Photon

Fr
omWi
ki
ped
ia,
thef
reee
ncy
clo
ped
ia

Aphoton isane l
ementarypart
i
cle,t
heq uan t
umofli
ght
Photon
andallot
herformso fel
ectr
omagneti
cr a
diation
,andthe
for
cecarri
erfortheel
ec t
romagnet
icforce,evenwh e
n
st
ati
cviavir
tualphot
ons.Th eef
fect
sof t
hisforceare
easi
l
yo bser
vableatboththemicrosc
op i
ca nd
macroscopi
clevel
,b e
ca u
sethephotonh asz e
rorest
mass;t
hisall
owslongd i
stancei
nte
racti
ons. Li
kea l
l
el
ementarypart
icl
es,photonsar
ec ur
rentl
ybe stexpl
ai
ned
byquantumme chani
csa ndexhi
bitwav e
–pa rt
icl
edual
it
y,
exhi
bi
ti
ngp ropert
i
eso fbothwavesan dpartic
les
.For
example
, asi
nglephotonma yberefr
a ct
edbyal e
nsor
exhi
bi
twa veint
erfer
encewi t
hit
sel
f,butalsoa c
tasa Ph
oto
nse
mit
tedi
naco
her
entbe
amf
rom al
ase
r
part
ic
legivi
ngad efi
ni
teresul
twhenitspositi
onis
measure
d . Composition El
eme
nta
ryp
art
icl
e
Statistics Bo
soni
c
Themo dernp hotonc on cept wa sd evelopedg radu al
lyby
Ele ct
roma g net
ic
AlbertEinstei
nt oe xpl
aine xperi
me n t
alo bser
va t
ion sthat Interactions
didno tfi
tthec la
ssicalwa vemo de loflight
.Inpa r t
icul
ar, Symbol γ,hν ,o rħω
thepho t
o nmo delaccou ntedf orthefreq uency Theorized Alb er
tEi nstei
n
dep e
nd enceo f l
i
ght'
se ne rgy,a nde xpl
a in
edt hea bil
it
yof
ma t
teran drad i
ati
ont obei ntherma leq ui
li
bri
um.I talso Mass 0
<1×10 −18e V/c2[1]
accountedf ora noma l
ou sob servati
o ns,incl
udingt he
properti
eso fb l
ackbo dyr adiati
o n,th
a to t
herp hysici
sts, Mean lifetime Sta bl
e[1]
mos tnotablyMa xPlanc k, hads oug h
t toe x
p l
ainu sin
g
Electric charge 0
semiclassical models,inwh ichlighti
ss t
il
ldescribedby −35e[1]
Ma xwe l
l'
se qu at
ions,bu tthema te
rialob j
ectsthate mit <1×10
anda bsorbl i
ght,dos oi na mo untso fen er
gytha ta r
e Spin 1
quantized (i
.e.,theycha n gee nergyon l
yb yc ert
a in Parity −1 [1]
parti
culard i
scret
ea mo un tsan dc annot changee nergyin
−1 [1]
anya r
b i
trarywa y).Altho ught heses e
mi clas
sicalmode l
s C parity
contri
butedt othede velo pme ntof quan tumme ch anics, Condensed I(JPC)=0 ,1(1−−)[1]
ma nyfurthere xper
ime nts[2]
[3]start
ingwi thCo mpt on
scatt
eri
n go fsing
lep hoton sbye l
ectrons ,f
ir
stobs ervedin1923,v al
ida tedEin st
ei
n'
sh y pothe s
ist hatlight itself
isquanti
ze d.In1 926t hec hemi stGilbertN.Le wisc oine
dthenamephoton f orthes
epa r
ti
c l
es,a nda f
ter1 927,
wh enAr thurH. Co mptonwo nt heNo belPrizeforh isscat
te
ri
ngs tudie s
,mos ts
cie
ntis
t sac cepte dthev alidity
thatquantao f l
i
ght havea ni ndepen dente xi
st
en ce,a ndLewis't
ermphoton f orligh
tqu a nt
awa sa c
ce p t
ed.

I
ntheStan
dardMo delofpa r
ti
cl
ep hys
ics,photonsarede scri
beda san ecessaryconsequenc
eofph y
sica
lla
ws
h
avin
gac er
ta
insy
mme t
rya teve
rypo i
ntinspace t
i
me .Th eint
ri
nsicpropert
iesofph ot
on s
,suchascharg
e,ma s
s
a
nds pi
n,a
redet
erminedb ythepropert
iesofthisgauges ymme t
ry.Theph otonc once
pth asl
edtomome nto
us
a
dvancesi
nexper
imen t
alandtheoret
i
ca l
ph ys
ics,sucha slas
ers,Bose–Einst
e i
nc ondensat
i
on,quant
umf i
el
d
t
heor
y,andth
eprob a
b i
li
st
icint
erpre
tat
iono fquantumme chan
ics.Ith
a sbeena ppli
edtoph ot
ochemis
try
,hig
h-
r
esol
uti
onmic
ros
co py,andme asu
reme nt
sof moleculardist
ances.Rec en
tl
y,ph otonshavebeenstu
diedas
e
lement
sofquan
tumc omp ute
rsandforso phi
st
icateda ppli
cat
ionsinoptic
a l
c ommu ni
cati
onsuchasquantum
c
rypt
ograp
hy.
Contents
1Nome ncl
atu
r e
2Physi
calpropert
ies
2.1Ex peri
me nt
alchecksonp hotonmass
3His
tori
caldevelopment
4Earl
yobject
io n
s
5Wa ve
– par
ti
c l
edu al
i
tyandu n
ce r
tai
ntypri
nci
pl
es
6Bose–Ei
n s
teinmo delofaphotonga s
7Sti
mulat
eda ndsp ont
aneousemissi
on
8Secondquan t
iza
tion
9Thehadroni
cpr opert
iesofth
eph oton
10Thephotona sag aug
ebo son
11Contr
ibut
ionstot h
ema ssofas ys
tem
12Phot
o n
sinma t
ter
13Technol
ogicalappli
cat
ions
14Recentres
e ar
ch
15Seeals
o
16Notes
17Refe
rences
18Addit
ionalref
erences

Nomenclature
In19 00, Ma xPlanckwa swo rkingo nblack-bodyr adiat
iona n
ds ug
g estedthatt
heen er
gyine l
ectroma gnet
ic
wa ve sco ul
do nl
yber eleasedin"pac kets"ofener
gy .I nhi
s1901a rt
icl [4
e i] nAnnal
ende rPh ys
ikh eca l
le
dt hese
packe t
s" ener
gye l
eme nt
s".Thewo rdquanta (sin
gu l
a rquantum)wa susede venbefore1900t ome a
npa rti
cl
es
ora mou n t
so fdif
fe
re n
tqua nt
it
ies,i
nc l
udinge l
ect
ri
ci
ty .Later,i
n1905Al bertEins
tei
nwe ntfur
therbys u g
ge s
ti
ng
thate le
ctroma gnet
i
cwa vescou l
do nlyex i
sti
nthesedi scr
e t
ewa ve-
pa ckets[5]
. Hec alle
ds uchawa ve-packet
the light quantum (Germa n:das Lichtquant).Then amephoton de r
ivesfromtheGr eekwor dforl i
ght,φῶς
(tr
an sli
terat
edphôs) ,andwa sc oi
ned [Note1]i
n1926byt hephysi
calc hemistGil
ber
tLe wis
,wh opu bl
i
s he
da
spec ulat
ivetheoryinwh i
chp hotonswe re"uncr
eatablea ndindest
ruc
tible"[6]
. Al t
houghLewis'theorywa sn ever
acce p t
eda sitwasc ont
rad i
ct
e dbyma nye xperi
men t
s ,hi
sn ewname ,photon,wa sadoptedimme diat
elyb y
mos t phy s
ici
sts
. I
saacAs i
mo vc redi
tsAr thurCompt onwi thdefi
ni
ngqu a nt
aofe ner
gya sphotonsin1923.7]
[ [8
]

Inphysi
cs,ap hot
onisus
u al
l
ydenotedbythesymbol γ(t
heGr eeklet
tergamma).Thissymbolforth
ephoto
n
probabl
yd eri
vesfr
omg a
mmar ays,whichweredisc
ov er
edin1900byPa ulVil
l
ard,[
9][
10]namedbyEr n
est
Ruthe
rfordin1903,andshowntob eaformo fe
lect
roma gne
ticradi
ati
onin1914byRu th
erfor
da n
dEdwa r
d
Andrade [
11
. I] nchemi
st
rya n
dopti
c a
lengin
eeri
ng,photonsareu s
ual
lysymboli
zedbyhν,t heener
gyo fa
photo
n, whereh i
sPlan
ck'scon
stantandtheGreeklett
erν (
n u)i
sthephoton'
sfre
que n
c y
.Mu chles
s
commo nl
y, t
hep h
otoncanbesymbo l
i
zedbyhf,wh ereit
sfrequencyisdenot
edbyf.

Physical properties
See also: Special relativity
Ap ho t
o nismassl
e s
s,[
Note2 ]hasn oe l
ect
r i
cc harge,[
12]andiss t
a bl
e.
Ap ho t
o nhastwopo ssibl
ep ol
ariz
ati
o nst
a tes.Inthemome ntum
represe
n ta
tion,
wh ic
hispr eferredinq uan
tu mf i
eldtheory,aph otonis
descri
be db yit
swa vevector ,wh i
chde t
ermin esit
swa vel
engthλ a n
d
i
tsd i
recti
ono fpropagati
on. Aph o
ton '
swa v
ev ectorma yn otbez ero
andc anb erepres
e n
tede i
the rasas pacia
l 3-v e
ctorora sa
(rel
at
ivi
s t
ic)fou
r-vect
or;inth elatt
erc as
ei tbe l
ongstot heli
ghtcon e
(pic
tured).Diff
er
en ts
ignso fthefou r
-vectord enotediffe
rentcircular
po l
ar
izati
on s
,buti
nt he3 -
ve c t
orrepresentat
ionon es houldaccou nt
forthep ol
a r
iz
ati
onstatesep arat
e l
y;i
ta ct
u al
lyisas pinqu ant
um
numb er
. Inb ot
hca s
esthes p aceofp ossi
b l
ewa vevec t
orsisthree-
dimensi
o nal.

Thephot
onist
heg a
ugebosonf
orele
ctr
oma g
ne t
i
sm,[
13]a
nd
t
here
for
eall
o t
herquan
tumnumber
sof t
hephoton(s
uchasle
pton
nu
mb er
,bar
yonn u
mb e
r,an
dfla
vourquant
umn umber
s)arez
er [
o.1
4]

Photon
sareemit
tedinmanynatu
ralp r
ocesses.Forexa
mple,whena
char
geisaccel
er
atedite
mit
ssynchrotr
onra di
ati
on.Duri
nga
molecu
lar
,atomi
corn uc
lea
rtr
ansi
ti
ont oal owerener
gyleve
l, Theconeshowsp ossi
bleval
uesof
phot
onsofvari
ousenerg
ywill
bee mitt
ed,fromr a
diowavesto wave4-vect
orofap hoton.Gre
en
gammar a
ys.Ap h
otoncanals
ob ee mit
te
dwh enapart
icl
ean di
ts andi
ndigorepr
ese
n tl
eftandri
ght
corr
espondi
ngant
ipar
ti
cl
eareanni
hilat
ed(forexample
,elec
tron– pol
ari
zat
ion
posi
tr
onannih
il
at
ion).

I
ne mptyspac
e,t
hephotonmov
esatc(
thes
peedofl
ig
ht)a
ndit
sener
gyan
dmome n
tumarerel
at
edbyE =pc,
wherep i
sth
emagni
tu
d eoft
hemoment
umvect
orp.Thi
sder
iv
esfr
omthef
oll
owi
ngrel
at
iv
ist
i
crel
at
ion
,wit
h
m =0 [
1
:5]

Th
een
erg
yan
dmome
ntu
mofap
hot
onde
pen
don
lyoni
t
sfr
equ
enc
y(ν)ori
nve
rse
ly,i
t
swa
vel
eng
th(
λ):

whe
rek i
sth
ewavevec
tor(
whe
ret
hewavenu
mbe
rk =|
k|=2π/
λ),ω =2πν i
sth
ean
gul
arf
requ
enc
y,a
nd
ħ=h/2
πisther
edu
cedPlan
ckc
ons
tan
t[
.1
6]

Si
ncep poi
nt
sint
hedi
re
cti
ono
fth
eph
oton
'sp
ropa
gat
i
on,t
hema
gni
t
udeoft
hemome
ntu
mis

Thep h
o t
onal
socarr
iesspi
nangu
larmomen
tumthatdoesnotdependonit
sfr
equen
cy.[
17]Themagni
t
udeofi
t
s
spi
nis andth
ec omponen
tmea s
ure
dal
ongit
sdirec
tionofmoti
on,i
tshe
li
ci
ty
,mu s
tbe±ħ .The
setwo
possi
bl
eh el
i
ci
ti
es,ca
ll
edri
ght-
handedandl
ef
t-
handed,corre
spondtoth
etwopossi
blecir
cul
arpol
ari
zat
i
on
sta
tesofth
ep h
oton[
.18
]
Toill
ust
rat
et hesi
gn i
fi
c anceoftheseformulae,thea n
nihi
lat
ionofapa rti
clewithit
sa ntipart
ic
leinf r
ees pacemu s
t
re
su l
ti
nthec r
e a
ti
o no fatleasttwo phot
o nsforthefoll
owin greason .Int hecenterofma ssfra
me ,thec ol
li
din
g
ant
ipart
i
cleshaven on etmome n t
um, whereasas ingl
eph otona l
wa y sh a
smome n
tum( si
nceitisde t
ermined,as
weh aveseen,onlybyt heph oton'
sfrequencyorwa vel
e ng
th —wh i
c hc annotbez ero).He nce,con s
e r
v at
i
onof
mome nt
um( ore qui
v a
lentl
y,transl
ati
onalin
v a
riance)requir
e sthata tleasttwoph oton sarecreated,wi t
hz er
on e
t
mome nt
um.( Howe ver, i
tispos s
ibl
eifthesystemin t
eract
swi tha noth e
rpa rt
icl
eorf ieldforannihil
at
iont o
produceonep hoton,a swh enap osi
tronan n
ihil
at
e swithabou nda tomice lec
tron,itispos s
ibl
ef oro nl
yon e
photontob eemit
ted, asthen ucl
earCo ulombf i
eldbreakst rans
lation a
ls ymme t
ry.)Th ee ne
rgyoft het wo
photons
, o
r, e
q ui
valentl
y,thei
rf r
equency,ma ybede terminedfromc onservat
ionoff ou r
-mome ntum.Se e
n
anothe
rwa y,theph ot
onc anbec onsi
dereda sit
sowna nti
pa rt
icl
e.Th erev e
rseproc es s
,pairproduc t
ion,i
sthe
dominantme c
h a
nismb ywh i
chh ig
h-energyph ot
on ssucha sgammar ayslosee nergywh i
lepassi
n gthrough
matter[
19]
. Th atproc essistherevers
eof "annihi
lat
iontoon eph oton "a l
l
owe di nthee lect
ri
cf i
el
dofa na t
omic
nucl
eus.

Thecl
ass
ica
lfor
mu l
aeforth
ee ner
gyandmome nt
umofe le
ctr
oma gne
ti
cradi
at
ioncanbere-
expres
sedinter
ms
ofph
otoneven
ts.Forexample
,thepres
sureofe
lect
romagneti
cradi
ati
ononanobjectde
ri
vesfr
omt h
etrans
fer
ofph
otonmome n
tumpe runi
tti
mea n
du ni
tar
eatothatobje
ct,si
ncepres
sur
eisfor
ceperuni
tare
aa ndfor
ceis
th
echangei
nmo mentu
mp erunitt
ime[
.2
0]

Experimental checks on photon mass

Thep hoto
niscurr
entl
yunder
stoodtob estr
ic
tl
yma s
sl
ess,butthi
sisanex pe
ri
menta
lquest
i
on.Ifthephotoni
s
notas t
ri
ctl
yma s
sl
esspart
i
cle
,itwou l
dn otmovea tt
heex a
ctspeedoflighti
nvacuu
m,c.Itsspee
dwo ul
dbe
l
o weranddep e
ndo nit
sfr
equency.Rela
tiv
it
ywou ldbeun af
fec
tedbyth i
s;th
eso-cal
l
edspeedofligh
t,c,woul
d
thennotbetheact
u a
lspee
da twhic
hlightmoves,butacon s
tantofnat
urewh i
chist
hema x
imu mspeedthata
ny
objectcoul
dtheor
eti
cal
lyat
ta
ininspace-ti
me [
21]
. Th us,i
twou l
ds t
il
lbethespeedofspa
ce-ti
merippl
es
(grav
ita
ti
onalwavesandgra
vit
ons),buti
two ul
dn otbethespeedofph ot
on s
.

Ama s
si
veph ot
o nwou l
dh aveoth
e ref
fectsaswe l
l.Coulomb'sla
wwou ldbemodi f
i
edandthee l
ect
romagnet
ic
f
i
eldwouldhavea nextr
ap hysi
caldegreeoffreedom.Th es
ee ff
ect
sy i
eldmoresensit
i
veexperi
me nt
alpr
obesof
t
hephotonma s
sthanthef r
equencydepe ndenceofthespeedofligh
t.IfCou l
omb'sla
wisnote xac
tl
yv a
li
d,the
n
t
hatwoul
dc ausethepresenceofane l
ectri
cfi
e l
dinsi
deah ol
lowc onductorwheniti
ssubj
ectedtoane xt
ern
al
e
lect
ri
cfi
eld.Thi
sthusallowsonetote s
t Coulomb'sla
wt ove r
yh i
ghpre ci
si
on[2
2]
. An ul
lr
e s
ultofsuchan
e
xperi
ment h
ass etal
imitofm ≲ 1 −1
0 e4 V/ 2
c. [
23]

Sharperupp e
rli
mitshaveb eeno btai
nedine xp
eri
me nt
sde si
gnedt odetectef
fect
scausedbyt h
eg al
act
i
cv ect
or
potent
ial
.Althoug
ht hega l
acti
cv ect
orpo ten
ti
ali
sverylar
g ebecau set
h egal
acti
cma g
neti
cf i
el
de x
ist
sonve r
y
l
o ngl
engthscale
s,thema gneticfi
el
dison lyobser
vabl
eiftheph otonisma ss
less
.Incaseofama ssi
vephoton,
themassterm wou l
da f
fectt
h egal
acti
cplas
ma .Thef actth
a tnosuchef
fect
sares ee
nimpli
esan
upperbou ndontheph otonma s
sof m <3×10−27e V/c2
.[24
]T heg al
ac t
i
cvec t
orpote
nti
al c
analsobeprobed
dir
ectl
yb yme as
uringthetorquee xer
tedo nama gnet
i
zedr i
ng [
25]
. Su chme t
hodswe r
eu s
e dtoobtai
nthe
sharpe
ru pperli
mitof −
10 e18 V/ 2
c( t
hee quiv
ale
ntof1.07×10 a−27 tomicma ssuni
ts
)givenbytheParti
cl
eDa t
a
Group.[
26]

Thes
esha
rplimi
t
sfromthenon-
ob s
erv
ati
onofthee
ffe
c t
scaus
edbythega
lact
i
cve
ctorpot
ent
i
alh
avebeen
sh
owntobemo del
de pe
nden
t[27
]
. I fth
ep hot
onmassisgen
erat
edvi
atheHig
gsmecha
nis
mthent
heupp
erli
mit
ofm≲1 −1
0 e4 V/2
cf romthet
estofCoulo
mb'sla
wisv al
i
d.

Ph
oton
sin
sid
esuper
conduc
torsdodev
elo
pan on
zer
oef
fe
cti
ver
estma
ss;a
sar
esu
lt
,el
ect
roma
gne
ti
cfo
rce
s
be
comeshor
t-
ran
geins
idesu
pe r
con
duct
ors[
.2
8]
 See also: Supernova/Acceleration Probe

Historical development
Main article: Light

I
nmo sttheoriesuptothee ig
hteenthc ent
u ry,l
ightwa spictur
e dasbe i
ng
madeupofpa rti
cl
es.Sinc
epa rti
clemode l
sc a
n noteasi
lya ccountforthe
r
efr
act
io n,dif
fract
i
ona ndbiref
ringen ceoflight
,wa v
et heori
esofl i
ght
wer
ep ropos edbyRe néDe s
cartes( 1637) [
2 9
]
, Robe rtHook e
(
1665) [3
0
, a ] ndCh ri
st
ianHu ygens( 1678) [3
; h1] owe ver,part
iclemod e
ls
r
emaineddomi nan
t,chi
efl
ydu etot hei n
fl
ue nceofI saacNe wt on[32
. I] n
Thoma sYoung'sdouble-
sl
it
experi
mentin1805sh owedthat t
heearl
yn i
neteent
hc en
tur
y ,Thoma sYou nga ndAu gustFresnelcl
e arl
y
l
ightcanactasawa ve ,h
elpi
ngto de
mon str
a t
edt heint
erf
erencea n
ddi ff
rac
tionofl ig
htandby1850wa ve
model
swe rege n
eral
lyaccepte [
33
d. I ] n1865,J amesCl erkMa xwe l
l
's
defea
tearl
yp a
rti
clet
h eor
iesof
pr
edi
cti [3
on t4]h a
tli
ghtwasa ne l
ectroma gn e
ticwa ve—wh ichwa s
l
ight.
co
nfi
rme de xperi
me nt
al
lyin1888byHe i
nrichHe r
tz'
sde tec
ti
onofr adi
o
wave[35]
s —s eeme dtobet hefi
nal blowt opa rti
clemode lsof l
ight
.

TheMa xwellwa vet h

e ory,howe ver,d oesnot
accoun tf
orall properti
e sofli
ght.Th eMa x
we l
l
theoryp r
edi
ctst hatthee nerg
yof alightwave
dep e
n dsonl
yo nitsin
te nsi
ty,notoni t
sf r
equency;
neverthel
ess
,s everali
n de pe
nd enttypesof
experiment
ss ho wt ha
t theene r
gyimp art
edb y
l
ighttoa t
omsd ependso nl
yo nthelight'
s
fr
equ ency,noto nitsi
n t
e nsi
t
y. Fore xample,some
chemicalreact
io nsarepr ovoke don l
ybyl igh
tof
fr
equ encyhi
gh erthanac ert
ainthreshold;li
ghtof
fr
equ encyl
owe rthanth ethre
s hol
d, noma tt
er In19 00,Ma xwe l
l'
st heoret
ic a
lmod elofli
ghtaso sci
ll
ati
ng
howi ntens
e,d oesn otiniti
at
et hereaction. el
ectricandma gneticfi
eldss eeme dcompl e
te.Ho wever,
Simil
arly,e
lectronsc anb ee j
ectedfro mame t
al severalobservati
onsco uldn otb eexp l
ai
nedbya nywa ve
plat
eb ys h
ini
ngl i
g htofsu f
fi
ci
e nt
lyhighf r
equency mod elofe l
ectroma gnet
icra di
a t
ion,lea
d i
ngtot heideatha
t
onit(thephoto el
e ct
ri
ce ffect
);theen ergyofthe l
ight-energywa sp ackagedi ntoquanta descri
be dbyE=hν .
eject
ede le
ctr
o nisr el
atedo nlytothel i
g h
t'
s Laterexp er
ime nt
ss howe dth attheseli
ght-quantaals
o
fr
equ ency,nottoi t
sintensit
y[
.36][
N ote3]
carrymo mentuma n d,thus,ca nbeco nsidere
dp arti
cle
s:
thephoton co nceptwa sbo rn,leadingtoad eeper
Att hesamet i
me,i
nvest
igati
onso fblackbody understandi
ngoft h ee l
ectr
ica ndma gnet
icfiel
ds
radiati
onc ar
ri
edoutoverfourde cades(1860– thems el
ves.
19 00)b yvari
ousr
esear
che r[3
s c7] ulminat
edin
Ma xPlanck'
shypot
hesi
s[4
][38]t
h attheenerg
yo f
any s y
stemthatabs
orbsore mitsel
e ctr
oma g
neti
cra di
ati
onoffr
equenc
yν isanint
egermul
tipleofanene
rgy
qua ntu
mE=hν. AsshownbyAl be
r tEin
stei
n[
,5]
[39
] someformofener
gyqu a
nti
zat
ionmust bea s
sumedto
acc ountfort
hethe
rmalequ i
l
ibri
umob serv
edbe t
we enma t
teran
de l
ect
romagnet
icradi
at
ion
;f orthi
sex
plana
ti
on
of thepho t
oel
ect
ri
ceff
ect,Einst
e i
nre cei
vedthe1921Nobe lPr
iz
einphysi
cs[
.40
]

Si
ncetheMaxwe l
lt
heor
yo fl
i
g h
ta l
l
owsforall
possibl
eene rg
iesofe l
ect
romagnet
icradi
a t
ion,mostphysi
ci
st
s
ass
umedini
ti
al
lyt
hatt
heenergyquanti
zat
i
o nr
esul
t
edf roms omeu nknownc on
stra
intont h
ema t
te
rthatabs
orbs
oremi
tsth
eradia
ti
on.I
n19 05,Eins
tei
nwa st
hefi
rsttoproposetha tene
rgyquant
izati
onwa sapr ope
rtyof
el
ect
romagne
ti
cradi
ati
onit
sel
f[5]
. Al t
houghheacce
pt edt
h evali
dit
yofMa xwel
l
'stheory,Ein
s t
ei
npointe
dou t
thatmanya nomalousexperi
me nt
sc oul
db ee xpl
ain
ediftheenergy ofaMa x
we l
li
anli
g h
twa vewe rel
oc a
li
zed
i
n t
op oi
n t
-l
ikequantathatmo v
ein depen
de nt
lyofonea nother
,evenifthewa vei
tsel
fisspreadconti
nuousl
yov er
space [
5
.I] n190 [
3
9 a9] nd19 16 [
41]
, Ei ns
tei
ns howedt hat
,ifPlan
ck'slawofblack-bodyr adi
ati
onisaccepte
d,
theenergyquantamu stal
soc a
rrymo me n
tump=h/λ,ma kingthemf u
ll
-f
ledgedpa r
ti
cl
e s
.Th i
sph ot
onmome ntum
wa sobservedexperimenta
ll[4
2
y b] yArthurCompt on,forwh i
chh erecei
vedtheNobe lPrizein1927.The
pivot
alquesti
onwa sthen:howt ou ni
f
yMa xwe l
l
'swa v
et h
e or
yofl i
ghtwit
hitsexperi
me nt
a l
l
yobs e
rve
dpa rti
cle
natur
e?Th ea n
swe rtothi
squ e
sti
o noccupiedAlbertEinst
e i
nfortheres
tofh i
sli
fe[43
]
, a ndwa ssol
vedin
quantume l
ectr
odyn ami
csa ndit
ss ucce
ssor,theStandardMode l
(seeSe con
dqu anti
zat
iona ndTheph ot
ona sa
gaugeb oson,bel
ow) .

Early objections
Einst
ein'
s1 905p redict
ion swe reve ri
fi
ede x
pe r
ime nta l
l
yin
severalway sinthefi
rsttwod e cadesofthe20 thc entury,as
recountedinRo bertMi ll
ikan'sNo b ell
ectur
e [4
4 ]
. Howe ver,
beforeCo mp ton'
se xperime n[42
t s] howingthat photon sc a
rri
ed
mome n t
ump r
o port
i
on altot heirwav enumbe r(orfre quency)
(1922),mo stp hy
sici
stswe rere l
uct
a nt
tobe l
ieveth at
ele
c t
roma gneti
cradiati
oni tsel
fmi g
h tbepa r
ti
culate.(Se e,for
examp l
e, t
heNo bellect
u reso fWie n[37
]
, Pl anc [
3
k a8] n
d
Mill
ikan [
44
. )] .In
stead,the rewa sawi despreadbe li
e fthatener
gy
quanti
zati
onr esul
tedfroms omeu nknownc on s
traintont he
ma t
terthatabsorbso re mitsradiat
ion.At t
it
udesc ha ngedov er
ti
me .Inpart,thechangec anb etracedtoe xperime ntssuchas
Comp t
ons catt
eri
ng,wh ereitwa smu chmor edi f
fi
c ultnotto Upt o1 923,mos tph ysi
cist
swe rer elucta
nt
ascri
beq uan t
i
zati
ont olight i
ts
e l
ftoe xpl
aintheobs erv ed t
oa c ce ptthatli
gh titse
lfwa squa nti
zed .
resul
ts[
.45] Inst
e ad ,theyt r
iedtoe xplai
np hoton
behav iorbyq uanti
zingon lymatter,a sin
Evenaft
erComp t
on'sexper
imen
t,Niel
sBohr
,He n
drikKrame r
s t
h eBoh rmo d elofth ehyd r
ogena tom
andJohnSla
termadeo nela
stat
te
mp tt
opres
ervethe (shownhe re)
.Ev enthoug hthese
Ma xwel
li
ancont
inu
ou sel
ect
romagn
eti
cfi
el
dmo delofli
ght
,th
e semic lassi
c a
l mo delswe reonlyaf ir
s t
so-c
a l
l
edBKSmo del[4
6]
. Toa ccountf
ort
hedatathenavai
l
able, appro ximation,th eywe rea ccur
atef or
t
wod r
ast
i
ch y
p ot
heseshadtobemade: si
mpl es ys
temsa ndt heyledtoq uantu m
me cha nics.
1.Energy and momentum are conserved only on the
average in interactions between matter and
radiation, not in elementary processes such as absorption and emission. Thi
sal
lowsoneto
reconc i
lethed isco nt
in
uousl
yc hangingenergyoft h
ea t
om( j
u mpbe tweene nergystat
es)wit
hth
e
conti
nu ousr el
ea seo fener
gyintor a
d i
at
ion.
2.Causality is abandoned. Fore xample,spontaneou semissi
onsa reme r
elye missi
onsi
n du
cedbya
"vi
rtual"el
e ct
roma gneti
cfi
eld.

However,r
efi
nedCo mp t
onexperi
mentsshowedthatenergy
-moment
umi sconser
vedextra
ordin
aril
ywelli
n
el
ement
aryproces
ses;andalsoth
atthejol
ti
ngofth
ee l
ect
ronandt
hegenerat
ionofanewph otoninCompton
sc
att
eri
ngobeycausal
it
ytowi t
hi
n1 0p s
.Accordi
ngl
y ,Bohrandhi
sco-worke r
sgaveth
eirmodel"ashonor
abl
e
afun
erala
sp os
sibl
e"[4
3]
. Ne ver
the
les
s,thefai
l
ure
soft heBKSmode li
nspir
edWe r
nerHe i
sen
berginhis
deve
lopmentofmatr
ixme ch
anic
s.[
47]

Af
ewph
ysi
ci
st
spe
rsi
st
ed[
48]i
nde
vel
opi
ngs
emi
cl
ass
ica
lmode
lsi
nwh
iche
lec
troma
gne
ti
cra
dia
ti
oni
snot
Af ewp h ysi
ci
st
sp er
si
ste
d[48
]ind ev e
lopi
ngsemiclass
icalmodel
sinwh i
chelec t
romagn eti
cradi
a t
i
oni snot
quanti
zed ,butmatt
erappear
stoo beythela
wsofqu antu
mme chanics.Althought h
ee videnceforphotonsfr
om
chemical andphysi
calex
peri
me ntswa soverwhelmingbythe1970s ,t
h i
se v
ide ncecou l
dn otbec onsi
deredas
absolutely def
i
nit
i
ve;si
nceitre
li
e do nthein
tera
c t
ionofli
ghtwit
hma t
ter,as u
ffi
c i
ent
lycompl i
catedtheoryof
matterco ul
dinp r
inc
ipl
eaccountfo rt
h eevi
dence.Ne ver
thel
ess
,all s
e micl
assicalt
heorieswe r
er ef
uted
defi
nit
ivelyinth
e1 970sand198 0sbyp h
oton-corre
lat
ionexper
imen t
s.[Not
e4 ]He nc
e ,Einst
ein
'sh y
pothesi
sth
at
quanti
zationisaproper
tyofli
ghtitsel
fisconsi
deredtobepr oven
.

Wave–particle duality and uncertainty principles

See also: Wave–particle duality, Squeezed coherent state, and Uncertainty principle

Photons,li
keallquan
tumo bj
ec t
s,exhi
bi
t bothwa ve-l
i
kea ndpa rt
icl
e-li
kepr ope rti
es.Th e i
rdu al wa ve–parti
cle
nat
urec anbed i
ff
icul
tt
ov i
sual
ize.Thepho t
ondisplayscle
a r
lywa ve-l
ikeph en ome nas ucha sdiff
rac t
iona nd
i
nter
ferenceonthelengt
hs ca
leo fi
tswave l
engt
h.Fore xample,as i
ngleph otonpa ssi
n gthrou ghadou ble-sl
it
exper
ime ntl
andsonthes c
reene x
h i
bi
ti
nginterf
erencephenome nabu ton lyifn ome asu r
ewa sma deo nt heactual
sl
i
tbe i
ngr unacros
s.Toa ccountf
orthep art
icl
eint
e r
pret
ati
ont hatphe nome n oni sca l
ledpr oba bil
it
ydi str
ibut
ion
butbehav e
sa c
co r
din
gtoMa xwell
'sequati
ons[49
]
. Howe ver
,e xperi
me n t
sc on fir
mt ha tth
eph otoni snot as hort
pul
seof elect
romagnet
icradi
ati
on;itdoesnotspreadou tasitpropag at
e s,nordoe si tdividewh enit encounter
s
abeams pl
it
ter[
50]
. Ra the
r,th
eph otonseemst obeapoi nt-l
i
kepa r
ti
cles incei tisabs orbedore mit
tedas a
whole bya r
bit
rari
l
ysma l
lsys
tems, sy
ste
msmu chs mall
erthanit
swa v el
e ngth,s ucha sa na tomicn u
c l
eu s(≈10−15
ma cr
os s)oreventhepoint
-l
ikeelect
ron.Ne ver
theles
s,thephotonisnot apoi nt-l
ikepa rticlewh os etraj
e ct
ory
i
sshap edp r
obabil
i
sti
cal
lybythee l
ectr
oma gnet
icfi
e l
d,ascon c
e i
vedbyEi n steina n
dot hers;thath ypoth e
siswa s
al
sorefutedbythep hot
on-corre
lat
ionexp e
riment
sc it
edabov e.Ac c
or dingt oou rpre sentu nderstanding,the
el
ectr
o ma g
neti
cfie
ldit
sel
fisproducedbyp ho t
ons,wh i
chinturnresultfromal ocalg auges ymme tr
ya n dthe
l
awso f quant
umf i
el
dtheory(seetheSeco ndquantiz
ati
ona ndGa ugebos ons ecti
on sbe l
ow) .

Ak eyelementofqu
antummechani
csisHe isenberg'
suncer
tai
ntypri
nci
ple,whichforbi
dsthesi
mu l
tan
eous
me a
surementoft
heposit
i
onandmome nt
umofapa rt
i
cleal
ongthesamedi r
ecti
on.Re marka
bly,th
eu n
cert
ai
nty
pri
nci
pleforch
arged,mate
ri
alpar
ti
clesrequires t
hequant
izat
i
onofligh
tintophotons,andeventhefr
equency
dependenceoft
hepho t
on'
senerg
ya ndmome ntum.Ane l
eganti
ll
ust
rat
ionisHe i
senberg'
sth
oug h
texperi
ment
forl
ocati
nganele
ctr
onwi t
hanidealmicr
osco pe [
51]
. Th eposi
ti
onofthee l
ectr
onc anbede t
erminedt
owi t
hi
n
th
er es
olvi
ngpowerof t
hemic
roscope,wh i
chi sgi
v e
nbyaf ormul
afromc la
ssi
caloptics

wh er
e i st
hea per
tur
ea n
g l
eofthemi cr
oscope.Thus,t
hepos i
ti
onu ncert
aint
y canbema dearbi
t
rari
l
y
sma l
lbyredu
cingthewaveleng
thλ .Themome ntumofthee l
ect
ronisu n
c ert
ai
n,sincei
trecei
veda"kick"
f
romt heli
ghtsc
att
erin
gfromitint
ot hemicros
cope.Ifli
ghtwerenot quanti
zedintophotons
,theuncer
tai
nt
y
couldbema dearbi
tra
ri
lysmallbyreduci
ngt h
eligh
t'
sint
en s
it
y.Inthatcase,si
ncethewa vel
engthan
dinte
nsi
tyof
l
ightcanbevari
edindependent
ly,onec ou
ldsimult
aneous
lydetermi
net h
epos it
ionandmome ntumtoarbi
tra
ri
ly
hi
g haccur
acy,vi
ola
tin
gtheu nc
ertai
ntypri
ncipl
e.Byc ont
rast
,Einst
ei
n '
sformulaforphotonmome nt
umpreserv
es
t
h euncer
tai
nt
yp ri
nci
ple;s
inceth
eph o t
onisscatt
ere
da nywherewithi
nthea pertu
re,th
eu nc
ert
a i
nt
yof
mome ntu
mt r
ansfe
rredequal
s
gi
vi
ngthepr
oduct , whi
chisHe i
sen
berg
'su
nce
rtai
nt
y
pr
inci
pl
e.Th
us,t
hee n
ti
rewor
ldi
squ a
nti
zed;bot
hma t
te
randf
ie
ldsmust
obeyacons
is
ten
tsetofqu
ant
umlaws,if
eit
heroneist
obequant
iz
ed. ]
[5
2

Th
ea na
log
ousuncert
ai
ntypr
in
cipl
eforphot
on sf
orbi
dsthes
imul
tane
ous
meas
urementoft
henumber of pho
tons(seeFocksta
teandth
e
Se
condq u
anti
zat
i
ons e
cti
onbel
ow)inane l
ect
romagnet
i
cwa veandthe
ph
ase of th
atwa v
e

Se
ecoh
ere
nts
tat
ean
dsqu
eez
edc
ohe
ren
tst
at
eformor
ede
tai
l
s.

Bothp hotonsandma teri

alpa rti
clessuc ha selec t
ronsc rea t
ea nal
ogous
i
nterf
erencep at
ternswh e
npa ssingthroug had ouble-sli
te xperi
me nt
.For
photons,th
isco r
respondstot h einter
ferenc eof aMa x we l
lli
ghtwa ve He i
senbe r
g'sth ou ghtex perime nt
wh er
eas,forma t
erialpar
ti
c l
es,t hi
sc orrespon dstot hei nterf
erenceofthe forloca t
inga ne lectr
on( showni n
Schrödingerwa v
ee quati
on .Al t
h oughthiss i
mi l
ari
tymi g htsuggesttha
t blue)wi thahi gh -res
olu ti
on
Ma xwe l
l
'seq u
a t
i
o nsaresimp l
ySc hrödinge r
'se qua t
i
onf orph otons,most gamma -raymi cr oscope .The
physic
ist
sd on otagree[
.5
3][54]Fo ron eth i
ng ,theya rema t
hema ti
cal
ly i
n comi ngg ammar ay(s howni n
dif
fere
nt;mo stobviousl
y,Sc hröding e
r'so nee qu at
ions olvesfora green)iss catt
e redbyt hee lectron
comp l
exfiel
d ,whereasMa x we l
l'sfoure quati
on ss ol
v eforr ealf
iel
ds. upin tothemi c roscope '
sa perture
Mo regenerall
y,thenorma lcon cept ofaSc hröding e
rpr oba bi
li
tywa ve angleθ .Th esca tteredga mmar ay
funct
ioncannot beapp l
i
edt op hotons [
55]
. Be ingma ssless,theycannotbe i ss ho wni nred.Cl assi
c alopt i
cs
l
o cal
iz
edwi thoutbein
gde stroye d;technicall
y, photon sc annothavea showst hatthee lectronpo si
tion
posit
ioneigenst
ate , and, t
h us,then orma lHe i
senbe rgu ncer
tai
nty can be resol
v ed o nl
y up t
o an
pri
ncipl
e doe snot pertaintoph ot
on s.Af ews ubsti
tu
te unce r t
aintyΔxt h a
tde pe ndsonθ
[56][
57][
58][
59]b andt hewa vel
en g t
hλo fthe
wa vefunct
ionshaveb eens ugge st
edf ortheph oton , ut
i
n comi nglight
.
theyhaven otcomei nt
og en e
ra luse.Instead, ph ysi
cistsg ener
all
ya cce
pt
thesecond-quanti
zedtheoryo fp hotonsde scribedbe l
ow,qu antum
el
e ct
rodynamics,i
nwh i
chp hoto nsa r
equ anti
zede xci
tati
on sofe l
ectr
omagne
ti
cmode s.

Bose–Einstein model of a photon gas

Main articles: Bose gas, Bose–Einstein statistics, Spin-statistics theorem, and Gas in a box

In19 24,Satyendr
aNa thBo sed eri
vedPlanck'slawofblack-bodyr adiat
ionwit
houtusi
nga n
y
el
e ct
roma g
neti
sm,bu tratheramo di
fi
cati
onof coarse-gr
ai
nedc ou nt
ingofph asespace[60
]
. Ei nst
einshowedthat
t
h i
smod if
icat
ioni
se qu i
valenttoassumingtha
t photonsareri
gorou sl
yide nti
calandt
hatiti
mpli
eda" my s
ter
iou
s
non-l
o c
a li
nt
e r
act
ion"[
,6 1
][6
2]n owu nder
stooda stherequi
remen tforas y
mme tr
icquant
umme c
ha ni
cals
tat
e.
Thiswo rkledtothec onc e
p tofcoherentst
at
e san dthedev
e l
opme ntofthelaser
.Inthesamepa pers
,Eins
tei
n
extendedBo se'
sforma li
smt oma t
e r
ialpar
ti
cl
e s(bosons)an
dpr e dic
tedt hatthe
ywou l
dc ondens
ei nt
othei
r
l
o westquantumstat
ea tlowe noughtempe r
atures;thi
sBose–Einstei
nc ondensa
ti
onwa sobserve
d
experi
me nt
all
yin199 [6
5. I3] twasl a
terusedbyLe neHautos l
ow,a ndt hencomple
tel
ys t
op,li
ghtin1999[
64]

and2 001.[
65]

Themodernvi
ewo nt
hi
sist
hatphoton
sare,byv
ir
tueoft
hei
ri
nte
gerspi
n,boson
s(asoppos
edtof
ermi
onswi
th
ha
lf
-in
teg
erspi
n)
. Byt
hespi
n-st
ati
st
ic
sthe
or e
m,al
lboson
sobeyBose
–Einst
ei
nstat
i
sti
cs(wh
ere
asal
lfe
rmi
ons
obeyFer
mi-Di
racst
at
is
ti
cs)
.[
66]
Stimulated and spontaneous emission
Main articles: Stimulated emission and Laser

In19 16,Einst
einshowe dth a
tPl anck's
radiat
ionlawc oul
dbede ri
vedf roma
semi-clas
sica
l,st
ati
stic
altreat
me n tof
ph ot
onsa ndatoms, whichimpliesa
rela
tionbetweenther at
esa twh ich
atomse mitanda bsorbph oto
n s.Th e
conditi
onfoll
owsf r
o mthea ssump t
ion
thatli
ghti
se mit
teda ndab s
orbe dby
atomsi ndependent
ly,andth a
tth e
thermalequil
i
b r
iumisp rese
r v
e db y
i
nteracti
onwi t
ha t
oms .Con si
d era St
imu l
at
ede miss
ion(inwh i
chph oto
ns" clone"themselves
)wa s
cavit
yintherma le
qu i
li
bri
uma ndf i
ll
ed pr
e di
cte
db yEinstei
ninh i
skineti
ca nal
ys i
s,andl e
dtot he
withelect
roma gnet
icradiat
iona nd devel
opmentofth ela
ser.Einst
ein'sderi
vati
o ninspi
redfurther
atomst hatcanemita n
da bsorbt ha t devel
opmentsinthequ a
n t
um treatmento fli
ght,whichl e
dt othe
radiat
ion.Thermaleq ui
l
ibri
umr e quir
es st
ati
sti
cali
nter
pretat
ionof quant
u m m e
ch anics.
thattheenergydensity of
ph ot
onswi t
hfrequency ( wh i
chi spropor
ti
onaltothei
rn umbe rdensi
ty)is,ona vera ge,constantintime;hence
,
therateatwh i
chp hotonsof anyp ar
ti
cul
arf
requ e
ncya r
eemitted mu ste qual t
herateofabsorbing t h em.[
67]

Ei
nst
ei
nbeganbypos
tula
ti
ngsi
mp l
epropo r
ti
ona
lit
yre
lat
i
onsf
orthedif
fe
rentrea
cti
onrat
esin
vol
ved.Inh
is
model
,t
herat
e f
oras y
ste
mt oabsorb aphot
onoffr
equ
ency a ndtr
a n
sit
i
onfromalowerener
gy t oa
hi
ghe
rener
gy i sproport
i
onalt
othen umber ofa t
omswit
he n
ergy a ndtotheener
gydensi
t
y of
ambi
entph
oton
swit
hthatfr
equen
cy,

where i
sth
erateconst
antf
orabs
orpti
on.Forth
er e
vers
eproce
ss,t
her
earetwoposs i
bi
li
ti
es:
spon
taneou
s
emis
si
onof aphot
on,a
n daret
urntot
helower-en
ergyst
atet
hati
sin
it
iat
edbyt
heint
erac
tionwithapas
sin
g
phot
on.Fol
lowi
ngEins
tein
'sappr
oach
,thecorr
espondi
ngrat
e f
ortheemi
ss
ionofphotonsoffr
equ
ency
andtr
ansi
t
ionfr
omah i
g h
erener
gy t oalowerenerg
y i s

wh er
e i
stheratecon s
tan
tforemitt
in
gaph otonspontaneou
sly
,and i
stherat
ec onst
antf
oremit
ti
ngiti
n
r
e spons
etoambientphotons(i
nd u
cedors t
imul
at
e demissi
on).I
nther
mody namicequi
libr
iu
m,thenumberof
atomsinst
at
ei a
ndt hatofato
msi nstat
ejmu s
t,ona v
erage,beconst
ant;henc
e,therates an
d mustbe
equal
.Also,byar
gume ntsanal
og o
ustothederi
vati
onofBol t
zmannsta
ti
s t
i
cs,t
her at
i
oof a nd i s
where a rethede g
e n
eracyoft
hes t
ateiandthatofj,r
espect
iv
ely
,
t
h ei
rener
gi
es,ktheBol t
zmannc onst
antandTthes y
stem'ste
mpe r
atu
re.Fromth i
s,i
tisreadi
l
yde r
iv
edthat
a nd

Th
eAa
ndBsa
rec
oll
ect
i
vel
ykn
owna
sth [
eEinstein coefficients.6
8]
Einst
ei
nc oul
dn otful
l
yjusti
fyhi
srateequati
ons,bu tcl
aimedthatitshoul
dbepos si
bletocal
c ul
atethe
coeff
ic
ient
s , a nd oncephysici
st
sh adobta i
ned"me chani
csandelec
trodynami
c smodi f
iedt o
accommo datet
h equantumh y
po t
hesi
s"[69
]
. I nfac t
,in1926,Pa ulDiracder
ivedthe rat
ec on s
tantsinusin
ga
semicl
ass
icalapproach[
,70
]a n
d, i
n1927, suc
cee dedinde r
ivi
ngall t
herat
ec ons
tantsf
romfirstpri
n c
ipleswithi
n
thefr
amewo rko fquant
umt heor
y.[
71]
[72
] Dir
ac'swor kwa sthefoundati
onofquantume l
ect
rody namics,i.
e.,t
he
quanti
zat
i
ono fthee l
ect
roma g
neti
cfie
ldit
self
.Dir a
c '
sapproachisa l
socal
le
dsecond quantization orqu an
tum
fi
eldth
eory;[
73]
[74]
[75
] e
arl
ierquant
umme chan
ica l
treat
me nt
sonlytreatmat
eria
lparti
cl
esasqu an t
um
me ch
anic
al,nottheelect
romagneti
cfi
eld.

Einst
ei
nwa stroubl
edbyt hef actthathi
stheoryseemedincompl et
e,si
nc eitdidnotde t
e r
minethedirection ofa
spontaneo
u s
lyemit
tedph ot
on .Apr obab
il
is
ti
cn at
ureofli
ght-parti
cl
emot ionwa sfir
stcon s
ider
edbyNe wtoni n
histr
eatmentofbi
ref
ringencea nd,mo regene
r al
l
y,oft
h espli
t
tingofli
ghtbe a msatinte
rfacesi
ntoatransmi t
ted
be a
ma ndar ef
l
ectedb eam. Ne wto nhyp
othesi
zedthathi
ddenv ar
ia
blesint heli
ghtpart
icl
ede t
erminedwh i
ch
pa t
hitwouldfol
l
o [32
w. Si] mil
a rl
y,Einst
ei
nh opedforamor ec omplet
et heorythatwou l
dl eav
en ot
hingto
chance,begi
nni
nghissepa r
ati [4
3
on f] r
omq ua
n t
umme c h
anics
.I roni
cal
l
y ,Ma xBorn'sprobabil
i
sti
cinter
pr et
a t
ion
of t
hewa vefun
cti
on[76
][7
7] wa sinspir
edbyEi ns
tei
n'
slate
rwor ksear
chingf oramor ec omplet
etheory.[
7 8]

Second quantization
Main article: Quantum field theory

In19 10,Pe
terDebyede r
ivedPlanck'
slawofbl ac
k-bodyra di
ationfr
om
ar el
at
ive
lysi
mp l
eassumpti
on [
79]
. Hec orr
ectl
yde composedt h
e
el
e ct
romagn
eti
cfiel
dinac avi
tyin
toit
sFo uri
ermode s,andassume dthat
theenerg
yinanymo dewa saninteg
ermu lt
ipl
eof ,wh er
e i sthe
fr
e que
ncyoftheel
ectromagnet
icmo de.Pla
nck'sla
wofbl ack-body
radia
ti
onfol
lowsimme di
ate
lyasag eome t
ri
csum.Howe ver
,De by e'
s
app r
oachfa
il
edtog i
vethecorrec
tformu l
afort
h eenerg
yfluctua
tionsof
blackbodyr
ad i
at
ion,whic
hwe rederi
ve dbyEinste
inin1909.[39
]

I
n19 25,Born,Heis
e nbe
rgandJ ordanrei
nte
r pret
edDe bye'
sc oncepti
n
akeywa y[80
]
. Asma ybeshownc lass
ical
l
y,th eFouri
ermode soft h
e
el
ect
romagneti
cfie
ld—ac omp l
etesetofel
e c
tr omagnet
i
cplan ewa ves
i
ndexedbytheirwavev e
ctork andp ol
ari
zat
ions t
ate—a r
ee qu i
val
entt
o Dif
ferentelectromagnetic modes
asetofunc
o upl
edsimpleharmonicosci
ll
at
o r
s .Treat
edqu a
n t
um (s
ucha sthos ede pi
ctedh ere)can
mechani
cal
l
y ,t
heenergylev
e l
sofsu c
ho sc
il
latorsareknownt obe betre
ateda sin depend
e ntsimple
,where istheo s
cil
lat
orfreq
u e
n cy.Theke ynews t
epwa s har
mo nico scil
lat
o r
s.Aph ot
on
t
oidenti
f
ya nelect
romagnet
icmo dewithenerg y asas t
ate corr
espond stoaun i
to fenergy
wit
h p hotons,eachofenergy . Thisappr oac
hg i
vesthec orr
ect E=hνinitse l
e ctr
oma gneti
cmo de.
ene
rgyfl
uct
u at
ionf
ormu l
a.

Dir
actookthisones t
epfurt
her
.[
71][
72]Het re
a t
edthei
n t
era
cti
onbetweenac har
gea n
da nele
c t
romagne
ti
cfi
el
d
asasmallpert
urbat
i
o nthati
nducestr
a ns
iti
onsinthephot
onstat
es,c
h a
ngingth
en umbersofphotonsi
nthe
modes,wh i
l
ec ons
ervin
ge ner
gyan dmo me nt
umov er
al
l.Dir
acwa sabl
etode r
iveEins
tei
n's and
coef
fi
ci
entsfr
o mfi
rstpri
nci
ples
,ands howe dthatt
heBos e
–Eins
tei
nstat
is
tic
sofphotonsisanatura
l
cons
equenceo fqua
n t
iz
ingtheel
ectromagneti
cfiel
dcorre
ctl
y(Bose'
sreasoni
ngwe nti
ntheoppos i
t
ed i
re
cti
on;
hederi
vedPlanck'
slawof blac
kb odyr adia
ti
onbyassuming B–Es t
ati
st
ics)
.InDirac'
sti
me,itwasnotyet
knownthatal
l bos
on s
,incl
udi
ngph ot
on s
, mustobeyBose–Ein
ste
insta
ti
sti
cs.
Dir
ac'ssecond-orderpe rtu
rba t
i
o nth
eoryc anin volvevi
rtualphoton s
,t ransientintermediatest
a t
esoft h e
el
ectr
o magnet
icfi
eld;thes t
aticelec
tri
can dma g neti
cint
e r
a ct
i
on sareme di
atedbys uchvir
tualphoto ns.Ins uch
quant
umf i
eldtheori
es,th eproba bi
l
it
yamp li
tudeofobs ervableev e
n t
si sc al
c ulate
dbys ummi n
gov erall pos s
ibl
e
i
nter
me di
atesteps,eveno n
est hatar
eun physi
c al
;h ence,vir
tualphoton sa ren otc onstrai
nedtos ati
sfy
,andma yh a
vee xtr
ap olari
zationst
ates
; depen dingonth eg a
u g
eu sed,v ir
tual photonsma yh avethre eorf our
pol
ari
za t
i
ons t
ates,i
nsteado f t
hetwos t
a t
esofr ealphot
on s.Althought h esetra ns
ientvirt
ualphoton sc anne ver
beobs er
ved,theycontributeme asur
ablytoth epr obabi
lit
iesofobs erva blee ve nt
s.Indeed,suchs ec ond-or der
andhigher
-orderp e
rturba t
i
o ncalcul
at
ionsc ang i
v eappa r
entl
yin f
ini
tec on t
ribu ti
onstot hesum.Su c hu nphy si
cal
resul
tsa recorrectedforu si
n gt hete chniqueofr en
orma li
za t
ion.Ot her
vir
tua lpart
icl
esma yc ontri
bu tetot h esumma ti
onaswe l
l;fore xampl e,
twop hotonsma yinteracti
n directlyt hr
ou ghvirt
ualel
ectron -positr
on
pairs [
81
. I] nfact,suchph oton -phot ons catt
ering
,aswe l
la se l
ectron-
pho t
o ns cat
te
r i
ng,isme anttobeon eoft hemode sofope rati
onsof
thep lannedpa r
ticl
ea ccele
ra tor,theI nternat
ionalLi
n earCol li
d e
r [
.82]

I
nmo der
nphysi
csnot
at
ion
,thequ
antums
tat
eoftheel
ect
romagn
eti
c
f
i
eldiswri
t
tenasaFockst
ate
,atens
orpr
oductoft
hest
ate
sforeac
h
e
lect
romagn
eti
cmode

wher
e re
pres
ent
st hestat
einwh i
ch ph otonsarei
nthe
Inquan t
umf iel
dt heory,the mode .I nthi
snot
ati
on ,th
ec r
eat
ionofan e
wph otoninmode
probabi
lit
yofa ne ventiscomp ut
ed (e
.g.
,emit
tedfr
oma natomictran
sit
ion
)iswrit
tena s
bys ummi ngthepr obabil
i
tyamp l
it
ude .Th i
snotat
i
onme rel
yex pr
e sse
sthecon
ceptof
(acompl exnumbe r
)fora l
lpossi
ble
Born
,He i
senber
gandJ ordandescr
ibedabove,anddoe snota
dda n
y
wa ysinwhi chthee ventcano ccur
,
phys
ics
.
asintheFe ynma nd i
agrams hown
here;t
h eprobabil
ityequalsthesquar
e
ofthemodul uso fthetotalampli
tude
. The hadronic properties of the photon
Me as
urementsofthei
nte
ract
ionbetweenen er
get
icphot
onsa n
d
h
adronsshowthatt
heint
erac
ti
oni smuchmoreint
ensethanexpect
edbyth ei
nter
act
ionofme re
lyphotonswi
t
h
t
hehadron'
sel
ect
ri
cc ha
rge.Furth
e r
more,
thein
ter
ac t
i
onofe ner
get
icphotonswit
hpr ot
onsissi
mil
artothe
i
nt
era
ctio
nof ph
otonswit
hn eu
tron [
83
s i]nspi
teofthefactt
hatth
eelec
tri
cc har
gestr
uc t
ure
sofprot
on sand
n
eut
ronsaresubs
tant
ia
ll
yd i
ff
ere
n t
.

Athe
orycal
le
dVe c
torMesonDomi
nanc
e(VMD)wa sde
vel
ope
dtoe x
plai
nth
ise
ff
ect
.Acc
ordi
ngt
oVMD,
t
hephot
onisas u
perpos
it
ionoft
hepu
reel
ect
roma
gne
ti
cphot
on(wh
ichin
ter
act
sonl
ywit
hel
ect
ri
cch
arg
es)a
nd
v
ect
ormeson.[
84]

However
,ifex
p e
ri
me nt
al
lyprobeda tve
ryshortdi
stanc
es,t
h ei
ntr
in
sicst
ruct
ureofth
ephotonisr
ecogni
zedasa
fl
uxofqu
arkandgluoncomp onent
s,quasi
-f
reeaccordi
ngtoa s
ymptoti
cfr
eedominQCDa nddescr
ibe
dbyt he
phot
onst
ruct
urefu
nc t
i
on.[
85]
[86
] Ac ompre
hensiv
ec ompari
sonofdatawit
htheore
ti
calpr
edic
ti
onsi
spresent
ed
i
narecentr
evi
ew.[8
7]

The photon as a gauge boson

Main article: Gauge theory
Theele
ctr
omagn e
ticf
iel
dcanb eunder
st
ooda sag
a ug
efiel
d,i.
e.
,asaf i
el
dt h
atre
s u
lt
sfromrequ
iri
ngth
a ta
gaug
es y
mme t
ryh ol
dsinde
pe n
de n
tl
yateve
ryposi
t
ioninspacet
ime [
88]
. Fort heel
ectr
oma g
net
icf
iel
d,t
hisg a
uge
symmetr
yisth
eAbe l
i
anU( 1)symmet
ryofacomplexnumber,whi
c href
le
c t
stheabi
li
tyt
ov ar
ythephas
eofa
comple
xn u
mb erwith
outaff
ecti
ngobser
vabl
esorr
ealval
uedfunct
ionsma defr
omi t
,suc
ha st
heenerg
yo rt
he
Lagr
angi
an.

Thequant
aofanAb eli
angaugefi
el
dmu stbema ssl
ess
,u nc
h argedbosons,aslongasthesymme t
ryisnot
br
oken;henc
e,thephotoni
spredict
edtob ema s
sle
ss,andt oh avezer
oe l
ectr
icc h
arg
ea ndin
tegerspi
n.The
par
ti
cul
arf
ormo fth
ee l
ectr
oma g
neti
cint
eract
ionspeci
fi
esth atthephot
onmu stha v
espin±1;thus
,it
sheli
ci
ty
mustbe . Thesetwos p
incompo ne
ntscorres
pondt othec las
sic
alconce
ptsofr i
ght
-handedandlef
t-h
anded
ci
rcu
lar
lypol
ari
zedli
ght
.Howe ver,t
hetr
ansie
n tv
irt
ualphoton sofquant
ume l
ec t
rodyn
amicsma yals
oadopt
un
p h
ysi
calpol
ari
zat
ionst
ates
.[
88]

Int
hep r
ev a
il
ingStandardMo delofphys
ics,t
heph otonisoneoff ourga ug
eboson sintheel
ectr
owea k
i
nter
acti
on;theothert
h reearedenote +
dW , −
W a n 0
dZ a ndareresponsibl
eforthewe akint
eract
ion
.Un l
iketh
e
phot
on,thesegaugeb osonsha v
ema ss,owingt
oame chani
smt h
a tbreaksthei
rSU( 2)gaugesymmetry.The
uni
fi
cat
ionof t
heph ot
o nwithW a ndZg augeboson sintheel
ectrowe akint
eract
i
onwa saccompli
shedby
Shel
donGl ashow,Ab dusSa l
ama ndSt e
venWe inbe r
g,forwh i
cht he
ywe r
ea wardedt h
e1979Nobe lPri
zei
n
phys
ics[
.8
9][
90][
91]Physici
stsconti
nuetohypoth
esizeg ra
ndu ni
fi
edt heori
esthatconnectthe
sefourgaugebosons
wit
htheeightgl
uong augeb osonsofquantu
mc hromody namics;howe ver,keypredict
ionsoft
hesetheori
es,
suc
ha sprot
o ndecay,h avenotbeenob s
ervedexpe ri
me nt
all
y[
.92]

Contributions to the mass of a system

See also: Mass in special relativity and General relativity

Theener
gyofasyste
mt hatemit
saph otonisdecreased bytheenerg
y oft heph ot
onasme asu
redintherest
fr
ameoftheemit
ti
ngsys
tem, whi
chma yr esul
ti
nar educti
oninma ssi
ntheamount .Simil
ar
ly,t
h emassof
asys
temthat
a bs
orbsaph oto
nisincreased byac orr
espondi
n gamount
.Asana ppli
cat
i
on,theenergybala
nce
ofnu
cle
arrea
c t
i
onsinvol
vingphot
onsisc ommo nl
ywr it
tenint
e r
msofthemassesofthenucl
eii
nvol
v e
d ,and
te
rmsofth
eform forthegammap hotons(
an dforothe
rr e
leva
ntene
rgi
es,suchasth
er ec
oilenerg
yof
n
ucl
ei
)[
.9
3]

Thi
sconcepti
sappl
ie
dink e
ypr edi
ct
ionsofquantu
me le
ctr
odyn
a mi
cs(QED,s eeabove)
.Inthatt
heory,t
he
massofel
ect
rons(
or,moregen e
ral
l
y,le
pt o
ns)i
smodi f
i
edbyincl
udi
ngthema s
sc ont
ri
but
ionsofvi
rtu
alphot
ons,
i
nat e
chni
queknownasrenormali
zat
i
on. Such"
radia
ti
vecorr
ect
ions
"contr
ibut
etoan umberofpredi
cti
onsof
QED, su
chasthemagne
ti
cd i
p ol
emo men t
ofle
ptons,t
heLambs hi
f
t,a
ndth ehyper
fi
nestru
ctur
eofbo u
nd
l
ept
onp ai
rs
,suchasmuoni
uma n
dp os
it
roniu [
m.9
4]

Sincephot
onsc on
tr
ibut
et othest
ress
-ener
gyten
sor,theyexertag r
avi
tat
ional at
tr
act
iononotherob j
ect
s,
accordi
ngtotheth
eoryo fgener
alre
lat
i
vit
y.Conversel
y,photonsarethemse l
vesaff
ectedbygravi
ty;t
heir
norma l
l
ystr
ai
ghttr
ajec
tori
e smaybeb en
tbywa r
pe dspaceti
me ,asi
ng r
av i
t
a t
ionall
ensin
g,andthe
irfre
quenci
es
mayb eloweredbymov i
ngt oahigh
ergrav
it
at
ionalpotent
i
al,asinthePou nd-Rebkae xper
iment
.Howe ver,
t
h e
see f
fec
tsarenotspeci
fi
ct ophot
ons;ex
act
lythesamee ff
ectswou l
dbepr e di
cte
df orcl
ass
ica
l
el
ectromagne
ti
cwa ves
.[9
5]

Photons in matter
See also: Group velocity and Photochemistry
Any'ex
pla
nati
on'of
howp hot
onstr
avelt
hroughma tt
erh a
stoe xpla
inwh ydiff
erenta
r r
angeme n
tsofma t
terar
e
t
rans
paren
toropaqueatdi
f
fer
entwavel
engths(l
ightt
h roughc ar
bona sdi amondornot,asg r
aph i
te)a
ndwh y
i
ndi
vidu
alphot
onsbehav
einth
es a
mewa ya slar
g egrou ps.Expl
a nat
ion sthati
nvoke'absorpt
ion'and're
-
emi
ssi
on'hav
etoprovi
deanexpl
anat
ionforthedirec
tion al
it
yoftheph otons(di
ff
ract
ion,re
fle
c t
ion)andfur
the
r
expl
ai
nhowe nt
angl
edphot
onpair
scantra
v elt
hroughma tt
erwithoutth eirquan
tumstatecoll
aps i
ng.

Thes i
mp l
estex pl
anati
onisthatli
ghtthatt
ravelsthr
ou ghtransparentma tt
erdoe ss oa talowe rspeedt hanc,the
speedo fli
ghtinav acuum.Ina ddi
ti
o n
,li
ghtc analsou ndergos cat
teri
nga nda bsor pti
on .Th erea r
e
cir
cums t
ancesinwh ichheattr
a ns
ferthr
oug hama teriali
smos tlyradia
tive,i
n vol
vin ge missi
ona nda bsorpti
onof
photonswithi
ni t
.Ane x
amplewou l
db einthec oreoft heSun .Energyc ant a
kea bou tami l
l
iony earstor ea
ch
thesurf
ace [
96]
. Ho we ver
,thi
sp henome n
o nisdist
inctfroms catte
redr adi
a t
ionpa ss in
gdi f
fu s
e l
yth r
oug hma t
ter
,
asiti
nvolveslocalequil
ibr
iu
mb etweenther adi
ati
ona n
dt hetempe rat
ure.Th us,th etimei sh owl ongittakesthe
energy t
ob etransfer
red,notthephotons thems e
lves.On ceinope nspac e
,aph ot onfromt h eSu ntake sonl
y
8.3minutestor ea
c hEarth
.Th efactorbywh i
chthes peedofl igh
tisde creasedinama teri
a liscall
edt he
ref
ract
iveindexo fthema t
eri
al
. Inac l
assi
cal wavepi ct
u r
e,thes l
owingc anbee xpl ai
n e
dbyt h eli
ghtinducin
g
elect
ri
cp ol
arizat
ioninthema t
ter,th
epo l
arizedma tt
e rradi
ati
n gnewl i
gh t
,an dthen ewl ig
h ti
n ter
feri
ngwi thth
e
ori
ginall
i
g htwa v
et oformad elayedwa ve.Inapa rti
c l
epicture,th
es l
owi ngc anin steadbede scr
ibeda sa
blendi
ngo ft
h epho t
onwi t
hq uantume xc
it
a t
ionofth ema tt
er(qu as
i-parti
clessucha sph onon sa nde xci
tons)to
formap o l
ar
iton;t
h i
spolari
t
onh a
san onzeroe ff
ecti
vema ss
,wh i
chme a n
st hati
tc a nnottra v
e latc.

Alte
rnati
vel
y,phot
onsmaybev i
ewedasalways t
rav
eli
ngatc,eve
ninma t
te
r,butt
heyhavethe
irph aseshi
ft
ed
(del
ayedora dv
anced)uponinte
ract
i
onwithat
omics c
att
ers
:thi
smodif
iest
hei
rwa v
elen
gthandmome ntu
m,bu t
notspeed[97
]
. Al i
ghtwavema deupofthe
seph ot
onsdoestr
avelsl
owerth
anthespeedofli
ght
.Inthisviewthe
photon
sa r
e" ba
re"
,a n
dares cat
te
redandphaseshi
ft
ed,whil
einth
ev i
ewoftheprece
dingpar
agrapht he
photon
sa r
e" dr
ess
ed"byt h
eirin
ter
act
ionwit
hma t
ter
,andmov ewit
houtsc
att
eri
ngorphaseshi
ft
in
g ,butata
l
o werspeed.

Li
ghtofdi
ff
er
entf
reque
nci
esmaytra
velth
rou
g hma t
te
ratdi
ff
ere
ntspeeds;t
hi
siscal
leddis
pers
ion
.Ins
ome
ca
ses,i
tcanre
sul
ti
ne x
tr
emelysl
owspeedsofli
ghti
nma t
te
r.Thee
ffec
tsofphotonin
ter
acti
onswit
hot
her
qua
si-
part
i
cle
smayb eobse
rveddi
rect
l
yinRama nscat
te
ri
ngandBril
l
ou i
nscat
ter
in
g.[
98]

Phot
onscanals
ob eabsorbedbynucl
ei
,atomsormolecules,provoki
ngtransi
ti
onsbetwe enthei
renergyl
evel
s.
Ac l
ass
icexa
mp l
eisthemo l
ecul
art
ran
sit
io
no fre
ti
nalC20H28O,wh i
chisresponsi
bleforvisi
on,asdiscov
eredi
n
1958byNo bell
aureat
ebiochemi
stGeor
geWa ldandco- worke r
s.Theabsorpti
onprov okesac i
s-tr
ans
i
someri
zat
io
nthat,i
nc ombin
ati
onwit
hothersuc
htran
sit
ions,istra
nsducedintonerv
eimpu lses
.Thea bsor
pti
on
ofphot
onscanevenb r
eakchemica
lbonds,asi
nthephotodissoci
ati
onofchlori
ne;thi
sisthesubjectof
phot
ochemi
str
y.[
99]
[10
0]An a
logou
sl
y,gammar a
yscanins omec ir
cumstan
cesdissocia
tea t
omicn uc
leii
na
proc
esscal
l
edp hot
od i
si
nt
e g
rat
ion
.

Technological applications
Phot on
sha v
ema nyappli
cat
ionsintec
hnol
ogy.Thes
eexampl
esarechos
entoil
l
ust
rat
eappl
ica
ti
onsofp
hot
ons
per se,r
athert
hangenera
l opt
i
c a
l de
vice
ssuchasle
nse
s,et
c.t
hatcoul
dopera
teunderacl
ass
ica
lth
eor
yofl
ig
ht.
Thel as
erisanext
remelyimporta
n ta
ppli
cat
i
ona n
disdi
scus
sedaboveunde
rsti
mul
a t
edemi
ssi
on.

In
divi
dua
lpho t
onscanbed et
ect
edb ysever
almet
hods.Theclas
si
cph otomult
i
pli
ertubeexpl
oi
tsthe
phot
oel
ectr
i
ce f
fect
:ap h
o t
onlan
dingoname ta
lpl
ateeje
ctsanelectr
on ,in
it
iat
i
nga never-
ampl
ifyi
ngaval
anche
ofel
ect
rons
. Char
ge-coupl
eddevic
ec hi
psuseasi
mila
reff
ectinsemicon duct
ors:a
nincide
ntphotonge
nerate
sa
char
geonami cr
oscopi
cc apa
cit
orthatcanbedet
ect
ed.OtherdetectorssuchasGe ige
rcount
ersuset
hea bi
li
ty
ofphot
onstoioni
zegasmo l
ecul
es,ca
u s
ingadet
ect
ablechan
geinc ondu ct
ivi
t
y.[
101]
Pl
anc
k '
sene
rgyformul
a i
so f
te
nusedbyen g
ine
ersandc h
e mis
tsindes
ign,bot
htocomputeth
e
ch
angeine
nergyresul
t
ingfr
omaph otonabs
orpt
i
ona ndtopredi
ctthefre
qu en
cyoftheli
ghte
mitt
edforagi
ven
en
erg
ytran
sit
ion
.Fo rexampl
e,thee mi
ssi
onspec
tru
mofaf luore
scentli
ghtbul
bcanbede si
gnedusi
nggas
mol
ecul
eswit
hd i
ff
erentel
ect
roni
ce ner
gylev
elsa
nda dj
ust
ingthety
picalenerg
ywithwh i
chanele
ctr
onhit
sth
e
ga
smolecu
leswit
hinthebul
b.[
N ot
e 5
]

Undersomec on
dit
ions
,anener
gytran
sit
i
oncanbee xci
tedby"t
wo"phot
onsthatindi
v i
duall
ywouldbe
i
nsuf
fi
ci
ent.Thi
sall
owsforhi
ghe
rresol
uti
onmicroscopy,becau
sethes
ampleabsorbse nergyonl
yint
heregi
on
wher
etwob e
amso fdi
ff
ere
ntcol
orsover
lapsi
gnifi
cant
l
y ,whi
chc a
nbemademu chs malle
rthanth
eexci
ta
ti
on
vol
umeofas i
ngl
eb eam(se
etwo-phot
one xc
it
ationmicrosc
opy).Mor
eover
,the
s eph otonscaus
eles
sdamage
t
othesamp l
e,si
ncethe
ya r
eofl
owe rener
gy[
.1
02 ]

Insomecase
s,t
woe ne
rgytra
nsi
ti
onsca
nbec oupl
eds
othat
,asonesyst
ema bs
orbsaphot
on,an
othernea
rby
sys
tem"st
eal
s"i
tse
nergyandre-
emit
sap h
otonofadi
f
fer
entfr
equen
cy.Thi
sist
hebasi
soffl
uor
esce
nc e
res
onanc
ee n
erg
ytran
sfer
,atech
niquet
hati
susedi
nmole
cula
rbiol
ogytost
udythei
nt
era
c t
i
onofsui
t
ab l
e
prot
ei
ns[
.1
03]

Seve
raldi
f
fer
entki
ndsofhardwarerand
omn umbergenerat
orinvol
vethedet
ect
ionofsi
ngl
ephot
ons.Inone
ex
amp l
e,f
oreachbi
tinth
era n
doms equencethati
stobepr oduced,aphot
onissentt
oabeam-spl
i
tte
r.Insu
ch
asi
tua
ti
on,th
erear
etwop ossi
bleout
come sofequalprobabi
li
ty
.Th eact
ual
outcomeisus
edtodete
rmine
whet
herth
en e
xtbi
tinth
es e
qu e
n c
eis"0"or"1"[
.10
4][
105]

Recent research
See also: Quantum optics

Mu chresea r
chhasbe endevote
dtoa ppl
icati
onsofphotonsinthefiel
dofquantumopt i
cs.Photonsse e
mwe l
l
-
suit
edtobee l
ementsof a
ne xt
remel
yfastqu a
ntumcompu ter
,andt hequant
ume nta
n g
leme ntofphotonsisa
focusofres e
arch.Nonli
nearopti
calpr
ocessesa r
eanotheracti
ver e
searchar
ea,withtopicssuchast wo-phot
on
absorpt
ion,s e
lf
-phasemo dul
ati
on,modulat
ionali
nst
abi
li
tyandopt ical
paramet
ricosci
ll
ators.Howe ver,suc
h
processesg en
eral
l
ydon otr
equir
ethea s
sumptionofphotonsper se;th
eyma yoft
enbemode l
edbyt reat
in
g
atomsa snon l
i
nearosci
ll
ator
s.Then o
nli
nearprocessofspontaneouspa r
ametr
icdownc onvers
ioniso f
tenuse
d
toprodu cesing
le-
p h
o t
onstat
es.Fi
nall
y,pho t
onsareessent
iali
ns omea s
pect
sofopt i
cal commu n
icati
on,
especia
ll
yf orquant
umc rypt
o g
raphy[
.Not
e 6
]

See also

AdvancedPh otonSourc
eat
Arg
onn
eNa
ti
ona
lLa
bor
ator
y
Bal
li
st
icphoton
Dopplershi
f
t
El
ectr
oma gneti
cradi
at
ion
HEXITEC
Lase
r
Li
ght
Lumin
if
e r
ousa et
her
Medipi
x
Phonons
Phot
onc ount
ing
Phot
onp ol
ari
z at
i
on
 Phot
ogra
phy
Phot
oni
cs
Quant
umo pt
i
cs
St
ati
cfor
cesandvi
rt
ual
-pa
rti
cl
eex
cha
nge
Two-phot
onphys
ics
EPRp a
radox
Dir
acequat
i
on

Notes
1.^ Al thought h e19 67El sev i
e rtr
an sl
ati
o n(http://
nob elpr i
z e.org/n ob el_p r
izes/ph ys ics /
lau reates/191 8/planck -
l
e ctur e.html )o fPlanc k'
sNo belLe ct
ureinterpr et
sPl a nc k'sLichtquant a s" ph oto n" ,th emo rel i
te r
al19 22
trans lat
ionbyHa nsTh a che rClarkea ndLu dwi kSilbe rsteinThe origin and development of the quantum theory
(http://books .google.com/ bo oks?i
d =4UC4 AAAAI AAJ ),TheCl ar end onPr e
s s,19 2 2( h ere[ 1]
(http://www. reada nyboo k.co m/ebo ok/
the-origin-and -de ve l
opme n t-of- t
he-qu an tum- t
he or y-
482 17 #downl oadable))u ses" l
ight-quantum" .Noe v i
d en cei sk n ownt hatPla nc kh ims elfu se dt heterm" ph oton"
by192 6( se ea l
sot hisn ote( htt
p:/
/www. no belief
s.co m/ p ho t
on .h tm) ).
2.^ Thema sso fthep ho t
o ni sb e
li
ev edtob ee x act
lyz e ro,b asedo ne xp e
rime nta n dt heo ret
ica lc onsiderati
o ns
de sc ri
be dint hearti
c l
e.So mes o urcesa l
sor efertot h erelativistic mass c onc ep t,whi chi sj ustt heen ergy
sca ledt ou nitso fma ss.Fo rap hotonwi thwa veleng thλ o ren erg yE,t h i
sish/λc orE/ c2.Thi su sagef ort he
term" ma s s"i snol onge rc ommo ni nscienti
ficl i
terature .Fu rthe ri nfo :Wh ati st hema s so faph ot
on ?
http://ma th.u cr.edu/home /b aez/
ph ysics/
Pa r
ticleAnd Nuc lea r
/ph oto n_ ma ss.html
3.^ Theph r ase" noma tt
erh o wi ntense"referst ointen sitiesb elow a p proxima tely1 013W/ cm2a twhi chp oint
pe rturba t
iont heoryb eginst ob reakd own .Inc ontrast,i nt hei nte nser e
g i
me ,wh ichf orv isiblel i
ghtisa bo ve
appr ox ima tel 14
y10 W/ c 2
m ,t hec l
assicalwa v edes criptio nc orre ctlyp r
e di
ctst h ee nerg ya cq uiredbye lectron s,
ca l
ledp onde ro motivee nerg y.(Seea lso:Bo reham et al. ( 19 96)." Ph otond en sitya n dt h ec orres ponde nce
princi pleofe lectr
o ma gnetici nt
eraction(http://
adsa bs.h arv ard.ed u/a bs/1996 AI PC. .369. 123 4B) ".)By
compa ris
on,s u nl
i
g htiso nlya bou t0.1W/ cm2.
4.^ The see x pe r
ime ntsp rodu ceresu l
tsthatca n notbee x plainedb ya nycl assica lth eo r
yo flig ht,s in
cet he y
i
n vo lvea ntico rrel
ati
on sth atr e
sultfromt hequa ntum me a sureme ntp rocess.I n1 9 74,t h efirsts uc he xperime nt
wa sca rriedou tbyCl au ser,wh or eport
edav iolat
ionofac l
ass i
c al Ca uch y–Sch wa rzi nequ alit
y.I n197 7,
Kimb leet al. d emo nstrateda na nalogousa nti-bunch inge ffectofp h otonsin terac tingwi thab eams pli
tter;this
appr oa chwa ss i
mp li
fieda n ds ourceso ferrore li
mi nate di nth ep ho ton -
anti
c or relatione xpe ri
me ntofGr angi e
ret
al. (1986 ) .Th iswo rkisr ev i
ewe da nds i
mp lifi
edf urth eri nTh or net al. (20 04 ).( The ser eferenc e
sa relisted
be l
ow un de r# Ad dit
iona lreference s.
)
5.^ Ane xampl eisUSPa tentNr .5 212 709(h t
tp :
//pat
ft.u sp to.gov /ne tacg i
/nph-Pa rser ?
Se ct1=PTO1&Se c t
2=HI TOFF&d =PALL&p=1&u =%2 Fne tahtml %2 FPTO%2 Fs rc hn um. htm&r =1&f =G&l =50
&s 1=5 21 2709 .PN. &OS=PN/ 5212 709&RS=PN/ 521 2 70 9) .
6.^ I ntroduc to ry-l
ev e
l ma teri
a lonth evariouss u b-
fieldso fq ua ntu m op ti
csc anbef ou ndi nFox ,M.( 2 006 ).
Quantum Optics: An Introduction ( ht
tp:/
/books .goo gle.c om/ bo ok s? i
d =Q- 4dIth PuL4C&p ri
n tsec =frontcov er).
Oxf ordUn ive rsi
tyPr ess.I SBN0 -19 -
85 6673 -5.

References

1.^a b c d e f Amsle
r,C.et al. (Particl
eDa t
aGr oup)( 200 8+2 009p ar
ti
alupd at
e)."Re view ofParticl
ePhy s i
cs:
Ga ug ean dHi ggsbo s
ons"( http:/
/p dg.
l
b l
.gov/2009/tables/rpp20 09-sum-gaug e
-higgs-bo s
o ns.
pdf).Physics
Letters B 667: 1.Bi
b code:
20 08 Ph LB..
667..
..1P( http:
//ad s
a bs.harvar
d.e
d u/abs/
20 08PhLB. .667.
...
1P).
doi:10.10 16/j.
physl
etb.2
00 8.07 .018( h
ttp:
//
dx .doi
.org/1 0.101 6%2 Fj.
physle
tb .
2008 .
07 .018).
2.^ Ki mble,H. J
.;Dagenai
s,M. ;Ma ndel
,L.( 1977 )
." Pho tonAnt i-bunchi
ngi nRe sonan ceFluorescence"
.Physical
Review Letters 39 (11):691– 69 5.Bibcode:
19 77Ph RvL. .39..691 K
(http:/
/ads abs.ha
rvard.
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39.6 91
 (ht tp://dx .doi.org /
1 0 .1103%2 FPh ysRe vLe t
t.39 .
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3.^ Gr angie r
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me n talEv ide nc ef o raPho tonAnt ico rre l
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19 86EL. .
....1..173 G( htt
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ad sab s.harva rd.ed u/a bs /
1 98 6 EL. .....1..1 73 G) .do i:
1 0 .12 09 /02 95 -
507 5/1 /4/004( http :
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d oi.o r
g /
10.12 09 %2 F029 5-5 07 5%2 F1 %2F4 %2 F00 4) .
4.^a b Pl a nck,M.( 19 01 )
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(ht tp://we b.archiv e.o r
g /
we b/2 008041 80 0275 7/http://db hs .wv us d.k 12 .ca .us /
we b do cs /Che m- Hi sto ry/Planck-
190 1/Pl anc k-19 0 1.h tml).Annalen der Physik 4 ( 3 ):5 53 – 56 3.Bi bc od e:19 0 1An P. .
.3 09 ..55 3P
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.30 9..
55 3 P) .d o i
:10 .10 0 2/a nd p.1 90 13 0 90 31 0
(ht tp://dx .doi.org /
1 0 .1002%2 Fandp .
1 90 1309 0310 ).Ar c hiv edf rom t heo rigina l
(ht tp://db hs.wv usd .k 12.ca.u s/we bdocs /Che m- Histo ry/Pl an ck -19 0 1/Pl anc k -19 01 .html )o n20 08 -04- 1 8.
5.^ a b c d Eins tei
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.32 2..
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1 0 .1002%2 Fandp .
1 90 5322 0607 ).(German).AnEng li
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doi :10. 10 38/11 88 7 4a 0(h t
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d x.
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7.^ As i
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66 03) .
8.^ As i
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66 05 ).
9.^ Vi ll
a r
d,P.( 190 0 )."Su rlar éfl
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10.^ Vi ll
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20 05As tL. ..31 .
.14 7K( htt
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ad sabs .harva rd.ed u/a bs /20 05 As tL. ..31 ..14 7K) .d oi:10 .11 34 /1.1 88334 5
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dx .do i
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15.^ Se es ection1 .
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dx .doi.org /
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.721 W) .d o i
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dx .doi.org /
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18 2 6L) .d oi:10.1 103 /Ph y sRe v Le tt.80 .18 2 6
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1 0.1 01 6/j.phy sletb .20 08 .07 .01 8
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101 6%2 Fj.phy slet
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27.^ Ade l
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20 07Ph Rv L..98a 0402A( http:
//ad sa bs.harv ard .ed u/abs /2 007 Ph Rv L..9 8a 04 02 A) .
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28.^ Wi l
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(ht t
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29.^ De scartes,R.( 1 637).Discours de la méthode (Discourse on Method).I mp rime ri
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30.^ Hoo ke,R.( 16 67 ).Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying
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p://
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33.^ Buch wa ld,J.Z.( 1 989).The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early
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34.^ Ma xwe l
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38.^a b Pl anc k,M.( 19 20)."Ma xPl an ck'sNo be lLect ur e"
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43.^a b c Pa is,A.( 19 82 ).Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein
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p://no belpr i
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49.^ Ta yl
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50.^ Sa leh,B.E.A.a ndTe ich ,M.C.( 20 07) .Fundamentals of Photonics.Wi ley.I SBN0- 47 1- 3583 2- 0.
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p au l
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Physik 43 ( 3 –4) :1 72 –19 8.Bi bco de:192 7ZPhy. ..43..1 72 H
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19 27ZPh y...43 ..172H) .d o i
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(ht t
p://dx .doi.o rg/
1 0 .
1 007 %2 FBF0 1 397 28 0).(German)
52.^ E. g.,p.10 f.inSc hiff
,L. I .(196 8).Quantum Mechanics ( 3r de d.).McGr aw- Hi ll.ASI NB0 01B3MI NM
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53.^ Kr a me rs,H. A.( 1 95 8).Quantum Mechanics.Ams ter dam:Nor th -Hol l
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doi :
10. 11 03/Re vMo dPh y s.21 .
40 0( htt
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57.^ Si pe,J .E.( 19 95)." Ph otonwa vef un ct
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Bibcod e:19 95Ph Rv A. .52.1 87 5S( htt
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//ads ab s.harva rd. edu /ab s/1 99 5Ph RvA. .5 2.1 87 5S) .
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10. 11 03/Ph ysRe v A.5 2.18 75( http:
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or g/10 .11 03 %2FPhy sRe vA. 52.1 87 5) .
58.^ Bi alynick i-Birula,I .( 199 6)."Ph o t
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o rg /10 .10 16 %2FS00 79 -
6 63 8%2 80 8%2 97 031 6-0).
ISBN978- 0- 4 44-8 25 30-8 .
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60.^ Bos e,S. N.( 1 924 )."Pla nc ksGe s et
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 Bibcod e:
19 24ZPhy ...
26..
17 8B( htt
p :
//
a dsab s.har
vard.e du /ab s
/19 24ZPhy..
. 26..
17 8B) .d oi:10 .1007/BF0 132 7326
(htt
p: /
/dx.doi.org/10.
1007%2 FBF0 132 732 6).(German)
61.^ Ein s
tei
n,A.( 1 924)
."Qu ant
en theori
ed ese inat
omig eni d ea l
enGa ses
".Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen
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62.^ Ein s
tei
n,A.( 1 925)
."Qu ant
en theori
ed ese inat
omig eni d ea l
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teAb ha nd l
u n g".Sitzungsberichte
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doi:
10. 1002/35 27608958.ch28( h t
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g/10.1 00 2%2 F35 27608958. ch28).I SBN9 78 -3-527-6 089 5-9.
(German)
63.^ And erson,M. H.;Ensher,J.R.;Ma t
th ews ,M. R.;Wi ema n,C. E.;Cornell,E.A.( 1 99 5) ." Obs e r
vati
onofBo se–
EinsteinCon densati
oninaDi luteAt omi cVa por"
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.198A).d oi:10 .
112 6/sci
ence.269 .
522 1.1 98
(htt
p: /
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1126%2 Fs cience.269. 5221.198 ).J STOR2 888436( h t
tp:
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s tor.o rg/st
able/2 888 436).
PMI D17 7898 4 7(//
www. ncbi.
n l
m. ni
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64.^ [2]( ht
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65.^ [3]( ht
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66.^ Streater,R. F.;Wightma n,A.S.( 198 9).PCT, Spin and Statistics, and All That.Ad dis on -We sl
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201 -09410 -X.
67.^ Ein s
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n,A.( 1 916)
."Strahl
un gs-emi ssi
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c hd erQua ntentheo rie".Verhandlungen der
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68.^ Se cti
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Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft 18: 3 18–323.Bi bcode :19 16 DPhy G. .
18..31 8E
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vard.
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18..318E) .(German):
DieKons tant
en and wü rde nsichdi rek tbe rechn enla
sse n,we nnwi ri m Be sitzeineri m
Sinned erQu a
ntenhypoth esemo di
f i
ziert
enEl ek trod ynami ku ndMe chanikwä ren ."

70.^ Di rac,P. A. M.(192 6)

."Ont heTh e
o r
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71.^a b Di rac,P. A.M.( 1927)."Th eQu antum Th eoryoft h eEmi ssiona ndAbs orp t
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ion"
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ch i
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75.^ Fe rmi ,E.( 1932 )
."Qu ant
um Th eo r
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 78.^ Pa is,A.( 1986 ) .Inward Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World
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me dt oha veb eeni ns piredbyEi n ste i
n '
sne ve r-pu blish eda t
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e l
d"t he or y,inwh ichp o i
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79.^ De bye ,P.( 191 0)." DerWa hrs che i
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81.^ Phot on -ph o t
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85.^ T. F.Wa ls ha ndP. M.Ze rwa s,Two -ph otonp roce ss esi nt h ep artonmo d el,Ph ys i
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89.^ She ldonGl asho w No bel lec ture( h tt
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91.^ St evenWe i
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92.^ E. g.,cha pt er1 4i nHu gh es ,I .S.( 1985 ).Elementary particles ( 2 nde d .).Ca mbr idg eUn iver s
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93.^ E. g.,s ec tion1 0.1i nDu nla p,R. A.( 20 04) .An Introduction to the Physics of Nuclei and Particles.
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94.^ Ra diativeco rrect iontoe l
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95.^ E.g .s ec tions9 .1( gravitatio na lco ntri
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97.^ Ch4i nHe cht ,Eug ene( 2 00 1 ).Optics.Addi sonWe sley .I SBN9 7 8-0 -8 05 3-8 5 66 -3.
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Vis ualEx cita ti
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101.^ Phot omu ltipl
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