assume accumulation is through water only BAF bio accumulation factor assume both organism and their food are equally exposed % of water in ocean: 97.5% Fresh water = 2.5% (2% cryosphere or ice, 0.4% ground water, 1% lake (0.02), soil (0.005), atmosphere (0.0005), river (0.0001), & biota water Maximum fresh water trapped in: ice cap C-14 is emitter of which ray: / / ans- Fluoride problem is maximum in which state: Rajasthan
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Sink of Pb is: smelter/coal Journal of environmental conservation and monitoring published from : Difference between point source and non point source of pollutants Point source easily identifiable sewage/industrial/commercial waste discharge Non point source diffused not easily identifiable runoff / agriculture/atmospheric fall Fog is: liquid (water) in gas/ solid in gas/liquid in liquid ans- liquid in gas In photochemical smog which has maximum concentration: ozone/PAN/SO2 ans-a Recently recognized hot spot in India: NE Himalya Typhoid is due to: Salmonella typhae SARS is due to : a) coronavirus b) neumoravirus Most important process of photoreaction in atmosphere is: photosynthesis Which parameter is important in methane emission: a) pH b) EC c) ESP ans-a Golden langur and Chinkara deer are example of: a) endangered species b) extinct ans-a Which state has two biosphere reserve: Assam Which is not considered in EIA: human interest In AAS Bears-Lamberts low cannot be directly applied why: What is commensalism Commensalism = one benefited(+) & other has no effect(0) Byssinosis is coused by: cotton DDT is soluble in: lipid or fat Pb is: a) chalcophile b) siderophile ans-a NOx concentration in atmosphere is: 310ppb NO2 SO2 Estuaries has which type of water: brackish Water Vivisection is called a) mass cutting of forest b) ivory trade c) animal for lab purpose ans- c Anthropogenic to natural emission of metal in environment is called: Atrazene is a: pre-emergence herbicide Nitrogen fixing plants - LEGUMINOUS Biofertilizers Azolla 1KWH=3.6MJ First wind energy farm in India: Mandvi Energy obtained from wind will be: a) squire of velocity b) cube of velocity Height of troposphere: 11km Which is not a physical process for air pollution control: a) wet scrubbing b) electrostatic precipitator c) bag house ans a) Minimum organic matter decomposition occur in which climate: a) cold & wet b) hot & humid c)cold & dry ans a) Protozoa found up to what depth in soil: 15 cm Aldehyde to ethan conversion is done by a) Xymase b) converage c) diesterage TCME in Japan Environmental (protection) rule 1998 and act 1986 Denitrification occure in- waterlogged soil
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Abulation is emission of methane from water body as bubble Pyrolysis take place in absence of oxygen Maximum erosion is due to a) wheat b) clover C) potato d) sorghum ans a) Not naturally managed ecosystem is - a) agriculture b) forest c) marine ans a) 90 -95% nitrogen in mineral soil are in the form of a) organic matter b)ammonia c) nitrate ans-a Maximum degradation occur by a) physical b)chemical c)water d) air ans a) Which do not influence the climate of a place temperature of land & sea/volume of ice caps/ocean current /shifting of wind belt ans a) Tickling filter is used for a) coagulation b) separation ans a) Dry habitat vegetation is called xerophytes Sinc of Pb a) atmosphere b) soil and sediments c) ocean ans a) Source of Pb a) smelter b) coal ans a) Ecological pyramid is a) tropical structure b) energy flow ans a) Crop rotation does not affect a) drainage to toxicity b) pest biological control c) nutrient build-up ans a) Soil properties which not change soil texture What is biome a large area characterized by major vegetation type What is ecology Which is not a fumigant a) DDT b) EDB c) ALP ans a) SI unit of energy joule IGFRI is at Jhansi Minimum Pb concentration in blood that inhibit ALA enzyme 0.3 ppm Earth day is celebrated on 22 April What is biotic potential- is the maximum reproductive capacity of a population if resources are unlimited Azolla is used in paddy field Low of minima was given by Liebig Relation hip between absorbance and transmittance : A= Log 1/T BOD at 25oC is measerd for how many days 3 days BOD at 20oC for 5 days Jet planes release Nox SI unit of pressure Pascal pH of sea water 8.2 0.2 mass of nitrogen in dry air 75% Air pressure will be highest on see level Silent spring was written by Rachel Carson Buffering capacity refers to ability to resist change in pH 1987 protocol which called for 50% cut off in CFC by 2000 is called Montreal protocol In Scandinavia fish kill was due to acid rain Which is not given by uranium degradation a)Ba b) Kr c) xe d) neutron
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Year of natural conservation 1980 Process of heating at high temperature without fusiona) smelting b) roasting c) combustion d) calcinations Erosion is caused by deforestration/ agriculture/ all ans-c Methane contribution to global warming CO2 (74%) > CH4 (16%) > N2O (9%) > CFCs (1%) GWP of nitrous oxide is what times of carbon dioxide 200 , methane(20) Mega- diversity centre in world 12 India has 3 hot spots of biodiversity Viz. the western ghat, The North eastern region and the Eastern Himalayas Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) also called Earth Summit was held in Rio De Janerio, Brazil in 1992. Came into force in 1993 Biodiversity Act of India, 2002, implemented in 2004 Centre of origin and centre of diversity proposed by N. I Vavilov Protection of Plant varieties and Farmers Rights Act (PPVFR)- 2001 National Biodiversity Board located in New Delhi Indian Institute of Biodiversity (2001-2002) located in Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh Largest and oldest centre of crop diversity China centre Crop origin centre having highest diversity Hindustan centre International treaty on Plant genetic Resources for food and agriculture (ITPGRFA) signed under FAO in Rome in 2001 WTO came into being in 1995; its head quarter is in Switzerland Plant quarantine order, 2003 Sanitary and Phytosanitary standards under GATT, 1994 UPOV convention held in 1961. Headquarter located in Geneva Total no of Hot spot of Biodiversity in the world 34 Citrus gene sanctuary located in Garo hills, Meghalaya Rhododendron and orchids gene sanctuary located in Sikkim IPGRI located in Rome, Italy Biodiversity Hot spots term given by Meyer Examples of In -situ conservation Biosphere reserves, national parks, Sanctuaries, Sacred groves etc. Examples of Ex- situ conservation Field gene bank, Botanical gardens, Herbal gardens, Clonal repositories, Cryo-gene bank etc. New seed development policy, 1988 PFS order enacted in 1989 Wildlife (protection) Act 1972 Forest (conservation) Act 1980 Institute of Bioresource management and sustainable use located in Manipur The Cartagena protocol on Biosafety was adopted in 2000 2010 is declared as the International Year of Biodiversity by FAO India contributes 7.5% biological diversity in the world. India contributes 2.5% Global landmass in the world. 33% of sp. In India is endemic.
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16. SEED TECHNOLOGY Seed is a ripened mature ovule that consists of embryo, seed coat and cotyledons Smallest seeds Orchid seeds Largest seeds Double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica) Types of seeds: 1. Dicotyledonous seeds: (A) Exalbuminous seeds (Non-endospermic seeds): Seeds which do not have endosperm at maturity. Examples Pea, Gram, Bean, Tamarind, Cucurbits, Gourd, Cucumber, Groundnut, Jute etc. (B) Albuminous seeds (Endospermic seeds): Endosperms present until maturity. Cotyledons are thin acting as food sucking organ Example : Castor, Papaya, Cotton 2. Monocotydonous seeds: (A) Albuminous seeds Examples Maize, Wheat, Rice, Coconut (B) Exalbuminous seed: Examples Pothos, Amorphophallus, Alisma etc. Storage substance: - Rice Oryzein - Wheat Glutenin - Barley Hordein - Maize Zein - Pea Legumin - Soybean Nodulin - Sunflower Inulin - Grain legumes Phaseolin TYPES OF GERMINATION: 1) Epigeal: Cotyledons emerge above the soil surface by elongation of hypocotyls and generally became green Examples Green gram, Black gram, Groundnut, Soybean, Pumpkin, Okra, Cucumber, Mustard, Cotton, Jute, Castor, Tomato, French bean etc. 2) Hypogeal: Cotyledons do not emerge above soil surface. The hypocotyl may elongate and emerge above soil surface but the epocotyl grows first Examples Rice, Lathyrus, Maize, Wheat, Barley, Coconut, Broad bean, Pea etc. SEED TESTING: - The first seed testing station was founded by Prof. F Nobbe at Germany in 1869 - The International seed testing Association (ISTA) was established in 1924 in Norway - Central seed testing Laboratory (CSTL) established at IARI, New Delhi in 1960 now shifted to Varanasi, U.P GROW OUT TEST: - Refers to those test in which appropriate samples of seeds are grown to determine the genetic purity of a given seed lot of released cultivars TETRAZOLIUM (TZ) TEST: - Given by Lakon (1942) - Tetrazolium test is a quick, easy and popular method of testing seed viability
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This test utilised the chemical 2, 3, 5 Triphenyl Tetrazolium chloride or bromide which is a cream or light yellow colour compound. - This chemical is reduced to an insoluble and stable red colour compound called Formazen in the presence of Dehydrogenase group enzymes - This test should not be applied to any sample containing dry germinated seeds. CLASSES OF IMPROVED SEED: A) Nucleus seed: It is the initial seed of an improved variety which is always limited in quantity It is produced by the originating plant breeder Purity It is genetically and physically cent percent pure Certification exempted from certification by seed certifying agency but should be certified by the breeder Use for breeder seed production. It is not meant for general distribution B) Breeder seed: It is the progeny of nucleus seed or breeder seed It is produced under strict supervision of original or sponsoring plant breeder at the research farm of the concerned crop research institute or agricultural university Production produced in isolation from other varieties. Purity genetically and physically cent percent pure Certification No certification Use- For foundation seed production. Not meant for distribution Tagging Gold coloured tag signed by the breeder. C) Foundation seed: It is the progeny by breeder seed Production produced by National Seeds Corporation under the strict supervision of research scientists and experts from NSC at Govt. Seed multiplication farms. It is produced in isolation Purity genetically 100% pure. Physical purity 98% Certification undertaken by seed certification agency Use For production of registered seed or certified seed production. Not for general distribution Tagging White Tag signed by the certifying agency D) Registered seed: Progeny of either foundation seed or registered seed In India, registered seed is generally omitted and certified seed is produced directly from the foundation seed Production By progressive cultivators at the farms under strict supervision of NSC. Purity genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98% Certification It is done by the SSCA Use For production of certified or registered seed Tagging Purple colour E) Certified seed: Progeny of either foundation or registered or certified seed Production produced on the fields of progressive farmers under the strict supervision of SSCA Purity - genetic purity-100%, Physical purity- 98% Certification Done By SSCA -
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Use available for general distribution to the farmers for commercial production Tagging Blue colour Tag
IMPORTANT POINTS: The Indian seed act was enacted in 29th Dec, 1966 and has been in force since oct. 2nd 1969 The Indian seed Act was amended on sept.9, 1972 Indian patent Act -1970 National Seeds Corporation was initiated in 1961. It started functioning in July, 1963 with its headquarters in New Delhi. National seed project (NSP) established in 1976 New seed bill 2004 Nordic seed bank - Norway Dockage the impurity percentage of a seed lot Seed lot certificate colour is orange or green Seed sample certificate colour is blue Harvesting index is maximum in carrot The two most important factors influencing the life span of seeds under storage are relative humidity and temperature Headquarters of ISTA- Zurich, Switzerland
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17. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Father of agricultural engineering in India Professor Mason Vaugh First bachelors degree course in agricultural engineering in India Allhabad agricultural Institute ,Allahabad (1942-43) Indian society of agricultural engineers (ISAE) 1960 at IIT Kahargpur and presently its headquarter is at New Delhi ISAE publications: 1) Journal Of Agaricultural Engineering (JAE) 2) Agricultural Engineering Today (ATE) 1960- 61 atractor manuufacturing started in india by first manufacture m/s eicher good earth Average man can develop maxium power of about 0.1hp (74.6 watts) for doing farm work Power developed by an average pair bullocks is about 1hp (746 wants) for usual farm work The averge force a draft animal can exert is nearly one tenth of its body weight Unit power availavle for crop production (india) is about 1.35 kw/ha but for desirable level of agricultural production power requirment could about 2.15 kw/ha Thermal efficiency for diesel engine 32 to 38% Thermal efficiency for petrol engine 25 to 32% Of the total energy produced in india the share of thermal power is about 56%,hydro electrical Power (36%) ,nuclear power(16%) and rest comes from deisel and gas based power. The farm holding in india are classified as (a) marginal(<1ha),(b) small(1-2 ha) , (c) semi medium (2-4ha) ,(d) medium (4-10),(e) large(>10 ha) At present agricultural machinery population is estimated at about 150 million which includes about 3 million tractor .(2.5 lakh tractor/year ,10000 power tiller /year) The most popular tractor is found in 31-40 hp segment , which accounts for 60% of the total sales in the country Biogas Biomass: mixture of methane (45-70%) and carbon dioxide(30-35%) Cattle dung : water ratio for biogas slurry : 4:5or 1:1 Buffaloes : 15 kg dunr/day, bullocks or cows : 10 kg dung /day and calves : 5kg dung/day Suitable condition for biogas production ph(7-8), temperature(35 c) Biogas calorific value -4500 kcal/m^3 Wind energy The speed required for operation of wind mill 10 to 15 km/hr Two types of wind mill (horizontal axis and vertical axis rotr) 1. Horizontal axis rotor axis of rotion is parallel to the direction of wind i . Multi blade ii. Propeller most commonaly used iii. Sail type 2. Vertical axis rotor axis of rotation is perpendicular to the direction of wind Components of wind mill :- tower ,head ,roto ,transmission gear ,pump,generator Power available wind mill depends upon (1) wind speed (2) cross section of wind swept by rotor (3) Overall conversion efficiency of rotor , transmission system,generator Solar energy Temperature of sun 5777 k Radition range from sun ,0.4 um maximum available range,
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<0.4 um ultraviolet radiation (8% of radition), 0.4-0.7 um visible radiation (46%) >0.7 um infrared radiation (46%) Solar constant : solar radiation received per second by surface of unit area held normal to the direction of sun rays at mean earth sun distance. Its value 1350 w/m2 or 1.94 cal/s/m2 Radiation measurement o Pyrheliometer : beam radiation (direct radiation) o Pyranometer : total radiation (global radiation)- accurate o Solarimeter : total radiation (global radiation )- inaccurate o Pyrometer: very high temp measurement Collection of solar radiation (three ways) 1 By flat plate collector : temp range 40 centigrade to 100 centigrade 2 Focussing or concentrating colletore (>100 c) 3 Photovoltaic cell (soller cell) : directly convert solar energy in to electricity made of Silicon separated by thin brrier with conversion efficiency is about 10% Portable water contained <550 ppm of salt ,sea water contained 30000-40000 ppm of salt ,groundwater contained<2000-3000 ppm of salt Solar still device converts saline water in to portable water. Green house is structure made of polythene/rain forced fibre to provide controlled condition for crop production
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18. AGRICULTURAL PHYSICS

SUN AND THE EARTH SYSTEM The sun is a star and is a part of the Milky Way Galaxy. Sun rotates in an anticlockwise direction i. e. from west to east. The temperature at the surface of the sun is around 6000C. The earth is at a mean distance of 150 million km from the sun. The mean surface temperature of the earth is 15 C. the shortest distance between the sun and the earth is called perihelion (147 million km) occurring on 3rd January and the longest distance is called Aphelion (152 million km) occurring on 4th July. Solar constant is defined as the total amount of solar radiation received per unit area per init time in the absence of atmosphere, the radiation being perpendicular and the earth at its mean distance from the sun. its value is 1.94 cal/cm2/min or 1.94 Langley/min. There are four seasons in a year namely winter solistice (2nd Dec), Spring equinox (21 March), summer solistice (Jun 21st) and autumn equinox (23rd September). During equinox, the sun is at the equator during solistices, the sun is at either tropic of cancer (summer solistice) or Capricorm (winter solistice). ATMOSPHERE AND ITS COMPOSITION The vast expanse of air , which envelops the earth all around, is called the atmosphere. It can be broadly divided into four layers namely troposphere (upto 18 km in the equator and 8 km in the poles), stratosphere (8 or 18 km 50 km), mesosphere (50km- 80km) and thermosphere (80km- 400km). Pure dry air constitutes mainly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%). Co2 (0.03%), hydrogen, helium, water vapor, ozone, dust particles, smoke, salts and other impurities. Like a green house, it allows short wave radiation to enter into it and reach the earths surface but is nearly opaque to long wave terrestrial radiation from the sun (Green House Effect) Some of the important Green house gases are CO2 CFC1s- Chlorofluorocarbons, CH$ Nitrous oxide, etc., The atmosphere protects the earth from the harmful radiation of the sun with the help of the Ozone (O3) layer METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY (WEATHER AND CLIMATE) The study of envelope of air surrounding the planet and of the phenomena associated with the atmosphere is called Meteorology. A component of Meteorology is the study of weather. Weather is the present condition of the atmosphere at a particular. It is mainly concerned with its day-today effects on life and human activities. Climatology is the study of long-term manifestations of the weather represented by a statistical collection of weather conditions over a specific length of period usually at least a few decades. The use of science of Meteorology for agriculture is called Agricultural Meteorology. The various elements that combinedly express weather are air pressure and wind, temperature. Relative Humidity, precipitation (rainfall, snow, fog, hails, etc), visibility. The climate is controlled by four factors called Climatic controls Astronomical factors, Geomorphological factors, solar factors and Anthropogenic factors.
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The Nine Climatic controls are latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, land and sea distribution, semi-permanent pressure system, storm tracks, occan currents, mountain barriers and air masses.
WEATHER ELEMENTS Pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is measured by means of an instrument called (Aneroid) Barometer. It is measured as force per unit area. The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb). One millibars force of one gram on a sq. cm. A pressure 1000mb = weight of 1.053 kg. Sq. cm. Normal pressure at sea level is 76 cm (1013.25 mb). An Isobar is an imaginary line joining places of equal atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level. On the earths surface there are seven pressure belts. They are equatorial low (the doldrums) the sub-tropical high (horse latitudes) the sub-polar low and the polar high. Except the equatorial low, all others have matching pairs in the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere. Wind: Horizontal movement of air is called wind. The vertical movement of air is called air current Lines joining places of equal wind speed are called Isotachs Winds of high speed are called Squalls. Due to horizontal differences in air pressure. air flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Wing direction is determined with the help of a wind vane and the speed or velocity of the wind by Robinsons Cup Anemometer. In a wind vane. The head denotes the direction from which the air is blowing and the tail denotes the direction to which the air blowing. The two most well understood and significant winds for climate and human activities are the trade winds and the westerly winds. Winds which blow throughout the year from one latitude to other in response to the latitudinal differences in air pressure are called prevailing winds or planetary winds (e.g. Trade Winds) The winds blowing from sub-tropical high-pressure areas (30 N and S latitude) towards the equatorial low-pressure belts are the extremely steady winds known as the trade winds. They blow from west to east. Near the equator, the trade, winds clash with each other and on the line of convergence, they rise and cause heavy rainfall. The Westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the polar low-pressure belts. They blow from southwest to northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from northwest to southeast in the southern Hemisphere. The westerlies are best developed between 40 and 60 latitudes. These latitudes are called roaring forties, furious fifties and shrieking sixties. Periodic winds: The winds that reverse their direction periodically with season are called periodic winds. The monsoons are the best example of large-scale modifications of the planetary wind systems. The word monsoon is derived form the Arabic word Mausim which means season. The monsoon winds thus refer to wind systems that have a pronounced reversal of direction. In India, 80-90% of the rainfall is obtained from two monsoons namely southwest Monsoon and North East or Retreating monsoon.
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Normally, the southwest monsoon reaches the Kerala Coast by the end of May, advances along the Konkan coast in early June and extends over the entire country by the end of July. The rains continue up to the end of September, when the southwest monsoon recedes. In November and December, Northeast monsoon is the main contributor of rain over the southeastern part of the peninsular region especially Tamil Nadu. The monsoon depressions can be said to be the single factor that controls the distribution of rainfall over the whole of India. These low-pressure systems. Which originate near the head Bay of Bengal and travel across the country in a west and northwesterly direction. Heavy rainfall mainly occurs to the south of the tracks of these depressions. 3 to 4 depressions are found in a month during these monsoons. When they take a normal Northwesterly track, there is flood in the Northern India and drought in the peninsula. When they follow an abnormal track across central India, there is flood in the Peninsular parts and drought in the Northern part of India. These depressions terminate in Gujarat and Rajasthan. When a depression reaches these states. They get abundant rains; otherwise they are subject to a prolonged drought. Occasionally there are one or two monsoon breaks during the monsoon seasons. These types of breaks normally bring floods in the rivers of Northern Bengal and Bihar. Thunderstorms and Hails: Nimbostratus clouds indicate thunderstorms. Sudden change in the weather of particular place with heavy downpour is called thunderstorms and hail is rain in the form of ice crystals. Thunderstorms and hail are predominant weather phenomenon before and after monsoon seasons. Important ones are Kalbaisakis in Bengal and Andhis over North West India. Cyclonic storms: Caused due to the creation of low-pressure zones. They cause severe damage to the coastal zoos on an average 2-3 storms may be expected in a year. They are associated with the high wind speeds and tidal winds Western Disturbances Series of disturbances in the form of cloudy weather and light rainfall in the plains and snow fall in the hills. These disturbances affect the Rabi crops. Rainfall: Line joining places of equal rainfall are called Isohyets. Most of the rainfall of India is obtained from the Southwest and North East Monsoon seasons. The constancy by which a place receives rainfall is studied with the help of Coefficient of variation (CV). High CV means very little or scanty rainfall. In parts of Saurashtra and Kutch, the CV of rainfall is 40-50% whereas in western Rajasthan it is 80-90%. Rainfall measuring device ordinary and automatic/self-recording rain gauge. Drought: Below 75% of the normal rainfall and severe drought when it is below 50%. In Indian history the year 1987 was recorded as the worst drought affected year followed by 2000. Palmers drought Index is calculated with data on rainfall, ET and soil moisture. Evapo-transpiration and Water balance: Evapo-transpiration = Evaporation from the soil surface + transpiration from plants.
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The extent to which the water needs of a crop are met in a locality depends on the rainfall input the losses due to run off and the evapo-transpiration. In India areas of high annual PET are extreme west of Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and extreme south of Tamil Nadu (Tuticorin). Evaporation is determined using USWB Class A Open pan Evaporimeter. ET is measured using Lysimeters. Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness of a substance. Lines joining places of equal temperature are called Isotherms. Sunshine is not a limiting factor in crop production any where in India. High humidity and warm temperatures are conducive to most plant pest and diseases. Weather modification: Cloud seeding technique- Silver Iodide is used for cold clouds and sodium chloride is used for warm clouds. General Points: Crop yield formulation is done using Regression Techniques. India has been divided into 15 Agro-climatic Zones. Institutions Involved: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune, Maharashtra. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan. International Crop Research Institute for semi-arid tropics (ICRISAT), Hyderabad, AP. National Centre for Medium Range weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), New Delhi.
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19. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN INDIA 1871 1877-78 1881 1892 1899-1900 1901 1903 1901-05 1905 1919 1928 : Dept. of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce (DRAC) (chief function: collection of statistics (revenue) and not agril. research) during the tenure of Lord Mayo. : India faced severe famine and GOI resolved to set up a Central Dept. of Agriculture controlled by imperial Secretariat. : Dept. of Agriculture were set up in provinces : Agriculture chemist and an Assistant Chemist were appointed to look after research and teaching. : Famine : Inspector general of Agriculture and an imperial mycologist were appointed to advice to imperial and provincial govts. On agricultural matters. : An Entomologist was employed. : Agricultural colleges were established at Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur, Lyallapur and Coimbatore. : Agricultural Research institute was established at pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon. The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was Named as PUSA. : Constitutional reforms made agriculture as state subject. : Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord Linlithgow recommended setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research throughout India.
THE COMMODITY COMMITTEES: Ministry of Food and Agriculture started several committees concerned with research and development activities related to specific crops. Some had their own research stations and some are self financed. Year 1921 1931 1936 Committee Cotton committee Lac cess committee Jute Committee Research station/ Institute Technological laboratory now CTRL Matunga) Indian lac Research institute, Namkum (1936), Bihar Jute Agricultural; Research institute, Barrakpore Jute Technological Research Laboratory, Calcutta, West bengal (Continues at Page 41)
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITIES C.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, is the first Agricultural University established in the year 1960. Central agricultural University, Shillong, is the latest established Agricultural University There are 30 State Agricultural Universities. Maximum 4 Universities in Maharastra Project Directorates:
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Name Rice Oilseeds Poultry Pulses Wheat Biological Control Water management Cropping Systems Research Cattle Vegetable Research National Research Centers (NRCs) : Integrated Pest Management Groundnut Sorghum Soybean Cashew Citrus Mushroom Research and Training Spices Agro-forestry Weed Science Camel Equines Meat Methuen Yak Cold Water Fisheries Orchids Mustard Plant Biotechnology
Place Hyderabad Hyderabad Hyderabad Kannpur Karnal Bangalore Rahuri Modhipuram Meerut Varanasi New Delhi (IARI) Junagarh Hyderabad Indore Puttur Nagpur Solan Calicut Jhansi Japalpur Bikaner Hisar Izatnagar Jharnapani Dirang Haldwani Gangtok Bharatpur New Delhi (IARI)
National Bureaus (6): NBPGR : National bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, IARI NBAGR : National Bureau of Animal Genetics Resources, Karnal, Haryana NBAGR : National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Allahabad (UP). NBSSLUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur. NBAIM : National Bureau of Agricultural Important Microorganism, Mau (UP) NBAII : National Bureau of Agricultural Important Insects, Bangalore (Karnatka) Other Institutes: Under Ministry of Rural Development: NIRD: National Institute for Rural Development. Hyderabad. Gauhati. Under Ministry of Foods and Agriculture and Cooperation : o MANAGE: National institute for Agriculture Extension Management. Hyderabad. o NAARM: National Academy for Agricultural Research Management. Organization: Streams of Extension in India:
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1964 1974 1974 1979 1944 1945 1945 1947 1949 1958
1. The ICAR extension system, comprising mainly Research Institutes and Agricultural Universities. 2. Extension System of Ministry of Agriculture and the State Departments of Agricultural. 3. Extension System of the Ministry of Rural Development and State Development Departments, and 4. Development work by the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Business houses etc. Front-line Transfer of Technology Programmes of ICAR: National Demonstrations Operational Research Project Krishi Vigyan Kendra Lab to Land Program Sugarcane committee Coconut Committee Tobacco Committee Oil Seeds committee Arecanut Committee Spices and Cashewnut Committee
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow Central Coconut Research Stations. Kanyagulam and Kasargod Central Tobacco Research institute, Rajahmundry Financed research Schemes, head quarters at Hyderabad. Arecanut Research Station, Vittal Financed Research schemes
The central commodity committees were later abolished (beginning in 1965) and the research institutes under their control were transferred to ICAR. 1965: Project for intensification of regional Research on cotton, Oilseeds and millets (PIRPCOM) First coordinated research work on regional basis was initiated in 1956 as a joint effort by ICAR and Indian Central Committees on oilseeds and Cotton. Seventeen centres were established throughout the country Place Coimbatore Bellary, Dhadesagur, Dharwad, Silakere Rajendranagar Amaravati, Mohol Junagarh, Surat Gwalior, Hosangabad Ajmer Kanpur Patiala Sirsa IARI State Tamil Nadu Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Punjab Haryana New Delhi Research work on Cotton, Jowar, Groundnut Cotton, Jowar, Kharif Jowar, Ragi, Groundnut Castir, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar Rabi Jowar Jowar, Groundnut cotton, Jowar Kharif Jowar, Linseed Jowar, Bajra Indian Mustard, Bajra Toria, taramaria Cotton Cotton, Jowar, Bajra, linseed
AII India coordinated Research Project:
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1957: All India coordinated research project on maize was established with aid from Rockfellar foundation. 1965: ACRIPs were started on other crops as well as in other areas of Research. Crops Place Maize Jowar Barley Millets Forage crops National seeds project Sugarcane Sugar beet Cotton Jute and allied fibres Soybean Tobacco Cotton Project (WB assisted) Fruits Citrus Tuber crops Potato Vegetables Medicinal and Aromatic plants Spices and Cashewnut Coconut and Arecanut Under utilized and under exploited plants New Delhi Hyderabad Karnal Pune Jhansi New Delhi Lucknow Pantnagar Coimbatore Barrackpore Indore Anand Nagpur Bangalore Bangalore Dholi (Bihar) Simla New Delhi New Delhi Kasargod Kasargod New Delhi
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH: 1928: Royal commission on Agriculture, headed by lord linlithgow recommended setting up of imperial council of Agricultural research to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research throughout India. rd 23 May, 1929 : Imperial Council for Agricultural Research was established President : Mohammed Habibullah Vice-President: Vijaya Raghavacharya Secretary : Mr. S.A. Hydari Governing body has 16 members. March, 1946 : The name Imperial council of Agricultural Research Institute was changed to Indian council of agricultural research by then president Sir Jogendra Singh. Reorganization or ICAR: In 1963, the Agricultural review Team headed by Dr. Marion W. Parker of USDA was appointed. Based on its recommendations ICAR was made a fully automonous organization in 1966. IARI, New Delhi, NDRI, Karnal and IVRI, Izathnagar were made national Institutes.
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A policy was mad to appoint an agricultural scientist as the Chief Executive of ICAR, with the designation of Director General, Dr. B. P. Pal became first DG of ICAR in 1965. Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE): In June 1972 Gajendragadkar committee was established to review the recruitment and personal policies of ICAR and its institutes, which submitted its report in 1973. Department of Agricultural research and Education was created in 1973 in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. An Agricultural research service was initiated in 1973 for the recruitment of Scientific personnel under Agricultural Scientists recruitment Board. Entire country was divided into 8 agroecological zones and 15 agro ecological zones and 15 agroclimatic zones. Research Stations: CARI : Central Agricultural research institute Port Blair CARI : Central Avian Research Institute Izatnagar Port Bihar CARIANGI : Central Agricultural research Institute for Andaman and Nicobar Groups of Islands CAZRI : Central Aril Zone research Institute Jodhpur CLAE, IISS : Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering Bhopal CIBA : Central Institute for Barkishwater Aquaculture Chennai CICFRI : Central Inland capture Fisheries Barrackpore CIFA : Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture Bhubaneshwar CICR : Central Institute of Cotton Research Nagpur CIFT : Central Institute of Fisheries Technology Cochin CIHNP : Central Institute of Horticulture of Northern Lucknow Plains Ludhiana CIPET : Central Institute of Post-harvest Engineering and Technology CIRCOT : Central Research Institute for research on Bombay Cotton Technology Hisar CIRB : Central Research Institute for Research on Buffaloes CIRG : Central Institute for Research on Goats Makhdoom CMFRI : Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Cochin CPCRI : Central Plantation Crops Research Institute Kasargod CPRI : Central Potato Research Institute Kufri, Simla, CRIAF : Central Research Institute for Arid Fruits Bikaner CRIDA : Central Research Institute for Dry land Hyderabad Agriculture CRIJAF : Central Research Institute for jute and Allied Barrackpore Fibres CRITF : Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits Srinagar CRITF : Central Research Institute for Tropical Fruits Lucknow CRRI : Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack CSSRI : Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Karnal CSWCRTI : Central Soil and water Conservation Research Dehradun and Training Institute Avikanagar CSWRI : Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute CTCRI : Central Tuber Crops Research Institute Trivandrum
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CTRI CTRL IASRI ICARRCG ICARRCNEHR ICARRCNER IGFRI IIHR IIPR IISR IISS ILRI JTRL NAARM NCAEPR NIAG SBI VPKAS WTCER
: : : : :
Central Tobacco Research Institute Central Technological Research Laboratory Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute ICAR Research Complex for Goa ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Hill Region : ICAR Research complex for North Eastern Region : Indian Grassland and fodder Research Institute : Indian Institute of Horticultural Research : : : : Indian Institute of Pulse Research Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research Indian Institute of Soil Science Indian Lac Research Institute
Rajahmundry Matunga New Delhi Goa Barapani Shillong Jhansi Hassergatta, Bangalore Kanpur Lucknow Bhopal Namkum, Ranchi Calcutta Hyderabad New Delhi Karnal Coimbatore Almora Bhubaneswar
: Jute Technological Research Laboratory : National Academy of Agricultural Research and Management : National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research : National Institute of Animal Genetics : Sugarcane Breeding Institute : Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandan Shala : Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region
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Deemed Universities
CIFE IARI IVRI NDRI NIASM NAARM : : : : : : Central Institute of Fisheries Education Indian Agricultural Research Institute Indian Veterinary Research Institute National Dairy Research Institute National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management National Academy of Agricultural Research and Management Bombay New Delhi Izatnagar Karnal Maharastra Hyderabad
Indian Agricultural Research Institute:

1905 : Agricultural Research Institute was established at Pusa, Bihar by Lord Curzon. The land was donated by Mr. Phipps of USA after whom the place was named as PUSA. The Phipps laboratory in division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IARI is named after him. : Renamed as Imperial Agricultural Research Institute. : Institute started offering Diploma of Associateship. : Major Earth quake damaged the buildings at pusa. : Shifted to New Delhi. : B. Vishwanath became the first Indian Director of the Institute. : The Diploma of Associate ship was Recognised equivalent to M. Sc. : Name has been changed from Imperial Agricultural Research Institute to Indian Agricultural Research Institute. : Recognized as Deemed University under UGC Act at 1956, PG School was established.
1911 1923 1934 1936 1936 1946 1947 1958
NON EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTES EEI, Anand, Gujarat EEI, Jorhat, Assam EEI, Hyderabad, AP EEI, Nilokhen, Haryana International Institutes of crop Improvement: CGIAR : Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research. Was established in 1971 by the joint efforts of Food and Agricultural Organisation world baulk and United Nations Development Programme. CIAT : Centro International de Agriculture Tropical (International Centre for Tropical Agriculture), Palmira, columbia. CIMMYT : Centro International de Majoramiento de Maizy Trigo (International Centre for Maize and Wheat Improvement) el Baton, Mexico. CIP : Centro International de Papa (International Centre for Potato), Lima, Peru, IBPGR : International Board for Plant Genetics Resources Rome, Italy. ICARDA : International centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Alleppo, Syria. ICGES : International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Triesta, Italy and New Delhi, India. ICRISAT : International Centre for Research in Semi-Arid Tropies, Patancherru, Hyderabad, India. IFRI : International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, USA. IIAS : International Institute for Applied System Analysis, Luxemburg, Vienna. IITA : International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria. INSFFER : International Network on Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Evaluation on Rice, New Delhi, India. ILRAD : International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
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ILCA IRRI ISNAR WARDA : : : : International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa. International Rice Research Institute, Los Bonas, Philippines. International Service for national Agricultural Research. The Hague, Netherlands. West African Rice Development Association, Monrovia, Liberia.
Agricultural and Rural Development Programmes: The evaluation of Agricultural and Rural Development can be grouped into five stages. Stage I : Pre Independence era 1903 : Model villages by Daniel Hamilton 1908 : Tagore Started Youth organisation in the villages in the Kaligram Pargana 1921 : Rural Reconstruction Institute, shantiniketan 1921 : Marathandam Project by Spencer Hatch 1921 : Gurgaon Experiment by F. L. Brayne 1921 : Sevagram Project by Mahatma Gandhi. Adarsh Seva Sangh, Pohri (Gwalior) by Col. Shitole 1932 : Rural reconstruction Movement by V. T. Krishnamachari in Barod 1945 : Indian Village service by A. T. Mosher and B. N. Gupta, D. Tharugad 1946 : Firka development Scheme by T. Prakasha, D. Tharugad 1947 : Mazdoor Manzil at Nilokheri by S. K. Dey Stage II : Post Independence era 1948 : Grow more food campaign 1948 : Etawah Pilot Project by Albert mayer. 1952 : Grow more food campaign enquiry committee. Stage III : Community Development era 1952 : Community Development Project was started in 55 blocks, under the dynamic leadership of S. K. Day. 1953 : National Extension service. 1954 : NES Programme 1957 : Balwantraj Mehta committee on community. Development Project recommended Democratic decentralization (Panchayatiraj). 1958 : Rajasthan became first state to adopt Panchayati Raj followed by Andhra Pradesh. Stage IV : Intensive Agriculture development era 1960 : IADP Intensive Agriculture district Programme also called as Package Program in seven districts, later extended to nine more districts. 1964 : IAAP Intensive Agricultural Area Programme. 1964 : ICDP Intensive Cattle Development Project 1966 : HYVP High Yielding Varieties Programme. 1966 : MCP Multiple Cropping Programme. 1971 : MKP Minikit Programme for Rice was started and later extended to wheat, maize and other millets etc. Stage V : Developmental Programmes with social Justice 1970 : SFDA Small farmers Development Agency 1970 : MFAL Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Iaborers Programme. 1970 : DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme. 1974 : FWP Food for Work Programme. 1974 : MNP Minimum Needs Programme. 1974 : T&V Training and Visit system formulated by Daniel bonor and Baxtor of Israel. Turkey was the first started in Rajasthan Canal area in
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Rajasthan and Chambal area in Madhya Pradesh. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Mohan singh Mehta committee recommended KVKs. First KVK was established by TNAU at Pondichery. Command Area Development Programme. Integrated rural Development Programme. Training Rural youth for Self-Employment. National Rural Employment programme National Agricultural research Project. Development of Women and Children-in Rural Areas. Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and rural Technology. National Agricultural Extension Project. Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme. Technology Mission on Oilseeds. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, formed after merger of (NREP and RLEGP). Employment Assurance scheme Institute village Linkage programme. Mahila Samrudhi Yojana. Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana. National social assistance scheme. National Agricultural Technology Project Jawahar Gram Samuridhi Yojana (JRY). Swaran Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (IRDP, TRYSEM, DWCRA, SITRA merged into SGSY).
1974 1974 1979 1979 1980 1980 1982 1982 1983 1983 1986 1989 1993 1994 1994 1994 1995 1999 1999 1999
: KVK : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : CAD IRDP TRYSEM NREP NARP DWCRA CAPART NAEP RLEGP TMO JRY EAS IVLP MSY PMRY NSAS NATP JGSY SGSY
VARIETIES OF IMPORTANT CROPS: Rice TN-1 : (First introduced drawf variety into India), IR-8, Jaya (Blast Resistant), Padma, Mashuri, Kakatiya, Pusa Basumati, Pusa Jaldidan, Lunisree, Ratna, TKM-6 (Stem borer resistant), Kataribogh (Tungro resistant), ADT-27 (indica x japonica), Santchousong (High protein content), Dee-Gee-Woo-Gen, Bala (Drought resistant), IR-20 (Resistant to Blast, BLB, stemborer, leafhopper). Wheat : Introduction from Mexico: Lerma Rojo and sonara-64. Single gene dwarf varieties: Safed lerma, Sharbati sonara, pusa Lerma, Chotu lerma. Double gene dwarf varieties: Shera, Arjun, Janak. Triple gene dwarf varieties: Heera, Moti. HD series, Kundan, C-306 (drought resistant). Chickpea: Pusa 256 PBG-1 203, Pusa 209: Gaurav ICCC-32, Ajay. Pigeonpea: UPAS-120 9short duration), ICPH-8 (First Hybrid), (Arhar) Pusa 33. Pusa Agati, ICPL 37. Hira, Mukta, Bahar, Prabat. SBH-8. Sugarcane: Noble Canes: CO-419, Co-997 Soybean: Bragg, Lee Clark-63, Shilajeet, Pusa 16, 20, 24, PK-327 Tomato: Pusa Sheetal, Pusa-120, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Margologe, Sioux, Pusa Gauray, Best of All. Mango: Malika (neelam x dasheri) Amrapali (dasheri x neelam) Ratna (neelam x alphonso) Bannana: Poovan (larplur, Chakrakeli), Basrai, Champa Hill Bananas: Sirumali, virupakshi Culinary varieties: Monthan, Gross Mitchell, Mindoli Robusta Rasthali
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Rose: Chitra, Dr. B. P. Pal, Priyadarshini, Nehru Ceremony, Jawhar, Abisarika, Banjara, Randhawa. Califlower: Pusa Deepali, Pusa synthetic, Pusa Katki, Early Snowball, Kanwari , Early, Patna, Patna Main crop, Snowball-16, Suttons Snowball Japanese improved, Dania, Aghani, Poosi. Percenatge 46-52% 44-50% 35-58% 24-36% 33% 20% 37-43%
OIL PERCENTAGE: Crop Sesamum Groundnut Castor Safflower Rape seed and mustard Soybean Niger
: : : : : : :
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20. AGRICULTURAL POINT

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER: U.P has highest total fertilizer consumption Crop under highest irrigation is 1st wheat, 2nd rice. Irrigated area to Net sown area highest in Sugarcane followed by Wheat Largest imported fertilizer is potash. 26 % of Indian population are under below poverty line The parameter to group under BPL is In urban area less than 2100 cal/day In rural area less than 2400 cal/day HORTICULTURE IN INDIA Coconut: Area: kerala>Karnataka>TN Production: Kerala>TN>Karnataka Cashew: Area: Kerala>MH>TN Production:MH>Kerala>AP Tractors: India in 4th position (highest in UP) For India standard ratio for fertilizers has been assumed to be 4: 2: 1. At present only urea constituting more than 60% of the total fertilizer consumption. State having maximum area under irrigation Punjab Major source of irrigation in India canal Maximum area under fruit crops mango Maximum production under fruit crops Banana First agricultural census in India conducted in 1970 As per National forest policy, for ecological balance, the forests cover should be on 1/3rd area (i.e. 33 %) of the country Contribution of Agricultural Research in total productivity growth has been as high as 48 % Nobel Peace Prize (1970) for Green Revolution awarded to U.S scientist Nobel Laureate Dr. N. E Borlaug (Norman Earnest Borlaug) In India, the NPK nutrients ratio being used = 6.5: 2.5:1 as recommended ratio of 4: 2: 1 Animal husbandry output constitutes about 30% of the countrys agricultural output 11 March- Water Resource Day 21 March- World Forest Day 22 March- World Water Day 22 April- World Earth Day 5 June- World Environment Day 1 July- National Agricultural Day 16 July- ICAR Day 16 Oct.- World Food Day 23 Dec.- National Farmers Day SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMES: Command Area Development and Water Management 1974 -05 National Horticultural Mission 2005 May Marine Fishing Policy 2004 National Commission on Farmers 2004 (Head MS Swaminathan) Bharath Nirman 2005-06 National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme 2006 Kisan Credit Card Scheme 1998-99
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National Agriculture Insurance Scheme 1999-2000 Vishesha Krishi Upaj Yojana (Objective Promote agricultural exports in fruits vegetables and flowers National Agricultural Innovation Project July 2006(world bank aided Objective :To boost research and development in agriculture and to create skilled scientific human resource ) National Food Security Mission-2006-07(target for wheat, rice, and pulses to increase the production by 10, 8 and 2 Mt respectively) ABOUT F.A.O. AND W.T.O. FAO Established on Oct 16 1945 head quarter located at Rome (Italy) DG of FAO Jacques Diouf Oct 16 is called as world food day WTO Established on Jan 1 1995 Head quarter of WTO- Geneva Its DG India is founder member of WTO Russia is not the member of WTO WTO is not a wing of UNO WTO is the result of Uruguay round Hot topic in WTO ministerial conference(2008-09)-reduction in agricultural subsidies by developed countries Kyoto protocol Aims at cutting global emissions of green house gases (global warming) this agreement came in to force on Feb, 16, 2005. Till now America hasnt accepted the Kyoto protocol. REVOLUTIONS IN AGRICULTURE Revolution Green Revolution (1966-67) White Revolution Yellow Revolution Grey Revolution Blue Revolution Red Revolution Round Revolution Silver Revolution Pink revolution Golden Revolution Brown Revolution Black Revolution Rainbow Revolution Food chain Revolution Prabhani Revolution : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Related to Food grain production Milk production Oilseeds production Manures and Fertilizers Fish production Meat/tomato production Potato production Egg production/ poultry Prawn production Fruit production(apple) Non- conventional energy source Bio fuel (Jatropha) production Agriculture Reduction in wastage of food grains, fruits and vegetables Okra : : : : : : ICPH-8 (ICRISAT, Hyderabad) BSH-1 (Pro- Agro) H 4 (Surat Farm, Gujarat) Pusa Basmati 1 (IARI) Pusa RH 10 (IARI) CSH 1 and CSH 2 (IARI)
FIRST IN AGRICULTURE Hybrid Pigeon Pea Hybrid sunflower Hybrid cotton Semi-dwarf variety of basmati rice Aromatic Rice Hybrid Sorghum hybrid
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Public sector hybrid of forage Sorghum Mango hybrid for commercial cultivation Public sector insect resistant multicut forage Viral disease Plant Parasitic Nematode Plant Parasitic Bacteria Sorghum high yielding variety Rice variety introduced in India Developed dwarf variety of rice Rice hybrid variety of India Hybrid of Mustard Hybrid variety of Bajra Hybrid developed by using local male parent Man made cereal Rice resistant variety developed for yellow stem Borer Organophosphate compound Napier Bajra (NB) hybrid Hormone Maize hybrid High productive early duration hybrid released by DRR (rice) Country to adopt hybrid rice Hybrid rice released in India Egyptian variety of cotton Super rice variety for saline/alkaline conditions Country to introduce zero tillage Sugarcane variety Scented basmati rice for normal and sodic soils Interspecific variety of cotton Tobacco hybrid Safflower hybrid Crop to have its genome decoded Single cross maize hybrid Pathogenic resistant gene Systemic fungicide Organic fungicide Fungicide Person to record plant diseases Plant to have its genome decoded Autopolyploid variety released commercial cultivation in India Organochlorine compound Carbamate compound Laureate of the world food prize Director general of ICAR President of ICAR : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Pusa Chari Hybrid 106 Mallika (NeelamDasheri) PCH 106 Leaf curl of Tobacco Anguina tritici Fire Blight of apple CSV-1 IR- 8 TN 1 Jaya Pusa Jai Kisan HB 1 Hare Chhole no- 1 Triticale IR- 20 (TN-1 TKM- 6) Parathion Pusa Giant Secretin Ganga 101 (1961) DRR H 2 China APHR-1 and APHR-2 Sujata Lunishree
: USA : Co- 205 : Yamini (CSR 30) : : : : : : : : :
Varalaxmi GTH 1 DSH- 129 Rice Paras HM 1 Carboxin Dithiocarbamate Bordeaux mixture (inorganic in nature) : Theophrastus : Arabidopsis thaliana for : Pusa Giant Berseem : : : : : DDT Sevin/ carbaryl Dr. M.S Swaminathan Dr. B.P Pal Mohammad Habibullah
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Indian scientist who collected and identified : K.R Kirtikar the fungus : G.B university of Agriculture and Agricultural University technology, pantnagar (1960) : J.F Dastur Plant pathologist of India : T.J Burill Plant parasitic bacteria was reported by : Needham Plant parasitic nematode was reported by : Do et al and Ishiit et al. Mycoplasma disease reported by : Iwanowsky Virus was first discovered by : Micheli Scientist to study fungi and their species : Tobacco and tomato Transgenic plant : Bt. Cotton Biotechnological crop introduced in India Hormone artificially produced by culturing : Insulin bacteria : Sporeine Commercial bio insecticide : Ganga- 2 Maize hybrid developed in India : PGSH- 51 00 or canola type/ variety of Gobhi sarson : PPH 4 Short duration pigeon pea hybrid : Fateh LHH- 144 Leaf curl resistant cotton hybrid : Sudan Chari no 1 Sorghum Sudan grass hybrid : Sulphur (powdery mildew of vine) Fungicide used : Paris Green Insecticide used : Bollguard (cry1 Ac gene used ) First Bt cotton variety : Hydrocyanic acid (HCN) Fumigant used : Pusa Meghdoot (bottle gourd) First hybrid in India : SSP Commercial fertilizers : Calcium nitrate First fertilizers used
FATHERS OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES Fathers of Agronomy Agricultural chemistry Antibiotics ATP cycle Biology Botany Bacteriology Biochemistry Cytology Cytoplasmic Inheritance Cooperative movement in India DNA finger printing technique Economic Ecology Ecology Extension Education Experimental Genetics Forest pathology Fermentation Field plot experimentation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Name Pietro Decrescenzi Justus von Liebig Alexander Flemming Lipmann Aristotle Theophrastus Leuwenhoek Justus von Liebig Robert Hooke Carl Correns F. Nicholson Alec Jeffrey Dr. M.S Swaminathan Reiter A. Seaman/ Leagnes Thomas Hunt Morgan Robert Haring Louis Pasteur Jean Baptiste Boussingault
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Fruits and vegetables preservation Genetics Genetic engineering Green Revolution Golden revolution in India Golden rice Hybrid Rice Hybrid cotton Indian phytopathology Indian Rust Indian Mycology Indian Ecology Indian plant breeding Immunology Indian Green Revolution Microbiology Mycology Medicinal Bacteriology Modern Genetics Mutation Theory Modern Botany Modern Cytology Nematology Nitrogen Fixation Ornamental Gardening Plant Pathology Plant Physiology Pedology Parasitology Plant Tissue culture Plant Anatomy Polygenic Inheritance Pure culture technique Sociology Statistics Soil Microbiology Soil testing Technique Super Rice Taxonomy Tillage Virology Weeds White Revolution Zoology Hybrid rice in India : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : M. Nicolas Apart Gregor Johann Mendel Paul Berg Dr. N.E Borlaug Dr. K.L Chadha Dr. Ingo Potrykus Yuan Long Ping C.T Patel E.J Butler Dr. K.C Mehta E.J Butler R. Mishra Dr. B.P Pal Edward Jenner Dr. M.S Swaminathan A.V Leuwenhoek Pler A. Micheli Robert Koch T.H Morgan Hugo de vries Linnaeus/ Bauchin Swanson N. A Cobb Winogradsky M.S Randhawa Anton De Bary Stephen Hales VV Dokuchaev F. Platter G. Haberlandt Grew Kolreuter Oscar Brefeld Auguste compte R.A Fisher S. N Winogradsky M.L Troug Dr. G.S Khush Carolus Linnaeus Jethro Tull W.M Stanley Jethro Tull Dr. Varghese Kurien Aristotle E. A Siddiqe Crops Wheat Maize
FAMOUS NAME OF CROPS Famous Name King of cereals Queen of cereals
: :
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King of fruits Queen of fruits King of temperate fruits King of spices Queen of spices Queen of vegetables Poor mans meat Wonder crop Famine reserves Camel of crops Queen of oilseeds King of oilseeds Queen of fodder crops King of fodder crops Poor mans fruit Vegetable meat Poor mans substitute for ghee Poor mans friend Poor mans food King of arid and semi fruits King of weeds : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Mango Pineapple Apple Black Pepper Cardamom Potato Soybean Soybean Millets Sorghum Sesame Mustard Lucerne Berseem Jackfruit, Ber Cowpea Sesamum Potato Pearl millet Ber Congress grass (Parthenium hysterophorus) Mango Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum Neem Cestrum nocturnum Brinjal Jatropha Rose Dead pupae of silkworm Banana Tomato Maize Banana Avocardo Tea Kiwi fruit Cocoa Oil palm Banana Coconut Sorghum Crops Tobacco, Tea Jute Cotton
: National fruit of India : Glory of East : Autumn queen : Wonder tree : Queen of night : Egg plant : Bio energy plant : Queen of flowers : Brown gold : Apple of paradise Poor mans orange(India) and love of : apple (England) : Drosophila of crop plants : Adams fig : Butter fruit : Queen of beverage crop : Chinas miracle fruit : Food of god : Small holders irrigated crop : Oldest cultivated tropical fruits : Tree of heaven : King of coarse cereals
TERMS AND ASSOCIATED CROPS Terms Curing Stripping Nipping
: : :
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Wrapping Propping Trashing Dapog seedling De-suckering De-tasseling Pegging Retting Ginning Tapping Staking Arrowing Rationing Tipping : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Sugarcane Banana, sugarcane Sugarcane Rice seedling Tobacco, Banana Maize Groundnut Jute Cotton Gram Tomato Sugarcane Sugarcane Tea Related Personality G.S Khush Yuan Long Ping Ingo Potrykus S. Nagarajan Donald N.E Borlaug M.S Swaminathan Varghese Kurien M.S Swaminathan Nitish Kumar K.L Chadha C.D Mayee William Gadd T.S Venkatraman C.T Patel A.P.J Abdul Kalam Related Plants Cotton Lathyrus Rapeseed and mustard Soybean Alfalfa Groundnut Sweet cloven Sorghum Potato Yam Mango Field pea Safflower
CONCEPT AND RELATED PERSONS Concepts Super rice Hybrid rice Golden rice Super wheat Crop ideotype Green Revolution Green revolution in India White Revolution Evergreen revolution in India Rainbow Revolution Golden Revolution Bt. Cotton in India Green Revolution Term Noblization of sugarcane Hybrid cotton PURA concept TOXINS PRODUCED IN PLANTS Toxins Gossypol Neurotoxin Erucic acid Goitrogen Saponin and plant estrogens Aflatoxin Coumarin CN glucocides Steroidal alkaloids Alkaloids Resins Antivitamin E Factor Polyphenolics
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : :
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Tripsin Inhibitor : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Pigeon pea, French bean & soybean French bean Lathyrus sativus White clover Rapeseed and mustard Sunflower Cucurbits Cassava Parts used Juicy placental hairs Mesocarp and endocarp Endosperm Thalamus and pericarp Fleshy thalamus Pericarp and placenta Mesocarp Aril Juicy covering of seed Stalk of fruit and thalamus Seed Cotyledon Fleshy receptacle and thalamus Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth & seed Cotyledon Fleshy axis, bracts, perianth & seed Fleshy layer of pericarp Pericarp and thalamus
Haemaggutinins Lathryrogenes Glucocides Eicosenoic acid Polyphenolics Cucurbitacins CN glucocides PARTS USED IN FRUIT CROPS: Name of fruits Citrus Banana Coconut Guava Apple Grapes Mango Litchi Pomegranate Pear Almond Walnut Fig Pineapple Cashew Jackfruit Bael Jamun
CLIMATERIC: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota NON CLIMATERIC: Litchi, Lemon, Citrus sp, Grape, Pineapple
Minimum support price of Agriculture products (Rs/Quintal) (Based on marketing year, given for 24 major crops by CACP) Crops MSP for 2007-08 MSP for 2008-09 1000 1080 Wheat 650 650 Barley 1600 1600 Gram 1800 1800 Rapeseed/Mustard 1650 2215 Sunflower 2030 2500 Cotton(long staple) 560 840 Bajra 600 840 Jowar-Hybrid 745 930 Paddy-common 775 880 Paddy-grade A 1590 2000 Arhar
MSP for 2009-10 1100 750 1760 2500 1000 2300
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Critical stages of Irrigation:

Name of Crops Sorghum Maize Rice Wheat Pearl millet Gram Soybean Groundnut Sunflower Cotton Sugarcane : : : : : : : : : : : Critical growth stages Primordial initiation, flag leaf, flowering and grain development Tasseling, silking and grain development Tillering, panicle initiation, milk stage Crown root initiation, tillering, boot leaf stage, dough stage Tillering, flowering Branching, Pod development Flowering, Grain development Branching, peg penetration, pod development Seedling, Bud initiation, flowering Square formation, ball formation, ball development Seedling, tillering, ground growth Caused due to Molybdenum deficiency Molybdenum deficiency Molybdenum deficiency Molybdenum deficiency Molybdenum deficiency Potassium deficiency Manganese deficiency Manganese deficiency Manganese deficiency Manganese deficiency Manganese deficiency Copper deficiency Copper deficiency Copper deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Boron deficiency Zinc deficiency Zinc deficiency
NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES IN PLANTS Symptoms/diseases Whip tail in cauliflower Browning in cauliflower Downward cupping in radish Scald of leaves Yellow spot in citrus Drying black tips of shoots Grey speck of oats Speckled yellows of sugar beet Marsh spots of peas Pahala blight of sugarcane Frenching of Tung trees Die back of shoots in citrus Little leaf in citrus Rough bark and cracking in apple Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower Heart rot of sugar beet and Marigold Top sickness of tobacco Snake heads in walnuts Internal necrosis in mango Hen and chicken disorder of grape fruit Corking and pitting of fruits in tomatoes Internal necrosis in aonla Brown heart of turnip Fruit cracking of tomato and pomegranate Crown choking in coconut White bud of maize Khaira disease of rice
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
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Apple (bitter pit) Leaf bronzing in litchi Little leaf in mango, litchi, cashew Leaf scorch in mango Buttoning in cauliflower Tip burn of rice Jonathan spot of apple Bitter pit of apple Interveinal chlorosis in apple and citrus Black heart of potato : : : : : : : : : : Zinc deficiency Zinc deficiency Zinc deficiency Excess of cl ions in water/ or excess of MOP Nitrogen deficiency O2 deficiency and excess of zinc Water deficiency Calcium Magnesium deficiency Oxygen deficiency
MINERAL NUTRIENTS AND THEIR AVAILABLE FORMS: Nutrients Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium magnesium Sulphur Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Molybdenum Boron : : : : : : : : : : : : Plant part first affected Older leaves Older leaves Older leaves Young leaves Older leaves First in new leaves New leaves Older leaves Small yellow new leaves New leaves Older / younger leaves New leaves Saline soils < 8.5 >4 < 15 : : : : : : : : : : : : Sodic soils < 8.5 >4 > 15 Available forms NO3-, NH4+ ions H2Po42-, Po43- ions K+ ions Ca+ ions Mg2+ So42-, So2 from air Fe2+, Fe 3+, FeSo4 with EDTA Mn4+, Mn3+, and Mn2+ Zn2+, ZnSo4 with EDTA Cu2+ or Cu+, CuSo4 with EDTA Mo3+, Molybdate ions Bo33-, H2Bo3-, HBo32Alkali soils > 8.5 <4 > 15
PROBLEM SOILS: Parameter pH EC ESP
CROP PRODUCTION UPDATES RICE (Oryza sativa): Chromosome no. 2n = 24 Origin South- East Asia Rice is the staple diet of 2.7 billion people in the world It occupies 150 m ha, producing about 573 Mt with average productivity of 3.83 t/ha India is the largest growing country in the world (44.6 m ha) China is the largest producer of rice There are 21 species in Genus Oryza, of these 2 are cultivated species: O. Sativa (ASIA) and O. glaberrima (AFRICA) O. sativa have 3 varietal group : Indica (tropical), Japonica (temperate), Javanica (Intermediate) India has richest rice germplasm collection in the world The process of tillering start in Rice 10 DAP Rice grain is a caryopsis type of fruit
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Rice inflorescence is called panicle Optimum temperature for rice is 20-35C Rice is a short day plant Three system of rice cultivation 1. Dry cultivation Rainfed 2. Semi dry cultivation After 45-60 days treated as wet crop 3. Wet cultivation 3-5 cm standing water 45 % of rice grown is under irrigated condition There are 3 type of nursery 1. Wet nursery: 25-30 days (age of seedlings) 2. Dry nursery: 20-25 days 3. Dapog nursery: 14 day (30 m2 for 1 ha, 1 kg/m2). Introduced from Philippines 10 % yield loss caused by weeds in rice Punjab, Haryana, and western U.P are traditional basmati area in the country Pusa Basmati is world first high yielding, semi-dwarf Basmati variety Rice hybrid technology based on 3 line breeding (A line, B line & R line) Paddy harvested at 20 % moisture and stored at 14 % Zn deficiency cause Khaira disease in rice (control : 25 kg znso4/ha) Blast disease is major problem in rainfed upland, rainfed lowland and hill area Neck blast damage is severe in Basmati varieties Chlorophyll meter method and leaf colour chart used for leaf N status determination (crude method) Maximum rice exporter Thailand 3 types of rice cultivation in India: 1. Aus/Autumn: August-September. 2. Aman/Kharif/Winter: 3. Boro/Summer: April-May Highest productivity Japan Rice protein is called Oryzein Wheat (Triticum aestivum): Chromosome no 2n = 42 Origin Asia minor It is second important food crop in the country Four species: Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat), T. Durum (Durum or macaroni wheat), T. diccocum (Emmer wheat), T. spherococcum Wheat revolution in 1967, due to variety HD 2329 India is second in terms of area and production Before green revolution all varieties in India were tall type Seed rate = 100 kg/ha Variety HD 2009, Up 262 and HD 2189 shows rust resistance In wheat, crown root initiation (CRI) is critical stage Phalaris minor is major weed in wheat fields Zinc and sulphur deficiency reported in Punjab, part of Haryana, west U.P and Delhi Mn deficiency reported in Punjab Wheat diseases: three type of rust
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1. Leaf/Brown: Puccinia recondita 2. Stripe / yellow: P. striiformis 3. Stem / black: P. graminis tritici Wheat grains stored well in less than 10 % moisture content Wheat protein is called Glutenin Barley (Hordeum vulgare): Lugri is a fermented drink developed from Hull less barley grains pearl barley is suited for Kidney disorders Seed rate 75-80 kg/ha Critical stage in barley is active tillering stage (30-35 DAS) Resistance variety: RD 2052 Molya disease Alfa 93, RD 2503, Rekha malting quality Maize (Zea mays): Quality protein maize (QPM) varieties released by using opaque 2 genes. Varieties Shaktiman 1 & 2, HQPM 1, Sakti 1 Hybrid varieties Ganga 1, Deccan 107, 109 Composites Parbhat, pratap, Pusa comp.2, Pusa comp1 Seed rate -20 kg/ha Maize grain contains 8-10 % protein & 4-5% oil Sweet maize variety African tall Sweet corn variety Composite madhuri and priya Pop corn variety Amber, V L Amber, Pearl popcorn Baby corn VL 42, Prakash Maize protein is called Zein Critical stages Tasseling, milking stage MILLETS: Millets belongs to C4 group of plants Higher productivity among the millet- Finger millet Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor): 2n = 20 Seed rate = 18 kg / ha Hybrids : CSH 1 to 6, CSH 9,10, 11, 13, 16, 17,18 Major pest: Shoot fly, stem borer, midge, ear head bug HCN (Dhurin) present in early stage (40-50 days) Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum): 2n = 14 Seed rate = 5 kg/ ha 80 % phosphorus in grain stored in the form of phytate Productivity high in UP>Gujarat> Haryana Others: Finger millet (Eleusine coracana), 2n = 36 Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), 2n = 40 Fox tail millet (Setaria italia), 2n = 18 Proso millet (Panicum millaceum), 2n = 36 Little millet (Panicum sumatranse), 2n = 36
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The inflorescence of sugarcane is called Arrow PULSES: It is important dietary protein Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), 2n = 16 Pigeon pea (Cajunus cajan), 2n = 22, highly sensitive to frost Green gram (Vigna radiata), 2n = 22. Very sensitive to water logging Black gram (Vigna mungo), 2n = 22 French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), 2n = 22 Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), 2n = 22 Lentil (Lens culinaris) Field pea (Pisum sativum) Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus) WEEDS: The term weed was firstly used by Jethro Tull Weed is plant out of place Relative weed e.g. rice in wheat field Absolute weed e.g. Cyperus rotundus Mimicry weed e.g. Phalaris in wheat field and wild rice in the field Noxious weeds e.g. Parthenium National research centre for weed science located at Jabalpur (1988) Selective herbicide Simazine, Atrazine, 2, 4- D, MCPA, Butachlor, Pendimethalin, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin Non-selective herbicide Diquat, Paraquat Systemic herbicide propanil, 2,4-d, Atrazine, Simazine Contact herbicide Paraquat, Diquat 2,4-D used for broad leaved weeds IRRIGATION: Measured by Tensiometer Drip irrigation discovered in Israel Egypt has 100 % cultivate area under irrigation Sprinkler method of irrigation can provide protection against frost The method of irrigation suitable for row crops is Furrow method Check basin method is the most common method among the surface methods of irrigation USA has the highest area under drip irrigation Maharashtra has the highest area under drip irrigation Haryana has the highest area under sprinkler irrigation
AGROFORESTRY Agro forestry is a form of multiple cropping The systemic research in agro-forestry is taken by ICRAF ICRAF = International Centre for Research In agro-forestry National Research Centre for Agro-forestry Jhansi (1988) The most important agro-forestry practice is known from the kangeyan tract of Tamil nadu (Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus) Agri-silviculture = trees + crops Alley cropping =perennial hedges + crops
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Agri-horticulture = fruit trees + crops Agri Silvi horticulture = trees + fruit trees + crops Agri-silviculture = trees + crops + pasture or animals Silvi- olericulture = trees + vegetables Horti pasture = fruit trees + pasture/animals Silvi pasture = trees + pasture/animals Horti-apiculture = fruit trees + honeybees Aqua forestry = trees + fishes Taungya originated from Myanmar; it means hill cultivation Alnus nepalensis is non-leguminous nitrogen fixing tree Allelopathy refers to inhibition of growth of one plant by chemical compounds from the neighbouring plants. Agro-forestry tree species having allelopathic effect on crop: Tree species Effect on: 1. Alnus nepalensis 2. Casuarina equisetifolia 3. Eucalyptus tereticornis 4. Gliricidia sepium 5. Leucaena leucocephala Glycine max Cowpea, sorghum, sunflower Cowpea, Sorghum, sunflower, potato Maize, rice, tropical grasses Maize, rice, cowpea, sorghum, sunflower
Entomology updates
The pesticide consumption is maximum in Andhra Pradesh and Pondicherry (union territories ) Per ha. Consumption is maximum in Punjab Lowest pesticide consumption state - Mizoram Monocrotophos is the highest consumed pesticide in India followed by Endosulfan Examples of Polyphagous pest Termite, Helicoverpa armigera, Locust, White grub Cotton consume highest pesticide (54%) In Fruits, Apple consumed highest pesticide and in vegetables, Cauliflower consumes the highest pesticide DIPA (Destructive Insect and pest act) passed in 1914 Insecticide act 1968 International pest/ pandemic pest Locust (Schistocera gregaria ) NRC, IPM located in New Delhi, IARI Directorate of Biological control Bengaluru, Karnataka Directorate of plant protection, quarantine and storage (DPPQS) Faridabad, Haryana Central plant protection training institute Hyderabad Central vector control research institute - Pondicherry Entomopathogenic virus NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus), GV (Granulosis virus) Entomopathogenic bacteria Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) for Lepidoptera Entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae Entomopathogenic nematode DD 136 (Nesaplettana carpocapsae) Insects which attack at night cutworm, Armyworm, wheat stem borer (Sesamia inferens) The word larval equivalent is associated with Virus Crop for attracting insects Trap crop
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Examples of systemic insecticides Rogor (Dimethoate), Metasystox, Phosphamidon, Monocrotophos, Phorate Examples of contact insecticides Malathion, Parathion, chloropyriphos Soil insecticide Carbofuran 3G, Phorate 10G
INSECT VECTORS OF PLANT DISEASES 1.) Aphids : Tobacco mosaic Aphis gossypii Cucumber mosaic - Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae Crucifer mosaic A. brassicae Papaya mosaic Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii Groundnut rosette virus - Aphis craccivora Cowpea mosaic - Aphis craccivora and A. gossypii Sugar beet yellow mosaic Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) Potato leaf roll and crinkle disease - Myzus persicae Potato virus x - Myzus persicae Bean mosaic and potato mosaic - Myzus persicae Katte disease of cardamom Pentalonia nigronervosa Foorkey disease of cardamom - Pentalonia nigronervosa Banana mosaic - Pentalonia nigronervosa Banana bunchy top - Pentalonia nigronervosa Chilli mosaic - Aphis gossypii 2.) Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) Cotton mosaic Cotton leaf curl Tapioca mosaic Chilli mosaic Tobacco leaf curl Papaya leaf curl Vein clearing disease (okra) Tobacco spotted wilt Thrips tabaci and whitefly Bhendi yellow mosaic Pulse yellow mosaic 3.) Green leaf hopper (Nephottetix virescens): Rice grassy stunt Rice transitory yellowing Rice Tungro - Nephottetix virescens and Recilia dorsalis Rice yellow dwarf 4.) Zig- Zag leaf hopper (Recilia dorsalis): Rice dwarf Rice orange leaf 5.) Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Tomato spotted wilt Soybean spotted wilt Frankliniella scultzei Chilli leaf curl Scirtothrips dorsalis 6.) Eriophyid mite: Red gram sterility mosaic Aceria cajani Sugarcane steak mosaic Aceria sacchari Wheat streak mosaic Aceria tulipae Mango bud mite Aceria mangiferae 7.) Mealy bug:
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Sugarcane Saccharcoccus sacchari Pineapple Dysmicoccus brivipes Citrus greening Psyllid (Diaphorina citri) 8.) Mycoplasma disease: Sandal spike disease Jassus indicus (Hopper) Sesamum Phyllody Leaf hopper (Orosius albicinctus) Rice yellow dwarf Green leaf hopper Little leaf of brinjal Hopper (Cestius phycitis) NEMATODES: 1.) Wheat: Cereal cyst nematode Heterodera avenae (Molya disease) Seed gall / ear cockle nematode Anguina tritici 2.) Paddy: White tip nematode Aphelenchoides besseyi Rice stem nematode Ditylenchus angustus (Ufra disease) Rice cyst nematode Heterodera oryzicola Rice knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola 3.) Citrus: Citrus nematode Tylenchulus semipenetrans Lesion nematode Pratylenchus coffeae 4.) Banana: Burrowing nematode Radopholus similus 5.) Potato: Golden cyst nematode Globodera rostochiensis, G. pallida Tuber rot nematode Ditylenchus destructor 6.) Tobacco: Root knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica Things to remember: Potato cyst nematode is a quarantine objective Biological control Pseudomonas is antagonistic to the nematodes Tagetes is a trap crop for many nematodes Nematodes cannot be grown on artificial media to obtain material for inoculation Endoparasitic nematode Meloidogyne Maximum number of plant parasitic nematode belongs to - Tylenchida order
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General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS

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General Agriculture Notes For ICAR and ARS

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2010-11

(Based on Authorized and Current information)

Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi-110012

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

V1 = V2 x N2 (500 lit of spray fluid in required/ha) N2 500x0.5 = = 5 liters 50

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Where, cr = total capital required Co = initial capital expenditure

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Grey or Areolate mildew Common control

Bengal gram: (1) Wilt (2) Root rot (3) Blight

Compiled by: R S Maitry (Ph.D Scholor, IARI, New Delhi), roop.iari@gmail.com

Thread like (DNA + Nucleoprotein) Globular synthesis