Instructional Design and Technology: Emergence of the Profession

Lions Team: Dolores Alexander, Laura Davis, & Michael Weissenfluh INTE 6750 - Current Trends & Issues in ILT Fall 2012

Introduction
The Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of September 7th, 2012 states that the unemployment rate for the United States stands at 8.1%. Yet, Horn (2012), in his TEDxSF presentation on YouTube, tells us that there are some 3 million jobs available with no one qualified enough to fill them. The advancing nature of technology and the growing need to fill the demand for new services and products created by these advancements have led to the increase of demand for labor in specific job areas. In addition, the need to reach distant learners to fill these demands has fueled the need for Distance Learning. Throughout history, these dynamics have been the driving force behind the emergence of the profession of Instructional Design and Technology, as we know it today. History shows that whenever there are available job opportunities, there is a need to get people trained. To get the right training, one or more entities within the educational system need to find a method to do so and a medium that will get it to the people who can benefit from it. This has led to the systems approach to education with instructional theories or educational models that are based on research findings. The situation experienced today is no different from what was experienced in the past. The solution methods and mediums have changed in ways that make it more relevant to the times that we live in, but the needs to be addressed are of the same nature. The purpose of this report is to show how the profession of Instructional Design and Technology has emerged over the years. From the 1600s, with the informal type of apprenticeship programs used to train individuals to the 21st century with the need to fill jobs in new industries like renewable energy the profession has been changing and will most likely continue to do so. This report will sketch the history of Instructional Design and Technology and Distance Education, as it relates to this profession, and show how various cycles of inflated expectations, changes in technology, design models and lessons learned have contributed to its development as a profession. See Appendix A for IDT terms and their definitions.

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1600 - 1800s Apprenticeships & self-improvement groups

Distance education has roots digging further back than most of us realize in the contexts of selfdirected learning and social learning. Driving forces The 1600s marked the Colonial Times in the United States. A time marked by colonization from vast and diverse individuals; a time marked by new beginnings. During this period, a growth in 2|Page

educational institutions Benjamin Franklin as a printer's apprentice (H. Scheibler, 1920; was seen to take care of PD-US) the educational needs of the colonist. For example, Massachusetts mandated in 1647 that every town of 50 or more families support an elementary school and every town of 100 or more families support a grammar school, where boys could learn Latin in preparation for college (Wikipedia, n.d). Prior to the 1900s, education had some pre-cursors to modern eLearning or distance education. These precursors included apprenticeship programs and study groups, where learners had to be self-directed and self-motivated. Benefits & Issues Despite the expansion in educational institutions, the educational opportunity was not inclusive of everyone. These educational institutions catered to the wealthy and primarily white male in the community with females being tutored separately. Black children were not allowed in most of the institutions. The unschooled mainly took up apprenticeships increasing demand for these opportunities. The South, which was overwhelmingly rural, had few schools of any sort until the Revolutionary era. Wealthy children studied with private tutors; middling children might learn to read from literate parents or older siblings; many poor and middling white children, as well as virtually all black children, went unschooled. Literacy rates were significantly lower in the South than the north; this remained true until the late nineteenth century. (Wikipedia, History of Education in the United States #Colonial Era). Children of poor families did not receive education in literacy and religion as those of the upper class did. Instead, they took on apprenticeships that lasted from 3 - 10 years. These were meant to give them a skill that would help them to survive life in the colonies. (Stratford Hall). The 1700s and 1800s saw the growth of discussion forums under Benjamin Franklin with groups such as Junto - an informal discussion group in Philadelphia in 1727. (Saba, 2012). Other self-improvement groups such as Lyceum and Chautauqua was established in the 1800s. These provided teaching and learning through correspondence schools, using the Post Office as a form of media to extend the reach. Characteristic of this type of learning was that it catered to adults,

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was self-directed and allowed for continuing and progressive educational opportunities. (Saba, 2012). What was learned As history progressed, it can be seen that the quest of nations and educators is to reach the unreachables, if you may, with an education. This meant putting to use any and all forms of mass media that was available. The modern theory of constructivism and social learning assert that people learn by constructing their own knowledge based on new material, which is enhanced and colored, by their own experience and perceptions. Social learning is an important aspect of constructivism because research has shown the importance of group work in learning. The apprenticeship is an early form of social learning where the apprentice slowly is acculturated into the craft. Historically, apprenticeship programs and supervised graduate research have provided students with opportunities to observe and then to emulate how experts function. (Seely Brown & Adler, 2008. Minds on Fire, Educause.)

1900 - 1950s Advent of broadcasting with radio and television

The medium is the message. This is merely to say that the personal and social consequences of any medium - that is, of any extension of ourselves - result from the new scale that is introduced into our affairs by each extension of ourselves, or by any new technology. - Marshall McLuhan . Driving forces The early 1900s saw the beginnings of radio broadcast and some of our modern teaching media with moving pictures. The possibilities for education were quickly recognized and schools of instruction sprang up around the country. Although this movement failed to have much influence on Ready traditional education, it did spawn the first instructional theory that Getting Emotionally (US Military Video, PD-US Gov) included the use of media. The use of film in instruction was first popularly used successfully in the military during World War II but it was still largely ignored in public education. Research in 4|Page

the field began to focus on the effect that the use of media had on instruction but by the 1950s, the focus had shifted to the methods employed. Benefits & Issues The advent of correspondence education dates back to the early 1800s. It has been called a type of Jacksonian democracy because the common man can access a rich mans education. It has also been called the democratization of knowledge. Problems arose in the 1950s however, when private businesses got into the correspondence education or distance education business and offered courses that were sub-par. This cast a pall on the entire field, damaging the reputation of distance learning. Radio illustrated the advantages of distance education as it gained popularity between the 1920s and the 1940s for its ability to reach remotely located farmers. With the introduction of educational television in the year 1945 when Iowa State University applied to the federal communications commission (FCC) for an Education Television License, significant progress was made. Educational radio still exists today but has limited impact because of its lack of flexibility in timing, ability to adapt to learners needs, lack of interactivity, and lack of educational expertise. What was learned Prior to 1945, some of the things learned during this period according to Saba, included the following. The need to create different frequencies within the radio broadcast band to reach people in agricultural communities. (Saba, 2008). Listening to radio develops intellectual passivity Radio is a one way means of communication It is hard to adjust instruction to the capacity of the individual pupil Listening is less effective than face-to-face communications (lack of facial expression & gestures). Broadcast times are hard to adjust to class schedules Programs are produced by radio artist & financiers and not by educators Programs are not based on school curriculum After 1945, huge strides were made towards a more involved and motivational educational system. Saba noted the following about educational television. It enhanced audience motivation. There was subject matter preparation & integration into a teaching process. It changed the mode of presentation (face to face). Learners can interact with teacher. That negative attitude towards the medium has no effect on learning achievement.

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1950 - 21st Century Programmed instruction movement, satellite & cable TV & emergency of the knowledge economy
Electronics becomes digital. Driving forces In the 1960s, the civil rights movement and other social development groups brought to light the plight of children living in inner cities who were deprived of a means of learning. (Saba, n.d). This lead to the establishment of the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) for broadcasting of educational programs; one of these programs is Sesame Street that reaches millions of preschool students. (Saba, 2008). Rapid expansion in Cable TV and increased use of telecommunication satellites in broadcasting came between the 1970s and 1980s. This resulted in the establishment of the National Technology University and the extension of PBS broadcasting to K-12 students and adult learners. (Saba). Another major shift that had significant impact in the field of Instructional Design and Technology occurred in 1997, with a declaration made by Alan Greenspan from the Federal Reserve Board. The economy has gone through a fundamental change. Synergies among technologies which may occur once or twice in a century, has brought unprecedented added value to the Courtesy of Special Collections, University of Houston products of many companies and have reduced the cost of production & distribution of Libraries. UH Digital Library. goods and services. The one aspect of the economic transformation - the emergence of knowledge as the single most important commodity in the prosperity of nations. (Saba, 2008).

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Saba later noted that the emergence of the knowledge economy had a profound effect on business and education; that information technology deeply impacted training, teaching, learning and managing practices. In the late 20th century, the field of educational research had taken off and the art of teaching began to be described as a science that could be recorded, measured, and analyzed. This included specifying behavioral objectives, i.e. learning objectives, and measuring the outcomes of the instruction against those objectives by using criterion-referenced testing. In addition, Robert Gagne, proposed a theory of hierarchical learning and a model that included nine learning events that correlated with particular types of learning outcomes. Gagnes theory is still widely accepted and used in modern day instructional design. Another idea, which gained traction in the 1900,s and is still employed today, is that of formative and summative evaluations meaning that successive iterations of the instructional design are evaluated to bring about improvements. Although the field of instructional design was, by the 1980s, well established, it was used mainly by business and military being largely ignored by public education. The 21st century brought with it widespread use of computers and the internet, which have had an impact on the field of instructional design. The internet is quickly becoming the medium of delivery and content for instructional designers. Knowledge management, the dissemination of knowledge throughout an organization, has also become incorporated into the field of instructional design.

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Benefits & Issues Hundreds of studies have been conducted over the years comparing various forms of distance learning with face-to-face classes (traditional learning classrooms). The overwhelming conclusion of these studies is that there is no significant difference in achievement between distance learners and learners in traditional classroom settings. What was learned The 20th century and beyond have taught us many things. That technology is a dynamic medium that changes with needs and the availability of products. That education is becoming more student-centric. That education as we know it is moving out of the classroom into a virtual world. That education is in part based on the theory of connectivism, which is grounded, on the idea that knowledge exists in the world rather than in the head of an individual. (Siemens). That forms of technology have a strong influence on education.

Design Models that have influenced the Instructional Design & Technology Field
A description of three design models which can help us to understand how to address some of the training gaps that face our educational institutions today. ADDIE Model ADDIE is an acronym for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation and represents a generic name for a process used by instructional designers to create educational and training programs. The ADDIE model came into being post World War II as the USADDIE Military sought ways toFAV203 create more effective training materials. Model," 2012 (Costagnolo, 2002). Most of the other models/theories used today, springboard from the ADDIE model according to Costagnolo. One such popular model is the Rapid Prototyping model.

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ADDIE is used to provide a structured means to ensure that developers and trainers achieve the goals of the course, allows for evaluation of learners needs, the design and development of materials, and evaluation of effectiveness of the training program. (Costagnolo, 2002). As noted by Costagnolo, during the Analysis phase, the audience needs are clearly defined, constraints identified, existing knowledge and skills are assessed, and the learning objectives are established. The Design phase is where the detailed prototypes are developed. During the Development phase, the actual production & assembly of the materials that were developed take place. The Implementation phase is where the course is put into action and the final product is presented to the target audience. After this phase comes the evaluation phase where feedback is solicited from the target audience to determine the effectiveness and quality of the product. Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age According to Siemens (2005), "Constructivist principles acknowledge that real-life learning is messy and complex. Classrooms which emulate the 'fuzziness' of this learning will be more effective in preparing learners for life-long learning"

A rapidly growing category of the Connectivism Model is the Massive Open Online Course (MOOC).

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- source: www.connectivism.ca

Benefits Perhaps the most salient benefit is that MOOCs can be accessed by nearly everyone. This is a full realization of the idea of democratized knowledge. They also extend the possibilities for learning because by encouraging networking and student-lead research, they allow students to reach further into a subject in scope and depth than a single instructor can. The instructors job becomes more that of facilitator and mentor. Challenges None of these entities are currently producing meaningful revenue. Being that three of the four are for-profit, their investors will want a return on investment (ROI) eventually. How will this be accomplished? Referring to the Coursera contract above, it appears that they are not sure either. Phil Hill of the Delta Initiative suggests that MOOCs have four barriers to overcome in order to be sustainable: (Hill)
Developing revenue models to make the concept self-sustaining; Delivering valuable signifiers of completion such as credentials, badges, or acceptance into
Cormier, Dave & Gillis, Neal. (2010). What is a MOOC?

accredited programs; Providing an experience and perceived value that enables higher course completion rates (most today have fewer than 10% of registered students actually completing the course); and

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Authenticating students in a manner to satisfy accrediting institutions or hiring companies

that the student identity is actually known. MOOCs are still in the introduction (stage 2) phase in the new product life cycle, so there is time for the industry to figure out these issues. Present Landscape MOOC providers are concentrated into a few major players including: edX, a not-for-profit organization founded by Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) launched in June 2012 to offer online classes on its own platform. To date, Harvard and MIT have invested $60 million into the platform. In July, 2012 University of California, Berkeley began offering courses using the edX platform.

Coursera, a for profit social entrepreneurship company launched in April 2012 and currently contracting with 16 universities (see below) to offer courses on their platform. Coursera claims to have approximately 1,400,000 Courserians having taken, or currently taking courses. Being a for-profit company it is incumbent on them to eventually generate revenue, and hopefully profits. To date they have neither. Their operations are now being funded from $22 million in venture capital invested by venture capital firms and some of the universities. Recently, The Chronicle of Higher Education obtained a contract between the University of Michigan and Coursera (through a Freedom of Information Act request) which sheds some light on how they may generate revenue. The contract includes a section called "Possible Company Monetization Strategies", which lists eight possible revenue models. Among these are: Selling University-branded certifications or badges Identity-verified assessments (proctored) Allowing access to student information, for a fee, for employee recruiting or screening Tuition -the scenario they suggest is essentially a try before you buy scheme, where the student can have free access for a short time, but then have to pay tuition Sponsorship - essentially selling third party advertising on the site via banner ads etc. Should they generate revenue, the University will receive between 6% and 15% of gross revenues, depending on the length of the course.

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Udemy is a for-profit company launched in December 2010 that is different from edX or Coursera in that they offer their platform directly to instructors. It is up to the instructor how much they charge for the class of which they retain 70% of the course fee together with the intellectual property rights. Udemy has raised $4 million dollars in two rounds of funding. Udacity is a for-profit company launched in April, 2011 with $5 million in venture capital funding and $300,000 of co-founder Sebastian Thruns own money. Presently they are offering 14 free courses, a number of them co-taught by Thrun. When asked by Reuters about his forprofit status, Thrun had this to say, for profit is not forced to make profit. I needed to get people together really fast, and its much easier to do that under the ways of a Silicon Valley company. (Salmon).

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Community of Inquiry Model "A critical community of learners, from an educational perspective, is composed of teachers and students transacting with the specific purposes of facilitating, constructing, and validating understanding, and of developing capabilities that will lead to further learning. Such a community encourages cognitive independence and social interdependence simultaneously." (Garrison & Anderson, 2003:23) There are three elements to a Community of Inquiry that are essential to create a successful educational experience for the student; Cognitive Presence, Social Presence and Teaching Presence.
Theas Community ofwhich Inquiry from Garrison, Anderson & Archer "Cognitive presence is defined the extent to learners are able to construct and (2000) confirm meaning through sustained discourse in a critical community of inquiry. (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001).

Social presence is the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as 'real people.' (Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001) Teaching presence is defined as the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educational worthwhile learning outcomes. (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001).

Conclusion
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The Instructional Design and Technology field has roots extending back four-hundred years. We have seen the desire to expand the reach of a good education by building schools. We have learned that as the production of goods and services increase/change, technology, the medium used to reach learners, are also changing. We have seen this momentum with the introduction of the Post Office and the kick-off of correspondence education back in the 1800s. We have seen it pick up pace with Radio Broadcasting, Educational Radio and Educational TV. The Telecommunications Revolution fueled it further and now the Web and Internet are taking the field of Instructional Design and Technology, and education as a whole, to new heights. We have discovered that Technology is whats spurring this momentum on, and though the world has experienced cycles of inflated expectation with each new medium, it appears that the internet is here for the long haul. Education today is no longer confined to the classroom but is now in a brand new virtual setting in online communities and following a path based on the idea that knowledge exists in the world rather than in the head of an individual (connectivism). In light of this emergence and where this educational field has placed us, how can we prepare three-million people to take on three-million jobs? Do we form hundreds of new universities? Or do we allow learners who are highly interested in this niche, to interact with online communities, digest existing information available on the web, and develop their own learning? The building blocks provided by the OER movement, along with e-Science and e-Humanities and the resources of the Web 2.0, are creating the conditions for the emergence of new kinds of open participatory learning ecosystems that will support active, passion-based learning: Learning 2.0 (Seely Brown and Adler, 2008. Minds On Fire, Educause.)

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References
ADDIE Model," 2012 FAV203, used under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2012). News Release: The Employment Situation. Retrieved from: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf
Clark, Don. (2010). Types of Evaluations in Instructional Design. Retrieved from: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/isd/types_of_evaluations.html

Cormier, Dave & Gillis, Neal. (2010). Success in a MOOC. Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8avYQ5ZqM0//CC-BY-SA-3.0 Cormier, Dave & Gillis, Neal. (2010). What is a MOOC. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/eW3gMGqcZQc //CC-BY-SA-3.0 Edutac Wiki. (2012). TPCK. Retrieved from: http://edutac.wikispaces.com/TPCK Edutech Wiki. (2012). Instructional Design Model. Retrieved from: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Instructional_design_model
Garrison, D., Anderson T. & Archer. W (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2: 87105

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., and Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking, cognitive presence, and
computer conferencing in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1). Retrieved July 5 2012 from

http://communitiesofinquiry.com/sites/communityofinquiry.com/files/CogPres_Final.pdf Garrison, Randy & Terry Anderson. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice, 2003, p. 23.

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Hill, Phil. (2012). Four Barriers That MOOCs Must Overcome To Build a Sustainable Model. Retrieved from; http://mfeldstein.com/four-barriers-that-moocs-mustovercome-to-become-sustainable-model/ Horn, Michael. (2012). Disrupting Class. TEDxSF. Retrieved from: http://youtu.be/i3Xzz2T59eU Moore, M. G. 1991. Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education 5 (3). http://www.ajde.com/Contents/vol5_3.htm#editorial Nakate, Shashank. (2012). What is Instructional Technology. Retrieved from: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/what-is-instructional-technology.html Reiser, Robert A. (2001) Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol 49, No. 1. Reiser, Robert A. (2001) Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol 49, No. 2. Rourke, L., Anderson, T. Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing social presence in asynchronous, text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(3), 51-70. Saba, Farhad. (2008) An Introduction to Distance Education and eLearning. Salmon, Felix (2012) Udacitys Model. Retrieved from http://blogs.reuters.com/felixsalmon/2012/01/31/udacitys-model/ Seely Brown, John & Adler, Richard P. (2008) Minds On Fire, Educause. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 2 (1). http://itdl.org/Journal/Jan_05/article01.htm

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Wikipedia. (2012). Distance Education. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_education

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Appendix A The field of Instructional Design and Technology (IDT) uses a number of terminologies. An understanding of the meaning of these terms would assist in bringing clarity to ones understanding. Here are a few definitions that should help. IDT Terms and definitions ADDIE Model - is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The five phasesAnalysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools. (Wikipedia, 2012). Connectivism Learning Theory - a theory of learning based on the premise that knowledge exists in the world rather than in the head of an individual. (Siemans, 2008). Disruptive Innovation - is an innovation that helps create a new market and value network and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network (over a few years or decades), displacing an earlier technology. (Wikipedia, 2012). Disruptive Technology - has been widely used as a synonym of "disruptive innovation", but the latter is now preferred, because market disruption has been found to be a function usually not of technology itself but rather of its changing application. Sustaining innovations are typically innovations in technology, whereas disruptive innovations change entire markets. (Wikipedia, 2012). Distance education or distance learning - is a field of education that focuses on teaching methods and technology with the aim of delivering teaching, often on an individual basis, to students who are not physically present in a traditional educational setting such as a classroom. (Wikipedia, 2012) Formative evaluations - (sometimes referred to as internal) is a method for judging the worth of a program while the program activities are forming (in progress). This part of the evaluation focuses on the process. (Clark, 2010). Instructional Models - are guidelines or sets of strategies on which the approaches to teaching by instructors are based. Effective instructional models are based on learning theories. (Edutechwiki, 2012). Instructional Technology - the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. (Wikipedia, 2012). Learning Theories - conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed,
and retained during learning. (Wikipedia, 2012).

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Massive Open Online Learning (MOOC) - online course where the participants are distributed and course materials also are dispersed across the web. (Wikipedia, 2012). Student-centric - delivering the right experience for the right student when he/she needs it. (Horn, 2011) Summative evaluation - (sometimes referred to as external) is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program activities (summation). The focus is on the outcome. (Clark, 2010) Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) Model - attempts to capture some of the essential qualities of knowledge required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching, while addressing the complex, multifaceted and situated nature of teacher knowledge. At the heart of the TPCK framework, is the complex interplay of three primary forms of knowledge: Content, pedagogy, and technology. (Edutac Wiki, 2012). Transactional distance - is a psychological and communications gap, a space of potential misunderstanding between the inputs of instructor and those of the learner created in part by the physical distance inherent to online learning. (Wikipedia, 2012).

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