Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Muhammad Farkhan
ABSTRACT
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Sociolinguistics: A Basis for Language Use Analysis, Muhammad Farkhan
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ELL Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, March 2008: 37-44
A standard dialect also known as are dead. Many languages while not
standard language is a dialect that is dead yet, nevertheless are palpably
supported by institutions. Such dying: the number of people who speak
institutional support may include them diminishes drastically each year
government recognition or designation; and the process seems irreversible, so
presentation as being the "correct" form that the best one can say of their vitality
of a language in schools; published is that it is flagging. A language can
grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks remain a considerable force even after it
that set forth a "correct" spoken and is dead, that is, even after it is no longer
written form; and an extensive formal spoken as anyone’s first language and
literature that employs that dialect exists almost exclusively in one or more
(prose, poetry, nonfiction, etc.). written forms, knowledge of which is
There are no universally accepted acquired only through formal education.
criteria for distinguishing language Classical Greek and Latin still have
(standard) from dialects (nonstandard), considerable prestige in the Western
although a number of paradigms exist, world, and speakers of many modern
which render sometimes contradictory languages continue to draw on them in a
results. One attempt has already been variety of ways.
proposed by R.T. Bell (1976: 147-57) Historicity refers to the fact that a
who has listed seven criteria that may be particular group of people finds a sense
useful in discussing different kinds of of identity through using a particular
languages. These criteria consisting of language: it belongs to them. Social,
standardization, vitality, historicity, political, religious, or ethnic ties may also
autonomy, reduction, mixture, and de be important for the group, but the bond
facto norms, may be used to distinguish provided by a common language may
one type of language from another. prove to be the strongest tie of all.
Standardization refers to the Historicity can be long-standing:
process by which a language has been speakers of the different varieties of
codified in some way that usually colloquial Arabic make much of a
involves the development of such things common linguistic ancestry, as obviously
as grammars and dictionaries. do speakers of Chinese.
Governments sometimes very Autonomy is an interesting concept
deliberately involve themselves in the because it is really one of feeling. A
standardization process by establishing language must be felt by its speakers to
official bodies of one kind or another to be different from other languages.
regulate language matters or to However, this is a very subjective
encourage changes which are felt criterion. Ukrainians say their language is
desirable. Standardization is sometimes not Russian. Some speakers of Black
deliberately undertaken quite rapidly for English maintain that their language is
political reasons. Besides, it is also not a variety of English but is a separate
obviously one which attempts either to language in its own right. In contrast,
reduce or eliminate diversity and variety. speakers of Cantonese and Mandarin
The standardization performs a deny that they speak different languages:
variety of functions that are to unify they maintain that Cantonese and
individuals and groups within a larger Mandarin are not autonomous languages
community while at the same time but are just two varieties of Chinese.
separating the community that results Reduction refers to the fact that a
from other communication; to reflect and particular variety may be regarded as a
symbolize some kind of identity; and to sub-variety rather than as an
give prestige to the speakers marking off independent entity. Speakers of Cockney
those who employ it from those who do will almost certainly say that they speak
not. a variety of English, will admit that they
Vitality refers to the existence of a are not ‘representative’ speakers of
living community of speakers. This English, and will recognize the existence
criterion can be used to distinguish of other varieties with equivalent
languages that are alive from those that subordinate status. Sometimes the
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Sociolinguistics: A Basis for Language Use Analysis, Muhammad Farkhan
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Sociolinguistics: A Basis for Language Use Analysis, Muhammad Farkhan
• Two distinct languages are used spinel spindle and aemtig empty.
in the community, with one Prothesis involves the addition of a
regarded as a national (NL) and sound to the beginning of the word as in
regional language (RL). (Spanish) schola escuela (school),
• Each variety is used for quite and spiritus espiritu (spirit).
distinct functions: NL and RL In syntax, some noticeable
complement each other. differences between the structure of
• One does not use the NL in sentences in Old and Modern English
circumstances calling for the RL, involve word order. The old English
e.g., for addressing a servant; pattern of the subject—verb—object is
nor does one usually use the RL still common in Modern English, but a
variety when an H is called for, number of different orders are no longer
e.g., for writing research. possible. For example, the subject can
• The NL is the prestige language; follow the verb, as in ferde he (‘he
the RL v lacks prestige. traveled’), and the object can be placed
• Literary works are mostly found before the verb, as he hine geseah (‘he
to exist in the NL and almost saw him’), or at the beginning of the
none in the other. sentence him man ne sealde (‘no man
• The RL often shows a tendency gave (any) to him’).
to borrow learned words from The most obvious way in which
the NL, particularly when Modern English differs lexically from Old
speakers try to use the RL English is in the number of borrowed
variety in more formal ways. words, particularly words of Latin and
• All children learn the RL. Greek origin, which have come into the
language since the Old English period.
Language Changes Less obviously, many words have
Language will develop and ceased to be used. A common Old
develop if it has a living speech English term for man was were which is
community that uses it in their interaction no longer in general use, but within the
and communication. In its development domain of horror films, it has survived in
changes may happen to its vocabulary, the compound form, werewolf. Perhaps
meanings, syntax, etc., through various more interesting are the two processes
processes, such as adopting of broadening and narrowing of meaning.
components from other languages, An example of broadening of meaning is
creating new items, eliminating the old the modern use of the word dog which
items, etc. Consider how English, for refers to all breeds, but in its older form it
example, develops as follows. was only used for one particular breed.
The historical development of An example of narrowing is the word
English is usually divided into three mete, once used for any kind of food,
major periods. The Old English period is which has in its modern form, meat,
considered to last from the time of the becomes restricted to only some specific
earliest written records, the seventh types (Yule, 1985: 172-78).
century, to the end of the eleventh
century. The Middle English period is Conclusion
from 1100 to 1500 and Modern English It is clear that studying a language
from 1500 to the present. One of the may cover not only its micro-aspects,
most obvious differences between such as phoneme, morpheme, and
Modern and old English is in the quality syntax; but also its macro-aspects,
of the vowel sounds. There are three especially how it is used by its
types of changes have been community. This makes language study
documented: metathesis, epenthesis and more interesting as it deals with social
prothesis. Metathesis involves a reversal phenomena that happen in a society.
in position of two adjoining sounds as in They, mostly, concern with language
bridd bird, and hros horse. varieties, standard and dialects,
Epenthesis involves the addition of bilingualism, multilingualism, and
sound to the middle of the word as in language changes.
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References
Bell, R.T. 1976. Sociolinguistics, Goals,
Approaches, and Problems.
London: Batsford
Clark, Virginia P. Paul A, Eschholz, &
Alfred F. Rosa. 1977. Language:
Introductory Readings, Eds. New
York: St. Martin’s Press.
Ferguson,C.A. 1959. “Diglossia” Word
15. p. 336.
Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to
Sociolinguistics. Essex: Pearson
Education Limited.
Yule, George. 1985. The study of
Language Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1986. An
Introduction to Sociolinguistics.
New York: Basil Blackwell Inc.
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