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)- - - - -- ,A multi component theory of the memory trace . in .spence & spence (Editors
the psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory volume one.
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112- Bower, G.H., A multi component theory of the memory
trace, in Spence & Spence (Editors) The Psychology of Learning and
Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, Volume one, Academic
Press, New York ,1967.
123----------,A selective review of Organizational factors in
memory, in, E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Editors) organization of memory
, Academic Press, New york.1972
13Dewey, John. The School and Society, The Uni- of Chicago,
Illionis. U.S.A.1943.
14Hight ,Gilbert, the Art of teaching, New york, 1957.
15Lacan, Jacques, the Seminar (1959-60) Book VII, the Ethics of
psychoanalysis. Trans- by Dennis porter - notes by Dennis porter.
london.1992.
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- R.D.P.1980.P.292

Spring 2012

The first issue

The University Forum Magazine

The History of Handwriting

Dr. Sulieman Muamer Mohamed Adbeeb
Faculty of Arts Bani Waleed
English Department

.
. . 3991

" "

logographic
pictographic .ideographic

logographic syllabic

alphabetic .

The History of Handwriting

4

The History of Handwriting

Dr. Sulieman Muamer Mohamed Adbeeb
Faculty of Arts Bani Waleed
English Department

Introduction:
Before the invention of writing, useful knowledge had to be
memorized and information was carried by messengers in their
heads. Crucial lore passed from the older to the newer
generation through speaking .Even in todays world, many
spoken languages lack a writing system, and oral literature still
abounds.
Mythological Origins Among many ancient societies say
writing held an extremely special and important role. Often
,writing is so revered that myths and deities were drawn up to
explain its divine origin. In ancient Egypt, for example, the
invention of writing is attributed to the god (Thoth) (Dhwty in
Egyptian), who was not only the scribe and historian of the gods
but also who kept the calendar and invented art and science. In
some Egyptian myths, Thoth is also portrayed as the creator of
speech and possessing the power to transform speech into
material objects.
The earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions are the Narmer
Palette, dating to c.3200 BC, and several recent discoveries that
may be slightly older, though the glyphs were based on a much
older artistic tradition. The hieroglyphic script was logographic
with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective alphabet.
Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire,
and literacy was concentrated among educated elite of scribes.
Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to

The University Forum Magazine

The first issue

Spring 2012

become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military

authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn,
but in later centuries it was purposely made even more so, as
this preserved the scribes' status.
I-Definitions:
According to Paul Davies and Eric Pearse,2000,p96 "Writing
is probably the linguistics skill that is least used by most people
in their native language .Even in the most advanced societies a
significant percentage of the adult population writes with
difficulty good writing skills usually develop from extensive
reading".
Webster Dictionary (1980, p1345) .presented that "The act or
process of one who writes as the act or art of forming visible
letters or characters of head writing".
While Longman Dictionary 1999, p 1222, defined writing as"
works of literature or other written material, produced by the
stated person.
Creative writing that expresses the writers thoughts and
feelings in an imaginative, often unique and poetic way.
Creative writing is guided more by the writers need to express
feelings and ideas then by restrictive demands of factual and
logical progression of expository writing. Creative writing can
technically be considered any writing of original composition that
is in no way guilty of plagiarism. Creative writing is more
commonly considered to be non-scholarly writing, writing
created for purposes other than making an academic argument.
Creative writing is adventurous and explores life beyond
limitations and structure; it demands for imagination to become
more real than reality. Creative writing, as a means of
classification, is more inclusive than exclusive. All forms of
fiction writing as well as many non-fiction forms fall under this
broad heading. , Foundations of Creativity, Mary Lee
Marksberry references Paul Witty and Lou LaBrants teaching

The History of Handwriting

6

the Peoples Language to define creative writing. Marks berry

notes:
Witty and LaBrantgive a very clear definition of creative
writing. They say it is a composition of any type of writing at any
time primarily in the service of such needs as (1.) the need for
keeping records of significant experience, (2.) the need for
sharing experience with an interested group, and (3.) the need
for free individual expression which contributes to mental and
physical health.
Creative writing is considered to be any writing, fiction or nonfiction, that goes outside the bounds of normal professional,
journalistic, academic, and technical forms of literature. Works
which fall into this category include most novels and epics, as
well as many short stories and poems. Writing for the screen
and stage, screenwriting and playwriting respectively, typically
have their own programs of study, but fit under the creative
writing category as well. Creative writing can technically be
considered any writing of original composition that is in no way
guilty of plagiarism. In this sense creative writing is a more
contemporary and process-oriented name for what has been
traditionally called literature, including the variety of its genres.
The practice of "professional writing" is not excluded from
creative writing one can be doing both in the same action. In
her / his work, Foundations of Creativity, Creative writing is
usually taught in a workshop format rather than seminar style. In
workshops students usually submit original work for peer
critique. Students also format a writing method through the
process of writing and re-writing. Some courses teach the
means to exploit or access latent creativity or more technical
issues such as editing, structural techniques, genres, random
idea generating or writer's block.
Creative Writing: Theory Beyond Practice sets the agenda for
creative writing studies in the next ten years. Here writers,
teachers and theorists identify theoretical underpinnings for
creativity and writing in a broad spectrum of experience -

The University Forum Magazine

The first issue

Spring 2012

architecture, morality, psychology, ecology, philosophy,

physiology, love, sculpture and the body. This new research
lays innovative foundations for insight into the nature of writing.
A book for practitioners, teachers and students, it prepares a
way for understanding the frameworks within which creative
writing takes place in the early twenty-first century.
Roger Gower and others, 1990, p 113 state that writing skills
as" Writing involves many different aspects. It is useful to look
at them under these:
Handwriting,
Spelling.
Punctuation.
Sentence construction.
Organizing a text and paragraphing.
Text cohesion.
Register style.
Leo Fnkelstein Jr, 2005 p25 defined technical writing " In
technical writing definition is the process by which one assign a
precise meaning to a term, to define a term, it must be placed
into a classification and then differentiated from other terms in
that same classification. Technical definitions are relatively easy
to write."
I1-Handwriting:
According to historians, the earliest form of writing can be
dated around 3000 BC, when Sumerians in ancient
Mesopotamia - modern day Iraq - wrote on clay tablets.
Writing is a form of human communication by means of a
set of visible marks that are related, by convention, to some
particular structural level of language.
This definition highlights the fact that writing is in principle
the representation of language rather than a direct
representation of thought and the fact that spoken language has

The History of Handwriting

8

a number of levels of structure, including sentences, words,

syllables, and phonemes (the smallest units of speech used to
distinguish one word or morpheme from another), any one of
which a writing system can map onto or represent. Indeed, the
history of writing is in part a matter of the discovery and
representation of these structural levels of spoken language in
the attempt to construct an efficient, general, and economical
writing system capable of serving a range of socially valuable
functions. Literacy is a matter of competence with a writing
system and with the specialized functions that written language
serves in a particular society.
The history of the alphabet starts in ancient Egypt. By 2700
BCE Egyptian writing had a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to
represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their
language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the
native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation
guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and,
later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.(Victoria
Fromkin and Robert Rodman, 1993,p364).
Transmitting a story from person to person is a fluid process
- much more than reading a text fixed on a page. In the process
of hearing a story and retelling it, subtle changes can chip away
at modern day Iraq - wrote on clay tablets.
The Iron Age Celts didn't write things down but passed on
their knowledge, stories and poems by word of mouth. It took
their druids up to twenty years to remember everything. They
were a highly sophisticated society, and knew about writing, but
preferred to learn everything by heart.
Contrary to the view that handwriting is a trivial skill,
handwriting actually is important for a number of reasons.
One involves the concept of mental resources to which alluded
in several other columns, in relation to reading and mathematics
as well as writing. Labored handwriting creates a drain on
mental resources needed for higher-level aspects of writing,

The University Forum Magazine

The first issue

Spring 2012

such as attention to content, elaboration of details, and

organization of ideas. "See Hugh Cory 2008".
Because handwriting is a basic tool used in many subjects
taking notes, taking tests, and doing classroom work and
homework for almost every content area as well as in language
arts classes poor handwriting can have a pervasive effect on
school performance. Handwriting is a complex human activity
that entails an intricate blend of cognitive, kinesthetic, and
perceptual-motor components (Reisman, 1993). To produce a
written text ,a student must initiate and execute simultaneously
a number of motor and cognitive tasks including ideation,
planning, text production, spelling, punctuation, grammar, selfmonitoring, evaluation, and orthographic-motor integration
(Berninger, 1994; Hooper,2002, Jomc and Christopher, 1993).
Handwriting skills, particularly handwriting uency, improve with
age and schooling (Graham et al., 1998; Hamstra-Bletz and
Blote, 1990). During their rst 3 years of school, children are
expected to acquire a level of handwriting prociency that
enables them to make skillful use of handwriting as a tool to
carry out their work at school (Laszlo and Broderick, 1991;
Maeland and Karlsdottir, 1991). Children are required to hand in
papers, write essays, and give longer responses to testquestions (Cornhill and Case-Smith, 1996; Reisman, 1993).
Most children nd that they are ready to handle these demands
and the prescience of their handwriting is reected by their
ability to produce legible text with minimum effort. Furthermore,
for typical children, handwriting becomes automatic, so that text
generation does not interfere with their creative thinking process
(Scardamalia et al., 1982).
Moreover, when handwriting is perceived as arduous and
time-consuming, motivation to write may be greatly reduced,
leading to a lack of practice that may further compound
difficulties with writing.
Finally, handwriting in the earliest grades is linked to basic
reading and spelling achievement; for example, when children

The History of Handwriting

01

learn how to write the letter m, they can also be learning its
sound. Attention to the linkages among handwriting, reading,
and spelling skills can help to reinforce early achievement
across these are Reective-Revisions.The third approach,
describes a deep writing process based on a sophisticated
understanding of revision as a remaking or rebuilding of ones
thinking, similar to Silva and Nicholls (1993) logical reasoning
factor.
Reective-Revision implies willingness to take charge in writing
to make meaning for oneself and for the audience. The level of
focus is high involving thematic and global concerns, and
ideation is hierarchical: In writing ,they use some ideas to
support other, larger ideas, similar to Hounsells essay as
argument conception (1997). The strategy is to get it all out in a
rough draft for revision rather than to dawdle at the sentence
level: (Do not) complete each sentence and revise it before
going on to the next. It is as though these students adopt the
sculptor rather than engineer strategy (cf. Biggs et al. 1999).
Writing and revision are intertwined in a dynamic process
geared toward making meaning: Revision is nding the shape
of the essay. Reective-Revision scale scores predicted high
grades in a freshman composition course (Lavelle 1993).
The fourth factor , Spontaneous-Impulsive, proles an
impulsive and unplanned approach similar to Biggs Surface
Restrictive approach (1988). The Spontaneous-Impulsive
approach represents overestimating skill and fear of fully
dealing with what the writer perceives as limitations; the
approach is defensive. It is as though they just do it and then it
is done, When writing an essay or paper, they just say what
they would if they were talking! The focus is at the surface
level: Revision is making minor alterations, just touching things
up. They never think about how they go about writing.
The Procedural approach involves a method-driven strategy
based on strict adherence to the rules and a minimal amount of
involvement, similar to Silva and Nichols methodological

The University Forum Magazine

The first issue

Spring 2012

11

orientation (1993), Berieters communicative (1987), or Biggs

Surface-Elaborative approach (1999). Such writers ask
themselves, Where can they put this information that they just
came across? The strategy is listing or providing a sequence
of ideas, an orderly arrangement which is reective of
Hounsells 1997,essay as arrangement conception.
Working memory (WM) is a processing resource of limited
capacity, thought to be relevant to writing (e.g., Kellogg, 2001;
Kemtes & Kemper, 1997; McCutchen, 1996; Swanson &
Berninger, 1994, 1996). Older adults show poorer performance
on WM tasks than younger adults (e.g., Babcock & Salt-house,
1990), and there is increasing evidence that the decreasing
complexity in writing by older adults is related to WM (e.g.,
Kemper & Sumner, 2001; Kemtes & Kemper, 1997). Several
studies with adults have shown, for example, that younger
adults produce more complex sentences (Kemper, Rash, Kynett
& Norman, 1990), fewer grammatical errors (Daiute, 1984), and
maintain greater coherence (Kemper, 1990; McCutchen, 1985;
Pratt, Boyes, Robins & Manchester, 1989) in their writing when
compared with older adults. Thus, elderly adults are more likely
to exhibit less complex writing than younger adults because of
increasing demands on WM (e.g., Kemper, Kynette, Rash,
Sprott and OBrien, 1989).
III-The standard of writing system.
The oldest-known forms of writing were primarily
logographic in nature, based on pictographic and ideographic
elements. Most writing systems can be broadly divided into
three categories: logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic (or
segmental); however, all three may be found in any given
writing system in varying proportions, often making it difficult to
categorize a system uniquely. The term complex system is

The History of Handwriting

01

sometimes used to describe those where the admixture makes

classification problematic. "See David Crystal2005"
, writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic
communication systems in that one must usually understand
something of the associated language to comprehend the text.
By contrast, other possible symbolic systems such as
information signs, painting, maps, and mathematics often do not
require prior knowledge of a spoken language. "Stephen
Bailey2003"
Every human community possesses language, a feature
regarded by many as an innate and defining condition of
humankind. However, the development and adoption of writing
systems has occurred only sporadically. Once established,
writing systems on the whole change more slowly than their
spoken counterparts, and often preserve features and
expressions which are no longer current in the spoken
language. The great benefit of writing systems is their ability to
maintain a persistent record of information expressed in a
language, which can be retrieved independently of the initial act
of formulation. "Wilga Rivers1981"
IV-Conclusion
Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian
empire
Human memory is short-lived, and the brains storage capacity
is limited.
Writing overcomes such problems and allows communication
across space and through time. Writing permits a society to
permanently record its literature, its history and science and its
technology.

The University Forum Magazine

The first issue

Spring 2012

13

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