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T` 8^ V ORT`RU^ UT `Pg]!P-OQP T ` O ShiT``]!P!V[^!` ` ]RO UT`Y^ V ^P_` ] 8^ VOi]!PS`

>
rang(A) = rang ([A | b]) ,
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DN^ O V hiOQP Ô T
^PS`
Ker(A) + {x0 }
+-,

034=Mu>#Mu098
8J$2')$78 {) Y
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A
I ND B=
SPgT 8^ V ORT
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X0
Rn Ker(A) = {x Rn | Ax = 0}
mn
; B= 6=EHJI
k ]PV T
ker AT
d
ImAT
Dw] ;
RO`T hiT`YT` jS^RUT`YR]!P!VTUPS^PVRUT`YTPS`T
ghQT`
gT
= (ImA)
= (ker A) .
TV
V = {x Rn | Ax = b} =

6

:2;eW Y A BCD

2D L]
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Im(A)
jS^V O ghQT % . ^P_`
b = Ax
Y VD

Rn b
/ Im(A)
;.
6I B= 2IKR 6=
]!PSR]!P PgTcj4T VV ]
T
x Rn
%HJI
V Th
gT
]!OV 8ÔQPV TPS^PV
1 2 0 1
A = 0 1 1 0 .
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T
T V
. ]!PgPgT hiT``] S`d T` jS^RUT`
A
ImA ker AT ImAT
ker AT
N= -\ @ ;
] 87$7')$28k g D ; B=
2 gThT`VhiT ^P
S^!`T
^ 8^ V ORT
= 7I
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2\ N@ ~]
f -| = <2D D D = D ?= V } 7@ =B= K@
o j O
tD/I
a1
a2
3
a
a4
D ?=
&=I wD B=
a1
a3
2
a
a4
H7I G=B>
?= b 7=BD
T [hQ^ 8^ V O RT
R] T` j_]!P g^P!VTTUV[hQ^ 8^ V ORT
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A0
P
TUPVjS^!` ` T V ]!P T
1
1
a
a 2a3
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4
4
1
a
a a
o j O T [hQ^ 8^ V ORT
gO ^hQOQ` TRUTV V T V ^P_` ] 8^ VOi]!P
00 R] T` j_]!P g^PVTTV[h^ 8^ V ORT
P
TV
gO ^hQOQ` TUPVhiT`V ^PS` ] 8^ V OQ]P_`l` gO ^PV T`
. UV T OQPgT 8hQAT` 8^ V ORT`
P P
P3
8^ V ORT
TUP
gO T h OQP T ` T gT 1 2
T
T
1 0 0
1 3 0 0
1 3 3 0
1 3 3 1
0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 2 0
0 1 2 1
P
P
P
T =
0 0 1
0 0 1 0 3
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
]
f -T;= < D = > D =BD ?= 6= D 2=??= = K@

D ?= P @T>(@TI L= F 9R = M@ ;
9 hQ^
{ei }1i4
a12 a13 a14

a22 a23 a24
.
a32 a33 a34
a42 a43 a44
]P
ghVOijShiOQT
jS^ gPgT 8^V OQRUT
ofPmPg]V^PV i hQ^
A
P
a
a11
a21
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a31
a41
d] Re_^P !T [h ]
T T`hQO PgT` T
A
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TP!VjS^!` ` TVV} ]P T
<\ 2: ; @ 7I- = 7D D-\ 6= F 7=?@-= u@ L@ \ @

i
LHJI
RUO T`` ] S` TUj `TP!VT hiTj_^`` ^ T Th^ S^!`TR^Pg]!PgO gT
A = {ai }1i4
hQO !PgT
D HJ?I = E=B> HJI B= > B= [b 2=?DB= b 7=BD BI LR ; BI-=

`
hQ^
0
0
0
1

8JY $2')$78 {L . I 72I I NF 6@f N= R 6I-= -> L= D

]!OV
HJI N@ ;
^PS`YV ] V[h T T RUOQRUT

] P
Pg]V T
h^ S^` TRU^Pg]PgO gT T
{e , e }
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RU] gS
j hiT T !T R VT `hiOQP Ô T 1TP2VYOQP j_TP g^P!V`:%
{u1 , u2 }

u12
u11
.
, u2 =
u1 =
u22
u21
r }R I-= @ 6F > 6=
LI B= 6= =?> BI E@ EH7I
P TRV T
K@T]> K@
T
bPKOQhih S`V T ^lhQT`
R2
` R OiV
Jy @Qy XR R 6I-=
x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 = x01 u1 + x02 u2 .
ST`V OQ]PS`^ 9 Y^ TRhQT` TR VT `
` ghiV^V` T`
2: ; ?= =HJI F
T; t@T>(@TI L=
P-; 9R 6= 6= =
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WT; HJI K@
u1 =
2
1
u2 =
1
1
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6I V> = <=

b @
2I b 7=BD OD B= ;
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1F JR 6= O@ ;
ob }@ V@ E> <>D E@ ;
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T`yV gPST 8^V OQRUT

]

(u1 u2 ) = M (e1 e2 )
M
oP
gO T
TUV
TP ]!PSR VOi]!P T 0 TUV 0 ` ] S` ]
T 8^ V OROQTUhQhiT
x1
x2
x1
x2
P T ` T YhQ^ TUh^ VOi]!P-j R TPV T ` ]OiV
h OQP !T `T T
M 1
M
^hR ghQT
]PSRV OQ]P T
TUV T` h
TUPV` T
0 2 TP
kx k
x1 x2
M
X
gTUhQhiTRU]P gOVOi]!PK`
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^ V t]!P
u1
u2
k ]PV T
^-;
bP
j_]`T
9_ ;2 I
{-;V=Y
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gT h ]!PDj4T V R O T
u11 = cos
TUV
k x0 k2 = 2 k x k 2 .
u12 = sin
;. > =BD 6= D B=

V T
OQPgT hQT` 8^V OQRUT`
M+
TV
6= ;
gT h ]!PDT jghQOROiV T ^
EH7I
VTUhQhiT`
ST
k x0 k2 =k x k2 .
ER I-= 9R &= &=

}@ R EI-H7= I @ 2=z@ F 7] K> &=I BAJD > B= ; &== B= 62= = H7I 9 /@T= MF 2!@ ] F -\ 2=/; I
6=
; | I 6=
; @T>(T@ I L=
;
gTUh`[` ]PVYhiT` TR V T
ÒQP
^ OQ^P!V`jS^
M+
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M
] OiV

hQT TR V T
TKRU] ] ]PgP UT`
TUV
k ]!PV T
ST
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x
x = 1
x = 2
M x
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TV ST
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^P hQT
bP
M x
/2
TV
^hR ghQT
TUV
o
P
g
O
T
U
T
V
Pg]VT ^
1
M+ = R
M = S/2
R
(S/2 )2
R1
S/2
U
6

JG,.+
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BA BCD O@ P >(HJI
]!OV[hQT` `V
T gT
S^ VOi]!PS` 9
&
!

9I
OQPSRU]PgP gT`
2x 3y
x T;L: y
x T; y
x T; P y
= 3
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^
Veg] T
hiO OiP_^ V OQ]P T
^ S`` ]
UV eg] T DjgO ]V R]!PSÒ`V T9 V OQhQOQ` T hQ^cj T O T
S^V OQ]P
j4] RU^hQR ghQT
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_^ V OQ]P_`
x
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TV V T UhQO OQPS^ VOi]!P-` Tj4] ` gOV^ TR
g^PS`hiT`PS] !TUhQhiT`
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y
9 h ] V TP!VOi]!P SPgT
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R^hR gh UT` g^P_`YhiT`
S^ VOi]!PS`^ !^PVY` T O 9 h UhQO OQPS^ VOi]!P %
O ]PS`
T h
S^ VOi]!P
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x
3
x = (1 + y)
2
Z[T jgh^ ]!PS`
g^PS`YhiT` T
T PgO T`
_^ V OQ]P_`
fjS^ [` ]PKT j T`` Oi]!P
x
2uIKD = > 6TI @ O6= @GF > L~D b @ @ Ov 2&II B= x S2RI 2D = &> ] T@ -MI @TI4@ LR = zD y = wI R &= 62= ] -@ = 6D <C=S>(>H7HJI I
HJBI I!LF RI LF> 7] E;-@ | ~O@G> F >I<D HJI V>HJI XA O2II-= 6B=?I R 6I XR F > <D @ 9I ; =26I-D R (> H72I = =6xD 2ITb -= 6D LR C6&= = (y 2] I Z
` L= @ F >(HJI x T;L: y
x T; U y
6D
@ E@ 6I-fo@ = LC6= >(H7I Nx T; y Zzx T; P y &= f -= x -; U y
x T;eW y
x T; ^ y
` L= @ F >HJI x T;eW y@ 2I-R 2I BA BCD 6%
x T; _ y
6D @ F >(H7I x -; ^ y %
x T; { y
9R = @ R &= 2]
\7
= &ITMf @G>F HJ> I LD Nx -; { y x T;=B_ D y -w> x ;T; U y % BI 7= [IK] ?I
y+z
O ]PS`
Z[T
gTh
jgh^ ]!PS`
^jge_^` T
!RT ^
S^ VOi]!P
g^PS`Yh
TRUTPg]
y = 1 z.
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UhQO OQPS^V OQ]PDT`yVV T

S^ VOi]!PS`
= 1
2y 3z = 2.
!T^ -` `V
T
QO P UT
TV
5z = 0.
bPDT TRV gT^hi] `fhQ^` S`yVOV V OQ]P-TUP
`TPSÒiP T ` T gT`
^ OQ^ ghiT`
(2.8) z = 0
(2.7)
(2.4)
bP T 8^ gT
9 gPST V^j_T g]PgP T h UhQO

gThihQT
S^V OQ]P 8
9 RU]P OiV OQ]P gOiTP `
gTRTUVV
y=1
x=3
OQPS^ VOi]!P
gPST ^ O^ ShiT 4
j T V` T Ô T g^PS`YP O
T
S^ VOi]!PKRU]PV OQTUPgPSTh^ ^ OQ^ gQh TTP gT `yVOi]!P
HJI O}>= JH 6I D &=zHJI NH7I F K@ I N> ] u@ -= - > HJI F > <D N>(HJI }@!F I NR 2= &] R 6&I = 2]Ob L= }uHJ@ I
7W
F LD; 7=
j_] VT
&^

J,'J
E8F;=HKJL098 ;47>@<A:ARBU@<A>V47098

BCD B= 2= -<\\7I <= 6; = I 2I [A &B= C6&D \2= ?= -B\7I I LR L= ;-HJr I

2=B=?rr > Oo@ BAD ?C6B=D > bf= XVD ]_iv-` \7xzI stopik<2]a= X[I Z [VI sQec@ >h@= XV&]_6\ Z.I-st= X[Z x= =?x>=
> L>6D V@ &\ 2ITf
JI zy ;
V

BA BCD uB@G= F > -<D \2I L= I [A BC6D ?= u@ [b 2=?D

;2I <&R I6&D =@ BI-BI] zy BI 9I &=?;= LC6= x BIy I6=
bP R]!PS`yV^ VT ^l^ Kj_^ ^ ^jSegT` gO ^PV gThQ^ jSeS^` T

UhQO OQPS^ VOi]!P
RU]PS` O`yVT 9V
T] O !OiP_^hGTUP SPm` `V
T V O^P ghÔ T
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T V OQ^P ghÔ TT`yV SPm` `V
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PST 8^V OQRUT
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blXV]_ik` xzstopiv]aXZ ]a`@h.XV]_Z.stX[Z
RU^ UT ]!P!V[hQT` h
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T
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Uh
TP!V` O^ !]PS^
Pg]!P
P ShQ`
aii
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a2n x2 + + a2n xn
= D ?B= A Z
D ?=
7I
^PS` ] T YhiTc` `
T ]!PV[hQ^ 8^ V ORT
T`V gPST 8^ V ORT
gjgj4]!` T ^V ] S`8hQT`
= b1
= b2
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bP R]
TPSRT
^ 4] Dj_^ R^hR ghQT
g^PS`h
S^ VOi]!P
d gOQ`9 h Ô T T
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x
n
x
g^PS`Yh
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9
T gO ]PgS
P Th ^h ] OiV e n T ` gO ^PV
xn1
n1
x1
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x T; c y
x -;<:(d y
n@ = 6D O2=?@ HJI H7I I @
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@ 1F L\ 7= KD
xn
xk
bn
,
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n
X
1
bk
akj xj ,
akk
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bP T 8^ gT
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n(n 1)
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2
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nk
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T ` Tjgh S`YeS^ V T
n2
2
T V OQ^P ShQÔ TOQP
x1
xk
x -; c y Z x -;V<@:(d y ; F <\ 2= -D M@ BI-] BI

J,
R] V T
k = n 1, . . . , 1.
T T` S`V OiV VOi]!P
^ 4]
k = 2, . . . , n.
qT`yVhQT
LHJI @GF > LD
gT[h^V TReSPgO gT
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x T;L:2: y
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x T;L:2: y Z x -;<: y OD6,D OHJI LI @ BI-] BI
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OQT
b1
,
a11
k1
X
1
bk
akj xj ,
akk
j=1
k ]!P!V ]!PS`
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R OiV T^

R] T` j4]P
gPgT]j
^ V OQ]P T
J_
XR &= Z : x LT;D XR y ; = .F >HJID0@ ,6D 1F >HJI> x T;LD P y ,; 6= x -; yN@ @ = 6x R T; P
yu 6= 9tBR IKb >ML= I 69}b LR 2L= D 2D \ O@ @ 7D D F (> -H7= I 6@ D <CF =>(,H7I x T;L: yu,Dwx I T;x L: yuN<Dw> @ I 2y=u<>Z
I
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(2) 3
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1
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1
1
1
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0
2
V ^ VOi]!P
%

2 3
0 3
1
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0 (1)
1
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0
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. ^PS`hQTR^` P ^h ]!PD^ g]PSR9h UV^j4T Th ^h ] OiV e T SPgT 8^V
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A
n
n+1
TV ^PS` ]
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u
x
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akk
T;L: @ /D > T@ u@ uv 2I
7I <R
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V^j4T
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^ S` `
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k
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i
i = k + 1, . . . , n
hQO !PgT
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(k)
i+
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akk
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k.
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S F > L>6D
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(k)
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i = k + 1, . . . , n
TUV
j = k + 1, . . . , n + 1
(k+1)
(k)
(k)
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@ 6R

T OQTUPV
(k)
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h V^j4T
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i
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3 - QRKSNgCD/1h19_L849 3qZ & ADCD/10S6h 5#"87:9 lS<fQ1K2Ck<S3EK>7;L89+L8IAD/4Y63c7Z
;;029TW/4A=CDY6?9T?U/4CDC=IU9
L89kL8Y6Wq9U027=YEQR0 o]?JQg9 <?YE9U0ÂD7?JQRWq<23E9ug9@7#Q1KqC=IU93c7*<fQR7D7=iUL89 NO/4369KSC[7#<SCDQ1<SCD9U7
0SQR0}0SI@?J9U7D7D/4Y6C=9UWq9U0Â]L8Yc7FAADYE0>?BA=9@7mLS/40>7 C Zyn,.- 9U027:9UWzjS369XL89q?9U7]NO/4369KSC[7\<SC=QR<SCD9U7\9U7:A]36>9 =8n?
@AB8C:@L89 A lV9JA
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C:Q+RTSVU2=8?
@AB8C:QWJFl#0SQ4ADI
l*9@7FAq3E9p<S36K27zhRCD/102LWXQ8L8KS369pL89@7zNO/4369K2CD7z<SC=QR<SCD9U7+L89 A Z,!/}7=Q1WXWX9aL89@7
NO/4369KSC[7n<SCDQ1<SCD9U7T9@7FA;IUhR/436(A)
9_o3cX/ BC:QWAD@aL89m3c/qW/OA=CDYc?J09 %
0
n
X
i=1
i =
n
X
i=1
aii

9A\QR090L8I@L8KSYEA]L8QR02?+`^KS97=Y!K20S9+W/OADC=Yc?J9+CDI9U3E369+<fQR7D7:i@L89+KS029+NO/4369KSC\<SC=QR<SCD9+?JQ1WX<S369Ju89Rl>7=Q10?JQR0 FKShRKSI
9@7FAM/1K27D7:YNO/4369KSCk<2C=QR<SC=9RZSdM9mWXUWq9Rl83E9m<2C=Q8L8KSYEAML89@7nN/13E9UKSC[7n<SC=QR<SCD9U7T9U7:AkIhR/13y/4K PB%@DC:F MOU Q U B_LS9 A %
W V

n
Y
i = det(A)
' B8B8@U B8MOSVU 3k0y- 9U7:A<2/17q<fQR7D7:Y6jS369p9U0 hRI0SIUCD/13TLy- QRj8A=9U0SYECNO/13E9UKSCD7q9AXNR9U?JA=9K2CD7<SCDQ1<SCD9U7XL89&36/7=Q1WXWX9

QRK L8K<SC=Q8L8K2Y~AzL89eLS9K8u{WX/4A=CDY6?9U7mL8QR0Â_QR0 ?JQ10202/ EcAm3E9e7=<>9@?BADC=9RlyW/4Yc7m?J9C=AD/1YE0>7m?/17_<>/4C=A=Yc?JKS36YE9UCD7_QD,3E9@7
RN 9U?JA=9K2CD7T<SCDQ1<SCD9U7n7=Q10Âk3E9@7kWXWX9U7n<f9CDWX9JA=A=90ÂML89+?Q102?3EK2C=90%
7:Y 9U7:A_NO/13E9UKSCm<SCDQ1<SCD9L89 A l 9@7FAmNO/4369KSC_<SCDQ1<2C=9XL89 A ! 9U0{<>/4C=A=Yc?JKS36YE9UCUlV7=Y A 9U7:A+YE0gN19UCD7=Y6jS3E9Rl
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& Y 9@7FA(KS029;NO/4369KSCP<SCDQ1<2C=9kL89
l4369M7:587:A=iUWq9 (A I)x = 0 <>Q^7=7=iULS9nLS9U7(7=Q136K8A=Y6Q10>7P0SQ10X0gKS363E9@7(/4<2<>9U3EIU9U7
A

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3 E9m0SQO5^/4K&L89 A I Z A& /L8Y6Wq9U027=YEQR0p 9@7FAML8QR02?_/4K&WXQ1Y6027nIh^/4369_o "RZ
,!Q1C[7=`^KS9n369U7NO/4369KSC[7<SCDQ1<SCD9U77=Q10Â(L8Yc7FADYE02?JA=9@7lO369U7PNR9U?JA=9K2CD7#<SCDQ1<SCD9U77=Q10ÂP3EY60SI@/4Y6C=9UWq9U0ÂY602L8IU<>9U02LS/10RA[7Z
,.- Y6WX<S36Y6?U/OA=Y6Q10&CDIU?JY6<SCDQ8`RK29M9U7:An/4K27D7=91l8Q10&<f9027=9C[//1Kp?U/17kL89_3c/zW/OADC=Yc?J9_YcL890ÂDY~ADI]<fQ1K2C;7- 90r?JQR0^NO/1YE02?C=9RZ
& Y]369U7
N19@?BAD9KSC[7<SCDQ1<SCD9U7
<>9UKSN19U0R6A JA=CD9?[wSQRY67=Y67e3EY60SIU/1YECD9WX9U0RAeY602L8IU<>9U02LS/10RA[7lGYE3c7
QRC=WX9U0RAkKS02n9mWX/4A=CDY6?9 X = [x ] x0SQ1,0r1 7:Y60ShRiKS3EY6iCD91nl89A;Q10r/ %
i=1
X 1 AX = = diag{1 n }
.0p9f9AUl AX 9U7:AT3c/zW/4A=CDY6?9\L8QR0RAn369U7n?JQR3EQR0S0S9U7T7=Q10ÂG369U7TN19@?BAD9KSC[7 Ax = x `^KSY9U7:ATj2YE9U0pIUhR/4369\o X Z

|\0L8YEATL2/4027(?9M?/R7(`^KS9 @=BKMNQ STU QWJOMN=%QJN@m9AG?J9A:A=9\<SCDQ1<SCDYEIA=In0S9;<f9KSAT7U- I@?JCDYECD9k`RK!- /NR9U?n3c/_WX/4A=CDY6?9
LS9U7GN19U?JA=9UKSCD7G<SCDQ1<SCD9U7UZ1.A3E369]?U/4C[/1?JA=ICDYc7:9k369M/1Y~Ak`^KS9 X /+<fQ1KSCn?JQR3EQR0S0S9U7TL89@7.NR9U?BAD9KSC[7(<2C=QR<SC=9@7(9An`^KS9_?J9@7
NR9U?JA=9K2CD7T<SCDQ1<SCD9U7n7=Q10Âk3EY60SI@/4Y6C=9UWq9U0ÂnY602L8IU<>9U02LS/10RA[7Z
|\j27=9CDNO/OADYEQR
0 %YE3k9ugYc7:A=9pLS9U7qW/OA=CDYc?J9U7q`^KSYk0S9r7:QR0Â<2/R7qLSY6/1h1Q10>/436Y67D/4jS369U7 ! Q10 3E9@7X/4<S<f9363E9&W/OADC=Yc?J9@7

KP @A+B8M @=%$JZS(363E9@7;7D/OA=Yc7:Q10Â;/4K8upLS9K8up?Q102LSY~ADYEQR027k7:K2YENO/40ÂD9U7 %
YE3!9Ju8Y67:A=9+LS9U7nNO/4369KSC[7n<SCDQ1<SCD9U7TWKS3~ADYE<23E9@7
36/&L8Y6WX9027=YEQR0L8K{7:QRK27:b 9@7:<2/R?J9+<2C=QR<SC=9/17D7:Q8?JY6Iz9@7FAm7:A=CDY6?JA=9WX9U0RA_Y608ICDYE9UKSCD9oe3c/pWzKS3EA=Y6<S36Y6?Y~ADIXLS93c/
NO/4369KSCk<SCDQ1<2C=9RZ
xTA=A=9U0RADYEQR0ylV369q7=9KS3#/1Y~A+L89q3H- 9Ju8Yc7FAD902?9qLS9qNO/13E9UKSCD7\<SCDQ1<SCD9U7\WzK23~ADYE<S369U7]0S97=K <XAm<2/17]oaY6WX<S36Y6`^KS9UC_`^KS9X3c/
W/4A=CDY6?9.7:QRY~AL8IJ9@?BADYENR9 ![q 3c/;W/4A=CDY6?9(Y6LS90Â=YEA=IT<2/4C*9Ju89WX<S36%9 $J%Z ;M0z9ug9UWX<S3E9.AF5g<SY6`^KS9TL89.W/4A=CDY6?9.L8IJ9@?BADYENR9
9@7FA A = 0 1 l`^KSYn<>Q^7=7=iUL89a36/}N/13E9UKSCq<SC=QR<SCD9aL8Q1K2jS3E9 7SZ,y9@7zNR9U?BAD9KSC[7+<2C=QR<SC=9@7z7=Q10ÂqLS9a3c/Q1CDWX9
0 0

0 "1Z A 0y- 9@7FA;L8QR02?_<2/R7kL8Y6/1h1QR02/436Y67D/4j23E9RZ
l8Y6367;90ShR902L8CD90Â;L8QR02?]KS07:QRK27Fb 9U7=<2/R?J9\LS9+L8YEWX9U027:Y6Q1I
x=
0
d]/4027p?J9UC:A[/4Y6027e?/R7l.YE3\9U7:AeC=9U36/4A=Y6N19WX9U0RA/R?JY63E9Ly- Y608ICD9Cp7:KSCp36/NO/13E9UKSCeQ1K3c/ 02/4A=KSCD9L89U7eN/13E9UKSC[7
<2C=QR<SC=9@7nLV- K20S9mW/OA=CDYc?J9 A %
7:Y A 9U7:AkLSY6/1h1Q10>/43691lg3E9@7kNO/4369KSC[7T<SCDQ1<SCD9U7n7=Q10Âk3E9@7kI36IWX90Â[7kL8Y6/1h1QR02/4K8u
7:Y A 9U7:ATADC=Yc/402h1KS3c/4Y6C=9Rlg3E9@7kNO/4369KSC[7T<SC=QR<SCD9U7n7:QR0ÂnIUhR/13E9UWq9U0Ân369U7nIU3EIUWX90ÂD7;LSY6/1h1Q10>/4K8u
7:Y A 9U7:An02Q107:Y60ShRKS3EY6iCD91lg369U7kNO/13E9UKSCD7n<2C=QR<SC=9@7n7:QR0RAnADQ1K8AD9U7kL8YEfIUC=9U0Â=9U7kLS9 7
9 "z9A]Y63*9@7FA]<>Q^7=7=Y6jS3E9qL89?[w2Q1Yc7:Y6CMKS029
7:Y A 9U7:A\Q1C=A=w2Q1h1QR02/43691l23E9@7MNO/4369K2CD7M<SC=QR<SCD9U7;QR0Â\<fQ1KSC]WXQgLSKS3E6
j2/17=9mL89mN19@?BAD9KSC[7n<SCDQ1<SCD9U7TQ1C=A=w2Q10SQRC=WXIU7
7:Y A 9U7:A#7=5^WXIA=CDY6`^KS9RlU7=9U7*N/13E9UKSC[7y<SCDQ1<SCD9U7!7:QR0RA#C=IU9363E9@7Z@,y9@7!NR9U?BAD9KSC[7y<2C=QR<SC=9@7y/17D7=Qg?YEI@7!o;LS9U7*N/13E9UKSC[7
<SCDQ1<SCD9U7kL8Yc7:A=Y602?BAD9U7k7=Q10Â;/436Q1C[7GQRC:ADwSQ1hRQ102/1K8uVZ
,!9]LS9CD0SYE9UCG<fQ1Y60ÂTY6WX<S36Y6`^KS9]90p<2/4C=A=Yc?JKS36Y69Cn`RK29MADQ1K8AD9\W/OADC=Yc?J9]CDI936369\7=5^WXIA=CDY6`^KS9\9U7:AnL8Yc/4hRQ102/13EYc7D/4jS369;<2/1C
K20S9mW/OA=CDYc?J9mQ1C=A=w2Q1h1QR02/43669 % = Q AQ l DQ , Q 9@7FAkQRC=WXIU9m<2/4C n N19U?JA=9UKSCD7n<2C=QR<SC=9@7nQ1C=A=wSQR0SQ1CDWXIU7UZ2|\0r/
/13EQRCD7T3c / Q AB8SVC:MN=%QB8MOSVU =8?
@AB8C:QWJN@eLy- KS029mWX/4A=CDY6?9m7:5gWXIJADC=Yc`^KS9_C=IU9363E09 %
i
A = QQT

(0rCDIU7=KSWXI_LS9+?J9m`^KSYy<SCDIU?iUL890%

X
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@ C:=%M MNJNMNB8P@=BGJNMOP@Q H W
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,y9@7nA=C[/40>7FQRC=W/OADYEQR027T`RK2YyW/4Y60RADYE9U0S0S9U0RAk369+7:<f9U?JA=CD9mLV- K20S9mW/OA=CDYc?J9m7:QR0ÂkLS9U7;7=YEWXY63EYEA=K>L89U7UZ

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,!/}A=C[/40>7FQRC=W/OADYEQR0 L89 NR9C[7 9U7:AqK20S9

>ZV.0 3 - I@?JCDYENO/10RAX7:QRK27q36/Q1CDWX9 = SB lQ10
CD9JA=CDQ1K2N19KS029hRI0SIUCD/13EYc7=A/4A=Y6Q10 L89B 36/ L8I/#202Y~ADYEQR0 L89@7aNO/4369K2CD7a<SC=QR<SCD9U7e9ArLS9U7pN19U?JA=9UKSCD7aAS
<SCDQ1<SCD9U7UZn|\0 /
LV- /4Y63E369K2CD7n369mC=I@7:K23~A[/OAnQ102L2/4WX90ÂD/13 %
i C:S ? SV=%MLB%MNSTUj/)13246587:9k;>=?3@BA3CD5FElEF5m;kn:ô=(n:^5FEpJ8KL?q^f5DEl;srm;s5FEutD=^f5:7@BE'v@FJvL@F5DE
wyxz{|}~L]~{|g7=Q1YEA
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l
`^KSY!7U- I@?JCDY~A SBS x = xxl2?9+`^KSYyN19UK8A;L8Y6C=9m`^KS9 A 9@7FAkNO/4369KSCk<2C=QR<SC=9_L89 B /R7=7=Q8?JY6I]/1KpNR9U?BAD9KSAxCk<2=C=QRx
<SC=9
Z
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,(- Y60RADIC JA;L89+?9U7TA=C[/40>7FQRC=W/OADYEQR027T9U7:A;L8Q1KSj23E9&%
3E9@7nN/13E9UKSC[7n<SC=QR<SCD9U7n7:QR0ÂnY602?[w2/10Sh1IU9U7
907:K2<S<>Q^7=/10Ân369U7nNR9U?JA=9K2CD7n<SCDQ1<2C=9@7G36Y60SIU/1YECD9WX90ÂkY602L8I<f90>LS/40ÂD7UlS3c/X7:Y6WXYE36Y~ADK2L89+/R7=7=Q8?JY6I9moq36/qW/Ob
A=CDY6?9 X L8Q10Âm369U7m?JQR3EQR0S0S9@7]7=Q10Âm369U7_N19@?BAD9KSC[7]<SC=QR<SCD9U7\A=C[/4027:Q1CDWX9 A 9U0KS029WX/4A=CDY6?9qLSY6/1h1Q10>/4369
L8Q10Âk3E9@7kI36IWX9U0RA[7kL8Yc/4h1QR02/4KSua7:QR0RAk369U7nNO/4369K2CD7n<SCDQ1<2C=9@7TLS9 A % X AX = Z
QR0RADC=QR027pWX/1YE0ÂD902/10RAr7:K2C&K20 9ug9UWX<S3E9`^KS9L89K8u W/4A=CDY6?9U7r7:9UWzjS3c/4j23E9@7aCD9<SCDIU7=90ÂD90Âp3c/vX
W UWq9
A=C[/40>7FQRC=W/OADYEQR0p36Y60SIU/1YECD9m7:KSC\L89K8urj2/R7:9@7kL8Y~ICD90ÂD9U:7 %27=Q1YEA P 36/XW/4A=CDY6?9_LS9+<SCD!Q F9U?JA=Y6Q10rLS/40>7 R 7:K2C;36/
L8CDQ1YEA=9 L LV- /40ShR3E9 %

/
1
N
U
9
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cos ()
cos() sin()
cos()
P =
= uu
u=
sin()
cos() sin()
sin ()
& YPQR0/4YEAmWX/1YE0ÂD902/10RA\A=QRKSC=029C]36/pj2/17=9X?/402Q10SYc`^KS9zQRC:ADwSQ10SQRC=WXIU9zLV- KS0/10Sh1369 lf3c/p<SC="
Q F9U?JA=Y6Q10}L89UNgYE9U0RA
W/4Y60Â=90>/40ÂkKS0S9m<SCD!Q F9@?BA=Y6Q10r7=KSCk3H- /Ou89_wSQRC=#Y (QR0RA[/439JA;7U- I@?JCDY~A

1
Q=
1 0
0 0
Q1KSCk<>/17D7:9UC;L89 P o Q l8Q10&K8ADYE36Y67=9m3c/XWX/4A=CDY6?9mL89_C=Q1AD/OADYEQR0&Ly- /10Sh1369
R=
cos()
sin()
sin()
cos()
,y9+?[w>/40ShR9WX90ÂML89mj2/R7:9m7=9_A=C[/1L8K2Y~A;<2/1C %27=Y 9@7FA;369mN19@?BA=9UKSC;L89z?QgQ1C[L8Q10S02I9U7nLS/1027k3c/qj2/17=9+L89+L8IU<2/4C=AUl

9JA u 369mN19@?BAD9KSC;L89m?Q^QRCDLSQ10S0SIU9U7nLS/1027n36/Xj>/17=x9]LV- /4CDCDYENRI91lgQR0&/
x = Ru

& 1
Q YEA 3c/z<SCDQ!F9@?BADYEQR0eL89 x 7=KSC L LS/40>7.3c/+j2/R7:9]L89_L8I<2/1C:A@lR9A v 7=9U7n?JQgQRCDL8QR0S0SIU9U7(LS/1027T36/zj2/17=9\Ly- /1C=CDYENRI9RZ
xM3EQRCD7 y
6 )
4
y = Px
Rv = P Ru
v = R1 P Ru = Qu
9AML8Q10>?
Q = R1 P R
9 A;L8Q102? P 9JA Q QR0RAk369U7nWXWX9@7nN/13E9UKSC[7G<2C=QR<SC=9@7Z Q1WXWX9 Q 9@7FA;L8Yc/4hRQ102/13E9RlgQ10aCD9JADC=QRKSN19]Yc?JYV369]CDIU7=KS3EAD/4A

?Q10S0gK %SADQ1K8AD9mWX/4A=CDY6?9mL89+<SCDQ!F9@?BA=Y6Q10&7:K2C;KS0S9+L8CDQ1YEA=9+L2/4027 /q<fQ1KSCMN/13E9UKSC[7n<SC=QR<SCD9U7 "_9JA72l89JAM<fQ1K2C
NR9U?JA=9K2CD7k<2C=QR<SC=9@7;/17D7=Qg?YEI@7k369U7M?Q136Q10S029U7;L89z36/W/4A=CDY6?9zL89+CDQ4RA[/OA=Y6Q10 R l>?1- 9@7FA=b o4b LSYECD9m3E9@7ML8Y6CD9U?BADYEQR027;L89 L
9A L C=9@7:<f9U?JA=Y6N19UWq9U0ÂUZ
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LSY67D`^KS9U7UlSL8YEAD7;L8Yc7D`RK29U7kL849 3]9UCD7=wSh1QRC=Y60yl8L8K&<S3c/40?JQRWq<23E9ug9RZ
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ISIMA Analyse Numerique Matricielle Et Optimisation - (Barra &al)

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