5 Carbohydrates

UNIT I

6 Bio-Sciences and Epidemiology

LESSON

7 Carbohydrates

1
CARBOHYDRATES
CONTENTS 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Aims and Objectives Introduction Classification Monosaccharides 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.4 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.5 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Simple Form of Representation Furan Ringed or Furanoses (5C Sugars) Reducing Sugars Importance of Monosaccharides Maltose Lactose Sucrose Homo Polysaccharides Hereto Polysaccharides

Diaccharides

Polysaccharides

Let us Sum up Lesson End Activity Keywords Questions for Discussion Suggested Readings

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z z

Know about the carbohydrates and its classifications Understand the molecule structure of Monosaccharides, Diaccharides and Polysaccharides

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates are defined chemically an aldehyde or ketone derivates of the higher polyhydric alcohols or compounds which yield these derivatives on hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are substances which contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and have the genera formula Cx [H2o] y where x and y are variable numbers.

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1.2 CLASSIFICATION
They are divided into three main classes, monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides. 1. Monosaccharides: Simple sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed. E.g. glucose, fructose etc. 2. Disaccharides: Made by combination of two monosaccharides by glycosidic linkages. E.g. lactose glucose and galactose. 3. Polysaccharides: Made by combination of many monosaccharides by glycosidic bonds. It is of two types:
z

Homo polysaccharides: Similar monomers or same monosaccharide linked together. E.g. cellulose, starch, glycogen. Hetero polysaccharides: Different monomers or many types of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds. E.g. mucopolysaccharides, chitin, murein.
Carbohydrates

Sugars [Sweet, small molecules, crystalline readily soluble in water, and with-OSR]

Polysaccharides [Macromolecules not sweet insoluble or slightly soluble in water non Crystalline]

Monosaccharides

Disaccharides

Made by joining Many Monosaccharides

Simple Sugars E.g.: Glucose Fructose

Made by joining two Monosaccharides e.g.: lactose

Glucose + Galactose

[CH2O]n n = 3 to 9 All reducing Sugars

C12H22O11 [Two hexoses] Usually Some reducing Some non reducing Sugars

Cx [H2o] y

Non reducing

Figure 1.1

1.3 MONOSACCHARIDES
Monosaccharides are single sugar units. Their general formula is [CH2O]n and some of their properties are: (i) cannot be hydrolysed further to simple forms. (ii) they are important energy sources and are building blocks for the synthesis of larger molecules. They can be classified on two bases (i) according to the number of carbon atoms (ii) according to the presence of aldehyde or ketone group.
Table 1.1
General formula [No: carbon atom] Trioses (C3H6O3) Tetroses (C4H8O4) Pentoses(C5H10O5) Hexoses (C6H12O6) aldoses [Aldehyde + sugars] Aldo sugar Glyceraldehydes Erythrose Ribose Glucose ketoses [Ketone + sugars} Keto sugars Dihydroxy acetone Erythrulose Ribulose Fructose

9 Carbohydrates

ALPHA GLUCOSE
OPEN CHAIN FORM CLOSED CHAIN FORM

ALPHA GLUCOSE AND BETA GLUCOSE

Figure 1.2

1.3.1 Simple Form of Representation

ALPHA GLUCOSE BETA GLUCOSE

Figure 1.3

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1.3.2 Furan Ringed or Furanoses (5c Sugars)

Ribose Ribose with 5 membered furan ring

Figure 1.4

1.3.3 Reducing Sugars

Definition: hose sugars with free aldehyde or ketone group. Except sucrose all are reducing sugars.
Aldoses Glyceraldehyde (3c triose) Ketoses Dyhydroacetone

Erythrose

(4c tetrose)

erythrulose

Ribose

(5c pentose)

ribulose

D- glucose

(6c hexose)

D-fructose

Figure 1.5

1.3.4 Importance of Monosaccharides

z

Trioses: E.g. glyceraldehydes, dihydroxy acetone are intermediates in respiration, photosynthesis and other carbohydrate metabolic pathways such as glycosis HMP shunt. Pentoses: E.g. ribose, Deoxyribose, Ribulose. i. Synthesis of nucleic acid; ribose is a constituent of RNA; deoxyribose of DNA.

11 Carbohydrates

ii. Synthesis of ATP requires ribose. iii. Synthesis of some coenzymes. iv. Ribulose bisphosphate is the CO2 acceptor in photosynthesis and is made from the 5C sugar Ribulose. E.g. ribose is used in synthesis of NAD and NADP.
z

Hexoses: E.g. glucose, fructose, galactose. i. Source of energy when oxidized in respiration; glucose is the most common respiratory substance and the most common monosaccharide.

ii. Synthesis if disaccharides; two monosaccharides units can link together to form disaccharide. E.g. lactose, maltose sucrose. iii. Synthesis of polysaccharides; glucose is particularly important in this role e.g. cellulose, starch, glycogen. iv. Fructose is rich in fruits and is called fruit sugar. It is sweetest of all is found in honey. v. Sperm us only fructose for motility [energy to more]. vi. All tissues utilize glucose for energy. Erythrocytes and brain cells utilizes glucose solely for energy production. vii. Stored as glycogen in liver.

1.4 DIACCHARIDES
Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are maltose, lactose and sucrose. They are found by combination of two monosaccharides by glycosidic linkage by elimination of one molecule of water. When this disaccharide is hydrolysed with ho acids or corresponding enzymes, they form those compounds. e.g;
Maltose H2O Lactose H2O Sucrose D GLUCOSE + D FRUCTOSE D GALACTOSE + D GLUCOSE H2O D GLUCOSE + D GLUCOSE

Figure 1.6: Structure of Maltose

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1.4.1 Maltose
Maltose is called as malt sugar. It is an intermediate in acid hydrolysis of starch, further when maltose is treated with enzyme maltose forms 2 glucose monomers: i. It is very soluble in water and sweet sugar ii. Easily digestible and it is added in baby food preparations. iii. It is naturally found in cereals, grains, starchy vegetables etc. iv. It is a reducing sugar.

1.4.2 Lactose
Lactose is milk sugar and found in appreciable quantities in milk other extent of about 5% and occur at body temperature as a mixture of and form. It is not much soluble and not so sweet. On hydrolysis it yields one molecule of D-Glucose and one molecule of D Galactose.

Figure 1.7: Structure of Lactose

Colostrums first milk formed is rich in lactose, immunoglobulin, vitamins etc. It is highly nutritious and also provides immunity to the child.

1.4.3 Sucrose
Ordinary table sugar is sucrose. It is also called cane sugar - one which is obtained from sugarcane and also beet sugar - one which is obtained from sugar beet. It is also found in most fruit and vegetables. E.g.: pineapples and carrots. It is very soluble and very sweet; on hydrolysis it yields one molecule of D Glucose and one molecule of Dfructose. Enzyme which hydrolyses sucrose is sucrose present in intestinal juice. Both aldehyde and ketone are linked together, it is not freely available hence it is a non reducing sugar. It is also called as inert sugar. Honey is largely invert sugar and presence of fructose accounts for greater sweetness.

13 Carbohydrates

Figure 1.8: Structure of Sucrose

It is transported in large quantities in plants through phloem tissue.

1.5 POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are more complex polymers of single type of monosaccharides [Homo polysaccharides] or different type of monosaccharides [Hetero polysaccharides] linked together by glycosidic linkage. Example: Homo polysaccharides starch, glycogen, cellulose Hetero polysaccharides murein, chitin, mucopolysaccharides.

1.5.1 Homo Polysaccharides

Starch 1. Starch is a polymer of glucose. 2. It is a major fuel tone in plants, but is absent from animals where the equivalent is glycogen. 3. Starch can be easily converted back to glucose for use in respiration. 4. Starch is composed of two components amylase and amylopectin. 5. Amylase is a straight chain structure consisting of several thousand glucose residues joined by 1, 4 bonds as shown.

Figure 1.9: Structure of Amylose

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6. Amylopectin have much higher branches of both 1 4 and 1 6 linkages. It is a high molecular compound compared to amylose; each branch is at the interval of 24 30 glucose units.

Figure 1.10: Amylopectin

Amylase 7. Starch Acid Starch Hydrolysis Glucose maltose + dextrins

maltase glucose

8. Amylose gives blue colour with dilute iodine solution and amylopectin gives reddish violet colour with I2 solution. 9. Starch gives blue black colour in saliva and pancreatic juice; amylase present in sprouted grains and malts. 10. amylase is present in saliva and pancreatic juice; amylase present in sprouted grains and malts. Glycogen Glycogen is the animal starch since glucose is stored in the form of glycogen in liver. It is energy reserve and centre of high metabolic activity. Its conversion back to glucose is controlled by hormones, particularly insulin; as it is similar to structure of amyl peptic but has more branches. It is in the form of tiny granules inside cells which are usually associated with smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

15 Carbohydrates

Figure 1.11: Structure of Glycogen

Cellulose
z

Cellulose is a polymer of glucose. Unlike starch and glycogen it has a structural role. About 50% of the carbon found in plants is in cellulose, provides rigidity and shape to the cell. Cotton has 90% cellulose and has good tensile strength. Filter paper, note-papers all contain cellulose. It is used in photographic films with nitrate. It is used as explosive with acetate. Ruminants has cellulose enzyme which digest the cellulose. But humans lack this enzyme but act as bulk material and help to remove wastes. On mixing cotton with other fibers artificial it can be made. Terminates and wood rot fungi fibers cellulose and digest them. Homo polysaccharides cellulose is made up of -D-Glucose molecules by 1 4 linkage.

z z z z z z z z z

Figure 1.12: Cellulose

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1.5.2 Hereto Polysaccharides

Mucopolysaccharides Chitin: Chitin is closely related o cellulose in structure polysaccharides; it is found in some fungi in its cell wall. Its structure is identical to cellulose expect in [-OH] that group of carbon 2 is replaced by NH.CO.CH3. It forms bundles of a long parallel chain like cellulose. Murein: Similar to chitin also contains nitrogen but is found in bacterial cell walls. Check Your Progress 1. What are the classifications of Carbohydrates? . . 2. What is Maltose? . . 3. What is Lactose? Give one example. . .

1.6 LET US SUM UP

Carbohydrates are substances which contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen They are divided into three main classes, monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed. E.g. glucose, fructose. Disaccharides are made by combination of two monosaccharides by glycosidic linkages. E.g. lactose glucose and galactose. Polysaccharides are made by combination of many monosaccharides by glycosidic bonds. Reducing Sugars are those sugars with free aldehyde or ketone group. Except sucrose all are reducing sugars. Maltose is called as malt sugar. It is an intermediate in acid hydrolysis of starch, further when maltose is treated with enzyme maltose forms 2 glucose monomers. Lactose is milk sugar and found in appreciable quantities in milk other extent of about 5% and occur at body temperature as a mixture of and form. Ordinary table sugar is sucrose. It is also called cane sugar - one which is obtained from sugarcane and also beet sugar - one which is obtained from sugar beet. It is also found in most fruit and vegetables. E.g.: pineapples and carrots.

1.7 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Make Album of Various structures of Carbohydrates.

1.8 KEYWORDS
Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides simple sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed. E.g. glucose, fructose. Disaccharides: Disaccharides made by combination of two monosaccharides by glycosidic linkages. E.g. lactose glucose and galactose.

Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are monosaccharides by glycosidic bonds.

made

by

combination

of

many

17 Carbohydrates

Lactose: Lactose is milk sugar and found in appreciable quantities in milk other extent of about 5% and occur at body temperature as a mixture of and form. Sucrose: Ordinary table sugar is sucrose. It is also called cane sugar- one which is obtained from sugarcane and also beet sugar - one which is obtained from sugar beet. It is also found in most fruit and vegetables. E.g.: pineapples and carrots.

1.9 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Describe in detail the classification and functions of Carbohydrates. 2. Explain the importance of Monosaccharides. 3. Explain the formation of sucrose.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

1. Classification: They are divided into three main classes, monosaccharide, disaccharides and polysaccharides. (i) Monosaccharides: Simple sugars which cannot be further hydrolyzed. E.g. glucose, fructose. (ii) Disaccharides: Made by combination of two monosaccharides by glycosidic linkages. E.g. lactose glucose and galactose. (iii) Polysaccharides: Made by combination of many monosaccharides by glycosidic bonds. 2. Maltose is called as malt sugar. It is an intermediate in acid hydrolysis of starch, further when maltose is treated with enzyme maltose forms 2 glucose monomers. 3. Ordinary table sugar is sucrose. It is also called cane sugar - one which is obtained from sugarcane and also beet sugar - one which is obtained from sugar beet. It is also found in most fruit and vegetables. E.g.: pineapples and carrots.

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Lubert Stryer, Biochemistry, 4th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York. Robert K. Munay and Daryl K. Granner, A large medical Book-Hapers Biochemistry, 24th Edition, Prentice Hall International Inc., Pattabiraman, T.N, Principles of BioChemistry, Gajanana Book Publisher and Distributors.