I

DEDICATION
========================================
To my loving and esteemed father Idrees Ahmed Butt and mother Rakshanda Butt who have really enlightened my future by the dint of their keen interest, devotion and heart felt prayers.

AUTHOR

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our profound gratitude, most sincere appreciation and special thanks to our project advisor Prof. Tahir Nadeem Malik, Engr.Abdul Samad (DGM Hec Hattar) and Engr.Fazal (Asst.DGM Hec Hattar) . They helped us in every regard. Without there continuous moral support and enthusiasm it would have been impossible to complete our project.

III Preface
Power industry in on the rise. With power shortage jinx haunting the country new power projects are bound to be started. With every power plant there comes the use of power transformers. Doesnt matter whether its hydro power plant or diesel power plant, to transfer electric power over greater distances and distribute it among the consumers we need power transformers. So this was the incentive that gave us the passion to dig deep into the design of power transformers. That was our main aim. How an actual power transformer is designed. What are the constraints and limitations? What is the cost? How do we make an actual power transformer? What is the core? What is the winding? How do we select the winding? How do we select the core diameter? How we select the type of winding? How do we calculate the losses? All these questions were in our mind when we started this project. And now while writing these preface we can proudly say that we have found the answers. This thesis will help any learning engineer to take an insight to the design world. We have divided this book into three broad sections. The first section deals with the elementary theory of the power transformer. It covers the core and winding in detail. And then we have explained briefly the operation of tap changers and bucholz relay. After knowing about the basics of transformer we come to our main topic which is design of course. We present the design consideration section. Here we have mentioned every single design aspect with formulas. What is the type of transformer? What are the cooling methods? What are the line and phase currents? What are the line and phase voltages? How we select the volt/turn? How do we balance the ampere turns? All these topics have been covered. After giving the design considerations we design an actual 20/26 MVA 132/11.5 KV power transformer. All the design calculations are included with formulae and adequate explanation. In the end there is a small section in which we have compared prices of power transformers being made both in our country and out of country. In the end we would thank Allah who gave us the courage to pursue our objective. And then Prof. Tahir Nadeem Malik who has been guiding us for the whole year. He always helped us and told us better ways of doing things. Then we would like to thank Engr.Abdul Samad(DGM Hec Hattar) and Engr.Fazal (Asst.DGM Hec Hattar) who provided us with the practical knowledge and concept of design

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.

Introduction.........................................................................1
1.1 Introduction of power transformer...................................................1 1.2 Significance of power transformer...................................................2 1.3 Utilization of our work.....................................................................2 1.4 Methodology....................................................................................2

2. Power Transformer ---- An Overview...............................3

2.1 Application of transformers.............................................................3 2.2 Working principles transformer........................................................4 2.3 Elementary theory of an ideal transformer.......................................5 2.4 EMF equation of a transformer.........................................................6 2.5 Ideal transformer...............................................................................8 2.5.1 2.5.2 Transformer on No-load..................................................8 Transformer on load........................................................9

2.6 Transformer having winding resistance but no magnetic leakage....12 2.7 Magnetic leakage...............................................................................13 2.8 Transformer with resistance and reactance.......................................14 2.9 Transformer core...............................................................................15 2.10 The winding................................................................................21 2.10.1 Continuous disk winding................................................23 2.10.2 Helical winding...............................................................28 2.11 2.12 2.13 Transformer winding arrangement for on-load tap changing.....30 External insulation.......................................................................34 Transformer Tank, Cooler, Oil conservator................................34 2.13.1 The tank...........................................................................35 2.13.2 Cooler..............................................................................38 2.13.3 Oil Conservator................................................................40 2.14 2.15 2.16 Breather.......................................................................................41 Oil sampler...................................................................................43 Protective Devices and Instrument..............................................44

V
2.16.1 Explosion Vent................................................................44 2.16.2 Buchholz Relay................................................................45

3. Design Considerations.........................................................47
3.1 Basic Procedure for design calculation..............................................47 3.2 Evaluation of core diameter and calculation of winding turns..........48 3.3 Calculations of winding.....................................................................51 3.4 Calculation of impedance voltage......................................................57 3.5 Calculation of Winding Parameters...................................................59 3.6 Calculation of core data.....................................................................62 3.7 Calculation of tank dimensions..........................................................64 3.8 Calculation of stray losses..................................................................65 3.9 Calculation of temperature-rise..........................................................68 3.10 Calculation of axial mechanic stress of windings............................71 3.11 Calculation of stress conductor under short-circuits........................74 3.12 Calculation of weight.......................................................................76.

4. Design Calculations of 20/26 MVA, 132/11.5 KV Power Transformer....................................................................................84

4.1 Current calculation ...............................................................................84 4.2 Core Calculation...................................................................................85 4.3 L.V Winding calculations.....................................................................86 4.4 H.V winding calculations......................................................................88 4.5 R.V winding calculations......................................................................89 4.6 Calculation of Load Losses...................................................................91 4.7 Stray Losses..........................................................................................94 4.8 No Load Losses.....................................................................................97 4.9 No Load Current...................................................................................99 4.10 Regulation of Transformer ................................................................100 4.11 Efficiency...........................................................................................102

VI
4.12 Calculation of Winding Temperature Rise.........................................103 4.13 Short Circuit Current for H.V Winding..............................................112 4.14 Highest Average temperature rise of Winding Under Short Circuit...114 4.15 Balance of ampere turns......................................................................115 4.16 Axial Mechanical Stress under Short Circuit Condition ....................117 4.17 Calculations of weight ......................................................................120

5. Problems And Failures In Power Transformers.......................124

5.1 Procurement problems of power transformers.................................................124 5.2 Problems in magnetic circuits..........................................................................126 5.3 Problems in winding.........................................................................................128 5.4 Problems due to various structural defects and to other causes .......................130 5.5 Prices of Power Transformers..132

6. Conclusion And Recommendations............................................138

7. References.....................................................................................142

Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Power industry is at its peak in Pakistan due to scarcity of Electrical power generation. The industry for construction of Power Transformer locally will grow keeping in view the demand of power transformer. We want to have: 1) Experience of design of power transformer for which we Perform survey/review of different design aspects. Effects of changing design aspects on power transformer. We cover all the following aspects of Construction. (i) Body (ii) Winding (iii) Core (iv) Other parts 2) Experiences tap changer installation and working.

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPOSED PROJECT

Why were we doing this project? Thats the most important question. Presently the power transformers are being made by a handful of companies like HEC Hattar, Siemens and now PEL have joined in. So they need design and maintenance engineers. If we have a detailed study of power transformers then we will be ideally suited for these kinds of jobs. Since we already have mentioned our project will cover all the aspects related to design.

1.3 UTILIZATION OF THIS WORK

Power transformers are very costly. Their prices are in millions of rupees. Our work will give any engineer a full-fledged research work on these transformers. Although we may find books on power transformers. But our research is based on practical work. Going to construction sites watching everything being built and then writing it down. This will provide a lot of help to anyone interested in design and construction of power transformers.

1.4 METHODOLOGY
By methodology we mean our approach to this project. We start from the design aspects of power transformers. For this we visit factory sites and meet the design engineers asking them about the various designing tools and at the same time study different books so that we can get an insight into the various design aspects. For the construction of these transformers again we visit the factory and watch every part being made and then being assembled in the assembly section. So basically our work includes a lot of visits to factory where these transformers are being designed. To pursue our project we went to HEC Hattar. We had detailed discussions with the design engineer there. That has helped us to complete our project.

Chapter 2
Power Transformer --- An Overview

2.1 Application of transformers

Electrical energy generated by fuel-fired (thermal) power stations usually located near large fuel deposits and by hydroelectric stations built in regions where waterpower resources are, available has to be transmitted to industrial canters which may lie hundreds and thousands of kilometers away from the stations, hence the need for vast transmission lines between the greeting plant and the consumers. It is a well-known fact that when current is transmitted over a line, some of the power it carries is dissipated as heat in the line conductors. This loss grows higher as the current and the resistances of the conductors are increased. It is not economical to try to reduce the loss by solely decreasing the conductor resistance, because this would require a substantial increase in the cross-sectional area of the conductor entailing a large consumption of costly nonferrous metals. It is precisely to reduce the power loss and consumption of nonferrous metals that the transformer is used. The transformer while leaving the transmitted power unchanged decrease current by increasing voltage and the loss which is proportional to the square of the current (I2R loss) is thus sharply reduced. For example, ten-fold increases in the supply voltage reduce the power loss by a factor of 100. At the beginning of a power transmission line the voltage is raised by step-up transformers and at the end of the line step-down transformers to a value convenient for the consumer (from 127 V to a few kilovolts) lower it. Electric power is distributed among the consumer (works. Factories. Residential areas. etc) through transformer substations the prime role in the present-day power engineering is played by power transformers. I.e. transformers used to raise or lower voltages in the supply networks of power systems, which serve to transmit electric power over great distances and

4 distribute it among the consumers. Power transformers are notable for their high power capacity and operating voltage. Since electricity has to be conveyed over thousands of kilometers to the integrated power grid the load centers and directly to numerous minor consumers it has to be transformed four or even five times, hence the need to install a large number of set-up and step-down transformers. Also, it should be noted that at each transformation Stage operating at progressively lower voltage the total capacity of power transformers is usually greater than that at the preceding stage. Therefore, in a y power system the installed transforming capacity is six or seven times the installed generation capacity. As an example figure shows the layout of a transmission and distribution network.

Supply networks operating at a voltage of 220 KV and higher make wide use of autotransformer. Such transformers have two or more windings conductively connected so that there is some winding portion to both the primary and the secondary circular. Now we shall consider the structural components of a transformer in greater detail.

2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a static piece of apparatus used for transferring power from one circuit to another without change in frequency . it can raise or lower the voltage with the corresponding decrease or increase in current . in its simplest form the transformer consists of a conducting coil have mutual inductance . the primary is the winding which

5 receives electric power and secondary is the one which delivers it. The coils are wound on laminated core of magnetic material. The physical basis of transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits linked by common magnetic flux through a path of low reluctance as shown in the following figure.

The two coils possess high mutual inductance if one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage. An alternating flux is setup in the laminated core. Most of which is linked up with other coil. In which it produces mutually induced e.m.f(electromotive force). According to the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. e = M di/dt Where e=induced emf M= mutual inductance If second circuit is closed a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil (primary coil) to the second coil (secondary winding).

2.3 Elementary theory of an ideal transformer

An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its windings have no ohmic resistance and there is no magnetic leakage. In other words an ideal transformer consists of two coils which are purely inductive and wound on a loss free core. It may, however, be noted that it is impossible to realize such a transformer in practice yet for convenience we will first analyze such a transformer and then an actual transformer .

6 Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no cutput the primary draws the magnetizing current only. The function of this current is to merely to magnetize the core.

It is small in magnitude and lags v1 by 90 degree. This alternating current produces an alternating flux which is proportional to the current and hence is in phase with it. This changing flux is linked with both the windings therefore it produces self-induce emf in the coil. This self induce emf e1 is, at any instant, equal to and in opposition to v1. This is also known as counter emf of the primary. Similarly in the secondary winding as induced emf e2 is produced this is known as mutually induced emf. This emf is in phase opposition with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux and the number of secondary turns. Figure shows the vectorial representations of the above quantities.

2.4 EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Let N1 = Number of turns in primary N2 = Number of turns in secondary m = maximum flux in the core in Webers Bm = flux density in Weber/sq M (Tesla) A = Net cross-sectional area of core in sq m f = frequency of ac input in Hz V1 = Instantaneous value of applied voltage in primary winding in volts V1m = Maximum value of applied voltage involtes The instantaneous value of counter electromotive force e1 is e1 = N1 d /dt volt the counter emf e1is equal and opposite to applied voltage V1, I.e.

7 V1 = N1 d /dt If the applied voltage is sinusoidal, that is V1 = V1m sin 2ft Then Hence = m sin 2ft e1 = N 1 m cos 2 ft X 2f

These equation are expressed as vectors as shown in Figure wheres V1 and e1 are the rms values of V1 and e1. To obtain the rms value of counter emf e1, divided its maximum value given above by V2. Then Values. i.o. or E1 = 4.44 f N l m E1 = 4.44 f N l B m A Similarly rms value of emf induced in secondary is E2 = 4.44 f N2 Bm A In an ideal transformer V1 = E1 and V1 = E2 Where V2 is the secondary terminal voltage E1 = 2 / V2 f N1m The cosine term has no significance except to derive the instantaneous

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO (K)

From transformer equations we get E2 = N1 E1 N2 This constant is known as voltage transformation ratio. (a) If, N2 > N1, i.e, K > 1, then the transformer is called as step-up transformer. (b) If N2 < NI, i.e, K < l, then the transformer is called as step-down transformer.
=K

Again for an ideal transformer Input = Output

V1 I1 = V2 I2 (neglecting I) Or I2 = V1 = 1 I2 V2
K

Where I1 and. I2 are primary and secondary currents

Hence the currents are in the inverse ratio of the transformation ratio.

2.5 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

We will consider two cases 1. When such a transformer is on no-load and 2. When it is loaded 2.5.1 Transformer on No-Load The primary input current under no-load condition has to supply (i)iron-loss in the core i.e, hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and (ii)a very small amount of copperloss in primary. Hence the no-load primary input current Io is not at 90 degree behind

V1 but lags by an angle 0 which is less than 90 degree. No-load primary input power
Wo= V1 Io cos 0 . No-load condition of an actual transformer is shown vectorially in

9 the following figure.

As seen from the figure primary current Io has two components. (i) One in phase with V1 . This is known as active or working or iron-loss component Iw, because it supplies the iron-loss plus a small quantity of primary Cu-loss. Iw=Io cos 0 (ii) The other component is in quadrature with V1 and is known as magnetizing component because its function is to sustain the alternating flux in the core. It is wattless. Iu=Io sin 0 Obviously Io is the vector sum of Iw and Iu hence Io= ( Iu 2 + Iw 2 ) The no load primary current Io is very small as compared to full-load primary current. As Io is very small hence no-load primary copper-loss is negligibly small which means that no-load primary input is practically equal to the iron-loss in the transformer. 2.5.2 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD When the secondary is loaded, secondary current I 2 is set up. The magnitude of I 2 is determined bye the characteristic of the load. The secondary current sets up its own mmf(= N 2 I 2 ) and hence its own flux 2 which is in opposition to the main primary flux , which is due to I o . The opposing secondary flux 2 weakens the primary flux momentarily and primary back emf E1 tends to

10 reduce. For a moment V1 gains the upper hand over E1 and hence causes more current ( I 2 ' ) to flow in the primary. The current I 2 ' is known as load component of primary current. This current is in phase opposition to current I 2 . The additional primary mmf N1I 2 ' sets up a flux 2 ' which opposes 2 (but is in the same direction as ) and is equal to it in magnitude. Thus the magnetic effects of secondary current I 2 get neutralized immediately by additional primary current I 2 ' . The whole process is illustrated in the following figure.

Hence whatever may be the load conditions the net flux passing through the core is approximately the same at no-load. Due to this reason the core-loss in also practically the same under all load conditions. Due to this reason the core-loss is also practically the same under all load conditions. As

11

2 = 2 '
N 2 I 2 = N1I 2 ' I 2 ' = N 2 / N1 I 2 =K I 2
Hence when transformer is on load, the primary winding has two currents I o and

I 2 ' (which is antiphase with I 2 and K times its magnitude). The total primary current
is the vector sum of I o and I 2 ' . In the following we show the vector diagrams of a loaded transformer.

In fig(a) current I 2 ' is in phase with E 2 (for non-inductive loads). In Fig(b) it is lagging behind E 2 (for inductive loads). If we neglect I o as compared to I 2 ' as shown in fig(c), then 1 = 2 and thus

N1I 2 ' = N1 I1 = N 2 I 2 I1 / I 2 = N 2 / N1 = K
It shows that under all load conditions the ratio of primary and secondary current is constant.

12

2.6 TRANSFORMER HAVING WINDING RESISTANCE BUT NO MAGNETIC LEAKAGE

An ideal transformer was supposed to possess no resistance but an actual transformer has primary and secondary windings with some resistances. Due to these resistances there is some voltage drop in the two windings. The result is that: (a) The secondary terminal voltage V2 is equal to the vector difference of the secondary induced emf E2 and I 2 R2 where R2 is the resistance of the secondary winding.

V2 = E2 - I 2 R2
(b) Similarly primary induced emf E1 is equal to the vector difference of V1 and I1R1

R1 is the resistance of the primary winding. E1 = V1 - I1R1

The vector diagrams for non-inductive, inductive and capacitive loads are shown In Fig (a),(b) and (c) respectively.

13

2.7 MAGNETIC LEAKAGE

In an ideal case it is assumed that all the flux linked with the primary winding also links the secondary winding. But in practice it is impossible to realize this condition as magnetic flux cannot be confined. The greater the portion of the flux(i.e, the mutual flux) flows in the core while a small proportion(Fig) called the leakage flux links one or the other winding but not both.

On account of the leakage flux, both the primary and secondary windings have leakage reactance, that is, each will become the seat of an emf of self induction, of a magnitude equal to a small fraction of the emf due to main flux. The terminal voltage V1 applied to the primary must, therefore, have a component I1 X 1 (where X 1 is leakage reactance of primary) to balance the primary leakage emf. In the secondary, similarly, an emf of self induction I 2 X 2 (where X 2 is leakage reactance of secondary) is developed. The primary and secondary coils in figure are shown on separate limbs an arrangement that would result in an exceptionally large leakage. Leakage between primary and secondary could be eliminated if the windings could be made to occupy the same space. This of course is physically impossible but an approximation to it is achieved if the coils of primary and secondary are placed concentrically. Such an arrangement leads to a marked reduction of leakage reactance. If on the other hand the primary and secondary are kept separate and widely spaced there will be much room for leakage flux and the leakage reactance will be greater.

14

2.8 TRANSFORMER WITH RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE

The following figure shows the primary and secondary windings of a transformer with resistance and leakage reactances taken out of the windings.

The primary impedance is given by

Z1 = ( R12 + X 12 )

And the secondary impedance is given by

2 ' Z 2 = ( R2 + X2 )

V1 = E1 + I1 ( R1 + jX 1 ) = E1 + I1Z1 E2 = V2 + I 2 ( R2 + jX 2 ) = V2 + I 2 Z 2

. The vector diagram of such a transformer for different kinds of loads is shown in the following figure

15 In these diagrams vectors for resistive drops are drawn parallel to current vectors, whereas reactive drops are perpendicular to the current vectors. The angle 1 between V1 and I1 gives the power-factor angle of the transformer.

2.9 Transformer Core

The transformer core is a closed magnetic circuit built up of thin laminations of electrical sheet steel. It is intended to concentrate the main magnetic flux linking with the windings and consists of limbs, which carry the winding, and yokes, which close the magnetic circuit. The core laminations are insulated from one another by a film on heatresistant coating or varnish or by a combination of both. There are may be two forms of magnetic circuit the shell types and the core type. A magnetic circuit of the shell type is branched there are two yokes per limb which encircle the limbs on both sides. As the magnetic flux leaves a limb it branches off into two parts therefore in shell-type transformers, the cross-sectional area of the limb is twice that of the yokes. The limbs and yokes are rectangular in section, which necessitates the use of rectangular disk windings. Because of the insufficient strength of such windings in the event of short circuit complications in assembly and also somewhat greater mass of the shell-type magnetic circuit as compared with the core-type circuits using cylindrical windings the shell type in the soviet union is employed only for singlephase transformers in household appliances and for some special-purpose transformers. The core-type magnetic circuit of butt-joint or interleaved (of imprecated) construction are used in power transformers. In such circuit two or three (depending on the number of phase) vertical limbs are bridged over by two horizontal yokes -- the top and the bottom one so that a closed magnetic circuit is formed. The core limbs and yokes are built up of separate laminations of electrical sheet steel 0.35 or 0.5 mm thick. Limbs 1(see Figure below) and yokes 3 and 5 are stacked up separately and then buttjoined and clamped with vertical tie-rods 4 to obtain a butt-joint core. Butt-joint cores are easy to assemble but they suffer from a number of substantial drawbacks. At present, this type of core construction can be found only in old transformers and in some models manufactured in other countries.

16

Most power transformers are made of the imbricated-core type. In such cores, the limbs and yokes laminations are interleaved (see Figure below) in one layer. The short limb laminations are butt-joined with the long yoke laminations and in next layer the long limb laminations are butt-joined with the short yoke laminations so as to overlap the joints between the laminations in the preceding layer by stacking layer upon layers of such alternately arranged laminations a core of the required thickness is obtained. Such an assembly of core laminations is called interleaving with right-angled joints between the laminations.

17 To speed up the assembly each layer is made two or three laminations thick. Accordingly, the assembly is called double lamination interleaving or triple-lamination interleaving.The arrangement of lamination in the alternating layers of an imbricated three-limb core with right-angled joints between the laminations is shown in Figure.

The interleaving with right-angled joints between laminations was widely used for cores made from hot-rolled steel. When using cold-rolled steel to make the most of its properties the cores are designed and assembled in such a way as to ensure that the lines of magnetic flux many coincide with the steel rolling direction not only in the core limbs and yokes and vice versa (in Figure these areas are hatched).

This is achieved by making use of beveled (miter) joints between the limb and yoke laminations (see Figure below). The miter joints reduce the magnetic circuit areas where the lines of magnetic forces do not coincide with the steel rolling direction. Moreover they increase the length and hence the area of the joint by factor of 2, thus reducing the magnetic induction in the gap and consequently the exciting current.

18

The use of interleaved cores with miter joints between aminations may reduce the no-load losses of transformers by 10 to 12% and the exciting current. By 25 to 30% how ever such joints complicate the fabrication of laminations and core assembly therefore resort is frequently made to some simplifications imbricated cores are made with four miter joints (at the corners) and three right joints or a combined pattern is used where in the miter joints at two corners of the core in one layer of laminations alternate with the right angled joints in the next layer (see Figure)

Transformers are also made with spatial rather than plane cores of butt-joint construction, which are noted for the symmetrical arrangement of their limbs. Such cores consist of two triangular yokes wound from electrical steel strip or ribbon between which there are three stepped section limbs built up of laminations of the same length. The chief advantage of this core is its simple construction which make possible extensive mechanization and complete automation of production processes. Size I transformers also use distributed three-frame wound magnetic circuits consisting of three O-shaped cores wound from electrical steel strip and arranged in space so as to from

19 a trihedral prism. In such transformers the winding are wound directly on the core limbs by passing wire through the opening in the adjacent O-shaped cores. The limbs and yoke section are built up of a number of steps in order to make their shape approximately a circle (see Figure). The steps are obtained by using laminations differing in width. In order transformer models the yokes were made rectangular T-shaped or cross-shaped in section.

To obtain the required electromagnetic characterstics of the core and to make it mechanically strong the core field clamping tightness is attained. In transformers with a capacity of up to 630 KVA, the core limbs are not clamped because they are sufficiently rigid to ensure stable vertical position of the core. When fitting windings on the core limbs of transformers with a capacity of 250 to 630 KV A the limbs are temporarily compressed with screw clamps.

20 After fitting the binding, the required clamping tightness of the core limbs is ensured by wedging them which beech wood blockers and cleats.

21

2.10 The Windings

Transformer windings differ from one another in type, number of turns, wire grade and gauge, hand, creep age distances, and interterm insulation thickness. The higher the voltage of the transformer the greater the number of turns in its windings, and the higher its capacity, the heavier the wire gauge and the greater size of the windings the density, in the windings, calculated on the basis of temperature rise. Ranges from 2.5 to 4.5 A/mm2 depending on the capacity and design of the transformer. One must strictly distinguish between right and left hand windings. The hand of single layer windings is determined by the direction in which their turns have been wound during manufacture, no matter which of their ends (upper or lower) is considered the start. In multiplelayer windings wound during with the same conductor passing from one layer in another without interruption, the hand alternates from layer to layer. The hand of such windings is considered to be that of the layer whose entrance end is taken as the start of the winding. Disk windings made in the form of flat spiral coils are considered left- or right-hand, according as their back or front end is taken to be the start. From the figure it is clear that if the front ends of such windings are considered the start, the first winding (the one on the left) will then be right-hand, and the second (on the right) will be left-hand. Now if we consider the back ends of the coils to be the start of the windings, their hand will then change to the left and right, respectively. If a disk coil is turned upside down, its hand will be reversed: a left-hand coil will become right hand and a right-hand one will become left-hand. Disk coils are usually arranged in pairs (as shown in figure). In this case, the front ends of the coils are the entrance ones,

22

Left-hand and right-hand windings (a) single-layer; (b) multiple-layer; (c) single disk (flat spiral) coils; (d) Paired disk coils and the interdisk connections made at the back. Here, the winding hand remains strictly defined, and a winding consisting of any number of paired coils of the same hand in series will have the same hand as the separate paired coils. To give them mechanical strength and improve their moisture resistance, the windings are dried and the impregnated with varnish and baked in an oven at 100 to 110 C. Recent advances in the design, manufacture, and assembly of transformer windings have made it possible to dispense with the winding impregnation and baking. The materially cuts down the cost of the windings and clears production space. The LV and HV windings are arranged on the core limbs concentrically: the L.V windings are placed on the inside and the HV ones, on the outside (in some special transformers, the LV and HV windings are arranged the other way round). The windings are separated by insulating cylinders.

23 The following types of transformer windings are most widely used in the USSR and other countries; single-, double and multiple-layer cylindrical windings, multiple-layer bobbing windings, continuous disk windings, helical and pancake windings.

2.10.1 Continuous-Disk Winding

This consists of several series-connected flat coils or disks 1 of the same radial size (as shown in Figure). The disks are placed one above another, with horizontal cooling ducts 2 formed between

them by pressboard spacing blocks 3. Each disk is wound with a strip conductor on the flat and may have several turns touching in the radial direction. Each turn of the disk may be wound with a single or several parallel conductors. The disks in the winding shown in above Figure are wound with a single conductor per turn, and there are six voltage-control taps 8 arranged in the middle of the winding.

24 This type has been termed continuous-disk because a special winding technique is used to make the conductor pass from disk to disk without a single break in its continuity. The winding is wound around wooden bars 6 placed axially all the way round the periphery of a paper base laminate cylinder 7 at regular intervals, so that vertical cooling ducts 5 are formed between the winding and the cylinder. Support insulation rings 4 provide reliable bearing surfaces for the winding. In transformers, continuous-disk windings, as a rule, have no paper base laminate cylinders. They are wound around wooden bars placed on a special metal cylinder (template) which is removed after the winding is competed. The cylinders (formers) for such windings are made from pressboard blanks immediately before fitting the winding on the core limbs. Insulation components are made of pressboard sheets. The horizontal ducts between the disks are formed by spacing blocks stacked up from separate pressboard strips 2 on bars 1, as shown in Figure. If the windings are not impregnated, their mechanical strength is improved by means of pressboard bars passed through dovetail recesses in the strips at the front of the coils.

25 Continuous-disk windings for voltages up to 35 kV are made from conductors with a two side insulation thickness from 0.45 to 0.55 mm, and those for 110 kV use conductors with 1.2 to 1.35 mm thick insulation. In 110-kV windings, the entrance or line end coils, i.e., the two first and two last disks, are wound with conductors of increased insulation thickness in order to improve their electric strength. This impairs the cooling of these disks, so one has to take a heavier conductor for them. The disks are wound separately in pairs and then soldered in series with the disks in the main part of the winding. The number of disks in the winding is always even, therefore its start and finish are always at the back or the front of the extreme disks. In the former

Figure Transposition of conductors 1 conductor passing from the front of the coil to the back; 2 conductor passing from the back of the coil to the front; 3 strip case, the entrance disks are not reversed when making the winding, while in the letter case, they have to be reversed. The interdisk connections in continuous-disk windings are made in free spaces between the pacing blocks. Here, the conductor is bent on the edge and reinforced with a press-board box taped to it, or a special pressboard strip is placed under the bent conductor. In cases where the windings are wound with several parallel conductors per turn , the conductors arranged farther from the coil a axis will have a greater length than those closer to the axis .To equalize the lengths and consequently, the resistances of the parallel conductors, they

26 are transposed so that each conductor may take each possible position when passing from disk to disk, as shown in above figure. This makes for uniform distribution of current among the parallel conductors and, also, reduces the losses due to circulating currents caused by stray fluxes. Parallel conductors reduce eddy-current., losses in the winding copper and facilitate the winding of the disks, because several light-gauge conductors are used in place of a single heavy one. Continuous-disk windings are solid and inechanically strong. They find application in LV, MV, and HV coils. The MV and HV coils are usually rapped in accordance with the direct and reverse tapped-winding arrangements. As distinct from the winding for up to 35 KV, those of the 110 KV class and upwards include some special structural components serving the purpose of capacitive protection. Such a protection is necessary, because there is always a possibility that the transformer may be subjected to dangerous overvoltages likely to cause damage to its insulation High frequency pulses of large amplitude and short duration, which arise in power transmission lines as a result of lightning discharges, propagate as waves along the lines at a speed close to that of light. For the oncoming high-frequency wave with a steep front, the transformer may be regarded as a capacitor, for at high frequencies the inductive reactance of the transformer grows materially and its individual winding elements (disks) become as if disconnected from one another; the disked then begin to act like the plates of distributed capacitors . When the oncoming wave reaches the transformer, its input capacitance charges in a few fractions of a micro-second, and the surge voltage impressed on the entrance coils firs drops to zero and then sharply rises, this setting up electromagnetic oscillations in the transformer windings, which depend on the winding inductance, capacitance, and resistance. In the

27 transformer there sets in a process of transition fro the initial, no steady distribution of voltage over the windings to the final, steady-state voltage distribution. In the course of these process, potential differences tens of times in excess of normal may develop between the winding disks, and still greater ones between the turns. The reason for this is the extremely non uniform distribution of electric charge over the windings, stemming form the presence of distributed capacitances (between the winding disks, and between the disks and earthed parts. Such as the core, tank, etc.) That disturbs the uniformity of electric field. Here the line end turns and coils are most liable to insulation break-down. To make the initial distribution of potential over the entrance parts of the winding more uniform and to bring it closer to the final, steady state distribution, use is made of capacitance-grading rings. These rings increase the input capacitance of the windings and equalize the electric field of the line end coils and turns, thus reducing voltage gradients across them. The capacitancegrading rings are electrically connected to the line ends of the coils and are reliably insulated from the earthed parts of the transformer.

28 Arrangement of a capacitance-grading ring and shielding turns (electrostatic shields) on a winding The initial and final distribution of voltage over the entrance parts of the windings are equalized by means of electrostatic shields made in the from of open shielding turns encircling the five entrance coils and electrically connected to the capacitance grading rings and line ends of the windings Above figure shows the arrangement of the capacitance grading ring and shielding turns on a winding. The grading ring l is pressed from several pressboard washers, and is of the ring 60 to 70 mm long is left unwrapped in order to avoid the formation of closed turn.

2.10.2 Helical Winding

In this winding, the turns follow a helical line, each turn consisting of several parallel strip conductors touching in the radial direction (such a winding is sometime referred to as the spiral winding). Figure shows a singly re-entrant helical winding wound with eight parallel conductors per turn. The insulation components of this winding are chiefly the same as in the continuous-disk winding. Spacers 7 between the turns form horizontal oil ducts, shield bars 4 form vertical ducts between the winding and cylinder 5. Helical windings of transformers are wound around wooden bars placed on paper base laminate cylinders, while those for bigger units, around bars arranged on

29

Temporary steel cylinders (templates). The end faces of the winding are made level by gradually increasing the thickness of the spacers between the coil-end turns and insulation rings. Since the parallel conductors in the helical winding are arranged concentrically and are at different distances from the winding axis, the conductors closer to the axis will be shorter than those farther away (as in the continuous disk winding), unless some special measures are taken. To equalize the resistances and inductive reactances of the parallel conductors and reduce the losses due to circulating currents caused by stray fluxes, the conductors are transposed three times each (see Figure). At one-fourth and three-fourths of the windings height, the conductors are divided into two equal groups and the groups are transposed

30

These are group transpositions. In the middle of the winding, all the conductors are transposed. This is general transpositions are made in the free spaces between the spacing blocks separating the turns. As a result of the transpositions, the conductors of the helical winding (which usually have an even count) change places in consecutive order, so that each conductor takes each possible position, and the lengths of all the conductors are thus equalized. To make the transitions smooth and to equalize the radial sizes of the winding turns, special insulating wedges are placed under the conductors at placed where the transpositions are made. Besides the singly re-entrant helical winding considered above, doubly and quadruply reentrant helical windings also find application. Multiply re-entrant winding are used where the number of parallel conductors per turn is rather great (from 18-50). The conductor transpositions in such are more perfect, because the conductors during winding are made to continually pass from one winding re-entry into another. Such a transposition is called distributed, or Hobarts

31 transposition. There are also other types of transposition, for example, uniformly distributed and DeBudas transposition. Helical winding have a comparatively small number of turns; they are wound for heavy current.

2.11 Transformer Winding Arrangement for One-Load Tap changing

Among the great variety of transformers using on-load tap changing, worthy of notice are power transformers and autotransformers equipped with built-in switching devices which make it possible to change taps and thus to maintain voltage within the required limits directly at the transformer terminal business without interrupting the load. The Winding of Transformers using on-load tap-charges differ from those of transformers equipped with no-load tap-charges in that they have a greater number of voltage-control taps, provide for a wider voltage-control range and are made up of two individual windings which are referred to as the excitation (or main) winding and the regulating winding (separate winding for cross and fine voltage control may sometimes be also include). As a rule, voltage control is carried out on the HV side; therefore Figure shows the HV winding arrangements only. The arrangements for one phase only are shown, because all the three phase windings of the transformer are indential. The design and operation of the onload tap-charges are considered elsewhere in the text and here we restrict ourselves to the examination of transformer winding arrangements for use in conjunction with the on-load tapcharger. Figure shows the reverse tapped-winding arrangement. It is similar to the one examined earlier. Like all of the winding arrangements used for on-load tap changing this arrangements includes two windings an excitation winding 1 and a regulation winding 2. the latter is made as a separate tapped coil and is designed BW by means of a drive mechanism the movable contact

32 (finger) of a selector switch 3 (shown schematically) of the tap-changer is moved from tap to tap without interrupting the load current and thus the required voltage corresponding to the selected step is obtained between the points A and X. To extend the voltage-control range, use is frequently made of an arrangement where in the connection of the regulating winding can be reversed i.e changed from aiding to opposing and vice versa with respect to the excitation winding With the aiding connection of the regulating winding (a reversing 4 is in position III-I ) the number of turns being put in operation as the

Selector switch is shifted from position 9 to position 1 is increased (if the winding 1 and 2 are wound in opposite directions) and in position 1 the resultant voltage of the HV winding is raised

33 by the total voltage of the regulating winding. To lower the voltage the moveable contact of the selector switch is shifted back from position 1 to position 9. When the reversing switch is shifted to position III-II the regulating winding and the excitation winding are connected in series opposition and at the same time the selector switch contact is shifted to position 1. in switching from the 1st to the 9th step the number of the opposing turns of the regulating winding grows larger and the total voltage of the Hv winding is reduced. With the selector switch in position 9 the voltage is decreased by the total voltage range of the regulating winding switching in the reverse direction increase the voltage. Thus reversing the connection of the regulating winding doubles the voltage-control range. Such an arrangement simplifies the regulating winding but complicates the tap changer design. A tapped-winding arrangement which two parallel branches (see Fig) has found wide application. It ensures a better utilization of the core windows and winding wires. The upper and lower portions of the winding are strictly symmetrical; they are wound in opposite directions and consist of excitation winding 1 and 1 and regulating windings 2 and 2, respectively. Because of the different directions of their turns, both winding halves can be connected in parallel and provided with common voltage-control taps. A more perfect tapped-winding arrangement for on-load tap changing is the multiply reentrant helical-winding arrangement having so many reentries as there are voltage control steps the winding turns being uniformly spaced all along the winding (see Figure). with the winding arrangements shown in Figure and c in switching from tap to tap(especially when the amount of control is large) a dead zone is formed in the regulating winding where the turns are put out of operation and thus do not take part in producing the magnetizing force (as measured in ampere

34 turns). To equal the magnetizing forces of the primary and secondary windings the latter have to b spread i.e. their turns have to be pushed wider apart along the winding in the region of the regulating winding in order to avoid heavy leakage fluxes. The multiply re-entered winding meant is free from the above shortcoming because disconnection of one or several voltage control steps (ding re-entries) does not disturb the uniform distribution magnetizing forces along the windings and the magnetize forces of the secondary windings thus remain equalizer. Multiply re-entrant layer-by-layer windings are not very difficult to manufacture they are wound with several parallel wires each of which forms an individual winding entry serving as a voltagecontrol step and is provide a voltage control tap.

2.12 External Insulation

The external insulation comprising the air spaces between the live parts of the terminal bushings and between the bushing and earthed parts of the transformer. Insulation clearances are selected in accordance with the standard creep age distances for air. Here are some of them. The insulation clearance between the bushing and earthed parts (explosion vent, oil conservator, etc.) are taken at nearly the same values. In practice, these clearances are increased by 10 to 15 mm to allow for possible size deviation in transformer assembly.

2.13 Transformer Tank, Coolers, Oil Conservator

In operation, the heat given off the core, windings, and other current carrying parts of the transformer is transferred to the oil which surrounds them. The oil transfers the heat by conduction and convection to the walls of the transformer tank whose external surface dissipates it into the surroundings. Such a method of heat removal is called oil-natural cooling. As the capacity of the transformer grows higher, the absolute power loss in it increases and consequently, the amount of heat that the tank walls must dissipate. With natural oil

35 circulation, each square meter of the tank surface can dissipate from 400 to 450 watts of power. If the incoming heat load on the tank surface should be greater, the temperature of the core-coil assembly and the transformer as a whole would raise prohibitively high, this impairing its reliability. In low-capacity transformers (25to 40 kV A), the absolute loss of power dissipate as heat is comparatively low, so they use plain tanks. The cooling surface of larger units has to be increased by welding steel tubes onto the tank walls or by fitting the radiators cannot provide for adequate heat removal, a blast of air is forced onto them by means of special propeller- type fans. This method of heat removal is called oil-natural air-blast cooling Transformers of very large aixes use combination cooling systems, such as forced- oil-air-blast and forced-oil and water.

2.13.1 The Tank

The transformer tank is an oval or rectangular container intended for housing the core-coil assembly of the transformer. It is arc-welded form steel sheets, all the welds being of the oil-tight type. After manufacture, the tank is tested for tightness under a pressure of 0.5 x 10 Pa (gauge). At the top of the tank, there is a frame with bolt holes for fastening the tank cover. The cover closes the tank and serves as a support for mounting the oil conservator, terminal bushings, tapchanger drive, lifting lugs, etc. To facilitate moving the transformer, the tank is provided with a truck or undercarriages on rollers. In major repair work, the cover has to be removed and the core-coil assembly withdrawn from the tank. The lifting of the core-coil assembly of high-capacity transformers requires heavy hoisting equipment, transformers, so the tanks of such trans- -formers are made with a detachable bottom in order to ease the uncovering of the core- coil assembly. In this case, instead of unbolting the cover and lifting the core-coil assembly, they unbolt the bottom and lift the tank,

36 leaving the core-coil assembly on its support the tank bottom, the oil being preliminarily drained from the tank. Transformers of up to 40 kV A generally have terminal bushings mounted on the side walls of the tank, which also carry an oil gauge, transformer nameplate, lifting hooks, spark-gap protector bracket, oil-drain filler plug provided with an air-bleed hole, protective hood for the operating knob of the tap-changer, and thermometer pocket Transformer form 63 to 1600 kV A in capacity are equipped with tubular tanks. The tubes on the tank walls may be arranged in one, two, or three rows, depending on the transformer capacity. At present, the transformer manufacturers in this country are putting out transformer equipped with elliptical tubes which, as compared with round tubes, provide for higher heat removal efficiency and can be placed closer to one another along the tank periphery, so that more tubes can be accommodated on a given tank. Figure shows the Type TM-630/10 transformer whose cooling surface is increased by bank 2 of elliptical tubes. The tank is filled with oil through a globe valve 1 which also serves for draining the oil from the tank. Oil samples can be taken through a sampler mounted the tank wall. In the tank bottom there is a hole normally closed by a sealed off plug (not shown in the figure) which serves for drain-in oil residue from the during repair. The tank has four hooks 3 for lifting the transformer and a truck on four

rollers 5 for moving it horizontally the tank cover is provided with special opening and studs for mounting and fastening the terminal bushing , tap-changer drive valve, thermometer pocket, and pipe for connecting the tank to the oil conservator. Plates 4 welded on to the tube banks serve for mounting the transformer nameplate and temperature indicator.

37

Figure shows the arrangement of the terminal bushings and other transformer fittings on a transformer cover

38

2.13.2 Coolers
Transformers larger than 1600 kVA use detachable tubular radiators, so their tanks are reinforce: by stiffening ribs and are provided with flanged ports for attaching the Radiators and radiator valves. The radiators and valves are flange mounted and are fixed in place by means of special steel bolts

A radiator consists of two rows of parallel tubes 1. top and bottom headers headers 2. and flanged ports 6 which are welded into the ends of the headers and serve for mounting the radiator on the tank. Each header carries a lifting lug 4, bracket 3 with a hole for mechanical connection of separate radiator, while the top one is used for bleeding air from the radiator when the transformer tank is being filled with oil. They give them rigidity, the tubes in the parallel rows are joined by means of angle bars 7 and tubes 8 held together by bolts

39

Diagram of oil circulation in a radiator The greater the surface of the radiator, the greater the amount of heat it can remove from the transformer. Single sided tubular radiators are sufficient for units of 630 to 4000 kVA. In such radiators, the tubes are arranged only on one side of the headers, and the flanged connecting ports are provided on the opposite side of the headers. Lately, radiators with straight vertical tubes have been widely adopted. These use round or elliptical tubes of smaller diameter and wall thickness that single or double row tubular radiators of ordinary design. With several rows comparatively closely spaced tubes, the straight tube radiators are lighter and more compact. Also their heat removal efficiency is higher and they are more easy to assemble and repair, since the tubes are straight and have the same length Straight type radiators are attached to the transformer tank in the same way as the double row tubular radiators of ordinary design; in small transformer, the attachment is without flanged connections, the connecting piper being wiled directly into the tank walls. In operation, hot oil raises to the top the tank and enters the top radiator header (see Figure). The large cooling surface of the radiator causes the temperature of the oil to drop. Since there is a difference in density between hot and cold oil the oil, while cooling, descends down the radiator tubes giving away its heat to the tube walls that dissipate it into the ambient air. Fresh portions of hot oil from the tank enter the top radiator header,

40 replacing the cooled oil which flows into the tank form the bottom header. In this way, natural oil circulation sets in the transformer.

2.13.3 Oil Conservator

As the load on the transformer and the temperature of its surroundings vary, the temperature of the oil filling the transformer also changes. Under the same load conditions the temperature of the transformer oil is higher in summer than in winter. Temperature variation cause changes in the oil volume in the transformer tank. To ensure that the tank is always completely filled with oil, transformer having a capacity form 25 kVA upwards and working at 6 kV and over use a special expansion tank called oil conservator. The conservator is a metal vessel, usually cylindrical, which communicate with the main transformer tank. Figure shows the oil conservator of a transformer. It is installed slightly above the level of the tank cover 6. As the oil gains in temperature. It is forced out of the tank and into the conservator via a a pipe connecting the tank to the flanged connection 5 of the conservator; when its temperature falls, the oil flows back into the tank. The conservator tank is mounted on the main tank cover on brackets 10 and support plates 9. The conservator reduces the oil surface exposed to air thus lowering the rate of sludging and acid-production. Its capacity must be such as to ensure that it is never empty of oil. Irrespective of any normal variations in the transformer operating conditions (from of-circuit to full and ambient temperature (form 45C to +40C) the volume of oil in the conservator amounting to 8 or 10% that in the main transformer tank. One of the end walls or the conservator accommodates an oil level gauge 1 whose glass hears three painted horizontal lines, marked 45C,+15C, and +40C,which fix the oil level in the inoperative transformer corresponding to the indicated ambient

41 temperatures. The opposite and wall of the conservator is made detachable to facilitate cleaning and painting the conservator on the inside curing repair

The oil gauge server for checking the oil level in the transformer vessels, but to prevent the ingress of atmospheric moisture and impurities, its upper part is made to communicate with the air filled space above the oil in the conservator. Rather than directly with the atmosphere.

2.14 Breather
This is a special air filter incorporating a dehydrating material (silica gel). It is used to prevent the ingress of moist, contaminated air into the conservator. Depending on the construction and size of the transformer, the breather is mounted either on the conservator or on the main tank. At present, the breathers of transformer are built into the conservators. The breather consists of a metal cylinder 1 filled with silica gel 3, a wire mesh screen 7, and a perforated cartridge 4 filled with a sight glass 6. At the bottom to the breather there is an oil seal operating on the principle of communicating vessels, which prevents the silica gel dehydrator from being constantly in

42 contact with the ambient air and thus continuously adsorbing moisture the oil seal also serves to remove mechanical impurities from the air, which precipitate in the oil filling the seal when the air passes through it. When the oil level in the conservator drops. Fresh air is drawn into it through the breather. The air passes the transformer oil 11 filling the seal wall 8, the wire mesh screen, and the silica gel dehydrator which absorbs moisture from it. Then the cleaned.dry air enters the conservator by a pipe connected to the flanged connected ion 2 of the breather. When the oil volume in the conservator increases, the air flows in the opposite direction and is exhausted into the atmosphere. The oil seal is provided with several plugs. A 14 serves for filling the seal with transformer oil, a plug 13, for draining the used oil from the seal, and a plug 10, for draining any excess oil that might raise the oil level in the seal above the normal (indicated by an arrow in the figure).

43 The silica-gel dehydrator in the breather is periodically changed. An indication that the silica gel has become moist and requires replacement is the change of the colour of the indicator silica gel from light blue to pink. The colour of the indicator silica gel is observed through the sight glass in the cover of the indicator cartridge. The breather uses Grade KCM silica gel in grain sizes from 2.7 to 7 mm, impregnated with a calcium chloride solution. The indicator silica gel is additionally impregnated with a cobaltic chloride solution. Silica gel is dried at a prior to charging the breather with it.

2.15 Oil Sampler

Samples of transformer oil for tests are taken from the tank through a special device (as shown in figure) mounted on the tank wall at the lower part of the transformer. It consists of a steel body l, a stopper 2 which is free to turn in its seat in a plug 3, and a nipple 4. as the threaded plug is screwed out of the body, the oil in the tank forces the stopper to the right and flows out through the nipple.

44

2.16 Protective Devices and Instruments

2.16.1 Explosion Vent
Failures inside the transformer are frequently accompanied by arcing. The high temperature of electric are causes intensive decomposition of transformer oil, the gas evolved in the process greatly increasing the pressure inside the tank. In the event of a short circuit the pressure inside the tank grows so high that the tank may explode and cause an out break of fire. To avoid damage to the transformer tank, an explosion vent (as shown in figure) is provided. It consists of a knee-shaped tube 2 made of sheet steel 4.5 mm thick, whose top end is closed by a diaphragm 4 with a flat, round glass. The lower end of the tube communicates with the tank through an opening in the tank cover. Should the pressure inside the tank grow too high, the glass will break and the gas, together with oil, will be expelled from the tank through the tube. The explosion vent tube at its lower end is provided with a flange I for bolting the tube to the tank cover, and there are two flanges, 9 and 11, at the top end of the tube for mounting the glass disk 12 sealed by rubber gaskets 7 and 8. a ring 10 welded to the flange 9 serves for centering the gaskets. An oil tight weld is used on the joint between the flange 9 and the tube wall 6. Formerly, explosion vent tubes were equipped with a holed plug (at 3 in Figure) to bleed air from the tube when filling the transformer tank with oil and to permit of the ingress and egress of air in accordance with temperature variations in the tank, but nowadays, to prevent any other contact of the oil with air except in the conservator, the tube is connected to the air space of the conservator by means of a small gauge steel pipe bolted to flange 5 on the tube. Where such plugs are still in use, they must be stopped

45 altogether and connecting pipes fitted between the explosion vent tubes and conservators. Explosion vents are used on transformers of 1000 kV A and over.

2.16.2 Buchholz Relay

Any fault which occurs inside the transformer is generally accompanied by the evolution of gas due to the decomposition of insulating materials (oil, paper, pressboard, wood, etc.) under the influence of elevated temperature. With minor faults, the gas evolution slow, the gas bubbles gradually rise to the tank cover and then enter the conservator through the oil pipe connecting the tank to the conservator. In the case of grave faults, oil rapidly flows through the pipe and is expelled into the conservator under the pressure of a large amount of gas evolved. The Buchholz relay is a gas-operated device connected between the transformer tank and the conservator. It is fitted with alarm and tripping contacts, so that warning can be given of incipient gas evolution and a major breakdown can be averted. On its way from the tank to the conservator, the gas is collected in the relay housing, and after the gas collected has reached a preset volume, the relay gives an audible or visible warning of the fault. When there is an intensive flow of oil from the tank into the conservator, the relay trips the circuit breaker of the transformer. Besides fault indication, this relay will also indicate oil leakage should the conservator and pipe become empty of oil. An analysis of a gas sample taken from the Buchhloz relay of a faulty transformer helps to determine the nature of the fault. Usually under normal conditions, the gas dissolved in the transformer oil has the following composition 70 to 79% nitrogen, 20 to 30% oxygen, and 0.1 to 0.2% methane; hydrogen and acetylene are absent. A sharp change in the gas composition (for example, 50 to 70% hydrogen, 3 to 10% methane, 10 to 25% acetylene, 4 to 8% oxygen) testifies to a grave internal fault accompanied by arcing (insulation puncture, shorted turns, flashover in the contact system of the tap-

46 changer, etc.) In the event of minor faults not accompanied by violent oil decomposition and gas evolution, the gas composition may be as follows: 2 to 5% hydrogen, 0.5 to 1% methane, 0.5 to 2% acetylene, 85 to 92% nitrogen and 5 to 8% oxygen. Such a gas composition bears witness to a fault, such as shorted parallel conductors in the windings, poor contacts in the tap connections or soldered joints, or closed paths in the magnetic system of the core, which, if not remedied, may eventually lead to a serious trouble. Soviet-made transformers use two types of Buchholz relay, namely,. The ITT-22 float-type relay and the PTH3-66 cup-type relay.

47

Chapter 3
Design Considerations

3.1 Basic Procedure for design calculation

a. Voltage calculation. current calculation Determine the line voltage and phase voltage for winding (HV. MV and LV) b. Determine the line current and phase current for HV, MV and LV windings and current flowing through winding. c. d. Evaluation of core diameter and calculation of number of winding turns: Calculation of main and long it urinal insulation distances for windings. HV, MV, and LV

Chose and determine the type and the dimensions of windings. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. Calculation of impedance voltage: Calculation of winding data: Calculation of core and lank dime nations: Calculation of stray losses: Calculation of temperature-rise: Calculation of axial mechanical stress for windings: Calculation of stresses in winding conductors: Calculation of weight:

48

Line and phase voltages for three-phase transformers For three-phase transformers or single-phase transformer used as a three phase bank with star-connection the phase voltage equals 1/ 3 of the line voltage i.e. u g = (1 / 3 ) Ug

where U g = Rated phase voltage KV: Un = Rated line voltage KV. For delta-connection the phase voltage equals the line voltage Ug = Un
Three-phase transformers with YN (Y) connection

Ig = In =

se 3Un

3se se = 3Ug 3Ug

Where In = Rated line current Ig=Rated phase current Three-phase transformer with delta connection The calculation of current under this condition is as follows: Line current In = se 3Un
3=

Un rated line voltage

se 3Un

Phase current Ig = In

The line current phase current and tapping currents may be calculated by the formulated listed above with the given rated power rated voltages (including the cores.

3.2 Evaluation of core diameter and calculation of winding turns

Evaluation of core diameter The determination of core diameter represents a very important job in the design calculation which would affect directly the techno-economic indices of the transformer such as raw material consumption manufacturing cost weight and dimension for transportation etc.

49 Generally for a specific transformer the greater core diameter results in the heavier mass of core and the more no-lead loss. But the weight of winding conductors and their load losses would be comparatively with a dumpy configuration when the core diameter is too small. The contrary results would be obtained. The core diameter may be determined with an experimental formula by which the calculation would be going on according to the design procedure. As the impedance voltage calculated with core diameter aforesaid reveal too much deviation from their standard values specified the core diameter should be adjusted to an appropriate values small difference between the standard value and values calculated from the predetermined core diameter the adjustment may be carried out by changing other constructional dimensions. The experimental formula for core diameter determination is. D = k. 4 p1 Where D- core diameter: P1 power for each core leg KVA: K- Experimental coefficient. The value k varies as the frequency of source flux density and construction of core; here the values listed in table are recommendable foe design calculation. Table K Categories transformer of Al winding Coldrolled steel Twowinding transformers
Three-winding transformers

Co winding Hot-rolled si-steel 56-60 54-58 Cold- rolled Si-steel 53-57 51-55 Hot-rolled Si-steel 60-64 58-62

si-

50-54 48-52

Calculation of power for each core leg The power for each core leg is defied as the power for core on which the windings are mounted, referred to a double-winding transformer.

50 P1 = Se1/mt1 Where: Se1 power referred to a double-winding transformer (KVA), it does not need to convert in the case of double-winding transformer, for three-winding transformers: Se= (SG + SZ + SD)/2 SG , SZ , SD - power (KVA) for HV, MV, and LV winding respectively: Mt1 number of core legs on which the winding is mounted, e.g. for single-phase transformer with two core legs, mt1 = 2: for three- phase transformer with three core legs and two side yokes, mt1 = 3 Cross - Section of core The cross- section of core leg and yoke are made up of a number of lamination stacks to form a steeped periphery, for a specifies diameter, the more lamination stacks to be encircled, the more effective cross-sectional area of core may be absorbed the complexity of manufacturing labor force. Calculation of winding turns After the determination of core diameter, generally, the calculation of winding translating with the winding without tapping (e.g. low-voltage winding) and calculated the winding turns for HV or MV. Calculation of volts per turns For rated frequency = 50 HZ et1 = B At x 103 /4.5 For rated frequency = 60 HZ et1 = B At x 103/3.75 where et1 volts per turn calculated preliminarily , v : At core- sectional area of core m2: B flux density , T. Generally, for 0.3 mm cold-rolled grain oriented silicon sheet steel (e.g. Z8H) The flux density adopted may be 1.5-1.7T. Preliminary calculation of low-voltage winding turns W1D = UXI / e1t Where W1D turns of low-voltage winding calculated; (take integer for WD) UX I Phase voltage for LV winding, V.

51 The value of W1D calculated with formula may be not an integer, when the decimal is rounded to an integer, the flux density may be higher slightly than that calculated with e1t; when the decimal is carried as in adding the flux density may be lower slightly than that calculated with: e1t Determination of volts per turn et et = UxI / WD Where the value of e1 should be calculated to three places of decimals. Calculation of flux and flux density After the determination of the flux and flux density may be calculated used with the following formulae at the frequency of 50 HZ. B=
4.5et 10 3 At

Where B in Tesla.

m = 4.5et 10-3
Where: m in Weber Calculation of winding turns for high-voltage or medium-voltage winding For most of high-voltage or medium-voltage winding of corresponding tapping. Calculate the turns of corresponding tapping according to their phase voltages, firstly, calculate the winding turns for the max. tapping then determine the tapping turns for each tapping voltage according to the voltage difference between two adjacent tapings. Turns for max, tapping is: W1e1 = Ug1 / et ( take integer for Wg1) Turns for each tapping:

We1 = U g / et ( take integer for W)

Turns for each tapping may be calculated by We1 - WG Correspondingly.

3.3 Calculations of winding

Determination of winding construction The construction of winding in accordance with the power and voltage-class of the transformer, the following description on winding construction may be used for reference.

52

a) Layer windings
The merit of this type of windings easy to manufacture and of good cooling performer due to its axial oil-duct between layers. Generally it is adopted in the small and medium size transformer with single or double layer for the low-voltage windings and multi-layer for high-voltage windings, the demerit of then presents the poor supporting stability of windings ends, and the axial height of winding is hardly to control. b) Helical windings. This type of winding is easy to manufacture but is does not suit to winding with large number of turns. It may be classified into single-row, double-row and four-row helical winding. It is suitable for low-voltage and heavy cur-rent winding or regulating winding.

Determination of number of disks and turns per disk

a.Determination of number of disk for outer winding (HV winding) The total number of disk for HV winding depends on the voltage class, longitudinal insulation and impedance voltage etc. Here, the number of disks listed in table provides the value recommended for pre-determination. Total disk number for HV winding Voltage class for winding Total number parallel. Determination of turns per disk For tapping winding disks: WF = WF / NF (take integer) Where WF Turns per disk for tapping winding disk 10 40-60 35 56-75 63 60-80 110(132) 60-80 2(34-44)

Note: The number multiples 2 denoting the upper and lower part of winding connecting in

EG turns for tapping:

NF number of disks for tapping winding. Turns per disk for normal part of winding WG = W1 /(N-NF1) (take integer)

53 Where WG turns per disk for normal part of winding: W1 turns for minimum tapping voltage: N Total number of disks for HV winding. When the line terminal is located at the middle of winding, take N/2: NF1 Number of disks for tapping winding. Generally, for 10 KV line terminal at middle, choosing 4; for 35 KV line terminals at end of winding, choosing 8. Turns per disk for disks with additional insulation For the sake of additional insulation, the turns in these disks should be 1-2 turns less than those disks in normal part of winding (e.g. the inner diameter of disk should be enlarged for the incense from insulation or to make room for shielding wire inserting) The total turns of high-voltage winding equal the sum of different disks times the corresponding turns per disk. For winding with middle out-let terminal, the total number of turns is calculated by one-half the total number of disks, because the upper half and lower half of disks are connected in parallel. Determination of number of disks and turns per disk for low-voltage or mediumvoltage winding The low-voltage winding is situated in the middle or inner part of the winding assembled on the core leg, the fractional number of turns should e adopted for the normal disks of a continuous winding in order to avoid increasing the radial dimension of the wining. The fractional part of fractional number of turns may be considered as Table Table Disks Number of parallel conductors in radial direction Fractional part of number of turns
n1 1 n1 n1 1 n1 n1 2 n1 n1 3 n1 n1 4 n1

Normal disks 1-6

Disks with at beginning or or final 1 2,3 4,5 6

N1 - Number of axial strips for the winding. Determination of number of disks and turns per disk

54 a. firstly, set the number of disks as N1, take the even number for N1, its magnitude should adapt to the outer winding: b. The fractional part of turns per each disk is better to select disks at the beginning and the final of the winding; where n1 is number of axial strips for the winding. c. The fractional number of turns for disks at the beginning and final of the winding is as follows: For the number of parallel conuctornal part as < n n +1 2 n1 1 , except those for n1

d. The number of disks and turns per disks may be determined by solving the following simultaneous equations: XW + YWY = W -------------------------------------- (1) X + y = N ------------------------------------------------ (2) Where X1 & Y1 number of disks to be determined; W total number of the winding; Wx1 - Wy turns per disks assumed by the analysis with the given total turns and number of disks pre-determined. By solving the equation (1) and (2) shows that the correct determination of number of disks is most important link in the design calculation. When the obtained by solving the simultaneous equations.

Calculation of winding height and radial dimension

General technical requirements a. when enamel wires are used as the winding conductor, take the maximum insulation diameter of wire to calculate the winding height and radial dimension. b. When paper-wrapped round conductors are used as the winding conductor, take the maximum insulation diameter to calculate the winding height and radial dimension. c. When paper-wrapped that conductors are used as the winding conductor, the following tolerances should be added to the insulated conductor dimension for the winding height and radial dimension. The turn insulation of conductor is the total thickness of paper on both sides, during calculation, the turn insulation should be added by 0.5 mm, e.g. for 0.45 mm turn insulation, take it as 0.5mm for calculation.

55 If the winding is to be dried under pressure, the compression of dimension of turn insulation in axial direction of winding should be considered as follows: For 1.95 mm turn insulation 2.0 0.9 = 1.8: For 1.35 mm turn insulation - 1.4 0.9 = 1.26: For 0.95 mm turn insulation 1.0 0.9 = 0.90: For 0.6 mm turn insulation 0.65 0.9 = 0.0585: For 0.45 mm turn insulation 0.5 0.9 = 0.45: As above listed, take 0.9 as the compressing factor for the turn insulation, if the winding is to be dried not under pressure, the compressing factor should be 1. d. The enlarged oil-duct of winding should not exceed 20 mm: if the centre distance between two adjacent radial spacers exceeding 120 mm. the maximum height of the enlarged oil-duct may be 24 mm. e. For double-row and four-row helical windings, the additional height of one turn due to transposition of conductor should be taken in consideration during the determination of main insulation and dimension of spacers. f. Determination of the number of radial spacers along the periphery of winding manufacturing and dynamic stability of winding, generally, the centre distance between the adjacent radial spacers adopted is 100 mm or more for winding with conductor with conductor with or 8 mm or below; 120 mm or more for winding with conductor with more than 8 mm. g. The last figure of radial dimension of winding is taken 0.5 mm as minimum; for the winding height, take 0 or 5 as last figure. Determination of number of winding conductors along the winding axis for singlerow helical winding (one standard-transposition and two group-transposition): N = number of turns + 4 Where: N number of conductors for calculation of winding height for double-row helical winding (uniform transposition) N = ( number of turns ) x2 + 2 For four-row helical winding (uniform transposition) N = (number of turns ) x4 + 4 Or N = ( number of turns x4 + 2 ( terminals at opposite side for continuous winding (including capacitor shield winding and interleaved winding):

56 Where N = number of disks (for terminals at winding ends) N = (number of disks) x2 (for terminal at middle) Determination of number of oil-duct along the winding axis N1 = N 1 Where: N1 number of oil-duct along the winding axis; N Number of conductors for winding height calculation. If static rings are adopted, it requires the additional oil-duct. The dimension and position of these oil-ducts should be arranged according to the requirements of longitudinal insulation. Calculation of winding height H = H1 + H2 Where H winding after drying, mm: H1 overall height of insulated conductors along the winding axis, mm: H2- overall height of insulation spacers along the winding axis after drying, mm If the static rings are adopted, the thicnkess of ring and it, oil-duct should be added to the winding height. Calculation of insulation radii and window height of core Calculation of insulation radii R1 S1 R2 BD R3 S2 R4 BG ________Outer radius of LV winding ________Distance between HV and LV winding (see main insulation) _______Inner radius of HV winding ________Inner radius of LV winding ________Radial dimension of LV winding _________Radius of core _________ Distance between LV winding

57 _______Radial dimension of HV winding

R5 X -2 D +E Mo

________Outer radius of HV winding ________Outer diameter of HV winding ________Distance between phases ( see Main insulation) ________Distance between core legs

RD Mean radius of LV winding Rr Mean radius of Main axial oil-duct RG Mean radius of HV winding Calculation of window height of core. H1 + H2 H3 - H2 H4 +EK H5 H6 _______Over all height of conductor _______Over all height of spacer _______Overall height of spacer to be compressed after dying ______Thickness of static ring and its oil-duct (need not to calculate for winding without static ring) _____Thickness of pressing ring _____Clearance between pressing ring and upper yoke _____Window height (take 0 or 5 as the last figure)

Ho Note: Use mm for above calculation.

3.4 Calculation of impedance voltage

The impedance voltage is and important performance parameter for transformers, it has been specified in the standard of transformer performance, the calculation of impedance voltage presents a very important job in the design calculation. The impedance voltage under rated current and principal tapping allows a tolerance of + 10%, however, the allowable tolerance for calculation should be kept

58 within + 2.5%, because some inevitable deviation may be revealed during test and manufacturing. The impedance voltage consists of two components i.e. the resistive voltage-drop and the reactive voltage-drop, generally, the resistive voltage-drop is very small, it may be neglected for transformer with power of 8000 KVA and above. The following formulae are all applied to the calculation of impedance voltage with windings arranged concentrically. Table Value of P= f (
11
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4

11

)
1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

P 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.69 0.72 0.74 0.77 0.79 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 0.80 0.81 8.0 9.0 0.82 0.83 0.84

11

10.0 20.00 30.00

P 0.84 0.87 0.89 0.91 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.955 0.96 0.965 0.97 0.984 0.99

K Coefficient of additional reactance The distribution of ampere-turns may be non-uniform due to the presence of interleaved disks and disks with tapping, thereby the additional reactance may be caused by the radial leakage flux, it may be corrected by coefficient k. Select K=1.02 for continuous winding; K=1.05 for helical winding these suit to the unbalance of ampere-turn within the range of 5%. For three-winding transformer For three-winding transformers, the impedance voltage fore each pair of windings should be calculated, if these three winding are of different power are of different power, the impedance voltage should be converted to 100%. Uk 12 = Ukx13 = Ul x 23 =
49.6 fI 1W 1D12 P12 K 12 % etH 12.106 49.6 fI 1W 1D13 P13 K 13 % etH 13.106 49.6 fI 1W 1D 23 P 23 K 23 % etH 23.106

12 = R3-R1; 13 = R4-R1; 23 = R4-R2;

59 D17 = D13 = D23 =

1 (a1r1 + az rz) + a12r12 3 1 (a1r1 + a3 r3) + a13r13 3 1 ( azrz + a9 r3) + a23r23 3

Where: I1 W1- rated ampere-turn for winding 1: R1, r2, r3 mean radius for winding 1,2,2 respectively: R1, R2, R3, R4 mean radius of winding respectively ( to bare conductor) :

12, 13, 23 winding of leakage flux path between winding 1 and 2, and 3.2 and 3
respectively: A1, a2, a3 radial dimension o winding 1, 2, 3 respectively (bare conductor to bare conductor); R12, r13, r23 mean radius of oil-duct between winding 1 and 2 and 3,2 and 3 respectively; A12, a13, a23 width of oil-duct between winding 1 and 2, 1 and 3, 2 and 3 respectively. L12, k13, k23 coefficient of additional reactance between winding 1 and 2 1 and 3, 2 and 3 respectively; p12, p13, p23 Rogovski coefficient for winding 1 and 2, 1 and 3, and 2 and 3 respectively. Unit for length in the formulae are all cm.

3.5 Calculation of Winding Parameters

When the values of impedance voltage calculated have met the requirements of standard or contract, the following data may be put into calculation. The essential data to be written. a. b. c. d. e. Connection of winding , Line-voltage and phase-voltage, V; Line-current and phase-current, A; Winding turns for each tapping; Number of disks and turns per disks; dimension and cross-sectional area of single conductor in each disk;

a b ---tickness and width of b are conductor (mm) a1 b1 ---thickness and width of paper wrapped conductor (mm)
A=MB A Where A - overall cross-sectional area conductors, mm2; A1- cross-sectional area of single conductor, mm2;

60 Mb number of parallel conductors c) Current density j = I x g /A Where J-current density , a/mm2; Ixg phase current , A; A-overall cross-sectional area of conductors , mm2 Calculation of winding data The axial and radial dimensions of winding and the radial of insulation have already been determined, with the result that the following data may be calculated successively. Calculation of conductor length The mean length of turn may be calculated as: Ip = 2 RX Where Ip mean length of turn, m; RX mean radius of a specific winding, m. The overall length of conductor may calculated as: L = I p Wm Where L overall length of conductor, m; Wm overall number of turns for maximum tapping (for each leg). The conductor for winding terminals have to be taken into consideration during the calculation of conductor length, usually adding 1.5-2 m to the conductor length calculated. The overall conductor length for principal tapping (winding with tapings): this is mainly for the purpose of calculation of de resistance and resister leg. LN = LP WN Where LN overall conductor length for principal tapping, m: WN overall number f turns for principal tapping. Calculation of bare conductor weight For three-phase transformers GX = 3LAg x 10-3 Where: GX weight of bare conductor, Kg;

61 g Specific weight of conductor, for copper conductor g=8.9 g/cm; The other denotations see above Calculation of weight for insulated conductors GC = GX 9 1+ c%) Where: GC weight of insulated conductor, Kg; GX weight of bare consenter, Kg; C % - the percentage weight of paper to the weight of bare conductor, for flat copper conductor wrapped with insulating paper, the value may be calculated as: C%=
17.T (a + b + 1.57T ) Ax

Where: T insulation thickness on each side of conductor, it equals thickness of turn insulation; A thickness of bare conductor, mm; B thickness of bare conductor, mm; Ax cross-sectional area of single conductor, mm; Calculation of D.C. resistance of winding. The d.c. resistance of winding is an important parameter for transformers, its value for three phases reveals whether the specification of conductor adopted being conformed to the design requirement; during manufacturing the d.c. resistance measurement may be applied to control the winding quality and welding joint of connection between leads and bushings, and the balance of d.c resistances among three phases. a) Resistively of conductor The resistively of copper conductor at 75oC is 0.02096 kgn. Mm2/m, 1/58 ohm. Mm2/2 at 20oC. The receptivity of copper conductor at a specifies temperature may be calculated as follows: P2 = P1 (
235 + 2 ) 235 + 1

Where: 1, 2 given temperatures, oC b) d.c resistance of winding The standard value of d.c resistance for winding is referred to the value at 75 oC R75 oC = P75 oC
Ln A

62 Where: R75 oC resistance of winding at 75 oC, ; P75 oC receptivity of conductor at 75 oC mm2 /m; LN length of winding conductor at rated voltage, m; A overall cross-sectional area of winding conductor, mm2 Calculation of resistance losses of winding For three-phase transformer: Pr = 3 I2 x gR I phase current, A: R d.c. resistance of winding at 75 oC

3.6 Calculation of core data

Calculation of core and yoke weight. For three-phase core with three legs: GF1 = 3 HoA x 10-4 GF2 = 4 HoA x 10-4+ Go GF = GF1 + GF2 Where: GF1, GF2, GF weight of core legs, weight of yoke overall weight of core, kg Ho height of core window, mm. Mo centre distance between core legs, mm; At cross-sectional area of core leg, cm2 Ac cross-sectional area of yoke, cm2 Go weight of corner, kg; (for core legs) (for yoke)

- specific weight of silicon steel, for cold rolled brain oriented silicon sheet steel , =
7.65. Calculation of no-load loss Once the core material adopted is determined, the specific core loss (W/kg) depends upon the flux density to be used, the specific losses for different flux densities of core are listed in standard table. The no-load of core may be calculated as: Po = K1 p GF Where K1 coefficient for additional core loss, 1.15 may be adopted; P specific core loss, W/Kg GF weight of core, Kg.

63

Calculation of no-load current. The no-load current is composed of the real components and the reactive component, usually; it is designated by the percentage of rated current. a) The real component of no-load current. Ioa = Where Ioa real component of no-load current; Po no - load loss, w; Se rated power of transformer, KVA. b) The reactive component of no-load current Ior = ko
geGF + gjGAt 10 se Po % 10 se

Where: ior reactive component of no-load current; Ko coefficient, for cold rolled steel take ko=1.3; GF weight of core, Kg C Number of lamination joint ( according to lamination diagram). At effective cross section of core, cm2; (with the same cross-sectional area for core leg and yoke). Se rated power of transformer, KVA; Ge specific magnetizing power, Gj magnetizing power per specific area of lamination joint, VA/cm2 (see table below) c) formula for no-load current calculation io =

Ioa + Ior

where: io no-load current; ioa real component of n o-load current ior reactive component of no-load current.

Table magnetizing power per specific area of joint gj (VA /cm2)

64
13000 Hotrolled 1.75 1.81 1.87 1.93 1.99 2.06 2.14 2.22 2.3 2.38 Coldrolled 0.853 0.902 0.938 0.99 1.04 1.095 1.15 1.2 1.255 1.31 14000 Hotrolled 2.46 2.55 2.65 2.75 2.85 2.95 3.05 3.15 3.25 3.35 Coldrolled 1.37 1.41 1.48 1.54 1.6 1.66 1.72 1.795 1.87 1.94 15000 Hotrolled 3.45 Coldrolled 1.98 2.046 2.13 2.19 2.26 2.34 2.42 2.5 2.58 2.65 16000 Cold-rolled 2.74 2.83 2.91 3.01 3.1 3.19 3.28 3.39 3.49 3.6 17000 Coldrolled 3.72 3.83 3.97 4.09 4.23 4.37

Flux density (Gause) 000 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

(1 Gs = 10-4 T)

3.7 Calculation of tank dimensions

Calculation of tank height The inner side tank height H as shown in figure may be calculated as: H = Ho + 2Hc + Hd + Hl

Where H tank height, mn: Ho core window height mm: Hc maximum width of yoke Lamination (height of yoke) mm; Hd height of base plate of core, mm; Hl distance between core and tank cover, mm.

65 Calculation of tank width The width of tank B as shown in Figure may be calculated as: B = D + B1 Where: b width of tanks, mm: D Diameter of outer winding, mm: B1 distances between tank wall and active part of transformer from both HV and LV sides. Calculation of tank length The length of tank L as shown in Figure may be calculated as: L = D + 2Mo + B2 Where: L length of tank, mm. D Diameter of outer winding, mm: Mo Centre distance between corn legs, mm; B2 Clearance along the longitudinal axis from the tank wall to windings of phase A and phase C.

3.8 Calculation of stray losses

Classification of transformer losses. The transformer losses may be divided into two parts, first the basic losses including noload loss and resistance loss of winding, second, the stray losses which are caused by the leakage flux. In windings, leads, tank, core and yoke clamping etc. The calculation of basic losses was described already in sub-clauses. the stray losses may be calculated by means of the coefficient K1. The method for calculation is as follows. Losses of eddy current and circulating current caused by the longitudinal leakage flux of winding. The winding is situated in the longitudinal leakage flux field, so the eddy losses would be produced accordingly, the magnitude of such losses depend on the dimension of winding and the leakage flux density, the leakage flux density should be kept within 0.16 T. It would be best, if the percentage of eddy losses caused by longitudinal leakage flux could be kept within 20% of the resistance loss.

66

The percentage of eddy-loss means value under complete transposition to the resistance loss. For continuous and interleaved winding with two conductors wound in parallel. Or less or for double row or four row helical winding, the transposition may be longitudinal leakage flux may be calculated as. K2 =
K FmnaAxP 2 ( ) % 107 Hx

Where K coefficient depended on temperature: for copper conductor, K = 3.95 at 75o C K = 3.707 at 85oC: For temperature of ToC, the value of K m ay be Calculated as: K=(
235 + 75 2 ) 3.95 235 + t

Where: f frequency, Hz; P Rogovski coefficient; Ax cross sectional area of single conductor, mn2; other symbols see table Table Designation of symbols Concentric winding Sandwich windings of single bare conductor (axial) of Radial width of winding winding: S or b width of bare Thickness of single bare Height conductor perpendicular to conductor (axial) the leakage flux Hx Reactance height of Reactance windings (mm) windings disk x number number of number of disks in balance of winding: number of disks in balance group m1 ( or m2) disk x number of height

M number of conductors Continuous winding: turns Continuous perpendicular to the leakage per flux parallel windings; N number of conductors Continuous parallel to the leakage flux conducts

helical group M1 ( or m2) Helical

parallel single conductors

winding: Continuous winding: turns

n=number of disks Helical per

windings n= turns x number Helical winding: number of

67 of helixes parallel single conductors N1 ( or N2) Note: a, d, Hx, m, n, m1, n1, m2, n2, in the Table Calculation of stray losses: Under the operation of transformer, the leakage flux may penetrate into steel constructional parts (e.g yoke clamping, winding , ring and tank wall etc.) the additional loss produced thereby is called stray loss. Owing to the complexity of leakage flux paths, the stray loss is hardly to calculate exactly up to now the calculation is based on semi experimental and approximate method. For winding with concentric arrangement, stray losses are caused by longitudinal and radial leakage flux. The stray loss in a double winding transformer of three winding transformer with only one pair of winding tin operation may be calculated with the following semi-experimental formula: P2 = { Where Uk percentage impedance voltage at rated power. Hk Reactance height of winding, mm; F frequency, Hz; Rp Mean radius of main leakage flux path, mm; see calculation of impedance voltage) S - Inner tank-wall girth, mm; R - Mean equivalent radius of rank mm; For three- Phase transformer. R = (a + b 2mo) /4 Where a Length of tank; b Width of tank; mo centre distance between core legs;

Kz 2Uk 2 Hk 3 f ( )2 s [ Hk + 2( R Rp)]2 50

o Main flux in the core at rated excitation, Wb; o=BA

Where B Flux density in the core, T; At cross-sectional area of core leg, m2; Se rated power, KVA

68 S Actual power during operation, KVA; Kz Stray-loss coefficient, By the analysis of transformer, the coefficient Kz for existing construction may be estimated with following formula; Kz =
23 104 UK

Calculation of losses in leads: Current passing trough the lead causes resistance loss which pertains to the main loss in the lead, it should be added to the additional losses for transformer. The formula for calculation is as following. Py = M Iy2 Ry Where: Py loss of lead, W; M number of phases; Ly - current passing through the lead, A; Ry resistance of lead; Ry =
PLy , SY

Ly mean length of load for each phase (including the length within the bushing crossessectional area of lead, mm2.

Attention:
The calculation of load-loss for three-phase transformers may be conducted by a pair of winding, i.e. load-loss between inner and outer inner and outer winding, inner and winding leakage flux is maximum, thus for calculating the load-loss between inner and outer winding the value of 3 time longitudinal eddy-loss of intermediate winding should be added.

3.9 Calculation of temperature-rise

Contents of temperature-rise calculation The cooling method for transformers varies according to the power of equipment e.g. oil-immersed nature cooling, oil-immersed forced-air cooling, forced-oil forced-air cooling or water cooling and forced-directed oil circulation for the very large size transformers. The main contents of temperature-rise calculation include. (I) Calculation of average temperature difference between winding and oil;

69 (II) Calculation of surface area of tank for dissipation; (III) Calculation of temperature-rise for oil-immersed nature cooling oil-immersed forced-air cooling and forced-oil circulation. Average difference of temperature between winding and oil for continuous, interleaved and helical windings Winding disks are immersed in the oil, all the surfaces act as heal dissipation surface (excluding semi-continuous and semi-helical windings), if there is no axial spacers between winding and cylinder, the longitudinal and radial oil-ducts of the windings, the oil flows upward from bottom of tank, a part of them passing through the radial ducts and flowing upward also. Calculation of heat load for winding surface The specific heat load is calculated with winding disk possessing the maximum number of turns. q= Where q specific heat load for winding surface, W/m2. K1 coefficient, related to temperature of material, take 21.63 for copper conductor at 85o C. I current passing through winding disk, A; J current density within winding disk, A/m2; W Number of turns per disk, it should be carried in an integer for fractional turns: for helical winding, W = 1; K2 correction factor of turn insulation: For a1 < 1.75, K2 = 1: For a1 > 1.75, K2 = a1/1.75a; a thickness of bare conductor, mm; a1 thickness of conductor with insulation, mm; K3 - coverage coefficient of winding disk K3 = 1 number of radial spacers along girth width of spacer / mean length of turn in disk K4 percentage overall additional losses in the conductor; L outer girth of disk cross - section
K 1K 2 IWJ K4 (+ ) 100 K 3L

70 For continuous and helical windings, L = 2 (ma1 + B1) For semi-helical windings, L = ma1 + 2b1 For disk with inner turn padded with paper strips, L = 2ma1 + b1; M number of parallel conductors in disk; b1 width of conductor with insulation, mm. If winding disks with insulating strips padded underneath the inner turn, the thickness of these strip should not be counted for dissipating, surface; if there are additional insulations on the outer side of disks, L should be calculated with the outermost insulation. Calculation of average temperature difference between winding and oil Tx = where Tx1 temperature difference between winding and oil, oK; For oil immersed nature cooling, inner winding; Tx1 = 0.41 For oil immersed nature cooling outer winding: Tx1 = 0.358 For oil immersed forced air cooling, inner and outer winding Tx1 = 0.159 T j insulation correction of winding temperature rise, T j = Kjq Kj coefficient of insulation correction, it is a function a see table For disks without additional insulation, = a1 1; for disks with additional insulation, the value of see Table T y correction of temperature for oil-duct, T y = Pq/1550; P Additional coefficient, Table Corresponding Value of K to Tx1 + T j + T y

Kj ( 10 -4)

0.6 4 4.4 123

0.75 9 5 139

1 17.5 6 165

1.4 29.5 7 200

2 49 8 230

2.5 62 9 262

3 79 10 298

3.5 94 11 326

4 110 12 364

Kj ( 10-4)

Table Values of for disks with additional insulation B 100mm 100 < B

= a1 a +2c = (a1-a) +2c+0.2c (B-100)/50

150

71 150 < B 200

= (a1 a) +2.2c + 0.46c (B -150)/50

Calculation of top oil temperature-rise for transformers with oil-immersed. Nature cooling and forced-air cooling. The temperature-rise of top oil may be calculated as: Ts = 1.2 Ty + T Where: Ts top oil temperature-rise, oK; Ty average temperature rise of oil, oK; For Nature cooling, Ty = 0.262 qr0.8 For forces air cooling Ty, = 0.191 qr0.8 /7; Qr specific heat load for tank cover, w/m2; Qr =
po + A pk

Where po - no load loss, w; Pk loss (including additional loss), w; A overall effective dissipating area of tanks, m2 T - value of correction for oil temperature rise, oK.

3.10 Calculation of axial mechanical stress of windings

Significance of ampere-turn balance The conductor size and oil-duct dimension vary as the different type of winding the distribution of turns along the winding height may be non uniform, especially for winding with tapping (except those with separate regulating winding). The calculation on ampereturn distribution aims at adjusting the ampere-turn of certain zone of winding along its height to math the ampere-turn of another winding for balance as far as possible, it would be best to keep the difference between them minimum for the sake of ampere-turn balance. The more unbalanced ampere-turn, the more radial leakage flux would be produced. Consequently, the more radial leakage reactance, more eddy losses and larger mechanic stress under short-circuit would be arisen. For large transformers, the leakage flux may

72 cause local over-heat in winding or constructional parts. As a result, the calculation on balance of ampere-turn presents a very important significance despite the absolute balance could not be obtained practically, the balance of ampere-turn should be kept at least to meet the requirement of mechanic of mechanic strontium for winding. The general rules for delimitation of balance zone. a. Generally, the balance zone should be divided based on high-voltage winding. Zones for low-voltage (or medium-voltage) winding correspond to those of highvoltage winding, i.e the number of zones of low-voltage winding (or MV) equals the number of zones of high-voltage winding. The height of corresponding zones for both winding should be equal to each other as far as possible in addition, The distribution of ampere-turn along the winding height should be as uniform as better within each zone. b. Within a zone, the radial dimension of winding and the main conduit for leakage flux should be kept identical as it could be. c. The percentage number of turns in each zone of low-voltage (or medium-voltage) winding should correspond the percentage number of turns in those of highvoltage winding, the difference between them should be minimum as far as possible, otherwise, the unbalance of ampere-turn distribution would be enhanced. d. For winding with symmetric arrangement of disks, the calculation may be conducted in one half of the winding, winding consisting of two parallel branches, may be considered as one combined branch. Calculation of number of turns in each zone and height of zone. a. Two requirement as follows must considered during the delimitation of balance zone. First, for winding static rings the height of zone located at the ends of winding should exclude the thickness of static rings. Second, for helical windings, the height of zone located at the ends of winding should exclude the height of 2/2 turn for terminals. b. The delimitation of balance zone should follow the related of: The total number of turns of high-voltage winding equals the sum of number of turns for each zone. W1 = W11 + W12 + W13 + W14 The total number of urns of low-voltage winding( or medium-voltage winding) equals the sum of number of turn for each zone.

73 W3 = W 31 + W32 + W 33 + W34 The overall height of high-voltage winding equals the sum of height for each zone: H1 = H11 + H12 + H13 + H14 The overall height of low-voltage ( or medium-voltage) winding equals the of height for each zone. H3 = H31 +H32 +H32 + H33 c. Calculated number of turns for each zone of HV, MV and LV winding: Turn for zone = disks in zone turns in each disk. d. Calculate the height for each zone. (Two zones are delimited by the centre of oil-duct between zones) For a special zone: Number of small oil-duct x height of duct = overall height of small oil duct number of large oil-duct height of duct + Overall height of oil-duct in that zone Factor for concussing (0.92)

= overall height of large oil-duct

Overall of oil-duct in that zone after drying + number of conductor along axis height of insulated conductor = overall height of conductor Overall height of that zone(rm) Rogovski Coefficient. The rogovski coefficient of axial mechanic stress and reactance for sandwich winding calculation may be selected as follows. Pn = 1 Where U=/h = overall width of leakage flux h =outer diameter of winding- inner diameter of winding S = s + 0.03D s; - distance between circum circle
1 (1-eu) [ 1-0.5(1-e-2v) ( 1-eu)] u

74 D diameter of core, cm;

Calculation of axial mechanic stress under shout- circuit for concentric winding.

The axial mechanic stress caused by the short - circuit current under maximum radial leakage flux group may be calculated as: Fi =
9.8 8.04 KaKl 2 P0 (Rcp) (In)2 (Wn)2 m-n [m + m-1 Cpm] 1011

Where: Fi axial mechanic stress, N; In - rated phase current. A: WN rated number of turns per phase: Pn - Rogovski coefficient

3.11 Calculation of stress conductor under short-circuit

For outer winding a. Tensile stress of conductor under short circuit 2 =
0.98 12.8 (ky)2 (Kl)2 ( I)2 W ( )( ml)2 pn MPa mn ab 108
0.98 12.8 ky2 Kl2 I2 W ml2 pn mn a1 108

b. axial bending stress of conductor under short circuit 2 = MPa

Overall stress in the conductor: = (1 /100 )2 (1 + 2 ) MPa For inner winding, a. Compressing stress of conductor under short circuit 2 =
0.98 ( 12.8 ) (ky)2 ( Kl)2 (I)2 (W) ) (R p)P m n Hk A1 10 8

x N

a. Axial bending stress of conductor under short circuit 2 =

0.98 12.8 ky2Kl2 I2 W ml2pn mn ab21010

MPa

b. Radial bending stress of conductor under short-circuit =

0.098 6.4 Ky 2 KJ 2l 2Wlp 2 p m MPa mnHka 2b 108

Overall stress: =(

3
100

)2 (1 + 2 + 3) MPa

75 The allowable value of overall stress for copper conductors should be kept within 156.8 MPa, it may be higher for conductors of high strength. The designation of symbols in above formulae: 1, 2, 2, stresses of conductors, Mpa Ky coefficient for short circuit impulse current, generally take 1.8; K1 multiples of steady short circuit current, I phase current of short - circuit tapping, A; W corresponding turns in the winding; Rp mean radius of winding, cm; I=(
2R - b, cm); N

R outer diameter of winding, cm; N number of radial spacers; B width of spacer, cm; Ip =
2Rp - d, cm; N

D width of axial strips, cm; P Rogovski coefficient, see calculation of reactance; N parallel branches per phase; M number of parallel conductors in disk; Hk reactance height of winding, cm; A1 cross sectional area for single conductors, cm2; A radial dimension of bare conductor ( thickness), cm; B axial dimension of bare conductor ( width), cm;

1, 2 current distribution coefficient for double winding transformer 1= 3=100;

For three winding transformer, the value of 1 and 3,; Pn Rogovski coefficient; Pn f(H,v), calculate with formula U=

, v=

s , h

S = s + 0.03D, where s and D

- overall width of leakage flux, cm;

S distance between core and inner winding, cm; D core diameter, cm;

76 H height of leakage flux group m cm; M, N, = f ( Z, 2rp/a), Z number of axial strips.

3.12 Calculation of weight

Calculation of oil weight Quantity of oil displaced by the active part of transformer a. Transformer with high-voltage side of 35 KV or below: Gpy =
Gpe Gcu + 7 .8 4 .5

b. Transformer with high-voltage side of 63 132 KV. Gpy = Where Gpy weight of oil displaced by the active part of transformer, Kg; GFe weight of silicon sheet steel, Kg; GCu weight of copper conductor with insulation, Kg; Quantity of oil to be filled into empty tank. for drum type tank GKY = 0.9 HAd Where: GKy oil capacity of empty tank, Kg H Tank height, dm: Ad cross sectional area of tank, dm2 Ad = L B 0.8584 R2 L Length of tank, dm; R Radius of round corner. Dm; B Width of tank, dm. R=
B : (for oblate cross section) 2 Gfe Gcu + 7.6 3.9

77

R B

LZ L

B1 H2 H1

Fig: 1

R3

R4 B B2

R2

L Fig 2 Tank with ladder shaped top

R1

78 Weight of oil in the tank GNy = Gky Gpy Where Gny Weight of oil in the tank, Kg; GKY - weight of oil to be filled in the empty tank, Kg; GPY weight of oil replaced b y the transformer active part, Kg; Weight of oil for radiators and coolers Gey = Ne Gey Where Gey weigh of oil in radiator or cooler, Kg; Ne number of radiator or cooler; Gey Weight of oil in each radiator or cooler, kg. For weight of oil in oblate tube radiators, see Table 1: those for coolers, see Table 2; and those for panel type radiators, Table 1 weight of tube type radiators
Center distance between connecting flanges (mm) 88 tubes Radiator weight Oil weight 100 tubes Radiator weight Oil weight 120 tubes Radiator weight Oil weight

(kg)
45o 88 tubes Radiator weight Oil weight 44 - tubes Radiator weight Oil weight

1400 1650 1880 2000 2285 2485 2685 2885 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000

309 342 372 390 426 454 481 508 522 556 590 624 656

108 119 129 134 145 154 163 171 176 186 197 208 218 421 430 482 512 243 574 591 629 667 704 743 147 152 166 175 185 195 200 212 224 236 248 436.6 608 644 680 702 748 96 838 885 210 221 231 239 253 267 282 296

255 274 305 321 359 386

96 103 113 118 130 138 205 220 229 247 261 76 81 83 89 93

79
4250 690 229 781 260 931 311

Table 2 weight of single unit cooler (Kg) Forced oil forced air cooler Type of cooler Yf 80/100 Yf 100/380 YF 120/380 Weight of oil (gey) 122 130 136 Weight of cooler (ge) 160 1000 1160

Table 3 weight of conservators (kg)

Diameter (mm) 400 90 115 137 176 220 265 310 353 405 475 542 610 678 745 1100 1230 1370 1640 1920 2190 2370 2630 Length (mm) Total weight of oil Weight of oil in Weight of steel parts of conservator 5 6 7 8 11 13 16 18 20 24 27 30 34 37 52 58 65 77 90 103 112 124 500 600 400 500 conservator 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 17 65 68 71 74 77 80 100 104 108 115 122 129 132 135

180

250

600 700 800 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 800 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 900 1000

310

440

610

80
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2500 2000 3150 3680 4200 4740 5260 6600 140 10150 12200 14900 17350 20850 24700 28800 32950 38000 43500 48900 148 173 200 224 248 300 370 465 560 675 810 945 1105 1285 1465 1720 1950 2200 140 145 150 155 160 170 420 450 485 625 675 725 800 865 930 1030 1100 1170

760

2500 3000 2500

920

3000 3500 3000

1080

3500 4000 3500

1240

4000 4500

Calculation of tank weight Weight of tank cover For tank with flat cover, Gg = 7.85 Ag Where Gg weight of tank cover, Kg; Ag area of tank cover, dm2.
g

g Thickness of tank Cover, dm;

7.85 specific weight of steel plate, kg/dm3.

81 Weight of tank bottom Gd = 7.85 Ad Where Gd weight of tank bottom, kg; Ad area of tank bottom, dm2;
d

d Thickness of tank bottom, dm.

Weight of tank wall Gb = 7.85 Ib H b Where Gb weight of tank wall, kg; Ib girth of tank, dm; H Height of tank, dm;

b Thickness of tank wall, dm.

Weight of oblate tube. Gw = gw Iw Where Gw weight of oblate tube, Kg; Gw weight of oblate tube per meter, Kg/m; Gw = 1.525 Kg/m; Lw overall length of tube, m. Weight of panel type radiators Gp = Np gp Where: Gp weight of panel type radiators Np number of units of radiator; Gp weight of each unit of radiator, kg; Weight of tank Tube type tank Gx = 1.15 (Gg + Gd + Gb + Gw) Where Gx weight of tank, Kg: Gg weight of tank cover, Kg: Gd weight of tank bottom, Kg: Gb weight of tank wall, Kg:

82 Gw weight of oblate tube, Kg. Calculation of weight of accessories Gf = Gs + Gt + Gz + Gxc + Gfs + Gj Where Gp weight of accessories, kg. Gs Weight of radiator or coolers, Gs = gs N weight of each radiator or cooler, Kg: N number of radiator or coolers: Gt weight bushings, Gt = Nt gt, Nt number of HV, MV, and IV bushing, gl weight of each bushing: Gz weight of conservator, Kg; Gxc weight of bogie wheels, see table 5; for large transformer wheels are dismountable, weight listed in the Table are unit weight, it should be multiple by the number of group adopted. Gfs weight of fan motors for forced air cooling, Gfs = 50 Nfs number of radiators with forced air cooling, 50 each radiator equipped with 2 sets of fan motors, each weighing 25 Kg. Gj weight of oil regenerators, Kg Table 5 weight of wheels (Kg) For small and medium size transformers, bogie being welded underneath the tank bottom ( four wheels) Load bearing (four wheels), lon weight of wheel ( for 2.8 wheels), Load bearing for each group, ton weight of wheels 10 (each group) 30 15 7.2 55 20 12 90 30 24 340 40 780

For large transformer, dismountable bogie wheels are adopted (each group of wheel) 165 195 300 530

Calculation of total weight G = Gqx + Gx + Gf + Gy Where G total weight of transformer, Kg; Gqx weight of active part, Kg: Gx weight of tank, Kg; Gf weight of accessories, Kg;

83 Gy weight of oil, Kg; Weight of accessories dismounted Gcf = Gp + Gz + Gj Where: Gcf weight of accessories dismounted, Kg; Gp weight of radiators or coolers, Kg: Gz weight of conservator, Kg; Gj weight of oil regenerators, Kg; Weight of transformer for delivery Gu = G Gty Gf Where: Gu weight of transformer for delivery, Kg: G total weight of transformer, Kg; Gty weight of oil to be delivered separately, Kg: Gf weight of accessories, Kg.

84

Chapter 4
DESIGN CALCULATIONS OF 20/26 MVA, 132/11.5 KV POWER TRANSFORMER

Power Transformer
Connection Symbol = DYn 11 Winding Temp Rise = Impedance Voltage = 10% Top Oil Temp Rise =

4.1 Current calculation

i. KVA= 26000 KVA = 145.2

IL(H.V)

= 103.3823 Amp

Ip (H.V)

= 59.68779

ii.

KVA = 20000

KV = 145.2

IL(H.V)

= 79.52483 Amp

Ip (H.V)

= 45.91360

85

iii.

KVA = 26000 KV = 132 Ip (H.V) = 65.65657 amp

IL(H.V)

113.7205 Amp

iv.

KVA = 20000 KV = 132 Ip (H.V) = 50.50505 amp

= 37.4773 amp

v.

KVA= 26000 KV = 118.8

IL(H.V) = 72.95174amp

126.3561amp

Ip (H.V)

vi.

KVA = 2000 KV = 118.8 Ip (H.V) 56.11672 amp

IL(H.V)

= 97.19702amp

vii.

KVA = 26000 KV= 115

IL(L.V) = Ip (L.V) = IL(L.V) = Ip (L.V) =

= 1305.314amp

viii.

KVA = 20000

KV= 11.5

= 1004.087amp

4.2 Core Calculation

First we calculate core diameter D=K P = Power = 26000 KVA K = Experimental co-officient = 53

D = Diameter = 53 From Table D = 510/522 Here core Dia = 510

= 411.374

86

Inner dia of cylinder = 522 Area = 1796.45 B (T) flux density = 163 Op = B x A = 163 x 1796.45 =29.28 Thickness of lamination = 0.3 mm Lamination factor = 0.95

Volt / Turn
B (T) = 1.63 Area = 1796.45

Volt/turn

ELT

= = 65.0714 volt/turn

4.3 L.V Winding calculations

KVA = 20000 KVA = 26000 It is Y connected K.V = 115.5 Now to calculate num of turns I (amp) = 1004.87 I (amp) = 1305.314

=
WD num of turns (take integer) U g Phase voltage (volts)

87

=
WD = 102 NOW take integer

E/T = E/T = 65.0934

CONDUCTOR SIZE
Width Bare ZB With installation Cross- section area ( )= 2 0.45 2.45 21.64 Height 11 0.45 11.45 519.36

Num of conductors in parallel = 24 A/ A/ Width 1.933317 2.513312 cross section area ( cross section area ( ) 519.36 ) 519.36

(mm) = 24 (2.451.05) 1.03 = 61.8 = 62 mm

Height

(mm) = 103 11.45 = (1023) 0.92 Total = 1460.87

= 1119.35 = 281.52

Reactance Height = 1460.87 4.45 3 Actual Height (mm) = 1460

= 1446.42 mm

88

4.4 H.V winding calculations

No of turns =

= 2027.855 = 2028

It is D connected so line and phase voltage are equal Conductor size bare ZB 1.35 With installation Cross section area = 24.95 2.5 1.35 3.85 10.2 1.35 11.55

A/

2.0242

A/ Disc No 44 32 8 4

= 2.6315 disc type A B C D = 97.334 = 97.5 turn/disc 22-14/16 2215/16 23-15/16 24

Width = (3.85+0.05) 24 1.04

Height = 11.55 88 (587) 0.92 Height = 1410 Total height = 1410+50 electric ring

= 1016.4 = 400.2

= 1460

89

4.5 R.V winding calculations

KV = 1015.385 V/T = 65.0934 Conductor size bare zb 1.95 2.36 1.95 4.31 A/ A/ = 2.055708 = 2.672421 11.8 1.95 13.75 turn = 15.59889 = 16

Four row helical type winding Width = (4.31+0.5)41.03 17.9632 41713.6 = 924.8 417(592) = 312.8 Total = 1240 Actual Height = 1240 Total Height = 1240+52 = 1292

Impedance voltage (insulation distances) Radius of core 255 6

Inner radius of L.V winding

Outer radius of L.V

Distance B/W H.V and L.V

Inner radius of H.V

90

Outer of H.V

Inner radius of R.V

Outer radius of R.V

Outer of dia meter

Distance B/W phases

30.2

R1 means radius of L.V winding = 275 +

= 306

R12 means radius of oil duct = 337 +

= 362

36.2

R2 means radius of H.V winding = 387 +

= 435.75

4305

R23 R23

= 484 + = 534.5 +

= 509.5 = 543.5

50.95

54.35

Now radial dimension of winding A = 62.005 = 61.5 Width of oil duct between winding 1 and 2 = 50.95 Radial dimension of winding 2 = 97.5 1.4 = 96.1 = 9.61 =6.15

ED =

(A1R1+A2R2) + (A12R12)

ED =

(6.1530.6+9.6143.575) + (5.09536.2) = 202.31525 + (5.09536.2) = 386.7543 cm

Width of lea kaage flux = 48405-275-7.25 = 20.855 cm

H=

= 1428.21

= 142.821 cm

91

Rogovski Co-efficient +

= 6.848286

= .955(table)

Now

UK =

= 10.09097 = 13.11826

UK =

4.6 Calculation of Load Losses PK

L.V winding data:
Inner dia (mm) = 550 Outer dia (mm) = 674

Mean length / turn (m) =

= Ip = 1923.428
= 1.923429

Total length (m)

L = Ip Wn

Ip = mean length / turn Wn = over all num of turns Conductor for winding terminals have to be taken into considerations during calculation of conductor length usually adding 1.5-2m. L = 1.923429 102 = 196.189758 = 197.6898

Resistance (0 hm)

R=

92

resistivity of copper at 75

= 0.02096 0 hm

/m

R=

= .007978

Weight of bare conductor (Kg) G:x = 3 L.A.g G = specific weight of conductor For copper G = 8.9 g/ Gx = 3(197.6898)(519.36)(8.9) Gx = 2741.347 (Kg) Weight of insulated conductor Gc= Gx (1+c%) Here c% = percentage weight of paper to weight of bare conductor. It may be calculated ad follows

C%=

insulation thickness on each side of conductor, it equal thickness of turn

insulation A thickness of bare conductor (mm) B width of bare conductor (mm) Ax cross sectional area of single conductor ( )

=2.4
Weight of insulated conductor = 2806.05 (kg).

93

Resistive loss at ONAN (W) = Resistive loss at ONAF (W)=

R =24579.77 R =41539.81

Eddy current loss in % = K

co-efficient depended on temp for copper K = 3.8 at 75 C

F = frequency = 50 H2 M = num of conductor perpendicular to flux N = number of bare conductor parallel to flux A = width of bare conductor Ax = cross sectional area ( )

Eddy loss in % =

=(

(13413697.35)

Eddy loss in % = 5.097205 Eddy current loss at ONAN = 1252.881 Eddy loss current loss at ONAF = 2117.37

H.V Winding Data

Inner Dia (mm) = 774 Outer Dia (mm) = 969 Mean length / turn = 2739 Total length L = Ip Wm 2.739

94

= 5555.296

R=

= 4.75373

Weight of bare conductor = Gx = 3 Lag = 3 (5555.296)(42.95)8.9 = 3800.744 kg Weight if in sulated conductor Gc = G (1+c%) = 3944.308 kg Resistive loss at ONAN (w) = Resistive loss at ONAF (w) = Resistive loss at ONAN (-10%) = Resistive loss at ONAF (-10%) =

= 36376.88 = 61476.92

Eddy current loss in% = = 7.646 %

Eddy current loss at ONAN (w) = 2781.031 Eddy current loss at ONAF (w) = 4699.943 (-10%) Eddy current loss at ONAN (w) = 3433.372 (-10%) Eddy current loss at ONAF (w) = 5802.398 (+10%) Eddy current loss at ONAN (w) = 2298.373 (+10%) Eddy current loss at ONAF (w) = 3884.25

4.7 Stray Losses

Tank length (mm) = 4850 Tank width (mm) = 2180

95

Tank height (mm) =

1740 Window

1000 width of

50 foot pad

190 = 2980 lifting

Circumference of tank = 2 (L + B) = 2 (4108.52 + 1030) = 10237.06 mm = 1023.706 cm

13.11826

UK= % in pendance at rated power = 10.09097

HK = reactance at height if winding (mm) = 142.821 F = 50 Rp = mean radis if leakage flux path = 36.2 Rs = mean equivalent radius of tank

Rs = A length of tank = 3860 B width of tank = 1630 Mo = distance b/w core legs = 1175 = = 732.5 mm Rs = 78 cm Cpo = main flux = BA = 29.28214 B = flux density

96

A + = cross sectional area of core Kz stray loss co-efficient Kz =

For 26 MVA For 10 % impedance Kz = 2.19

For 20 MVA For 10 % impedance Kz = 2.19 Ss circumference = 1023.706

For 20 MVA
P2 =

= = = 10565.495 Watt
For 26 MVA
P2 =

=
= 17857.88 watt Stray losses at 26 MVA = 17857.88 watt

97

4.8 No load losses

Winding height = 1460 Lower Upper Press Gap = 140 = 60 = 60 = 20

Window height = 1740 For three phase core with three legs = 3r Ho A = 4r Mo A GF = + for core

+ Go for yoke

Weight of core legs GF overall weight weight of yoke

Ho height of window (mm) = 1740

Mo centre distance between = 1175

Go weight of silicon steel for cold rolled grain oriented R = 7.65 Now =3 7.65 1740 1796.45

A cross sectional area of core = 1796.45

= 7173.76 Kg = 47.6511751796.45 = 7922.03598 Kg GF = + 1462.9

98

GF = 15095.8 Kg

Now
No load losses Po = k1 p GF = co-efficient for additional core loss = 1.2 P = specific core loss = 1.027 w/Kg Po = 1021.02715095.8 Po = 18604.06 (watt)

99

Total Losses (W)

26 MVA (14 Tap) H.V Resistive loss H.V. Resistive loss L.V. Resistive loss L.V. Resistive loss Lead loss Stray loss Total load losses No load losses Total loses 61476.92 4699.993 41539.81 2117.37 1250 17858.86 128942.9 18604.06 147547

26 MVA (-10 %) 75897.43 5802.398 41539.81 2117.37 1250 17858.86 255565.9 18604.06 163069.9

20 MVA (14 Tap) 36376.88 2781.031 24579.7 1252.881 1250 17858.86 76807.94 18604.06 95412

20 MVA (-10 %) 44909.72 3433.372 24579.77 1252.881 1250 17858.86 85993.12 18604.06 10745972

20 MVA (1 Tap) 30063.53 2298.37 24579.77 1252.881 1250 17858.86 70011.94 18604.06 88616

4.9 No Load Current

oa =

% %

of Mo load loss

oa = oa = 0.071554

se patrol Power

or = GF = weight of core = 15095.8

100

From Tables Ge = 1.34 Gi = 3.01 C=8 A = 17.9645

oR =

oR = oR = 0.317434 Io= Io= I o = 0.32539 theoretical Value

Io =

Io = Io = 0.140043

4.10 Regulation of Transformer

Ur =

= loaded losses
Se = Saled Power

= Ur (%) = 0.495934

Pr

101

= 10.09097
=?

= =

= = 10.07877
Given K ( A + full load = 1 K ( A half load = Cos = 0.8 Sin = 06 A+ full load

=K(

)+

(Ur cos cf Ur sin cf (10.07877 (0.8) 0.495934

=1(
(0.6)

) +10.07877 (0.6)+

= 6.44001+0.301511 = 6.745524 = 6.444001 = 0.301512 At full load.

102

At half load.

= 0.5 (
(0.6)

) +10.07877 (0.6)+

(10.07877 (0.8) 0.495934

= 3.22206 + 0.150756 = 3.372762

4.11 EFFICENCY

K=

= No-load losess = load losses

P = Power

K= K = 0.379844 Cos = 0.8

Eff =

Eff =

Eff =

Eff =

= 0.9939

103

Efficiency at full load = 0.9939 Efficiency at full load (%) = 99.39

4.12 Calculation of winding temperature

L.V Winding
Q = specific head loss fort winding surface. (w)

Q=

)
C

= co-efficient selated to temperature of manual taree 22.1 for copper at

T= current passing through winding for 26 MVA = 1305.314 A T = current through winding for20 MVA = 1004.87 S = current density = 1305.314/519.36 = 2.513312 S = current density = 1004/519.36 = 1.93317 W = no of turns for disk = 1

= coverage co-efficient of winding disk.

= 1-

= 1= 0.750446 = percentage overall additional losses in conductor

100

104

= 1.050972 = co section factor for turn insulation = 1

L = outer girth of disk crises section L=2( )

M = no of passable conductor = 24

= thickness of conductor with insulation = 2.45

= width of conductor with insulation = 11.45
L = 2 (24 (2.45) + 11.45) L = 140.5

At ONAN

Q= Q = 427.5946

At ONAF

Q= Q = 722.68052 w/ T1= temperature between winding and oil

105

At ONAN
T1= 0.41q 0.6 T1 = 0.41 (427.5946)0.6 T 1= 15.53894

At ONAF
T 1 = 0.159 (Q) 0.7 T 1 = 15.93577 T+J = insulation correction of winding temperature rise T+ j= Kj Q Kj = co-efficient of insulation value from table. Kj = 4

At ONAN
T j = 4 427.6244

T j = 0.1717049 TJ (At ONAF) = 4 722.6852

TJ (At ONAF) = 0.289074 Correction of temperature rise for oil. Try = Pq / 1500 P = additional co-efficient sec value from Graph. P=2

T&y At (ONAN) = T&y (At ONAN) = 0.57016

106

T&y (At ONAF) = T&y (At ONAF) = 0.96358 Average temperature difference between winding and oil = = + +

For ONAN = 15.53894+0.17105+0.57016 = 16.28015 For ONAF = 15.94636+0.289074+0.96358 = 17.19901

H.V Winding

Q=

(
=1

= 22.1 = 1- (

) I = 50.50505
I = 65.65657

= 0.706338
W = 24

J = 2.249167 J = 2.923917

100

107

=
L=2(

7.645 + )

1+

= 1.076451

L = 207.9

At ONAN

Q= Q = 452.3106

At ONAF

Q= Q = 769.4049 At ONAN = = 0.41 = 16.07111

At ONAF
=Kjq Kj = 9 From table

At ONAN
=9 =0.40708 452.3106

108

At ONAF
=9 764.4049

= 0.681964

= P=4 From Graph

At ONAN

= = 1.206162

At ONAF

= = 2.038413

At ONAN
= + +

= 16.07111+0.40708+1.206162 = 17.68435

At ONAF
= 16.58531+0.687964+2.038413 = 19.31169 Calculation of Temperature Rise of Top oil Ts = 1.2 Ty +Ta Ts = total oil temperature rise ok

109

Ty = average temperature of oil Td = value of correction for oil temperature rise Ty = 0.262 Q + 0.8 Ty = 0.191 Q + 0.8 Now Q+ = Po + Px/A Po = no load losses Px = load losses A = overall dissipating area of tank (cover area) = 4.85 = 4.851.63-0. = 8.38 (wall area) = (4.25+ = 39.73792 (Radiator dissipating area at ONAN)= 828.2824 = 226.2592 (Radiator dissipating area at ONAN)= 830.6724 = 245.3792 0.34+3.085+ +0.55+0.915+1.58) 2.93 +1.465.55-.551/2 A+ ONAN A+ ONAF

At ONAN
A= + +

A = 8.38+39.73792+226.2592 A = 274.3771

110

At ONAF
A= + +

A = 8.38+39.73792+245.3792 A = 295.903

At ONAN

Q= Q = 391.2461 w/

At ONAF

Q= Q = 566.7156 No of radiator = 8 Specified by table A = 2250 Dissipating area of radiator At ONAF = 30.6724 w/

At ONAN

= 0.262 = 0.262 = 31.06428

At ONAF

= 0.262

-7

111

= 0.262 = 23.45969

-7

(Center of head generator) = 1345 (Center of head dissipating) = 1695 = =

= Ta = 6 for both OA ONAN and ONAF for value of TA see graph between Ty and A

At ONAN
Ts = 1.2 Ty + Td Ts = 1.231.06428+6 Ts = 43.27713

At ONAF
Ts = 1.2 Ty + Td Ts = 1.2 23.45969+6 Ts = 34.15163

112

Winding Temperature in L.V

DGC (ONAN) = = 16.28015+43.27713 T = 47.34443

At ONAF
T = 17.9901+23.45969 T = 40.6587

4.13 Short Circuit Current for H.V Winding

Z=

Zs= Us = rated voltage of System = 145 S = Short circuit appaunt Power of = 1 System in MAV

Zs =

Zs = 2.1025

Zt = = Impedance Voltage at rated current = 10.00839 = Rated voltage of winding = 132 Sn = Rated Power of Transformer = 20

Zt =

113

Zt = Zt = 87.19309

I=

Z= U = 132 I (Short circuit current) = 8.74 X = 9.991412 I = 8.740187 Amps

For L.V Winding

I=

K Amps

And Zs = Short circuit impedance of system

Zs = Us = Rated voltage of system = 12 S = short circuit apparent Power of system = 5 In MAV

Zs = Zs = 2.88

Zt = short circuit impedance of transformer

Zt = Sn = rated power of transformer MAV = 20

114

= Impedance voltage all rated current = 10.00839 Un = Rated voltage of winding = 11.5

Zt =

Zt = Zt = 0.661805

I (short circuit current) =

I= I = 10.02809 K Amps

As Per IEC Design Manual Short Current

K=

Zs =

4.14 Highest Average temperature rise of Winding Under Short Circuit Condition
= +2( )/

= 105 due to class A T is the short circuit current density = 3.164934K T = 3.22

115

For 2 Sec = 105+2(105+235)/ ((101000

2) -1

= 105 + = 105+114.25906 = 1.19 For 3 Sec = 1.27

4.15 Balance of Amp Rise Turns

H.V Side We made three zones. L.V side

Zone 1
22A = 503.25 turns 2211.36 = 252.12 (Bit now 11.55 225 = 110 oil Ducts Height Total Height = 362.12 1100.92 = 101.2 Oil compression = 110-101.2= 8.8 Actual heights = 353.32

Zone 2
25 turns 25.511.45=291.975 Turns height 253= 75 ducts Total height = 366.975 = 750.92 = 69 Oil compression = 75-0.92 = 6.926 Actual heights = 360.975

Zone 2
32 B+8c+4d 44+11.26 1021.5 turns 504.24 Rise height

Zone 2
52 turns 5211.45 545.4 turns heights

116

435 = 215 Total heights = 719.24 2150.92 = 197.8 Oil compression = 215-197.8 = 17.2 Actual heights = 702.04

523

= 156 oil dacts height

Total heights = 751.4 1560.92 = 143.52 Oil compression = 156-143.52 = 12.48 Actual heights=

Zone 3 H.V side

22 A = 503.25 turns 11.2622 = 252.12 disc Height 225= 110 oil duct height Total height = 362.12 Oil compression 1100.92 = 101.2 Actual height 110-101.2 = 8.8

Zone 3 L.V side

25 turns 25.511.45 = 291.97 25 3=95 oil duct

Total height = 366.975 Oil compression = 6 Actual height = 360.975

H.V (AmpTurn)

L.V (AmpUnbalance Balance Turn) Avg Height

H.V L.V 100 24.8151 50.36982 24.81509 100 total 100 24.5098 50.98038 24.5098 100 total 0.30529 -0.61056 0.30529 1.9 24.6624 50.6751 24.66844 =0 100 357.1475 720.48 357.1475 1434.775

117

4.16 Axial Mechanical Stress under Short Circuit Condition

S = S+0.03D S = Distance between core and inner winding = 20 D = core diameters = S= 20+0.03510 S = 35.3 3.53 Cm

N = 143.4775 (take from prevision Page)

V = S/N V = 0.025 L = 20.255

U = L/n U = 0.141172

From Phase = Pn (UV) = 0.5 x =

+(

))

= 0.30529(24.66255+(50.6749 x = 15.26448

))

Arial Mechanical Stress Under Short Circuit Condition

= =
=18547.7 New turn Xy = Co-efficient for short circuit impairs = 1.8

118

K1 = multiple of steady short circuit current = 11 I = Phase current if short circuit tapping for L.V I = 1305.314 For H.V I = 65.65657 W = no of turns (H.V) W = 2028 (L.V) W = 102 Rp = mean radius of winding 1= H.V = 2 = L.V =

1=

-B

N = no of radial spares = 16 D = diameter of winding B = width of spares

Ip =

M = no of passable conductor in disk N = passable blanch per phase = reactance height of winding = 142.821 = cross sectional area of single conduction A = radial dimention of base conductor B = radial dimention of base conductor K = overall width of leakage flour Ky = 1-8 P = 0.955 = 142.821 W = 2028

119

K1 = 11

Rp1 = 43.575

= 65.65657
Pn = 0.5 I= 1.05314 = 0.95

x = 15.2644

= 0.2495 L= 20.855 = 0.25 = 0.2

= 30.475 (L.V) MN = 24

= 1.02 = 1.1

W= 102 = 0.05

(H.V) MN = 1

= 0.2164

= = 512.3717 KG/
Where Ky = 1.8 P = 0.955

= 142.821
I = 65.65657

W = 2018 x = 15.2644

= 11

= 93.575

L=

L= L= 19.026-5 L= 14.02627

120

= =325.0127

= 2 = 9.2339 =

-4

= =8.944709

= = 209.594

4.17 Calculation of weight

Weight of active part = (Gfe + Gfu) 1.15 Gfe weight of silicon steel sheet

Gfu weight of copper conductor with insulation.

121

= (15095.8+7377.2063)1.15= 25843.96 Kg

Weight of Oil
A = weight of oil display by active part

+ +

= 1986.2895+1891.591 Gpy = 3877.881 Kg Weight of oil in empty tank Gky = 0.895HAd H = thank height dm L length of tank B = width of tank GKY = 0.895 83829.3 = 22350.3 Kg Weight of oil in tank = Gky Gpy = 18472.42 Kg Weight of oil in turrets = 600 Kg Weight of oil in conservator = 9003350 = 950 From table Volume of oil per meter of of pipe V = 0.814153 Kg/ Meter Total length of pipe / radiator = 318.98 m

Ad cross sectional area of tank R = Radius of round corner

122

Weight of oil /radiator = 259.6986 Kg Total weight of oil/radiator= 275.686 Kg Number of radiators = 8 Weight of oil in radiators = 2205.589 Kg Total weight of oil = 22228.01 Kg Weight Of Tank: Weight of Tank cover Gg = 7.85 Ag Th

Th Thickness of Tank cover (Dm) Ag Area of Tank cover (Dm ) 7.85 Specific weight of steel plate Gg = 7.85(0.16)(1027.675) = 1290.76 Weight Of Tank Bottom: Gd = 7.85 Ab Th

Ab Area of tank bottom Th Thickness of bottom Gd= 7.85 (1027.675)(0.1) = 806.7249 Weight of tank wall: Gw= 7.85 Iw Hw Th

Th thickness=0.1 dm Hw height = 29.8 dm Iw Girth = 133.34874 dm Gw = 3119.427 Kg

123

Weight of Rim: Gr = 7.85 Th 0.25dm Wr 1.35dm Gr = 353.2907 Kg Ir Wr Th

124

Chapter 5
PROBLEMS AND FAILURES IN POWER TRANSFORMERS

This chapter deals with the problems occurring in power transformers. We have included three types of problems. First all the procurement problems faced by Wapda. And then there are problems and failures arising in the magnetic circuit, windings, insulation and due to structural defects. And then finally we have problems during the actual operation of the power transformers.

5.1 PROCUREMENT PROBLEMS OF POWER TRANSFORMERS

Power Transformers are mostly supplied by foreign manufacturers but it is quite encouraging to note that now three Pakistani firms i.e. SIEMENS, HEC & PEL have also started manufacturing power transformers of different ratings including 132/11 KV 20/26 MVA transformers. Power transformers are normally procured through international competitive bidding (ICB). As the said transformers are very expensive therefore these are mostly procured against World Bank and ADB Loans. Presently procurement of power transformers is carried out by NTDC WAPDA and all Distribution Companies (DISCOs) independently. Procurement is very specialized job and this is the reason that various problems arise during the procurement process. Some of the main problems are listed below:

1. Tendering process comprises of preparation of tenders, floating of tenders in news papers, Tender opening, Tender Evaluation, Tender approval by the competent authority and finally award of purchase order/contract agreement. Due to delicate tendering process, some times tenders are not timely finalized causing delay in the

125 award of purchase order / contract agreement which ultimately delays the supply of transformers / material. 2. Due to preoccupation of important international manufacturer, some times tender participation by the bidders becomes very poor and healthy competition is not held. This leads to higher quoted prices and delays the procurement process. 3. It also happen that during the period from Tender opening date to tender finalization date prices of transformers constituents i.e. copper, transformer oil and steel etc increase abruptly and bidders show their inability to accept the PO/Contract at their quoted prices and demand escalation in quoted prices. This factor also delays the procurement process considerably. 4. Some times bidders do not quote their prices according to the requirement / clauses of tender documents due to which it becomes difficult for the procurement agencies to finalize the tender.

5. Some times offer submitted by the bidders is responsive both technically and commercially but offered delivery period is more than that of bidding document, which also creates lot of problems and causes delay in award of PO/Contract. 6. During sale period of tender documents, amendments to the bidding documents are issued late by the purchaser due to which bidders can not prepare their bids properly and participation response becomes poor. This does not bring the healthy competition. 7. Some times due to lack of funds with the purchaser, tenders for procurement for power transformers are scrapped and procurement process is delayed. 8. It also some times happens that purchaser changes the specifications during the tendering process and does not give sufficient time to bidders to prepare their bids according to revised specification. This causes less participation of bidders and ultimately higher prices are quoted by the bidders 9. Power transformers are very expensive and mostly procured against World Bank and ADB Loans. It has been often observed that due to late approval of donor banks procurement process gets delayed. 10. Although power transformers are procured through international tenders but still there are chances that the bidders mix up with each other and quote higher prices through pool system. In such cases it also becomes very difficult for purchaser to process the tenders.

126 11. Late opening of letter of credit (LC) by the purchaser also delays the procurement process. 12. There are lots of accessories which are to be supplied with power transformers but some time due to certain transportation problems, power transformers are delivered in store with fewer accessories which are detected through survey process. This also creates complications and hampers the procurement process.
13. Some times tenders are not process/finalized by the purchased during the validity of

the bid (120 days) and ultimately tenders are to be scrapped.

After explaining the procurement problems we move on the next section. Which are the problems and failures occurring inside the transformer.

5.2 PROBLEMS IN MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

1. Cases have occurred in core-type transformers of breakdown around the bolts inserted cores and yokes for the purpose of clamping the laminations. This type of fault has the effect of causing local short-circuits between the laminations which produce intense local eddy currents, if in addition two or more of the core bolts break down, heavy currents are liable to circulate in these bolts as they form a short-circuited turn through which flux passes. This failure is most serious when one of the core bolts situated at the ends of the limb breaks down together with an adjacent bolt in the yokes as the path between the two bolts carriers almost the full value of flux passing from the core to yoke, or vice versa. The path formed by the bolts and the outer clamping plates if of low impedance and the amount of heat generated by failures of this type is sometimes sufficient to distort the whole core. The heat generated may also char the coil insulation and cause a short circuit between turns of adjacent winding. It is now common practice to clamp the limb laminations of large power transformers with insulated bands. This method of construction eliminates limb bolt failures.

2. Unless special precautions are taken to lock effectively the core-clamping bolts and the bolts tying together the core structure, vibration will be setup which will

127 tend to weaken the core insulation and produce failures similar to those outlined above.

3. During manufacture the edges of the core and yoke laminations may have become burred, due to the continued use of worn tools. Unless proper supervision is given to the cutting and punching processes the resulting burrs will produce local short circuits in the iron laminations and eddy currents with consequent abnormal heating will occur.

4. It is important to note that no metallic fillings or small turnings are present between the laminations as these are also liable to produce intense local eddy currents and excessive local heating of the core in the finished transformer.

5. High flux-density in the magnetic circuit often results in larger magnetizing current in-rushes occurring when switching a transformer into circuit on no load. While this current in-rush generally dies down rapidly large electromagnetic forces are created while the heavy current lasts and the windings are there by strained. The phenomenon becomes more severe the nearer the transformer is located to the generating source, in repeated switching-in may ultimately cause movement of the windings. The effects of switching-in are dealt with more fully in the sections on switching and transient phenomena.

6. If the voltage applied to the transformer must be increased appreciably on account of the needs of the system load, the frequency must also be increased in order to avoid high magnetic saturation of the core. An increase of voltage must not be accompanied by a decrease of frequency, as if it is, core saturation may occur with resultant increase iron loss and abnormal core heating. The inter dependence of voltage, frequency and flux will easily be seen from the following formula. B m =(E 10 6 )/( 4 K f A f N) Where B m =maximum flux density in the core in teslas; E =applied voltage of the winding considered;

128
K f =form factor the e.m.f wave;

A N F

=cross-sectional area of core in mm(square); = number of turns in the winding considered; = frequency, Hz;

7. In older transformers ageing of the core plates may be found to have taken place. This is due to a deterioration of the material of the laminations and results in an increase iron loss and rise in temperature of the transformer. This may eventually lead to a partial or complete destruction of the coil insulation and to sludging of oil.

5.3 PROBLEMS IN WINDING

1) A short circuit between adjacent turns of a coil-usually high-voltage winding- may be caused by the presence of sharp edges on the copper conductors. If the transformer vibrates when on load, or if the windings are subjected to repeated electromagnetic shocks through short-circuit or switching in, these sharp edges will cut through the insulation and allow adjacent turns to make metallic contact.

2) A short circuit between turns may result from dislodging of one or more turns of a coil caused by a heavy external short-circuit across the windings. Breakdown may not occur immediately the turns are displaced, but should the transformer vibrate while on load due to looseness of core bolts, or should it receive heavy electromagnetic shocks, abrasion of the insulation between adjacent dislodged turns may produce a breakdown.

3) Transformers on large systems are now usually fitted with adjustable coil clamping for the purpose of taking up shrinkage of the insulation which may occur under service. Unless this adjustment of coil supports is performed very carefully by an experienced workman, so that the correct pressure is applied to the

129 windings, some of the conductors may become dislodged, and a short-circuit between turns may occur as stated above.

4) Short-circuits between turns are almost bound to occur sooner or later should the moisture penetrate the insulation of the coils. Breakdown from this cause is rendered more imminent still if the coils have been insufficiently impregnated.

5) Drying out a transformer on site may be undertaken by an engineer not fully conversant with the operation, and due to inexperience the process may be unduly shortened. If normal voltage or a test voltage is applied while the insulation resistance of the windings is still low, the insulation between adjacent turns is liable to fail due to the presence of moisture vapour.

6) If a transformer is subjected to more or less rapidly fluctuating loads, the expansion and contraction of the winding conductors alternately increases and decreases the mechanical pressure on the insulation between turns. As the dielectric strength of most insulation decreases with increasing mechanical pressure, the windings become more susceptible to failure should they be subjected to electrical or magnetic shocks.

7) Badly made joints between coils may overheat on load, and local carbonization of the coil may occur. The heat generated at the joint will probably be transmitted to a length of the conductor of each coil, and this may partially carbonize the insulation round the conductors and eventually result in a short-circuit between turns.

8) Short-circuits between turns, breakdown of windings to earth, and puncture of insulators may take place due to the following transient phenomena:

a. Concentration of voltage on the terminal end coils when switching in or when lightning surges reach the transformer. Owing to the change of surge impedance at the transition point between transformer and line, the phenomenon of reflected and transmitted voltage and current wave occurs, which may produce high voltage rises in the transformer windings.

130

b. The excessive voltages set up by surges may be accentuated at open-ended tappings, at any point of surge impedance in windings, for instance, at the termination of conductor reinforcement where employed, at the space between series coils, and at the neutral or mid-point. Care should be taken to insulate the conductors in these regions very thoroughly, in order to eliminate so far as possible the short circuits between turns.

c. When switching out of circuit an inductive winding, such as a transformer primary with the secondary open-circuited, the magnetizing current and consequently the magnetic flux, tends to collapse instantaneously. While for various reasons the flux does not do this, it does sometimes drop at a much more rapid rate than that corresponding to the normal cyclic rate of change, and as a result high voltage rises are sometimes produced. The rapid cooling of the interrupting arc, particularly during the last half-cycle has been found to augment this effect.

9) Sustained heavy overloads produce high temperatures throughout the transformer. The coil insulation becomes brittle, and in time probably flakes off the conductor in places, so producing the short-circuits between turns.

5.4 PROBLEMS IN THE INSULATION

1. Moisture entering the oil as a result of breathing action greatly reduces its dielectric strength, so that breakdowns from coils or terminal leads to tank or core structure may take place. The greatest danger, however, is to the inter-turn insulation of the coils, as referred to previously.

2. Deterioration of the oil may occur as a result of prolonged overloading of the transformer. Excessive accelerates the formation of sludge, water and acids.

131 3. Dielectrics having different specific permittivities are often used in series, and unless there thicknesses are correctly proportioned they may be subjected to abnormally high dielectric stresses. For instance the insulation between high voltage and low voltage transformer windings usually consists of paper, solid insulation and oil. Except in very high voltage transformers, the effect of the paper covering can be ignored, so that we only have to consider solid insulation with a permittivity of 5, and oil with a permittivity of 2. The total voltage across two such dielectrics in series divides up so that the voltages across equal thicknesses of each are inversely proportional to the permittivitys and unless the respective thicknesses are proportional so that the voltage gradient across each is within the safe working limit, first one and then the other dielectric will fail, due to corona discharge and overheating.

4. Corona may take place from sharp conducting edges or small diameter conductors if the surface voltage gradient is high.

5. Earth shields placed between primary and secondary winding have been responsible for numerous breakdowns. Their presence produces a concentration of dielectric stress at their edges which tends to stress insulation locally, while a breakdown at one point from the high voltage windings to the shield has often resulted in almost completely destroying the high voltage winding on the limb concerned.

6. Narrow oil ducts reduce the serviceable life of a transformer. Adequate cooling cannot be obtained, the oil insulation becomes brittle in time, and a fault between turns follows.

7. Careless workmanship may result in metallic material on the coils and on surfaces which are depended upon for creepage clearances. The possible effect of these will be obvious.

8. During the course of time the oil level may fall. Unless the oil is topped up to the correct working level, the transformer will overheat due to restriction of oil

132 circulation. This applies particularly to transformers having tubular tanks, should the oil flow the top of cooling tubes.

9. Short-circuits between phases may occur if there is insufficient clearance between the phases. This may sometimes be aggravated by the insertion of pressboard barrier between phases if the presence of the barrier upsets the distribution of dielectric stress to such an extent as to put too high a stress across the oil spaces and across the barrier.

5.5 PROBLEMS DUE TO VARIOUS STRUCTURAL DEFECTS AND TO OTHER CAUSES

1. Transformer tanks sometimes give trouble on account of bad and porous welding and leaky fittings, all of which may lead to oil leakage and consequent overheating and breakdown of the transformer if not attended to immediately. Rough handling in transit is also responsible for a large proportion of the leaky tank troubles.

2. If a transformer fitted witch a protective gas relay is not filled with oil to the correct level, maloperation of the relay will result. In the event of fault inside the transformer tank this lack of protection might result in a major breakdown of the transformer.

3. Deposits of ordinary dust, coal dust and salt spray on the surfaces of bushing insulators often cause flashover to take place. The remedy is obvious.

4. Transformers operating in parallel should preferably possess the same turns ratio, the same percentage impedances, and the same ratios of resistance to reactance voltage drops. If any on these factors are different one transformer may be overloaded and may be damaged.

5. When housing transformers care must be taken to provide sufficient space around them to enable the tank to dissipate the losses. If a transformer is

133 placed to near to another unit or to the walls of a chamber the tank will become lagged and the temperature of the transformer will increase, so endangering the coil insulation and the condition of oil. It is essential to provide adequate ventilation for all transformers.

6. Puncture of high-voltage capacitor bushings has occurred owing to a deterioration of the paper insulation consequent upon the allowance of too high a dielectric stress per step.

Now we explain how the different protective devices trip owing to these problems. This piece of information has been gathered by the S.E (Kot Lakhpat Grid Station, Lahore).

1. Differential trip: When a fault occurs in differential zone i.e. between C.T. on HV side and C.T. on LV side differential relay will operate and differential zone will be isolated on tripping of HV and LV side breakers. Equipment included in differential zone is transformer, lightning arrestor. Fault may be inside/outside the transformer.

2. Main Buchholz Trip: When a fault occurs inside the transformer (main body) due to insulation failure of winding/sparking, ionization of oil produce gases. These gases escape towards Buchholz relay and conservator and close the buchholz relay contacts for tripping. 3. Tap Changer Buchholz Trip: When there is some fault in tap-changer (diverter-unit) compartment, Tapchanger buchholz trips. Cause may be the low dielectric strength of oil, loose connections, reduced value of resistors etc. 4. Oil Temperature Trip: When oil temperature exceeds preset value of temperature gauge, trip signal is passed to the related breaker and tripping occurs. 5. Winding Temperature Trip:

134 When the winding temperature exceeds pre-set value on temperature gauge due to overloading etc.

6. Overload Trip: Tripping occurs on transformer due to over-loading (over-loading value is set on C.T. ratio) 7. Pressure Relief Valve: When a gas pressure of certain value develops in the main body of transformer due to any fault i.e. short-circuit of winding, failure of major insulation or excessive oil filling. Pressure relief valve operates and gives tripping signal. 8. Alarms/Warnings: Main Buchholz Alarm: At low oil-level in main body of transformer, a first stage alarm warns about the problem. Oil Temperature/Winding Temperature Alarm: Normally oil and winding temperature is set on two stages, at first stage alarm operates and at second stage tripping occurs. Let at 100 o C alarm operates, at 105 o C tripping occurs. 9. R.E.F Relay (Restricted Earth Fault): When the fault is of low intensity and very close to the neutral, this relay operates to save the transformer.

135

5.5 PRICES OF POWER TRANSFORMERS

Here we have performed a little survey regarding the priced of power transformers. Both national and international manufacturers have been added.

STG NTDC PROCUREMENT OF POWER TRANSFORMERS (2006-2008) NAME OF FIRM CONTRACT NO. & DATE T/F RATING UNIT RATE QTY ON ORDE R(NOS. ) 1

1. M/s TBEA, Shenyang China

ABB-01-2006 13/06/2007 Lot-1: Lot-2:

Auto transformers 525/ 3 : 231 / 3 : 23 KV, 600MVA(3x200 MVA) Auto transformer bank 512/ 3 : 220 / 3 : 11 KV, 450MVA(3x150MVA) Auto transformer bank 500 & 220KV Auto-Transformers 500 / 3 : 220 / 3 : 11 KV 237MVA 525/ 3 : 220 / 3 : 11 KV 600MVA

US$5,348,160

US$3,653,940

2. M/s Xian Electric Engg:Co. China

ADB-02-2007 13/07/2007 Lot-1

US$ 946,000

Bank

Lot-2

US$ 1,684,000

Bank

Lot-3

500/ 3 : 220 / 3 : 22 KV 450MVA

US$ 1,320,000

Bank

3. China National Electric Wire & Cable

ADB-02-2007 Lot-4: Dated:17/07/2007

220:132:11KV,138MVA

US$ 1,684,000

Bank

4. M/s Jiangsu China

ADB-02-2007 13-07-2007

220KV Auto-Transformers

136

Lot-2 & Lot-3

220:132:11KV,160MVA

US$ 1,203,600

14 Nos

Lot-4 5. M/s Jiangsu Hoping China Tender WOR-18 dt: 11/11/2006 Lot-4 6. M/s Iran Transfo IRAN STG-6-21 Lot-2 dt: 11/09/2006

220:132:11KV,250MVA 3-Phase Auto Transformers Complete with all accessories. 220/132KV, 125/160MVA Power Transformers with extended creepage bushings. 132/11.5 KV,20/26 MVA

1,890,000

05 Nos

US$ 1,120,859

04 Nos

US$ 3,75,000

19 Nos

7. M/s Iran Transfo IRAN

STG-6-21 Lot-2 dt:11-09-2006

Power Transformers with extended creepage bushings.

132/11.5 KV,20/26 MVA 8. M/s Siemens Pakistan STG-6-21 Lot-3 & 4 dt:14/12/2006 Power Transformers with extended creepage bushings. 132/11.5 KV,20/26 MVA 9. M/s Siemens and M/s HEC STG-6-21 Dt:25/11/2006 Power Transformers with extended creepage bushings. 132/11.5 KV,20/26 MVA

US$ 3,69,713

25 Nos

Rs.29.8 Million

19 Nos

Rs.22.0 Million

05 Nos 06 Nos

137

LESCO PROCUREMENT STATUS OF POWER TRANSFORMERS (2006-2008) Sr Name of firm Contract/PO no. T/F Rating Unit Rate Qty no & Date on order (Nos) Contract dated 01- 20/26 MVA US$ 318,912/- 10 1 M/s Iran 06-2006 132/11.5 KV Transformer IRAN Contract dated 14- 20/26 MVA Rs.24,000,000/- 5 2 M/s HEC Hattar 06-2006 132/11.5 KV PO#2343 dated 20/26 MVA Rs.29,800,000/- 10 3 M/s HEC Hattar 09-01-2007 132/11.5 KV PO#2552 dated 20/26 MVA Rs.29,468,000/- 3 4 M/s PEL 31-10-2007 132/11.5 KV LAHORE Under Award 20/26 MVA Rs.29,800,000/- 7 5 M/s Siemens 132/11.5 KV Karachi PO#2637 dated 31.5/40MVA Rs.38,475,000/- 2 6 M/s PEL 21-04-2008 132/11.5 KV LAHORE

138

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Power Transformers are one of the most important components of the power system which play a very important role in facilitating transfer of power to end users. The failure rate of power transformers has been comparatively very high in some parts of the world, causing not only immense loss by way of avoidable expenditure on its replacement by the utilities but also resulting in inconvenience to the ultimate consumers and huge losses in production. The failure analysts quote a host of reasons behind the failure of power transformers, which cover all the aspects of deficiencies in design, manufacturing, material quality, abused operation, poor maintenance practices, non-substandard techniques and consumables adopted/used during manufacturing, shortcomings in testing and commissioning, inconsistency of the design parameters with the practical field environment, abnormal operating conditions, etc. While the manufacturers are blamed for supplying poor quality of transformers, the users are blamed for lack of maintenance and not providing proper protection and frequent overloading of the transformers etc. Some experts even point out towards the phenomenal decrease in the safety margins in design of power transformers due to fierce competition thereby increasing chances of failures during grid disturbance as well as voltage & frequency fluctuations during normal working. The funds sometimes becoming scarce, the replacement of large number on

failed/burnt transformers is posing a serious problem thus compounding the gravity of the situation. Unless this situation is properly and urgently tackled, it is felt that the continuity of power supply to large sections of consumers would be threatened for comparatively longer periods and more frequently, may lead to disastrous consequences. There may be multiple other factors, dictated by present day realities, due to which the transformer failure rate continues to be very high particularly in developing countries. However, considering the very high stakes involved, all concerned viz. Designers, researchers, manufacturers, utility engineers etc. are required to come together for working out an acceptable course of action in correcting the situation.

139 Transformer is a global product. In present days market, reliability is the key word. The transformer being vital link, its reliability dictates the quality of the power supply. And the construction of the transformer is a very complicated process. From calculations on paper we make an actual transformer. The first role is played by the designer who calculates currents, voltages, losses, stresses. It is the designer who determines the type of windings to be used. The amount of oil being used. Then comes the role of construction where the engineers must make sure that each and every part is assembled correctly. Even a small bulge in windings can lead to the failure of transformer. After construction comes the role of testing engineers. He has to make sure that the transformer passes each and every test. After the intensive tests the transformer is ready for transportation.

Recommendations
Now we present some recommendations that may prevent the transformer from being damaged and ensures the reliability of the transformer.

Transformers should withstand the vibrations and shocks during transportation from factory to installation sites. The hydraulic road trailers for transporting large transformers should be used. Physical inspection of active part prior to installation may be an important step to ensure that there are no damages during transit.

During installation, utmost care is necessary to avoid moisture/dust entry inside transformer. Dry air or nitrogen shall be fed into transformers for this purpose.

Minimum duration for vacuuming period, hot oil circulation and settling time shall be given as per the recommendations of manufacturer.

During operations of the transformer, it needs to be ensured that the active part is in dry condition.

140 Leak proof transformers can be manufactured by taking care of the specifications / selection of sealing gaskets, design of joints, appropriate leak tests at factory site etc.

Moisture content in transformer insulation needs to be controlled in order to extend the life of transformers. Transformers are required to be adequately dried out at factory and proper precautions are taken at site during installation so as to ensure that moisture content in Transformer is below 0.5 % at the time of commissioning.

Life cycle cost involving procurement cost, operation & maintenance and refurbishment costs over the useful life of transformers may be considered during procurement of the transformers. Condition based maintenance is the best

technique for optimizing maintenance costs.

Capacitance and Tan-delta, moisture content monitoring and recovery voltage parameters are required to be regularly checked for prolonged life of the transformers.

Preventive maintenance and refurbishment of aged components along with replacement of old oil with new oil would enhance the life of transformer.

Copper sulphide in transformers/reactors is dangerous for performance. The oil should either be diluted by adding passivators or by replacing the same to minimize failure risk.

Site drying of transformers may be carried out by using dry pure Nitrogen by vacuuming and heating methods so that moisture is effectively eliminated.

During drying/repair, all windings must be equally compressed otherwise ampere turns unbalancing will increase failure risk.

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Careful handling and testing of bushings at site will ensure better performance. Capacitance and tan delta of bushings shall be regularly monitored for checking variation in order to ensure better maintenance, if any.

Proper Protection of transformers needs to be ensured particularly in outgoing feeders to minimize failure during repeated line tripping faults. Extensive insulation co-ordination and adequate protection with recommended settings based on system faults must be provided.

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References

Transformers (second edition) By Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited. The J and P Transformer Book. Transformer Design And Applications By William M. Flanagan. Modern Transformer Design Theory By D. C. Cox Principals Of Electronic Transformer Design By Alfred Still.

WEBSITES REFERENCES

http://www.tpub.com http://www.physlink.com http://www.butlerwinding.com/core-types/ http://www.bcae1.com/trnsfrmr.htm http://www.softbitonline.com