Kaluza-Klein Theory

Gilad Amar
Physics Honours Research Project
Supervisor - Vishnu Jejjala
University of the Witwatersrand, School of Physics
October 25, 2012
Abstract
Kaluza-Klein Theory is an extension of general relativity into ve di-
mensions. The extension provides a way of embedding four-dimensional
general relativity and electromagnetism into a unied theory. This serves
as the motivation behind many modern-day unication theories. In this
paper we give a pedagogical exploration of Kaluza-Klein theory. We derive
the main results and explore some of the consequences.
1
Contents
1 Introduction 3
2 Outline of General Relativity 3
3 Covariant Electromagnetism 4
4 Kaluzas Concept 6
5 Kaluza-Klein Theory 7
5.1 Kleins Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2 The Hint of Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3 Eective Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Finding the Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.5 Kaluza-Klein Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.6 Charge Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.7 Size of Compact Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6 A Fifth Dimension? 16
7 Further Research 18
8 Conclusion 19
9 Appendix 19
9.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9.2 Manifold Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2
1 Introduction
Early after Einsteins invention of general relativity, physicists embarked on an
eort to unify his theory with the other known force of electromagnetism. Gun-
nar Nordstrom rst discovered a method of splitting ve-dimensional space-time
into the Einstein and Maxwell equations of four dimensions in 1914. In April
1919, unaware Nordstroms earlier work, Kaluza developed a similar theory.
Behind the theory was the postulate of a fth dimension that all elds are inde-
pendent of. Such a postulate is known as the cylinder condition. In addition, he
postulated that there would be no fth dimensional matter. The mathematical
structure of general relativity would then be extended to ve dimensions and ap-
plied to ve-dimensional space-time without any changes. Solving the Einsteins
equations for general relativity in ve dimensions, he saw the electromagnetism
tensor equations emerge. Kaluza wrote about his discovery to Einstein who
encouraged him to publish, which he did in a 1921 paper. In 1926, Oskar Klein
assumed the fth dimension is spatial, which required that it be curled up, or
compacted, in a circle with a radius the order of the Planck length. This sug-
gestion makes the cylinder condition seem less articial by supplying a plausible
physical basis for it. In our experience of space-time, we would never be unable
to directly perceive this added dimension. The original 1921 theory, ignored
for decades, regained interest in the 1970s during the advent of string theory.
It has since provided an incentive for more advanced modern-day theories that
utilize extra dimensions. M-theory utilizes eleven-dimensional space-time in an
attempt to be the grand unied theory of Physics embedding all known four
forces and particles in one coherent theory.
2 Outline of General Relativity
As this paper is not a discussion about the theory of general relativity(GR),
this outline will contain no derivations nor detailed explanations. Of funda-
mental importance is the Christoel symbol. The Christoel symbol is used to
distinguish partial derivatives from covariant ones. In partial dierentiation the
basis vectors do not change; this would lead to quantities that are variant under
coordinate transforms. The Christoel symbol is used in covariant dierentia-
tion to account for the fact that basis vectors change, and gives quantities that
are invariant under coordinate transformations. The Christoel symbol can be
found from the relation between itself and the metric,

=
1
2
g

]. (1)
We can now calculate the Riemann curvature tensor,
R

,
+

(2)
The Riemann curvature tensor contains all the information regarding the man-
ifolds curvature. Only in at space will all of the components be zero. The
3
Riemann curvature tensor has the useful properties that
R

= R

= R

, (3)
R

= R

, (4)
R

+ R

+ R

= 0. (5)
There are two contractions of this tensor which are important.
The Ricci tensor
R

= R

. (6)
The Ricci Scalar
R = R

= g

. (7)
G

, the Einstein tensor, is dened by

G

1
2
Rg

= 8GT

(8)
where T

is the Energy Momentum tensor. The left-hand side contains in-

formation about the metric, the curvature of space-time. The right-hand side
contains all the information about the energy and momentum of matter elds.
In GR, particles move along geodesics, the generalized form of a straight
line in curved space. Geodesics can be thought of as dening the shortest
distance between two points. The geodesic equation
d
2
x

d
2
+

dx

d
dx

d
= 0 (9)
where
= a + b. (10)
The geodesic equation means the path that a particle will follow is related to
the metric of the manifold. From the Einstein equation, we know the metric is
related to the matter and momentum content of space-time. Space-time tells
matter how to move; matter tells space-time how to curve. In GR, there is
no force of gravity pushing particles o the straight line paths. The particles
move along geodesics, dened by the distribution of matter itself. If there are
other forces present, the particles will diverge from their geodesics. An example
would be a person standing on earth. In the absence of a normal force acting
up on the persons feet, they would follow the geodesic of free-fall. The normal
force causes a diverging trajectory from that geodesic.
3 Covariant Electromagnetism
In this paper, we will look at the equations of electromagnetism(EM) that are
deduced from the Kaluza-Klein metric. It would be no good to have these
4
equations fall out, only to be unrecognized for what they are. The four Maxwells
equations in vector form are:

.

E = (11)

.

B = 0 (12)



E =

B
t
(13)



B =

J +


E
t
(14)
where

E is the electric eld and

B the magnetic eld. The sources for the
electromagnetic elds are , as the charge density, and

J as the current density.
Working with the metric of GR, which we will address, we will extract tensor
quantities. In order to make meaningful comparisons we are required to put
EM in tensor form. We dene new quantities to do so. The 4-Current
J = (,

J ). (15)
The 4-Potential
A = (,

A). (16)
As

E is conservative, it can be the gradient of a scalar potential , used in the
4-potential. Skipping the derivation, we nd that in tensor form the Maxwells
equations are

= 4J

, (17)

= 0. (18)
F

is a rank two antisymmetric tensor, called the Electromagnetic Field tensor,

given by
F

. (19)
A partial derivative with an upper index is nothing more than

= g

.
These tensor equations are true in Minkowski space, that of special relativity,
but not on a general manifold. There is no issue combining GR with EM. The
tensor equations of EM will be true in any inertial frame in GR. Therefore, all
that is required is to make a coordinate transformation to a non-inertial frame.
For the equations to be in a curved space, the partial derivatives are simply
replaced with covariant ones. Maxwells tensor equations in general coordinates
are

= J

, (20)

= 0. (21)
where is some constant. Consequently, these equations can be made to nat-
urally appear out of a theory that is purely one of gravity and not that of EM
put into a GR world.
5
4 Kaluzas Concept
Kaluzas introduction of a fth space dimension in Riemannian space is intro-
duced by modifying the symmetric metric tensor g

to include a fth allowable

value for the indices. Shown as a matrix
g
AB
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
g
00
g
01
g
02
g
03
kA
0
g
01
g
11
g
12
g
13
kA
1
g
02
g
12
g
22
g
23
kA
2
g
03
g
13
g
23
g
33
kA
3
kA
0
kA
1
kA
2
kA
3
k
_
_
_
_
_
_
where A

is a vector and k a scaling constant. None of the entries are functions

of the fth coordinate. As such, all derivatives (covariant or otherwise) with
respect to the fth coordinate are zero. The label of A

is done with the fore-

knowledge that this will later be identied with the electromagnetic 4-potential.
For now, consider A

as an unidentied vector.
Now we examine the geodesic equation, keeping in mind that the indices can
take values from 0 to 4:
d
2
x
A
ds
2
+

A
BD
dx
B
ds
dx
D
ds
= 0. (22)
I have taken care to dierentiate between

and . The former is the Christoel

symbol in 5D, the latter the Christoel symbol in usual 4D. Please refer to the
appendix to clarify this point of notation.
Now the Christoel symbol is expanded into a sum of two parts. A sum over
4D components, and a term involving the fth. We nd

A
BC
=
1
2
g
A
[
C
g
B
+
B
g
C

g
BC
] +
1
2
g
A4
[
C
g
B4
+
B
g
C4

4
g
BC
]. (23)
The last term is zero as it is a derivative with respect to the fth dimension.
Therefore

A
BC
=
1
2
g
A
( g
B,C
+ g
C,B
g
BC,
) +
1
2
g
A4
(g
B5,C
+ g
C4,B
). (24)
Consider the geodesic equation for only the rst four indices i.e. A = . Ex-
panding the second term, generates a further two terms where B = D = 4 and
where B = 4 and D = (this is symmetric with the term B = and D = 4)
d
2
x

ds
2
+

dx

ds
dx

ds
+ 2

4
dx
4
ds
dx

ds
+

44
dx
4
ds
dx
4
ds
= 0. (25)
The equation requires us to nd the Christoel symbols,

4
and

44
.
It follows in a straightforward manner from our expansion of the Christoel
symbol. Simply change the indices of equation (24) to that of the Christoel
symbol we look for. Delete terms that are are being dierentiated with respect to
6
x
4
, g
,4
as an example. Also delete constant terms that are being dierentiated
like g
44,
. The result for

4
is then

4
=
1
2
g

( g
4,
+ g
4,
), (26)

44
= 0. (27)
Making use of the above, the expanded geodesic equation results in
d
2
x

ds
2
+

dx

ds
dx

ds
= k
dx
4
ds
F

dx

ds
k g
4
A
,
dx

ds
dx
4
ds
(28)
where F

A
,
A
,
. Let us pause for a moment to consider what we
have. The rst term on the right-hand side looks like the Lorentz force term of
a charged particle. The Lorentz force term accounts for the deviation a particle
from the usual geodesic. To match the term we must identify k
dx
4
ds
as the charge
to mass ratio
e
m
. Kaluza reasoned that the fth dimension might then be related
to electrodynamics, where g
4
is the electromagnetic 4-potential and dx
4
/ds a
kind of charge current. In addition to the the Lorentz-like term we have another.
This term contains A
,
that does not transform like a tensor quantity. This
means that g
AB
cannot be a true tensor unless g
4
= 0. However g
4
= 0 is
inconsistent with the form of the inverse g
AB
that cannot possibly have zeros in
such positions. I have not included the determinant nor the metric inverse. Both
have exceedingly long expressions and are unnecessary for illustrating Kaluzas
idea. g
AB
is not a tensor which is a major failing of Kaluzas presented theory.
This was the basic idea that Kaluza outlined in his letter to Einstein in 1919.
5 Kaluza-Klein Theory
5.1 Kleins Insight
In 1926, Oskar Klein published the rst of two papers in the same vein as
Kaluzas concept. Much like Kaluza was unaware of Nordstroms work, Klein
was unaware of Kaluzas. Klein proposed that the metric take the form of:
g
AB
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
g
00
+ kA
0
A
0
g
01
+ kA
0
A
1
g
02
+ kA
0
A
2
g
03
+ kA
0
A
3
kA
0
g
01
+ kA
0
A
1
g
11
+ kA
1
A
1
g
12
+ kA
1
A
2
g
13
+ kA
1
A
3
kA
1
g
02
+ kA
0
A
2
g
12
+ kA
1
A
2
g
22
+ kA
2
A
2
g
23
+ kA
2
A
3
kA
2
g
03
+ kA
0
A
3
g
13
+ kA
1
A
3
g
23
+ kA
2
A
3
g
33
+ kA
3
A
3
kA
3
kA
0
kA
1
kA
2
kA
3
k
_
_
_
_
_
_
Using the inverse of the four-dimensional metric g

and A

we can identify the

form of the inverse. Given by the identity g
AB
g
AD
=
D
B
we derive
g
AB
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
g
00
g
01
g
02
g
03
A
0
g
01
g
11
g
12
g
13
A
1
g
02
g
12
g
22
g
23
A
2
g
03
g
13
g
23
g
33
A
3
A
0
A
1
A
2
A
3
k
_
_
_
_
_
_
7
which can be easily veried.
The metric determinant was calculated using cofactor expansion. The de-
terminant was calculated for g
AB
and then for g
AB
. All terms containing A

are found to cancel and we are left with the determinant simply being
g = kg, (29)
the determinant of the four-dimensional metric g

multiplied by the factor k.

Clearly the determinant is not a function of the vector eld A

at all. Kleins
metric has a simpler inverse and determinant than Kaluzas. Following the same
procedure as we did with Kaluzas metric, we look at the geodesic equation of
four dimensions. The Christoel symbols need to be determined:
We substitute in the values for the g
AB
and g
AB
in our expansion for the
Christoel symbols from the last section. Including substitutions of the metric

=
1
2
g

[(g

+ kA

)
,
+ (g

+ kA

)
,
(g

+ kA

)
,
]

1
2
A

[(kA

)
,
+ (kA

)
,
]
Further manipulation obtains

+ kA

. (30)
Take note that we have the ve-dimensional

as a function of the four-dimensional

plus some other term. We get the four-dimensional

after separating out

1
2
g

(g
,
+ g
,
g
,
). There are two more required Christoel symbols
we need to obtain. Substitution of the metric components into equation (26)
yields

4
=
1
2
g

(kA
,
+kA
,
) (31)
=
1
2
kF

. (32)

44
is again equal to zero. Now we take all the Christoel symbols and again
plug them into our expanded geodesic equation.
d
2
x

ds
2
+

dx

ds
dx

ds
= kF

dx

ds
dx
4
ds
kA

dx

ds
dx

ds
(33)
The Lorentz force term is again reproduced with one important dierence. It
is not accompanied by the production of the non-covariant term A
,
. This
expression is fully covariant, though we have no physical meaning as yet for the
A

term.
5.2 The Hint of Electrodynamics
Aside from recovering a Lorentz-like term, little else has been provided in the
support of A

as the electromagnetic 4-potential. Kaluza and Klein, for further

8
support of this being the case, considered an innitesimal change in the new
coordinate. The change is given by
x

4
= x
4
+ f(x

), (34)
where f is a scalar function of x

. The innitesimal change in x

4
for an in-
nitesimal change in all coordinates is then
dx
4
= dx
4
+ f
,
dx

. (35)
The dierence between the initial and nal coordinate of x

4
, denoted by x
4
,
is
dx
4
= dx

4
dx
4
= f
,
dx

. (36)
The line element is expanded into two terms containing the fth index, and a
sum over the 4D indices
d s
2
= g
AB
dx
A
dx
B
(37)
= g

dx

dx

+ 2 g
4
dx

dx
4
+ g
44
dx
4
dx
4
. (38)
Following substitutions for the metric elements
d s
2
= g

dx

dx

+ kA

dx

dx

+ 2kA

dx

dx
4
+ kdx
4
dx
4
. (39)
So what is the change in the ve-dimensional line element, denoted by d s
2
? If
the four-dimensional line element ds
2
is invariant, which it must be, then the
the change in d s
2
is
d s
2
= 2kA

dx

dx

+ 2kdx

dx
4
A

+ 2kA

dx

dx
4
+ 2kdx
4
dx
4
. (40)
Replacing dx
4
with f
,
dx

from equation (36)

d s
2
= 2kdx

dx
4
(A

+ f
,
) + 2kA

dx

dx

(A

+ f
,
). (41)
For the ve-dimensional line element to be invariant this means that
A

= A

+ f
,
. (42)
The transformation of the coordinate x
4
introduces a gauge transformation on
A

. The electromagnetic 4-potential has such a gauge transformation property.

The gauge transformation is just the symmetry introduced by adding the fth
dimension. The addition of the Lorentz-like term in the geodesic equations
suggests that EM can indeed be embedded within higher dimensional GR. There
is yet more reason to identify A

with the 4-potential, which we will look at

systematically.
9
5.3 Eective Field Equations
It would be appropriate to rst discuss the assumptions that are going into
the theory for this section. Kaluza-Klein theory uses the GR equations as they
stand without any modication, merely extending the indices to go from 0 to
4. Kaluza put the cylinder condition into the very rst model. In the more
general Kaluza-Klein model, it remains. Additionally, as we do not wish to
have a higher dimensional GR come out, the 5D Einstein equation has a zero
Stress-Energy tensor. The consequences of which we shall explore later. All
that is left is to identify the form of the ve-dimensional metric.
A convenient way to parameterize the Kaluza-Klein Metric is
g
AB
=
_
g

+
2
k
2
A

2
kA

2
kA

2
_
This is more general than the Klein metric used before. We have introduced
which well nd out later, is a scalar eld permeating space-time. k is used to
scale the 4-potential.
The inverse is identied as
g
AB
=
_
g

kA

kA
1

2
+ k
2
A
2
_
a neat inverse that is easily veried. The Einstein equation in ve dimensions
is

G
AB
=

R
AB

1
2

R g
AB
= 8G

T
AB
. (43)
We started with the assumption that

T
AB
= 0. As this is equal to the Einstein
tensor by a factor, the Einstein tensor too will be zero,
8GT
AB
=

G
AB
= 0. (44)
Therefore
0 =

R
AB

1
2

R g
AB
, (45)
where

R = g
AB

R
AB
. (46)
This requires that

R
AB
= 0. (47)
This is the same procedure in solving the Einstein equation of 4D in a vacuum.
In this case it is quite long and tedious but the method can shown without lling
up too many pages. Firstly we need to get the Christoel symbols. There is no
real shortcut here.

A
BC
=
1
2
g
AD
[
C
g
BD
+
B
g
CD

D
g
BC
]. (48)
10
This can be split into a sum over 4D components, and a term involving the fth.

A
BC
=
1
2
g
A
[
C
g
B
+
B
g
C

g
BC
] +
1
2
g
A4
[
C
g
B4
+
B
g
C4

4
g
BC
]. (49)
The last term is zero as it is a derivative with respect to the fth dimension.
The Ricci tensor in 5D is

R
AB
=

D
AB,D

D
AD,B
+

D
AB

E
DE

E
AF

F
BD
. (50)
Expand the Christoel symbols into 4D sums and a term of the fth index. (Take
note, in the sample calculations to follow I have excluded the normalization
constant k which can easily be re-substituted at the end.)

R
AB
=

AB,

A,B

4
A4,B
+

AB

AB

4
4
(51)

4
A

B4

A4

4
B

4
A4

4
B4
, (52)
having deleted terms that are zero such as

4
A,4
,

4
and

4
44
.
Setting A = and B = 4 we get

R
4
=

4,
+

4
. (53)
Similarly where A = B = 4

R
44
=

4
. (54)
To illustrate how these terms are calculated, we will start with

R
44
. Start
by expanding the Christoel symbols and delete the zero terms

R
44
=
1
4
g

[ g
4,
g
4,
][ g
4,
g
4,
]. (55)
Now substitute the values in for g
AB
and g
AB
and we obtain

R
44
=
1
4
g

[(
2
A

)
,
(
2
A

)
,
][(
2
A

)
,
(
2
A

)
,
]. (56)
The

R
4
term is calculated in the same way.

R
4
=

_
1
2
g

( g
4,
g
4,
)
_
+
_
1
2
g

( g
4,
g
4,
)
_ _
1
2
g

( g
,
+ g
,
g
,
) +
1
2
g
4
( g
4,
+ g
4,
)
_

_
1
2
g

( g
4,
g
4,
)
_ _
1
2
g

( g
,
+ g
,
g
,
) +
1
2
g
4
( g
4,
+ g
4,
)
_
Now we substitute in for g
AB
and g
AB

R
4
=

_
1
2
g

((
2
A

)
,
(
2
A

)
,
)
_
11
+
1
2
g

_
(
2
A

)
,
(
2
A

)
,

1
2
_
g

((g

+
2
A

)
,
+ (g

+
2
A

)
,
(g

2
A

)
,
) A

((
2
A

)
,
+ (
2
A

)
,
)

1
2
g

_
(
2
A

)
,
(
2
A

)
,

1
2
_
g

((g

+
2
A

)
,
+ (g

+
2
A

)
,
(g

2
A

)
,
) A

((
2
A

)
,
+ (
2
A

)
,
)

The term

R

is signicantly larger, but follows in exactly the same manner.

Clearly this expression becomes large pretty quickly. From here it takes a bit
of massaging to get into a neat simple form. The Ricci tensor is much easier to
work with if we use as a constant. We set = 1, from which we get

= R

1
2
k[A

;
+A

;
] +
1
4
k[F

+F

]
1
4
k
2
A

,
(57)

R
4
=
1
2
kF

1
4
k
2
A

, and (58)

R
44
=
1
4
k
2
F

(59)
The eld equations are
G

= 8G
2
T

, (60)

= 0 (61)
where we identify k

16G. T

1
4
g

is the electromag-
netic Stress-Energy tensor and G

is the four- dimensional Einstein tensor.

The second eld equation is obtained by re-substituting backward for

R
44
= 0
into

R
4
. Substituting both

R
44
and

R
4
into

R

results in the rst eld

equation.
The more general solution is even messier. Plodding through the long deriva-
tion yields the more general eld equations
G

=
k
2

2
2
T

) g

2], (62)

= 3

, (63)
2 =
k
2

3
4
F

(64)
where 2 is the DAlembertion operator, short for g

. The single ve-

dimensional tensor eld equation has been reduced to three four-dimensional
eld equations. Looking at the free indices, we see that there are 10+4+1 = 15
equations. There are only ten equations from the rst eld equation as G

is
12
symmetric. These 15 equations correspond with the 15 independent elements
in the ve-dimensional metric.
These are the original results that Klein found. The rst equation is the one
we recognize from GR, the Einstein equation. The second equation we recog-
nize as the covariant tensor equation for F

in the absence of a current. Put

succinctly, the Einstein equation in ve dimensions in a vacuum gives Maxwells
equations. We note, however, that where is a constant then the third of our
eld equations gives the odd result
F

= 0. (65)
Maxwells equations are seen to be nothing but a product of the geometry of
ve-dimensional space. The Einstein equation of ve dimensions in a vacuum is
also responsible for creating the familiar Einstein equation of four dimensions
with matter, albeit only radiation. Not only is EM a manifestation of the ve-
dimensional geometry, but so is four-dimensional mass.
5.4 Finding the Action
Another interesting point is to look at the action Lagrangian. Assuming the
Einstein-Hilbert action too generalizes to ve dimensions

I =
1
16

G
_
d
5
x
_
g

R. (66)
We have a few quantities worth taking the time to point out.

G is the ve-
dimensional gravitational constant. There is no guarantee this is the same as
the four-dimensional quantity we know.
To perform this integral, we need the Ricci Scalar. We have actually done
most of the work that is required to get this already. The Ricci Scalar in 5D is

R = g
AB

R
AB
(67)
= g

+ 2 g
4

R
4
+ g
44

R
44
. (68)
Using the results we already have for

R

,

R

and

R

we nd the surprisingly
simple result

R = R +
1
4
k
2
F

. (69)
where R is the four-dimensional Ricci Scalar, R = g

. The more general

result where is not assumed to be constant is

R = R +
k
2

2
4
F

+
2
3

2
. (70)
We are still left to nd the determinant. With the help of Mathematica, again
using cofactor expansion,
g =
2
g. (71)
13
Our action integral nally looks like

I =
1
16

G
_
d
5
x

g
_
R +
k
2

2
4
F

+
2
3

2
_
. (72)
Integrating over the fth dimension gives us some issues to discuss. As nothing
within the integral is dependant on x
5
, we could separate out the integral
_
dx
5
.
The integral over an innite spatial dimension would itself be innite. Klein
reasoned that if the fth dimension were cylindrical, x
5
could be seen as an
angular coordinate with a period of 2, where is the radius. Therefore the
integral will not diverge. What were left with is

I =
2
16

G
_
d
4
x

g
_
R +
k
2

2
4
F

+
2
3

2
_
. (73)
Where is constant and set to 1 this reduces to

I =
1
16G
_
d
4
x

g
_
R +
k
2
4
F

_
. (74)
Our Kaluza-Klein action matches the four-dimensional action for gravity and
EM if G is identied as G =

G
2
. Had the fth dimension been time-like, not
only would it have contributed the multiplicative factor 2 but there would
also be a minus sign, giving the wrong action.
When Kaluza introduced his theory, the fth dimension was only a math-
ematical tool. Kleins interpretation is that we are, in fact, living in a ve-
dimensional world. Four of which are spatial. The extra dimension is a real
property of space-time. Because it is periodic and tiny, it will be undetectable
and yet still give rise to Maxwells EM. Understood this way, it makes the cylin-
drical condition appear to be a natural result of the geometry of the world and
not some articial requirement.
5.5 Kaluza-Klein Tower
As there is periodicity in the fth dimension, this implies we may expand our
tensors in a Fourier expansion.
g

(

x , ) =

n=
g
(n)

(

x )e
in/
. (75)
A

(

x , ) =

n=
A
(n)

(

x )e
in/
. (76)
(

x , ) =

n=

(n)
(

x )e
in/
. (77)
We use

x to represent the four classical dimensions of space-time. , commonly
used to represent an angle, is used to represent the fth coordinate. The su-
perscript (n) is used to refer to the nth Fourier mode. Take note, the Fourier
14
coecients are functions of the classical four dimensions. Therefore, in the last
equation, there are an innite amount of four-dimensional scalar elds.
Klein made use of quantum mechanics to analyze the theory. Borrowing a
result from relativistic quantum mechanics; the Klein-Gordon equation in 4D is

= 0. (78)
The Klein-Gordon equation is the equation of motion of a quantum scalar eld.
In order to use the equation here, we assume that the indices run from 0 to 4.
Using the Fourier expansion for we see

A
=
A

n=

(n)
(

x )e
in/
(79)
= (

n=

(n)
(

x )e
in/
(80)
=
_

n
2

2
_

(n)
(

x ) = 0. (81)
Therefore we have an innite amount of equations, for n = to n = , all
equal to zero.
_

(n)
(

x )
n
2

(n)
(

x )
_
= 0. (82)
We may consider the elds
(n)
(

x ) as mass-eigenstates in four dimensions that
have a mass of m
2
(n)
=
n
2

2
so as to have a massless state in the ve-dimensional
theory. The only massless eld will be
(0)
. As we shall see, is on the
order of the Planck scale, so all n > 0 states are massive. Had we considered
the fth dimension to be time-like, we would have obtained a negative mass
squared. Tachyons, particles that travel faster than light, would have negative
mass. This concept, being very un-physical and perhaps logically inconsistent,
provides further evidence that should this extra dimension exist, it is spatial.
The innite amount of increasingly larger masses as n increases is known as a
Kaluza-Klein Tower.
We acknowledged at the start of this section, all tensors can be expanded
into Fourier modes. Our metric is no exception. The exponential in the rst
mode, n = 0, is e
i(0)/
= 1. Therefore the rst mode will be independent
of , all following modes will have a dependency of e
in/
. The metric, when
expanded into innite modes is
g
AB
=
_
g
(0)

+
(0)
2
k
2
A
(0)

A
(0)

(0)
2
k
2
A
(0)

(0)
2
k
2
A
(0)

(0)
2
_
plus an innite amount of terms with |n| > 0.
The rst mode is actually what we worked with when we derived the eld
equations assuming all elements to be independent of . All following modes
15
do not negatively eect Kaluza-Klein Theory. They are too massive to have
been observed. The eld equations derived with = constant are thus a scaled
theory of GR and EM in four dimensions.
5.6 Charge Quantization
The expansion into Fourier modes can also be exploited to predict quantization
of charge. Should we now apply the coordinate transformation already applied
in Section 5.2 then

= + f(

x ). (83)
This changes the scalar Fourier modes like

(n)
(

x ) e
inf(

x )/

(n)
(

x ). (84)
Since we already found out the gauge eld transforms like
A

= A

+ f
,
, (85)
this means that the nth scalar eld has a charge
q
(n)
= n =
nk

, (86)
a very curious result, even Maxwells equations say nothing of charge quantiza-
tion.
5.7 Size of Compact Dimension
Should we use the charge quantization equation and identify e with the quantum
of charge we nd
ne =
nk

=
n

16G

. (87)
Therefore
10m
1
p
10
33
m. (88)
The size of the compacted dimension is so incredibly small, it is consistent with
not having been observed. Together with such a positive result, a problem
surfaces. In order for particles to have a charge, they must have n > 0. In
turn this means that they do not have zero mass. They will all have masses on
the Planck scale (m
p
10
19
GeV ). Charged particles we observe are incredibly
light on that scale. To illustrate, the electrons mass is 0.511MeV
6 A Fifth Dimension?
Many current attempts to nding a more fundamental physics are based on
extending space-time to higher dimensions. Internal dimensions such as charge,
mass or colour in four dimensions would then manifest through these other
16
dimensions. In such a scheme, extra space-time dimensions and the four we are
familiar with are put on equal footing. Kaluza-Klein Theory is the original of
such ideas. Their addition of a fth spatial dimension incorporates Maxwells
EM. The fth dimension however, must be curled up into a tiny loop. What
are we to make of this picture of reality? The commonly used analogy is that
of a hosepipe or telephone wire. From a distance, it appears one-dimensional.
That is to say, a unique position on the wire can be specied by giving only
one coordinate, for example, the distance from the end. On closer inspection,
we notice that the pipe or wire is actually two-dimensional. In addition to
the pipes length, it has a circumference. Giving the distance from the end
is not good enough to specify a particular location on the surface. Another
coordinate, like the angle from some axis, is necessary. The extra dimension is
wrapped in a circle on a much smaller scale than the length of the hosepipe. To
become aware of this wrapped up dimension requires magnication when viewed
from a distance. This illustrates how we understand a four-dimensional space-
time in a ve-dimensional complete space-time. We have three large extended
spatial dimensions and one tiny circular dimension. This dimension, if small
enough, could evade detection from present technological capability. In fact,
dimensions on the scale of the Planck length require energies equivalent to that
of the Big Bang to resolve. There are some important dierences between the
analogy given and a true fth dimension. The pipe is just an object within this
universe. The addition of a fth dimension means the universe itself has this
added dimension.
Figure 1: When viewed from a large scale the hosepipe appears one-
dimensional. When magnied, the smaller dimensions become apparent. (Page
327 A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, Roger Penrose.)
The tiny size of the compacted fth dimension makes the angle impossible
17
to determine. Local four-dimensional space sees this as a local symmetry and
leads to local gauge symmetry, as in the case of our electromagnetic potential A

.
This aspect of compacted dimensions is true in general, whether the dimension
is real, that is, spatial or some sort of internal degree of freedom like spin.
Before the advent of Kaluza-Klein Theory, GR and EM were thought of as
two unrelated forces in nature. It gave us the original and promising idea of
unication of physical theories through added dimensions. Numerous physicists
toyed with the theory, including Einstein. However, further study shows some
predictions for the electrons mass and charge do not t with experimentally
known data. Primarily for this reason, theorists lost interest soon after. Subse-
quent research only followed some 50 odd years later. Theorists were returning
from the development of quantum mechanics and quantum eld theory focused
on the setup of the Standard Model. Then attention turned toward unifying
all the four forces into a single theory; Kaluza-Klein-like theories were resusci-
tated. Modern-day theories attempting to unify all physics under one scheme
often employ many more than just ve dimensions. String Theory, for example,
requires a total of 11 dimensions.
7 Further Research
Further research topics on Kaluza-Klein Theory have a few avenues to explore.
The most obvious, can we add more dimensions and embed more physics? The
strong and weak nuclear force have been discovered after the 1920s. Perhaps
higher dimensionality and the correct choice of a metric can unify all four.
Not only can we imagine more dimensions and explore the consequences
of doing so, we can also be creative with the shapes such dimensions take.
Instead of circles we could use spheres if we have two more dimensions. Such
shaping can add even more symmetries and provide gauge transformations. It
is reasonable that more compacted dimensions can also provide an explanation
for other quantizations we observe aside from charge.
Kaluza-Klein Theory may be investigated with regard to its consequences
for cosmology. We saw the prediction of massive particles that we have not
observed. Could such particles account for Dark Matter? Additionally, the
equivalent of the Robertson-Walker metric can be found. The Robertson Walker
metric is the allowed form/s the metric may take if the Universe is assumed to
be homogenous and isotropic. With the metric in hand we can study what
cosmological models a Kaluza-Klein universe could have and compare them to
what is observed.
Constraints from current experiments indicate that if there is a cylindrical
extra dimension, must be less than 10
18
m. Of course, this may be rened
with more experiment to set a smaller limit on the size of extra dimensions,
or even nd some. If they are on the scale of the Planck length, it may be
altogether impossible to explore, requiring energies equivalent to that at the
Big Bang.
18
8 Conclusion
In conclusion, the simple addition of a fth index to Einsteins GR implies four-
dimensional GR with mass, and Maxwells equations. If such a dimension is
length-like, it must be compact and on the order of the Planck length. Kleins
conception of the fth dimensions compaction accounts for both the articial-
looking cylinder condition and for having not been observed. Kaluza-Klein
Theory has since served as the prototype for theories that seek to unify all of
Physics through added dimensions.
9 Appendix
9.1 Notation
Throughout this paper, we work in natural units of c = = 1. Indices that
run from 0 to 4 are denoted with roman capital letters. A and B are frequently
used for this purpose. Indices that run only over the familiar 0 to 3 of GR are
denoted with lower-case greek letters.
The summation convention: Repeated indices are summed. In an expression
like y = V

V

, the index alpha appears twice. Once in a single term it appears
in both the subscript and superscript positions. In all cases like this, the term
must be summed for all allowable values the index alpha can take. Therefore
y = V

V

= V
0
V
0
+ V
1
V
1
+ V
2
V
2
+ V
3
V
3
Integral notation: The integral
_
dx
5
, over the fth dimension, should not
be confused with similar looking integral
_
d
5
x.
_
d
5
x denotes the integral over
a small volume of all ve dimensions.
_
d
5
x
_
dx
0
dx
1
dx
2
dx
3
dx
4
. (89)
Partial dierentiation will often be denoted with the index with which the
tensor is being dierentiated by, after a comma. To illustrate
V

,
=

V

=
V

x

. (90)
The covariant derivative is denoted in a similar fashion, but using a semi-colon.
V

;
= V

,
+

V

(91)
Throughout the entirety of this paper, meticulous care has been taken to
distinguish ve-dimensional constants and tensors from their four-dimensional
counterparts. All tensors belonging to the fth dimension will be marked above
with a tilde.

R, is the ve-dimensional Ricci Scalar, unlike the unmarked four-
dimensional Ricci Scalar R. On this note, it is important to add, that

even though the index values are all the same. The reason for this can be seen
in the expansion for

=
1
2
g
E
[

g
E
+

g
E

] (92)
19
and

=
1
2
g

]. (93)
Both equations, whilst being similar in form, call upon values from two dierent
metrics, g
AB
and g

respectively.
9.2 Manifold Basics
We start with considering space-time to be a manifold. A manifold is a contin-
uous space which locally looks Euclidean, and has dierential structure. It is a
set that can be continuously parameterized. The number of parameters is the
dimension. These parameters are otherwise known as coordinates. It can be
thought of as a mapping of points on a manifold into the same dimension Eu-
clidean Space. In GR we work with a particular manifold, one that is described
by a symmetric
_
0
2
_
tensor g

. Giving g

, the metric, the manifold is given

a specic shape. It is assumed that the reader has knowledge of working with
tensors.
The metric is used to dene the dot product between vectors.
A.B g

. (94)
We can perform index lowering on a vector to make it a one-form.
A

= g

. (95)
By dening the inverse metric in the following way
g

. (96)
we can perform index raising, taking a one-form to a vector.
A

= g

. (97)
The determinant of the metric has the notation
g det(g

). (98)
The metric has the following property with respect to its covariant derivative

= 0 =

. (99)
The invariant volume element is given by

gd
4
x (100)
so that the integral remains invariant under a change in coordinates
_
f(x

gd
4
x. (101)
20
The line element between two points an innitesimal distance away from each
other is given by
ds
2
= g

dx

dx

(102)
We then dene the proper time , that is the time experienced by a particle
moving on such a world-line, in relation to the line element
d
2
ds
2
. (103)
21
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23