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110
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2005
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2005
5
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g N25877-J2?8: d J@5EyFP7
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d e K2F +5FM7 g A@EFP:BEH?7+F OK@F43*79J@58K<38; K@F43 g 367 dZ CGA<:< g 5:
g J2?2?@7-3$58:=K@F43 g 3EG?35E<C7+E-8LBA@E56iPEH36CxE+J@56E-835 g JK@F43 g 3
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GC 3N>?@3;"58:<;"35EH36:x8E+J23O:@A<NQL23C?BiB5=@7EH? CG3N>?@3E+J23CG36N>56FM:@FP:<pB@3OK2FM3 g 37
FM7yE+J23R795NQ3 d :@1M37*7yE+J23CG3FM7$?@:@1 =I?@:<3RK2FM3 g 3CG36N>56FM:@FP:<E+J23CG3R58CG3OE ? g J2?BF g 37
it?@CE+J23I:<3+EOK@F43 g 3"EG?L23ICG3N>?@3;5:<;U3656EG3:U4?@:<3Q?@:36FSE+J23CO3;<63>?BiE+J23>5K
it?@CHN>38;L=E+J23QK@F43 g 367 561MCG365;8=3656EG3: d R3: g 3@56iPEH36CpE+J23QCG36NQ?6B51?BiE+J23IqC7HE
K2FM3 g 3@ 3RJ@5_@3 4 5=@7EG?"CG36NQ?6@3R5:<;I3656EE+J23RCG36N>56FM:@FP:< K@F43 g 3678it?@C5EG?EG561
d2
?Bi
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d J23RK2F g EGA<CG3R79J2?8758:
CG3 g E58:<_1M3 g A@EFM:BEG? E+J@CG33
K2FM3 g 37L=E ?K<5C51D1431x7+1M58
:BEH3;1PFP:<37 d J23E+J@CG383K2FM3 g 37
51D1<J@5@3E+J237*58N>3O58CG365 d ?8fi458C58K258CE58CG3E+J23O7*1P58:BEG38;
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2
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8x d FP: g 3E+J23pE+J@CG383O58CG36587y58CG338BA<51 3
58:<;365 g J"J@575CG35 1
8(9 x) =
2 2?@C
d 36 4x
J@5@3
36
4x
=
8x
x
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3
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dQ J23Q;@FP7+E58: g 3QL<3_E 3836:E+J23IE ?
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2
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10
d
28E+JBA<7_E+J23 ;@FP7+E58: g 3RFP7
8x = 8 3 = 24
2.4
d FM:<; 5pKq?@7+FDEGF @3$FP:BEH363C

7-?OE+J@56EZE+J236CG3p58CG3p3*5 g EG1S=
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N
25
x
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d FMNFP1P58C1S=pE+J23$CF46JE
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i4C5 g EGFM?@:27qE+JBFP7pFM:<3@A<561PFSE=L<3 g ?@N>N/5
37
d 3 NI5=EHC="B51DAq37p?Bi
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3Q63E
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58:<;
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FP:BEH363N
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N/2
=
40
25
x
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d x 40
it?@CE+JBFM7K2CG?2L@1M3NFP7
N
N = 80
d e N=x 58CE-5:<;U58CG?B156EG3I7-?@N>3 g 58CGCG?EO7HEGF g 87 d e N=5EH3>J@561PiE+J23I:@A<NQL23C
E+J@56E 58CE$56EG3@K@1PA<7O?@:<38GE+JBFMCG;>E+J23":@A<N>L<36CE+J@5Ep58CG?B1Z56EG3@K@1PA<7O?@:<3 d 5CE$5EH3

J@51DiE+J23:@A<N>L<36CZE+J@5E58CG?B156EG3@6K21DA<7?@:<3HE+JBFPCG;E+J23:@A<N>L<36CxE+J@56E e N=R56EG3@K@1PA<7
E ? d x5CG?B1B5EH3J@51DiE+J23:@A<N>L<36CxE+J@56E e N=R56EG3@K@1PA<7?@:<38GE+JBFMCG;OE+J23:@A<N>L<36CZE+J@5E
58CEy56EG3@@K@1PA<7yE+J@CG383 d R?8 NI58:= g 5CHCG?Ey7HEGF g 87$;@FM;"E+J23-=>3656E51SEH?263_E+J23CH

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3E $5:<;
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58:<;58CG?B1a
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38BA<56EGFM?@:27
1
b+
2
1
c+
2
1
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a =
b
1
c+1
3
1
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3
d
1
b+3
3
J23: 3 g 143658CE+J23Ri4C5 g EGF4?@:27_8 363EE+J2338BA2FSB561436:BE7=@7+EG3N
6a = 3b + 2c + 6
6b = 3c + 2a + 12
d
6c = 3a + 2b + 18
A<N>NFM:<561P1ZE+J@CG33>38BA<56EGFM?@:27p=BF4314;@7
?@C
6(a + b + c) = 5(a + b + c) + 36
d
a + b + c = 36
de N>?EH?@CF*3; g ?B1DA<N>:IFP7$5;8B58: g FP:< ?6@3Cq5E g ?BA<:BEHC=I56EE+J23C56EG3?Bi
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CG3EGA<CG:27yFMNINQ3;@FP56EG361 =56EE+J237*58N>3O7*Kq338;58:<;"JBFM7EG?EG561BEGFMN>3pFM7 NFM:@A@EG37 d R?8
3
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L23OE+J23;@FP7+E58: g 3FP:>8N E+J@5EE+J23 g ?B1DA<N>:EHC5@31M7
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v
t1 =
d1
15
1 + d1 d
v
d 7*FP:<OE+JBFP7FP:E+J23
?B1SBFM:<pE+J23CGFM6JE3@A<5EGF4?@:it?@C
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d %d361<:@=FM:<15/(v
143iPE38BA<56EGFM?@: _F @37A<7
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1/(v 15)
it?@CE+J23OEHCGFPKIi4CG?@N E+J23i4tCG1?@:B=E?B
iqE+J23 g ?B1PA<NI:"EH?E+J23RtCG235C-8 d32 63E
t2 =
JBF g J =@FM361M;27
t2 = 1/(v + 15)
t1 + t 2 =
d2
15
d 36: g 3B
1
v 15
: g 1M35CGFP:<pE+J23Ri4C5 g EGF4?@:27_8 3J@5@3
1 d2
v
1
v + 15
3 d
60
60(v + 15) + 60(v 15) = 3(v 2 225)
'
JBF g JCG379?B1S@367yEG?
d
v 2 40v 225 = 0
B
d
J A<7_
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45
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x + x3 + x9 + x27 + x81 + x243
d
MF 7$;BFSBF4;238;>L= 2
x 1
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3 ?2L@7-36C@3IE+J@5E 2k+1
2
2k1
2k1 Z JBF g JEH31P1P7RA<7RE+J@5EOE+J23
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7 ;B(x
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1
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258:<;E+J@5ECG3NI5FP:<;<36C
1 CG36N>56FM:<;23C?Bi J23:
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x
d
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8 JBF g J"FMNIK21DF4367yE+J@56EE+J23RCG3NI5FP:<;<36CFM7
x 1
6x
d
O
% 3_EH36CHNFM:<3QE+J23K<3CFMN>3EG3C ?Bi$5CGFM6JEREHCGFP58:<_1M3>RFDE+JvJ8=@Kq?EG3:@A<793
5:<;
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d
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A
!"#%$'&(*),+-+'.'//0\d
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a
b58:<;
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H 2 = a2 + b 2
d
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2
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d J236:
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58:<; n 1
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7$3-@+3:xa
k
a
0
5
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58:<;
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3
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k
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d
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3 B58:<;"E+J23RCG3NI5FP:<;<36C 379383FM7
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g ?@:BEG37HEG758:<;7-?B1DA@EGF4?@:27 d

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5
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600
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10 10
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8
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DA AB + BC CD d
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s(c)
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p
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2
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CA = 6
dZe E35 g J@3CEH3+?Biq5RKq36:BEG586?@:"E+J236CG3FP75RCG3561<:@A<NQL23C d :I365 g J"7+F4;2358:<;?@:

35 g J;@FP56?@:25616E+J23p7+A<N ?Bi@E+J23p:@A<N>L<36C7y56EZE+J23O3:<;2*K<?BFM:BE7FM7CGFSEEH36: d i@E+J2367-3
EH36:":@A<N>L<36C756E1M357+E7-3-@36:58CG3pFP:BEH363C7 d 0<CG?@3E+J@5E35 g J?Bi@E+J23EH36::@A<NQL23C7
FM75:IFP:BEH363C d
dy J23;@F @FP7-?@C7?Bi
d 4E
5CG3
B J236CG3
58:<;
n
d1 <
d8 = n
d dFP:<2 I
y
MF 7$8:<?8:E+J@5E
; <561P1qK<?@<
797+F4dLB8143pB561PAq367$d?B1i =d 1
20 d6 25
<.% 1= #"%!)
6} |
if
de K<?@7*FSEGFS@3FM:BEG38636C
FP7 ) '0 !# FPiqE+J23CG35CG3RFM:BEG38636C7
4:<?E
a 1 a2 . . . a n
d FP:<;
p
:<3 g 37*795CGFD1S=Q;BFM7HEGFM: g E7+A ng JE+J@56E
a1 + a 2 + + a n = a 1 a2 a n = n
51D1 g J@58CGNIFP:<FP:BEH363C7 d
@
d 3E
a b
@58:<;
M50<CG?@3OE+J@5E
L<3RKq?@7+FDEGF @3RCG3561q:@A<NQL23C7 d
s
a2 + b 2
2
+ 1
a
tL87FDEEHCAq3561S5_=27yE+J@5E
s
a2 + b 2 + c 2
+ 1
2
+
1
1
+ +
a
b
c
a+b
d
ab
a+b+c
3
3
abc
d> GC FP58:<_1M3
FM7R5 g A@EG3>58:<_1M38;
58:<;
d"ABC
J23>?@CE+J2? g 36:BEHCG3I58:<;E+J2BAC
RFDE+J
3 g FPC g A<N =g 360
:BEHCG3>AB
?Bi = c 5CG3 AC
58:<; = b
bg > c d
ABC
M
CG37*Kq3 EGSF @31S=
J23O1DFM:<3
FP:BEH36C7-3 g EG7
58:<;
5E
58:<;
CG37*Kq3 g EGFS@31SO= d
OM
AB
M50<CG?@3OE+J@5EE+J23Kq36CGFPNQ3_EH36C?BiqEHCFM5:<_143
tL80<CG?@3OE+J@5E
OM = b c
CA
AXY
FM7
b+c
J23:<3*6EOCG?BA<K?BiK2CG?2L@1M3NI7Oit?@C=@?BA<CK2A H1DFM:<K21M357*A<CG35CG3E+J2?@7-3A<7-3;
EH?I79361M3 g EE+J23":<;@FP58: 35NEH?"E+J23G dy J@5:<7585FP:6?"EG? 31PF 3 g FM?
x5:25;BFM5: 35N358;<36CEG?E+J23G FP:3*F g ?Bit?@C g ?B1D143 g EGFM:<E+J23Nit?@CA<7 d
- "
&
"#%$ " " " $ $

OR
d 3E @5:<;
d 3_E
L23E+J@CG33K<?BFM:BE7$?@:I5R1DFM:<3pRFSE+J
L23E 33:
58:<;
C
A
5:<; B L<3$7-C36NIF g FMC g 1M37_561P1B?@:E+J23$795NQ3$7*FM;<3?BB
i
5:<;ORAFSE+J
1 2
58:<;
57;B3FM5NQ3_EH36C7CG3679K<3 g EGF @361 = d 3_E L<3"E+J231PFP:<AC
3IKq36CHK<3:<;BF g A21PAC
58C$EH? AB
d 3_E
E+J@CG?BAqBC
6J
L23 E+J23 g FMC g 1M3 JBF g JQFP7El58:<636:BEEH?IE+J231DFM:<3 <EG5:<63:BEEH? AC
B
l
FM:BEG3CG:251D1S=5:<;IEG5:<63:BEEG?
3*6EH36CH:2561P1 = d 3E
L<3E+J23K<?BFM:BE$
?Bi g ?@:BEG5 g E?Bi 1
D
3
d J23;@FP58N>3EG3Cy?Bi E+J@CG?BAq6J
d J2?8E+J@5E
d
58:<;
N>383_EG7 FP:
3
AB = DE
d$ J2?8'E+J@56EE+J23CG3FM7$5793E?Bi
g ?@:27-3 g A@EGFS@3 K<?@7*FSEGFS@3RFM:BEG38636C7 g ?@:BE5FP:@FM:<
3*5 g EG1S=
K<CFMN>37 d ?BA NI5=A<2002
7-3E+J23i45 g ExE+J@5ExE+J23CG3$58CG3
K<CFMN>371436797ZE+J@58:
168
d 150
1000
d 3E
d ?8NI58:="BA<5;@C56EGF g 7y5CG3E+J236CG3?Bi2E+J23
X = {2m 3n | 0 m n 9}
ti ?@CHN
D
F
+
E
I
J

3
@
<
A
6
5
x
1
G
C
2
?

?
E
7@5:<;>7+A g J"E+J@5E 25:<;
5CG3 ;@FP7+EGFP: g E
2
a b
c
361M3N>3ax
:BE7?B+i 2bx
+c
X
d 3E
d
L<3"58:5 g A@EG3EHCFM5:<_143RFSE+J?@CE+J2? g 36:BEHCG3
58:<; g FMC g A<N g 36:BEHCG3
H
J2?8E+J@ABC
5EE+J23CG3R5CG3RKq?BFP:BEG7
B58:<;
?@:
B58:<;
BCG37*Kq3 g EGFS@3O
1S=
D58CGE
AB
7*A g JE+J@56E
@5:<;
3 g ?@: g A<FCGCG3:BEyBC
58:<; CA
AD BE
CF
DO + DH = EO + EH = F O + F H

d 3E <5:<;
d
L23 Kq?@7+FDEGF @3 CG3651:@A<NQL23C77*A g J"E+J@56E 2
c
a + b2 + c2 = 3abc
0<CG?@3OE+a
J@56E b
a
b
c
9
d
b2 c2
c 2 a2
a2 b 2
a+b+c
d %3EG3CGNIFP:<3E+J23R:@A<NQL23C?Bi GEGA<K21M37$?BiFM:BEG38636C7
7+A g J"E+J@5E
it?@C365 g J
5n:<;
it?@(x
C 1 , x2 , . . . , xn )d
|xi | 10
1in
|xi xj | 10
1i jn
d F @3:E ?;BFM7HEGFM: g E g PF C g 14367EG?BA g JBFM:<Q35 g Jv?E+J236CFM:BEG3CG:251D1S=7-J2?8J2?8EG?

g ?@:27HEHCGA g E5OEHCFM5:<_143RFSE+J +E J23OFM:2:<36C g FPC g 14357yFSEG7yFP: g FMC g 1M358:<; E+J23R?BA@EH36C g FPC g 14357
FDE7$:@FP:<38+Kq?BFP:BE g FMC g 1M3 d
d 3E
(n) =
E+J237+A<N?Bi<E+J23Kq?@7+FDEGF @3;BFSBFM79?@C7$?Bix58:FP:BEH363C
n>0
d|n
M5 J2?8E+J@5E
(mn)
= (m)(n)
d
gcd(m, n) = 1
tL8 FP:<;I561P1qK<?@7*FSEGFS@3FP:BEH363C7
it?@CK<?@7*FSEGFS@3FM:BEG38636C7
7*A g JE+J@5E
(n)
FP75 K<?8 3Cy?Bi
m
2
58:<;
RFDE+J
d :35 g JU;25_=?BiE+J236FPCpEG?BA<CR?BiE+J23 37HE :<;BF4367 ?BA<C5U5:<;
CGFP:256E+JUJ@5_@3
36FSE+J23C$58:58K2K21M3?@C$58:?@C58:<63it?@CL@CG3588i457+E d ?BA<C5_J@57?@C58:<6367pit?@CE+J23qC7HE
;@5=@75K<K@14367it?@CxE+J23$:<3*6E
;25_=27_6it?B1P1M?8 38;RL= ?@C5:<637it?@CE+J23:<3+E
;25_=27_
m
58:<;R79??@: d CGFP:256E+JRJ@587?@C5:<6m
37it?@CqE+J23<C7+E ;25_=27_658K2K21M37it?@CqE+J23:<3*6E m ;25_=27_
n
it?B1P1M?8 38;IL=>?@C5:<637it?@CE+J23:<3+E
;25_=27_@58n
:<;7-??@: d
n
ti
58:<;E+J23REG?BA<Cy1P587HEH3;Iit?@C
;@5=@7<?@:QJ2?8 NI58:=Q;@5=@7
gcd(m,
=31FM:<;>?Biqi4CGA2FSE+
mn
;@FM;"E+J23-=>
3656EE+J23Rn)
795NQ
d 3E
L<3E+J23793E?Biq561P1<?@CG;23CG3; HE CGFPK21M37
?Biq:<?@:<+:<385EGFS@3OFP:BEH363C7 d
%3EG3CGNIFP:<T3561P1BiMA<: g EGFM?@:27
7+A g JE+J@56(p,
EFDi q, r)
E+J236:
f :T
pqr = 0
f (p, q, r) = 0
58:<;FDi
BE+J236:
pqr 6= 0
f (p, q, r)
= 1+
1
6
f (p + 1, q 1, r) + f (p 1, q + 1, r)
+ f (p 1, q, r + 1) + f (p + 1, q, r 1)
d
+ f (p, q + 1, r 1) + f (p, q 1, r + 1)
d 3_E
O
L23p5EHCFM5:<_143p5:<; 1M3E
L<3p5:"3+EG3CF4?@CKq?BFP:BEFP:E+J23pK@1M5:<3O?Bi@E+J23
58:<;
NQ33PExE+J23OMKq?@7*7*FML@1 =3+EG3:<;238;8x7*FM;<367
EHCGFP58:<_1M3 d ABC
3_E
CA
58:<;
FP: AP
BP
5:<;
CGCP
37*Kq3 g EGFS@31S= d tiE+J23I58CG36587?BiE+J23EHCFM5:<_14BC
367
AB
BD
B5:<; D E 58CG3R561P1F3@A<561BK<CG?6@3E+J@5EE+J236FPC g ?@NINQ?@:58CG365FP7$3@A<561<PEG?
E+J23
P
CE
P
AF
d
58CG365?BiqE+J23OEHCGFP58:<_1M3
#S A
ABC
d 3E 5:<;
dZe 7-3_E
L<3pFP:BEH363C7RFSE+J

?Bi<:<?@:<*:<356EGF @3
{x y z}
d J2?8'E+J@5E
580:<<
;FPai y?B
ixK<x}
56FMCR
3 ;BFMb}
7?BFM:BE?B1 =2NIK2F g
7-3_EG7 d
8
d 3E
M5
tL8
ABC
58:<;
P QR
L<3E ? EHCGFP58:<_1M377+A g JE+J@56E
FM7yE+J23RNIFM;<+Kq?BFP:BE?Bi
QR
LBFM793 g E7
0<CG?@3OE+J@56E
BC
5:<;
BAC
58:<;
BC
FP7yE+J23NF4;2*K<?BFM:BE?Bi
LBFM793 g E7
AB + AC = P Q + P R
QP R
QR
B58:<;
d 3E L2358:>?2;<;IK2CGFPNQ35:<;I1M3E
L2358:FM:BEG38636C:<?E;@F @FP7*FML@1M3L= d J2?8
p
E+J@56EE+J236CGp35CG3 2
EHCFMK@14367?BiFP:BEH3a63C7
RFSE+J

5:<;
p
+
1
(x,
y,
z)
0
x
y
z
<
p
d
7*A g JE+J@56E
2
d 3E
(x + y + z) axyz (mod p)
x1 x2 . . . x n
L23CG3651q:@A<NQL23C7 d 0<CG?@3OE+J@56E
d
x1
x2
xn
+
+ +
<
n
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 + x1
1 + x1 + x2
1 + x1 + x2 + + x n
d 7E+J236CG3p5p7-3_E?Bi@Kq?@7+FDEGF @3$FM:BEG38636C7
6RFSE+J
;BFM25000}
{a1 , a2 , . . . , a100
25CG:3a56i1P1
7HEGFM: g E+
E+J23K<CG?@K<3CE="E+J@5EE+J237+A<N>7
ai + aj 1 i < j 100
d 3_E
L<35K<?@7*FSEGFS@3OFP:BEH363C9@5:<;"143_E
J23CG3
n
(1K<+
fR
(TFDE+)J"+CG3ig(T
MF 7yE+J2379@A<n5CG3CG?2?E?Bi
B58:<;
58:<;
5CG3
?B1S=@iT
:<?@)NIFP=
51P7
561 g ?2)3 g F436:BEG7 id
J2?8E+J@56Eit?@C$5:=CG361
51:@A<N>L<36fC
E+J2g338BA<56EGFM?@:
J@57?@:@1S=
k
f (T ) + kg(T ) = 0
CG3561CG?2?E7 d
d x?@:27*FM;<36CZE+J23p7-BA<58CG3OCF4;RFSE+J
58:<;
5EFDE7y;BFM586?@:251
n)E+J23OCF46JE?@C?@:<3
3 :<;@7 d 0B56E+J@7i4CG?@N
EG?
5CG3 g ?@N>K<?@A7-3=
;"?B(0,
i<N>0)
?@367?@C
:<3p=
A<:@(n,
FSEEG?R
AE+J23OC
A<:@FDEA<K d 3_E
L<3p
:@A<NQL23C?BiqK256E+J@7i4CG?@N
EG?
JBF g J7+E5="?@:?@CL<314?8
C
AL<36C C
n
d J2?8E+J@5EE+J23Q:@A<NQL23C
E+J23;@FP56?@:2561
FP7E+J23 x5EG561M5: A<N>

?BiK256E+J@7i4CG?@N ACEH? Cn JBF g J g nCG?@797
i4CG?@NL<314?85E$N>?@7+EyERF g 3FM7p38BA<51EG?
A
Cd
AC
Cn+2 2Cn+1 + Cn
d 3_E
L<3R5:5 g A@EG3OEHCGFP58:<_1M3 d 3E
B5:<;
L<3OFM79?@7 g 361M37
SRP T P Q
EHCGFP58:<_1M37P3*6QR
EH36CGFM?@CxEH?
RFSE+J
58:<; U QR
7+A g J
P QR
SP = SR T P
U Q = U R d 3_E
E+J@56E
5=
:<; T Q
Q = 2P
P
5SR
:<; =
L22QP
3E+J23OKqR
?BFP:BQT
EG7?Bi2P
FP:BEH=
36C7-2RQP
3 g EGF4?@:"?Bi
58RU
:<;
58:<; RQ 5:<;
S 0 T50:<;
U@0CG3679K<3 g EGF @361 = d %3_EH36CHNFM:<3E+J23pB51DAqSQ
T
U
T
R
US
3 ?Bi
UP
ST
SQ
SS 0
d 3E
a b
@5:<;
a
b
TR
TT0
UP d
UU0
L23K<?@7*FSEGFS@3RCG3651q:@A<NQL23C7 d 0<CG?6@3E+J@5E
b
c
c
a
d FS@36:5K<CFMN>3 7-J2?8
;<3 g FMI
N 51qCG3K2CG3793:BE56EGFMp?@:Q?Bi
c+a
c+b
a+b
a+c
b+c d
b+a
E+J@56EE+J236CG3"FP7O5Kq?@7+FDEGF @3FM:BEG38636C
7+A g J>E+J@56EE+J23
n*36CG?@7 d
g
g
g
@
J
8
5
7
5
@
L
M
1
?
"
B
?
i
@
?
2
:
9
7
3
@
A
G
E
F
@
3
n
2002
8
J23p:<3+E7-3_E?Bi2K2CG?2L@1M3NI758CG3i4CG?@N +E J23 A<C7 g J58 x?@N>K<3EGFSEGF4?@:x51P7-?

g ?B1D143 g EH3;it?@CA<7L= 31PF 3 g F4?58:258;@FP58: 35N 365;23CZEH?E+J23RG FM:I3*F g ? d

O
$ +* "# "# $
d J23 g FMC g 1M3

5:<;E+J23 g FPC g A<N g FPC g 143R?Bi<E+J23OEHCFM5:<_143
5CG3OEG?BA g JBFM:<3*6EH36C+
ABC
:251D1S= d J23 g FPC gk143
561M79? EG?BA g J237yE+J23C5=@7
58:<;
5EE+J23RKq?BFP:BEG7
5:<;
CG37*Kq3 g EGFS@31S= d 0<CG?k@3E+J@56E$E+J23NIFM;<+Kq?BFP:BEOAB

?BiE+J237-3AC
NQ36:BE
FP7pE+J23 Pg 3:BEHCG3IQ?Bi
d PQ
E+J23 3* g FPC g 143OEG?BA g JBFM:<pE+J237+F4;23
?BiqE+J23OEHCGFP58:<_1M3
BC
ABC
d FP:<;"E+J2379NI51D14367+EyK<?@7*FSEGFS@3FM:BEG38636C <;@F 36CG3:BEyi4CG?@N

RFDE+JE+J23K<CG?@K<
3 CE=E+J@5EpE+J236CG33+8FP7+E7R5QK<?B1S=@:<?@NIFP51 n RFSE+JFP:BEH363C g 2004
?23 g F436:BEG77+A g JE+J@5E
E+J233@A<5EGF4?@:
J@5875E1M35f7+E(x)
?@:<3FM:BEG38636C79?B1PA@EGFM?@: 58:<;E+J23O38BA<56EGFM?@:
f (x) = 2004
J@58756E1436587HE
;BFM7HEGFM: g EFM:BEG38636Cy7-?B1DA@EGF4?@:27 d
f (x) = n
2004

d ?@NQ3$CG3;RKq?BFP:BEG758:<;R7-?@N>3$L@1DAq3$Kq?BFP:BEG75CG3?@:OE+J23 g FMC g A<Nit3CG36: g 3?BiB5 g FPC g 143 d
J23Rit?B1D14?8RFP:<R?@K<3C5EGF4?@:27 g 58:>L23K<3Cit?@CHN>38;
M5 e <
: 3\ CG38;>K<?BFM:BE g 58:QL23FM:2793CEH3;>79?@NQ3\ J23CG358:<;E+J23 g ?B1M?BA<C7?Bi35 g J>?Bi
FDE7yE ?:<3F46J2L2?BA<C7 g J@58:<63;"EH?E+J23?@K<K<?@7*FSEH3 g ?B14?BA<C d
tL8tiE+J23CG3>58CG3>5EO1436587HEE+J@CG383>Kq?BFP:BEG7_5EO1M357+E?@:<3Q?Bi JBF g JFM7RCG38;E+J23:U5
CG38;>Kq?BFP:BE g 58:L23";<3143_EH3;Q58:<;E+J23 g ?B1M?BA<C7O?Bi35 g J?BiZFSEG7E ?>:<3F46J2L2?BA<C7
g J@58:<63;"EH? E+J23 ?@K<K<?@7*FSEH3 g ?B14?BA<C d
e
E E+J237HEG5CE-8E+J23CG35CG3 3+5 g EG1 =E
? K<?BFM:BE7?@:E+J23 g FPC g 143B2L<?E+JILB1PAq3 d 58:"E+J2367-3
E ? LB1PAq3Kq?BFP:BEG7L<3 g J@58:<63;FM:BEG? t+3 5 g EG1 =<E ?CG3; <
K ?BFM:BE7yL=5p7-3@Aq36: g 3O?BiBE+J23
E ?I?@K<3C5EGF4?@:279
3+E 3EGA<CG: EH??BA<C<1M3?Bip79?B1PA@EGFM?@:27"EH? K<CG?2LB1436N>7>_FS@36:FM:E+J23 v5=
:@A<NQL23C$?BixE+J23 ,0 #,+0\dO FMC7HEFM7579?B1PA@EGFM?@:IEG?>5"K2CG?2L@1M3Ni4CG?@NE+J23 <:251xCG?BA<:<;
?BiqE+J23 Z?@CG3658:v56E+J236N>5EGF g 51 1S=@N>K@FM58;I_FS@36:>5E
@8 B8 d
# N
d J2?8E+J@56Ey:<?K25FPC?BixK<?@7*FSEGFS@3OFM:BEG38636C7
w j e uj
u !
5:<;
795EGFM7+367
h ; 1 ! ,
x
y
3y 2 = x4 + x
+'. $'& '##
'
*) + # 0 + + + # . #,. 0 +
# 0 . + #
# + 0
& 0 +# / 0 + # " & + + * ),+
!"#
'# '0
3 J@5_@3
3E
3y 2 = x4 + x = x(x + 1)(x2 x + 1)
gcd(a, b)
L<3OE+J23 CG35EH367+E g ?@N>N>?@:>;@F @FP7-?@C?BiqE+J23RFP:BEH363C7
gcd(x, x + 1)
gcd(x2 x + 1, x)
gcd(x2 x + 1, x + 1)
5:<;
d J23:
= 1,
= gcd(x2 + 1, x) = 1,
= gcd (x + 1)2 3x, x + 1 = gcd(3x, x + 1)

2
J 3CG3E+J23 @36C=1M57+ECG35EH367+E g ?@NINQ?@:;BFSBFM79?@C$FP736FSE+J23C
?@C d JBFM7p14365;@7pEG?
1
3
E ? g 587937 d
#7
d
d
2
J2gcd(x
3E+J@CG383pi4
5 g xEG?@+
C71?@:xE+J2+31)
CF46=
JE17+F4;23?Bi 5CG3 g ?@K<CFMN>3pFM:"K25FPC726E+JBA<7_@?@:<3
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28E+JBA<7 + 2547 2003
f (2547 2004) = 2547f (2004) + 2547 2546
f (2547)
=($
=
=
58:<;>561M79?
2547f (2004) + 2546 2547 2547 2003

2004
25472 + 2546 2547 2547 2003
2004
1311705 d
334
d J236:
d 3_E
58:<;1M3E
C
f (x + y) = fit?@(x)
it?@C561P1
FDiZ5 :<;Q?@:@1S=FDfi :
C561P+
1 f (y) +58:<C;
x
y
f
(nx)
=
nf
(x)
+
C(n
1)
x
d
51D1
n
d 3E 5:<; L23OKq?@7+FDEGF @3pCG35612:@A<N>L<36C7y7*A g JRE+J@56E

1
1
1d
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c
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c
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3
3
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f f
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#

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+ # + 0 !"#
=936:27-36:x 7p:<38BA<51DFDE=x8 3 J@5_@3

a3 + b 3 + c 3
3
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3 g ?@: g 1PAq;23E+J@5E
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9
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an+1 + bn+1 + cn+1 an1 + bn1 + cn1
0 dy ?@C:<?@:<*:<356EGF @3RFP:BEH363C7
an+m + bn+m + cn+m
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3
3(an+m + bn+m + cn+m ) (an + bn + cn )(am + bm + cm )

X
=
(an+m + bn+m an bm am bn )

(an bn )(am bm ) 0
7*FP:<pE+JBFM7FM:<3@A<561PFSE=58:<;
a2 + b 2 + c 2
1
b
(a + b + c)( a1 +
(a + b + c)2
3
3
+ 1c )
3RFPN>N>38;BFM5EH31S=I?2LEG56FM:
n+1
d 3E
+b
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n1
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ABCD
= 3
3

a2 + b 2 + c 2
3
L235 g ?@:@3+"BA<5;@CGFD1M5EH36C51 d 0<CG?6@3E+J@5E
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1
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[ AU w "uf 5h u (
9
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f
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# '0
3 J@5_@3
[ABCD] = [ABC] + [CDA]

= 21 AB BC sin ABC +
1
CD
2
DA sin CDA
1
AB BC + 21 CD DA
2

1 1
(AB 2 + BC 2 ) + 21 (CD 2 + DA2 )
2 2
d
1
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4
BA<51DFDE=>J2?B1M;27FPix5:<;>?@:@1 =FDi
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FM7579@A<5CG3 d

d
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FP:27*FM;<ABC
3
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A d FM:<367 ABC
DRFSE+J
y58:<;M
FM:BEG3C793 g E
AB
5:<;
A
=
6
M
=
6
B
AP
CP
M
P
BC
AB
5E
58:<;
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5:<;
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D E
N FM:<;
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dy
d
3 u h ]f[ Nf 5 1 ( 1
j #10G ,
N P C = M BP
[AP C]/[ACDE]
+'. $'& "
0 . (' 0 + 0 ++ + # .
# + + *) +
!"# # 0
3E
B5:<;
AB
3
58:<;143_E a = BCBE+bJ23 =LBCA
FM793 g EG?@C?Bi c = d
ca = AD
A
J@5@3
A
2
2bc cos
ca =
ab
b+c
b+c
ac
BD =
b+c
3J@5_@3
2E+JBA<7_
CN
P
g 314367 d PR3=
FP7FP7-?@7 BM
: g 3R
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N
AM
d 3_=
58:<;
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L<3
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P
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N
xd
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5:<;
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AM
AN
it?B1P1M?87yE+J@5E
M P = N P = x sin
A
2
M
B
(b x)(c x)

A
x2 1 sin2
(b + c)x + bc
2
1 + cos A
(b + c)x + bc
2
(b + c)x2 2b(b + c)x + 2b2 c
?B1SBFM:<pE+JBFP73@A<5EGF4?@: 3?2LBE5FP:
x =
=
=
58:<;I7+FM: g 3
x<b
b(b + c)
x=
= x2 sin2
b(b + c a) d
b+c
= 0
= 0
= 0
JBF g J"=BF4314;@7
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2
b2 (b + c)2 2b2 c(b + c)
b+c
A d
2
BM
PM
=
PN
NC
b+c
p
b(b + c) b (b + c)(b c)
b+c
b(b + c a)
8 3OEG5883
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AP = x cos
FM: g 3
5:<;
58CG37*FPNIFD1M5C-8 3J@5_@3
4M BP
4CP N
7*A gHg 36797+FS@31S=
x2
# + !
A
.
="E+J23 FM793 g EG?@C J23?@CG3N8 3 ;238;BA g 3E+J@5E

DC =

88
3:<?8
J@5@3
AP
PD
=
=
=
x cos
A
2
ca x cos
A
2
(b + c)x cos
(b + c)ca (b + c)x cos
b(b + c a) cos
2bc cos
A
2
b(b + c a)
2bc b(b + c a)
A
2
A
2
b(b + c a) cos
3:<31M56A<7 J238?@CG36N 58K2K21DF43;EH?
A
2
A
2
b+ca d
a+cb
4ABD
_FS@367 CD
CB
2
EB
PA
= 1
EA P D
J23: g 3@ EB
CB P D dR AqL@7+EGFSEGA@EGFM:<E+J23"K2CG3-@FM?BA<7*1 =?2LBE5FP:<38;3+K2CG37*7*FM?@:27
_FS@367 EA = CD P A
EB
ti
EA
FM7E+J23C5EGF4?
EB : EA
E+J236:E+J23OC56EGFM?
EB =
FP:251D1S=8 3J@5@3
58:<;I561M79?
(b + c)(a b + c) d
b(b + c a)
EB : c
FM73@A<561@EG?
r : 1+r
d R3: g 3@
(b + c)(a b + c) d
a+b+c
[ACDE] = [ABC] [BDE]

ac
(b + c)(a b + c)
ac
=
2
2(b + c)
a+b+c

ac
ab+c
abc
=
1
=
2
a+b+c
a+b+c
[AP C] =
=
AP AC sin
A
A
A
x cos b sin
2 =
2
2
2
2
bx sin A
b(b + c a) a
ab(b + c a) 2
= b
=
4
4(b + c)
b
4(b + c)
J23: g 3@
[AP C]
[ACDE]
(b + c a)(a + b + c) d
4c(b + c)
J@5E g ?@NIK21M3EG37yE+JBFM7:@A<N>L<36C?Bi<E+J23 ,0 # + 0\d 3:<;I79?B1PA@EGFM?@:2779?2?@:
8

j ),+[Nf E
h

,# p,%

R)*(9,
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( i J u w
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3: J235'58:<; :<;23C ?2?2;

e NQ36CGF g 5@ 8 8
2

K<5Kq36C- 8
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0
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K256367 8 d
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g ?BFP: g F4;23: g 37_B36:<?BAq6JREH? 83836K E+J23pCG365;23C7*A<CGK<CFM7938; 5:<;"36:BEH36CE5FP:<38;it?@C5 g ?@:<
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g ?BA<:BEGFM37_B5:<;"7*FP: g 3
d ?E?@:@1 = E+J@5E-@L@A@E
1
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2
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192
9
d J23
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it?@CyE+J23RB561PAq3
n
+
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it?@C
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587yE+J23 3@A<5EGF4?@:
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FM:Q JBF g J35 g J?BiE+J23

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9
58:<;
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335180136
= 112345723568978496
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FP7CG361P56EGF @361 =K<CFMN>3EG?
an1 1 (mod n)
E+J23:
e I u
( u f w 3 e
L e
0
+
0 + ! + *& 0
+ " ,*) + #
0
+
1 (mod n)
a
n
n
J23 g ?@:@3C793hFM7i4561M793 d
?8 3-@36C-FSEFP7Ui4561M793h7-?C5CG361 =E+J@5E 36:2CGF"x?2J23:
+ EH?;23:<?EG3U5:=:@A<NQL23C
?28FP:<_1S= g ?BFM:<3;E+J23EH36CHN !# ., *0 '0 . + 0
it?@Cy JBF g J n1
479383
K d dO J23 g J2?BF g 3?Bi
FM7 J@5E$FPn7
2
1
mod
n
a
=
2
A<7*A<561P1 =;2?@:<3>FM:UK2C5 g EGF g 3B58:<;U3-@3:E+J2?BAq6J 3"CGFSEH3
3-@36C= J236CG3Qit?@C636:<
d v5:=vK2CGFPNQ3636:<a3C5EGF4?@:vN>3E+J2?2;@77+E58CE
3C561PFSE= 358CG3>E+JBFP:<8FP:<?Bi
2 793 g ?@:<;25C=EG37HEZEH? 361DFMNFM:25EH3$E+J23 g ?@NIKq?@7+FDEG3
RFDE+JE+JBFM7 g ?@:@3C793@858:<;RE+J23:a5;2=;5O
n1
#
A u
:@A<NQL23C7it?@C JBF g J $J2?B1M;27 dRefg ?@NIKq?@7+FDEG3:@A<N>L<36C

JBF g J795EGFM7+367 it?@C
n 0
+ .
+Bd ti
7-?@N>3
CG361P56EGF @361 =IK<CFMN>3REG?
FM7 g 51D143;I5 $ +
FP7$5L257-3
K27-3Aqa;<?2+K<CFMN>3it?@C51D1 CG31Mn5EGFS@31S="K2CGFPNQ3pEH? aE+J236:
FM7 g 51D143;5 n0 ) +
a
n L<36C7pJ@5n@3 L<33:>7+EGAq;BF43;Q3+EG3:<
# %$+0\d 0B7-3Aq;<?2+K<CFMN>3a7$58:<;>x5CHNF g J@58361:@A<N>
7*F @361 =
26FM:i45 g E-8FSE57?@:@1 =CG3 g 3:BEG1 ="K2CG?@3; E+J@5EE+J236CG35CG3O58:FP:@q:@FSEH3O:@A<N>
L<36Cx?Bi8x5CHNF g J@583616:@A<NQL23C7
d :27+EG358;?Bi7+EGAq;8=@FP:< J23: g ?@N>K<?@7*FSEH3:@A<NQL23C7
i45FD1x +8 3FP:@37HEGF45EH3OE+J23Rit?B1D14?8RFP:<R;BA<51@Aq367+EGFM?@:
P| d J23:>;2?237795EGFM7+iD=@FP:<R _A<5C58:BEG383K2CGFPN>561PFSE="it?@C
n
C-FP:E+J23 g ?B1D14?2BA2FM5611M5:<_A<563Q?Bi
x J236:;2?237R58:FP:<;@A<7HEHCGFP51C5;23QK2CGFPNQ3
g ?@N>3RFDE+J5QNQ?@:<3-=29L@5 g _A<5C58:BEG383IE+J@5EFSEOFM7K2CGFPNQ3:E+JBFP7 :<?EG3@Z 3"RFP1D1
;<367 g CF4L23>5 g 1M5797+F g NQ3_E+J2?2;U?BiK<CFMN>3>:@A<NQL23C63:<36C56EGFM?@:x5:<;7-J2?8 J236:FDE7
7-3 g ?@:<;@58C=EH367+E g 5:L<3361DFMNFM:25EH3;x@E+JBA<7p3*JBF4LBFDEGFP:<57-3_E?BiZFP:BEH363C7$it?@C JBF g J
K<5797+FM:< y_A<58C5:BEH337pK2CGFPN>561PFSE= d$ 3RE+J23:_FS@37HEHCG?@:< 3-@FM;<36: g 3 it?@CE+J23 g ?@:<
3 g EGA<CG3E+J@5E?BA<Cy7-3_E g ?@:BEG56FM:27FM:@<:@FDEG361 =N>5:=IK<CFMN>37 d

6
qZ

> h
A !
"1(7 %
a`cb
ed gf
ih Hj
3K2CG3793:BE$J23CG3 "
5 7+1PFM6JE$63:<36C51DF+5EGF4?@:Q?BiK<5CE$?Bi J238?@CG36N 8 MF :
d
36it?@CG3R;<?BFP:<O7-? 3CG3 g 65 1P1@E+J23;236<:@FDEGFM?@:I?Bi<E+J23 A21436C HiMA<: g EGF4?@:
MF 7E+J23
2kk2oAlQQm&nEoz!p qPwr#ss rQ |,c}>t&wsDu&p uQ~Dv lQoAk24wP}xQw&yQpp sDwPr:x{z!z!wwssrQrQ|,|,}>}>wwsDsDp p ~H~HwPwP82z!,lEw,~n4p |DrEsA|,n }:&OlQ E}?|>,42 #D*|>
(n)
88
:@A<NQL23C?Bi@Kq?@7+FDEGF @3FM:BEG38636C71M37*7E+J@5:?@C38BA<51EH?
JBF g JR58CG3$CG361P56EGF @361 =K2CGFPNQ3
dp A21436C79J2?8 38;E+J@5E (n)
d
EH?
it?@Cn561P1 CG31M5EGFS@31S=IK<CFMN>3REH?
n
JBFPn7OFM7O5>636:<3C561PF +56EGFM?@:?Bai 36CHNI56E-1 7"(mod
FSEEG143 n)
J238?@CG36NaL23 g 5A<793
(n) = n 1
it?@CyK2CGFPNQ3 d
$
m |
d 3E
J236CG3
FP7K2CGFPNQ35:<;
FP75:3-@36:vKq?@7+FDEGF @3
MF :BEG38636C7*A g
J E+J@56E n = hp + d1 ti 795EGFM7+p367 Zit?@C7-?@N>3 h CG31M5EGFS@31S=K<CFMN>3pEG?
h < 4p + 4
n
a
5:<;FDi
n

h
E+J23:
FM7K2CGFPNQ3 d
6 1 (mod n)
n
0 e 7*7*A<N>3
FM7$:<?EK<CFMN>3 d 3E
L23RE+J23"?@CG;23C?Bi N>?2;@A21M? 2@E+J@5EFP7
n?@7+FDEGF @3FP:BEH363C$7+A g J>
xE+J@56E
a
dO J23n:
FM7$E+J23"79NI51D14367+EKq
;BFSBF4;23x7
x
a
1
(mod
n)
x
d :K258CEGF g A21P58C9x y58:<; FPN>K@1S=
3-@3C=QFP:BEH363C
it?@Cy JBF g J k
1 N>
(mod
E+J@56E ;@F @FM;<367 k LBA@E:<?E ad JBFP7
35:27E+n)
J@5E FM7y5RNA21DEGFPK21M3R?Bi ?@C98FM:?E+J23C
x
?@CG;2x7_
;BFSBF4;2hp
37 dv FPNIFDh
1M5CG1 =x (n)
FMNIK21DF4367RE+J@p56E
;BFSBF4;237
p
x
a
1
(mod
n)
x L23E+J23
d 3E
5:<;x$L=EHC58:27+FDEGF @FSE=
;@F @FM;<367
e1 e2
ek
(n)
(n)
A<:@F4BAq3 K2CGFPNQ3Ri45 g EH?@CF +5EGF4?@:I?Bpi d 7+FM:<
K2CG?@Kq36CEGFM37n?Bi = A2q14361C- q7 2 + iMA<: qg kEGFM?@:x<?@:<3
n
g 5:>79J2?8E+J@5E
(n) =
k
Y
i=1
qiei 1 (qi 1).
FM: g 3
g 5:2:<?E;BFSBF4;23Q58:=i45 g EH?@C
;2?237 :<?ER;BFSBF4;23
?Bi d A@E
;2?237
n
d
;@F @FM;<3 p
2@J23: g 3@ ;@F @n
FM;<36p7
it?@C79?@NQ3 d 3_E
;2q3i:<?EG3O
E+JBFM7K2CGFPpNQ3
i
P FM: g 3
J236: (n)
dv
FP75Qi45 g EG?@C?Bpi
7*A g JqE+iJ@
56E 1
FM7 :<?ERK<CFMN>q3@i
n it?@C 79?@NQ3 P 1 (mod
n
d ?8p)
3NA<P7+EJ@5@3
n
=
P
M
M
>
1
n
1
FMNIK21DF4367>E+J@56E
5:<; 7+FM: g 3
58:<;
58CG3?2;2;x P3v(mod
79383UE+J@p)
5E
M 1 (mod
p)
n
p
d JBA<7_
P
hp + 1 = n = P M = (2pu
+?B1)
it?@C79?@1NQ
3 M (mod2p)
79?
g ?@:B+EHC1)(2pv
58;@F g EGFM:<>
A<C
u,
v
1
h
=
4puv
+
2u
+
2v
4p
+
4
J8=2K<?E+J237+FM7 d J236CG36it?@CG3B FP7$K2CGFPNQ3 d
n
3 g 58:63:<36C56EG3"1M5CG63K<CFMN>37L=FDEG3C5EGFM:< J238?@CG36N 2qE+J@56E$FP7x5Ep35 g J

7+EG3Kx<E+J23:<3\R1S=>it?BA<:<;QK<CFMN>3
K21P5=@7$E+J23CG?B143"?Bi PF :>E+J23:<3+E$7HEH36KZq5:<;
FP7
n 5:<3_ K2CGFPNQ3
h
d p
C58:<;2?@NI1 = g J2?@7-36:A<:BEGFP1@ 3q:<;I
n
Z
4"t t

b :9

>j 4 / 10
J23:<3+EE+J23?@CG3N_FS@367?@:<3p5=I?BiZ31PFPNIFP:256EGFP:<pE+J23R7-3 g ?@:<;@58C="EG37HE d
m |$ d 3E
8 J23CG3
58:<;
58CG3?2;<;IK2CGFPNQ367795EGFM7+iD=@FP:<
n = 2pq + 1
J236:
1
(p
2
2) < q < 2(p + 1)
FM7K2CGFPNQ3FPi58:<;>?@:@1 =FDiZ J2?B1M;27it?@Cy79?@NQ3
n
?EH3UE+J@56E"E+J23
37*Kq3 g FM561P1 =7*FP: g 3
RFDE+J

a2 6 1 (mod n)
g@
? :<;BFDEGFM?@:
FM7QCG3561P1 =l:<?EICG37HEHCGF g EGFS@3B
2
6FM:I1K2(mod
d
FP7A<7*A<561P1 ="aA<7-3;
C5 g EGF g 3 n)
a=2
t i FP7K2CGFPNQ3BE+J23:I J2?B14;@7$L= 36CHNI56E- 7FDEEG1M3 J238?@CG36N d Z?@:@36C7-31S=

d t i
7*A<K2Kq?@793> n J2?B1M;27Oit?@Cp79?@NQ3
RFSE+J 2
0
a 6 1 (mod n)
p 1 (mod 3)
8
dZ J236:R7+FM: g 3
E+J23:
it?@Cx79?@NQ3
2
2
2
pd
d 36: g 3B 3kN>>
FM7K2CGFP2p
NQ3B +12= 2(3k1)
FP7K<CFMN>3$+1
FPi@58:<=
; ?@3(6k
:@1S=RFDi 4k+1)
5_=1587*7*A<N>3
2p
+
1
p
=
3
p
=
6
q
CGFSEGFM:<
58:<;
g ?@:<;BFDEGFM?@:U FMNIK21DF4367
h = 2q 58:<; k = 2p
n = hp + 1 = kq
d A<K<K<?@7-3 h
d +
RFDE+J
J231:
k
h < 4p + 4
k <
4q
+
4
a
1
(mod
n)
79? 2
85 g ?@:BEHC5;BF g EGFM?@: d
2p
2q
a
a?@C = agcd(2p,2q) 1d$(mod
J236CG
FDE+J236Cn)
36it?@aCG3B h1 (mod n)
5_=x FM7$K2CGFPNQ3 L=
k
n
J23?@CG3N d a 6 1 (mod n) a 6 1 (mod n)
:@it?@CEGA<:25EH31S=8E+J23ONQ3_E+J2?2;?Biq63:<36C56EGFP:<pK<CFMN>37y7*Aq66367+EG38;"L=FSEH36C56EGFP:<
2
J 3?@CG3N
NI5=L23FMNIK<C5 g EGF g 51L23 g 5A<793E ?QK2CGFPNQ367O58CG3":<338;238;QEG? g ?@:27+EHCA g E
?@:<3:<3\ K<CFMN>356Ey35 g J7+EG3K d 0<C5 g EGF g 51DFDE=57*FM;<3BBFPi2 3R1M3E
M
M
5:<;
58CG3?2;<;K<CFMN>37
= {2pq + 1 : p
q
}
5:<;
795EGFM7+iD=I
= {2pq + 1 M : p
q
}
E+J23:
J 587E+J23 K2CG?@Kq36CE=IE+J@5E5_FS@36:>FP:BEH363C
@
FP:
FM7$K<CFMN>3FPiZ5:<;?@:@1 =IFDi
g ?@:BE5FP:27:<?L257-3 n 2
ZJ2?BM
1M;27 d : ?E+J23C ?@CG;@7
K 7-3M
Aq;<?2+K<CFMN>37 d :?@CG;23CZit?@C
E+J23O7-3_E
GE ?L23?Bi<5:=CG365M
1BFM:BEG3CG367+E-
NIA<7HE g ?@a:BE 5FP: FM:@<:@FDEG361 =NI58:= K<CFMN>37 d
% u#&&"$
54 7 10
g ?@:BE5FP:FM:@<:@FDEG361 =INI58:=K<CFMN>37 d
5:<;
2~ J23793E7
M
M

s|
)0
3E
CG36K<CG367-36:BEE+J23 ?2;2;K2CGFPNQ3 dy FM_A<CG3 ;<36K2F g EG7
58:<;
J236CG3
d
E+J23"5\837pCGp36kK<CG367-36:BEE+J23 FM:<;BFkg 37O?BixE+J23?2;2;K2CGFPNQ367
5:<; M
FM7$M
E+J236:CG3K<
CG3793:BEG38;L=QE+J23"79J@5;238;CG3_F4?@:58:<;
FP7OCG36K<CG367-36:BpEHi3;L=>pE+jJ23M
3:BEGFPCG3479@A<5CG3_
M
CG38_FM?@:FP:27*FM;<3"E+J23>5\837 d> J238?@CG36N
579793CEG7OE+J@5EE+J23>K<CFMNI51DFDE=U?BiFP:BEH363C7?Bi
E+J23"it?@CGN
< J236CG3
1PFM37FM:>E+J2379J@5;238;CG38_FM?@:?Bi F4_A<CG3
pA<
1 ?@:@1S= 3CG(i,
j 7++
g 5:QL23 ;23EGn3CG=
NIFP2p
:<38i;
FM:<R
N>5j)
E- 7FDEEG1M3 J23?@CG3N d
1000
800
600
400
200
200
400
600
800
1000
F4_A<CG3 J23CG3_F4?@:>
FM: g 3QK2CGFPNQ367EH36:<;EH?L23>A<:@FDit?@CHN1S=U;@FP7+EHCF4LBA@EH3;FP:FP:BEH36CB51P7x 3Q3*8Kq3 g E
EH?E+J23 :@A<N>L<36C$?BiK<CFMN>37$FP:
E+J@56EyE+J23 C56EGFM?Q?BiE+J23 :@A<NQL23C$?BiK2CGFPNQ367$FM:
7-J2?BA21M;IL<3 g 14?@793pEH? E+J23C56EGFM??Bi<E+J23R5CG357$?Bi M DE+J23R7-J@58;<3;CG38_FM?@:ZEH?
DE+M
J23
M
M
J2?B143"79@A<5CG3_ d 3E
L23E+JBFP7OC56EGFM??Bi58CG36587?Bi
58:<;
< J23CG3 FM7E+J23
R(t)
7*F *3>?BiE+J23>79@A<5CG3Q
FP: F4_A<CG3 dI 3I5K<K2CG?_8FPN>5EH3"E+J23>L<?BA<:<;@58CF4367
?Bi$E+J237-J@58;<3; 58CG365t FM: = 1000
F4_A<CG3
L=P1436587HE+*79@A<5CG37G1PFP:<37E+J@CG?BAq6JvE+J23U?@CF4_FP:
5:<;
< J236CG3
5:<;
58CG3;23K<3:<;23:BEO?@: dR J23:> 3
jg 5=
j E+=
1 E+J237-a
: 5aK<1K2(t)i
CG?_8FPN>5EH3Q
J23a;<236(t)i
7*FPCG38;v58CG365U?Bai
J@258;<3;CG38_FM?@: L=7*AqLEHtC5 g EGFP:<QE+J23
58CG36587?Bi2E+J23E ?REHCGFP58:<_1M37_ a1 (t)t2 58:<;
t2 8i4CG?@N E+J235CG35 2 ?Bi@E+J2379@A<5CG3
EH?I?2LEG56FM:
t2
2
d
a1 (t)
1
1
2
2a2 (t)
R(t) 1
2a2 (t)
JBA<7
a1 (t)
2
1
2a2 (t)

3 :<?EG3IJ236CG3E+J@5E51SE+J2?BAq6J
FM7;23K<3:<;23:BEp?@:
E+J23;<36Kq36:<;<36: g 3"FM7$@36C=
79NI51D1 57
FP: g CG357-367E+J237+14R(t)
?@K<37
58:<;
RFP1D1 g J@t 5:<63?@:@1 =v7*1DF46JEG1 = dl ?@C
t
a2
d JBA<7
587>;<36K2F g EH3; FM: FM_A<CG3 a1
58:<;
t = 1000
a
=
.5645
a2L23=
d 3_E
L<3E+J23EHCGAq13C56EGFM?>
?BiqE+J23:@A<NQ
C?Bix1.788
K<CFMN>37FP:
R(1000)
R36p7
(t)
d
g 58:vL2336587+FP1 = g ?@N>K@A@EH3;Uit?@C79K<3 g FDM
EH?E+J23:@A<
N>L<.438
36C?BiK2CGFPNQ
FM:
g
M
R
(t)
p
d" F4_A<CG3 L<314?8 7-J2?87OL<?E+J
B51DAq37?Bi d ?@C$3*5N>K@143B
58:<;
587 t FM: g CG36587937yA<K"EH? Rp (1000) d .422
?EG3OE+J@5E
1M?2?271PFM83R5J2?@CGF *?@:BEGR
561
R
t
t
=
1000
R(t)
1PFP:<3 L23 pg 5A<793 ?BiqE+J23p@3C=I7+1PFM6JE;23K<3:<;23: g 3?@: d
t
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
200
400
600
FM_A<CG3 J23RiMA<: g EGFM?@:27
800
5:<;
1000
Rp
e 1DE+J2?BAq6JIE+J23793"58K2K<CG?_FMNI56EGFM?@:27O5CG3"7-?@N>3_ J@5E g CGAq;23@qE+J23"K<?BFM:BE?BiZE+JBFM7

;@FP7 g A<7*7*FM?@:UFP7 :<?EOE+J23Q5 g EGA<561B51DAq37?BiE+J23C5EGF4?@7_L@A@ERC5E+J23COE+J@5EOE+J23QC56EGFM?@7
58K2Kq3658CyEG?QL<3 Kq?@7+FDEGF @3 :@A<NQL23C7_2 31P1x5_5=Ii4CG?@N *36CG? d tix 3 g ?BA21M;QK2CG?@3CF46
?@CG?BA<7*1 ="E+J@5E
E+J236:"E+JBFM7 ?BA214;"FPN>K@1S=E+J@56E
58:<;
L2?E+J
t Rp (t) > 0
g ?@:BE5FP:I<:@FDEG36lim
1 =N>
5:=IK<CFMN>37$?@CyL<?E+J g ?@:BEG56FM:FP:@q:@FSEH31S=N>5:=IM
K<CFMN>37 dM
3:<?8FP:BEHCG?2;@A g 3 E ?IiMA<: g EGF4?@:27$EH?>7+EGAq;8=>E+J23"CG?8E+J?BixE+J23793K<CFMN>37 d
3E
L23E+J23":@A<NQL23Cp?Bi?2;<;K<CFMN>37
7*A g J>E+J@5Ep J2?B14;@7DRFSE+J
p K<=
58:<; Q(k)
FP7K2CGFPNQ3 d 3 51P7-?I:<338;>5 iMqA<: g EGF4?@:IE+J@5E g ?BA<:BEG751D1x7+A g J>
CFMN>p3k7
2pA<kKqEH+
FM:
? 1 d ?K<CG3-@36:BE?@36C+ g ?BA<:BEGFP:< 3;<3q:<3
EG?IL<3E+J23R:@A<NQL23C
M
?Bi?2;<;K<CFMN>p3k7
7+A g J>E+J@56E 1
5:<; Q(k)
FM7pK<CFMN>35:<;
143_E
q
(pk 2) < q < pk
2pk q + 1
2
k
P
d F4_A<CG3
?@:E+J23>:<3*6ERK2563Q79J2?87E+J23>iMA<: g EGFM?@:27
(k) =
Q(i)
Q(k)
i=1
88
d J235K<K258CG36:BE CG?8E+J?BiE+J23793QiMA<: g EGF4?@:2714365;@7EG?
58:<;
it?@C
E+J23>7H(k)
EHCG?@:<63C g k?@:
3 g EG2000
A<CG3E+J@56E
it?@p
C 51D1
2x 3>J@5_@3"@36CGFD3;E+JBFM7
d
7+E56EG3N>3:BE g ?@N>K@A@EG5EGF4?@:2561P1 =it?@(k)
CE+J23R
<C7+kE
k ?2>
;2;I0K2CGFPNQ367
100 000
pk
200
60000
150
50000
40000
100
30000
20000
50
10000
500
1000
1500
2000
500
F4_A<CG3 J23RiMA<: g EGFM?@:27
Q(k)
5:<;
1000
1500
2000
(k)
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