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End Notes
1. Indeed, if kakapo are the result of Intelligent Design, the designer was not very far-sighted. 2. Summarized in R. M. Anderson and R. M . May, Infectious Diseases o f Humans: Dynamics and Control (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). 3. Summarized in P. Ewald, Evolution of Infectious Disease (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984). 4. J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.), Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978; 2nd edn., 1984); An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981).Like Dawkins, Krebs and Davies were animal behaviourists, with the consequence that the field came to be called behavioural ecology. This is somethng of a misnomer; selfish genery extends way beyond behaviour. 5. W. D. H a d t o n , 'Extraordinary sex ratios', Science, 156 (1967): 477-488. 6. Winner of the 1902 Nobel Prize for his verification of Manson's prediction that mosquitoes transmitted malaria. R. Ross, Memoirs (London: John Murray, 1923). 7. A. F. Read, A. Narara, S. Nee, A. E. Keymer, and K. P. Day, 'Gametocyte sex ratios as indirect measures of outcrossing rates in malaria', Parasitology, 104 (1992): 387-395. 8. A. F. Read, M. Anwar, D. Shutler, and S. Nee, 'Sex allocation and population structure in malaria and related parasitic protozoa', Proceedings of the Royal Society o f London Series B, 260 (1995): 359-363. 9. Thngs have moved on since this work; for reviews aimed at (i) evolutionary biologists or (ii) parasitologists respectively, see (i) A. F. Read, T. G. Smith, S. Nee, and S. A. West, 'Sex allocation in microorganisms', in I. Hardy (ed.), Sex Ratios: Concepts and Research Methods (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 314-332, and (ii) S. A. West, S. E. Reece, and A. F. Read, 'Gametocyte sex ratios of malaria and related apicomplexan (protozoa) parasites', Trends in Parasitology, 17 (2001): 525-53 1.

10. The primary papers here are: (i)S. Gandon, M . J. Mackinnon, S. Nee, and A. F. Read, 'Imperfect vaccines and the evolution of pathogen virulence', Nature, 414 (2001): 751-756, and (ii) J. C. de Roode, R. Pansini, S. J. Cheesman, M . E. H. Helinslu, S. Huijben, A. R. Wargo, A. S. Bell, B. H. K. Chan, D. Walliker, and A. F. Read, 'Virulence and competitive ability in genetically diverse malaria infections', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102 (2005):7624-7628. 11. For an overview of our virulence work, see (i)M. J. Mackinnon, and A. F. Read, 'Virulence in malaria: An evolutionary viewpoint', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Biological Sciences, 359 (2004):965-986, and (ii) A. F. Read, S. Gandon, S. Nee, and M . J. Mackimon, 'The evolution of pathogen virulence in response to animal and public health interventions', in K. Dronamraj, (ed.), Infectious Disease and Host-Pathogen Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 265-292. 12. L. H. Taylor, and A. F. Read, 'Why so few transmission stages? Reproductive restraint by malaria parasites', Parasitology Today, 13 (1997): 135-140.

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End Notes
1. R. Dawkins and J. K. Krebs, 'Animal Signals: Information or manipulation', in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.),Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Blackwell, 1st edn., 1978), 282-309. 2. N. Tinbergen, 'The evolution of signalling devices', in Mi. Etkin (ed.), Social Behavior and Organisation Among Vertebrates (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 19(i4), 206-230. 3. J. M. Cullen, 'Reduction of ambiguity through ritualisation', Philosophical Transactions o f the Royal Society B, 251 (1966): 363-374. 4. R. Dawkins and J. R. Krebs, 'Animal Signals: Information or manipulation', in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.),Behavioural Ecology: A n Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Blackwell, 1st edn., 1978), 282-309. 5. R. L. Trivers, 'Parent-offspring conflict', American Zoology, 14 (1964): 249-264. 6. E. L. Charnov and J. R. Krebs, 'The evolution of alarm calls: Altruism or manipulation'!', American Nature, 110 (1975): 247-259. 7. D. Harper, 'Communication', in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.),Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Blackwell, 3rd edn., 1991), 374-397. 8. A. Zahavi, 'Mate selection-selection for a handicap', Journal o f Theoretical Biology, 53 (1975): 205-214.

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1. References to Richard Dawkins' writings in this chapter are taken from R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1st edn., 1976). 2. W. Johannsen, 'The genotype conception of heredity', American Naturalist, 45 (1911): 129-159. 3. A. H. Sturtevant, 'The behavior of the chromosomes as studied through linkage', Zeitschrift fur induktive Abstammungs- und vererbungslehre, 13 (1915): 134-287. 4. The source of Dawkins' definition is G. C. Williams, Adaptation and natural selection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966). 5. D. S. Wilson and E. Sober, 'Reintroducing group selection to the human behavioral sciences', Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17 ( 1994): 585-654. 6. D. Haig, 'The Social Gene', in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.),Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Blackwell, 4th edn., 1997), 284-304. 7. G. J. Romanes, Darwin, and AfterDarwin. II. Post-Darwinian questions: Heredity and Utility (Chcago: Open Court, 1895), vol. 2, page 32.

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1. R. Dawluns, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976).

2. G. C. Williams, Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966). 3. W. D. Hamilton, 'The genetical evolution of social behaviour', parts 1 and 2, Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7 (1964): 1-52. 4. W. D. Hamilton, 'The evolution of altruistic behavior', American Naturalist, 97 (1963):354-356. 5. W. D. Hamilton, 'The Play by Nature (Review of The Selfish Gene),' Science, 196 (1977): 757-759. 6. J. Maynard Smith and G. R. Price, 'The logic of evolutionary conflict', Nature, 246 (1973): 15-18. 7. R. L. Trivers, 'The evolution of reciprocal altruism', Quarterly Review of Biology, 46 (1971): 35-57. 8. A. Grafen, 'A first formal link between the Price Equation and an optimization program', Journal o f Theoretical Biology, 217 (2002): 75-91. 9. R. A. Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1930; and edn., Dover, 1958; 3rd variorum edn., Oxford University Press, 1999). 10. R. A. Fisher, 'The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance', Transactions o f the Royal Society o f Edinburgh, 52 (1918): 399-433. 11. Fisher, The Genetical Theory o f National Selection (1930). 12. A. W. F. Edwards, 'The fundamental theorem of natural selection', Biological Reviews, 69 (1994): 443-474. 13. A. Grafen, 'Fisher the evolutionary biologist', Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series D (The Statistican), 52 (2003): 319-329. 14. Hamilton, 'The genetical evolution of social behaviour' (1964). 15. A. Grafen, 'William Donald Hamilton', B:ographical Memoirs o f Fellows o f the Royal Society, 50 (2004): 109-132. 16. See Edwards, 'The fundamental theorem of natural selection' (1994) and Grafen, 'Fisher the evolutionary biologist' (2003).

17. A. Grafen, 'The optimisation of inclusive fitness', Journal o f Theoretical Biology (2005). 18. R. L. Trivers and H. Hare, 'Haplodiploidy and the evolution of the social insects', Science, 191 (1976): 249-263. 19. R. Dawkins, The Extended P h e n o w e (Oxford: W . H. Freeman, 1982). 20. See Grafen, 'A first formal link between the Price Equation and an optimization program' (2002)and 'The optimisation of inclusive fitness' (2005).

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1. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn., 1989), 322. 2. Douglas R. Hofstadter and D. Dennett, The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul (New York: Basic Books, 1981). 3. Daniel Dennett, Content and Consciousness (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969). 4. Daniel Dennett, 'Intentional Systems', Journal ofPhilosophy, 68 (1971): 87-106. 5. Daniel Dennett, 'Why the Law of Effect Will not Go Away', Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 5 (1975): 169187. 6. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1st edn., 197(i),v. 7. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (2nd edn., 1989),ix. 8. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (2nd edn., 1989), 1. 9. Stephen Jay Gould, 'Darwinian Fundamentalism', New York Review of Books (12 June 1997), 34-37 and 'Evolution: The Pleasures of Pluralism', New York Review o f Books (26 June 1997), 47-52.

10. Daniel C. Dennett, '.Afterword', in Richard Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 11. For a detailed analysis o f Skinner's position, see Daniel C. Dennett, 'Skinner Skinned', in Bruinstorms (Cambridge,MA: MIT Press, 1978). 12. Willard Van Orman Quine, Nard and Object (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, ISGO), 227. Quine acknowledged the 'practical indispensability' in daily life of the intentional idioms of belief and desire but disparaged such talk as an 'essentiallj, dramatic idiom' rather than something from which real science could be made in an), straightforward way ( n b r d and Object, page 2 17),but later in his career he came to appreciate that this dramatic idiom might be harnessed into a predictive science. M y own very Quinian anal)-sis of the philosophical problems of referential opacitj. and their dissolution can be found in two essays: Daniel C. Dennett, 'Beyond Belief' and 'Mid-term Examination: Compare and Contrast', in The Intentional Stance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford, 1978). 13. Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind (London: Hutchinson, 1949). 14. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (2nd edn., 1989), 4. 15. Mar)) Midgley, 'Gene-juggling', Philosophy, 54 (1979): 439458. 16. John Searle, hfinds, Brains and Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1985). 17. John Searle, The Rediscover)) o f the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). 18. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (2nd edn., 1989), 18. 19. Marvin Minsky, Society of Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985). 20. George Ainslie, Breakdown of M'ill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 21. 'Si abbiamo un anima. Ma 6 fatta di tanti piccolo robot.' Giulio Giorelli, quoted in Daniel C. Dennett, Freedom Evolves (London: Penguin, 2003), 1.

22. Richard Lewontin has often insisted that it is a mistake to assume that lineages are posed problems by the environments they encounter, and since a wealth of adaptationist success stories belies this claim, it is tempting to conclude that Lewontin views all these results as ill-gotten gains. For a discussion, see Richard Lewontin, 'Elementary Errors about Evolution', Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6 (1983): 367-368 and Daniel C. Dennett, (1983), my response to his response. 23. lkwkins, The Selfish Gene (2nd edn., 1989), 32. 24. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1989), 33-34. 25. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1 989), 35-36 26. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1989), 35. 27. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1'389),63. 28. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene ( I 989), 64. 29. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (1!189), 64. 30. Daw-kins, The Selfish Gene (19891, 64-65. 31. C. Ristau, 'Aspects of the cognitive ethologj. of an injuryfeigning bird, the piping plover', in C. Ristau (ed.),Cognitive Ethology: The minds of other animals (Hillsdale: LEA, 1991). 32. Andrew Whiten and R. Byrne (eds.), Machiavellian Intelligence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988) and Alachiavellian Intelligence, 11: Extensions and Evaluations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 33. Daniel C. Dennett, 'Beliefs about Beliefs' (commentary on Prernack, Woodruff, et al.), Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1 (1978): 568-570. 34. Richard Dawkins, 'Adaptationism was a11vaj.s predictive and needed no defense', Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6 (1983):360-361. Commentary on Daniel C. Dennett, 'lntentional Systems in Cognitive Ethology: The "Panglossian Paradigm" Defended', Behavioral and Brain Sciences, G (1983): 343-390. 35. For a survey of the status and progress of memetics, see Daniel C. Dennett, "The New Replicators', in Mark Page (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Evolution (Oxford: Oxford Unkrersity Press, 20021, vol. 1, E83-E92.

36. J. M. Balkin, Cultural Software: A Theory of Ideology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998). 37. Daniel C. Dennett, Breaking the Spell (London: Penguin, 2006). 38. A. Turing, 'Computing Machinery and Intelligence', Mind, 59 (1950): 433-460. 39. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure o f Scientific Revolutions (Chcago: University of Chcago Press, 1962).

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1. A. hl. Turing, 'The chemical basis of morphogenesis', Philosophical Transactions o f the Royal Socieiy o f London, Series

B, 237 (1952): 37-72. 2. J. von Neumann and A. W. Burks, Theory o f Self-Reproducing Automata (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1966). 3. Babbage's automated 'miracles' did, however, suggest an image of God as an omnipotent engineer, having no need

4.

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6.

7.

8. 9. 10.

for divine intervention, but instead relying upon 'preprogrammed' miraculous events. At the time, it remained an act of faith to believe that this kind of preprogramming could, unlike fundamentally inexplicable acts of divine intervention, be understood through regular science (in the same way that careful examination of Babbage's engine would have revealed the laws that governed its surprising behavior). For more discussion, see S. Bullock, 'Charles Babbage and the emergence of automated reason', in P. Husbands, 0. Holland, and M. Wheeler (eds.), The History of the Mechanization of Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming). C. G. Langton (ed.),Artificial Life: An Overview (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995). R. Dawkins, 'The evolution of evolvability', in C. G. Langton (ed.), Artificial Life: The Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Workshop on the Synthesis and Simulation o f Living Systems (Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1989). K. Sims, 'Artificial evolution for computer graphics', Computer Graphics, 25 14 (1991): 319-332. A. Dorin, 'Aesthetic fitness and artificial evolution for the selection of imagery from the mythical infinite library', in J. Kelemen and P. Sosik (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth European Conference on Artificial Life (Berlin: Springer, 2001), 659-668. I owe the term to Richard A. Watson, although my usage may not be equivalent to his. R. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New \r.ork: W. W. Norton, 1986). R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976).

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End Notes
1. R. Dawkins and J. R. Krebs, 'Arms races between and withn species', Proceedings o f the Royal Society ofLondon B, 205 (1979):489-511; 508. 2. E. 0. Wilson, The Diversity of Life (Cambridge, M A : Harvard University Press, 1992), 187. 3. S. J. Gould, 'On replacing the idea of progress with an operational notion of directionality', in M. H. Nitecki (ed.), Evolutionary Progress (Chicago: University of Chlcago Press, 1988). 4. S. J. Gould, Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Pluto to Danvin (New 1-ork:Paragon, 1996).

5. M . Ruse, Monad to Man: The Concept o f Progress in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996). 6. J. B. Bury, The Idea o f Progress: A n Inquiry into its Origin and Growth (London: Macrnillan, [I9201 1924). 7. D. Diderot, Diderot: Interpreter of Nature (New York: International Publishers, 1943). 8. J. B. Lamarck, Philosophie zoologique (Paris: Dentu, 1809). 9. R. J. Richards, The Romantic Conception o f Life: Science and Philosophy in the Age o f Goethe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). 10. R. Chambers, Vestiges of the Natural History o f Creation (London: Churchill, 1844). See also E. Darwin, Zoonomia; or, The Laws o f Organic Life (London: J. Johnson, 3rd edn., [1794-17961 1801) and E. Darwin, The Temple of Nature (London:J. Johnson, 1803). 11. C. Darwin, The Origin of Species b y Charles Darwin: A Variorum Text, ed. M. Peckham (Phladelpha, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959). 12. R. A. Fisher, The Genetical Theory o f Natural Selection (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1930). 13. See J. S. Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis (London: . S. Haldane, Allen & Unwin, 1942); J. S. Huxley and J. B Animal Biology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927); and G. G. Simpson, The Meaning o f Evolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1949). 14. E. Nagel, The Structure o f Science: Problems in the Logic o f Scientific Explanation (New Yprk: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961). 15. K. R. Popper, Objective Knowledge (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972). 16. R. Dawkins, 'Human chauvinism: Review of Full House by Stephen Jay Gould', Evolution, 51/ 3 (1997): 1015-1020; 1016. 17. R. Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: Norton, 1986).

18. H. Jerison, Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence (New York: Academic Press, 1973). 19. Dawluns, The Blind Watchmaker (l986), 189. 20. R. Dawkins, 'The evolution of evolvability', in C. G. Langton (ed.), Artificial Life (Redwood City, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1989). 2 1. Dawkins, 'The evolution of evolvability' (1989) and J. Maynard Smith and E. Szathmary, The Major Transitions in Evolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). 22. Dawluns, 'Human chauvinism: Review of Full House by Stephen Jay Gould' (1997), 1019-1020. 23. Ruse, Monad to Man: The Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology (1996), 469. This is from a presentation given in Melbu, Norway, in 1989. 24. Dawluns, 'Human chauvinism' (1997), 1016 (my italics). 25. Dawkins, 'Human chauvinism' (1997), 1020. 26. R. Dawlans, A Devil's Chaplain: Reflections on Hope, Lies, Science and Love (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 100. 27. R. Dawkins, 'Progress', in E. F. Keller and E. Lloyd (eds.), Keywords in Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 263-272. 28. S. J. Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny(Cambridge,MA: Belknap Press, 1977). See also S. J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York: Norton, 1981). 29. Gould, Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin (1996). 30. Wilson, The Diversity of Life (1992), 187. 3 1. E. 0. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975). See also E. 0 . Wilson, The Future of Life (New York: Vintage Books, 2002). 32. R. Dawkins, 'An Open Letter to Prince Charles', in M. Ruse and D. Castle (eds.), GeneticallyModified Foods (Buffalo,NY: Prometheus, 2002), 16-19. 33. Charles, Prince of Wales, 'Reith Lecture 2000', in M. Ruse and D. Castle (eds.),GeneticallyModified Foods (Buffalo,NY: Prometheus, 2002), 11-15.

34. T. H. Huxley, Evolution and Ethics and other Essays (London: Macmillan, 1893). 35. S. Conway Morris, Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 36. Conway Morris, Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe (2003), 196. 37. R. Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype: The Gene as the Unit o f Selection (Oxford: W . H . Freeman, 1982). 38. Dawluns and Krebs, 'Arms races between and withn species' (1979), 490. 39. I have found that Darwin did sometimes use the word 'race' in the sense of competition (as opposed to class) in the firsr edition of the Origin. At least one passage seems to tie thngs into progress in a very Dawkinsian way, although the word 'race' seems more of a synonym for struggle than quite the idea of a moving competition. The inhabitants of each successive period of the world's hstory have beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, in so far, higher in the scale of nature; and this may account for that vague yet ill-defined sentiment, felt by many palaeontologists, that organisation on the whole has progressed. (Darwin, The Origin o f Species: A variorum Text (1959), 561) In the little book on orchids, On the Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects, published just after the Origin in 1862, Darwin got closer to the idea of 'race' as is used in 'arms race'. He wrote: If the Angraecum in its native forests secretes more nectar than did the vigorous plants sent me by Mr. Bateman, so that the nectary becomes filled, small moths might obtain their share, but they would not benefit the plant. The pollinia would not be withdrawn until some huge moth, with a wonderfully long proboscis, tried to drain the last drop.

If such great moths were to become extinct in Madagascar, assuredly the Angrzcum would become extinct. On the other hand, as the nectar, at least in the lower part of the nectary, is stored safe from depredation by other insects, the extinction of the Angrzcum would probably be a serious loss to these moths. We can thus partially understand how thc astonishng length of the nectary may have been acquired by successive modifications. As certain moths of Madagascar became larger through natural selection in relation to their general conditions of life, either in the larval or mature state, or as the proboscis alone was lengthened to obtain honey from the Angrzcum and other deep tubular flowers, those individual plants of the Angrzcum which had the longest nectaries (and the nectary varies much in length in some Orchids), and which, consequently, compelled the moths to insert their probosces up to the very base, would be fcrtilised. These plants would yield most seed, and the seedlings would generally inherit longer nectaries; and so it would be in successive generations of the plant and moth. Thus it would appear that there has been a race in gaining length between the nectary of the Angrzcum and the proboscis of certain moths; but the Angrzcum has triumphed, for it flourishes and abounds in the forests of Madagascar, and still troubles each moth to insert its proboscis as far as possible in order to drain the last drop of nectar. (Darwin, On [he Various Contrivances by which British and Foreign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects (London: John Murray, 1862), 201-203.

This word is picked up by Darwin's American friend, the botanist Asa Gray. In a letter to Darwin, on 22 March 1863, he wrote: 'Of course we believers in real design make the most of your "frank" and natural terms, "contrivance,

purpose", etc., and pooh-pooh your endeavors to resolve such contrivances into necessary results of certam physical processes, and make fun of the race between long noses and long nectarines.' (J.L. Gray, Letters ofAsa Gray(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1844),vol. 2, page 502) Gray hmself was not very keen on biological progress, mainly because he was a botanist-he resisted Darwin's efforts to force h m to accept progress-but also because he was an evangelical Presbyterian who thought that God's grace was the key to salvation. 40. J. S. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912). 41. Darwin, The Origin o f Species: A Variorum Text (1959). 42. Compare the version of the passage given in endnote 39 with the version that appears in later editions. Specialization becomes explicit and doubts about progress are suppressed. This is from the sixth edition of the Origin (1872): The inhabitants of the world at each successive period in its history have beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, in so far, higher in the scale, and their structure has generally become more specialised; and t h s may account for the common belief held by so many palaeontologists, that organisation on the whole has progressed. (Darwin, The Origin of Species: A variorum Text 1959), 561) 43. R. Dawkins, The Ancestor's Tale (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004).

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End Notes
1. I have given reasons for considering the active role of animals in changing the direction of evolution in P. Bateson, 'The return of the whole organism', Journal o f Biosciences, 30 (2005): 31-39. 2. P. Bateson, 'Sociobiology and human politics', in S. Rose and L. Appignanesi (eds.), Science and Beyond (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), 79-99. 3. R. Dawkins, 'Sociobiology: The new storm in a teacup', in S. Rose and L. Appignanesi (eds.), Science and Beyond (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), 61-78. 4. R. Dawkins, 'Replicators and vehicles', in King's College Sociobiology Group (eds.), Current Problems in Sociobiology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982a), 45-54. 5. P. Bateson [P.G.], 'Book Review: The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins', Animal Behaviour, 26 (1978): 3 16-3 18. 6. R. Dawluns, The Extended Phenotype (Oxford: W . H . Freeman, 1982). 7. M . Mameli, 'Nongenetic selection and nongenetic mheritance', British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 55 (2004): 35-71.

8. R. Dawluns, 'Extended phenotype-but not too extended. A reply to Laland, Turner and Jablonka', Biology and Philosophy, 19 (2004), 377-396.

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End Notes
1. Charles J. Lumsden and Edward 0. Wilson, Genes, Mind and

Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge; Harvard

University Press, 1981).

2. Richard Dawluns, 'Introduction', in Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 3. Blackmore, The Meme Machine (1999); Daniel C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (New York: Little, Brown, 1991); Daniel C. Dennett, DanvinJsDangerous Idea (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995); Robert Aunger (ed.), Danvinizing Culture: The Status o f Memetics as a Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); Robert Aunger, The Electric Meme (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002); and Kate Distin, The Selfish Meme: A Critical Reassessment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 4. Dawluns, 'Introduction' (1999). 5. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976). 6. John Bowker, Is God a Virus? (Oxford: SPCK, 1995). 7. Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (1999);see also 'The evolution of meme machines', in A. Meneghetti et al. (eds.), Ontopsychology and Memetics (Rome: Psicological Editrice, 2003), 233-240. 8. Aunger, The Electric Meme (2002). 9. Aunger, The Electric Meme (2002). 10. David Hull and John S. Wilkins, 'Replication', Stanford Encyclopedia o f Philosophy (http:/ /plato.stanford.edu/ entries/replication/; 2001). 11. Hull and Wilson, 'Replication' (2001). 12. Aunger, The Electric Meme (2002). 13. Richard Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982). 14. Aunger, The Electric Meme (2002). 15. Dan Sperber, 'An objection to the memetic approach to culture', in Robert Aunger (ed.), Danvinizing Culture: The Status o f Memetics as a Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 163-1 74. 16. Alex Mesoudi, The Transmission and Evolution o f Human Culture (University of St. Andrews: Ph.D. Thesis, 2005).

17. Richard Dawkins and John Krebs, 'Animal Signals: Information or manipulation', in J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.),Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978). 18. Robert Trivers, 'The elements of a scientific theory of selfdeception', Annals o f the New York Academy o f Sciences, 907 (2000): 114-131. 19. Dan Sperber and Deidre Wilson, Relevance: Communication and Cognition (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn., 1995). 20. Aunger, The Electric Meme (2002). 21. Joseph Henrich and Robert Boyd, 'On modeling cognition and culture: Why replicators are not necessary to cultural evolution', Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2 (2002): 87-112. 22. Dawkins, The Extended Phenofype (1982). 23. Richard Dawkins, 'Universal Darwinism', in D. S. Bendall (ed.), Evolution from Molecules to Men (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982),403-425. 24. Marshall Sahlins, Culture and Practical Reason (Chcago: University of Chicago Press, 1976) and Philip Kitcher, Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985).

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End Notes
1. i.e. genetic posterity through effects on collateral as well as descendant kin; see, W. D. Hamilton, 'The genetical evolution of social behaviour', Journal of Theoretical Biolog): 7 (1964): 1-52. 2. M. Wilson and M. Daly, 'The man who mistook his wife for a chattel', in J. H. Barkow et al. (eds.), The Adapted Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 289-322. 3. R. L. Trivers, 'Parent-offspring conflict', American Zoologist, 14 (1974): 249-264.

4. L. M. DeBruine, 'Facial resemblance enhances trust', Proceedings of the Royal Society o f London, B, 269 (2002): 1307-1312 and L. M. DeBruine, 'Trustworthy but not lustworthy: Context-specific effects of facial resemblance', Proceedings o f the Royal Society o f London, B, 272 (2005): 919-922. 5. W. G. Holmes and P. W. Sherman, 'The ontogeny of kin recognition in two species of ground squirrels', American Zoologist, 22 (1982):491-517. 6. R. Dawkins, The Extended Phenotype. (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1982). 7. M. E. Hauber and P. W. Sherman, 'Self-referent phenotype matching: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence', Trends in Neuroscience, 24 (2001):607-614. 8. S. Jacob, M. K. McClintock, B. Zelano, and C. Ober, 'Paternally inherited HLA alleles are associated with women's choice of male odor', Nature Genetics, 30 (2002): 175-1 79. 9. N. B. Davies and M. Brooke, 'Coevolution of the cuckoo and its hosts', Scientific American, 264 (1991):92-98; and N. E. Lang-more, R. M. Kilner, S. H. M. Butchart, G. Maurer, N. B. Davies, A. Cockburn, N. A. Macgregor, A. Peters, M. J. L. Magrath, and D. K. Dowling, 'The evolution of egg rejection by cuckoo hosts in Australia and Europe', Behavioral E C O ~ O16 ~ Y(2005): , 686-692. 10. M. Daly, M. Wilson, and S. J. Weghorst, 'Male sexual jealousy', Ethology & Sociobiology, 3 (1982): 11-27. 11. K. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976). 12. M. Daly and M. Wilson, 'Whom are newborn babies said to resemble?', Ethology & Sociobiology, 3 (1982):69-78; and J. M. Regalski and S. J. C. Gaulin, 'Whom are Mexican infants said to resemble? Monitoring and fostering paternal confidence in the Yucatan', Ethology & Sociobiology, 14 (1993): 97-1 13. 13. N. J. S. Christenfeld and E. A. Hill, 'Mrhose baby are you?', Nature, 378 (1995): 669.

14. P. Bressan and M. Grassi, 'Parental resemblance in oneyear-olds and the Gaussian curve', Evolution & Human Behavior, 25 (20041: 133-141. 15. M. Pagel, 'Desperately concealing father: A theory of parent-infant resemblance', Animal Behaviour, 53 (1997):973981; R. A. Johnstone, 'Kecognition and the evolution of distinctive signatures: When does it pay to reveal identit).'?', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 264 ( I 997): 1547-1553; and P. Bressan, 'Why babies look like their daddies: Paternity uncertainty and the evolution of selfdeception in evaluating family resemblance', Acts Ethologica, 4 (2002): 113-118. 16. R. Axelrod, R. A. Hammond, and A. Grafen, 'Altruism via kin-selection strategies that rely on arbitrary tags with which they c~evol\~e', Evolution, 58 (2004): 1 833-1838. 17. S. T. Emlen, 'An evolutionary theory of the family', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 0 2 (1995): 8092-8099. 18. A. I. Houston, T. Szekely, and J. M. hlcNamara, 'Conflict between parents over care', Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20 (2005): 33-38. 19. D. F. Westneat and 1. R. K. Stewart, 'Extra-pair paternity in birds: causes, correlates, and conflict', Annual Review o f Ecology, Evolution & Syternatics, 34 (2003): 365-396. 20. S. Rohwer, J. C. Herron, and M. Daly, 'Stepparental behavior as mating effort in birds and other animals', Evolution & Hurnun Behavior, 20 (19991: 367-390. 21. K. G. Anderson, H. Kaplan, D. Lam, and J. Lancaster, 'Paternal care by genetic and stepfathers. 11: Reports bj. Xhosa high school students', Evolution & Hurnun Behavior, 20 (1999):133-451. 22. K. G. Anderson, 'How well does paternity confidence match actual paternity?', under review (2005). 23. R. D. Alexander, 'The e\.olution of social behavior', Annual Review o f Ecology& Systematics, 5 (1974): 325-383.

24. M. V. Flinn, 'Uterine and agnatic kinship variability', in R. D. Alexander and D. W. Tinkle (eds.), Natural Selection and Social Behavior (New York: Chiron, 1981), 439-475. 25. J. Hartung, 'Matrilineal inheritance: New theory and analysis', Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 8 (1985): 661-688.

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End Notes
1. R. D. Alexander, Darwinism and Human Aficairs (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1979). 2. R. D. Alexander, The Biology o f Moral Systems (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1987).

3. R. Boyd and P. J. Richerson, Culture and the Evolutionary Process (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), viii, 331. 4. H. Cronin, The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), xiv, 490. 5. J. Radcliffe-kchards, Human Nature After Darwin (Walton Hall, UK: Open University, 1999). 6. M. Ridley, The Origins o f Virtue: Human Instincts and the Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Viking, 1st US edn., 1997),viii, 295. 7. R. Wright, The Moral Animal: The New Science of Evolutionar), Psychology (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994). 8. P. Hammerstein, Genetic and Cultural Evolution o f Cooperation (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press in cooperation with Dahlem University Press, 20033, sill, 485. 9. R. M. Nesse, Evolution and the Capacity for Commitment, Russell Sage Foundation series on trust (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 20011, vol. 3, page 334. 10. J. G. Paradis, T. H. Huxley, and G. C. Williams, Evolution and Ethics: T. H. Huxley's Evolution and Ethics with New Essays on its Victorian and Sociobiological Context (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), viii, 212. 11. E. G. J. Leigh, 'How does selection reconcile individual advantage with the good of the group?, Proceedings o f the National Academy o f Science USA, 74 (1977): 4542-4546. 12. P. A. Corning, 'The Co-Operative Gene: On The Role of Synergy in Evolution', Evolutionary Theory, I 1 (1996): 183-207. 13. E. Fehr and U. Fischbacher, 'The nature of human altruism', Nature 42516960 (2003): 785-791. 14. Nesse, Evolution and the Capacity for Commitment (20013.

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End Notes
1. Richard Dawkins, The Ancestor's Tale (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004), 252-261. 2. Richard Dawkins, A Devil's Chaplain (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003). 3. Alec Vidler, The Church in an Age o f Revolution (London: Penguin, 1961), 113. 4. Richard Harries, God Outside the Box: Why Spiritual People Object to Christianity (SPCK, 2003).

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End Notes
1. Frans de ' ~ a a l ,Our Inner Ape: The Past and Future o f Human Nature (London: Granta, ZOOS), 21. 2. Steven Rose, R. C. Lewontin and Leon J. Kamin, Not In Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature (London: Penguin, 1990), 8. 3. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn., 1989), 117. 4. Interview with Richard Dawluns, 8 January 2001. 5. Richard Dawluns, River Out o f Eden: A Darwinian View o f Life (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1995), 133. 6. Marek Kohn, .4 Reason for Everything: Natural Selection and the English Imagination (London: Faber, 2004), 323.

7. Kohn, A Reason for Everything (2004j. See also the evolutionist: Richard Dawkins (http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/ evolutionist /dawkins.htm). 8. Ullica Segerstrale, Defenders of the Truth: The Battle for Science in the Sociobiology Debate and Beyond (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 192. 9. Kohn, A Reason for Everything (2004), 320. 10. Patrick Bateson et al., letter, Guardian, 6 April 2002. 11. Colin Blakemore et al., letter, Guardian, 17 December 2002. 12. Colin Blakemore et al., 'Is a scientific boycott ever justified?', Nature, 42 1 (2003): 3 14. 13. Blakemore, 'Is a scientific boycott ever justified?' (2003), 321. 14. Richard Dawkins, letter, Guardian, 18 February 2003.

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