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THE LIMITS OF CLASSICAL PHYSICS
The Dawn of the Quantum Theory
Newton
J. LaGrange and W.
.Hamilton
elasticity theory
hydrodynamic
Carnot
J. Gibbs
(optics and electromagnetic theory .

J. Maxwell
""

H. Hertz 1887 .
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Classical physics

quantum theory
:
the particle properties of radiation the
wave properties of matter the quantization of
.physical quantities .
.1-1 ""
1-1 Blackbody Radiation
- Blackbody Radiation could not be explained by classical physics
.
deal body
.
" " .
an ideal body, which absorbs and emits all frequencies, is called
a blackbody and serves as an idealization for any radiating material,
the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.
1-1
.
) (1-1

Rayleigh and Jeans
:
)(1-1
)u ( , T
8D K B T
3
= )u (T
energy density
) .(J/m3 )T (1-1 c
KB . 1-1
- .
. -

ultraviolet
.ultraviolet catastrophe )(1-1
8 Dk B T 2
d
C3
= u (1T) d
max
.
.
max
FIGURE 1.1
Spectral distribution of the intensity of blackbody radiation as a
function of frequency for several temperatures. The intensity is given
in arbitrary units. The dashed line is the prediction of classical
physics. As the temperature increases. The maximum shifts to higher
frequencies and the total radiated energy (the area under each curve)
increases significantly. Note that the horizontal axis is labeled by
14 -1
/10 s . This notation means that the dimensionless numbers on that
axis re frequencies divided by 1014 s-1. We shall use this notation to
label columns in tables and axes in figures because of its unambiguous
nature and algebraic convenience.

2-1
1-2 The Planck Distribution and the Quantum of Energy
Max Planck .1900

.
-
- .
.
)
Position Momentum (energy .

In classical physics, the variables that represent observables
(such as position, momentum and energy) can take on a continuum of
values.
E = nh
Energies of the oscillators were discrete and had to be

proportional to an integral multiple of the frequently in an equation of
the form E = nhv
E n h
v .

8 Dh
3
u (1 T) = 3 hv/k T
c e B 1
)(1-2

) (1-2
Planck distribution lance for black body radiation.
) (i -

hv
k BT
v2
+ ...
2i
hv
1
k BT
e v =1+ v +
v
e v 1+ v
v 1
8Dh
v3
8Dh v 3
u (v1 T) = 3
=
c 1 + h 1 c 3 hv
vT
k BT
8D
K T v3
c3 B
)(1-3
= )u (v1 T
-.
) (ii
v3
8Dh
u (t) = u (v1T) dv = 3 dv hv/k T
c e B 1

dv dv
v
k BT
h
dv
k BT
h
h
k BT
= v
h
dv
k BT
= dv
= . dv
dv dv
8Dh kT
v 3 kT
u (v, T) = 3 ( ) 3 v ( ) dv
c h e 1 h
8Dh kT 4 v 3
8Dh k B T 4 v 3
(
)
dv
=
(
)
e v 1 dv
D
c 3 h e v 1
c3
v dv
e 1
D4
15
8Dh k B T 4 D 4 8D 5 k B 4 4
( ) T
(
)
=
h
15 15 c 3 h
c3
)(1 4
= )u (T
= aT 4 .............
8D 5 k B 4
) (
15c 3 h
=a
) (1-4 - Stefan-
Boltzman .
) (iii Wien
max
)..(1-5
max
T :
max T = 2.90 10 3 m.K
) (1-5 .

v
) u (
) u (
) dv (
=0
dv
or
d 8Dh
v3
=0
3
hv/k BT
dv c e
1
hv
k BT
= dv , v
k BT
h
.
3 (e v 1) ve v = o
3 e v 3 = ve v
ev
3 3 e v = v
or
3 - v = 3e - v

) (3-v ) (3e-v )(-
:1-2 3 x = 3 e-x

v = 2.82
or
hv mar
= 2.82
k BT
or
k BT
= v max
)(2.82
h
h T
c
)= b (2.82
max
h
hc
)(6.63 10 34 J.s) (3.0 10 8 m/s
=
= 2.9 10 3 m.K
23
1
2.82K B
) (2.82) (1.38 10 J.v
= or max T
max = 500nm
(1nm = 10-9 m .
2.9 10 3 m.k 2.9 10 3 m.k
=
= 5800k
max
500 10 3 m
=T
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FIGURE 1.3 The electromagnetic spectrum of the sun as measured in the upper
atmosphere of the earth. A comparison of this figure with Figure 1.2 shows that
the sun's surface radiates as a blackbody at a temperature of about 6000 k.
) (quanta nv
= 6000 A
10
(1 A =10 .
)hc (6.63 10 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m/s

= = E = hv
(6000 10 10 m
= 3.3 10 19 J = 2.06 ev
100 )) (W
Watt (W: Joul/sec N
hv
).Power = N (hv
P = 100 = W = N hv
P
100W
= =N
= 310 20 guanta/sec
19
E 3.3 10 J

) (.
3-1
1-3 The Photoelectric Effect
1887, 1886
Heinrich Hertz ultraviolet light
)( emission

)
( . intensity of the
radiation .
The intensity of the radiation is proportioned to the square of the
amplitude of the .oscillating electric field.

)(
kinetic energy )(
. )(
:
-1
.independent of the intensity of incidental
-2
threshold frequency
.1-4
:1-4 .
FIGURE 1.4 The kinetic energy of electrons ejected from the surface of
sodium metal versus the frequency of the incident ultraviolet radiation. The
)threshold frequency here is 4.40 1014 Hz (1 Hz = 1 s-1
E = nh
) (
) (
E = h
photon.
Einstein proposed that the radiation itself existed as smell

packers of energy, E = h , now known as photons.
Conservation of energy

1
mv 2
2
= K. E
) m
(v
h
)( W
) ( / .Work function
:
1
mv 2 = hv
2
)(1-5
1 2
mc
2
= K. E
. . h

)(1-6
h =
) (1-5 .
1
mc 2 = hv hv
2
)(1-7
) (y = mx-c
.1-5
Figure 1-5. Photoelectric effect data showing a plot of retarding

potential necessary to stop electron flow from a metal (lithium), or
equivalently, electron kinetic energy, as a function of frequency of the
incident light, the slope of the line is h/e.
eV
)( m/s
.
- -
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:
(1 coulomb) (1 volt) = 1 Joule
1.6 10 19 C
) J (
)1 eV = (1.6 10 19 C) (1 V
= 1.6 10 19 J
:2 1.82 en
: :
eV :
= 1.82 eV
J
)
eV
= (1.82 eV) (1.6 10 19

= 2.92 10 19 J
)(1-6
]=
[h
) (2.92 10 19 J
=
)h (6.6310 3 J.S
1
= 4.40 1014 H 2
5
Hz
= 4.40 1014
1 ec
5
:3
3500 .
.1.6 eV

:
)(1-5
K.E = h /
= h k.E
h
)hc (6.6310 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m/s
= = h
)(3500 10 10 m

= 3. eV 1.6 eV = 1.95 eV
2.935 10 19 J
. = 300.0nm
=
1.28 10 19 J
) (a
) (b
) (c
: ) (1-5
1 1
)
1 2
( (K.E)1 (K.E) 2 = h (1 2 ) = hc
1
1
2.93510 19 J 1.280 10 19 J = h (310 8 m/s)
9
9
3 10 m 400 10 m
1.655 1019 J
h
= 6.625 10 34 J.S
14 1
2.498 10 s
) (b )(
= 300 nm
= hv hv
hc
hv
300 10 9 m
= 2.935 10 19 J
c,h
v = 5.564 1014 Hz
) (
= hv
= 3.687 10 19 J
3.687 1019 J/
=
= 2.30/eV
J/
1.6 10 19
eV
4-1 :
1-4 The Compton Effect
the particle
nature of radiation )(
Arthur H. Compton
) (X-ray scattered
.
I
)
(
( I
) (1 + cos 2
)(1-8
I
) (1-6 I
Figure 1-6. The spectrum of radiation scattered by carbon,

showing the unmodified line at 0.7078 on the left and the shifted
line at 0.7314 on the right. The former is the wave-length of the
primary radiation.
hv
)(
elastic scattering .
momentum
energy )( momentum and energy
.must be conserved

p
hv
c
)(1-9
=p
)] (1-10
2
E = (m o c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2
mo rest mass v
p
2
aE d
=
(m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2
ap dp
d
)(pc
ap
1
2
(pc)c
2
)(1-11
1
= = (m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2
2
=v
1
1
2 (m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2
pc 2
pc 2
=
E (m 2 c 4 + p 2 C 2 ) 12
m = o
)(1-12
pc 2
E=pc
E
v= c
= v
)(1-11
= C/
) (1-12 ) (1-9
E hv
=
C C
E = hv
=p
recoil . p
e
) .(1-7
)(1-13
pe = p + p
2
2
r r
2
p e = p p 2p p
)(1-14
E ]
2
m = 0
(.
E = (m c 2 ) 2 + (pc) 2
) P
E = m c = mc 2
)(1-15
: =
) hv + mc 2 = hv + (m 2 c 4 + p e c 2
2
hv
) (hv + mc 2 hv) 2 = (m 2c 4 + pe c 2
2
or
m 2c 4 + pe c 2 = (hv hv + mc 2 )2
2
= (h hv) 2 + 2m c 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4
)(1-16
) (1-14
hv
hv
, p =
c
c
hv 2 hv 2
hv hv
) + ( ) 2 ( ) ( ) cos
c
c
c
c
=p
( = p e
2
. C2
pe c 2 = (hv )2 + (hv)2 2 (hv ) (hv) cos

2
)(1-17
] [2hv hv )(1-17
pe c 2 (hv ) 2 + (hv) 2 2hv hv + 2(hv ) (hv) 2(hv ) (hv) cos
1444
424444
3 14444
4244444
3
2
)2hv hv (1 cos
)pe c 2 = (hv hv) 2 + 2hv hv (1 cos

2
)(1-18
(hv hv) 2
(hv hv) 2
) (1-18 ) (1-18
m 2 c 4 + pe c 2 = p e c 2 2hv hv (1 cos ) + 2mc 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4

2
) ..(1-19 :
2hv hv (1 cos ) = 2mc 2 (hv hv)

)= 2mc 2 h (v v
1 1
c c
) ) 2mc 2 hc (

( = 2mc 2 h

c c
h (1 cos ) = 2mc 2 h
2h
or

c/ 2
(1 cos ) 2/ mc 3/ h/
2/ h
/ /

2/
) h (1 cos ) = mc (
)...(1-20

h
)(1 cos
cm
h
mc
= or
) (1-20
Compton wavelength
h
2.4 10 10 cm
mc
)(1-21
m ) (
) (

h
mc
) (
.
1-5
1-5 Wave Prosperities and Electron Diffraction
.
) dispersion
(prism
) (..
ware- particle duality of
.lights
1924 Louis de Broglie

-
-
!!
-
p = mv
)...(1-22
)(
m v
.
h
p
) ( v p
c hc hc h h
= = =
=
v hv E E p
) (
c
h .
:5
0.14 kg 40 m/s
1.00%
:

)p = mco = (0.14kg) (40m/s
= 5.6 kg.m.s -1

h 6.6310 34 J.s
= =
= 1.2 10 34 m
1
p
5.6 kg ms
!!!

) p = m e v = (9.1 10 31 kg) (2.998 10 6 ms 1
) v 1%
(.
p = 2.73 10 24 kg.m.s 1
.
h
6.63 10 34 J.s
= =
= 2.43 10 10 m
p 2.73 10 24 kg.m.s 1
= 243 pm
) pm
12
..(10 243 ..
!!.

...

de Broglie Waves are observed Experimentally
X
.X
X-ray diffraction )
( .X
X - -
.
1-8
) periodic Structure ( .
phase difference
. ( 2D ) 2a sin
2 Dn
) n (
.
2D
2a sin = 2D n
Figure 1-8 the scattering of X-rays by crystal planes when the

angle 0 between the scattered X-rays and the crystal plane equals the
angle between the incident X-rays and the plane.
=
2a sin
n
... (1-23)

(Davisson and )
(1-
( 1-23) Germer
.1-9 22)
.Wave mechanics
FIGURE 1.9
(a) the X-ray diffraction pattern of aluminum foil. (b) the electron
diffraction pattern of aluminum foil. The similarity of these two patterns
shows that electrons can behave like X-rays and display wavelike
properties.
1-6
1-6 The Bohr Atom
"The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom Can be Used
"Drive the Rydberg For mole
1911 Niels Bohr

. F
.
)... (1-24
)1 (Ze) (e
4D r 2
=F
) (Ze ) ( Z =1 ) (e
= 8.85 10 12 c 2 N 1 m 2
.
)...(1-25
mv 2
r
=F
v .
:
)...(1-26
1 e 2 mv 2
=
4D r 2
r
stable orbit .
.
:
)(
Stationary electron orbits
quantization condition
angular momentum L .
L = mvr = nh , n = 1, 2, ........
)...(1-27

hh
mr
=v
)(1-26
1 e 2 m nh 2 m n 2 h 2
) ( =
4D r 2 r mr
m2 r3
.
)...(1-28
4D h 2 2
n2 h2
1
2
.n
= e
= r
4D
mr
me 2

. .n = 1
( u D ) ( 8.851012 c 2 N 1 m 2 ) (1.055 1034 J.s) 2

=r
(9.11 10 31 kg) (1.602 10 19 c) 2
= 5.29 10 11 m = 52.9 pm 0.53 A
E k.E

)...(1-29
1
mv 2
2
e2 1
4D r
) V(r.
V (r) =
) (1-29

)...(1-30
= r
V ( ) = 0
1
e2 1
mv 2 + (
)
2
4D r
)(1-26
= )E = KE + V (r
1 e 2 mv 2
=
2
r
4D r
mv2
1 e2
4D r
= mv 2
)(1-30
1 1 e2
1 e2
( = E
)
2 4D r
4D r
)......(1 3
1 1 e2
1 e2
=
2 4D r
8D r
r ) (1-28 ) (1-31:
h
2D
me 4
1
2 2
2
2
32 D h n
=
n2
1
e2
8D 4D h 2
2
=h
E=
me
h
2h
=h
1
n2
n =1,2,.............
me 4
E=
h
4D 2
me 4 1
E n = 2 2 2
8 h n
2
(32)D 2
)...(1-32

.bound states
n = 1 ) (1- 32
state of lowest energy
.ground-state energy
excited states
) (
).(1-10
: ) (
discontinuous transitions E
. hv
n2 =1 n1 = 2 .
me 4 1
me 4 1
(
)
2
2
2
2
8 h 2 n 2
8 h 2 n1
)...............(1 33
E = E 2 E 1 =
me 4
1
1
E = 2 2 ( 2 2 ) = hv
8 h n 1 n 2
FIGURE 1.10
The energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom, showing how
transitions from higher states into some particular state lead to the
observed spectral series for hydrogen.
( 1-33)
.
.( 1-33)
hc
hv
hc me 4
1
1
= 2 2 ( 2 2)
8 h n 1 n 2
1
1
me 4
1
1
= 2 3 ( 2 2)
8 h c n 1 n 2
1
1
1
= R H ( 2 2 ) ..............(1 34)
n1
n2
RH Rydberg constant
me 4
(9.11 10 31 kg) (1.60 1019 c)4
=
2
)8 h 3c (8) (8.85 10 12 c 2 N 1m 2 ) (6.63 10 34 J.s)3 (2.0 108 m/s
= RH
R H =1.089 107 m 1
)(1
1-10
.
Lyman )(
) (n = 1 Balmer series

).(n=2

?Calculate the ionization energy of the hydrogen atom
n1 = 1
= n2
me 4
1
1
)( 2 2
2 2
8 h n 1 n 2
= E
(9.1 10 - 34 kg) (1.9 10 19 c) 4

1
1
=
)( 2 2
12 2
1
2
34
2
(8) (8.85 10 c N m ) (6.63 10 J.s) 1
= 2.18 10 -18 J = 13.6 eV
1925
W. Heisenberg
(2 ) The exact value of RH = 1.09736 107 m-1 = 109.736 cm-1
M. Born E. Shrdinger
.P. Dirac

!.
(Q1
8Dh
v3
c 3 e hv/KT 1
) (a
) (b ) (a
max
) (c
max
b
T
max
, T)d
= )u (v, T
u (
5620k
) : s-x = se-x (.
) (d ) (Sirius

= 260nm
max
) (e .288 k
.

(Q2 2.3 eV
.2000
2580
.0.9 eV

(Q3 ) (a
100 V ) (b
) 200 pm (1 pm = 10-12 m
(Q4 X . X

60
0.035 A
(Q5
X 0.5 . 5
: :
8Dhc hc/c/
(e
T) 1
s
= )u ( , T
)Q1) (a
max = b / T )(b
mex = 5160 A
)(c
T = 1.12 10 4 k 1
)(d
= 1.01 10 5 m
)(e
W = 3.92 eV
)(Q2
K.E = 6.02 10-18 J
)(Q3
E = 5.4 105 eV
)(Q4
=10
)(Q5

WAVE PACKETS AND THE UNCERTAINTY RELATIONS
.
.
Shrodinger equation .
!
) (insight .

.
.
Freshet and Young

) ( .
) ( )
( Very localized a clap
of thunder
.localized in time localized
" "wane packets

superposing waves
.
They interfere with each other almost completely outside of a
given spatial region.
) (
.Fourier integrals

.
z.
z= x+i y
)......(A : 2 1
x z
) Re ( z
I:
)(A : 2 2
y Im
i = 1 i2 = 1
) (
complex conjugate * z:
z * = v iy
)(A : 2 3
i i * zz
)........... (A : 2 4
*z z
zz * = (x + iy) (x iy) = x 2 i 2 y 2 = x 2 + y 2
1
1
=
z x + iy
1
1 x iy x iy
x
y
=
= 2 2 = 2 2 i 2 2
z x + iy x iy x + y x + y
x +y
1
x
1
y
Re ( ) = 2 2 and In ( ) = 2 2
z x +y
z x +y
, r
Euler
ei = cos + i sin
(A : 1 5)
x = r cos and y = r sin

z = x + iy = r cos + i r sin = r (cos + i sin ) = rei
e i . e i = e = 1 e i
e i
z* = r e i
zz * = (rei ) (rei ) = r 2

e i + e i
2
(A : 2 6)
ei e i
sin =
2i
............ (A : 2 7)
cos =
and
( ) =
0 2D
1 im
e
2D
( )
m = 0 1 2 .......
:
1 im
1 eim
d
(
)
d
e
=
=
2D
2D im
let m o
1 1 i2 Dm
=
e
e
2D im
2D
2D
2D
1 1
cos 2Dm + i sin 2Dm 1
424
3 1
424
3
2D im 1
1
0
1 1
=
[1 1]= 0
2D im
=
let m = 0
2D
2D
2D
2D
1 i(0)
1
1
e =
d
[
]
=
2D
2D
2D
1
2D
. (2D 0) =
= 2D
2D
2D
d ( ) = d
=
:
2D
2D
2D
i
1
1 im
sin m d = 0
cos m d +
= e d
2D
2D
2D
m = 0
2D
.
2D
d ( ) = 0
)for all values of m 0 ..................(A : 2 - 8
for m = 0
)(A : 2 - 9
= 2D

2D
)..................(A : 2 - 10
mn
( ) n ( ) = 0
)(A : 2 -11
m= n
=1
*
m
1 im 1 in
e .
e
2D
2D
2D
2D
2D
1
1
1
i (n m)
[
]
m=n
d e
= d e
=
2D
2D
2D
1
(2D 0) = 1
2D
2D
Now, Let
=
2D
1
d ei (n m)
2D
Let m n
2D
1
] d [cos ( n m ) + i sin ( n m )
=
2D
) (.
sin h x : cos h x
)..................(A : 2 - 12
)(A : 2 - 13
ex e x
sin h i x = i sin x
2
ex + e x
cos h x
cos h i x = cos x
2
= sin h x

Short Introduction about Fourier Series and its integral.
A:2.1
Principle of super position
) ( : sin .cos
Fourier analysis .
)) f (x x
(
) ( .Fourier series
1
f (x) = a + a 1 cos x + a 2 cos 2x + .....+ a n cos n x + b1 sin x + b 2 sin 2x + .....+ b n sin n x + ........
2
1
)= a + a u cos n x + b n sin v x ..............(A : 2 14
2
n =1
n =1
1
a
2
(sine and cosine terms a1, a2, .
.b1, b2, Different amplitudes

harmonics multiples .x
.Fundamental frequency x
a1, a2, b1, b2, ..
) f(x
2D
2D
1
)b n = f (x) sin n x dx .....................(A : 2 15
D
2D
1
a n = f (x) cos n x dx
D
:
) (

.
1
a
2
1
1
sin 2x , sin 3x , sinx
2
3
) (A: 2-15
2D
1
f (x) dx
2D
) f(x . 2D
:
Wave packets
Wave pulses

k . k

.
).......... .......... .(A : 2 16
)y = A k cos ( k x t
t = 0 ) k (Wave umbers
45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30 , 27 Ak
0.25 , 0.33 , 0.5 , 1.0, 0.5 , 0.33 , 0. 25 A: 2-3
Ak k .Wave umber spectrum
Figure A:2-3 the frequency spectrum used to generate the we

packet shown in Figure 12.84.
( ).(A: 2-4
) (A: 2-4 ) (
.A: 2-5
...... K
Figure A: 2-5 (a) the wave number spectrum and (b) the wave
packet. Produced when k the wave number spread shown in Figure
A:2-4 becomes broader.
infinite number
Fourier integral .
:
)..........(A : 2 17
y (x) A (k) cos k x dk
) A(k .k
x , k
)....................(A : 2 18
( x) ( k) = constant
) (A: 2-17
.
).............(A : 2 19
ikx
dk A (k) e
1
2D
=)f (x
) (A:2-19.
).............(A : 2 20
ikx - (k) t
dk A (k) e
= ) f ( x, t

group velocity vg .
)...................... (A : 2 21
d
dk
= vg
A: 2-6
x = o
.xo ) (a
y = A e x
A y
.x = o
.y ) (y = A y = A
2
. x
.
ln y = ln A x 2
x 2 = ln A ln y

1
A
2
=y
A
= ln 2 = 0.693
A/2
0.693
0.693
= x
x = 2
1
x 2 = ln A ln A
2
= ln
1
x 2 = 0.693
.
y
e = 2.718
1
= 0.368
e
1
e
) ( y 0.368
.. .
y = A e x
y y = A y
x2
) ( x 2
1
e
1
y = ( ) A y = A e 1
e
1
2
= x = 2 x
= x 2 =1 x
. .
..
) f (x .
f (x) = dk g (k) e ikv
)....(2 1
= 2D
k
k x . v + 2D
k
)g (k
) g (k) = e (k k
)...(2-2
Let k 1 = k k
k = k1 + k
dk = dk 1
i (u1 + k )v
12
g (k) g (k 1 ) = e k and e ikv = e
) (2-1
i (k1 + k )v
f (x) = dk 1 e k . e
12
{= dk e k e ik v . e
ik v
12
12
e k e ik v
dk
= e ikov
).................(2 3
dk 1
k 2
k
1
e dk = 2
12

.
12 + ik iv
1 k
ik v
1 k
dk e . e = dk e
1
) (
12
.
i
) (k12 k1v
= dk e
k12 + ik1v
dk
i
)(k 12 u 1 v
v2
4 2
v2
v2
i
i
u 12 k 1 v = k 12 2 k 1 v + 2
4
4
{
1
23
v2
v2 i 1
k
)v
+
4 2
4 2
= (k 12
v2
iv
= k 1 ( ) + 2
2 4
v 2
1 iv
k ( ) +
4 2
1422
4
3

dk
v2
4
1 q
dk e
14243
2
=e
v2
4 2
q 2
.e
= dk e
1
2 du 1 e q
1
2
)..............(2 4
v2
4
.e
D
f (x) = e{ .
phase factor
ikov
) f (x ) (2-4 .
. ) f (x
.
)f (x) = f * (x) f (x
2
x2
x2
D 4
D 4
e ) (e +ikox
) e
kox
= (e
v2
D
f ( x ) = e 2
)........... (2 5
.
) (2-5 ) ( v = 0

harrow
2
)f (x
) (A
)f (x
v2
. =1
2
v 2 = 2 v = 2
)................(2 6
v = 2 2
) g (k
) g2 (k
)2 g (k
) g (k) = e (k k
) g 2 (k) = e 2 (k k
k = 0

)...................(2 7
1
2
k =k
( )k = 2 = (2
) (2-6
) (2-7
)f (x
k .

)...............(2 8
2 2 = 4
1
2
x
u , v
u . v = 2
) (2-8
u , v
.2-1
This is a general property of functions that are Fourier trans forms of
each other.
It is impossible to make both v and k small.

This is a general feature of wouae packets, but we shall soon see
rat it has some very deep implications for quantum mechanics.
Figure 2-4 Relation between wave packet and its Fourier transform for a square-shaped wave packet.

THE PROPAGATION OF WAVE PACKETS
e ikx
) f (x
) X t , y ( .
plane wanes
t X.
)...... (2-9
e iuv iwt
w = 2Dv
2D
=k
)(2-9
)................(2 10
v
) 2 Di ( vt
D
=e
2D
v i 2 Dvt
ei

).(2-10
).................(2 12
) = e ik ( v ct
2D
) i ( v ct
=e
v c
) t

( 2 Di
=v
) g (k
)f (x 1 t) = du g (u) e iu (v ct) = eik (v ct
) f (x ct
X ) (
v = ct v ct = o
.
Thus the wave packet go light waves propagates, without any
distortion, with velocity, the velsal'y of light.
.
)... (2-13
w = kc
W (k) = kc
. )(
) w (k
w = (k) kc or kv
) (2-11.
)ik (v ct
)f (x 1 t) = dk g (k) e ik (v ct

= dk g(k) e ikv iw (k)t
)..........(2 14
) w (k

) g (k) = e (k k
.u
) f (x v .
- -
) (2- 14
)w (k
.k
)............(2 15
) w (k
)dw(k
1
)d 2 w (k
( ) k + (k k ) 2
)
dk
2
dk 2 k
( ) w (k) w (k ) + (k k
.k
dw
)
dk k = k
-group velocity -
dw
)
= vg
dk k = k
)(2-16
and
1 d2w
)
=
(
2 dk 2 k = k
:
k1 = k k
dk 1 = dk
.
i (k1 + k ) v i w (k ) + k1vg + k12 t
f (x 1 t) = dk 1 e k e
12
.
1
1
12t
12
e k . e ik v. e ik vgt. e ik
12t
e ik
)1 (v vgt
e ik
dk
ik v i w(k )t
dk e
1 k12
=e
ikov iw(k )t
=e
)........(2-17

.
) ( + i t ) k12 + ik1 (v g t
=e
12 + ik1 (v gt) ik12 t
e k
.
=e
( + i t)
(v g t)
( + i t) k12 ik1
( = i t )
.
(v g t)2
4( + i t)
iu1 (u v g t) (x v g t) 2 ( x v g t) 2
+
( + i t) u12
+ i 4 ( + i) 4 ( + i t)
ik 1 (u v g t) (u v g t) 2
( + i t) k12
+ i t
4 ( + i)
i (u v g t)
( + i t) k1
2 ( + i t
2
+
( x v t) 2
g

4 ( + i t)
2
1 ( x v g t)
4 ( + i t)
............(2 18)
:( 2-17) ( 2-18)
f ( x1t ) = e
dk
i ( k x w ( k ) t )
(v g t )
( + i t ) k1
2 ( = i t )
= e i ( k x w ( k ) t e
( x y g t ) 2
4 ( + i t )
( x vg t ) 2
e 4 ( + i t )
1424
3
i ( x u gt) 2
( + i t ) k1
2 ( + i t )
1
dk e
1444424444
3
(x u g t) 2
f (x 1 t) = e
i (u x w (k ) t
D
( + i t)
4 ( + i t)
f (x 1 t) = f (n 1 t) f * (x 1 t) = e . e
(v u g t) 2
4 ( + i t)
( v u g t) 2
4 ( i t)
D
D
( + i t ) ( i t)
(v u g t) 2 ( 2 )
D
2
2 + 2t 2
= 1. e
( 2 + 2 t 2 )
=e
(v u g t) 2
2 ( + 2 t 2 / ( 2 + 2 t 2 )
.
) (2-19 )(2-5
v2
D 2
2
f (x) = e
v ) (2-5

2 t 2
)(v u g t
+
2
) f (x 1 t
ug
).(2-19
v = 2. v = 2. 2 ( + 2 t 2 /
or
)...............(2 20
2 t 2 12
)
2
v = 8 (1 +
) (2-20
t = 0
v = ( t = 0 ) = 8
) (2- 20
:
FROM WAVE PACKETS TO THE SCHRDINGER EQUATION
.........
iku iw ( k ) t
{f ( x t ) = dk g (u) e
1
p ) (p2 /2m ug
.
dw
p
)= particle velocity = .................(2 21
dk
m
= ug
E .
E=hw
or
E
h
=w
E p2/2m .
( p 2 / 2m) p 2
=w
=
2mh
h
)(2 23
) k (
. = n
p
2D 2 D
p
p
=
=
=
(h ) ( h ) h
p
2D
).................(2 24
=k
) (2-14 ) p (k
(p ) e i (px Et)/h
)............(2 25
) (x 1 t
.partial differentiable.
dp
2Dh
= ) (x 1 t
iD
(x 1 t)
t
dp (p) E e
2Dh
i (px Et)/t
p 2 i( px Et) /D
=
dp (p) 2m e
2Dh
1
.x
(x 1 t)
............(2 26)
( 2-26)
( )=
dp (p) e i (px Et)/D
x x
x 2Dh
x
1
ip
=
dp (p) . e i (px Et)/h
h
x 2Dh
=
=
1
2Dh
1
2Dh
ip ip i (px Et)/t
e
dp (p) h .
dp ( p ) (
p 2 i (px Et) /t
)e
]................(2 27)
D2
( 2-26) ( 2-27)
D ( 2-27)
2
2m
h2 2
1
D2
p 2 i (px Et)/D
=
dp
(p)
(
)
(
)e
2m x 2
2m
D2
2Dh
1
p 2 i (px Et)/D
]
=
dp
(p)
(
)e
2m
2Dh
:
ih
(x 1 t)
t
2
h 2 (v1 t)
2m v 2
................(2 28)
.
( )
The uncertainty Relations
)(
.

k v 1
p=h k
Heisenberg ancernrainrg clarion

p vh
)........(1
)( p- , v - I ) (1:
)( ) ( x
) .
v- .
)(
. ) p, x
( .
p, x .

m 1 g
m = 10 4 g
= 10 4 cn / s
1 m
.
m2
s2
J = kg.
D
h
p
2
2 v
p v
6.6310 34 J.S
J. S
m
p
= 0.5 10 28
= 5 10 29 k g
6
m
s
4D 1 10 m
29
m 5 10 u g m/s
=
s
110 9 u g
20
= 5 10
.
) ( .
) (
)Measwrcmerg position of aneleiton (Hesibdoceg Microswgee
px
t x
.
) bastion
(.
sin
.x

c
h
hv
= 2 sin . p x ~ 2 sin
c
v
c
v
p (sin + sin ).
Dv
sin .
~ 4Dh
c
sin
p v v ~ 2
: )
kg
27
( 2 10
10-10 m
px
px
6.6 10 34
h
p x
=
6.6 10 24 kg m/s
10
x (2D )10
m
s
2000
(
m
= 4 10 24 kg. m/s
s
Px = mc = 2 10 27 kg 2 10 3
:
0.25
6.6 10 24
=
= 1.7
4 10 24
p x
px
: 1000 m 1. mm
s
.
6.6310 34 6.6
p
=
10 31 kg m/s
3
10 m
2D
p = 0.005 1000 = 50 kg - m/s
.
p 6.6 10 31 kg k/s
=
= 1.310 32
p
.
:
.10

E. t h
h 6.6 10 34
= 1.0 26 J = 6.5 10 8 ev.
=
t 2D 10 8
.
wave Guide
c
2
vg
v 2 v
.
c2
2
v 2 v
= 2
2
2
4D 2 (v v ) w w
=
=
D2
c2
c2
2
4D2
2D
k2 = 2
w
w = 2Dv v =
2D
k=
v2 =
k =
2
w2 w
c2
w2
vD 2
c k = w w k =
2
w2 w
w
c 2 2kdk = 2 w dw
dw c 2 k
=
dk w
2
vg =
w
dw c 2 k c
2
w l w = c 1 2
=
=
dk w w
w
= c 1
v2
.1 mev = :
10 km 1 cu
.
b b y
y = 1com, p y ?
p y =
p y . y h
6.6 10 34
D
= 5.310 33 kgm/sec
=
2Dy 4D 10 2 m
p x = 2m n E = 2 (1.67 10 27 ) (10 6 en) (1.6 10 19 )

= 2.310 20
tom =
kg . m / sec
33
5.3 10
2.3 10 20
R
=
x
R
5.3 10 33
9
= ton R = v ton = 10 m
= 2 10 4 m
20
x
2.310
.2R 1am
2 R = 4 10 4 m = 4 10 2 con = 0.4
10.4 nm
/ )(
3000 A
= 10
/ 10-6 s
13.6
2D 2Dh
=
= ) hw = (E 2
=
4
w hw
) 2D (1.05 10 34
=T
= 1.2 10 15 sec
13.6
(
) ) (1.6 10 19
4
=T
C 10 8 sec
= =T
= 8 10 6 tw
15
T 1.2 10
4000 A
0.0001A
D = 4000 A , = 10 4 A = 10 14 m.
h c D hc D
=E =hv
= 2
D D
D
t .
4Dh 4h D 2
= C = t
=
E c D D
`
) (4) (16) (10 14

= 2.1 10 7 sec.
8
14
) (310 ) (10
= 0.21 sec.
/ 1.1 ev

h
2D
= t . E
E = Dv
t =
6.6 10 34
h
=
= ..............?
2D E 2D 1.1ev
F (x) = dk g (k) e ikx

g ( k)
g (k ) = o
=N
k k/2
k/2 k k/2
4
k
2
=o
N
+
dx f ( x )
=1
2N
kx
sin
x
2
+
2
kx
4N
dx 2 sin 2
=
2
x
Qf( x ) =
2
4N 2
sin 2 n
z
z
2
du
.
Sin
u
2kN
du
=
k 2u 2
u 2 = 2D N = 1
k2
1
N=
2Dk
N
+
dk g ( u )
1
2D
2
dk g ( u) = N
u/z
k/z
N
sin
kv
2
dk = N
k=
1
2D
1
2Dk
v
u =
uD
2D
=
u
k
uD
) u = uD
u
( = k
.u
)(1
2D dv
dv
dv
dv
=
=
= D2
) dk 2D d (1/D ) d (1/D
dD
C2
2
v2 v
= D2
v 2 v
= vg
= QD
2v dv
dv dv c 2
v2 v
1
2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2 2
=
dD D 3
C
c
c
D
D
c2
c2
dv
2
D2
= (D 2 ) . ( 3 ) = = c 1 v /v 2
dD
D v Dv
c
c
c
2
v2 v
=
=
=
c
1
v
v
(v
)
2
2
2
2
2
v v /v
v v
)(1
u g = c 1 v /v 2
2

The Schrdinger wave Eqn. nd the Probability Interpretation
montentum
).V (x
.
).............(1
) (x, t
)h 2 2 (x, t
=
t
2m x 2
ih
.
) ( .. :
i(px Et)/h
ap (p) e
2Dh
= ) (x, t
E p2/2m
i(px (p 2 /2m)t)lh
).............(2
ap (p) e
2Dh
= ) (x, t
: ) (

) (
) )( ( x, o
) (x, t
t
t
(x, t) i 2h 2 (x, t) ih
=
=
i2m h xH2 2m xt 2
t
ih 2
t
( x, t + t) = (x, t) +
2m x 2
)ih 2 (x, t
(x, t + t ) = (x, t ) +
)t .................(3
2m x 2
(x, t + t) = (x, t) +
) (x, o ) (p ) (2 t = o
) (2 .
).................(4
ipx/h
dp (p) e
2xh
= ) (x, o
) ( p
:
(P ) = 2Dh (x, o ) dx e ipx/ h
) (2 ) (x, t ..t
" " :
once ) (
) (x, o ..

) ( x, t
)(
) ( x, t
.
) (1 ) (x, t .conglex fetom
) (2
) (x, t
1
424
3
.
) (3 )) (Spreading(.
)
( MaxBorn )(
) p (x, t
.t = 0
:
x
p (x, t ) dx =1
)(6
vormalization

:
) (7
) dx (x, o

) (x, o

squaredintegrabli
) (x, t
). (x, o

x 1 / 2
.contineon sin x.
Import on ce of the ases :
) (x, t
. .
.
) (1 )
) (x, t ) = 1 (x, t) + 2 (x, t
)(8
i1
) 2 (x, t ), 1 (x, t
2 (x, t ) = R 2 e i , 1 (x, t) = R 1 e
R 1 , R 2 , 1 , 2
) i ( 2 1
(R1 +R 2 e
i 1
= e
) (x, t
) = R 1 + R 2 + 2R 1 cos ( 1 2
2
)(9
) (x, t

) ( 1 2
) (9
. lineally
cosine .

...
Peobalrility current
.(1) complex conjugate
h2 2
=
2m t 2
t
* (x, t)
h 2 2 * (x, t)
ih
=
2m
t
t 2
ih
ih 2
=
t 2m x 2
ih 2 *
*
=
2m x 2
t
644744
8
p (x, t) = ( (x, t) x (x, t) )

t
t
* (x, t)
+ *
=
t
t
*
ih * ih 2
2
2m x 2
2m x
2
1 h 2 2*
2
* h
ih 2m x 2
2m x t
p (x, t) =
t
x
j (x, t)
t (x, t) =
t
x
dx p (x, t)
x
= dx
j (x, t) = o
x
= [J ( ) j ( ) ]= 0 , j 0
(12)
square integreble
ax
p(x,
t)
dx
j (x, t)
=
t
x
= j (a, t) j (b, t)
(1)
(14)
j (x, t) , p(x, t )
) d (x, t ), p (x, t )(
.
)(15
) (x, t
)h 2 2 (x, t
=
)+ (x, t
t
2m
x
it
) V(x
(x, y, z, t),
) V (x, y, z
2
2
2
+
+
2
x 2 y 2 z 2
)(12
p (r, t ) + . J (r, t) = 0
t
2
) p (r, t ) = (r, t
) (x, t
h2 2
=
) (r, t ) + v (r ) (r, t
t
2m
h
= ) j (r, t
) * (r, t ) (x, t ) * (r, t ) (r, t
2im
ih

Expectation Values of Canticle nonctn
.P (x,t) .
) f (x .
)(20
) f (x ) = ax f (x ) p (x, t
) = ax * (x, t ) f (x ) (x, t
p = mv = m
dx
dt
(21)
d
d
x = m dx * 9x, t) v (x, t )
dt
dt
+
*
)
x + * x
p (x ) = m dx (
Z
Z
p =m
p (x ) = m dx (
(x, t )
(22)
)
+ (x, t ) + * x
t
Z
dx
dt
h
=
t
2m x 2
h 2
m
=
t
2i x 2
* h 2 *
m
=
t 2i x 2
ih
2
h + 2 *
*
x x 2 )dx
p = (
2i x 2
x
2 *
*
*
*
x
(
x
x
=
x 24
x
x x
x
4
3
x 2
1
x *
x
x
(
x ( * ) + *
x x
x
x
2

( * x ) + *
+ *x 2
x
x
x
x
=
.
2
2 *
*
*
(xx
x
=
(
x ) ( * ) + *
2
2
x
x
x x
x
x
( * x ) + *
x
x
x
*

=
x * * x + 2 *
x x
x
x
h
p = [
2i x
]+ h 2 * (x, t) (x, t) dx
2i
x
p = dx * (x, t)
h
(x, t)
i x
.operator
p=
h
i x
.
p 2 = dx * (x, t) (h 2
2
) (x, t)
x 2
f ( p ) = dx * (x, t) f (
( p)
D
) (x, t)
t x
.
1
2Dh
(x, t )=
ap ( p ) e i [px - (p/2m) t ] / h
.t
(x ) =
2Dh
ap ( p ) e ipn/ h =
t = 0 :
(p )
h
ou (hD ) e ikv
1D

( hD ) = ax ( x) e ikx
or
(p) =
1
2Dh
ax (x) e - ipx/ h
ap * ( p) ( p) = ap * ( p)
= ax
1
2Dh
ax (x) e - ipx/ h
ap * e - ipx/ h
Dh4424443
124
*
= ax * = 1
Parsevali
: :1
If a function is normalized to 1, 50 is its Fourier Transform
) : x .(regasrauney p
:
h d
) (x
i dx
h d 1
) = ax * ( x
ap (p) e ipx/h
i dx 2Dh
1
= ap ( p) p
ax * (x) e ipx/ h
2Dh
) p = ax * ( x
)p = ap ( p ) p * (p
) ( p
) (p
.p
x = ih
ogenatrs .
.

[ A B ] = AB BA
1
)D (x, t
x (x, t ) x
i x
i x
D
= (x
+ ( x, t ) x
)
i
x
x
) [ p, x ] (x, t) = h (x, t
i
[ p, x ] (x, t) = h
Commutation relatively
[ p, x ] = h
i
normalized ware fumets :

(x ) = 2 v e v v > 0
=
v<0
p(x )= (x )
( a)
v2 ,
ap
=o
ax
=
( b)
( c )
v = 1 ,v= 0
p2 ,
(p)
( b)
p (x) :
a
a
( * ) = (2 2 e v * 2 x e v )
ax
ax
a
=
(4 3 x 2 e 2 ) = 0
ax
= ( 2 e 2 v 2 + e 2 2v) = 0
= 2 v (1 2 v ) e 2 = 0
1
1 = 2 xn =
(b)
v =
dx ( x) v ( x) =
*
2 v e v . v . 2 e x
4 3 v(v 2 e 2v ) dx =
ax.v (4 3 v 2 e 2x )

1
v =
4
t e dt = t e
n
1
1
y = 2 v , dy = 2 v , dy = 2 ax ax = dy , x =
y
2
2
dy y 3 e y =
+n t
0
n 1
tdt
3i
3
=
4 2
= t n e t at = (n + 1) = n !
0
n is aminke (n + 1) = n ( n 1) (n 2).........1 = n!
4i
3
= 2
2
8
= ) dy y 2 ( 4 3 x 2 e 2x
) ( ) (:
:
p I
p .
h
* h
)
ax (
i x
i x
*
)
* ax (
+
x
x
ax
( * ) = 0
x
* = ax
p p
h
i
h
=
i
=

Periodical
)(x )=(x +L
0 v < L
t
lax
hermitical poetry
h
ax
) )( * (x) (x
i 0
x
L
h
h
2
2
(L) (o) =0
i
i
= p p
*

lerimti of opener p x .
An operator whose expectation value for all admissible wave
functims is real is called a hermitical operator
:
) (x, t
)h 2 2 (x, t
=
t
2m
x 2
h
i x
= p op
= ih
:
2
p op
) (x, t
= ih
) (x, t
=
2m
t
) (x, t
2
(x, t) p op
= ih
=
)+ V (x
t
2m
or
) (x, t
)h 2 2 (x, t
)+ V (x) (x, t
=
2m x 2
t
= ih
or
) (x, t
)= H (x, t
t
ih
H . Hamiltonian
.
p
p2
p2
)+ V (x
2m
=H
/ :
N
x +a2
2
= ) (x
) (a N .
) (b
) (c
vn
p2
) (a
n .
x1 x2
= x
p1 p 2
=x
x p
!)D (2n 3
dx
= 2n 1
2 n
) (a + x
2a
!)(2n 2
2
dx
=1
2
(x + a 2 ) 2
dx
x
1
x
= 2 2
+ 3 + tu 1 ( )
2
2
2
a
(x + a ) 2a (x + a ) 2a
D
2a 3
=
N
D
2a 3
N2
+
2a 3
1
2
D x +a2
)(b
a2
(x 2 + a 1 ) 2
xn
2a 2
=
D
n < 3
n = 0, 1, 2,
=0
xn
2a 3
=
D
x2
dx
(x 2 + a 2 ) 2
x 2 ax
x
1
=
+ + tam 1 (x/a)
2
2 2
2
2
(x + a )
2 (x + a ) 2a

= D / 2a
N
(p) =
=
Z = x tiy
a
D
2Dh
a
h
n2
= 2a 2
ax e 2p x/h
dx e i px/h
p = hk p/h = k
x2 +a2

= 2 D i R (ia)
2Di k ( ik) D ka
e
=
= e
2ia
a
(p) = D/h e pa/h
p>0
= a/h e pa/ h
p2
p
=
=
2a
h
p 2 e pa/h ap
* p 2 ap
ap
=z
h
p
p>0
p2 = z2
2a h 3
( )
=
h a
= 2(
p =0
p = 2h/a
h2
a2
z 2 e z az
h
h
) (3) = 4 ( ) 2
a
a
(n + 1 ) = n !
(2 + 1) 2!
p =
p2
x =
(D ) = ( D )
h d
i d
d * ( )
D
D
=
*
=0
h d
i d
h d *
i d
d
d
D
h
*
d
d
+
d
(
)
(
* )
i D
h
i
d
( * )
d
h
*
= ( D ) ( D ) * ( D ) (D )
i
(D ) = ( D )
= 0
3.c.
k/2
dk N 2 = N 2
dk = N 2 k =
k/2
2D
N=
1
2D k
. N
( p)
: 3.d
sin
.k
2D
kx
x = + k
=0
2D
2
x = k
x=
4D
k
x. k =
,
4D
.
k
k
u
k = ( ) = k
2
2
k = 4D
sin
kx
2
Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues :
:
) (x, t
)h 2 2 (x, t
=
)+ v (x) (x, t
t
2m x 2
)(1
ih

) (x, t) , T(t) u (x
)dT (t) h 2 d 2 u (x
=
+ v (x) u (x)
2
dt
2m dx
) ih u (x
)u (x) T (t
)2m) (a 2 u (x) / dx 2 ) + V (x)u (x
)u (x
(sin 1
dT (t)dt
ih
=
)T (t

E
)dT (E
i1
i
= E dt = Et
h
)T (E
ih
)d T (t
)= E T (t
dt
ih
ET
i
lm T (t) = - Et T (t) = Ce t
h
:
)h 2 d 2 u (x
)+ v (x) u (x) = Eu (u
2m dx 2
time indgader S-E :
) (1
) (x, t
.Ligea valu equation .

.
: :
of (x) = f (x) + x 2
1.
] )of (x) = [f (x
2.
)of (x) = f (3 x 2 + 1
3.
d f (x)
4. of (x) =
dx
)5. of (x) = df / dx 2f (x
)6. of (x) = f (x
) f (x
) of (x.
.
:
] ) [f 1 (x) + f 2 (x) ] = [f 1 (x) + f 2 (x
c .
:
) cf (x) = c * f (x
)cf(x) = c * f(x
.
)df (x
) 2 f (x
ax
= ) f (x

)( ) (amitvedre
unit sphere
z . 30
A A
B B
C C
( ) ( 4 6
:
)(4-10
)u E (x
H u E (x) = E
H :
eigeulalw E
.E

)u E (x
.H
eigeufaction E
) f (x) = f (x
:
)h df (x
) x f (x
i ax
a xa
= ) f (x
) ( .bouday
)f (a) = f ( a
:
f (x) = f (x)
h a f (x)
v f (x) = f (x)
i ax
df (x) i
i
= [ + t (x) + f (x)]= [ x + ]+ (x)
dx
h
h
df i x
= ( + ) ax
f h
i x2
h f = (
+ x )+c
h
2
x 2
i
+ ixh
2
f (x) = Ae
energy eigenvahes H
H=
p 2 op
+ V (x)
2m
the Eigenvalne Poeem for a
.Particle in box
h 2 a 2 u (x)
+ V (x) u (x) = Eu (x)

2m ax 2
(4 6)
:
V (x) =
= 0
=
x <0
<x<a
a<x
:(4 6 )
u (x) = 0
=0
x<0
a<x
.( 4 6 ) V ( x ) = 0
d 2 u (x) 2mE
+ 2 u (x) = 0
dx 2
h
. E < 0
d 2 u (x)
K 2 u (x) = 0
2
dx
e lx
,
,
k2 =
2m E
h2
e kx
k2 =
2mE
,E
h2
d 2 u (x)
+ k 2 u (x) = 0
dx 2
A sin Kx + B con lex

u ( 0 ) = 0
:
u (x) = Asin k
u (a ) = 0
ka = nD
n = 1, 2, 3.........
.
En =
h 2u 2 h 2 D 2 u 2
=
2m
2ma 2
n = 1, 2, 3.........
.
A = 2la
u n (x ) =
2
hDx
sin
a
a
.
a
dx u
0
*
n
(x ) u m (x) = dx
0
m Dx
2
nD
sin
sin
a
a
a
a
(n m) Dx
(n + m) Dx
1
) cos (
)
cos (
a
a0
a
sin (n m) D
sin (n + m) D
=
( n m )D
( n + m )D
= 0
= 1
whem
whem
n m
n =m
(x ) u m (x) = smn
)..................(4 23
*
n
dx u
0
.ortagoral
* . ) (4-23
thonormality covelition .
.eigensalutions
-1 grourdstate )u1 (x
D 2h 2
2ma 2
= E1
atesr
V(x)=0 , p = 0
= 0
" "

n p D
-2
h d
)R (x
l dx
p = 0
)dx R(x
.
p =0
) R(x
= p
p 2 0
p 2 = 2mE
= 2mE n
p2
-3
urith caruature
of the solntions .
)d 2 u (x
d x2
)dx u * (x
h2
2m
:
The Expansion Postulate and its physical Interpretation

(0 ) and ( a ) = 0
)(x
.
nD x
a
( x ) = Cu sin
)( H
nDx
a
sin
) Un (x:
) (x) = A n U n (x
An
dx u (x) (x) =
*
m
dx u *m (x)
A n U n (x)
An
dx u *m (x) =
A n Smn
An =
dx u *m (x) (x)
. /
(x) = A ( x / a )
x
= A (1 )
a
0 < x < a/2

a
<x < a
(x)
dx
=1
A=
12
a
En
. An
a
An =
2
nD x
sin
dx (x)
An =
2
nDx
sin
dx (x)
= QA =
=
An
=
An =
An =
a/2
0
12
a
dx A
x
a
2
nDx
sin
+
a
a
a/2
24 a/2
x
nDx
+
0 dx ( ) sin
a
a
a
24
a
24
a
nDx
x
dx ( A 1 ) sin
a
a
0
a/2
dx (1
x
nDx
) sin
a
a
2
nDx
sin
D/a
0
D/a
0
an
u
sin nu (1 (1) n )
D
0 An N
.
24
1
2 2 ( 1) n +1
D
n
a6
An = 4 4
n odd
D n
=0
n euen
= An
/ ) 3(
Dhn z
c
nD
nD
p = hu = h
a
a
Dhn y
= , py
,
b
= pz
= u a = nD u
Dhn x
a
= px
2
2
n 2z
1 2
1
D 2h 2 n x n y
2
2
2
=E
= p
= ) ( p + py + pz
(
+
)+ 2
2m
2m x
2m a 2 b 2
c
.
n x hz
c
sin
n x hy
b
sin
n x hx
a
= C sin
) .(a = b = c
D 2h 2
D 2h 2 2
2
2
2
=E
= ) ( nx + ny + nz
k
2m
2m 2
.
n x hz
c
sin
n x hy
b
sin
n x hx
a
= C sin
.n2
D,ny ,nz
nx , n y , n z
n
.degeneracy
g
nx , n y , n z
) (1,1,1,
3 E1
) (2 , 1, 1 ) (1, 2 ,1) (1,1, 2
6 E1
) (2 , 2 ,1 ) (2 , 1, 2 ) ( 2 , 2 , 2
9 E1
( ) (3 ,1, 1
11 E 1
:
Expansion Postulate and Its physical Interpretation

(0 ) = ( a ) = 0 bowdary canditions
nD x
a
)(x
( x ) = Cu sin
H infinite well
nDx
a
sin
)Un (x
) (x) = A n U n (x
dx u *m (x) u n (x) = smn orthonormelnty
.An
)A n U n (x
)dx u *m (x
= )dx u (x) (x
*
m
A n Smn
= )dx u *m u n (x
0
1
442443
An
Smn
a
)dx u *m (x) (x
= An
sin = 1, if m = n
)dx u *n (x) (x
= An
) (x
)U n (x
A n U n (x) e iEnt/h
iEnt/h
( e
= ) (x, t
An
) (x
/2m
H = p
(x) = 0
)H U n (x) = E n U n (x
)A n U n (x
dx * (x) H
= )dx (x) H (x
*
)(a
)dx * (x) E n U n (x
An
= En
)dx * (x) A n U n (x
= En An
)(B
)A n U n (x
)dx * (x
= An
= 1
An
) (a
An
)A n = dx U *n (x) (x
) (x
.En
: . .
) (x) = A (x/a
x
) = A (1
a
0 < x < a/2

a/2 < x < a
12
a
=A
dx
a
(x) = 1
2
.En An .
2
nDx
sin
) (x
dx
= An
12 x
a a
x
nDx
) sin
a
a
dx (1
0
a/2
Dx
a
, dx = du
a
D
Dx
a
24 a/2
x
nDx
dx ( ) sin
+
0
a
a
a
=u
=D-u
D an D sin (nu) +
u
) sin nu (1 (1) n
D
D/2
dn
24
a
24
=
D
= An
An n 0 n.
24
1
2.
( 1 ) n +1
a
n 2
n odd
neven
96
D 4n 4
An
= An
=0
Momentum Eiglnhetion of the Fremantle
:Parity
) (sin kx, cos kx
a /2 a /2
)(n = 2, 4, 6, ..............
nDx
2
sin
a
a
= )U n (x
)(n = 1, 3, 5, ..............
nDx
2
cos
a
a
= )U n (x
x= 0
x x

) (x
) (x
)(n =1, 3, 5, ..............
2
nDx
cos
a
a
An
= ) (x
2
nDx iEnt/h
e
cos
a
a
(x , t) = An
x .
: x = 0
. ) (
.
Parihyopenator p
x x
) (x
)p (x) = ( - x
.
)p ( + ) (x) = ( + ) ( x
.
)p ( ) (x) = ( ) ( x
p + 1
p -1
nDx
nDx
( ) , sin
)
a
a
H P
.
)PU (x) = D u (x
( cos
P .
)P 2 U (x) = P D u (x) = D 2 u ( x
)P 2 U (x) = U (x
2 =1 = 1
)( .

1
] )[ (x) + (- x) ] + 1 [ (x) (- x
2
2
= ) (x
"" "" x = 0
a , 0 )(
.x = a/2

)(
.
One Dimensional Potential

nonclaesical efpeots
.
) ( :The Potential step

.
x < 0
x>0
V (x) = 0
= V 0
.
)h 2 d 2 u (x
)+ v (x) u (x) = E u (x
2m dx 2
:
[ E - v (x) ] u (x) = 0
)d 2 u (x
2m
+ 2
2
dx
h
:
2m E
=K2
2
h
V (x) = 0 x< 0
2m
E V0 = q 2
2
h
.
u (x) = e ikz + R e ikz
x :
*
)(x
=
x
x
complex coujngate
644444
4
474444444
8
h iux
* iux
2ikx
iux
iux
=
Rik e ) ( ike + ikR * e iux ) (e iux + R * e iux )
( e + R e ) ( iue
2im
h
) ik (1 RR * ) + ik ( R * e 2ikx Re ikx
2im
h
=} ) ik (1 RR * ) + ik ( R * e 2ikx Re ikx
) [ 2 ik ( 1 R) = hk (1 R 2
2im
m
h
2im
[{
e ikx
e ikx
=j
hk
m
x R
R e - ikx
hk
R
m
x > 0
.
U (x) = T e ijx

transmitted were .
h
T * e - iux ( Tiq e iqx ) (iq T * e iqx ) T e iqx
2im

)(
P (x, t) + j (x, t) = 0
t
t
) j(x .x
.
2
hi
T
m
= )
hk
(1 R
m
contiuwity
)U (x) = U (x
e iux + R e - iux = T e 2ikx at x = 0 1 + R = T
)(a
x = 0
d 2 u (x) 2m
]+ 2 [E V (x) u (x) = 0
dx 2
h
du
du
d du
2m
( ) ( ) = dx
= dx 2 (V (x) E ) u (x) = 0
dx
dx
dx dx
h
+ a
2m
)V u (a
h 2
a +
)V 8 (x a
a +
= )V 8 (x a) u (x
du
du
2m
( ) at ( ) a = 2
dx
dx
h
:
2k
k+q
=T
K q
K +q
= R
flected and transmitted

feuxes
h k k q 2
(
)
m k+q
hq
2k 2
hq
hk 4 hq
= Transmitte d j
= T2
(
= )
m
m
k +q
m (k + q) 2
=
)(C
hk
R
m
= Refleted j
:
- :
. .
.
.
- ) (C )(
= .
hk
hq 4k 2
k q 2
( (1
=) )
m
k+q
m (k + q) 2
hk
h k 4qk
4qk
=
2
)m (k + q
m (k + q) 2
2m
2m
E 2 ( E V ) = q E >> V
2
h
h
= k
R
( k q) 2
JR
=
0
JT
4kq
.
-
E < V
2m
)(E V
h2
=q
x > 0 .
q x
U (x) = T e i (iq) x = T e
:
*
k i q k i q
k i q k +i q
=
= R R =
=1
k +i q
k
+
i
q
k
+
i
q
k
i
q
qx
u = Te
. . )
( .
2k
0
k+i q
=T
Penetrates
)(
" "tunneling .
) j (x
)(
) ( n2 > n1 .
:The Potential well

x <a
a < x <a
V (x) = 0
= V
a<x
) 2m (E + V
h2
= q2
=o
2mE
,
h2
= k2
u ( x ) = e ikx + R e ikx
< a
u ( x ) = A e iqx + B e -iqx
<a
u ( x ) = T e ikx
< a
)(
hk
R
m
hk
m
x
-a< x
x
. hk
m
hk
m
x=
=) B
2
hq
( A
m
= ) (1 R
2
hk
m
.
e - ika + R e + ika = A e -iqa + B e iqa
) ik ( e - ika R e ika ) = iq ( A e -iqa B e iqa
A e + iqa + B e - iqa T e ika
iq ( Ae iqa B e - iqa = ik T e ika

(q 2 k 2 ) sin 2qa
2k q cos 2qa i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa
2kq
2k q cos 2qa i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa
E >> V
R = ie 2ika
T = e 2ika
q 2 k 2 << 2k q
sin 2 ga = 0
.R = 0
) ( 0.1 eV
) ( .
Townsend , Ramsauer
.transmission resonance
) (

c = - a x = 0
2D 2D 4a
=
=
2 qa = nh .
q
nD n
Fairy
.Perotintenforometeer .
E < 0
V (x) =
= V >
) .(discrete
2mE
= K2
h2
x < a
u ( x ) = C1 e kx
a <x
u ( x ) = C 2 e kx
x<a
u ( x ) = e + ikx + Re ikx
a<x
u ( x ) = A e iqx + Be iqx
a<x
u ( x ) = T e iux
.
a<x<a
u ( x ) = A cos qx + B sin qx
2m
(V E ) >
h2
x = a
= q2
V > E
- -
C1 e ka = A cos qa B sin q a
u C1 e ka = [A ( sin qa) q ]+ B (cos q a) = q ( A sin qa + B cos q a)
C 2 e ka = A cos qa + B sin q a
k C 2 e ka = q (A sin qa B cos q a)
.K
A sin
A sin
A sin
=q
A sin
k=q
qa Bcos qa
qa + Bcos qa
qa + Bcos qa
qa Bcos qa
(1)
(2)
A B = 0
( A = 0 ) x = ( B = 0 ) x =
) ( groudstate
.
(1)
K = q tam qa
(B = 0 )
)(2
) (A = 0
K = q tam qa
.
) (a :

2m V a 2
h2
) (
) (
y= q a
. discete ser
y2
y
)( lundstates
ttractiuepot
) ( .

, n = 0, 1, 2, ..........
1
)D
2
qa = y = (n +
Figure 5-11. Location of discrete eigenvalues for even solutions in

square well. The rising curves represent tan y; the falling curves are
y 2 / y for different values of
. :( b)
y2
= cos y
y

y=nD
n = 1, 2, 3, .................
D
2
D
cory = ( + y )
2
tan
1
y=(n + )
2
Figure 5-12. Location of discrete eigenvalues for odd solutions in

square well. The rising curves represent cot y; the falling curves are
y 2 / y for different values of Note that thee is no eigenvalue for
< ( / 2) 2
D2
4
>
>
D2
= 2.40
4
x = 0 )(
) (
U ( ) = 0
) ( .
.
) ( The Potential Barrier
:
x <a
a < x <a
V (x) = 0
= V
=o
a<x
E < V
)( .
d 2 u (x) 2m
+ 2 ( E V ) u (x) = 0
h 42
dx 2
1
4 43
4
)d 2 u (x
K 2 u (x) = 0
2
dx
2m
) K 2 = 2 ( V - E
h
.
x <a
U ( x ) = A e kx + Be kx
) (E < V

.
.

x << 2a
)(
h
2a
>> p
h2
8ma
>> E
h2
8ma 2
>> >> E
E V
h2 k2
2m
) Wentzel- kreners Birllouin (WKB

2
4ka
e
4ku
2
2
K +u
.
.itsholdbe4
)2 (ka) (ua
= 2u (2a) + 2lm
123
(ka) 2 + (ua) 2
lm T
)(
Ka
uxtaposition
lm T
> ~ 2 x < k
2
2m
] [V (x) E
h2
dx
lm T
~2
barier
k .
)V (x
x

. .
)dx (2m/h 2 ) 2 (V (x) E
2
~e
4ku
.
Tunneling Phenomena

.
)( .Cold Emission
) (

.
)
( .
.
) ( .
e x W
}) {V (x) E (b
.
- -
2m
) ( Ve x
h2
]w/e
)(A + Bx
=
3
B
2
( ex
3
e
2
2m
= 2
h
dx
T ~e
)dx (A + Bx
2m
dx 2 ( w ex
h
W/e
2m 2w 2
h
3e
4 2mw w
) (
3 h2
e
T =e =e
2
Fowler Nordheim
Scanning Tunneling Micros cepe
STM .
STM
.Tunneling in superconductors

The Harmonic Oscillator
.
.
p2 1 2
+ kx
2m 2
= k. E = p.E
=H
)(1
.
h 2 d 2 u (x) 1
+ k x h 2 (x) E.u
2
2m dx
2
)(2
) (3
2E
h
)(4
) (5
)(6
m
x
h
k
m
= k = m 2
= y
d 2 u ( x) m2 2 2
2mE
x u + 2 u=0
2
2
h
h
dx
2
d u ( x) m m 2 2 E
x
u =0
h 12
{ h3
h
dx 2
2

y
2
2
1 d u
d u
+ ( y 2 ) u = 0 2 + ( y 2 ) u = 0
2
m dx
dy
h
.
.
2
)H n ( y
y3
2n n D
= un
)H n ( y
H 0 (y) = 1
H1 (y) = 2 y
H 2 (y) = 4 y 2 2
H 3 (y) = 8 y 2
)( .
)( E. eijenvalne
y2
E . ) asymptotically u (y
.
y 2 u (y) = 0
)(7
du
dy
)d 2 u (y
d y2
.
d
d du 2
2
) y2
(u 0 ) = 0
(
dy
dy dy
)(8
.
d d u 2
2
2
(
) y 2u 0 = 2 y2u 0
dy dy
)(9
du
d d u 2
2
2
) y2u0 = 0 ( )2 y2u0 = C
(
dy dy
dy
), u ( y
d u
dy
) = ( C + y 2 u 2
d u
dy
C = 0.
= y dy
)(10
d u
u
= yu
d u
dy
.
2
y2
U (y) = e
= 2ye y
2y U 2
2
d 2 y2
(y e ) ~ 4 y 3 e y
dy

d
) (y 2 U 2
dy
y.

)h (y
).......... ........(1 2
U ( y ) = h (y) e y
.
)dh (y
)d 2 h (y
2y
+ ( 1) h (y) = 0
2
dy
dy
).............(13

.y = 0
.Power series expansion .
h (y ) = a m y m
)..................(14
m =0
a m ym = 0
m =0
m1
)+ ( 1
2y m a m y
m =0
14
4244
3
m-2
m (m - 1) a m y
m =0
m
m am y
m =0
ym
.
(m + 2) (m + 1) a m+ 2 2 (m + 1) a m + ( 1) a m = 0
).......... ..... (15
(m + 2) (m + 1) a m+ 2 = ( 2m - +1) a m
am
m
2
am
m
, a0
.a
) (m > N
~ am + 2
) ( .
)h ( y ) = (atolyromialiny
2
22
23
+ a N y N + y N+2 +
yN+4 +
y N + 6 + ..........
N
) N (N + 2
) N (N + 2 ) (N + 4
N
N
1
+1
N
2 2
2
2 2
2
N
(y
)
(y
)
(y
)
+
+
+ ..........
a N y 2 ( 1 )!
N
N
2
! ) ( N 1
!) (
!)( + 1
2
2
2
N = 2k
)( .
(y 2 ) k 1 (y 2 ) k
(y 2 ) k + 1
y 2 (k 1 )!
+
+
+ ..........
!k
! )(k + 1
! ) (k 1
2
(y 2 ) k 1
(y 2 ) 2
= y 2 (k 1) ! e y {1 + y 2 +
+ .................. +
(k 2)!
!2
+ x
y2 ey
y2
4 (y ) = h (y ) e
( N + 1 ) ( N + 2 ) a n + 2 = 2N + 1 a n = 0
1424
3
=0
= 2N + 1
2E
= 2N + 1
hw
)(17
:
-1 ) (
) (4 ) (17 .
1
1
hw (2m + 1) = (n + ) h w
2
2
)(18
=E
Planck.
1
E = (n + ) hw
2
-2
)Hn (y
.
:
)Hn (y
= 2 n +1
+ 2nH n (y) = 0
)dH n (y
dy
2y
) d 2 H n (y
2
dy
ecussionedations
H n +1 2y H n + 2n H n 1 = 0
H n +1 +
dH n
dy
2y H n + 2n H n = 0
2
Zn
H n (y)
= e 2zy z
n!
H n (y) = (1) n e y
d n y2
e
dy n
dy e y H n (y) 2 = d n n! D
.
H 0 (y) = 1
H1 (y) = 2 y
H 2 (y) = 4 y 2 2
H 3 (y) = 8 y 2 12 y
H 4 (y) = 16 y 4 48 y 2 + 12
H 5 (y) = 32 y 5 160 y 3 + 129 y
( )
d2u n
dx
mk 2
2mEn
x un
un
2
h
h2
d2u* e
mk
2mEn *
u e
= 2 x 2 u* e
2
dx
h
h2
un
u*e
*
2m
d * dun du x
ux
u x = 2 (E x E n ) u *x u n
h
dx
dx
dx

dx u *e (x) u n (x) = 0
) En
x=
(E

-3
1
) E = h w (n +
2
Ee En
.Zero point evergy

.

10-3k . .
) (:

:
" "

)(1
) (x, t) = H (x, t
xt
ih
. H V .
)+ V (x
p sp2
2m
=H
) V (x )(
(x, t) = u E (x) e Et/h
:
)H u E (x) = E u E (x
)u E (x
.H
-1 ) (E
E E
(x) = 0
dx u *E (x) u
-2
)(6
<
)dx * (x) (x
) (x
) ( expanded .
)C E u E (x
)(7
= ) (x
H )(
)0 V (x
) (7 :
)dp C (p) u p (x
)(8
C n u n (x) +
= ) (x

.
dx u *m (x) u n (x) = mn
)dx u *p (x) u p (x) = (1 2

dx u *m (x) u p (x) = 0
) (x, t
:
u E (x, t ) = u E (x) e iEt/h
(x, t) = C E u E (x) e iEt/h

E
2 t/2m h
dp C(p) u (x) e ip
(x, t) = C E u E (x) e iEt/h

E
O These Obseruobeas :

) (.
: .
h d
)u (x) = p u p (x
i dx p
= )p op u p (x
aconitum
) < ( < p
.
1
e ipx/ h
2D h
= )u p (x
.
+
) = (p1 p 2
)dx u *p (x) u p (x
2
.
.

:
A
.a
)A u a (x) = a u a (x
:
dx u *a1 (x) u a2 (x) = a 1 , a 2
)u a (x

)C a u a (x
)u a (x
= )(x
:
)C a = dx u *a (x) (x
:
:Ca
)(x
(x) (x) = 1
dx
:
-1 .a
-2 a
Ca
-3 A
.unity
Ca
=1
:
1=
dx * (x) (x) =
dx C *a u *a (x) (x)
a
*
= Ca C a
a
C a C *a =
dx u *a (x) (x)
dy u a (y) * (y)
dx dy * (y) (x) u a (y) u *a (x) = 1

a
u a (y) u (x) = (x y)
*
a
The Vector Space Analogy
:operators and observables

)( transforms
)A (1 1 (x) + 2 2 (x) ) = 1 A 1 (x) + 2 A 2 (x
. .
=0
A A
A = A
)dx * (x) A (x) = dx (A (x) ) (x

*
)(a

dx * A = dx (A )
*
)(b
.
) (x) = (x) + (x
) (a:
)dx * (x) A = dx ( * + * * ) A ( +
dx * A
dx * A +
+ dx * Adx * A + * * A

] ) dx (AA* = dx [A ( + ) ] [ ( +
*
dx (AA* + * dx (AA* + dx (AA*
= dx (AA* +
) (d) , (c
* ,
) (
hermitian conjugatioput A+
dx (AA* = dx * A +
[ A , B ] = 0
A = A+
( AB ) + = B + A +
)(
Time Dependence The classical limit of Quantum theory
+ pt / m

. .
A t = * (x, t) A (x , t) dx
:
d
A
)A t = * (x, t
(x , t) dx
dt
t
) * (x, t
)(x, t
A (x , t ) dx + * (x , t ) A
di
+
t
t
A
=
t
+ H (x, t) A (x, t) dx + * (x, t) A H (x, t)

ih
ih
t
A
i
i
=
+ * (x, t) H A (x, t) dx + * (x, t) AH (x, t)dx
t t h
h
t
] [H , A
i
h
+
t
A
t
A = 0
dA
dA
= =0
dt
dt
d
i
= A t
[H , A
dt
h
H .
.

.
:
A=x
A=p
)( 1
)(2
:
] [H , x
d
i
= x
dt
h
i p2
2m + v (x) ,
h
).v (x
[ V (x) , ] = 0
?=]
] = p [ p , ] + [ p , ]p
[p
[p
h
=2 p
i
)(a
p
p
=
2/ m
m
d
i/ 2/
= . t/
dt
h/ i/
:
d
i
] p = [H , p
dt
h
i p2
+ v (x) , p
h 2m
P p
] )[ p , V (x
i
h
] [ V (x) , p
i
h
[ p , V (x) ]
h d
[ V (x) (x) ] h V (x) d (x)
i dx
i
dx
h
d ( x)
h
dV(x) h
d (x)
= V (x)
+ (x)
V (x)
i
dx
i
dx
i
dx
h dV(x)
. (x )
=
i dx
pV (x) (x) V (x) P (x) =
[ p , V (x)]=
h dV(x)
i dx
:
d
i h/ dV (x)
p = .
dt
h/ i
dx
=
t
dV (x)
dx
(b)
t
( b ) , ( a )
d
p
d
=
m
= p
dt
m
dt
d
p
dt
m
=
t
dV (x)
d
d
d2
.m
= m 2 t =
dx
dt
dt
dt
dV (x)
d2
t =
2
dx
dt
V (x)
m
=
d2
dV (x)
=
2
dx
dt

:
dV
d
=/
V(
dx
d

hrenfen
)dV (x
d
F (
) )F ( )+ (
F (x) = F ( )+ (x
F (x) =
) (
.
)
F ( ) F ( )+ ( )F ( x
F(
macroscopic helve

.
/ B , A :
-1 AB B , AAB = BA
-2 (A + B)n .
/
-1 :
(AB) + = B + A + = BA
AB AB = BA
-2
)[ (A + B) ] = (A + B
(A + B)+ ................(A + B)+

)= (A + B)(A + B)..................... (A + B
n
)= (A + B
+
) i (A A+
, A + A+
n +
A A+
/
= A + + (A + ) + = A + + A
( A + A+ )+
) = ( i ) A + (A + ) + = (i) (A + A
]) [i ( A - A
) =i (A A+
( A A + ) + = (A + ) + A + = A A +
/ H
e iH
e - iH
!in Hn / n
n =0
) (
in n
(i) n
= (e ) = H
Hn
!n
! 0 n
(i) n n iH
=
H =e
!n
+
/ H
iH
H 4 =1
)( H
)( H H
H 4 =1
(H 4 1) = 0
( H + 1) ( H 1) ( H + i) ( H i) = 0
(H i)=0
H i = 0 H = i
= i
( H i ) =/ 0
(H i) =
( H + 1 ) ( H 1 ) ( H + i) = 0
(H +i)=0
(H +i)=x
( H + 1) ( H 1 ) x = 0
(H 1 ) x = 0
( 1) ................+ 1
1, i
H = H+
/ A

= e iH
unitary
e iA
) (e
iH +
:
, e iA = 1
iA
(e ) (e )= e
iA +
iA

(ii 2 2 (ii 3 3
(ii 2 2 (ii 3 3
H +
H + ..........) (1 i +
H
)H + ..........
!2
!3
!2
!3
(1 + i +
.
2
(a ) H = p
1
) + m ( 12 2 + 2 +
2m 2
p2 1
(b ) H = + m 2 2 A2
2m 2
/
i p
=
{[
] p,
h m h/i
d
i
i p2
= [ H , ]=
,
dt
h
h 2m
p
m
dp i
i
= [H, p ]= p, m 12 2 /2 + 2
dt h
h
i h
= , 2 m12 + 2 = m12 - 2
h i
2
d x 1 dp
= = 12 2
dt
m dt
m

)p(0
sin 1 t
m1
+ x (0 ) cos 1 t +
2
2
1
d p
=
dt m
(b)
dp
i
x2 A
2A
= p , m 2
2 = m 2 3
dt
h
2 x
x
.
p2
H=
( e E cos wt )
2m
dH dp dx
, ,
dt dt dt
dx i
i p2 i p
= [ H, ]=
, x =
[p , x ]= p
h 2m h m
m
dt h
dp i
i p2
= [ H, p ]= p ,
(eE cos t )
h 2m
dt h
i
[p , (eE cos t ) ]= i , h eE cos t = eE cos t
h
h i
H
dH
=
= eE sin t
t
dt
=
:
The Schrdinger Equation in three Dimensions
The Central Potential :
)V (x, y, t
r = x2 + y 2 + Z 2
.
) + V ( r1 r2
)(1
p 22
2m 2
p12
2m1
=H
.
m1 r1 + m 2 r 2
)( 2
m1 + m 2
=R
r = r1 r 2

p = p1 + p 2
m 2 p1 m1 p 2
)( 3
m1 + m 2
=p
.
2
) + V( r
)( 4
2M
2M
=H

M = m1 + m 2
)(5
)(
)(6
m1 m 2
M
:
]hi sij
, Rj
, rj
]hi sij
) (7
[p
[p
P H P
H P .
1
e i P, R / h
)(8
= ) U (P , R
)( 2 D h
H .
)(R ,r) =U(P,R )uE (r
)(9
:
p2
) + V (r ) u E (r ) = E u E (r
2
)(10
M =w
P2
2M
E = E tot
.

)(1
h2 2

) r + V (r ) u E (r ) = E u E (r
2
Consequences of Rotational Invariance
) (11
r .

:
L =rp
) (12
) ( ) (
1
1
= (r . p ) + L
r
r
L = rp . rp = r p r p
2
)(13
1 2
L
r2
p2
= p 2r +
) V r( radial
. L L2
.
1 2
)P + V (r
2
=E
. .
:
-1
-2 .
) Z
Invariance under Rotations about the z-axis

)(14
= cos y sin
y = sin y cos
r = ( x 2 + y 2 + Z 2 )
2
= ( 2 + y2 + Z 2 )
=r
+ sin
= cos sin
+
+ cos
y
x
y
x
x y

= +
x y
2
Invariace
.
Z H
= y
y = y + x
(15)
:
H U E (x y , y + x , Z ) = E U E (x y , y + x , Z)
f ( x + ) = f (x) +
af
( x)
ax
(16)
H U E (x , y , Z ) = E U E (x , y , Z)
(17)
:

H x y U E (x, t, z ) = E x y U E (x, y, z )
x
x
y
y
(18)
x y E U E ( x, y, z) = x y
x
x
y
y
H U E ( x, y, z )
.H

x y
x
y
:
h
L z = x y
i y
x
(19)
= x Py y Px
L =r

, P
(20)
.( 19) ( 18)
(H L z L z H) U E (x, y, z) = 0
) U E (r
[H , L ] = 0
)(21
Lz
.
P
)(22
L =r
. y, x
[H , L ] = 0
[H , L ] = 0
x
)(23
H
.
.
.
)(24
[yp z , xp z ]
]
]
[ ]
= [yp
, L y = yp z zp y , zp x xp z
x
[ ]
+ [ zp
, zp y zp y , zp x
, xp z
[L
= y [ Pz , z ] Px + x [z , p z ]p y
h
(yp x xp x ) = ih L z
i
:
)(25
, L z = ih L x
[L
)(26
, L x ] = ih L y
[L
) (24 ) (26
L L = i h L
H .
zp y , zp x xp z
[ L , L ] = [yp
= [yp z , zp x ] zp y , zp x [ yp z , xp z ] + zp y , xp z
Lx
Ly .L2
L2 , H L z

Separation of Variables is the Schrdinger Equation
) (11
, Lz
.
:
] ) ( ) = [(r p ) ] + [ (r p ) ] + [ (r p
2

y z
y
z

z x
z
x
2 2
2
+ z 2 + 2
x y
L = rp
= h 2 y z
y
z

h2 z x
z
x

h 2 x y x y
z
x y
y
2
2
2
2
= h 2 x 2 2 + 2 + y 2 2 + 2
y z
z y
2
2
2

2 yz
2 xy
2 zx
2x 2 y
2z
yz
zx
x
y
z
xy
(r p) = h
x
+ y + z
+ y + z x
z
y
z x
y
x
2
2
2
2
2
+ 2yz
= h 2 (x 2 2 + y 2 2 + z 2 2 + 2xy
yz
xy
z
y
x
+ 2zx
=h2 { y

y
z z
+x
+y +z )
zx
x
y
z

z
y
z
z y y

z
z
x
x x
+x
+ z
y
z
y
+ x
x
x
z
x
z z
z x
z

y
x
+ y
y
y
x
x z
x y
y z
+z

x
y

y
z
(28)
2
2

2
+
+
= y y 2 y z
z y
z y y y z z
z
2
2
2
2

z
z
z
x
x
+ z z
+
+
2
2
z x x
x z z
y
x
2
2
2

x
+ x x 2 + x x
+
y
2
y z z
z
y
2

2
y
+
+
y x
y
x y y
xz
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
x
z
= y2 2 +
+
+
+
+
xz
y2
x2
z
z
y
2
2
2
2yz
2xy
2z x
x y
z y
z y
2y
2z
2x
y
z
x
.( r . p )
2

+ r . p = h2 x2 + y2 + z2
) x
2
2
+
y2 z2

+ h x
(29)
+y
+z
y
z
x

+ r . p = r . p + ih r . p
)(30

).(30

+ r . p ih r . p
)(31
1
p = 2
r
2

1
r h 2
r r
r
1
h 2
r
p . r
1
p = 2
r
2
( p = i h
u E (r) + V (r) u E (r) = Eu E (r) #
)(33
1
1
r r +
2 2
r r r r h r
h2 1
2 r 2
) (
y,
. .
)(34
)u E (r) = Y ( , ) R E (r
) Y ( , ) = Y ( ,
)(35
) (35 )( ).(39
) (x,y,z ).(r, o, y

. symmetry
)( .commuting epertes
h .
2
= l (l + 1) h 2
)(36
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, .............
.
) Y ( ,
lm

)(37
) Ylm ( ,
) Ylm ( , ) = mh Ylm ( ,
l m l
Ylm
Ylm
.
. ,
) ( ,
( , ) = Sl1l2 S m1m2
)(38
d Yl m ( , ) Yl
2m2
1 1
2D
= sin d d Yl m ( , ) Yl
*
2m 2
1 1
The Radial Equation
) (35 ) (36 ) (33 ) (34

.
h 2 1 d d l ( l + 1)
) R (r) + V (r) R Elm = R Elm (r
r
2 r dr dr
r 2 Elm
) (39
m .
l
)( 2l + 1
deglnemacy m
. m
d2 2 d
2
l (l + 1) h 2
2 E
2 +
R nl (r ) 2 V (r ) +
R nl (r ) + 2 R nl = 0
2
r dr
2 r
h
h
dr
)(40
E n
)(r
ne
. R
1
r
Coulomb potential ) .(12

.Singular
1
r
)(41
lim r 2 V (r) = 0
r
.
)(42
)(43
)u nl (r) = r R nl (r
d 2 2 d u re (r ) d u 1 du 2 u 1 du
2 +
= 2 +
+
+
r dr r
dr r
r dr r r r dr
dr
2
1 du 1 d 2 u 1 du 2u 2 du
= 3 u 2
+
+
r
r dr r dr 2 r 2 dr r 3 r 2 dr
1 d2u
=
r dr 2
) (r
) (44
u nl (r ) = 0
d 2 u re (r) 2
l (l + 1 ) h 2
(
)
+
E
V
r
dr 2
h2
2 r 2
) (a
.barrier
) V (r
l (l + 1)h 2
2 r 2
repulsive centrifugal
V (r ) V (r ) +
) u = r R (r
) (b
:
) u nl (r
u nl (0 ) = 0
V=r
: Origin
u nl
)d 2 u l (l + 1
2 u~
dr 2
r
) (47
Ansatz
u (r ) ~ r s
:
s ( s 1) l ( l + 1 ) = 0
s = l +1
s =l
u () = 0
regular sohtim
r -l
r l +1
irregnlar ) R (r
r .
) (50

)(51
d 2 u 2 E
+ 2 u =0
dr 2
h
) r 2 dr d R nl (r ) Ylm ( ,
2
) r 2 dr R nl (r
) 1 = d r (r
2
:
) (52
) dr u nl (r
E < 0
)(53
d 2u
+ 2 u = 0
2
dr
)(54
2 E
= 2
h2
u (r ) ~ e r
E > 0
.
)(55
e ikr
ikr
2 E
=k2
2
h
d 2u
u2 =0
2
dr
) V(r
.e
The Hydrogen Atom
Ze2
r
)(1
V(r ) =

d2 2 d
2
Ze 2 l (l + 1) h 2
2 +
R + 2 E +
R =0
r dr
r
2 r 2
h
dr
)(2
E < 0
)(3
8 E
=
2
h
) (2 :
)d 2 R 2 dR l ( l + 1
1
+
R+ R = 0
2
2
d
d
)(4
) (
)(5
C2
= Z
2 E
) (4 .
1
137
2 E
Z e2
=
h
. rest mass
The Energy Spectrum
) (4 .
d2R 1
R=0
4
d 2
) (6
R ~e
R~e

) G (
) (7
R= e
)(4
):G (s
d 2 G 2 dG 1 l (l + )
G =0
1
+
d 2 d
2
)(8
) G ( :
)(9
n =
G ( ) = l
) (a
an
)(10
H ( ) = a n n
n =

d 2 H 2 l + 2 d H 1 l
H=0
+
+
1
d 2
d
)(11

) G ( ) = l H ( p
)(8
:
) (12
2l + 2
n 2 + n a n n 1
1 + ( 1 l ) a n n 1 = 0

+ (2 l + 2 ) a n + 1 + ( 1 l n ) a n n 1 = 0
n ( n 1 ) a
n=0
{(n + 1)[n a
n +1
n=0
.
n + l +1
) ( n + 1 )(n + 2l + 2
)(13
a n +1
an
n
) (14
1
n
a n +1
an
) R ( p
) (a
n = nr
.
N
)(16
n = nr + l + 1
nr 0
1. n l +1
2. n is au int eger
) (Z
1
E = c2
2
n2
E = hw
)(14
. .
)(18
m
m+ M
m M .
)(19
Ei Ej mC 2 /2h
(Z )2 12 12
=
m
h
n n
1+
M
= iy
The Degeneracy of the spectrum

=1 )
= o, l = 0
= nr + l +1
. n ground stale
=2
(i ) n r =1, l = 0
(ii ) n r = 0 , l =1
=1, l = 0
(i ) n ) (13
n + l + 1 nr l 1
n + l +1
=
)(n + 1)(n + 2l + 2 ) (n + 1)(n + 2 l + 2
n nr
) (20
) (n + 1)(n + 2 l + 2
a n +1
an
:
a
1
1
=
a1 =
( + + 2) 1 2
2
a1
a
H ( ) = a n n = a + a 1 1
n=
)(21
a
= a +
2

= a 1
2
) H (

(i i ) n r = 0, l = 1 .

H ( ) = a
) . Y ( ,
1m
) (2 l +1 .

=n=2
3 +1= 4 = 2 2
=3
n r = 2, l = 0
1
6
a2
a1
= 1
a1
a
.
1
H ( ) = a 1 + 2
6
)(22
nr = 1 , l = 1
nr = 0 , l = 2

=n=3
)5 = (2l +1

1
4
1+ 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
H ( ) = a
H ( ) = a
)(
=n
1 + 3 + 5 + ... + [2 (n 1) + 1]= n 2
) (2l +1
. . 1
r
The Radial Eigen functions
=n
)(13
k + l +1 n
a
(k + 1)(k + 2l + 2 ) k
) (26
= a k +1
:
)n (k + l + 1
) n (k + l
.
)(k + 1)(k + 2l + 2) k (k + 2l +1
)n ( l + 1
a
.........
1. ( 2l + 2)
) (27
k +1
)a k + 1 = ( 1

) . H ( . ) H (
) (
)(28
= ) H (
)( 2 l + 1
n l 1
12 30
h
= a
Rnl (r ):
zr
a
2 a
e
zr
1 z r
2a
2 z r 2 ( z r ) 3 a
+
1
e
3 a
27 a 2
zr
2 z r 2 ( z r ) 3 a
+
1
e
3 a
27 a 2
zr
z
R10 (r ) = 2
a
z
R20 (r ) = 2
2 a
3 2 a
= ) R21 (r
z
R30 (r ) = 2
3 a
) P (r
) (12-2
) Pem (cos
) Pem (cos
).(12-3
.
]) = dr r 2 + k [ Rnl (r
2 2
a n
= 2 5 n 2 + 1 3 l (l + 1)
2z
) (12 36
z
=
a n 2
=
1
2 3
a n l +
) l (l + 1
[3n
2z
a
= r
r2
1
r
1
r2

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(optics and electromagnetic theory .

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wave properties of matter the quantization of

1-1 Blackbody Radiation

- Blackbody Radiation could not be explained by classical physics

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.ultraviolet catastrophe )(1-1

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Max Planck .1900

Position Momentum (energy .

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Energies of the oscillators were discrete and had to be

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)hc (6.63 10 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m/s

Watt (W: Joul/sec N

1-3 The Photoelectric Effect

Heinrich Hertz ultraviolet light

Einstein proposed that the radiation itself existed as smell

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Figure 1-5. Photoelectric effect data showing a plot of retarding

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= (1.82 eV) (1.6 10 19

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Figure 1-6. The spectrum of radiation scattered by carbon,

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= (h hv) 2 + 2m c 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4

pe c 2 = (hv )2 + (hv)2 2 (hv ) (hv) cos

)pe c 2 = (hv hv) 2 + 2hv hv (1 cos

m 2 c 4 + pe c 2 = p e c 2 2hv hv (1 cos ) + 2mc 2 (hv hv) + m 2c 4

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2hv hv (1 cos ) = 2mc 2 (hv hv)

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ware- particle duality of

1924 Louis de Broglie

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Figure 1-8 the scattering of X-rays by crystal planes when the

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1911 Niels Bohr

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( u D ) ( 8.851012 c 2 N 1 m 2 ) (1.055 1034 J.s) 2

= 5.29 10 11 m = 52.9 pm 0.53 A

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(9.1 10 - 34 kg) (1.9 10 19 c) 4

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K.E = 6.02 10-18 J

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Freshet and Young

( Very localized a clap

.localized in time localized