Detailed Town Planning Study Material Madras University

TOWN PLANNING AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
COMPILED BY CT.LAKSHMANAN B.Arch., M.C.P.
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What is Town planning?
The art and science of ordering the use of land and siting of buildings and communication routes so as to secure the maximum practicable degree of economy, convenience, and beauty. An attempt to formulate the principles that should guide us in creating a civilized physical background for human life whose main impetus is thus foreseeing and guiding change. An art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of the town creating buildings and environments to meet the various needs such as social, cultural, economic and recreational etc. and to provide healthy conditions for both rich and poor to live, to work, and to play or relax, thus bringing about the social and economic well-being for the majority of mankind. Planning is a process of helping a community, identify its problems and its central values, formulating goals and alternative approaches to achieving community objectives, and avoiding undesired consequences of change. This process of planning results in frameworks for coping with change. Some are physical elements such as streets, roads, and sewer lines. Some are concepts that serve as guides to action, such as the goal of becoming a major distribution center or of encouraging investment in the core of the city. Some are regulatory, reflecting the desires of the community to encourage good development and discourage bad development. A city should be built to give its inhabitants security and happiness Aristotle A place where men had a common life for a noble end Plato
What do planners do?
Planners deal with the fact that human communities are always in the process of changing. The consequences of this change can be chaotic and destructive, or enhancing. It is the planner's task to help communities cope with this steady growth, change, and renewal in ways that will maintain-and improve-the community's quality of life. Planners recognize the complexity of communities. As with natural environments, human communities are strengthened by diversity. One task is to help communities become even more diverse, broadening the variety of employment, educational, cultural, entertainment, shopping, and housing opportunities and promoting a broad range of land uses, income levels, and types of people. Another task is to help communities deal with the clashes of interest produced by such variety and turn these differences into a positive force for constructive change. Planners share a concern about the future, a belief that something can be done about bettering our human-made and natural environments, and the recognition that planning, with relevant implementing tools, is the best method available for communities to achieve this.
Notes on Town planning and Human settlements
Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.
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Aims and objectives of town planning The main objectives of the town planning may be summarised in three words viz. Health, Convenience and Beauty 1. Health :

To create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the people rich and poor, to live, to work, to play or relax To make right use of the land for the right purpose by proper division of land called zoning such as residential, commercial industrial, institutional and recreational etc. in order to avoid the encroachment of one zone upon other for smooth and orderly development of the town or city without causing future conflicts.
2. Convenience :
The object of convenience is meant in the form of various needs of the community such as social, economic, cultural and recreational amenities etc. Public amenities required for the proper upkeep of the citizens include water supply, sanitation, electricity, post, telegraph, gas etc., proper sites for industrial, commercial, business enterprises to encourage them in trade with cheap power, transport services, drainage etc. Recreational amenities include open spaces, parks, gardens and playgrounds, for children and town halls stadiums, community centers, cinema houses, and theatres for adults.
3. Beauty :

To preserve the individuality of the town by developing it on its most suited natural conditions To preserve the aesthetics in the design of all elements of town or city plan, which includes preservation of trees, natural greenery, improved types of domestic buildings and buildings of civic dignity and beauty, architectural control on public as well as semipublic buildings, ancient architectural buildings, temples, churches, mosques and buildings of cultural and historical importance.
FORMS OF PLANNING According to planning authority, the planning is divided into the following categories: 1. Local planning 2. Country planning 3. Regional planning 4. National planning 5. International planning 1. Local planning It is largely influenced by the economic conditions for the development of the town. Keeping in view of these, the development plan is prepared. The population is spread over the town uniformly keeping the density of population as low as possible. Zones are formed and traffic regulations are maintained.
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2. Country planning The country is allowed to develop in an orderly manner and on pre-determined lines. There should be no haphazard methods in the planning. The town should be linked with the surrounding villages by suitable transport facilities. Scope should be given to village industries in the form of poultry farms, dairies, weaving industries maintaining a proper balance with the agriculture in the village development scheme. 3. Regional planning Regional planning means planning of a much larger unit than a town called region. The planning is done more or less on the same principles of town planning. Region includes the territory lying within easy reach such as 15 to 50 km and containing number of villages and town ships. The regional planning helps to develop the region in a coordinated manner. It deals with planning of regional highways, regional transport, regional water supply, drainage etc. It also takes into account the overall development of towns, villages in the region and provides sites for new towns for rehabilitation for the displaced persons from the main city. 4. National planning The planning process is done on a national level. It considers the resources, potentialities in different fields of the nation as a whole. It helps to utilize the national resources in the best possible way for the development of the nation. Works of national importance such as Railways, Irrigation, Heavy industries, hydroelectric works come under National Planning. Our various five-year plans can serve as an example of National Planning. 5. International planning International planning came into existence with the establishment of United Nations Organisations or UNO. It aims at promoting co-operation, goodwill among different nations of the world. UNO has appointed various agencies to conduct the surveys in different fields of human life, like health, housing , food, education etc. and to provide suitable solutions to these problems at international level. PLANNING PROCESS: All stages of actions from defining the objectives till implementation and review of any planning project in the planning process. In plan preparation, the physical planning should associate with the socio-economical, geographical, political factors, for achieving the objective in desired direction. The various stages of planning process is as follows: 1. Identification and definition of problems 2. Defining the objectives 3. Studies and survey 4. Analysis of data and preparation of study maps 5. Fore-casting 6. Design 7. Fixation of priorities 8. Implementation 9. Review, evaluation and feedback 1. Identification and definition of problems : Various problems with reference to the results obtained by studies and surveys and with reference to the objectives are identified
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2. Defining the objectives : Here the objectives of the planning are identified. The general objectives of any planning of urban area is To regulate growth to nullify the bad effects of past growth to improve the transportation facilities to optimize the resources utilization to balance population and economic activities to promote social integration among different categories to promote a convenient comfortable, beautiful and healthy environment. 3. Studies and survey : The following studies and surveys are taken up for plan preparation. Identification of growth (physical, economical, social, cultural, institutional, administrative and political) Identification of trend and direction of growth Traffic survey Study on demography Climate Resources and other potentials Certain surveys and studies have to be made directly where as for study of demography etc. the secondary sources of information have to be depended upon. 4. Analysis of data and preparation of study maps : The data obtained is analysed observations and conclusions have to be derived out of the studies and surveys. The short-term objectives and long-term objectives are identified various study maps, charts and graphs are prepared 5. Fore-casting : Period of demographic projection is prescribed. Forecasting of about migration, employment, industrialization and other rapid urbanization possibilities are to be made. 6. Design : This is an important aspect in the planning process. Need to relate existing pattern, interactions and tends is to be examined. Preparation of development plans, formulation of zones, alteration to the existing zoning regulations, widening of roads etc. are made in detail here. Alternatives are also made for effective and quick implementation of plan. The plan should also be able to cope with sudden and unexpected events. Possibility of changing from one strategy to another should be designed at the same time keeping in view its practicability and the total expenditure involved. 7. Fixation of priorities : Since all the proposals cannot be taken up at one time due to financial and administrative difficulties, priorities should be fixed for taking up the implementation depending upon the importance and urgency. 8. Implementation : Implementation is the most important stage where all the earlier efforts to prepare plan is to be put into practice to achieve the objectives. The authority, which takes up the implementation, is to fulfill all the required legal obligations in time zoning regulations, land acquisition for road widening and for other purposes is taken-up.
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9. Review, evaluation and feedback : The work of implementation has to be monitored by taking up periodical inspections and obtaining review reports. Feedback is essential periodically. The plan should be flexible for modifications depending upon the necessities. SYSTEMS OF TOWN PLANNING IN INDIA INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION Carbon test of the excavations reveals the approximate period of this civilization was 3000 B.C. or earlier. Mohenjodara No fortification Major streets in the N-S direction Broadly at right angles Streets within built-up areas were narrow Zoning was distinct for distinct groups, commerce at the meeting of east road and first street, near palace Three broad divisions of the settlement: o The religious, institutional and cultural areas - around monastery and great bath in the western part including temple. o The northern part - principally for agriculture and industries o The southern part principally for administration, trade and commerce Construction technique was very well advanced: o Buildings were of masonry construction (sun-dried bricks) o Ranging from two rooms to mansions with many rooms o Underground sewerage and drainage from houses o Pumps (helical) to pump water in great bath o Principal buildings were monastery and bath indicating the influence of religion as a culture (not for defense) Development of art and craft, science and technology: excellent way of adjustment to contours EXTRACTS FROM CHANAKYAS ARTHASHASTRA Some interesting extracts relating to Town and Country planning in Arthashastra composed by Chanakya in the Maurya period is given below: Regional considerations: Town, which is congested, should be freed of surplus population, which should then be housed in a new place. The towns should be so situated as they would be in a position to help each other. There should be a sangrahan among ten villages, a sarvatik among two hundred, a dronamukh among four hundred and a sthaniya among eight hundred villages. People who come to stay at the time of a new settlement or those who come to reside later in this new settlement should be exempted from payment of taxes for some years. In the new village there should be higher proportion of agriculturists and shudras. There should be a market provided for the sale of goods received from traders on highways. Dams should be constructed over rivers nalas. Temples and gardens should be provided. Arrangements should be made for looking after the aged, the children and informal persons. Cereals and wealth will grow if the agriculturists are kept busy. Attempts should be made to protect and increase quarries, forests and canals.
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Town planning: A city should be located in the central part of a country so as to facilitate trade and commerce. The site selected for the purpose of this city should be quite large in area, and on the banks of a river, or by the side of an artificial or natural lake, which never goes dry. Its shape should be circular, rectangular or square as would suit the topography. There should be water on all sides. Separate areas should be provided for marketing different goods. There should be a wall around the town, which should be six dandas high and twelve dandas wide. Beyond this wall there should be three moats of 14 feet, 12 feet and 10 feet wide to be constructed four arm-lengths apart. The depth should be three-fourth of width. Three-east west and three North south roads, should divide the town. The main roads should be eight dandas wide and other roads four dandas wide. The palace should be in the central part. It should face either north or east. The houses of priests and ministers should be on the south-east, traders, skilled workers, and kshatriyas on the east, the treasury, goldsmiths and industries on the south, forest produce on the northeast and doctors city fathers, army commander, artists, on the south. Temples should be located in the center of the town. Cemeteries should be located on the north and east of the town, that for the higher caste to be located on the south. The depressed classes should be housed beyond cemetery. There should be one well for every group of ten houses. MANASARA VASTUSHASTRA Another elaborate treatise on town planning in ancient India. It is perhaps of a later date about 6th century A.D. There are several chapters in this book on town planning and construction of buildings. One interesting feature however deserves special mention. There are eight different types of towns and villages according to the shapes: Dandaka Sarvathobhadra Nandyavarta Padmaka Swastika Prastara Karmuka Chaturmukha Dandaka Dandaka type of town plan provides for two main entrance gates and is generally adopted for the formation of small towns and villages, the village offices being located in the east. The female deity of the village or the chamadevata will generally be located outside the village and the male deities in the northern portion. sarvathobhadra This type of town plan is applicable to larger villages and towns, which have to be constructed on a square sites. According to this plan, the whole town should be fully occupied by houses of various descriptions and inhabited by all classes of people. The temple dominates the village. Nandyavarta This plan is commonly used for the construction of towns and not for villages. It is generally adopted for the sites either circular or square in shape, with not less than three thousand houses, but not more than four thousand. The streets run parallel to the central adjoining streets with the temple of the presiding deity in the center of the town. Nandyavarta is the name of a flower, the form of which is followed in this layout.
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Padmaka This type of plan was practiced for building of the towns with fortress all round. The pattern of the plan resembles the petals of lotus radiating outwards from the center. The city used to be practically an island surrounded by water, having no scope for expansion Swastika Swastika type of plan contemplates some diagonal streets dividing the site into certain triangular plots. The site need not be marked out into a square or rectangle and it may be of any shape. A rampart wall surrounds the town, with a moat at its foot filled with water. Two main streets cross each other at the center, running south to north and west to east. Prastara The characteristic feature of this plan is that the site may be either square or rectangular but not triangular or circular. The sites are set apart for the poor, the middle class, the rich and the very rich, the sizes of the sites increasing according to the capacity of each to purchase or build upon. The main roads are much wider compared to those of other patterns. The town may or may not be surrounded by a fort. Karmuka This plan is suitable for the place where the site of the town is in the form of a bow or semi-circular or parabolic and mostly applied for towns located on the seashore or riverbanks. The main streets of the town run from north to south or east to west and the cross streets run at right-angles to them, dividing the whole area into blocks. The presiding deity, commonly a female deity, is installed in the temple build in any convenient place. chaturmukha Chaturmukha type of plan is applicable to all towns starting from the largest town to the smallest village. The site may be either square or rectangular having four faces. The town is laid out east to west lengthwise, with four main streets. The temple of the presiding deity will be always at the center. MEDIEVAL PERIOD The Vijayanagar Civilization: The silver spot of India and especially for the Hindus during the medieval period was the emergence of Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar, on the banks of the Tungabhadra, established in the fourteenth century, it played an important role in the social and cultural history of south India, for about three centuries out of which the earlier two hundred years were years of glory. The ruler of vijayanagar was Krishna Dev Raya (1599 1529). People loved and respected him. Foreigners admired him. During his time, vijayanagar kingdom reached climax of its power and glory. Vijaynagar Town was beautiful with temples, palaces, and gardens. Sculpture and painting rose of great heights as could be seen from ruins of Hampi. The population of the Town was more than five lakhs. The Bazaars were rich and full of all commodities; many articles of jewellery and precious stones were sold. Encouragement was given to Sanskrit literature. Sayanacharya wrote commentaries on Rigveda. MUGHAL PERIOD In contrast to the builders of cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa or the Hindu sthapatis who right down to modern times designed villages upon a magic grid diagram, Islamic architects frequently left the layout of streets to chance or allowed this to develop organically as the settlement grew in size.
Notes on Town planning and Human settlements Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.
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It was not until the sixteenth century that one Islamic ruler in India, the great Mughal Akbar, took on the task of planning an entire residential town, comprising palaces, Mosques, or travelers bungalow etc. His old residence of Agra could not be expanded any further owing to the unfavourable terrain and dusty jumble of houses. Hence he decided to move his residence from Agra to an n auspicious mountain, Sikri where a hermit named salim chisti was residing. Fatehpur sikri Fatehpur sikri had a rectangular town hall with it longer side running parallel to the line of the ridge. Along its axis i.e., from northeast to southwest ran the principle thoroughfare, which led to the highest part of the ridge where the palace stood. A wall only on three sides to the northeast in enclosed the town fronted on a lake, formed artificially in some low-lying ground by damming a river. Today the lake had dried up and the houses of the townsfolk on either side of the ridge have disappeared. For shortage of water compelled the emperor and his suite to leave these buildings after they had been occupied for less than two decades. The plan shows that all the buildings do not fit in with the general orientation of the town. The caravan serais, mint, treasury and baths, located on the hillside follow the natural contours i.e., the axis of the town. The mosque had to be oriented towards Mecca. Since the plateau extends from the southwest to the northeast and the ideal orientation ran from north to south, the different courts had to be staggered one behind the other. Town of Shahjahanabad (Delhi) Shah Jahan after acceding to the throne began to look for suitable terrain on which to build a new residence. Since in summer it was intolerably hot, it was impossible to return to the ruins of the old towns at Delhi, since they were too cramped. Fatehpur sikri was also out of the question, since there was no way of remedying the water shortage. The court astrologers, who although Hindus exerted a considerable influence, though they had found auspicious terrain on the west bank of the Jumna, to the north of the towns of Old Delhi. The construction of Red Fort, lasted for nine years without interruption. Shah Jahan was an orthodox Muslim. Unlike Akbar, he did not sympathise with other religions, and correspondingly did not allow his architects to choose between different spatial concepts. During Akbars reign architecture was as flexible as the sovereigns outlook on the world; Shah Jahans architecture was as simple as his orthodox beliefs. The site plan of the Red Fort is characterized by emphasis on the axial relationship between successive courts. The Red Fort at Delhi was evidently planned as a rectangle with sides in the proportion 3:4; in the east it fronts on the River Jumna, but since an arm of the river would have formed an acute angle with the north wall, the architect preferred to include this triangular area within the walls of the fort. Only this reason does the wall have an irregular shape. The southern corners of the rectangle formed by the walls are cut off; corresponding recesses in the north - western and north - eastern corners. The palace was divided by its east-west axis into a northern and a southern part, in the proportion 1:1. The visitor enters the fort along this main axis, on which lie the reception courts. Perpendicular to this it was planned to build a long bazaar, extending from the south gate to another one in the north; this bazaar divides the palace in the proportion 1:2. Since the north wall lay along the riverbank, there could be no north gate and the bazaar from the start lacked the connection it needed with one of the streets of the town. The northern part of the bazaar thus formed a blind alley; whether it was ever completed or used is open to doubt.
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The area west of the large bazaar, was reserved for the servants and soldiers quarters. At the point where the north-south and east-west axis intersects there is a square court, still accessible to the public. In the eastern periphery of the fort, on the east-west axis, lie the emperors private apartments, which form a second axis running from north to south; without exception they are oriented towards the Jumna - recalling a similar alignment in the fort at Agra. Between the northern part of the bazaar and the imperial chambers there were gardens and offices; to the north of the gardens lay the houses of princes. South of the east-west axis lay the zenana area. Hence in Mughal period cities like Agra, Delhi was re-developed. Fatehpur sikri was entirely planned. Fortification was strengthened in Bijapur, Lucknow. They built many forts in places like Agra, Delhi and developed beautiful ornamental gardens popularly known as Mughal Gardens some of them are still in good conditions, for e.g. Kabul Bagh at panipat by Babur, Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh by shah Jahan, Lal Bagh by Haider Ali. In the same period, other rulers also built beautiful cities like Jaipur and Vijayanagar with new concepts of town planning. PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD OR BRITISH PERIOD The British people started independent colonies on the outskirts of the existing towns, which they considered as unhealthy. These extensions were known as cantonments and barracks for the military occupied area and civil lines for the residence of the civilians and well-to-do people. At first they adopted straight roads for streets planning but no larger town planning schemes were taken. However, in the first decade of 20th century, they took up the outstanding work of building of New Delhi. The new capital of India. The plan was prepared on modern town planning principles by an eminent town planner sir Edwin Lutyens, assisted by Baker. The capital group of building like Government House, council hall, and secretariat were designed. Industrial buildings were separated from residential sector and arranged around the commercial and civic buildings. It was more a planning and designing of Administrative center than a new town as such, and was mostly copied from their experience back home. POST INDEPENDENCE PERIOD The British had presumably planted their flags, paraded their troops, made their money, and disappeared without causing so much as a ripple of disturbance in the profound depths of the Indian soul (villages and rural areas) 75 % of Indias 700 million people still live in agricultural villages. The then Prime Minister Nehru once stated that the fundamental problem of India is not Delhi or Calcutta or Bombay but the villages of India. National planning policies of the newly independent Indian Government strongly emphasized the improvement of the dominant rural sector. Yet the westernized metropolises bequeathed by colonialism could hardly be ignored far from rejecting westernization, many Indians persisted in equating it with progress, optimistically anticipating an era of technical advancement and industrial prosperity. In India, the socialist orientation of the government made it strongly receptive to the concept of large-scale planning and its first five-year plan called for a national town and country-planning act. Individual states were empowered to planning legislation as well as machinery for its implementation. Administrative progress was slow because of lack of Indian town planners. To remedy this, the government encouraged the establishment of academic programs in this field and thus in 1949 a department of Architecture and country planning was created by the Bengal
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Engineering College. The Department of architecture and Regional planning begun in 1955 by IIT kharagpur. The school of Town and country planning was established by the government in New Delhi and was subsequently attached to the University of Delhi as school of planning and Architecture. In the years following independence, Indias major cities were subjected to numerous studies, surveys, projection recommendations, and long-range plans. Planning documents, frequently prepared with the help of foreign consultants, reflected attempts to summarize information, analyses problems and suggest directions for future urban development. A series of tentative planning efforts culminated in the establishment of Development Authorities in metropolitan cities of Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Dominant in western planning at this time was the concept of decentralization through regional development. It was hoped that through systems such a planned satellite towns, excessive congestion could be avoided and balanced patterns of residence and employment established. A particular focus of attention among planners in the 1950 was the New towns program in Britain, where the growth of London was guided by means of a green belt surrounded by a series of new urban centers. Many industrial towns were planned after Post Independence period. A few of these are 1. Steel towns

Durgapur Bhilai Rourkela Salem
West Bengal Madya pradesh Orissa Tamil Nadu Bihar Karnataka Gujarat Union territory Gujarat
2. Industrial towns Jamshedpur Bhadravati Gandhinagar 3. Capital cities Chandigarh Gandhinagar
Apart from this, the four metropolis were re-designed to suite the present conditions. It is significant to note that the well-known town planner Sir Patrick Geddes (1854 1932) visited India in 1915 to advice the Governor of Madras, Lord Pentland. On the replanning and redevelopment of some of the old towns. It was owing to his efforts and series of lectures delivered by him in different cities of India that planning was interpreted as not only planning of streets and good houses, but also planning for the people who live in them, for their economic and social ways and for their ambition and aspirations. He gave his expert advice for the improvement of about 18 major towns in India. He insisted that a correct diagnosis should be made of evil effects from which the town suffers and then to prescribe the remedies to improve such town. In India, the various states have passed town-planning act to enforce town-planning actions. The main sources of all these T.P. Acts are the English Town Planning Act of 1909. The main provision of the English Town Planning Act of 1909 is that local authorities are given power to prepare and to enforce town-planning schemes on open lands in the city and on its fringes.
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QUESTIONS
PART A 1. 2. 3. 4. PART B 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Discuss the evolution of town planning systems in India What are the levels of Planning? Discuss Planning is an interdisciplinary and cyclic process Elaborate Enunciate the principles of planning adopted in planning the medieval towns of India. Human settlement planning is an interdisciplinary and cyclic process Discuss. What are the objectives of planning? Name the stages of planning process. Explain briefly the various stages of planning process. Write a few lines about planning system in India. What do you understand by Physical planning and spatial planning?
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SIR EBENEZER HOWARD (1850-1928) A well-known sociologist, who after studying the industrialist evils in Britain gave the concept of Garden City, It soon became the landmark in the history of town planning. He had an idea which he set forth in little book entitled To-morrow, published in 1898 which later republished under the title of Garden City of To-morrow. He explained his idea of Garden City by an impressive diagram of The Three Magnets namely the town magnet, country magnet with their advantages and disadvantages and the third magnet with attractive features of both town and country life. Naturally people preferred the third one namely Garden City. It made a deep impression in the field of town planning. GARDEN CITY A town designed for healthy living and industry. Town of a size that makes possible a full measure of social life, but not larger Land will remain in a single ownership of the community or held in trust for the community. Not a colony, but a complete working city of population about 30,000 A large central park containing public buildings Central park surrounded by a shopping street Central park and shopping street are surrounded by dwellings in all directions at density of 12 families / acre The outer circle of factories and industries The whole is surrounded by a permanent green belt of 5000 acres The town area is of about 1000 acres In 1899, the garden city association was formed. In 1903 Letch worth started, 35 miles from London, town area: about 500 acres, designed for 35,000 persons, 3,000 acres of green belt. By 1947 it had about 16,000 populations and about 100 factories. In 1920 Welwyn started, 2400 acres, 40000 persons design capacity. By 1947, it had about 18,000 population and 70 factories. By keeping the land in single ownership, the possibility of speculation and overcrowding would be eliminated and the increment of value created by the community in the industrial and commercial (shops) sets would be preserved for it-self. It was a thorough going experiment based on middle-class consumers cooperation Howards general principles, including the communal ownership of the land and the permanent green belt have been carried through on both cases, and the garden cities have been a testing ground for technical and planning improvements which have later influenced all English, American, Canadian and Australian planning, particularly in housing.
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PATRICK GEDDES A Scot who has been called the father of modern town planning, Geddes did much of his pioneering work in the Old Town of Edinburgh, having made his married home there in 1886. Geddes name and spirit are imperishably associated with Ramsay Garden and the Outlook Tower, both in Castle hill. Geddes was concerned with the relationship between people and cities and how they affect one another. He emphasized that people do not merely needed shelter, but also food and work, the recreation and social life. This makes the house an inseparable part of the neighbourhood, the city and the surrounding open country and the region. The town planning primarily meant establishing organic relationship among Folk, place and work, which corresponds to triad (Geddesian triad) of organism, function and environment. FOLK i.e. organism (Social aspect) WORK i.e. function (Economical aspect) PLACE i.e. environment (Physical aspect)
Cities in Evolution published in 1915 essence of the book city beautiful movement and too many small schemes here and there like garden cities were only poor examples of town planning. In this book he coined the term Conurbation to describe the waves of population inflow to large cities, followed by overcrowding and slum formation, and then the wave of backflow the whole process resulting in amorphous sprawl, waste, and unnecessary obsolescence. True rural development, true urban planning, true city design have little in common and repeating the same over all the three was disastrous and economically wasteful Each valid scheme should and must embody the full utilization of its local and regional conditions Geddes was the originator of the idea and technique of Regional survey and city survey The sequence of planning is to be: 1. Regional survey 2. Rural development 3. Town planning 4. City design These are to be kept constantly up to-date In 1911 he created a milestone exhibition, Cities and Town Planning, which was studied appreciatively not only throughout Britain but also abroad. From 1920-23 he was Professor of Civics and Sociology at the University of Bombay, and in 1924 he settled at Montpellier, in France. He died there in 1932, having been knighted that year.
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The Outlook Tower
Interpreters House - Index Museum - Sociological Laboratory Patrick Geddes took over the building formerly known as Shorts Observatory in 1892. From the Prospect Roof of the Outlook Tower are spectacular views across the Firth of Forth and the surrounding city region. Positioned at the top of the Edinburghs High Street, it still holds the camera obscura, which refracts an image onto a white table within, for study and survey. A mirror at the top of the dome picks up images and reflects then through a lens which in turn focuses the picture onto a white surface as on a film in a camera. The tower was conceived as a tool for regional analysis, index-museum and the worlds first sociological laboratory. It represents the essence of Geddess thought - his holism, visual thinking, and commitment to understanding the city in the region. He said of it: Our greatest need today is to conceive life as a whole, to see its many sides in their proper relations, but we must have a practical as well as a philosophic interest in such an integrated view of life. Hence the first contribution of this Tower towards understanding life is purely visual, for from here everyone can make a start towards seeing completely that portion of the world he can survey. He can also grasp what a natural region actually is and how a great city is linked to such a region. Now the tower is home to the Patrick Geddes Centre For Planning Studies, where an archive and exhibition are housed. PATRICK GEDDES IN INDIA He came to India in 1915 at the invitation of Lord Pent land, the then Governor of Madras. He gave his expert advice for the improvement of about eighteen major towns in India. He laid emphasis on Survey before plan i.e. diagnosis before treatment to make a correct diagnosis of various ills from which the town suffers and then prescribe the correct remedies for its cure. These are the physical and social economic surveys. He was the first man who introduced the sociological concept in the town planning. Before coming to India, he had successfully overcome the horrors of Edinborough slums.
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LEWIS MUMFORD Wrote the book Culture of cities: 1938 He was a student of Patrick Geddes Advocate of Neighbourhood unit The convenient walking distance determines size for children between the furthest house and the school and playground in which a major part of their activities are focused. The need there is isolating school and home from the noise of traffic and its dangers. No major traffic arteries must run through, they may exist at the boundaries. Whatever traffic enters into the neighbourhood, must be that which sub serves it directly, moving at a pace that respects the pedestrians. Neighbourhood concept is almost universally accepted today at least in principle. The only difference is in terms of its size, the nature and extent of the physical boundary and on the character of housing within the unit. A large order of putting school at the central position. Need of adequate organization of the school activities and its incorporation as an inseparable part of the unit.
CLARENCE A. PERRY One of the earliest authorities to attempt a definition of the neighborhood in fairly specific terms was Clarence A. Perry. He said The underlying principle of the scheme is that an urban neighbourhood should regarded both as a unit of larger whole and as a distinct entity in itself. There are certain other facilities, functions or aspects that are strictly local and peculiar to a well arranged-Residential community. They may be classified under four heads: (1) The elementary school (2) small parks and playgrounds (3) local shops and (4) residential environment other neighbourhood institutions and services are sometimes found, but there are practically universal. He laid down the fundamental elements on which he intended the neighbourhood unit should be based size, boundaries open spaces, institutional sites, local shops and internal road system. Its six basic principles were: 1. The size should be related to the catchment area of an elementary school. 2. The residential area should be bounded on all sides by arterial streets; there should be no through traffic. 3. There should be ample provision of small parks and play areas. 4. There should be a central point to the neighbourhood containing the school and other services. 5. District shops should be located on the periphery, thus serving approximately four neighbourhoods. 6. There should be a hierarchy of streets facilitating access but discouraging through traffic.
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DOXIADIS, CONSTANTINOS A Constantinos A Doxiadis (1913 1975) was born in Bulgaria of Greek parentage. He grew up in a Greek community and was educated in Athens. He was particularly interested in town planning, and his thesis on the discovery of the geometric properties used in laying out the public buildings of ancient Greece was highly acclaimed by scholars for its originality. While in Berlin, Doxiadis became more and more interested in large-scale planning using multi disciplinary approach and philosophy and dealing with built forms as well as systems. After his studies in Berlin, Doxiadis returned to Greece to work as an architect and city planner. His first post was Director of town planning studies in Athens. In 1959 he founded Doxiadis associates, a consulting and engineering firm in Athens. Since its inception, the firm has provided engineering, architectural and planning consultation in over 30 countries. The firm has been involved in the coastal redevelopment of Greece, the urban and rural renewal of Iraq and many other planning assignments In US, Doxiadis Associates has developed regional renewal projects for Washington, Cincinnati, Ohio and Detroit, Michigan. Doxiadis most important contribution to architectural and planning thought was the development of ekistics. The attempt to arrive at a proper conception and implementation of the facts, concepts and ideas related to human settlements, and the attempt to re-examine all principles and theories and to readjust the disciplines and professions connected with settlements, led to the need for a special discipline of human settlements, the discipline of Ekistics. Ekistics is the study of human settlement, which examines not only built forms, but also the interface of time, movements and systems in the built environment. It is an integrative body of knowledge organized into a cohesive system. Doxiadis saw ekistics as an intellectual approach to balance the convergence of the past, present, and future in human settlements as well as a system for creatively coping with the growth of population, rapid change and the pressures of large-scale, high-density housing. Doxiadis said It is only the beginning since the problems we are facing are not only multiple, but also acutely urgent, characteristic of the critical situation which human settlements have now entered. If we wait for the proper development of a science of human settlements, we may find ourselves overwhelmed by the rising tide of the problems. We may even lose the battle for such a science since humanity may find no use of systematic theoretical thinking in a period of panic tension. Since one of the major problem faced was the merging of settlements into much larger and complicated organisms, Doxiadis at the Athens center of Ekistics was working on an attempt to foresee where human settlements are going in the future. It seems that they will merge into everlarger groupings, which will become a continuous universal settlement, the universal city or Ecumenopolis. Doxiadis said When we try to classify the settlements according to their dimensions, we will soon realise that they do not belong to easily definable categories of sizes but spread over the whole spectrum of possible sizes. Any such division will, therefore, have to be somewhat arbitrary, but it must also be an inherently satisfying and reasonable one. Such a division has been worked out on the basis of empirical experience and is presented in a logarithmic scale. The smallest unit of measurement is Man. He does not form a settlement in himself since he is one of its elements, but he does have a shell (his clothing is the smallest possible human shell and personal furniture plays the same role) and he is the Basic and indispensable unit of measurement. The second smallest unit is a normal room. From this we go to a dwelling, a group of several dwellings, a small neighbourhood, a neighbourhood, a small town, a town, a city, a metropolis, a conurbation, a megalopolis, an urban region, an urbanized continent, until, finally, we reach the largest conceivable space for a settlement, which is the whole Earth.
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This Ekistics Logarithmic Scale (ELS) can be presented graphically in several ways. One way is on the basis of the areas covered by the different units(area ELS), another way is on the basis of the number of people corresponding to each unit (population ELS). The ELS consist of 15 Ekistics units ranging from Man to Ecumenopolis and these units in turn belong to four basic groups Minor shells, or elementary units (man, room, house) Micro-settlements, the units smaller than, or as small as, the traditional town where people used to and still do achieve interconnection by walking Meso-settlements, between the traditional town and the conurbation within which one can commute daily Macro-settlements, whose largest possible expression is the Ecumenopolis.
LE CORBUSIER In the early twenties, Le Corbusier realized that many cities around the world were on the brink of an urban implosion due to poor design, inadequate housing and inefficient transportation. He studied these problems and advised bold new solutions. His theories helped shape the planning of many cities of the world, and the influence they exerted on a new generation of architects and planners is legendary. o He conceived plans for Algiers, Nemours, the university city of Brazil, Buenos Aires (Argentina), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Barcelona (Spain), Geneva( Switzerland), Stockholm (Sweden) and Antwerp (Belgium) His plans for cities were the result of a detailed analysis of three major urban factors roads, housing and open spaces. He felt that roads should be arranged on the grid iron pattern with minimum crossings. Consequently, segregation of different forms of traffic was inevitable. He recommended skyscrapers for commercial and residential purposes, surrounded by large open spaces or parks. He claimed that on an average nearly 90 percent of the ground area of his modern city would consist of open spaces encompassing residential areas. He called his city One Great Park with a lot of greenery around the buildings. LA VILLE CONTEMPORAINE (CONCENTRIC CITY) The city of Tomorrow for 30,00,000 people was proposed by Le Corbusier in 1922, which was based on four principles : 1. 2. 3. 4. Decongestion of the centers of cities Augmentation of the density Enlargement of the means of circulation Increase in the number of parks and open spaces
Gross FAR = 60x 5% = 3 Net FAR excluding roads = 4 Average floor space = 100 sq. ft/person
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This scheme was a city of magnificent skyscraper towers surrounded by broad and sweeping open space. The city was a huge park. Sixty-story office buildings accommodating 1,200 people per acre and covering only 5% of the ground area were grouped in the heart of the city The hub of the plan is the transportation centre for motor, and rail lines, the roof of which is the air field. Main highways are elevated. Surrounding the skyscrapers was the apartment district, eight-story buildings arranged in zigzag rows with broad open spaces about them, the density of population being 120 persons per acre. Lying about the outskirts were the garden cities of single-family houses. The residential zone contains schools, shopping centers, and recreational facilities. The background of ville contemporaine : philosophy of Le Corbusier No matter how open and green, cities should be frankly urban, urban surroundings are to be definitely contrasting with rural surroundings Densities are in themselves not a problem. Congestion and slum conditions in the cities are due to excessive coverage, persistence of old street patterns and unrestricted land speculation Slums exist because of the failure to provide the proper surrounding for high density living still providing for classified street system, parking areas, adequate open spaces for parks, sport fields, and community services He protests against strict functionalism : Human creations that survive are those which produce emotions, and not those which are only useful Ville contemporaine is primarily a revolt against the irrational growth of contemporary cities. It is a plan for concentric city in which orderly, controlled elements replace the traditional pattern of the old metropolis PLAN VOISIN 1925 Above theories applied to a section of Paris The 60 story skyscraper office buildings are set in vast open space, main traffic highways are defined with complete separation of traffic and parking space for vehicles is provided. The plan is a rectangular arrangement of streets, but local and through traffic are distinctly separated, and the large open spaces are treated with informal pedestrian circulation and landscaped LA VILLE RADIEUSE 1930 THE RADIANT CITY The previous concentric plan is considerably revised to allow a normal organic growth for the city Now Le Corbusier comes to the belief that the essence of the city is the dwelling area Residential area occupies the most central location, with possible expansions to the right and left toward the open country. The civic center is on the main axis. The business area on the top Light manufacturing, freight yards and heavy industries at the bottom Traffic pattern an orthogonal system with super imposed diagonals
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Subway system shows an equal simplicity The density is here 400 people per acre Each residential block is 1300 ft. x 1300 ft. or about 40 acres 16000 people = one neighbourhood. Each block has stadium, swimming pool, tennis courts, schools and playgrounds
C.I.A.M. (CONGRESS INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE MODERNE) 1928 FRANCE The international congress of modern architects subjected the city to re-examination and posed four basic elements of the urban biology : Sun Space Vegetation Steel and concrete Le Corbusier assumed a leading role It affirmed that town planning is the organizations of functions of collective life this applies to both rural and urban settlements four functions of any settlement o dwelling o work o recreation o transportation, which connects the first three with one another. Le Corbusier organized in CIAM assembly of constructors, for an Architectural renovation ASCORAL (Assembly of Constructors for an Architectural Renewal) OF CIAM systematically studied the problems of construction, architecture and city planning. It resulted in the publication of The Three Human Establishments. The examination of working conditions in a mechanistic society led to the recognition of the utility and necessity of three unit establishments indispensable for human activity : i. The Farming unit the cooperative village : a unit for agricultural production ii. The linear industrial city iii. The radio concentric city - same as Radiant city (Ville Radieuse) for the exchange of goods and services. LINEAR INDUSTRIAL CITY THE LINEAR TOWN ; UNIT FOR INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION Leaving the evils of the sprawling town, the new industrial communities are located along the main arteries of transportation water, rail and highway connecting the existing cities. Factories are placed along the main arteries, separated from the residential section by the highway and a green strip The residential areas include the horizontal garden town of single houses and vertical apartment buildings with civic center. Sports, entertainments, shopping and office facilities are distributed in this district and all community facilities are placed within ample open space. Industries are placed at intervals along the highway and railway. The existing cities so connected remain as administrative, commercial and cultural centers.
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CHANDIGARH INDRODUCTION The city of Chandigarh was the culmination of Le corbusiers life. This city is like the man. It is not gentle. It is hard and assertive. It is not practical; it is riddled with mistakes made not in error but in arrogance. It is disliked by small minds, but not by big ones. It is unforgettable. The man who adored the Mediterranean has here found fulfillment, in the scorching heat of India. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, inspired the planners and builders of Chandigarh with the words. This shall be the new city of free India, totally fresh and wholly responsive to the aspirations of the future generations of this great country, and that the city shall be free from all shackles and shall be unfettered by the traditions of the past the city shall be so built and nurtured that it shall be a model for our glorious future growth of the country. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION It was bound by two seasonal choes, or rivulets, the patiali Rao and the Sukhna in the northwest and the south east respectively. It extends in the northeast right up to the foothills of the shivaliks. The region experiences extremes in the climate. The temperature could rise to 45 degrees in summer and drop to freezing point in winter. The direction of the prevalent winds is southeast to the northwest in summer and northwest to the southeast in winter. THE SITE After an extensive aerial survey, then the Capital Project Administrator, P.N. Thapar and Chief Engineer, P.L. Verma selected the sitea sub-mountainous area of the then Ambala district about 240 km north of New Delhi, the capital of the republic. The area was a flat, gently sloping plain of agricultural land dotted with groves of mango trees which marked the sites of 24 villages or hamletsone of which was named Chandigarh on account of its temple dedicated to the goddess. The general ground level of the site ranges from 305 to 366 meters with a 1 per cent grade giving adequate drainage. To the northeast are the foothills of the Himalayasthe Shivalik Range rising abruptly to about 1524 meters and a dramatic natural backdrop. One seasonal stream, the Patiali ki Rao, lies on the western side of the city and another, the Sukhna Choe, on the eastern side. A third, smaller seasonal stream flows through the very center of Chandigarh. The area along this streambed has been turned into a series of public gardens called the Leisure Valley. THE AMERICAN ARCHITECTS AND PLANNERS Although the city is now forever linked with the name of Le Corbusier, he was not the Government of Indias first choice. In the late 1940s very few Indian architects were professionally trained in town planning so it was necessary to look abroad for a man to carry out the Chandigarh scheme. The search led to the USA and Albert Mayer. Graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and founder of the large New York architectural firm of Mayer, Whittlesey and Glass, he was highly qualified for the job. Not only was he experienced, he was associated with American architects and thinkers Lewis Mumford and Clarence Stein. Mayer wasnt new to India. In December, 1949, when the Punjab government approached him for the Chandigarh project, he was already associated with a rural development project at Etawah (Uttar Pradesh), and preparation of master plans for Greater Bombay and Kanpur.
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Mayer was thrilled with the prospect of planning a brand-new city, and he accepted the assignment although it offered him a modest fee of $30,000 for the entire project. His brief was to prepare a master plan for a city of half a million people, showing the location of major roads and areas for residence, business, industry, recreation and allied uses. He was also to prepare detailed building plans for the Capitol Complex, City Centre, and important government facilities and architectural controls for other areas. On the advice of his friend Stein, Mayer inducted Matthew Nowicki. Nowicki was the head of the North Carolina State College School of Architecture. Soon, Mayer and Nowicki became the key American planners for Chandigarh. Mayer drew his inspiration for Chandigarh from a number of American residential projects, such as Steins Baldwin Hills, in Los Angeles, California, which were in turn influenced by the 19th century Garden City Movement of English architect Ebenezer Howard. The master plan as conceived by Mayer and Nowicki assumed a fan-shaped outline spreading gently to fill the site between two seasonal riverbeds. At the head of the plan was the Capitol , the seat of the state government, and the City Centre was located in the heart of the city. Two linear parklands could also be noticed running continuously from the northeast head of the plain to its southwestern tip. A curving network of main roads surrounded the neighborhood units called Super blocks. The first phase of the city was to be developed on the northeastern side to accommodate 150,000 residents and the second phase on the southwestern side for another 350,000 people. The proposed Super blocks were to be graded income wise in three density categories: 10, 30 and 40 persons per hectare. Mayer wanted a more democratic mix of housing types, and felt that the old practice of providing palatial bungalows for the elite needed rethinking as the services and open space provided to them would be at the expense of the have-nots living in the smaller houses. He also desired that most houses in the neighbourhood units should be located on the periphery, so that the central areas were left for playgrounds, parks and recreational areas. Mayer liked the variation of [Indian] streets, offsetting and breaking from narrow into wider and back and thought that they were appropriate to a land of strong sunlight, At the narrow points, his house design involved an inner courtyard for ventilation with small openings on the street side to protect privacy. We loved this little inner courtyard, Mayer wrote, for it seemed to us to bring the advantages of coolness and dignity into a quite small house. Another element in planning was to place a group of houses around a not very large court, with the ends somewhat narrowing, which could serve as a social uniti.e. a group of relatives or friends or people from the same locality might live there, with the central area for play, gossip, etc. The neighbourhood units were to contain schools and local shopping centres. The multi-mode transportation system was a major problem. Mayer tackled it by creating a threefold-system that segregated land use in the master plan; there were neighbourhoods and areas for business, industry and cultural activities. He also planned separate roads for incompatible types of traffic. Separate provisions were to be made for slow animal-drawn carts, for bicycles and pedestrians. Also he proposed to have a configuration of fast-traffic arterial roads with at least 400 meters distance between the two. He also favoured use of cul-de-sacs so that pedestrians and cyclists could move on paths through parks and green areas. Land was also to be reserved for future expansion of roads, parking areas etc.
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Although Mayers contract did not stipulate detailed architectural schemes, he felt that they could not isolate two-dimensional planning of the city from its architectural character. And it was left mainly to Nowicki his talented younger partner to sketch out conceptual schemes for the image of the city. For the legislative assembly, he evolved a form that took the shape of a parabolic dome inspired by the Indian stupa, symbolic motif of the sacred mountain. Nowicki was keen to end all his modern architectural creations with the Indian idiom of built form. He even endorsed the idea of the traditional home-cum-workplace of a small entrepreneur or artisan. His sketches indicate typical Indian features such as shops with platforms to sit on the floor, and overhanging balconies or awnings, with separate areas for hawkers. This house-cumworkplace had typical traditional features like brickwork jalis and screens to shield the windows from the hot summer winds. His conceptual sketches indicate curving streets, courtyards, and a delightful sequence of open and closed spaces - with ample use of water and greenery to soften the built forms. Quite appropriately the building materials of his choice was the good old brick, as it was the cheapest medium - a conclusion that holds true even now Providence had different designs. On August 31, 1950, Nowicki died in a plane crash. Mayer felt that he could not handle the monumental project alone and withdrew, severing the American connection with Chandigarh.
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LE CORBUSIERS MASTER PLAN The city was still entirely on paper. To translate this dream into brick and cement, the government would have to find another architect. The choice fell on Le Corbusier, an architect and urban theorist, many of whose ideas were at variance with those of Mayer and Nowicki. The other important members of his team were Pierre Jeanerette, Maxwell Fry, Jane Drew- and among the Indians notably U.E.Chowhury, N.S.Lamba, A.R.Prabhawalkar, Jeet Malhotra, B.P.Mathur and Aditya Prakash. Unlike Mayer, Le Corbusier had never set foot in India until the Chandigarh project first brought him to the country in 1951. In February of that year Le Corbusier and his colleagues camped in a rest house at what is now called Chandimandir. In four days of feverish activity, they redesigned the city. The leaf-like outline of Mayers plan was squared up into a mesh of rectangles. Although Le Corbusier made many radical changes in the Americans master plan, incorporating his own architectural and city planning ideas, it is a tribute to Mayer and Nowickis vision that he incorporated several of their seminal ideas. For example, the basic framework of the master plan and its components - the Capitol , City Centre, university, industrial area, and a linear parkland - as conceived by Mayer and Nowicki were retained by Le Corbusier. The restructured master plan almost covered the same site and the neighbourhood unit was retained as the main module of the plan. The Super block was replaced by now what is called the Sector covering an area of 91 hectares, approximately that of the three-block neighbourhood unit planned by Mayer. The City Centre, the railway station and the industrial areas by and large retained their original locations. However, the Capitol , though still sited at the prime location of the northeastern tip of the plan, was shifted slightly to the northwest. The neighbourhood unit, so important to Mayer, retained its importance in Le Corbusiers plan. But the opposing viewpoints lay in the configuration of the neighbourhood units. While the former preferred a naturalistic, curving street pattern without the rigidity of a sterile geometric gridthe latter was adverse to solidification of the accidental. For Le Corbusier the straight line was the logical connecting path between two points, and any forced naturalness was superfluous. Moreover, Le Corbusier always looked at the city plan in terms of a single cohesive monumental compositionwith major axes linking the focal points of the city. The emphasis on visual cohesion between the various city components was an essential feature of his somewhat rigid gridiron plan. (Evenson, Normal 1966) BASIC PLANNING COMPONENTS Le Corbusiers plan was based on the gridiron defined by a system of seven types of roads, which Le Corbusier called the 7 Vs (from the French word voie) and their expected functions around and within the neighbourhood. The neighbourhood itself is surrounded by the fast-traffic road called V3 intersecting at the junctions of the neighbourhood unit called sector with a dimension of 800 meters by 1200 meters. The entrance of cars into the sectors of 800 meters by 1200m, which are exclusively reserved to family life, can take place on four points only; in the middle of the 1200 m. in the middle of the 800 meters. All stoppage of circulation shall be prohibited at the four circuses, at the angles of the Sectors. The bus stops are provided each time at 200 meters from the circus so as to serve the four pedestrian entrances into a sector. Thus, the transit traffic takes place out of the sectors: the sectors being surrounded by four wall-bound car roads without openings (the V3s). And this (a novelty in town-planning and decisive) was applied at Chandigarh: no house (or building) door opens on the thoroughfare of rapid traffic.
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THE BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY Le Corbusier liked to compare the city he planned to a biological entity: the head was the Capitol, the City Centre was the heart and work area of the institutional area and the university was limbs. Aside from the Leisure Valley traversing almost the entire city, parks extended lengthwise through each sector to enable every resident to lift their eyes to the changing panorama of hills and sky. Le Corbusier identified four basic functions of a city: living, working, circulation and care of the body and spirit. Each sector was provided with its own shopping and community facilities, schools and places of worship. Circulation was of great importance to Le Corbusier and determined the other three basic functions. By creating a hierarchy of roads, Le Corbusier sought to make every place in the city swiftly and easily accessible and at the same time ensure tranquility and safety of living spaces. THE PERIPHERY CONTROL ACT The Periphery Control Act of 1952 created a wide green belt around the entire union territory. It regulated all development within 16 kilometers of the city limit, prohibited the establishment of any other town or village and forbade commercial or industrial development. The idea was to guarantee that Chandigarh would always be surrounded by countryside. Le Corbusier regarded the sector as the key of modern urbanism, the container of modern life. The population of individual sectors might be as low as 5,000 persons or as high as 25,000 -and even much more now. The sectors are vertically integrated by green space oriented in the direction of the mountains. Le Corbusier envisaged the construction of schools and playing fields in these green belts. ADMINISTRATION & EDUCATION Le Corbusier wanted Chandigarh to be devoted exclusively to administration and education; he
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firmly believed that an industrial town did not mix with an administrative one. He supposed that the majority of the inhabitants would spend their working hours in the Capitol, Estate Office or various other buildings occupied by government departments , in the offices and shops of the City Centre or along Madhya Marg, or on the campuses of the colleges and university, or in other research institutions INDUSTRY Despite his bias against industry, Le Corbusier was persuaded to set aside 235 hectares for nonPolluting, light industry on the extreme southeastern side near the railway line as far away from the Educational Sector and Capitol as possible. Of this, 136 hectares were to be developed during the first phase. In the event of the city expanding southward, Le Corbusier suggested the creation of an additional industrial area in the southern part of the city where a second railway station could be established. While the Industrial Sector is directly connected to the civic centre by a V-3 road, a wide buffer of fruit trees was planted to screen off this area from the rest of the city. Plot sizes were laid out to accommodate both large and small establishments and were sold at auction, subject to the restriction of industries considered obnoxious. Architectural controls were established regarding the site coverage and materials of construction, ultimately requiring all plans to be formed in consultation with the Capital Project Office. Maximum site coverage up to 50 per cent was allowed and in this area, 2.5 per cent of the space is permitted for use as quarters for essential staff. Sneh Pandit explains the rationale for this: It will indirectly force the industrialists to provide accommodation for labour and staff within the city which is more desirable than their living in an exclusive area. In Sector 30, which is sufficiently close to the Industrial Sector yet within the city, multistoried buildings have gone up to provide suitable tenements for the workers. Later controls enforce that structures be made mainly in brick, allowing only 25 per cent area to be plastered. Sloping sheds or sloping roofs are not permitted, so that the Industrial Sector conforms with the look of the rest of the townalthough this in not adhered to in reality. Aside from Sector 30, eventually sectors 28 and 29 were also set aside for industrial housing. COMMERCE The Jan Marg, culminating at the Capitol , is the main north-south axis of the city; Madhya Marg, culminating at the Educational Sector, is the main east-west axis. The City Centre was laid out immediately southeast of the intersection of these two axes. It is one complete sector of approximately 100 hectares and broadly divided into a northern and southern zone. The Southern zone has been developed as a centre of district administration, containing the district courts and police headquarters, the fire station and interstate bus terminus, while major commercial and civic functions are carried out in the northern section. Lack of elevators, and the fact that Chandigarh lies in a zone of moderate seismic activity and limitations of building materials and methods dictated the four-storey height limit for all buildings of the City Centre. The size of the buildings was determined by what the planners thought the owners could afford. The building form emerged from architectural control based on a standardised, reinforced cement concrete frame of columns, beams and slabs, with room for interior modification according to the needs of the owner. Madhya Marg While providing for a commercial heartSector 17, the City CentreLe Corbusier also designated the northeastern side of the V-2 road known as Madhya Marg as a commercial district. Initially, Le
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Corbusier had proposed to house the wholesale establishments in buildings which would present to the street an unbroken brick faade. This was to be pierced only by a central doorway leading to an interior courtyard on which the offices and showrooms would face. These austere three-storey blocks are intended to line the street as a terrace formation, on the northeastern side, giving the effect of an unbroken wall. To the government officials charged with the responsibility of approving the plan, however, this appeared a scheme not only lacking in visual appeal as urban design, but also one, which would fail to attract commercial users. As a result, the Capital Project Office attempted a compromise design, in which the ground floor would have display windows facing the street behind a verandah. To achieve something of Le Corbusiers completely blank faade, and still permit a measure of light and ventilation to a second level of windows on the front faade, a brick screen was extended in front of the second floor at the outer edge of the verandah and continued to the upper level masking an open terrace. The plan of this type of building provided for ground-floor showrooms, offices at the mezzanine level, with a residence for the caretaker or manager at the top floor. To the rear of the block would be a walled compound for storage and other purposes. It was intended that advertising signs would be permitted on the exterior of these buildings. Their size, form and colour were, however, to be controlled. However many deviations and changes have occurred in the present from the initial concept. Sector Markets Le Corbusier wanted to make each sector self-contained with respect to the necessities of daily life and accordingly each sector was provided with a mini-commercial district of its own. Each sector was to have its maintenance organisation, fire brigade, police, library, market, and the necessary artisans. These services were set up in a line of 800 meters on one side (facing north) to avoid dispersion and frequent road crossings as well as the suns heat. Cars can take this road at a reduced speed and park there. This shop-street continues into the neighbouring sectors on the right and left OPEN SPACES Some 800 hectares of green open space are spread over the approximately 114 square kilometers of the Capital Project area. Major open areas include the Leisure Valley, Sukhna Lake, Rock Garden and many other special gardens. In addition, the sectors are vertically integrated by green space oriented in the direction of the mountains. Le Corbusier envisaged the construction of schools and playing fields in these green bands. BUILT-UP AREAS Various structures such as the Government Museum and Art Gallery, Museum of Evolution of Life and Fine Arts College have come up in the Leisure Valley forming the cultural zone of the city. Le Corbusier also allowed small nursery and primary schools and community buildings to be built in the green belt of the sectors. LANDSCAPING Landscaping proceeded side by side with the construction of the city from the very inception. Three spaces were identified for special plantation: the roadsides, spaces around important buildings, parks and special features such as Sukhna Lake. In July, 1953, a Landscape Advisory Committee was set up under the guidance of Dr M.S. Randhawa, later to be the Citys first Chief Commissioner and a man of versatile talents. Le Corbusiers contribution to landscaping was of categorising tree forms. He made a simple analysis of the functional needs and aesthetic suitability for the various areas, devoting special attention to specific roads.
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ROADSIDE PLANTATION It was intended to have continuous, informally planted interior and exterior tree belts to give a sense of direction and culminate dramatically at the Capitol. For the V-2 Avenue of the Capitol, Le Corbusier wrote: The Avenue of the Capitol consists of heavy traffic with a parallel band of parking, a large pavement on each side and with shops and arcades and high-rise buildings. Also outside this and parallel will be the eroded valley (which touches from time to time). On the one hand, it seems useful to demarcate the highway by a border of high trees and on the other hand to unite with one glance the entire width of the avenue. The V-4 will be the street, which will give its own character to each sector. Consequently each V-4 will be different from the others and furnished with special characteristics because it is indispensable to create a great variety across the city and to furnish to inhabitants elements of classification. All the possibilities of nature are at our disposal to give to each V-4 a personality which will maintain itself in the whole width of the town and thus tie up five or six sectors traversed by a V-4. To specialise the character of each V-4 will be planted with trees having different colour, or of a different species. For example one V-4 will be yellow, one V-4 will be red, and one V-4 will be blue. At present, the prominent flowering trees are gulmohar (Delonix regia), amaltas (Cassia fistula), kachnar (Bauhinea variegata), pink cassia (Cassia Javanica) and silver oak (Grevillea robusta). Among the conspicuous non-flowering trees one finds kusum (Schleicheta trijuga) and pilkhan (Ficus infectoria) along V3 roadsides. These trees, noted for their vast, thick spreading canopies form great vaulting shelters over many of the citys roads. In all, more than 100 different tree species have been planted in (Fieus religosa) Chandigarh . March and April are autumn in North India. Trees such as pikhan, pipal kusum and many more shed their old leaves creating a thick golden carpet that crunches underfoot. This is also the time when the tall silk-cotton (Bombax malabaricum) trees put forth their enormous red blossoms and the jacaranda appears like a wispy plume of purple smoke. The mauve buds of the kachnar (Bauhinia variegata) attract not only for their beauty but also for their subtle flavourthey are a traditional delicacy. Within a couple weeks, all the bare boughs are adorned with tender, shiny new leaves in coppery, pale green. As weeks pass, the colour matures to a dark green in preparation for the blistering temperatures of summer. When summer is at its hottest one finds little colour in the flowerbeds, but the avenues of yellow amaltas (Cassia fistula) and gulmohar more than make up for the lack. The dry riverbeds of the Patiala ki Rao and Sukhna were the focus of the earliest tree plantations. Hardy species were planted down the entire length to mitigate the severe dust storms that ravaged the site in summer. The areas were declared Reserved City Forests. In 1952 the Tree Preservation Act was passed which prohibited cutting down, lopping or willful destruction of trees in Chandigarh. Thanks to this timely Act, a number of native venerable, groves of trees have been retained in the citys green belts. CITY GARDENS While evolving the iron grid layout of the city, Le Corbusier incorporated an integrated park system of continuous green belts from one end of the city to the other, allowing an unobstructed view of the
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mountains. Pedestrian paths and cycle-tracks were to be laid out through these irregularly shaped linear parks to allow a person to travel the entire length of the city under a canopy of green. The valley of a seasonal rivulet that ran through the city site for about 8 kilometers with a depth of about 6 meters and a width extending to a maximum of 300 meters was imaginatively made use of. A series of special gardens transformed the existing eroded area into what is now called the Leisure Valley. Aside from this large chain of gardens there are many other gardens: some devoted to particular flowers or flowering trees, others created as memorials and still others planned around topiary or fountains. (For details about individual gardens, see CITY ATTRACTIONS, GARDENS) SUKHNA LAKE By making imaginative use of the waters of the seasonal rivulet, Sukhna, a large lake has been created and named Sukhna Lake. The following dedication has been inscribed on the concrete cube especially constructed for this purpose. The founders of Chandigarh have offered this lake and dam to the citizens of the new city so that they may escape the humdrum of the city life and enjoy the beauty of nature in peace and silence. The lake club there provides facilities for water sports and other outdoor recreational activities. An annual Shramdan (voluntary labour) by the citizens is held to desilt the lake during the summer months, when parts of it are parched dry. HOUSING Lower category residential buildings are governed by a mechanism known as frame control to control their facades. This fixes the building line and height and the use of building materials. Certain standard sizes of doors and windows are specified and all the gates and boundary walls must conform to standard design. This particularly applies to houses built on small plots of 250 square metres or less. All these houses are built on a terrace pattern and while they are allowed a certain individual character, the idea is to ensure that the view from the street, which belongs to the community, is one of order and discipline. Individuals are given the freedom to create the interiors to suit their requirements for dwelling, working, relaxing. All buildings along the major axes of the city are brought under architectural control. A person building a house in Chandigarh must employ a qualified architect and the design is submitted to the Chief Architect for approval. Particular scrutiny was applied to residential buildings constructed along Uttar Marg (the northernmost avenue of the city at the very foot of the mountains), those abutting on Leisure Valley and along certain V-3 roads. COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS All buildings located in the City Centre and commercial or institutional buildings located along V-2 roads are subjected to controls. The system of the City Centre is based on a grid of columns, fixed 5.26 meters shuttering pattern on concrete and a system of glazing or screen walls behind the line of columns. The interior planning is left to the owners, and in the exterior, certain variations are permitted to give variety to the architectural composition. Along the V-2 roads, other types of treatments have been evolved for facades. All commercial buildings and all buildings constructed along the V-4 roads in other sectors are also under strict control. For shops, complete designs have been provided from the inception of the city. SCHEMATIC DESIGN CONTROL
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In cases where special types of buildings occur in the architectural control areas, a schematic design is prepared on the basis of which the developer prepares the final designs in consultation with the Chief Architect. This has been so far applied to the design of cinema theatres in the City Centre and to petrol stations. Aditya Prakash, one of the architects who worked with Le Corbusier, observes: It has always been realised that Chandigarh must be well planned both in the private as well as in the public sector. From the very beginning, all the commercial buildings of Chandigarh are under architectural control, but private housing by and large had been left to its fate (of course, under the normal bye-laws and zoning) hoping that good taste engendered by the government buildings will prevail and good architects will settle in Chandigarh and fulfill the needs of private builders. [Now, many years later] Having introduced so many controls, the process is still continuing. The existing controls are being refined or new controls introduced. In all these controls, whereas restrictions are imposed on things which are generally unsightly, provision is always made to permit a good architect to use his skill to provide the otherwise prohibited things on the exterior so that they enhance the aesthetic appeal of the building or at any rate do not mar its beauty. Functional distributions and placement of different activities within the city was based on human analogy so as to enable the city to function as an organic entity. The industrial area was placed on the southeast to eliminate entry of heavy traffic into the city. A 150 meters belt of trees thickly planted with trees provided an organic seal around residential sectors to eliminate noise and industrial pollution Along with the Periphery Control Act and the Tree Protection Act, the more obtrusive types of signboards and advertisements were banned. These three measures were intended to check environmental and visual pollution and thereby protect the citys character and safeguard its quality of life. CIRCULATION Le Corbusiers traffic system followed Mayers lines but was more elaborate; he called it Les Sept Voies de Circulation, or Seven Vs. The rationale of his planning was the motorcar. From his early studies in urbanism, Le Corbusier had identified the motor car as the central factor of modern town planning. His initial, primarily aesthetic, quasi-Futurist response to the motor car and to rapid movement in the cities had, by 1950, metamorphosed into a theoretical solution to the problems of modern traffica graded system of circulation, from crossing continents to walking to the front door. [As Le Corbusier put it] The 7 Vs act in the town plan as the bloodstream, the lymph system and the respiratory system act in biology. These systems are quite rational, they are different from each other, there is no confusion between them, yet they are in harmony ... It is for us to learn from them when we are organising the ground that lies beneath our feet. The 7Vs are no longer the sinister instruments of death, but become an organised hierarchy of roads which can bring modern traffic circulation under control. The 7Vs establishes a hierarchy of traffic circulation ranging from: arterial roads (V1), major boulevards (V2) sector definers (V3), shopping streets (V4), neighbourhood streets (V5), access lanes (V6) and pedestrian paths and cycle tracks (V7s and V8s). The essence of his plan for Chandigarh rests on preserving intact the true functions of these seven types of roads. For details see Le Corbusiers Statue of Land] The entrance of cars into the sectors, which are exclusively reserved to family life, can take place
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on four points only; in the middle of the 1,200 meters; in the middle of the 800 meters. All stoppage of circulation shall be prohibited at the four circuses, at the angles of the sectors. The bus stops are provided each time at 200 meters from the circus so as to serve the four pedestrian entrances into a sector. Thus the transit traffic takes place out of the sectors, the sectors being surrounded by four wall-bound car roads without openings (the V3s). The road system was so designed that never a door will open on the surrounding V3s: precisely the four surrounding V3s must be separated from the sector by a blind wall all along. Buses can ply on the V4s, the horizontal connection between contiguous sectors, but not within the sector interiors.
QUESTIONS PART A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What are the contributions of C.A. Perry to planning thought? Briefly mention the space standards to be adopted in neighbourhood planning Describe briefly the neighbourhood concept advanced by C.A. Perry Which planner wrote the book Culture of Cities and briefly explain his contribution to planning thought. Discuss the contributions of L. Mumford to the planning thought. Garden city was the concept of which town planner? Explain its concept and its advantages. Illustrate through a sketch. 7. Write short notes on Garden city movement 8. Write succinctly about the contributions made by Ebenezer Howard to city planning. 9. Write short notes on Ekistics Scale and Ecumenopolis 10. Explain the concept of place, work and folk of Patrick Geddes.
PART B
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Explain the concept of Neighbourhood of C.A. Perry and its relevance to Indian context Explain the concepts of (i) Place, work and folk (ii) Diagnostic survey and conservative surgery (iii) Outlook tower, as propounded by Patrick Geddes. Critically examine how for a Garden City as enunciated by E. Howard could be developed and more importantly maintained in Indian Context. Describe the Garden city concept advanced by Ebenezer Howard and its impact on later planning policies with sketches. Discuss the planning concepts and contributions of C.A.Doxiadis to Town Planning Give a brief write up on the planning and urban renewal concepts of Patrick Geddes. Discuss the concept of Chandigarh - the capital city and the project of A city for three million of Le corbusier. Discuss on the contribution of Le corbusier to planning concepts and practice.
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REGIONAL PLANNING Regional planning deals primarily with the integrated development of human settlements and countryside within a region. It aims at reducing the disparity in the level of living of the people and the wide gulf between urban and rural life. Regional planning can be a tool for balanced development of the nation and co-ordinate the aims and objectives of the national development planning with the implementation programmes at the micro-level. REGION The term Region applies to an area with certain characteristics, often-mere size, by virtue of which it is adopted as a suitable unit for some particular purpose of business and administration. It is also an area which is homogeneous in respect of some particular set of associated conditions, whether of the land or of the people, such as industry, farming, distribution of population, commerce, or the general sphere of influence of a city. A region in general terms is envisaged as a natural unit, in contrast to the artificial unit created for administrative purposes. For planning purposes, whether for planning a town or a country, new unit areas are required, differing in character and extent for particular purposes. Though different areas are used for distinct purposes say, for planning towns, developing resources, collecting census data, regionalisation of public services, like health and housing and so on it is essential that there should be as close a geographical co-ordination between them as is practicable. A region is not rigid as some people may think of. Separate regions are delineated for different purposes of study. A region selected for development of agriculture may differ from that for forest development. Similarly a region used for development of educational or cultural activities may not coincide with a region selected for fisheries development or for flood control. Thus, a conceptual common region for purposes of comprehensive planning and development is impracticable, except through the administrative unit, be it a country, state, district or local area. In case of special studies of inter-state importance, wider regions may be delineated cutting across state boundaries. REGIONAL CAPITAL The term regional capital applies to a city which owes its importance to its population, prosperity, antiquity and historical reputation, and which is the head of the region. It is the center of administration, finance and many other activities. Every town or village is in more or less degree a regional capital. Each town works as a service center for the neighbouring area; it is the seat of regional integration for the area around it. A German scholar, Walter Christaller has developed a theory regarding the gradation of towns and the degree of centralized services. Working on a theoretical basis and taking the market town with a service radius of 4 kms. As the unit area, he has drawn up a scheme of distribution of centralized services. Basic elements of Christaller theory are A central good A central place A complimentary region
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A region can be served by goods of various types if central places producing different ranges of goods are evenly distributed Central places will be regularly spaced clusters located with in hexagonal trading areas and will together for triangular lattices Lower order centers will be located at the gravity centers of the triangles formed by next higher order centers Distances separating the centers will be greater in case of higher order centers and proportionally less for lower order centers All the central places constitute a hierarchy of the smallest villages to the largest town of national importance Assumptions Christaller assumed a homogenous plane with even distribution of natural resources, consumer preferences and production techniques for each and every product. Transport cost, demand functions and economics of scale would vary from product to product and this spatial range of goods and services produced will also vary HIERARCHY OF SETTLEMENTS Theoretically, human settlements in a region can be classified into different categories and planners to these categories give different names. Some call them as growth point, growth center, growth pole, etc. depending upon their population, function and location. Others call them the village, town, city and metropolis, and still others use different name. Population size alone cannot decide the hierarchy of human settlements. The function of settlement is more important than the size of population. The absence of more towns may make a town serve a wider area and closer proximity of more towns in an area may force some big towns to remain only trading towns and be in a lower order of hierarchy. REGIONAL PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT A village is the center for many of the activities of its countryside, that the town is the center for an area within a radius of about 10 to 15kms, and a great city for a still wider area, which it serves a s a regional center of economic and social organization. Industrial revolution has caused certain towns to grow very rapidly without organic relation to countryside and the services have tended to concentrate in a few centers. DELINEATION OF REGION Delineation of formal regions: Grouping together of local units with similar characteristics according to certain clearly defined criteria, but which differ significantly from units outside the region on the basis of chosen criteria Delineation of functional region: Involving grouping together of local units that display a considerable degree of interdependence. CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH CENTER IN REGIONAL PLANNING Every town or village is in more or less degree a regional capital Each town works as a service center for the neighbouring area; it is the seat of regional integration for the area around it
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Present day activities are to be concentrated in some central area Consumer markets govern the location of industries, which in turn depend on the population of the town and its environs Population size aloe cannot decide the hierarchy of human settlements The function of settlement is more important than the size of population The absence of more towns may make a town serve a wider area and closer proximity of more towns in an area may force some big towns to remain only trading towns and be in a lower order of hierarchy PLANNING REGIONS OF TAMILNADU With a view to arrive at viable planning regions for the area covered by the state, a series of studies were made using available data and statistics. These studies in spite of their being made in short time an on broad lines only, have nevertheless clearly shown that the state could be defined and delineated into a small number of viable regions suitable for planning purpose. As a first step contiguous areas with common characteristics relating to: Physical feature Economic characteristics, particularly . Agriculture deltaic regions, irrigation basins and special crop areas . Industry Industrial concentrations . Mineral resources Demographic characteristics particularly o Population pressure land/man ratio o Metropolitan and chief urban concentrations, were identified and marked on a state map Next boundaries were drawn to include areas of common characteristics entirely within one region. The dividing line was taken where there was a definite break in the continuity of characteristics or where the continuity was not very much marked. Thus it was possible to identify the following regions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Madras metropolitan region Area covered by Chingleput District and palar basin in the north arcot district Vellore Region i.e. the remaining parts of the north arcot district South arcot region including cuddalore neyveli lignite are and ponniar basin Salem region Coimbatore region Nilgiris region Tiruchirapalli Thanjavur region or cauveri delta region Madurai region Tirunelveli region including kanyakumari
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WHAT IS URBAN AND RURAL IN INDIA? Census of India defines an Urban Area as (i) all places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee; (ii) all other places which has features as (1) a minimum population of 5000; (2) at least 75% of the male working population engaged in non- agricultural pursuits and (3) a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km. Apart from urban area & urban agglomeration rest is considered as Rural Area. Census Classification of Cities and Towns Class of Cities/Towns Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Class VI Range of Population 100,000 and above 50,000 to 99,999 20,000 to 49,999 10,000 to 19,999 5,000 to 9,999 Below 5,000
Source: Report of National Commission on Urbanization, vol. One
Of a total 84,43,24,222 population as per 1991 Census, the country's urban population is 21,71,77,625 population which is 25.72 percent of total population, rest is rural population. The overall land use classification indicates only 5.9 percent of the total accessible land, which is 305 million hectares, is under urban and habitation in other words human settlements. Even though settlements occupy a meager portion of land area they are important dictators of the quality of life and environment of any nation as impacts of resource consumption and pattern of settlements effects not only the settlement but extends to the region beyond due to activities such as pattern of agriculture, deforestation, grazing and characteristics of regional land use. Energy consumption of settlements leads to harnessing thermal and hydel power from large distances at times causing degradation in sensitive areas.
Energy Consumption Pattern in different Era Source: Solar Architecture - an Indo-German initiative, Proceedings of the international worship, 1995
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ENVIRONMENTAL PARADIGMS Environmental paradigms are assuming an increasingly important role in planning and development of human settlements. The dimension of urbanization, particularly in the developing world in the intervening years, has drastically changed. Between 30-60% of population, some 1.6 billion may live in urban areas in developing countries, a phenomenon in concentration unparalleled in the history of human habitation. Many countries may not be able to deal effectively with emerging pressures to deepen the understanding, so that realistic steps can be taken at the city, state and international levels. Pattern of agriculture, type of crops, irrigation methods, application of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, energy consumption - food, fuel, fodder needs in rural areas cause wide spread environmental degradation - deforestation, siltation of water bodies, pollution of water bodies due to run-off from catchments. DEVELOPMENT PARADIGMS Unfortunately, the process of settlements planning and development as practiced today, is not viewed as a threat to the sustainable development of human society, nor is it seen as a slow poisoner. The society is unable to grasp the impact of so called growth and development on the future generations. That is why it is all the more necessary to involve all sections of the populations in the decision making while dealing with their own habitat and its environmental quality. Planning for environmentally sustainable development calls for 1) Monitoring of the environmental changes taking place in human settlements. 2) Preparation of Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) for proposed development. 3) Preparation of Environmental plans for settlements, new areas, area up gradation, environmental improvement of slums and squatter settlements. 4) Preparation of environmentally sustainable designs of various parts of human settlements. URBAN ISSUES IN INDIA Introduction Human Settlements be a separate area of study in view of their increasing environmental problems. Global concern for environment has been expressed through a series of world conferences, some of which deal directly with human habitat and others with the entire range of global environment. Sustainability of human settlements is a key concern in the development paradigms. The issues of physical planning and design of human settlements does not appear to have taken the centre stage as it was perhaps felt that sustainability could be achieved by other actors, such as voluntary workers, bureaucracy, politicians & the people themselves. The unsustainable human settlement is a recent phenomenon, resulting from unplanned development and poor management of urban system.
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Urbanisation Trend A study of process of urbanisation in India since the beginning of this century reveals a steady increase in the size of its urban population, number of urban centres and level of urbanisation since 1911 and a rapid rise after 1951. From 1951 to 1991, the Indian urban population has grown more than three times from 62.4 million to 217.6 million and the number of urban centres swelled from 2843 in 1951 to 3678 in 1991. The proportion of population living in urban areas increased from 17.3% in 1951 to 26.1% in 1991. India continues to be among the least urbanized countries as for as the share of urban population to the total is concerned. A majority of the developing countries, including Pakistan (29%), Egypt (44%) and Brazil (68%) are more urbanized than India. To be precise, out of the ninety-four countries classified as low and middle-income economies, sixty surpass India in terms of percentage of urban population. The annual rate growth of urban population in India (3.09%) is higher than that of the high income industrial market Economies (1.4%) as also of the East European economies (1.8 %). The latter group of countries, with around 2/3rd of their population living in urban places are already highly urbanized. The low-income economies as a group with a 4.4% growth rate and the middle- income economies with 4.1% have an edge over India. As many as 60 out of total of 94 countries belonging to low and middle income categories out rate India in urban growth. The annual urban growth is 4.2 % in Mexico, in the highincome, oil-exporting countries is still higher, being about 8.2%. DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN POPULATION BY SIZE CLASS OF SETTLEMENTS (IN % AGE)
Census Year Size Class of Cities (percentage) Over 1,00,000 50,000-1,00,000 20,000-50,000 10,000-20,000 5,000-10,000 Under 5,000 1901 26.0 11.3 15.6 20.8 20.1 6.1 1971 57.2 10.9 16.0 10.9 4.5 0.4 1981 60.4 11.6 14.3 9.5 3.6 0.5 1991 65.2 10.9 13.2 7.8 2.6 0.3 Source: Census of India, 1991, Provisional population totals: Rural-Urban Population, paper-2 of 1991
URBAN AGGLOMERATION / CITIES HAVING POPULATION OF OVER ONE MILLION

No. Of Urban Population % Of Population of Urban Agglomeration Agglomeration /cities (million) Total Urban 1901 1 1.51 0.63 05.84 1911 2 2.76 1.10 10.65 1921 2 3.13 1.25 11.14 1931 2 3.41 1.22 10.18 1941 2 5.31 1.67 12.02 1951 5 11.75 3.25 18.81 1961 7 18.10 4.12 22.93 1971 9 27.83 5.08 25.51 1981 12 42.12 6.16 26.41 1991 23 70.16 8.37 32.54 Source: Census of India 1991, provisional population Totals: Rural- Urban Distribution, Paper of 1991 Year
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DISTRIBUTION OF SLUM POPULATION IN DIFFERENT SIZE CLASS OF TOWNS 1991 (%)

Size class of Towns /cities Number Total population Slum Population (%) 709.966 41.3 214.5 9.3 151.239 6.3 325.139 11.9 1400.844 68.8 236.288 10.3 520.581 20.9 2157.713 100.0
Metropolitan cities 23 Cities 5 - 10 lakhs population 31 Cities 3 - 5 lakhs population 39 Cities 1 - 3 lakhs population 207 Total Cities 300 Towns 50,000 - 1 lakh population 345 Towns< 50,000 population 3052 Total 3697 Source: A Compendium of Indian Slums, 1996, Town & Country Planning
Trends of Urbanisation in India India has a rich cultural tradition, which reveres nature and espouses a harmonious man-nature relationship. Duality in its ideal and practice related to environment is manifest in all related areas at all levels, particularly, indiscriminate adoption of the modernization path, and unguided process of Industrialisation and urbanisation have already pushed India in an escalating context of environmental degradation and ecological imbalance. Some of the related issues in urban are Land Land is a vital resource, which is consumed to accommodate the growing population. - Land is also a non-renewable resource, and once converted to habitation use is generally non-retrievable. - During the last four decades a major part of the demand has been met by annexing rural lands and wetlands within urban limits. UNCHS anticipated that there is likely to be a substantial spatial expansion of built-up areas of urban settlements in the developing countries varying between 115 to 124 percent over the area covered in 1980 by 2000. At this rate India would have to convert another 1.25 mha under settlements by 2001. There has been a significant increase in area under human habitation (4.09% of total in 1961 to 6.2% of total in 1981). During the same period the population increased by 56%. Significantly the density of population rose by 50% as well, from 146-216 per sq. km. the present land use pattern indicates shortfall in land under forests and pasture. In order to produce food forever growing population, land for agriculture use cannot be sacrificed. Therefore, land for human settlements is scarce. This is going to be a crucial factor in future pattern of urbanisation. Land Degradation Having one-fortieth of the global land India ranks second in Asia after China in term of population. - Only 11 percent of the land in the country is free from inherent soil constraints. - The worst affected are cold, arid and semi-arid regions. - Its wasteland areas are badly affected by salinity, alkalinity, and wind and water erosion - cover an estimated area of 100 million hectares. But the pressure on land mainly caused by a huge population, 42 million of these are still being cultivated.
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Four millions hectares are lost in the ravines. Again salinity has affected its irrigated land, which makes India to have the highest proportion of saline irrigated land in Asia. Water Pollution Disposal of wastewater, due to ever expanding urban fabric causes serious environmental hazard. - Not even the major metropolis has proper sewage disposal facilities. Based on a sample survey of 71 cities, it is estimated that approximately 60% of the population of these cities are covered by sewerage system. Treatment facilities are inadequate. Only 8 cities (out of 71 studied) appear to have wastewater treatment plants and only 38% of the wastewater generated undergoes treatment. Most of the wastewater is discharged directly into rivers and lakes, causing serious pollution of water. Studies conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board show that all the 13 major rivers of India are polluted to various degrees, particularly the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, which are now covered under active anti-pollution measures under Ganga Action Plan and Yamuna Action Plan. Air and Noise Pollution Air pollution is growing more and more acute, which makes life of the dwellers in the large cities sub-standard. - Increasing incidence of respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis is recorded in cities like Delhi and Ahmedabad. Industrial emissions and growing number of auto-vehicles like scooters, auto-rickshaws, cars and heavy vehicles account for the air pollution, which has crossed the maximum permissible levels of concentration in Indias major cities. - The incidence of noise pollution, mainly caused by automobiles and scooters, is on the rise, especially in big cities, near settlements on the main roads and cross roads, bus depots and airports. - Ambient noise levels in 25 different locations comprising sensitive, residential, commercial & industrial areas of Delhi during May-June 1989 were far in access of permissible standards laid down for noise levels. Inner City Inner areas suffering obsolescence are generally understood to be zones of old residential or mixed development which due to physical obsolescence and socio-economic change and the accompanying selective out-migration of well-to-do people and firms, have remained starved of the resources necessary to maintain an essential minimum level of re-investment in the built form and neighborhood services. As a result of this, they demonstrate a high incidence of a range of physical, social and economic problems 1. Housing and infrastructure deprivation due to age, overuse, mixed-use and difficulties in routine maintenance arising form financial constraints, restricted rent policies. 2. Socio-economic deprivation resulting from a pattern of urban dynamics of which there is increasing concentration of deprived sections. 3. The historic inner cities such as Delhi and Hyderabad are characterised by low-rise plotted development of an organic character with traditional cluster configurations. 4. High incidence of home-based economic activities, development of similar activities along streets, the coexistence of commercial industrial (sometimes noxious) units, rural character of some establishments (such as dairies, pottery, making, etc.) are typical. Disruption of the traditional land use hierarchy.
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Health India has only about 2.62 doctors per 1,000 population and about nine hospital beds per 1,000 population. - Wider are the rural-urban disparities on this point. Only 73 percent of rural population and 79 percent of urban population in India have access to safe drinking water. - It is quite below even the Asian standards. - Still worse are the sanitation conditions. - Only 4 percent of the rural population has access to sanitation facilities like private latrines and closed sewerage system. Sanitation - There is clear evidence from the indicators that the level of urban services improves generally with the status of urban centres. - Household connections for water exceeds 50% in two largest Cities, Mumbai and Delhi. Chennai has a low connection level, due to inadequate water supply from surface based sources. - Sewage connection improves with the size of urban centres. - The situation is poor in smaller towns where dry latrines & open defecation are common. Solid Waste Each urban resident is estimated to generate 350 to 1,000 grams of solid waste every day. - The city of Delhi generates 4,000 tonnes of waste every day, Ahmedabad 1,280 tonnes, Bangalore 850 tonnes, Bombay 6,050 tonnes and Calcutta faces the problem of disposing of 3,150 tonnes Transport Critical issues in urban transport are the following 1. Demand- supply gap of urban transport 2. Extreme congestion due to growth of vehicles, slowing down the speed 3. Inadequate public transport 4. Mixed traffic modes - cycle, cycle-rickshaws and carts, are threatened by growing motorisation, loss of street space for safe use and changes in urban form dictated by motorisation. 5. Mass transit systems such as a metro needs serious consideration for an optimal, affordable cost and energy - efficient transport system. Housing Housing is a reflection of a Nations economic and social well being. The basic human needs that housing provides are shelter or protection. Adequate housing facility increases the productivity of labour. Housing plays a significant role in promoting economic growth and improving the general level of social well-being. - Housing is a major problem faced by the country and has been felt seriously by the Central and State Governments in recent times. - Major factor influencing the mounting housing problem is rapid increase in population, which has risen from 683 million in 1981 to 846 million in 1991. - Simultaneously, with the faster growth of population there has been a rather slow addition to the housing stock, which has been around 4 per 1000 population as against the UN norm of 8 to 10 dwellings per 1000.
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SLUM POPULATION IN METROPOLITAN CITIES

Slum Population (in lakhs) 1981 1991 Calcutta UA 30.280 @ 36.262 Greater Mumbai UA 30.831 @ 43.205 Delhi UA 18.000 22.480 Chennai UA 13.769 15.251 Hyderabad UA 5.000 08.593 Bangalore 3.650 05.162 Ahemdabad 5.172 @ 06.724 Pune UA 2.807 @ 04.065 Kanpur UA 6.140 04.172 Lucknow UA 2.850 02.778 Nagpur UA 3.890 @ 05.308 Jaipur UA 2.958 @ 04.418 Surat UA 2.347 @ 03.858 Coimbatore UA + 0.801 00.958 Cochin UA 2.046 @ 02.829 Vadodara UA 1.182 02.063 Indore UA 1.263 @ 01.686 Patna UA 5.837 @ 06.982 Madurai UA + 1.634 01.953 Bhopal UA 0.568 ** 01.487 Vishakapatnam UA 1.520 02.664 Varanasi UA 2.600 02.074 Ludhiana 3.104 03.687 Total 148.249 188.659 Note: ** Cities size as per 1991 Census Classification, @ 1981 Slum Population, + 1991 Slum Population City
The housing problem in India has two basic aspects. One is quantitative and the other is qualitative. The former relates to increase in the housing shortage and the latter relates to deterioration in the standard of living owing to the growth of slums and squatter settlements and deterioration in the living conditions and poor housing amenities and facilities. RURAL ISSUES IN INDIA Introduction the third world countries are destined to be termed as rural even up to the 21st century even though urbanisation has increased in developing countries at a faster rate during the last decades. India with its overwhelmingly rural population (76.27 percent; 665.28 million ) residing in about 6 lakh villages (571441,1981 census) will remain rural with a dominating rural environment. Even rurality prevails in and penetrates, through the core of the cities and metropolises. Some of the issues pertaining to the rural environment which determine the quality of life and environment aremanagement of land resource especially related to agriculture, water resource management, rural energy demand; physical infrastructure-rural roads, minor flood embankments, rural water supply, sanitation, rural markets; social infrastructure - family planning, rural health, rural education.
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Rural Trend Agriculture, being the principal traditional occupation of the people in the country, plays a vital role in the economy of the rural societies. But the rapid population growth in recent years, has unprecedented pressure on the existing cultivated land as production has to account for not only the demand of the population but also for meeting unexpected adversities such as drought, floods etc. Application of fertilizers, use of improved seeds may only hold good as long as they do not impact the environment in the long run. FAO has rightly put up that " At the turn of the century the increase of the yield per unit area will be enhanced by 60 percent with the addition of 26 per cent area in cultivation and 14 percent by crop intensification. Thus, the problem will be that the increase in yield by unit area means the over exploitation of cultivated area by way of chemical fertilization, pesticides, intensive cultivation without rotation system. Therefore, all the methods of modernising agriculture, may lead to the overall imbalance of the ecosystem with adding more pesticides, unidentified crop/plant diseases, chemical reactions in soil, and declining general productivity. All these require ameliorating efforts with judicious planning in protecting the ecosystem." The Census of India ,1981, adopted certain criteria for treating a place as urban. From the definition of urban areas, rural areas can be identified. Places with human habitation of 5,000 and below, with agriculture (and allied) as the main economic activity, and with a density of population less than 400 per sq. km. may be described as rural areas. However, some habitations with more than 5,000 populations are also classified as rural in view of agriculture being the main economic activity of a vast majority of population in that area. A small village is described as a hamlet and a group of hamlets is known as a village (revenue village with a panchayat ). There are 557,139 villages in India, each with a population ranging between 500 and 10,000. The areas covered by all the villages are considered as rural areas. The average village consists of a few hundred acres of land supporting about fifty to two hundred families. The distribution of villages according to population size is as follows Distribution of Villages according to Population Size
Population Size Inhabited Villages Below 500 2,70,796 500-999 1,35,928 1,000-1,999 94,486 2,000-4,999 46,893 5,000-9999 7,202 Above 10,000 1,834 TOTAL 5,57,139 Note: Excludes Assam Population Source: Indian agriculture in brief,1985 Source: Census of India 1981,Series 1,India,Paper 2 of 1981 Percentage of total inhabited villages 48.60 24.40 16.96 08.42 01.29 00.33 100.00
It is clear from the table that nearly 50 per cent of villages are with a population below 500. Villages with 10,000 and above constitute less than one per cent of the total number of villages in India. Predominance of rural population in India over a long period can be seen from the growth trend of rural population vs. urban population.
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Relative Growth of Urban and Rural Population

Year Population in millions Rural Urban Percentage of total population Rural 11.0 10.4 11.3 12.2 14.1 17.6 18.3 20.2 23.7 Urban
1901 270.3 25.6 89.0 1911 220.4 25.6 89.6 1921 216.6 27.7 88.7 1931 237.8 33.0 87.8 1941 265.5 43.6 85.9 1951 288.2 61.6 82.4 1961 347.2 77.6 81.7 1971 421.9 107.0 79.8 1981 502.0 156.2 76.3 Note: 1981 data excludes the population of Assam and Jammu & Kashmir Source: Census of India 1981,Series 1, India, and Paper 2 of 1981
A vast majority of our population still continues to be rural although the rate of urbanisation has showed a marked increase. Agriculture is still the major source of living and employment. Villages continue to provide a source of living to many without much improvement in the living conditions of rural people. The average standard of living of people in rural areas is still low as judged from different socioeconomic indicators. In 1979-80, 48.4 per cent of the population in the country was below the poverty line while in rural areas 50.7 per cent of the population were below the poverty line as against 40.3 per cent in urban areas. As per the 1981 census, while the all India literacy percentage was 36.2, the literacy percentage in rural areas was only 29.6 as against 57.4 in urban areas, whereas womens literacy rate was only 17.96 percent (rural women form 77 percent of the female population in India) as against 47.82 per cent in urban areas. Crude birth rate in 1980 per 1000 population in rural areas was 35 as against 27.6 in urban areas and the national figure at 33.5. Crude death rate per 1000 population in rural areas was 13.1 as against 7.3 in urban areas and 11.8 in all-India. In 1980, per 1000 live birth, the infant mortality in rural areas was 124 as against 65 in urban areas and 11.8 in all India. The National Building Organisation (NBO) estimated that the housing shortage in 1981 was around 21 million dwelling units (16 million in rural areas and 5 million in urban areas.) According to the Seventh plan report about 36 percent of the villages in the country are still without any road connection and as much as 65 percent without any all weather road.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANS STRUCTURE PLAN : A structure plan is one that singles out for attention of certain aspect of the environment usually the land-uses, the main movement systems and the location of critical facilities and buildings. Such a plan aims to influence certain key vocational decisions while recognizing that there are many other things that cant and perhaps should not be decided at the outset.
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COMPREHENSIVE PLAN : The comprehensive pan seeks to combine in one document the prescriptions for all aspects of city development. It includes an analysis of the citys economy, its demographic characteristics, and the history of its spatial development as a preface to plan for how the city should evolve over 20 year period DEVELOPMENT PLAN means a plan for the development or re-development or improvement of the area within the jurisdiction of a planning authority and includes a regional plan, master plan, detailed development plan and a new town development plan MASTER PLANS FOR URBAN AREAS For a successful town planning there must be a plan, which envisages the entire town as a single unit. This is necessary to achieve overall development of the town in co-coordinated manner. The development or expansion of a town takes a long time, and therefore, the development requires control at any time on the basis of a plan. Such a plan is called as Master Plan Necessity of the master plan The period of Industrial revolution(1760 1820) marks an important epoch in the history of the growth of all the cities. Between the two world wars and especially after the Second World War (1939 45), many towns and cities have been grown up haphazardly without proper planning. And the over-grown cities became a mess and a muddle with all the evils. The industries have been set up in the heart of the cities without any consideration of transport and other utility services. The migration of rural population has caused housing shortage and increased congestion. The rapid development of transport has been found to be inadequate for the growing needs of the automobiles. It has caused over-crowding and congestion on the roads resulting road accidents. Industries have encroached upon the residential areas causing shortage of open and recreational areas. In order to eradicate the evils of the ill-planned cities, there is a need of a comprehensive Master plan for the general welfare of the citizens in respect of health, convenience and comfort. Scope and Content of the master plan The master plan may propose or provide for all or any of the following matters, namely: The manner in which the land in the planning area shall be used The allotment or reservation of land for residential, commercial, industrial and agricultural purposes and for parks, playfields and open spaces The allotment or reservation of land for public buildings, institutions and for civic amenities The making of provision for the national highways, arterial roads, ring roads, major streets, lines of communication including railways, airports and canals The traffic and transportation pattern and traffic circulation pattern The major road and street improvements The areas reserved for future development, expansion and for new housing The provision for the improvement of areas or bad layout or obsolete development and slum areas and for relocation of population The amenities, services and utilities The provision for detailed development of specific areas for housing, shopping, industries and civic amenities and educational and cultural facilities The control of architectural features, elevation and frontage of buildings and structures The provision for regulating the zone, the location height, number of storeys and size of buildings and other structures, the size of the yards and other open spaces and the use of buildings, structures and land
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The stages by which the master plan shall be carried out Stages in the preparation of Master plan The re-planning of an existing town is more complex than planning or designing a new town on virgin land, such as capital towns like New Delhi, Chandigarh, industrial town like rourkela, port town, military cantonments etc. The work of ordinary town-planner is usually restricted to replanning of an existing town. After taking the Government sanction to prepare the scheme, next work is to collect the data and relevant information, with the help of a comprehensive civic survey. From the data collected in the civic survey, he is in a position to make a correct diagnosis of the various ills of the town and suggest remedies for their cure. For the collection of data for the planning scheme, the town is divided into old town and new town. In the former case, the work is tedious because the old town usually consists of narrow streets, congestion, insanitation, and un-healthy conditions etc. But in the later case, zoned areas, provision of all civic amenities etc. However care should be taken to keep the whole town, old or new alike in all aspect and finally blended skillfully so as to form in-separately interwoven structure. Duration of preparation of master plan The planning authority prepares the interim master plan, also called the outline development plan. The statutory time limit is two years. It shall then be notified for the public comments and suggestions (1 month). The draft plan may be revised in the light of the public and expert comments and shall be submitted for Govts sanction (4 months from date of publication of the draft plan to be further extended by the Govt. by three months, if required). The Govt. sanctions the revised plan and appoints an arbitrator (12 months). The arbitrator after holding proceedings in respect of each plot, publishes the award and submits the detailed proposals to the higher authority such as the president of the Tribunal of Arbitration (no fixed time limit but at least 12 months for small scheme and more for longer schemes). The tribunal shall make thorough scrutiny of arbitrators proposals and convey their decision ( usually 6 months). The arbitrator prepares the final scheme and submits to Govt. with plans through the local authority (usually 6 months). The local authority forwards the final scheme to the Govt. (usually 3 months). Govt. sanctions the final scheme after the photozinco Dept., has printed all the plans (normally 9 months) after which the final scheme of Action plan comes into force (usually 2 months after the Govt.s sanction). The detailed master plan also called the comprehensive development plan is duly approved and sanctioned by the Govt. then made legally bindings on all the authorities concerned, by giving it a legal status. Lastly a financial programme is prepared to devise the ways and means for the implementation of the master plan according to the schedule.
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ZONING The basic concept of zoning lies in the division of a settlement into zones and districts according to present and potential uses of land and buildings. Zoning has to pay particular attention to the character of a place and its suitability. Thus, zoning is establishing districts within which certain rights of citizens are legally curbed. Objectives of zoning To lessen congestion in streets To secure safety of fire and other hazards To promote health and general welfare To protect amenity value and hence property To provide adequate light and air To prevent over concentration of population To facilitate transportation, water supply, sewerage, schools, parks, etc To encourage the most appropriate use of land Environmental Planning It is being increasingly realized that environmental considerations deserve greater attention in the process of plan preparation, and scientific understanding of environmental paradigms of every competing land use is necessary. The environmental compatibility between various land uses need to be established and for that the planner needs to understand the behavioural pattern and functional characteristics of every land use in terms of pollution and medico-social implications. It is possible to identify few major areas of environmental concern, whose input in the process of Development Plan preparation appear to be essential, which are as following: (1) Shelter with particular reference to urban poor; (2) Environmental infrastructure with emphasis on affordability by the poor; (3) Factors of climate, land erosion and landscaping on living environment; (4) Interface between man made and natural environment; (5) Vehicular traffic as a source of environmental hazard and acoustical considerations; (6) Energy as a tool of development control and provision of access to alternate appropriate technologies; (7) Industrial location on the basis of typology and environmental hazard; (8) Environmental legislation, monitoring, evaluation and management; (9) Impact assessment of development. NEW TOWN IN BRITAIN To decongest towns, one of the solutions suggested is to expand the existing towns and provide subsidised housing on a large scale in the expansions the accepted solution appears to be, to move the population from the congested areas t place outside the town where a better environment can be provided. Expansion of town together with decongestion of its crowded areas is not desirable, however, in the case of towns already having populations exceeding 15 to 20 lakhs, as it creates problems relating to utility services, transportation and administration. If the pull of such a town warrants it, the right solution is the creation of a new town in an adjacent area in the region. The creation of such a new
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town reduces the citys overgrowth and helps to make new communities economically and socially self-sufficient. It also makes it a possible to accommodate existing industries that need expansion in the new town and creates employment opportunities for the villagers in new industries that bring prosperity to the region. A new town acts like counter magnet, as new jobs are available therein for those who prefer to shift to the new town fro nearby towns and villages. This, in turn, helps to reduce overcrowding in the existing parent town. The creation of new towns got a stimulus in post-war Great Britain. It helped to effect gradual dispersal of industry and population from overcrowded areas and brought together people and their place of work in new surroundings, where all utilities and amenities required for healthy and comfortable living were made available for enjoyment of the community as a whole. The industry in new towns also benefited as it increased the turnover and productivity. It also saved considerable time of the worker in going to and returning home from the place of work. When the overcrowding was removed it was possible to develop the old centers of existing towns in a better and spacious manner. NEW TOWN IN INDIA The most ambitious planning opportunity is the creation of a new town of which Chandigarh is an example in the country, where the planning unit is the sector containing a number of neighbourhod units. The steel towns of Rourkela, Bhilai and Durgapur are further examples in this field. The latter, however, are wasteful of land and services in many ways. As a result, a special committee was appointed by the central Government to recommend the standards on which future plans are to be based. The report of this committee has been published for guidance of planners.
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TYPES OF SURVEYS Surveys can broadly be divided into two categories depending on the area upon which they are to be conducted. They are : REGIONAL SURVEYS They are those surveys, which are done over a region dealing with PHYSICAL FACTORS like topography, physically difficult land, geology, landscape etc. PHYSICAL ECONOMIC FACTORS like agricultural value of the land, mineral resources and water gathering lands, areas with public services, transportation linkages etc. SOCIAL ECONOMIC FACTORS like areas of influence of towns and villages, employment, population changes etc. TOWN SURVEYS They are done at much small scale and apart from the above data collected from the regional surveys it also includes LANDUSE SURVEYS DENSITY SURVEYS SURVEYS FOR THE AGE AND CONDITION OF THE BUILDINGS TRAFFIC SURVEYS OTHER SOCIAL SURVEYS For conducting proper survey, primarily relevant enquiries should be framed in the form of questionnaires for presentation, when required. TECHNIQUES OF SURVEYS Of the various techniques of surveys that are followed, the four listed below are most prominent 1. self surveys (i.e. mailing questionnaires to the persons to be surveyed ) 2. interviews (i.e. by asking questions to the people to be surveyed ) 3. direct inspection (i.e. when the surveyor himself inspects the situations concerned ) 4. observers participation (i.e. when the observer himself participate in acquiring the data required ) SCALES FOR STRUCTURING QUESTIONNAIRES The questions that are asked in the questionnaires formed for doing the surveys can be of various types. Some of the asks for general things, some asks for some order of preferences or some give stress to the time interval between two incidents. Thus the scales of the questionnaires are fixed, which can be described as follows NOMINAL where there is no ordering, like asking of sex, age, employment in any particular service etc. ORDINAL where there is a specific order of choices like asking of priorities, housing conditions, climate etc. INTERVAL where an interval of time is given importance like time taken to shift from LIG housing to MIG housing, time interval to change from two wheelers to four wheelers etc. this provides an yardstick of measurements
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SELECTION OF SAMPLES For conducting surveys, it is not always possible to ask each and every person about his or her opinion. Hence, certain numbers of persons are selected for conducting the surveys and these selected persons are known as samples of surveying. The selection of the number of samples is of utmost importance. The basic rules for selection of sample size are as follows: 1. MORE DISASTROUS THE RESULTS OF POOR INFORMATION, LARGER SAMPLE SIZE IS REQUIRED. That is if the information got are poor (both qualitatively and quantitatively) the analysis done from them will be wrong. Thus, if getting incorrect results have a very disastrous effect on the framing up of the policies of planning; more number of people are to be surveyed. 2. THE MORE VARIED THE EXPECTED RESPONSES, LARGER SAMPLE SIZE IS REQUIRED. That is, if it is expected that there will be various kinds of responses to a particular question, more number of persons are to be asked, as more varied answers will help in getting different ideas of the people through the cross section of the people surveyed 3. LARGER THE TOTAL POPULATION, SAMLLER THE PERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION ARE REQUIRED TOBE SURVEYED. That is, if the total population to be surveyed is very large then, even a small percentage of it will amount to quite a large number of samples. Depending on the time available, the money involved and many other things, the number of samples could be restricted by selecting a small percent of the total population. The samples could be selected in various ways depending on the type of information required and the importance of the accuracy of the particular information in the survey process. The various types of selection of samples are 1. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING ( selecting samples at random without any criteria to select the samples whatsoever ) 1. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (selection of the Kth element along a particular street, where k can be any number ) 3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING ( making of a homogenous listing of the different sects of the population and collecting a certain percentage at random from each sect) 4. CLUSTERED SAMPLING (when samples are selected from clusters and not from a homogeneous listing ) ERRORS IN SURVEYING Getting biased, having errors in measurements, not getting any direct answer are the major errors done in surveys. Thus questionnaires should be framed in such a way so that all the answers received is properly checked. Pilot surveys should also be conducted to check forgery and bias. 73RD AND 74TH AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA The 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India granting Constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) has been no exception. The 1992 Amendment sought to make the PRIs the cornerstone of the process of local self-governance in India. However, ten years down the line, the realisation is fast gaining ground that while the 73rd Amendment promised much to Panchayats, it has delivered little. Therefore, it was really not a surprise that in the All India Conference of the Heads of Panchayats held in New Delhi in early April this Year, it was vociferously and repeatedly pointed out that while PRI's control over various aspects of development planning and resource management has been accorded constitutional sanctity, they have not been able to exercise such control.
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The 73rd Amendment has cast a constitutional imperative on all the state governments to come up with appropriate Panchayati Raj Acts detailing meaningful democratic devolution of functions, functionaries and funds. Specifically, it empowers states to endow panchayats with powers and the authority to function as institutions of self-government. Clearly if local self-governance is one of the destinations envisaged by the 73rd Amendment, PRIs have been identified as the vehicle by which to undertake the journey towards it. It is pertinent to note here that the Constitutions vest the PRIs with very broad functions - in most cases covering the entire possible expanse of a subject - agriculture, land improvement, social forestry and farm forestry, minor irrigation, water management, rural housing, poverty alleviation programmes, social welfare maintenance of community assets etc. The Provision of Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, a Central law passed in 1996 which sought to extend the 73rd Amendment to the tribal areas of the country. States having Scheduled Areas were to adopt the law within a year of the enactment of the Central law. Though now the states have passed the relevant laws/amendments adopting PESA, a closer look at the laws reveal a different picture. The laws have not reached the panchayats and the villagers in most states simply because the operational law does not exist! To illustrate, in Rajasthan (like in all other states) powers and functions that have been legally assigned to the gram sabha or "panchayats at appropriate levels" in tribal dominated areas has been indeed impressive. They include prior consultation before land acquisition, ownership of minor forest produce, enforcement of prohibition, managing village markets, managing institutions affecting social sectors and control over local planning. The problem of ineffective legal mandates for the panchayats is worsened by the creation of a large number of village level user groups formed under various development programmes of the state governments, all of which function independently of the PRIs but on the subjects assigned to the them under the Constitution. The inadequacy in legislative drafting, reflecting a definite absence of a holistic legal vision for village India, has created an overcrowded regime of paper laws for Panchayats. The laws instead need to respond to the spirit of the 73rd Amendment. If the laws are not taken to their logical end, through enabling rules and orders, they will remain paper tigers. The recent interventions of the High Courts are clear warnings. The writing is on the wall and it reads: "If the executive abdicates its responsibilities and the legislature do not take effective 'living' laws to the people, the Judiciary is likely to step in". The discontent has surfaced and litigation by panchayats, and for panchayats has begun to appear. There is still time for the states to prevent this from spreading all across the higher courts of the country. Constitution 74th Amendment Act, 1992 provides constitutional status to Municipalities and Municipal Corporations. The constitution provides for three types of Municipalities. A Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area, that is to say, one area in transition from rural area to an urban area A Municipal Council for a smaller urban area A Municipal corporation for a larger urban area
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URBAN RENEWAL Urban renewal is a deliberately planned and overall effort to change the urban environment by adopting comprehensive and large-scale adjustment of existing city areas for serving the present and future needs of the city inhabitants. DEFINITIONS OF SOME OF THE TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING URBAN RENEWAL Slums Slums may be broadly defined as an area with untidy and ill ventilated residences without proper sanitation and water supply. In slum and blighted areas we can find submerged humanity and social disorganization. Poor mostly inhabit these areas. Blight Any area or a part of urban or rural in deterioration is called Blighted area irrespective of its degree of deterioration The blight may be in physical conditions such as topological blight, or economic blight as the semi or full deterioration of commercial activities in that area. Obsolescence It can be defined as an associate of blights and slums, since the basic nature is same for all. An area which is unfit for the present use either due to the change in the pattern of living or due to cultural or economic changes is called obsolescent area Central Area Generally oldest parts of the city will be the central area. Since from where the city starts growing to meet the increasing population and to provide fashionable and luxurious type of buildings coupled with the residences of the poorest city dwellers. CBD This term CBD or Central Business District is used to denote the important Central commercial Zone where the commercial function is the predominant function and others are mostly negligible. This is the most accessible area of the town. This is the most populous area in the daytime. This areas predominant function is commercial (retail and wholesale) NEED FOR URBAN RENEWAL Urban renewal programme is essential to remove the congestion of traffic, to demolish the useless building, or buildings which cannot be used for any purposes such as commercial or residential etc. The sub-standard condition will make the buildings unfit for any such use. The urban renewal programme permits us to demolish them. It also enables us to rebuild the same area with all the facilities and to make the environment to be a planned one. The reasons for the need of urban renewal can be divided into three: Physical obsolescence blight and deterioration Economic losses Social imbalances GOALS OF URBAN RENEWAL To maintain health of Urban settlement Functions Financial adequacy of government
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Capacity of city Traffic & transportation Maintenance of basic services
TYPES OF URBAN RENEWAL Three aspects constitute the urban renewal. They are 1. Redevelopment 2. Rehabilitation 3. Conservation Redevelopment (clearing and reuse of land) It is applicable to areas where the arrangement of the building and general character of obsolescence and deterioration make it worth less to live and thus liable the area to be redeveloped Main aims of redevelopment policy are: 1. Removal of existing building 2. Reuse of cleared land 3. Use of any open land that was interspersed among the improved buildings and possibly adjacent land also. This latter may be required for street widening, commercial uses etc. Rehabilitation (repairing or remodeling) It is an area where buildings may be good structurally but may not be proper for habitation purposes and some repairing or remodeling may make them fit fro habitation purposes. Modernizing and repairing so as to enable them to be at satisfactory standards of living can restore some neighbourhoods. The policy is most applicable to those city zones: In which there is a high degree of loss of efficiency in original function or functions In which there are conditions appearing which are likely to cause deterioration in the sound economic activity In which there is continuous deterioration in living conditions In which, buildings although generally in structurally good conditions have begun to deteriorate due to lack of maintenance. Administrative measures of controlling the use of reuse of land and the buildings are Either restore the area to its original functions To bring about a new and appropriate functions, in accordance with the general city development proposals Conservation It is most applicable to zones of city which are now generally suited to their function, zones in which buildings are kept in good condition, zones containing buildings and areas of historical, cultural or architectural value. A conservation policy would have as its objectives the protection of such areas by preventing their falling into a condition requiring redevelopment The following measures are important in such zones: Owners must maintain buildings to legally prescribed standards Overcrowding of rooms and dwellings are not to be permitted Overcrowding of buildings on sites not to be permitted (new buildings proposals are to be carefully assesses)
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Strict enforcement of zoning regulations i.e., the area is not allowed to disturb the essence of what is being conserved BENEFITS FROM URBAN RENEWAL There is a wide range of benefits to be derived from urban renewal. Generally they are classified under 3 groups as follows: 1. Physical benefits 2. Social benefits 3. Economic benefits Physical benefits These are the benefits that can be seen and experienced and include 1. Provision for urgently needed facilities in the urban area or at least land for it (such as a hospital, school, bus terminal, park etc.) 2. Traffic betterments in the form of rearrangement of an obsolete street system; increasing traffic carrying capacity of streets by widening or channelising them, providing space for transit facilities, etc. 3. Enhancement of utilities by replacing worn-out or obsolete water lines and sewage facilities and installing drainage facilities to eliminate flooding in low lying areas, and reducing water pollution by installation of sewage treatment facilities Social benefits These benefits are not as easily evaluated or measured and yet may have more impact than physical ones. Broader social benefits include new schools and recreation facilities, a community center building with programmes for the poor and aged, a health clinic, or a job-training programme. Probably the most impressive social advancement renewal offers is the elimination of substandard housing and the creation of standard housing in neighbourhoods. Due to renewal programmes there is a chance to uplift the status of the slum dwellers. Economic benefits If renewed area is used for commercial purposes, or even for residential (for rent) the returns from them (in terms of economic benefits) are more in addition to physical and social benefits. The renewed area may fetch more money than the income, which we can get, from the un-renewed buildings. The chances of accidents (fire accidents) are comparatively very less. This was revealed in a study in United States. The maintenance cost will be less in renewed area than that of the un-renewed area in addition to the fear of collapse of these substandard building at any time. STRATEGIES OF URBAN RENEWAL Rebuilding Redevelopment Renewal Clearance Preservation Blight Economic up gradation Re-habilitation Conservation Infrastructure
URBAN RENEWAL PROGRAMMES AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION One of the fundamental objectives of the workable programme for urban renewal is the development of a comprehensive general plan for the community as a whole and the following seven elements should be followed for a programmed to be fulfilled satisfactorily. 1. Codes and Ordinances
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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Comprehensive community plan Neighbourhood analysis Administrative organization Financing Housing for displaced families Citizens Participation
Codes and Ordinances Adequate Codes and ordinances vigorously enforced are important means of preventing the occurrence and spread of slums and blight The following two principal types of regulations are essential for every community. Standards for Construction: Assuring structural strength, reasonable safety from fire and proper plumbing, electrical and heating installations. Standards for Housing: Prescribe minimum conditions under which a building or parts of it may be occupied as a dwelling. Housing regulations set standards for occupancy to prevent over crowding, for basic sanitary facilities for height and ventilation, for maintenance etc. Comprehensive community plan The purpose of community planning is to anticipate the physical environment that will best serve the needs of the people living and working in an urban area, and then to make plans for achieving this environment. It is continuing process of developing a comprehensive programme to guide urban growth and renewal. There are six minimum planning requirements, which are backbone of any programme. 1. The Land use plan To Project future community land needs, showing by location and extent, areas to be used for residential, commercial, industrial and public purposes etc. 2. The thoroughfare plan Provides a system of major streets, existing and proposed, distinguishing between limited accesses, primary, secondary thoroughfares. 3. The community facilities plan Shows location and type of present and proposed schools, recreation areas, and other significant public facilities 4. The public Improvement programme Identifying and recommending priorities for future public improvements needed to meet objectives established in other plan elements 5. The zoning ordinance and map Establish regulations and zone limits, which govern the use of land and the location, height, use and land coverage of buildings. 6. The subdivision regulations Provide standards for land development by requiring adequate lost sizes and arrangement, utilities and street improvements, guide development to comfort with the comprehensive plan. Neighbourhood analysis
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Objective is the identification of intensity of blight and logical patterns of neighbourhood for purposes of developing a basis for planning of healthy neighbourhood of decent houses and suitable living environment Administrative organization Objective is firmly to establish administrative responsibly and capacity for enforcement of codes and ordinances and for carrying out renewal programmes and projects. Financing An effective workable programme can save a community infinitely more than it costs. As the programme gets underway, most communities will find that today need to initiate or increase appropriations for the following types of activities. Enforcement of codes Technical assistance for comprehensive planning and neighbourhood analysis. Administration of zoning and sub-division regulations Overall co-ordination of the programme when this is a full or part-time assignment. As definite plans for community facilities, public works and renewal projects are developed, the community can plan and co-ordinate its capital outlays expenditure by projecting them for a five or six year period Housing for displaced families As a community goes into action on its workable programme enforcing codes, eliminating slums and blight, constructing public improvement. Some families will be displaced from housing they now occupy. Many of the families will need substantial assistance in finding suitable relocation housing. Many communities will find the existing local housing will not meet relocation needs. This is often true in regard to the limited number of sales and rental units available to displaced minority group families. Citizens Participation Peoples participation in development is both necessary and desirable not because participation is good and it is the right of people to participate in a democratic system, but because-It gives recognition to people as human beings.
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RURAL PLANNING RURAL AND URBAN PLANS A COMPARISION Even though rural and urban plans have many common features, basically they differ in approaches 1. Primary goal of rural planning is economic development through greater production of agricultural commodities. Development of small scale and cottage industry is also a part of plan which in-turn reduce unemployment 2. Rural community development is programme oriented whereas urban planning is process oriented 3. Rural plans are implemented by lesser organizations whereas urban plans are organized by large number of organizations. 4. Village community is homogenous in nature and relationship is intimate and personal. So many people get benefit from each plan. But city has heterogeneous population where planning serve less number of people, because interest and needs of people who belong to different groups differ. Rural communities are more stable and they are slowly growing units, city population on the other hand has less stability and often grows rapidly. So the plans should so be tailored to meet different problems with different plans. RURAL PLANNING Objectives 1. To provide facilities which will meet basic needs and to create an environment in which human mind can grow to its full stature 2. Rural planning envisages widening of existing roads, streets and lanes to facilitate proper circulation 3. It aims at providing adequate open space distributed over the village for a healthy living 4. Achieving proper grouping of houses in order that they enjoy better environment with more air and light. 5. Rural planning is directed towards thinning out densities wherever necessary in order to relieve congestion in residential areas 6. Rural planning is undertaken to explore the potentials and thereby improve the economic base of the village, incidentally raising the standard of living of the villages and create job opportunities. 7. It aims at providing good water supply, efficient drainage and sanitary system and thereby attempt to improve the environment 8. for the prosperity of village and incidentally get oriented towards the prosperity of the state and the nation 9. Rural planning tries to check exodus of rural people to urban areas in search of better living conditions and jobs by creating it locally 10. Conservation of valuable agricultural lands and recreation of environment socially and economically suitable to rural people. Surveys and studies Surveys can be classified into two categories General survey Govt. undertakes this survey which informs about physical conditions of the villages, Socioeconomic level, standard of living, population characteristics, habits and taste of the public, agricultural development, irrigational facilities available in that area, land tenure, improvement of holding and the physical and social infrastructure of the village Specific survey
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For knowing specific characteristics of a particular village, extent of a problem either social or economical specific surveys are undertaken which are of many types such as : Reconnaissance survey Aim is to find out the suitability of the village for development and the willingness of the villagers for improvement Engineering survey This is conducted for preparing base plan for the village and the surrounding with details of streets, structures, contours and other existing factors Household survey This elicits information regarding socio-economic characteristics of people and housing situation Observational studies This is conducted by visiting the village and deals with all aspects such as hygiene, road, water and other facilities Group discussion Mutual exchange of views on planning with villagers for better planning. PREPARING MASTER PLAN FOR VILLAGE The important aspects to be taken into account while preparing a master plan are 1. Road pattern Has to be worked out without altering existing road pattern and minimizing demolition of houses. Width of road should allow two carts to pass easily and enough space be left for cart parking with out affecting the traffic. 2. Land for common use sufficient space should be provided for village community center, school co-operatives, dispensary etc. Places of common use should be accessible to all sections of community 3. Commercial use Depending on the size of population and the number of existing shops, suitable area is to be earmarked for shops, the location has to be such that the shops can be approached easily from all sectors of village 4. Residential use Semi permanent houses have to be retained as far as possible. Development of new housing area depends upon the number of families to be housed, which depend on the growth of population. 5. Water supply Protected safe water supply should be provided. The location of well should be away by at least 10 m from the source of contamination such as WCs, septic tanks, soak pits and manure pits. 6. Sanitation In India most of the villages do not have proper sanitary facilities. For good environmental sanitation, human waste should be disposed off in such a way and in such a location that it will not pollute water and air. 7. Drainage Roads should be provided with gutter to permit the flow of waste water from houses and it should be designed such as water flows away without stagnation 8. Housing The house design should take into consideration the physical needs and cultural and economic aspect of family. As far as possible locally available materials should be used.
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QUESTIONS
PART A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 1. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. PART B What are the factors that influence urbanisation? Highlight the trends and impacts on town and cities in India. 2. Define Region. What are the various types of regions How many planning regions are there in Tamilnadu 3. What are regional plans? Discuss their scope, objectives and contents, with examples. 4. What are the various surveys and studies done prior to planning a town? 5. Discuss the need for new town. Briefly explain the procedure followed in planning such a town. 6. Discuss the process of preparing a master plan for an urban settlement. 7. Define Urban renewal. Explain the objectives and types of urban renewal. 8. When and how urban renewal is carried out and highlights its benefits? 9. What is urban renewal? Describe why it is necessary and how they are planned and implemented, with examples. 10. Explain the importance of rural planning in Tamil Nadu. 1. What are the factors that cause migration of rural population into urban areas? How do you define an Urban area? Give an example. Make a comparison between urban and rural area. Make a comparison between urban and rural plans. Explain the term Urbanisation. Highlight the healthy features of Urbanisation. What is the impact of urbanisation? Highlight any 5 major factors. Briefly write on the classification of towns according to 1991 census. Write a few lines on rural planning in India. What do you understand by Rural-Urban dichotomy and rural-Urban nexus? Man is his own enemy. Comment in the context of urban growth in India What do you understand by urbanization? Highlight any 3 major factors of urbanization. Explain briefly what are zoning regulations and their objectives. How the land-use characteristics of a rural settlement differ from that of an urban settlement. Mixed land-use is an important character of Indian cities elaborate with examples highlighting its advantages. What are the basis on which regions are delineated? Give an example. Mention its types. What are the broad contents of a resource regional plan? What are the different regions in the planning parlance? What are the objectives of Master plan? What are the contents of it? What is the scope and content of Master plan? Enumerate the components of Zoning regulation. List the impacts of 74th Constitution Amendment Act on planning profession How does a Development Plan differ from a master plan? Decentralised District Planning. Examine its relevance in the Indian context. Define Urban Renewal and list the steps in preparing a project report on urban renewal. Explain the types of urban renewal What is urban renewal? What are the major benefits of urban renewal? How Development management and control help in planning?
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HOUSING Importance of housing It is a place where one can take rest, sleep and cook food. House is a part and parcel of man's life and substantial part of man's lifetime is spent in his house. The economic importance of housing is also very significant. It contributes to national income, national wealth and national employment. It also serves as a good source of revenue for central state and local governments. In general, it can be stated that housing has potentiality to great extent in promoting human welfare, social life, economic growth, health of community and various other related aspects of human life. Demand for houses The demand for houses depends on the following factors Availability of skilled labor Available transport facilities Cost of labor and materials of construction Predictions of future demand Rate of interest on investment, e.g. low rates of interest with facilities of long term repayment may facilitate investment in housing Rate of population growth and urbanization Supply of developed plots at reasonable prices Taxation policy on real estates Town planning and environmental conditions etc. Classification of residential buildings Detached houses Semi-detached houses Row of houses Apartments or flats Skyscrapers Design of residential areas The residential areas are to be carefully designed with respect to the following aspects Aesthetics Basic materials Housing unit Layout Size and shape Street system The housing problems in urban and rural areas are different because of the following facts Availability of land Availability of materials Availability of technical supervision Economic conditions Living habits Social obligations
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Rural housing India is a developing country with nearly 700 thousand villages with the main activity of the people as agriculture. It is therefore necessary to give serious thought to the overall development of villages also. The design of rural housing should be based on characteristics of typical Indian village life and at the same time, the constructional features should correspond to the available men and materials. The central building research institute, roorkee has developed various techniques to make the rural housing schemes as economical as possible. These techniques include the production of building materials by using locally available raw materials and the building procedures can also be easily carried out by the locally available labor commensurate with the structural stability and durability aspects of the project. The rural housing policy should be based on the following three principles 1. Economic development It should be seen that there is all round economic development of the rural areas, which will help the villagers to maintain their houses and to repay the loans taken by them without much hardship. If possible, efforts should be made to obtain subsidies wither from government or other voluntary organisations to reduce the burden of the poor class people of villages. 2. Improvement The existing unfit rural houses should either be improved or reconstructed and for this purpose, the improvement scheme should be spread over a long period, say 10 to 15 years 3. Self-help The element of self-help should be added to bring down the cost of housing unit. However adequate technical guidance should be made available. Following points should be considered at the time of selection of villages for housing project The villages having population of backward class with bad living conditions should be given first chance The villages which are flood affected and which are proposed to be rebuilt on sites free from damage of floods should be given preference The villages which have become congested due to over-population should be selected For selecting villages under the improvement programme, the following factors should be considered The majority of residents should be willing to improve or rebuild their houses on self-help basis and in accordance with the master plan prepared by the authority taking due care of existing trees, wells pucca houses monuments etc. The village should offer voluntarily the sites for setting up co-operative brick kilns tiles preparation joinery lime manufacture, etc. Agencies for housing Following are the three agencies, which may be considered responsible for the construction of houses 1. Government 2. Co-operative housing societies 3. Individuals
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Government To provide housing on a large scale and even at subsidised rates, the supreme agency would naturally be government and semi-government bodies or departments. It is to be confessed that the principle of state assistance for housing though unsound in nature is unavoidable under the present condition. It is for this reason that such assistance Co-operative housing societies Individuals HUDCO It was setup in 1970 with the aim of promoting housing and urban development programmes in the country. HUDCO serves as the apex control agency for mobilisation of financial resources for housing and urban development programmes. The funds so generated are used by HUDCO for housing schemes of better quality houses for sale to the public on liberal terms and conditions The important borrowers from HUDCO are housing boards development authorities improvement trusts municipal corporations public sector undertakings private sector bodies, semi-govt. and govt. agencies private builders, etc. However the housing boards generally consume half of the total loan advanced by HUDCO. HUDCO has identified more housing agencies and as a result of this policy the number of housing agencies, which was only 12 in 1972, has gone up as high as 149 in 1981. The schemes financed by HUDCO are now spread over 381 towns and hundreds of villages The lending rate of interest charged by HUDCO varies with the nature of scheme for which loan is to be advanced. It looks with sympathy for the schemes, which are floated for the economically weaker section of the society, and it thus helps the under-privileged people substantially. One of the main objectives of HUDCO is also to finance or undertake the setting up of building material industries because of the fact that building materials constitute about 70% of the total cost of construction. It is therefore necessary to ensure a steady flow of essential building materials at reasonable prices especially to build houses for people of economically weaker sections and lowincome group categories. Hence, to encourage the establishment of building material, industrial units, HUDCO advances loan on liberal grounds with low rate of interest. HUDCO earmarks 55% of its housing portfolio funds to Weaker Sections and Low Income Groups, with differential interest rates, high loan component for lower cost units, and longer repayment period. Though its releases are somewhat less than sanctions, it is noteworthy that HUDCO has sanctioned 13.61 lakh urban housing units and 20.21 lakh rural housing units in the three years from 1998-99 to 2000.01 under the 2-Million Housing Scheme. The other factor in HUDCO operations for the mass housing programmes is the dependence on State Government guarantees, which as noted elsewhere, eliminates parts of the Country from its operations. HUDCO is also a large player in the retail lending for housing, and in two and a half years, has sanctioned a total loan amount of Rs. 2331 crores to 2,62,550 beneficiaries. HUDCO has been in the forefront of Governments efforts to come to the aid of disaster affected household, and has provided financial assistance for disaster rehabilitation housing to the tune of Rs. 2360 cores for construction of over 40 lakhs houses for earthquake, cyclone, and flood victims. HUDCO also promotes and provides consultancy services to help housing agencies to design low cost housing schemes, commercial projects townships and various other projects connected with housing and urban development programmes.
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TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION Traffic: Vehicles moving along a road or street The number of people or the amount of goods moved from one place to another by road, rail, sea or air Transportation: Conveyance used for going from place to place The process of transporting or carrying goods and passengers from one place to another. Types of transport: The different types of transport available in our country are Road transport Rail transport Air transport Water transport Road transport Road is the path specially prepared for the movement of transport vehicles like carts, trucks, buses, lorries, etc Different types of roads generally constructed are Water bound macadam road The term Water bound macadam road is applied to a layer of broken stone aggregate that is held together by the dust particles of stone and the water sprinkled during compaction carried out by using roller Bituminous road Road surface formed of broken stone aggregate and bituminous binder is called bituminous road. The selection of the type of bituminous surfacing, thickness of road surface and the method of laying the bituminous surface depend on the volume of the traffic and the intensity of the load transmitted by the traffic Cement concrete road Road constructed of cement concrete with or without steel reinforcement is called concrete road. It is a rigid pavement. DEFINITION OF TERMS Right of way (ROW) The horizontal distance from one plot line to another plot line in front of it Carriage way (C/V) The metaled portion of ROW to take the vehicles Traffic volume (or) Volume of traffic Traffic volume is the number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a given lane or roadway that pass a given point or cross-section during specified unit of time. Traffic volume is expressed as vehicles per hour or vehicles per day
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Traffic density Traffic density is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane of roadway at a given instant, usually expressed as vehicles per kilometer. Traffic volume is the product of the traffic density and traffic speed. The highest traffic density will occur when the vehicles are practically at a stand still on a given route, and in this case traffic volume will approach zero Traffic capacity Traffic capacity is the ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic volume. It is expressed as the maximum number of vehicles in a lane or a road that can pass a given point in unit time, usually an hour. i.e., vehicles per hour per lane or roadway. Capacity and volume are measures of traffic flow and have the same units. Volume represents an actual rate of flow and responds to variations in traffic demand, while capacity indicates a capability or maximum rate of flow with a certain level of service characteristics that can be carried by the roadway. Passenger Car Unit (PCU) Different classes of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, auto rickshaw, motor cycles, pedal cycles, bullock carts, etc. are found to use the common roadway facilities without segregation on most of the roads in developing countries like India. The flow of traffic with unrestricted mixing of different vehicle classes on the roadways forms the heterogeneous traffic flow or the mixed traffic flow. It is rather difficult to estimate the traffic volume and capacity of roadway facilities under mixed traffic flow, unless the different vehicle classes are converted to one common standard vehicle unit. It is common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called Passenger Car Unit or PCU. Thus in mixed traffic flow, the traffic volume and capacity are generally expressed as PCU per hour or PCU/lane/hour and the traffic density as PCU per kilometer length of lane. Tentative equivalency factors or PCU values suggested by the IRC (Indian road congress) S.no Vehicle class Equivalency factors 1. Passenger car, tempo, auto rickshaw, agricultural 1.0 tractor 2. Bus, truck, agricultural tractor-trailer unit 3.0 3. Motor cycle, scooter and pedal cycle 0.5 4. Cycle rickshaw 1.5 5. Horse drawn vehicles 4.0 6. Small bullock cart and hand cart 6.0 7. Large bullock cart 8.0 Basic capacity Basic capacity is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions. Two roads having the same physical features will have the same basic capacity irrespective of traffic conditions, as they are assumed to be ideal Possible capacity Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
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Practical capacity Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicle that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to the drivers freedom to maneuver under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. It is the practical capacity that is of primary interest to the designers who strive to provide adequate highway facilities and hence this is also called design capacity. Practical capacity values The practical capacity values suggested by the IRC for the purpose of design of different types of roads in rural areas Capacity of different types of roads in rural areas Type of road Capacity PCU per day (both directions) Single lane with 3.75m wide carriageway and normal earthen shoulders 1000 Single lane with 3.75m wide carriageway and 1.0m wide hard shoulders 2500 Roads with intermediate lanes of width 5.5m and normal earthen 5000 shoulders Two lane roads with 7.0m wide carriage way and earthen shoulders 10,000 Four lanes divided highway 20,000 to 30,000 Capacity of urban roads
No. of traffic lanes and width Traffic flow Capacity in PCU per hour for traffic condition Roads with no Roads with Roads with free frontage access, frontage access, frontage access, no standing but no standing parked vehicles & vehicles, very little vehicle and high heavy cross traffic cross traffic capacity intersections
Two lane (7.0 7.5 m) Two lane (7.0 7.5 m) Three lane (10.5 m) Four lane (14 m) Four lane (14 m) Six lane (21 m)
One way Two way One way One way Two way Two way
2400 1500 3600 4800 4000 6000
1500 1200 2500 3000 2500 4200
1200 750 2000 2400 2000 3600
Operational speed Operational speed is the speed at which traffic flows on the road. The operational speed depends on the volume to capacity ratio of that particular road. As the V/C ratio increases, the operational speed on the road decreases. V/C Operational speed 0.1 Higher 0.5 Medium 0.8 Stop & go 1.0 Unstable
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Level of service (LOS) It is the qualitative expression describing the traffic condition at a given state of roads. This depends on drivers freedom operational speed volume/capacity ratio LOS A B C D E F V/C 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.7 1.0 Condition Free flow Freedom affected Freedom restricted Stream behaviour Stop & go Forced flow Operating speed > 80 Kmph 80 Kmph 60 - 80 Kmph 40 - 60 Kmph 20 - 40 Kmph 0 - 20 Kmph
INTERSECTION Design criteria The intersections are the places where the vehicles can change their directions. There are various criteria for designing the intersections. They are type of road priority of movement Volume of traffic Allocation of land Existing shape of intersection (i.e. T-junction, cross junction etc.) Type of intersections Intersections at grade These include all roads, which meet at more or less the same level. The traffic maneuvers like merging, diverging and crossing are involved in the intersections at grade. They are further classified into 0. unchannelised intersections 0. canalized intersections 0. Rotary intersection Grade separated intersection The intersecting roads are separated by difference in level, thus eliminating the crossing maneuvers Grade separated intersection is the highest form of intersection treatment. Grade separation is achieved by means of vertical level, separation of the intersecting roads by means of a bridge thus eliminating all crossing conflicts at the intersection. The grade separation may be either by an over bridge or an under pass. Transfer of route at the grade separation is provided by interchange facilities consisting of ramps.
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UTILITIES AND SERVICES PLANNING FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE 1. INTRODUCTION: Man is very complex animal. Other things being equal he is to a great extent, the product of social and physical environment. The creation of the right physical environment is the main objective of town planning. No sound environment can be achieved with out properly planned infrastructure facilities . Infrastructure includes, provision of good water supply, sewerage, electricity, traffic and transport, telecommunication system, etc. 2. OBJECTIVES: Objectives of this paper are to study various infrastructure facilities, which form part and parcel of urban life. This paper limits discussion on four major elements: water supply, sewerage, electricity and telecommunication. 3. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: The planning, design, financing, construction of modern urban water is complex undertakings. Each water supply scheme by its very nature, must be uniquely conceived. Even in its most specific sense as an engineering enterprise satisfactory development of water supply scheme depends upon demographic, hydrologic, geodetic and geologic information that can be made available only by decades of institutionalized, orderly observation, recording and analysis. COMMUNITY AND WATER SUPPLY: Water is introduced into municipalities for many purposes: for drinking and culinary uses, for washing, bathing, and laundering, for cleaning windows, walls and floors, for heating and air conditioning, for watering lawns and gardens, for filling swimming pools, for display in fountains, for producing hydraulic and stream power, for employing in numerous and varied industrial processes, for protecting life and property against fire, and for removing offensive and potentially dangerous wastes from household and industry.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
To provide for these varying uses about 300 liters per capita per day is essential but many Indian cities have water supply much less than the required quality. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM OF A TOWN: Water supply system of a town includes: 1. Sources of water supply, 2. Purification, 3. Transmission, and 4. Distribution of water.
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SOURCES OF WATER SUPLY: There are various sources of water supply, they are: (a) Rain water: This is collected from roof of building stored in cisterns of small individual supplies. (b) Surface water: This is the run off water, which is collected putting dam across the natural streams or rivers. Usually water supply for a large town or city is derived from these sources. (c) Ground water: erecting wells and infiltration galleries across the river basin collects this water. This source of supply is suitable for small towns. Municipal supplies may be drawn from a single source or from a number of different ones. The water from multiple sources is ordinarily mixed before distribution. PURIFICATION OF WATER Some of the water collected from surface or ground source are satisfactory in quality for all common municipal uses. Such water needs to be protected only by disinfections. Others containing objectionable substances in varying quantities, and these substances must be removed, reduced to tolerable limit, destroyed, or otherwise changed in character before they are sent to the consumer. Impurities are acquired in normal passage of water through the atmosphere, over the earths surface, or through the pores of the ground. They are associated in their pollution aspects with mans activities and, in particular, with his own use of water in household and industry and his discharge of spent watercourses. Purification works in public water supply system is employed to make water; 1. Hygienically safe, 2. Esthetically attractive and palatable, and 3. Economically satisfactory for the uses to which it is to be put. The most common classes of municipal water purification works and their principal functions are: 1. Filtration plants that remove objectionable colour, turbidity and bacteria as well ad other potentially harmful organisms by filtration through sand after necessary preparation of the water by coagulation and sedimentation. 2. Defferrization and demagnetization plants that remove excessive amounts of iron and manganese by oxidizing the soluble ferrous and manganeous compounds, which are removable by sedimentation and filtration. 3. Softening plants that remove excessive amounts of scale-forming soap consuming compounds, chiefly and soluble bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate of calcium and magnesium. Most water supplies are chlorinated to assure their disinfections and many waters are treated with lime or other chemicals to reduce their tendency to corrode iron and other metals with which they come into contact. TRANSPORTATION OF WATER: Supply conduits or aqueducts, transport water from the source of supply to the community and so form the connecting link between the collection works and the distribution system. The location of the source determines whether the conduits are short or long and whether the water is transported by gravity by pumping. Depending upon topography and available materials, conduits
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are designed to carry the water in open channel flow under pressure. They may follow the hydraulic grade line as: 1. 2. 3. 4. canals dug through the ground, flumes elevated above the ground, grade aqueducts laid in balanced cut and cover at ground surface, grade tunnels penetrating hills, or they may depend from the hydraulic gradient as pressure aqueducts laid in balanced out and cover at the ground surface 5. pressure tunnels dipping beneath valleys or hills 6. pipe lines of fabricated materials following the ground surface. Size and shape of supply conduits are determined by hydraulic, structural and economic considerations. Velocities of flow are held ordinarily between 1 to 1.5 m/sec. Requisite capacity depends upon the inclusion and size of service, or distributing reservoirs, in the supply system. The service reservoirs are designed to store enough water. Its capacity will be a days consumption of water plus 50% excess of the average daily rate of use. Ordinarily, required storage is approximately a days consumption. Distribution reservoirs are constructed as open or covered basins at ground level or as elevated tanks. The choice depends upon their size and their location with particular reference to available elevation above the area served by them. A number of different reservoirs may be needed in large system. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER: The system of conduits that conveys water to the points use from the terminus of the supply conduit, is known as the distribution system. Street plan, topography, location of supply work and distribution storage, etc., establish the type of distribution system and the character of flow through it. Depending upon the street plan, two distribution patterns predominate: 1. a branching pattern on the outskirts of the community in which ribbon development follows the primary arteries of road and streets and 2. to gridiron pattern within the built up portion of the community in which streets criss cross, pipes are interconnected. Hydraulically the gridiron system possesses the advantage of carrying water to any spot from more than one direction. The branching system has the disadvantage of dead ends. The carrying capacity of the grid iron system is strengthened by providing, in place of a central feeder, a loop or belt of feeder pipes the supplies water to the congested, or high value, district from at least two direction, thereby more or less doubling the delivery of grid. In large system, feeder conduits take the form of pressure tunnels, pressure aqueducts, or steel pipes. In smaller communities, the entire distribution system is generally made up of cast-iron pipes. Cast iron is the most common material for service mains. Steel and asbestos-cement pipes are also widely employed. SOURCE, TREATMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF MADRAS WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: SOURCE OF WATER SUPPLY: Water supply for the Madras City is drawn from Red Hills lake, 12kms. Northwest of the city. This lake receives its supply from Korlalayar river across which a dam is constructed Poondi. Water is transported to Cholavaram tank in a lined channel. From there water is again sent to Red
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Hills lake by masonry arched conduits 11 km long and then received at Kilpauk water work for treatment. TREATMENT: Water is tapped from Red Hills lake through roughening filters where floating matter and big suspended solids are removed. After it is received at Kilpauk Water Works, before it enters slow sand filters and mechanical filters, pre-chlorinated up to a dosage of 2ppm. By injecting liquid chlorine. The filtrate is again chlorinated up to a dosage of 3.5ppm, which give residual chlorine of 1ppm in the distribution system. There are two types of filter beds employed at kilpauk; slow sand filter and rapid gravity filter. The slow sand filter bed received raw water, where as, the rapid gravity filters take water after treated with chemicals like alum. The total capacity of filters at kilpauk is 259 MLD. The filtered water is stored in clear water reservoir for distribution. DISTRIBUTION The core of the present distribution system was designed in the year 1911. various additions and alterations were made during the course of time to meet the requirements. For distribution of water, Chennai (Madras) city is divided into 13 zones and each zone is fed directly by a trunk main. The zonal distribution was made to supply 113.6 lpcd with a tail lpcd pressure of 8 meters for a population of 2.6 million ADMINISTRATION The water supply system with in the city was the responsibility of the corporation of madras. The responsibility is transferred to madras metropolitan water supply and sewerage board since 1978 WASTE WATER DISPOSAL SYSTEM The disposal of wastewater requires the construction and operation of Collection works and Disposal works Treatment works precedes the later. SOURCES AND NATURE OF WASTE WATER Sanitary sewage is the spent water supply of the community. Domestic sewage is the wastewater from kitchen, bathroom, lavatory, toilet and laundry. In addition to the mineral and organic matter already in the water dispensed to the community, domestic sewage contain an imposed burden of human excrement, paper, soap, dirt, food waste and numerous other substances. Domestic sewage is unstable, decomposable, or putrescible, it may give rise to offensive odors. Pathogenic organisms discharged by persons harboring intestinal parasites or suffering from infectious diseases are always present in domestic sewage and render it dangerous The nature of industrial waste depends upon the industrial processes. Some industrial wastes are so objectionable that they should not be admitted to the public sewerage system. Some industrial wastes adhere to sewers and clog them. Some others contain acids and hydrogen sulphide, which destroy cement concrete etc. used in construction of sewers There are two types of sewerage system Combined system and Separate system
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In combined system, waste matters from household, industries and storm water run off are collected in a single pipe But in separate system, domestic and industrial sewage and storm water are collected in separate sewers PATTERN OF COLLECTION SYSTEM Usually the sewer lines are laid 4 to 5 below the centerline of the streets provided that the streets are 30 in width or less. But in the case of wider roads sewer lines are laid on sides of the road just below the footpaths. The lines are laid to get flow of sewage by gravity. Now sewer line is allowed to flow more than 2/3 of its capacity. In case sewage is lifted to a particular point, pump station are constructed along the sewer line. The velocity of flow of sewerage will be limited to 2.0 to 2.5 ft/sec. If the velocity is reduced from this limit deposition of waste matter will occur. This will lead to clogging of the sewer system. On the other hand the velocity is increase beyond 3 ft/sec, the rubbing action of solid particle will damage the inner layer of sewer system. MANHOLE Some deposition of solids is bound to occur. So sewers made accessible for inspection and cleaning. In sewers that are not large enough to be entered, providing manhole at all junctions of sewers, changes in direction and change in grade does this. The straight runs that can be rodded out between manhole are limited in length 300 to 400. For sewers less than 24 in diameter. For larger sewers, they are up to 600 COLLECTION OF STORM WATER In separate sewerage system, collection of storm water is done in catch water drains, which run on either side of the road. Strom water carries solid waste and sand particles etc. if the speed is reduced there is every chance of depositing the solid particle carried by the sewage. So minimum velocity is maintained at 3 ft/sec. DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE Storm water Strom water is collected in surface drains called catch drains, or in underground drains and disposed off to the natural water courses with out any treatment Sewage Raw sewage is treated before discharging into watercourse. The daily load of solid imposed upon domestic sewage about half a kilo per person per day. Industrial wastes however, may be far more concentrated. METHODS OF SEWAGE TREATMENT Removal of floating and suspended matter These matters are strained out by passing the sewage through screens Removal of oil and grease This is removed in skimming tanks where the sewage is allowed to stand still for a particular period of time and the floating oil is allowed to flow into a separate tank.
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Removal of heavy materials This is done in settling tank or sedimentation basins. Here sewage is allowed to stand still for a particular time. During this course of time heavy particles start settling on the bottom of the tank and this is removed from the bottom. Removal of non-settleable suspended matters Here suspended matters are converted into settleable solids by adding chemicals to sewage and is allowed to settle in settling tanks. Even more colloidal and dissolved matter is converted into settleable solids by biological growths. This growth is accelerators by aeration of sewage. This is done in trickling filters and more finely divided matters are removed by filtration through soil, sand, or other granular materials. The filtered water is chlorinated to remove all the harmful bacterias before it is discharged into the natural watercourses. SEWERAGE SYSTEM OF MADRAS CITY The sewerage system was designed in the year 1910 it was designed as a partially separate system. The system allowed through gullies. In 1958 comprehensive improvements to the citys sewerage system was designed for a flow of 110 lpcd. The city was divided into 5 zones. The present system consist of 49 individual collection areas funneling the flow into 5 network of major force mains and old brick gravity sewers. The wastewater from the central portion of the municipal sewerage system is continued to be diverted to four major treatment plants. Here it is treated and disposed off. ELECTRICITY An electric current is a flow of electricity carried by the electrons. Usually electric current flows from a positive terminal to a negative terminal. SOURCES OF ELECTRIC POWER There are several sources of electric power. They are 1. Hydroelectric stations 2. Thermal power stations 3. Nuclear power stations 4. Photoelectric cells 5. Chemical actions 1. Hydroelectric stations Hydroelectric installations produce electricity from energy of water. Large water retaining structures are constructed across the river or valley, these structures are known as dam. They help to obstruct the flow of natural water and impound large quantity of water on the upstream side of the dam. Water thus impounded behind the dam is led through pipes at the bottom of the dam to the powerhouse. In the power house the water is fed into water turbines. Each water turbine in-turn, rotates generator. Cables carry electricity produced by generator or overhead transmission wires to distant places as desired.
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2. Thermal stations Here generators are allowed to run by steam obtained from heating the water by coal. Highpressure steam is passed through tubes fitted round a wheel in required angle. Due to pressure this wheel runs with high velocity. Usually generator is axiled to the wheels to produced electricity 3. Nuclear power stations The function of nuclear power stations are more less the same that of thermal stations. Here burning uranium rods by a process called atomic fission generate the heat. Uranium 235 is the only material that can be used for nuclear fission. Plutonium, a newly created element, may be used as well. 4. Photoelectric cells This is a device based on the discovery that small particles of negative electricity called electrons are emitted from the surface of certain metals, when light falls on it. But current produced from this source is very small and cannot be used for electrifying a town or a city 5. Electricity produced by chemical action Ordinary batteries work on this principle. The current produced from this source is very small. So it is not sufficient for a town Transformer Electricity produced in a generator is at relatively low pressure. To transmit large amount of power at this voltage, comparatively larger sized transmission wires are required to be use. Hence voltage is increased by many times. A transformer does this. A transformer ca step up or step down the voltage. Transmission of current Transmission wires erected on transmission towers do electric current transmission. While transmitting current to a great distance, there will be loss of voltage. This is again raised to the required level by transformers. Distribution For distribution of electric current the whole town is divided into districts. In each district a substation is constructed to supply current to the use in that district. Usually all the substations are interlinked to form a grid so that in case of any break down in any one of sub-stations, current can be supplied from other sub-stations. The capacity of the sub-station is decided by the power consumption in that district. This includes domestic and industrial consumption of the district. Electric supply system of madras city Madras city electric system is fed from ennore and basin bridge thermal stations. This is also connected with grid lines of tamilnadu hydroelectric stations. For distribution of current in the madras city, it is divided into two divisions- Madras south and madras north. There are seven number of EHT sub-stations in the city. They are korattur, ennore, avadi, dakapari, manali, vyasarpadi and porur. In addition to this about three dozens 33/11 kva substations are employed for transfer of bulk power to individual area. The ultimate supply to consumer is tapped from 4000 pillar-boxes. Underground cables through out madras city do the distribution of current. But outside city limit, overhead lines do transmission.
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Administration The tamilnadu Electricity board is in charge of construction expansion, operation and maintenance of electric power supply system in the entire state. TELECOMMUNICATION World has been made to depend more and more upon these technical means of communication, namely, telephone and telegraph, radio, television and printing; all summed up on one word, telecommunications Communication has become the pulse of the world and an essential part of human life and human progress. The telegraphs and the telephone brought the new method of communication. Probably the most remarkable feature of the age in which we live is the rapidity of communication.
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PLANNING STANDARDS 1. Civic amenities and community facilities Educational facilities Population per unit Nursery school (age group of 3 to 6 1,500 years) Basic primary school (age group of 6 to 3,500 14 years) Higher secondary school (age group of 3,500 14 to 17 years) Colleges 50,000 Technical institution University campus Medical facilities Dispensary Health centre (0.5 bed per 1,000 population) Hospital (2 bed per 1,000 population) District tuberculosis centre Other amenities Post and telegraph office Telephone exchange (10,000 lines) Electricity substation Police station Police station (major) Fire station Cinema theatre Community hall and library Swimming pool Stadium Open air theatre Religious building Auditorium Filling station Filling-cum service-station 50,000 --Population per unit 5,000 20,000 50,000 1.0 to 2.0 million Number of pupils 80 400 400 2,000 1,000 20,000 Number of beds --15 100 100 Population per unit 10,000 1,00,000 50,000 10,000 50,000 50,000 20,000 25,000 1,00,000 1,00000 50,000 3,000 20,000 15,000 25,000 Area in hectares 0.2 (including play ground) 1.0 (including play ground) 1.0 (including play ground) 3 to 4 (including play ground) 5.0 500.0 Area in hectares 0.1 0.4 (including staff quarters) 2 (including staff quarters) 2 Area in hectares 0.1 (including staff quarters) 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.8 (including staff quarters) 0.8 (including staff quarters) 0.25 0.75 0.8 3 0.8 0.1 0.4 0.05 0.1
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2. Shopping facilities Level of shopping Population served Neighbourhood and convenience centre Community centre (district level) City centre Total for the city 3000 - 20,000 50,000 - 75,000 1,50,000 & above Entire city
No. of shops per 1000 persons 3 2-3 3 -4 8 - 10
Average area per shop in sq.m. 10 - 15 20 25 20
Area of influence in km. 0.5 - 0.75 1.5 - 3 Entire city Entire city
3. Parks, playgrounds and open spaces Category Tot - lot Children's park Neighbourhood playground Neighbourhood park District park Regional park Crematorium Burial ground Total area required for parks, playgrounds and open spaces
Population per unit 500 2,000 1,000 5,000 25,000 1,00,000 5,00,000 10,000 1,000
Area in hectares 0.05 0.2 0.2 0.8 5.0 40.0 0.2 0.4 1.5
4. Water supply consumption Population range Break up per capita consumption in litres per day
Domestic use Public use Ind. and commerce Agriculture Waste Total
Less than 1000 1,000 to 5,000 5,000 to 20,000 20,000 to 50,000 50,000 to 2,00,000 Above 2,00,000
25 45 45 45 70 - 90 ---
--10 10 35 45 -65 ---
--5 15 15 20 ---
----15 10 10 ---
--10 10 10 20 ---
25 70 95 115 165 165 - 300
5. Traffic and transportation standards for roads Streets in residential areas Cul-de-sac Loop street Minimum right of way in metres 9 (max. Length 150m. with sufficient turning radius) 9 (max. length 450m.)
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Service road Residential street Collector street Feeder street Major street Other roads Roads in commercial and industrial areas Sub-arterial road Arterial road Cycle track Foot path (on either side of roads having width 12m. and above) Pathways inside public gardens and pedestrian malls 6. standards for highways classes of highways 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
9 9 - 14m (with cross road at 200m) 18 23 30 14 45 60 2.25 - 3 1.75 - 2.5 in residential and other areas 4.5 min in CBD 1.5 - 3
national highways N.H. state highways S.H major district roads M.D.R other district roads O.D.R. village roads V.R. heavy 1001 to 1500 1 Very heavy A B 1501 to 2500 2 or 3 2501 to 5000 4 lanes divided
Design capacity and number of traffic lanes Traffic Very light Medium classific light A B ation Average Up to 201 to 501 to 751 to daily 200 500 750 1500 tonnage No of 1 1 1 1 traffic lanes
C Over 5000 6 lanes divided
In addition 2.75m wide cycle track on each side where required. In addition 2.75 m wide cycle track and 2.75 m wide foot path where required Design speed pavement width per traffic lane and width of roadway S.H. M.D.R. O.D.R. Classification of highway N.H. 80 Flat topography Rolling topography Mountainous area 48 Pavement width per 3.65 traffic lane in metres Width of roadway in metres 80 Design speed (km. h) 64 48 32 V.R. 32 24
48 40 3 (desirable 3.65 )
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Flat topography Rolling topography Mountainous area

Class of road
11.6 11.6 8
9.75 9.75 8
7.3 7.3 6.7
7.3 7.3 6.7
4.9 4.9 4.25
Minimum width of right of way (in metres)

Open area and agricultural country Width of road land Building line Normal range (overall width) Control line (overall width) Urban (built-up) and indl. areas Width of road land Building (or setback) line Normal range width of strip beyond road boundary
N.H. and S.H. M.D.R. O.D.R. V.R.
30 24 12 12
30 - 60 24 - 30 12 - 24 12 - 18
60 48 24 24
134 91 36 30
24 12 9 9
24 - 60 12 - 18 9 - 15 9 - 15
3 -6 3 -----
Road camber or cross fall 1. Water bound macadam road 2. Black topped road 3. Concrete road 4. Shoulders Gradient maximum
1 in 48 1 in 36 in heavy rainfall regions 1 in 60 1 in 72 1 in 48 (earth)
Ruling Limiting Flat topography 1 in 30 1 in 20 Rolling topography 1 in 30 1 in 20 Mountainous area 1 in 20 1 in 15 (Lengths in exceptional cases should not exceed 60m. in a kilometre) Sight distance (stopping and overtaking)
Design speed (Km. h) Minimum overtaking sight distance (in meters) Divided carriage way Undivided carriage way
Exceptional 1 in 15 1 in 15 1 in 12
Stopping sight distance
80 259 472 64 167 305 48 107 183 40 76 137 32 61 91 24 ----(Increase or decrease in sight distance due to grades not specified) Minimum radius of horizontal curves in meters Design speed Plain and rolling topography (km h) Ruling Absolute maximum 80 305 244 64 244 152
122 91 61 37 30 27
Mountainous topography Ruling Absolute maximum ---------
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48 40 32 24
152 --91 ---
91 --46 --32 15
122 91 61 46 40 15 48 15
91 61 46 30 64 23 80 30
Minimum length of transition curve Design speed (chem.) 24 Min length of transition curve 15 (meters)
Extra width of carriage way in curves Radius of curve in meters Up to 61 61 - 152 Extra width in meters 1.2 0.9 7. Minimum off-street parking space Type of use Theatres and auditoriums Retail business Office building Restaurants Hostels Industrial buildings Wholesale and warehouse building Multi-family dwellings Lodging establishments and tourist homes Minimum parking spaces for each car or truck: Car Truck 3m x 6m 2.5m x 5m 3.75m x 7.75m
152 - 305 0.6
305 - 457 0.3
Above 457 ---
One parking space shall be provided for every 20 seats of accommodation 45 sq.m. of sales area 90 sq.m. of office floor space 15 seats of accommodation 4 guest rooms 100 employees in industry 90 sq.m. of storage floor space 4 dwelling units 5 guest rooms
when individual parking space is required when parking lots for community parking are required
Loading and unloading space: Off-street loading and unloading berths shall be 3.75 m x 7.75 m provided as below: 1. For all kinds of developments excepting residential warehouses and go downs: One berth for initial 500 to 1500 sq.m of floor area. Additional berths at the rate of one for every 1000 sq.m. or part thereof. 2. For warehouses and go downs: Two berths for initial 500 to 1500 sq.m of floor area. Additional berths at the rate of one for every subsequent 500 sq.m. or part.
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8. Industry floor area requirements

S.no Type of industry Floor area per worker in sq.m Bakery (small and confectionery Flour mills (organised) and fruit canning and preservation Thread reeling, sari printing etc Cotton hosiery Cotton weaving (including handloom) and invar tape Wooden electrical goods Furniture making Wooden heavy structural and bus body building Cosmetics, drugs and pharmaceuticals disinfectants Paints and varnishes, dye-stuffs, pigments, etc. Storage battery Rubber shoes Tyres, tubes and mechanical rubber goods Leather shoes and other leather products Stone crushing Common crockery, refractory, tiles, etc. Glazed sewer pipes hume pipes Glass ampoules phials and bottles Decorated glass wares Glass scientific and graduated apparatus Parts and accessories, machine screws, domestic utensils Wire products panel pins staple pins, safety pins, sanitary fittings, padlocks, etc. Steel furniture hand tools, aluminum utensils stainless utensils tin containers etc. Buckets, steel pipes bars, rods agricultural implements, hurricane lanterns, steel joinery Wire drawing, conduit pipes Drums and containers (steel), barbed wire, heavy structural Machinery parts and components Small machine tools, small oil engines, oil expellers Sewing machines, medium lathes, diesel oil engines, stone crushers, knitting machinery, domestic flour mills Heavy machinery and machine tools Electrical appliances (domestic type) radio parts Electric fans and electrical accessories Electrical motors, radio receivers, electrical conductors, electrical starters, ironclad switches, amplifiers Heavy electrical equipment Cycle parts (bolts, screws, cycle stands, etc.) Cycle parts (chains, flywheels, cranks, etc.) Cycle parts (frames, carriers, etc) auto parts Complete bicycles 11 28 5 7 16 9 14 46 18 26 28 14 51 6 7 13 26 6 9 12 5 9 12 17 31 33 5 7 16 37 5 11 17 21 5 12 14 19 Plot area per worker in sq.m 28 70 12 19 41 23 35 116 44 64 70 35 128 14 18 33 64 15 23 31 12 23 31 42 77 81 12 19 39 93 12 28 42 53 12 30 35 46
1. 2.
Food - products Textiles
3.
Wooden products
4.
Chemicals and allied products Rubber products Leather products Stoneware clay and ceramic products Glass wares
5. 6. 7.
8.
9.
Metal and metal products
10.
Machinery And machine tools
11.
Electrical machines and equipment
12.
Transport equipment
9. Classification of land use Main groups Sub groups Vacant Partly built but unoccupied Residential Single family Multifamily
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Commercial
Industrial
Transport and communication
Public utilities
Public and semi-public uses
Open spaces Agricultural land
Holiday homes, and boarding houses of permanent nature such as hostels but not including public assistance institutions providing residential accommodation like dharmashala etc. Retail trade Wholesale trade Ware house and storage Offices and banks excluding government offices Restaurants, hotels and transient boarding houses excluding public assistance institutions providing residential accommodation like dharmashala, tourist homes etc. Cinema and other places of public assembly run on a commercial basis Professional establishments Service industry Light industry Extensive industry Heavy industry Noxious industry Railway yards, railway stations and sliding Roads and road transport depots and parking areas Dockyard, jetties and piers Airports and air stations Telegraph offices, telephone exchanges, broadcasting stations, etc. Water supply installations including treatment plants Drainage and sanitary installations including disposal works Electric power plant - high tension and low tension transmission lines, substations, etc. gas installations and gas - works Government administrative centers, secretariat, district offices, law courts, jails, police stations governors residences Educational, cultural and religious institutions Medical and health institutions Cultural institutions like theatres, opera houses, etc. of predominantly non-commercial nature land belonging to defense Sport grounds, stadium playgrounds, and parks other recreational uses, cemeteries crematoria etc. Market garden, orchards and nurseries, land under staple crops, grazing land and pastures, forest land, marshy land, barren land and land under water
10. Desirable land use pattern (percentage) Particulars Residential Industrial Commercial Parks, playgrounds and open Population range 1,50,000 and above 40 8 3.5 10 50,000 to 1,50,000 45 7 3 10 Less than 50,000 50 6 3 8
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spaces Transportation and communication Public and semi-public Others Total
24 10 4.5 100
22 9 4 100
22 8 3 100
11. Desirable densities of population Particulars Average gross density for the city Average gross density for the community Net density for residential neighborhood Gross density at the periphery and suburbs including lowland value areas Intermediate rings of cities and districts Inner ring around core area Core of city and high land value areas
Persons per hectare 100 150 - 200 200 - 250 100 200 250 - 375 500 Area in sq.mts. 135 180 216 294 360 486 720 972 8100 16,200
12. Residential plot sizes for towns in India Income group Dimensions in mts. Low income group 9 x 15 12 x 15 Middle income group 12 x 18 14 x 21 15 x 24 High income group 18 x 27 24 x 30 27 x 36 Public housing and multiple 90 x 90 family plots (90 sq.m. per 90 x 180 and multiples of 90 family with 12 m. to 18m. road) 13. Plot area coverage and floor area ratio Residential Area of plot in sq.m. 100 - 200 200 - 300 300 - 400 400 - 500 500 - 1,000 Above 1000 Floor area ratio: 1.0 to 3.0 Commercial Area of plot in sq.m. Up to 100 100 - 300
Max. Percentage of coverage 65 60 55 50 45 40
Max. Percentage of coverage 80 75
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300 - 400 400 - 500 500 - 1,000 1000 - 2000 Above 2000 Floor area ratio: 1.0 to 4.0 Industrial Light industry Medium industry Heavy industry
70 65 50 40 35
Area of plot in sq.m. 250 - 2000 2000 - 4000 Above 4000
Max. Percentage of coverage 50 40 35
14. Setback for residential buildings Front and rear set backs Depth of site in mts. Up to 15 15 - 18 18 - 21 21 - 24 24 - 27 27 - 30 30 - 36 Above 36 Side set backs Width of site in mts. Up to 9 9 - 12 12 - 15 15 - 21 21 - 27 27 - 30 Above 30 Minimum front in mts. 1.5 1.5 3.0 4.0 4.5 4.5 6.0 9.0 Minimum rear in mts. 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 4.5
Minimum front in mts. 1.0 1.25 1.25 1.75 3.0 3.0 4.5
Minimum rear in mts. 1.0 1.75 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 6.0
15. Housing Minimum plinth area per dwelling Minimum floor area per dwelling Minimum size of dwelling Desirable persons per room
32.5 sq.m 23.25 sq.m 2 living rooms, kitchen and bath 2.0
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Density of dwellings: Area Low density area Medium density area High density area Average density of dwellings Average size of family QUESTIONS
PART A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. PART B 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Discuss the role of financial institution in the planning process Explain how the urban infrastructure is planned The objective of planning is to contribute to the social and economic welfare of the people. This cannot be achieved without proper infrastructure Explain in the context of urban planning. What are the norms and standards to be followed in planning? Discuss the relevance of building byelaws, and space norms. Development control rules critically examine their applications. Enunciate the development management and control. Discuss how far the World Bank assistance was useful in achieving planned development in the urban settlements of Tamil nadu. Enunciate the role of (a) HUDCO (b) Development authorities. Explain the following terms: (a) Cross subsidy (b) Incremental housing Compare and contrast between rural-housing and urban housing What is the significance of the incremental concept in the area of housing? Describe briefly the role played by public sector housing in the planning and development of a new area. Distinguish traffic and transportation. Classify the different kinds of urban roads Classify roads in urban and rural area. Explain the stages involved in the preparation of Traffic Management plan. What are the design objectives in traffic and transportation in planning? How do you estimate the quantity of water required for a town in India of 1 lakh population What do you know by utilities of services? Distinguish between utilities and services Brief on the content of development control rules. Explain briefly how the increase in population of a city is reflected in its built up area.
Dwelling units per hectare 25 50 75 40 to 50 5 persons
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IMPLEMENTATION OF MASTER PLAN For execution a team of experts in Engineering, Architecture, Public health, Sociology, Economics, Finance etc. headed by a Town planner is required. After the master plan is accepted and approved by the concerned authority, the steps to be taken will be To fix the broad policies in connection with various proposals To prepare the list of the urgent works according to heir priorities To prepare the detailed estimates of work of top priority To prepare a financial programme It takes many years to complete the works contemplated in the master plan. The cost is also high amounting to several lakh rupees. So the expenditure will have to be distributed over years. Moreover, several modifications will have to be made as such no final estimate is made in the initial stage. The most important part of master plan is the reservation of land for road system, open and public amenities, which cannot be provided for at a later date. Once it is finalized, no body should be allowed to construct which will upset the street system. The works proposed in the plan are for the prosperity of the people; hence any new project benefiting the public is considered periodically, usually at every period of five years. PLANNING LEGISLATION Legislation forms a very important tool in the hands of town planners as the laws help the planners to develop the cities, as they want. Without the laws it becomes impossible to implement the new concepts of planning and to restrict the developments, which are not conducive for the general welfare of the city dwellers. The two most important laws that help the planners to implement their plans are: Eminent domain by which the government can acquire any private property for the sake of public welfare, public health and public safety Police power by which the developmental authorities can control the nuisances and the undue developments. Most of the developmental controls like building bye-laws and planning laws emanate from this police power Nuisance is of two types Private nuisance, which affect the enjoyment of the individual, and Public nuisance, which affect the health, safety, moral values and comfort of the public at large. These nuisances come in the form of noise, air pollution, water pollution etc. The police power takes care of these nuisances and also it empowers the authorities to look after the issues like architectural conservation, esthetics, spiritual values etc. The municipal authorities that work with mainly two instruments like generally exercise the police power: 1. Building bye-laws, which establish municipal safeguards of the constructions and use of buildings 2. Development controls, which shape the overall urban network. CAPACITY BUILDING Capacity building in urban development means working to get to a situation where cities are planned and managed more effectively that at present. It is a concept that goes beyond training of individuals to the institutions and frameworks that they work within. This has considerable impact on the approach of capacity building institutions and of their partners if cities are to play their potential role in human and economic development.
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Training has much more importance to equip the professionals for capacity building and to respond effectively to their changing roles. With greater political control over planning and urban development, the training programmes have to give more emphasis on preparing the urban managers and professionals to be more organized, productive, responsive to public and also to act with integrity within the political system. In this regard, attitudinal changes for new management culture, facilitating public participation, decentralization, sharing of information, and personal action planning are the critical priorities of capacity building. GOALS AND DEVELOPMENT TARGETS URBAN VISION 2020 salient features By 2020, Andhra Pradesh will have well Planned, Economically productive, Socially just, Environmentally sustainable, Culturally vibrant, Friendly and safe cities and towns. Their development will be planned and balanced, with a focus on infrastructure development and environmental management. High quality services, such as water supply sanitation, waste management, street lighting, housing and public transport will be available to all. Urban arrears will be governed by participatory, responsive and people oriented governments. Path to Prosperity: The path to realisation of the vision would result in paradigm shift in urban governance as below: From Unplanned urban development Inadequate urban civic services Services Government driven urban Infrastructure Municipalities financially dependent On state government Urban civic services provided by Government departments and Municipal bodies Municipalities controlled by State. To Planned urban development and balanced growth Full coverage with efficient urban Effective government-private sector partnership. Municipalities more self-sufficient. Urban civic services provided by a Portfolio of autonomous, performance oriented corporations. Municipalities locally managed, monitored by a participative, politically aware population.
The Annual targets to operationalise the departmental goals are fixed in respect of the following Development Indicators and the achievements made are evaluated once in every quarter by also making comparison to the achievements made for the corresponding period of the previous year. i) Solid Waste Collection ii) Individual Toilets iii) Rain Water Harvesting Structures iv) Formation of DWCUA and T&C groups v) Mobilisation of Thrift vi) Self Employment Schemes assisted by Banks vii) Up gradation of Roads viii) Providing New Drains ix) Tree Plantation x) Revenue Collection and additional revenue generation (Taxes & Non-Taxes) xi) Implementation of Citizens Charter xii) Redressal of General Grievances.
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STRATEGY AND POLICY INTERVENTIONS (i) Strategy to be adopted by the Department to achieve the Targets: 1. General Revision of Property Tax. 2. Revision of Water Charges to meet at least 80% of the O&M cost. 3. Revision of Trade license free, Building license fee, Development charges & Betterment charges. 4. Levy of charges for bulk collection of solid waste from Hospitals, Hotels, Residential Hostels and Function Halls etc. 5. Training to all levels of Municipal Officials and staff. 6. Computerisation of all activities in Municipalities. 7. Full Coverage with efficient Urban Services. 8. Involving the Private Sector for infrastructure development. 9. Ensuring Community participation and accountability. 10. Empowerment of Women and Poor Communities. 11. Transparency in administration. (ii) Policy Reforms required by the Department to achieve the targets and goals. 1. Encourage urban local bodies to raise resources through Municipal bonds and other financial instruments without insisting on State Government guarantee. 2. Mandatory requirement for revision of taxes & Non-taxes periodically. 3. Exemption to ULBs from the provisions of Contract Labour Act. 4. Full economic cost of services and transparent subsidies for the poor. 5. Regulatory Commission for rational pricing of urban services. 6. Performance linked promotion policy. 7. Prevention of Environmental Pollution. 8. Filing of property returns to be made mandatory in line with income tax returns to prevent tax evasion. 9. Coordination with Commercial Tax and Income Tax Departments to plug leakages in revenue. 10. Deterrent action on unauthorized constructions. 11. Introduction of timers for switching on and off for street lighting to reduce maintenance expenditure. 12. Privitisation of maintenance of street lighting. 13. Setting up of Solid Waste Disposal Plants. 14. Levy of fine for throwing Garbage / Waste on Roads / Drains. (iii) PROPSOED RESOURCE MOBILISATION: Effective utilisation of non-performing assets owned by urban bodies. Levy of user charges for urban basic services. Amendment of municipal laws suitably to strengthen the resources base of urban local bodies making it mandatory upon them to revise and collect various taxes and non-taxes once in two years. (iv) SUGGESTIONS FOR INCORPORATION IN THE STRATEGY PAPER TO COUNTER URBAN POVERTY. (i) SOCIAL ANGLE: 43% of urban poor population happens to be women of whom 44,033 have been grouped into Thrift Groups with a membership of 7,48,561. These people should be strengthened both from the point of view of eliminating the gender bias and also from the point of view of women empowerment. In the rural areas, it has been proved time and again that easier for us to implement health and educational programmes especially where education of a girl child is concerned through these T&C groups.
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Women groups can be empowered by giving them income-generating assets like tractors for garbage collection, suction machines for cleaning septic latrines (Rs.8.00 lakhs per unit) etc. This serves the dual purpose of ensuring better sanitation with community participation eliminating inhuman occupations like scavenging apart from the traditional objective of strengthening women economically with its social spin-offs. (ii) HUMAN ANGLE: Manual collection of garbage is common to all municipalities irrespective of the fact that there has been privatisation initiative in several places. It is a must that privatisation or otherwise garbage must be collected only through a system of dumper placer machines minimizing manual collection, wherein the sanitary worker handles garbage with his hands while loading trucks, unloading them, emptying dustbins etc. Whether privatized or otherwise it must be insisted that garbage must be collected mechanically through a system of dumper placers only. Payment for the privatisation initiative must be done on weighment basis by installing weighing machines at garbage dump yards. A regulatory framework should be built in to monitor areas wherein privatisation initiative has been taken up so as to ensure the quality of sanitation, for example whether bleaching powder has been put, drains have been cleaned etc. (iii) EDUCATION: Municipal Schools are badly maintained and under staffed. This problem also needs to be addressed. 74% of girls in urban areas are married below 18 years. Thus, urban female literacy needs to be addressed. (iv) PRIVATISATION: Private Sector participation will be encouraged for providing the following services. (1) Maintenance of Sanitation (2) Maintenance of Water Supply (3) Street lighting (4) Preparation of Accounts (5) Survey of Trades, Advertisements (6) Survey of unaccounted Water Supply and unauthorised tap connections (7) Survey of unauthorised constructions and layouts. Successful privatisation initiatives need to be replicated. (v) RIGHT SIZING OF MUNICIPALITIES: Going by the staffing pattern of various municipalities, it is distressing to note that the salary component, which should not exceed 30% of the income of the municipalities, now happens to go up to even more than 75% of their income in the case of several municipalities. In this context, right sizing of municipalities by giving a voluntary retirement scheme is imperative and needs to be implemented immediately. An optimum size can be worked out based on the population, privatisation initiatives of the municipality, and requirement for maintaining civic amenities, which varies from one municipality to another.
Chapter 5
PRIORITY PROGRAMMES AND SCHEMES The priority areas for Urban Local Bodies is to supply safe and adequate drinking water, to provide clean environmental sanitation by efficient disposal of Solid Waste and also to ensure that all the Urban House Holds have sanitary latrines in order to avoid open defecation and dry-latrines, provision of adequate Civic Infrastructure like Roads, Drains, Street Lighting, provision of Parks and Playgrounds and School Buildings (in Andhra Area), Empowerment of Women and computerization of Municipal Services for efficient and transparent delivery of services to the public.
QUESTIONS
PART A 1. Explain briefly on the major impediments in plan implementation.
PART B 1. Discuss the need for Capability building of urban local bodies in the context of decentralized planning 2. Explain briefly what is Central business district (C.B.D) and its functions. Discuss the role played by CBD in the organization of various activity spaces of the city. 3. Explain the process of plan implementation
Chapter 6
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS The definition of human settlement is as given below: The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these elements provide the material support. The physical components comprise shelter, i.e. the superstructures of different shape, size, type and materials erected by mankind for security, privacy, and protection from the elements and for his singularity within a community; infrastructure, i.e. the complex networks designed to deliver or remove from the shelter people, goods, energy of information. Services cover those required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions as a social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition. Human settlements means the totality of the human community - whether city, town or village - with all the social, material, organizational, spiritual and cultural elements that sustain it. The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these elements provide the material support. The physical components comprise, Shelter, i.e. the superstructures of different shapes, size, type and materials erected by mankind for security, privacy and protection from the elements and for his singularity within a community; Infrastructure, i.e. the complex networks designed to deliver to or remove from the shelter people, goods, energy or information; Services cover those required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions as a social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and nutrition. BROADENED CONCEPT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AS A FRAMEWORK FOR ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Over the years, this concept of human settlements has been broadened to become a framework for an overall national socio-economic development in the context of formulating global shelter strategies. It is now contended that human settlements are the spatial dimension as well as the physical expression of economic and social activity. No creative act takes place without being influenced by settlement conditions. In turn, the creation of workable human settlements inevitably becomes an objective of, an indicator of and a prerequisite for social and economic development. Settlements are an objective of development in that places where people can live, learn and work in conditions of safety, comfort and efficiency are a fundamental and elementary need. Settlements are also an indicator, in that they are the most visible expression of a society's ability to satisfy some of the fundamental needs of its members: they can mark accomplishments as well as expose destitution, neglect and inequality. Finally, settlements are a prerequisite for social and economic development, in that no social progress for sustainable economic growth can occur without efficient settlements systems and settlement networks. ELEMENTS OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS NATURE NETWORK MAN
SHELL
SOCIETY
Chapter 6
These elements always interact with one another. A human being has some invisible spheres around him. These spheres are the spheres of the senses like touch, smell, sight, hearing and also supernatural or spiritual. The spiritual sphere is directly proportional to his intellect. People interact with one another by direct interaction of these spheres. Human habitation requires a certain amount of overlapping of these spheres, and the planning of habitation would mean, social planning. Human desires and endurances have remained the same throughout the years and manifestations of which have changed by evolution. QUESTIONS
PART A 1. 2. List five elements of human settlements. What are the objectives of planning human settlements?
Chapter 7
GROWTH AND DECAY OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS Primitive man lived in caves, tree-holes and treetops and fed himself on plants, fruits roots, animals and water, directly collected from nature, without much effort on his part. When his number increased and his food requirements became enormous he came out of the forests to live in the plains, to cultivate and make more food materials. Availability of water was the main criterion for selecting land for cultivation and habitation. This happened according to scientist, about 10,000 years back and that was the beginning of human settlements, when man made houses to live in and worked for his food. Thus it was a transition from cave to village. Protection from the vagaries of climate and wild animals was the main purpose of a house, rightly called a shelter. He built houses with whatever materials were available near about him, like mud, wood, reeds boughs, leaves and what not. For better protection and mutual help he used to live in groups, surrounded by the cultivated lands, which invariably were selected where water was available throughout the seasons. This gave rise to villages or small human settlements, all of them near perennial fresh water sources like rivers, and lakes. Villages were also located on sites offering natural protection of elevated hills & terrains, islands and peninsulas. Wherever natural protection was lacking barricades and moats surrounded them. Later, when transportation of men and materials became necessary, seacoasts and riverbanks were selected for settlements. As we learn from history, early civilization spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, tigres, Euphrates, Indus rivers etc. where water, food and transportation were at hand. In all settlements, there were both natural and man-made elements like hills, valleys buildings, roads etc. each settlement had its own definite boundaries. They were scattered throughout, especially along riverbanks and in plains, fed by rivers. Inter relations and inter-actions between settlements, both near and far off, developed gradually and it gave rise to social, cultural, political, economic and many other institutions Conflict between men and environment started when man began to change the environment for better convenience and better comfort. This conflict is a continuous process, and is continuing with all its ramifications supported by science and technology. Man being aggressive in nature, did not easily adjust himself to be part of a self-disciplined community. Personal and group rivalries flared up within settlements. Survival of the fittest was the order of the day. The winner assumed the role of a leader and maintained discipline. When the leader gained more and more power and strength, several settlements came under him. He himself assumed titles of king or emperor. To protect himself and his kingdom, he wanted an army and a safe place to live. For this he established non-agricultural settlements, exclusively for himself, his army and the people around him. Such settlements were fortified and moats built all around, for additional protection from attacking enemies. People from the villages, whose main occupation was agriculture, began to migrate to such urban centers, to get better employment and better wages. Further, the developments came out of the forts and moats, to accommodate more people and this gave rise to bigger settlements, what we call towns and cities. Socio-economic and socio-cultural changes, as well as developments in science and technology influenced the life styles of the people and their quality of life. In the process, some settlements, perished, may be by war, floods or drying up of water sources and some other prospered becoming larger and larger, like our present day giant cities which we call metropolis, mega polis etc. this makes human settlements a part of history and every settlement has a history of its own. The fundamental human needs, wherever one lives and whichever natural environment one has, are food, clothing and shelter apart from air & water. Shelter use to get the lowest priority from the
Chapter 7
very beginning of mans existence. Till the recent past, shelter, especially in small settlements, was not a serious problem as the shelter requirements were quite simple and limited. There was no difficulty in getting a piece of land, either owned or rented. They constructed their own houses with mutual help, making use of locally available materials and using their own houses with mutual help, making use of locally available materials and using their own labour. The harmful impact of intensive urbanization, consequent to the industrial revolution, accelerated deterioration of the living environment. But in spite of all the efforts to improve the living environment in human settlements, the challenge of poverty, congestion and insanitation still remains in cities throughout the world. Man had made unprecedented progress during the current century in the fields of industry, Education, Health, Communication, Transportation etc. as a result of spectacular achievements in science and technology. But it is a paradox that the majority of the worlds population still does not have a shelter providing minimum privacy, and protection against the elements. The struggle for shelter still continues. A significant reason, for this lag is the population explosion followed by urban explosion. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND ENVIRONMENT Human settlements interrelationship with environment was introduced to enable the participants to gain an understanding of demographic pressure on environment patterns and to analyse the effects of the household sector on environment. To achieve the aims the aims of the course the topic was arranged as follows: Human settlements concept; Recommendations; Methodology; Human settlements statistics; Human settlements indicators HUMAN SETTLEMENTS CONCEPT In order to have adequate human settlements the natural environment is encroached upon to Create the man made environment. The key question is what limits should we have in encroaching natural resources. Human settlements are not synonymous with housing but rather it is the physical articulation of the social, economic, political activities of the people. Human settlements include housing, shelter, services and infrastructure. The main objective for human settlements is to improve quality of life. The major issue with regard to human settlements is the problems of over consumption, which leads to wastage of natural resources. There are five approaches recommended for achieving improved quality of life in development of human settlements and these are: Enabling approach; Capacity building; Partnership; Monitoring approach; and; Dissemination of information. RECOMMENDATIONS To make urban life more sustainable, governments should see that the homeless, poor and Unemployed get access to land, credit and low-cost building materials. People also need Security of tenure and legal protection against unfair eviction. Informal settlements and Urban slums should be upgraded to ease the deficit in urban shelter. All urban areas need
Chapter 7
Such services as clean water, sanitation and waste collection, and higher income neighbourhoods should pay the full cost of providing such services. Construction programmes should emphasise use of local materials, energy-efficient designs, material that do not harm health and the environment, and labour intensive technologies that employ more people. National action programmes are needed to promote energy saving and renewable energy technologies, such as solar, hydro, wind and biomass. Transportation strategies should reduce the need for motor vehicles by favouring high occupancy public transport, and providing safe bicycle and footpaths. Municipalities need to be developed in way that reduces the need for long distance commuting. Countries need to reduce urban poverty by supporting the informal economic sector, which operates many small businesses. Governments need to develop urban renewal projects in partnership with non-governmental organisations. To reduce migration to big cities governments should improve rural living conditions and encourage the development of medium-sized cities that create employment and housing. Sound management is needed to prevent urban sprawl onto agricultural land and environmentally fragile regions. It is also important to see that settlements are built in locations using designs and materials that reduces the risk of damage from such natural disasters such as storms, flooding, earthquakes and landslides. Developing countries need financial and technical assistance to help train experts in field such as urban planning, waste reduction, water quality, sanitation, energy efficiency and clean, efficient transportation. METHODOLOGY FOR COLLECTION OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS DATA The recommendations for data acquisition are: Assess the existing data and data needs; Study the forms in which the data exists; Collect the data; and; Develop a method to store as a database. The main concerns that need to be addressed in the development of human settlements statistics are: Population growth and natural growth; Urbanisation; Inadequate shelter and basic amenities especially in marginal settlements; Overcrowding and urban decay; Environmental degradation; Lack of services and related infrastructure in rural as well as urban areas especially water supply and sanitation; Improvement of cultural heritage Health effects and living conditions. STATISTICS Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics: Human Settlements Social and economic activities and natural events Environmental impacts of activities and events Responses to environmental impacts
Chapter 7
1.Settlements growth and change 1.1 Population growth and change 1.2 Construction of shelter and infrastructure 1.3 Utilities (energy and infrastructure) 1.4 Transport 1.5 Land use in human settlements 2.Other activities 2.1 Emission and waste discharge 2.2 Hazardous activities at workplace 3.Natural events 1. Conditions of shelter, infrastructure and services 1.1 Housing 1.2 Access to infrastructure and services 1.3 Human settlements sprawl and dispersion 2. Conditions of life-supporting resources 2.1 Ambient concentrations of pollutants and wastes 2.2 Biological and ecological impacts[not developed] 2.3 Micro climates 3. Health and welfare conditions in human settlements 3.1 Exposure and health effects 1. Human settlements policies and programmes 2. Pollution monitoring and control 2.1 Environmental standards 2.2 Monitoring 2.3 Treatment, disposal and reuse of discharges 2.4 Expenditure for pollution control 3. Prevention and hazard mitigation of natural disaster HUMAN SETTLEMENTS INDICATORS The list of human settlements indicators that are given in this database are as listed below: 1. Total population in 000s
2. Urbanisation level 3. Total population growth rate 4. Urban population growth rate 5. Gross national product per capita 6. Income share of highest 20% to lowest 20% 7. Population below poverty line: urban % 8. Population below poverty line rural (%) 9. Government expenditure on housing an community amenities (% of total) 10. Land area per capita (ha/person) 11. Annual deforestation (sq. km) 12. conventional dwelling per 1,000 inhabitant (/1000) 13. Average number of persons per room (person/room) 14. Owner occupancy ratio (%) 15. Housing unit with piped water (%) 16. Housing unit with toilet (%) 17. Population with access to safe water urban (%) 18. Population with access to safe water: rural (%) 19. Population with access to sanitation services: urban (%) 20. Population with access to sanitation service: rural (%)
Chapter 7
QUESTIONS
PART A 1. 2. PART B 1. Population of many of the old Indian cities are growing fast mainly due to migration causing many problems and leading to decay Discuss two solutions to this problem other than urban renewal. What are the causes of decay in human settlements? Discuss briefly the impact of nature on human settlements
Chapter 8
INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENT OF A SETTLEMENT A town planner needs, among other things, specific data to base his proposals in respect of the type and number of dwelling units in a locality or a town. For this purpose, it is essential to have a clear idea of the population structure and condition of existing housing and future housing trends pertaining to various income groups, together with a realistic picture of the economic situation. He has further to think in terms of social and geographic grouping of the dwelling units while preparing the layouts, and place such amenities and services as schools, clubs, shops, places of amusement, etc., at the disposal of the community. The data for provision of these amenities and services on the right scale has to be supplied by the sociologist. Information regarding population structure and trends is not generally available in all details from the census reports. For instance, these reports do not give any idea of the accommodation in use by families, and whether the occupation of the same is voluntary or compulsory. I.e. dictated by circumstances. In the former case, people live together because they are members of a family. In the latter case they do so by force of circumstances such as economic difficulties or shortage of accommodation. Information on such matters is of vital importance to the planner to arrive at the volume of new housing required. If his proposals are not based on factual data, they are likely to be unrealistic and, as a rule, fall short of requirements Further, the actual volume of housing required cannot be correctly determined by collecting only the above-mentioned data. Population characteristics and trends have also to be ascertained. These are not easy to be understood on the basis of birth and death rates alone, because people leave as well as come to a particular town or a locality due to economic and various other considerations, which are largely dependent on the prosperity or otherwise of the town. The state and national plans, which allocate industrial undertakings in the various parts of the country, also play their part in this respect. Only when such information is readily available, the future needs can be forecast with reasonable accuracy and provision therefore can be made in the planning proposals. A further consideration while formulating housing proposals pertains to population trends of different localities, which relates to moving out elsewhere due to increase in the size of the family. Children grow up, get married and raise families of their own. Conversely, daughters get married and leave the parental households. This sometimes results in diminution of the family size. When people leave the parental households as a result of growth in the size of the family it is essential to know how far away they are prepared to shift and with what frequency. This kind of data is not easy to collect, but unless it is made available, it is difficult for the majority of households and only the affluent people can afford to find additional accommodation near their previous dwelling units. In many cases, such people shift to better but distant localities where the environment is pleasant and more congenial. When towns are in the process of replanning or redevelopment, it is essential to ensure that services like schools, clinics, shops and cultural institutions are provided in proper relationship with residential accommodation. It is also desirable to keep the size of development within reasonable limits, because bigness lacks intimacy and social relationship among people. It is to avoid situations like these that the concept of the neighbourhood unit has come into existence.
Chapter 8
QUESTIONS
PART A 1. 2. 3. PART B 1. 2. Discuss the interaction of socio-economic factors in the development of urban and rural settlement Critically examine the impacts of Economic Urbanisation policy on urban development and management 3. Discuss the importance of socio-economic factors in the development of human settlements How do socio-economic factors influence the development of a settlement? What are the purposes and objectives of urban economic studies? Mention a few lines about the interaction of social economic factors in the development of urban and rural settlements.
Chapter 9
Most towns today have a characteristic functional pattern as follows: A central core containing the principal shopping center, civic group and business zones; surrounded by suburbs of houses, often each with its own character, and each with its own shopping center and other social services; and areas of industry, some of which are generally associated with the town center and some with the railway. That the pattern is confused by different kinds of buildings being mixed together; that it is disrupted by traffic; and that it tails off into an indiscriminate mixture of town and country side, does not mean that in essence it is not a fundamentally sound one for the way of life of the people using it. CIRCULAR TOWNS Towns with the geographical possibility of spreading in all directions on a relatively level site have usually tended to grow in a roughly circular form with inner and outer ring roads, linked together by radiating roads emanating from the center. The residential areas in such towns are located around the core, between the ring and radial roads. The core itself forms the main business area and the early industry is usually mixed up with residential localities. As the town grows, new ring and radial roads come into existence simultaneously with peripheral growth. The expansion goes unchecked and if such a town is not provided with a green belt to limit its size, a sprawling town results with all its attendant evils such as longer distance to place of work, increased cost of utility services, congestion on roads, under-use of amenities in the central part of the town, etc. even when a green belt is provided on the periphery to limit the size, there is generally a lack of open space in the town, particularly in residential localities. As the benefits of the green belt can be enjoyed only by the inhabitants living near the fringe of the town in their everyday life, due its being away from the core, its benefits cannot be enjoyed by the whole population of the town. Furthermore, the green belt lengthens the commuting journeys for people living beyond it to their place of work in the town. STAR SHAPED TOWNS To remedy these shortcomings, the concept of the circular town plan with the surrounding green belt is now giving way to a star-shaped plan having green wedges of agricultural fields, fruit orchards, forests and parks, radiating from the center of the town. These wedges alternate with compact residential localities served by commuter rail lines having population of 25,000 to 75,000, depending upon the size of the town. At their outer edges, the green wedges merge into the countryside, which serve the purpose of the green belt without any of its disadvantages. Copenhagen, capital of denmark, has a plan based on the same principle, but with water on three sides, its development can take place only in one direction. Due to this, the shape of the plan looks like the fingers of the hand and hence its development plan is called the fingers plan. LINEAR TOWNS Geographical features often dictate the town form and a lineal town sometimes results there from. A well-known town of this type is Stalingrad in Russia. Such elongated towns are not convenient to live, more particularly if the population exceeds 2 to 3 lakhs, because the distances to be covered to reach the town center where the major amenities are located are too long and the journey thereto causes fatigue. If properly balanced amenities are to be provided to all the inhabitants of such towns it requires construction of additional sub-centres in different locations, which involves extra cost.
Chapter 9
QUESTIONS
PART A 1. Settlements in India have a unique feature. Discuss. PART B 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Outline the importance of transportation network in the human settlement system. What are the factors that influence the location and growth of human settlements? Give examples. The physical characteristics of settlements of USA differ from that of India. Discuss Describe the physical characteristics of settlements in India with examples What are site and situation in relation to a settlement? Discuss the role played by them in the location and growth of an urban settlement with examples.
Chapter 10
PEOPLE PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING INDIAN CONTEXT INTRODUCTION Town and country planning is concerned mainly with two aspects of man and his activities. It deals with allocation of land for various uses to meet his various needs while at the same time bringing utmost happiness, economy, safety and comfort. Mans needs and wants are dependent on economic, social and cultural activities. Therefore plan involves certain basic assumptions about the desires and needs of the people for whom the planning is done. If the public becomes aware of such plan and co-operates with the planner in expounding their basic needs and desires, the plan becomes truly representative and highly successful one. Therefore such an understanding and active co-operation of the public is called Public participation. CONCEPT OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION Participation means actual involvement in the formulation and implementation of policies and should not be confirmed with demands for more consultation to redress personal grievances. No plan or scheme will succeed unless the people are taken into confidence and their support and cooperation enlisted. City Planning as we know, is a branch of development, which affects the people very much. The successful achievement of the objectives and goals envisaged in a plan will require citizen participation, in all its phases of planning and implementation. Appreciation and acceptance of a plan by the people are vital, because it is the people who are to be benefited from the plan. They must fully understand the implications of the plan. To day the decision-making processes are undergoing meaningful changes, accommodating more participation by the people. But it is that citizen participation should not tend to the creation of impediments and delays, in taking important decisions. RATIONALE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION Peoples participation in development is both necessary and desirable because: It gives recognition to people as human beings It grants the man active operators rather than passive respondents It brings dignity and meaning to the jobs and activities It taps creative imagination, inventive ingenuity and inner potentials of people It improves their learning, decision making, and action capabilities It creates a genuine sense of personal and collective responsibility It makes projects more relevant and useful to people It is time consuming but minimizes chances of wastages, leakages, corruptions, inefficiency and eventual failure of the project It promotes better utilization and maintenance of social services It opens up new channels and opportunities for people and to enable them to gain control and power It ensures efficient and effective allocation of resources It overcomes colonialism in both public and private sectors It banishes fear of apprehension, intimation, insecurity, isolation and powerful vested interests It ensures utilization of local resources, capabilities, skills, talents and organizations
Chapter 10
It helps building local leadership and initiative required for the mobilization of people It makes possible to achieve higher degree of cooperation of people and coordination of projects It benefits from group dynamics and conflict resolution and also from peoples perception about problems and solutions
FACTORS HINDERING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION In Rural Areas: Illiteracy is one of the major factors, which hinder participation of the people in the planning process. People in rural areas could not understand the implications of plans and they cant realize the value of it. They are innocent of modern scientific improvements and of new and vide horizons of knowledge. Furthermore they are orthodox and superstitions and consequently hostile and unresponsive to new knowledge and suggestion. They are so injured in their traditional ways that they are afraid of making changes. Being Illiterate they can be easily duped. Thats why majority of them are subject to merciless exploitation by moneylenders and landlord.
ILLETERACY
INSUFFICIENT MONEY FOR EDUCATION
POOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
POVERTY
Lack of expert knowledge and skills in analyzing problems and perceiving a range of possibilities of solving them on a scientific basis Poor formal communication skills and inability to articulate and present both problems and solutions Inequitable distribution of resources, feudal type of ownership and control dependency relationships, contingencies of reinforcements, history of past experiences, and certain socio-economic disadvantages. Lack of legislative, administrative and financial support Lack of ability to plan ahead and desire to co-operate Lack of confidence in organizational means as ways of affecting change Selective perception and retention
In urban areas: The problems of public-participation and co-operation in urban areas differ greatly from the one of rural areas. Besides the Urban characteristics (i.e. lack of we feeling, impersonality, lack of civic consciousness etc.), which are hurdles for effective public participation, urban areas have an organizational set-up. Fear of appraisal from the powerful vested interest group Lack of identification with projects particularly those with long gestation periods and benefits
Chapter 10
Social differentiation, ethnic complexity and political divisions into vested groups Lack of committed leaders, organized and disciplined cadres. Habits or customs usually found easier, convenient, comfortable, useful, functional and rewarding in many ways. These are trained incapacities in which people have learned to do certain things in certain ways and they are unwilling and unable to-do things differently even if they are relatively superior, better and advantageous Super go motivation to comply with enforced standards and authoritarian influences
CRITICISM OF INDIAN PLANNING The planners no doubt are fully aware that in order to have effective participation of the people, any development scheme or plan must grow from within and be prepared by people themselves. It is not enough to seek the participation of the people in carrying out a pre-determined programme. It is essential that their participation be sought at the earlier stages of detailed formulation and framing of the plans. The people generally take little interest in the preparation of their plans by discussing it in their association. Consequently the influential people dominate the scene and the plans are formulated with vested interests. The plans are politically motivated and the people are not at all given opportunities to express their needs and problems. Even if they express their needs, they are not considered. So the form of democracy, which we follow now, is contrary to what Abraham Lincoln said, Democracy is Government of the people, by the people and for the people. TECHNIQUES OF PEOPLES PARTICIPATION By Fagence Conventional means Exhibitions Public meeting and hearing Information documentation Questionnaire surveys Documentary reporting (media) Other means (ideas competitions) Innovative means Delphi method Nominal group method Charette Other means (gaming simulation, scenario writing) Means of self-help Self-help manuals Planning aid Task forces CONDITION FAVOURING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION In Rural Areas The working group on District Planning of the Planning Commission (1984) reviewed peoples participation for lack development i.e., at district and lower level areas as a key component and made following recommendations:
Chapter 10
In District Planning Bodies set up in each state adequate representation should be provided for elected representatives, representatives of economic or occupational groups, social groups, voluntary agencies etc. The idea here is that if real participation in planning is to emerge, it should come not merely from formal organizations but from several informal organizations as well as various interest groups at the local level. Representation, as a means of participation in planning and implementation activities at the local level, is only a partial method of achieving real participation. In order to make participation effective, it is necessary to organize it at every stage of planning and implementation, including the stage of evaluation, monitoring and review. During the pre-planning stage, involving collection of data and conduct of surveys, the local leaders of the community, teachers, students and others as necessary may be associated both to facilitate the task as well as a means of contacting the local community through locally known people so as to reduce any possible resistance from the public in parting willingly with such information as may be required and to instill confidence in them that the information they provide is in public interest. Hopefully, this procedure will also ensure the authenticity of the data collected through such surveys. In fact, one of the methods of collection of data, known as the key Information System is based on this principle. At the scheme formulation stage, meaningful public participation would require: Interaction with people in their village settings and with their representative orgnisations at the stage of (i) ascertaining their felt needs and their perception of problems and potentials (ii) adoption of strategies and schemes evolved (but not finalized) (iii) identification of beneficiaries, such as the poorest of the poor, etc., Purposeful consultation with beneficiary groups in respect of the relevance and efficiency of ongoing programmes Consultation with different categories of people such as landless labour, tribal, scheduled castes, artisans, engaged in different trades and specially organized voluntary groups or organization on various programmes/projects should proposed to be under taken. At the stage of formulation of strategies, the people may be involved to assist the planning team in assessing the relative response of the people to alternative strategies. The method of involving the people here would be to discuss in open forums, where representative of various local agencies at the Block and Tehsil levels and the representatives of various interest groups could be invited to express their views. At the stage of determination of scheme priorities also, people may be consulted in open forums. This would greatly assist the planner in identifying the felt needs of the people in hierarchising their priorities. People can be encouraged to participate in the implementation aspects of a project in three principal ways: By making contribution of resources By assisting administration and coordination efforts and By enlisting themselves in programme activities for possible benefits.
In Urban Areas The National Commission on Urbansiation (1998) also devoted a separate chapter in its report on peoples participation and the rationalization built is present in the following recommendations: To strengthen participatory process and meaningfully involve the non-government voluntary agencies in city governance and development action, many attitudinal, institutional, operational
Chapter 10
and procedural changes are needed. The task is neither easy nor can it be done in isolation. However, some of the changes, which could set the tone and initiate the process, are listed below: Strengthen the municipal corporations and municipalities by (i) holding popular elections wherever local bodies are superseded (ii) facilitating entry of positive leadership (iii) improving the financial positions of local bodies and (iv) making necessary changes in laws governing the working of the municipal bodies, systems and procedures to enable them to utilize the skills and resources of individuals, groups, agencies and institutions in planning, execution and monitoring of development activities. Initiate urban community development projects through the municipal bodies in cities with a population above 50,000 with necessary changes in their organizational structure, mandate, financing arrangements and institutional linkage. Design urban community development project as effective vehicles to reach out to, motivate service and organize the urban poor, and as agencies for coordination and convergence of service delivery and poverty alleviation schemes, and projects and programmes of different government and semi-government agencies. Ensure adherence to participatory and consultative procedures prescribed in the law but neglected or circumvented in practice by cultivating attitudes and evolving tools and methodologies within responsible/concerned planning and implementing agencies. Ensure that the mandatory public hearing before finalisation of a city development plan is effectively gone through, without anyone in any way benefiting from the process. Proper methods of communication and information sharing and appropriately designed consultation platforms would lead a useful feedback for planners and education for the people. Recognise the existing role and work of non-government voluntary agencies in the urban areas and create facility/support arrangements for urban projects. This facility should finance study, research, advocate action, demonstration projects and other innovative relevant efforts of urban based, non-government voluntary agencies.
A SUGGESTED STRATEGY FOR MAXIMUM PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
A strategy for maximizing peoples participation in development is suggested on the following components: Information which provides peoples means of participation and adds to the quality of participation Time which should be adequate where people are free from the stress of ordinary job and routine of life Equal opportunity which implies avoiding any bias, i.e., giving opportunity to all kinds of people of the action affected area. Seriousness of the situation which refers to making people aware that their participation in action for a development is not a game but serious business. The results of peoples anticipation should not remain on paper. They should be channeled formally into the mandated planning and development procedures to make real impact. Neutral organisation structure which means that to take part in a public decision, should not mean to strive at the same time for won career or re-election. The participation technique should create, as little self-interest is possible.
Chapter 10
CONCLUSION Focus of development is the well being of people. Therefore, effective new tools can be only those where peoples participation is the maximum. Importance of public participation is known, some pilot experiments are there, and subject is given place in all policy documents. The problem is of application of Public participation in practice. There is a very wide gap. Nevertheless, if there is a genuine desire of the government, agencies and professional for maximizing public participation for effective implementation of plans and action projects, there seems to be all possibility to minimize the disruptive hurdles. For we professional s who know well that our thousands of plans are just paper documents and we are unable to solve the enormous problems which face urban and rural areas, it is time to take help from the people who are most directly concerned. QUESTIONS PART A
1. 2. 3. 4. Why community participation necessary in the planning process? Explain the role of public participation in planning Public participation in planning is a must. Give your suggestions to improve it. What are the factors that hinders the people participation
PART B
1. 2. 3. 4. Why public participation is necessary in the development of plan and its implementation? People participation is the key to success in planning and plan implementation Discuss in the context of developing settlements in Tamil Nadu. How community involvement of India differs from developed countries? How does Planning with the people differ from planning for the people? Which is better and why?
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Highway Engineering, S.K.Khanna, C.E.G. Jhusto, Nemchand & Bros. Roorkee 1997 An Introduction to Town and Country Planning, John Ratcliffe, Hutchinson 1981 Basic Civil Engineering, K.V.Natarajan Text book of Town Planning, A.Bandopadhyay, Books and Allied, Calcutta 2000 The Urban Pattern City planning and Design, Arthur B. Gallion and Simon Eisner, Van Nostrand Reinhold company Town Planning, Rangwala, Charotar publishing house Town Planning, G.K.Hiraskar Urban and Regional planning, Rame Gowda Constitutional provisions relating to village panchayat and municipalities in India, Eastern book company Town and country planning and Housing, N.V.Modak, V.N.Ambedkar, orient longman, 1971

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TOWN PLANNING AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

COMPILED BY CT.LAKSHMANAN B.Arch., M.C.P.

What is Town planning?

What do planners do?

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Durgapur Bhilai Rourkela Salem

2. Industrial towns Jamshedpur Bhadravati Gandhinagar 3. Capital cities Chandigarh Gandhinagar

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

The Outlook Tower

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Source: Report of National Commission on Urbanization, vol. One

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

URBAN AGGLOMERATION / CITIES HAVING POPULATION OF OVER ONE MILLION

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

DISTRIBUTION OF SLUM POPULATION IN DIFFERENT SIZE CLASS OF TOWNS 1991 (%)

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

Notes on Town planning and Human settlements

Compiled by CT.LAKSHMANAN b.arch., m.c.p.

SLUM POPULATION IN METROPOLITAN CITIES