sDiy pYi

=} wo |=yCQ=@a

=y|=xrtHOvJ s}UkD

"

O}vm s}UkD
2 r=

"1

x+
3

Q@
1

x3 + x (h
5

x2 + x +
2

Q@

x5 + (
1 1 8 5

x;

Q@

x ; x2 + x4 +
2 3 3

x + ; x2 Q x4 ; x5 ; x ; (
1 @ 5

x2 + x +

Q@ 5

x +x+ (
1

x+
"

Q@ 4

x (

O}vm x@U=Lt u=mt=

CQ Y QO =Q x W xO=O | y

= s}UkD
4 r=

"2

x2 +
3

Q@
4

x2 + (h x + (
4 ?

x2 +

Q@ 2
5

x+
25

Q@

25

Q@ x

x+ (
5

" } Qw

CUOx@

=Q

x}raswUkt

'wQ @ wQ

s}UkD

QO

"3

x4 ; x3 ; x2 + x +
7 4 5

x2 ; x +
3

; x+
2

"

O}v=wN@

=Q

Q} R uDt

"4

u J

"

s}@=}@

x;
wvm =
"

Q@

=Q

x5 +
=Wv
t

20

s}UkD

|x v t

O = |k=@ 's}UkD

C U

=@ =Lt s=Hv=

uw @

O s}y=wN|t

QO

"

CU= QiY xOv=t|k=@ OwN =} CU= QiY xOv=t|k=@ |xHQO =} TB CU= l} |xHQO R= x}raswUkt
Z i u

s}vm|t

"O=O u

a pF
|=

|k}kL

O a

O l}

CQ Y

x@

=Q x v t

O = |k=@
R=

u= D

w |t

CQ Y

Qy

CU=

x Q}eD

=@

xrtHOvJ l}

" W @

O =

QQQ
%

@= @ '

s}UkD

TB CtUkGQ=N xm
|

s}U} wv@ s}v=wD|t s}UkD

x]@=Q x@ =v@

x5 +
Q= k 2 '

20

= (x ; )Q + a
2

| H

x@ u}=Q@=v@ &s}UQ|t CUQO

|O a |w

=UD l} x@ s} Q=Po@

|O a

O Qy

| H

x@ Qo =

s}yO|t

20

= ( ; ) (Q
2 2

|=

xrtHOvJ
| y

| y

x
=

=tD x@

| H

x@

2 O a |Q=

Po}=H pY=L

)+a

! !

52

(Q

|=

xrtHOvJ

=tD

| H

2 O a |Q=

Po}=H pY=L

)+a

52

=a
"

CU=

52

Q@=Q@ s}UkD u}= =@ =Lt s=Hv=

|x v t

O = |k=@ u}=Q@=v@ x@

" } Qw

CUOx@

=Q

Q} R

| y

= s}UkD

|x v t

O = |k=@ 's}UkD

C U

uw @ ' @

O x =Wt

VwQ

x;
1 3 @

Q@ 5

x +

20

(h (
?

r=

(x ; )(x ; ) Q x5 + x4 ;
"

10

O}v=wN@

=Q = H t | r vO

Q =

x =@

O}v=wD|t s}UkD

xW} Q

x]@=Q

QO O

=BtU | =} Q x=o?w

QO

"O W 33 '

x+

Q@ Vt}UkD |xOv=t|k=@ u}vJsy w OW=@ Q}PBVN@

x;

Q@ xm O}@=}@ |=xrtHOvJ l}

"5

"

O}@=}@
2

=Q

=yv

"

OvDUy OOa
4

wO

n m
w 6

'OQ t

w Qy

QO

"6

"O W

Q}PBVN@ 2

x ;x;
3

Q@

nx3 ; x2 ; mx +
7 2 2

s}y=wN|t s}y=wN|t s}y=wN|t

w

(h (
?

r=

"O W } B

w Q P VN@ 3
"O W

x ; x+ Q x5 +nx4 +( m+n)x3 ; x2 + ( m;n)x;

3 2 @

Q}PBVN@ 2
1

x ; x+
3

Q@

n(x + )20 + m(x ; )10 ;

2 1

x;
"

?}DQD x@ 2

x ;x+
1

Q@ =yv s}UkD

|x v t

O = |k=@ w OvW=@

x Q}eD

t @ |=

xrtHOvJ wO u}= w

G FQ x+ P

o=

"7

O}@=}@ 2
2 w

x ;x+
2 '

Q@

=Q

F G
Q@

|=

xrtHOvJ s}UkD
|x v t

|x v t

O = |k=@

CQ Y

QO 'O W

2 w

x@ O

x+

x; x+
4

P
1

s}Uk D
@ =Q

O = | k= @

O W= @

x Q}eD

=@

|=

xrt HOv J l }

Qo =

"8

" } Qw

CUOx@

(x2 ; )(x + ) Q P

|=

xrtHOvJ s}UkD

|x v t

O = |k=@

'O W

2 w 3 '1

?}DQD

|=xrtHOvJ

l}

|xW} Q
=F x@

"

O}vm CkO Q} R

| yp t

"1

|=

xrtHOvJ
5

=
0 1

x@U=Lt

=y xW} Q
0 5

x; =
2

x2 ; x + = x2 ; x + =
3 2

; = ; + =
5 5 2 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 2

x2 +

x;

=
=

; + = 2; + = p p p p 2 + ; ; = p p (; )2 + ; (; ) ; =
2

p ;

pY=L w s}vm |Q=Po}=H Q}eDt

| H

x@ Qo = xm

|O a

O x@ 's}W=@ xDW=O |Q}eDt l} |=xrtHOvJ l} Qo =

"

s}} wo|t

|=

xrtHOvJ

xW} Q

'O W

QiY Q@=Q@

"

O}@=}@

=Q

x3 ; x2 ; x +
2 5

6 |=

xrtHOvJ
|=

xW} Q xU

(h (
?

r=

" W @

O =

5 w 1

V}=yxW} Q xm O}@=}@ x

xrtHOvJ l} xrtHOvJ l}

" W @ 2 V=

O =

xW} Q =yvD xm O}@=}@ xU

| HQO R= |=

( ( (

K}LY O=Oa= V}=y|=xrtHl} ?}=Q

|rw OW=@ V=xW} Q

p p +
2

xm O}@=}@ |=xrtHOvJ l} hr= "2

"

K}LY O=Oa= V}=y|=xrtHl} ?}=Q

|rw OW=@ V=xW} Q

p p +
2

OvW=@
?

xm O}@=}@ |=xrtHOvJ l}
"

OvW=@

x5 + x +

1 |=

xrtHOvJ

| y

= xW} Q

'

x3 ; x +

1 |=

xrtHOvJ

| y

= xW} Q

wmat xm O}vm C@=F

" W

"3

Ovy=wN

|= @

Q xm O}yO u=Wv CUOx@

"

CU=

pw= O= a=

O}rwD
| y

|= @ xO U

|y=Q x@ uDi=} CUO =yu=O| =} Q

40 R=

| } wQ -

(h

r= "4

"OQw

pw= O= a= u= D

w |t Q} R
79

= x]@=Q
1601

R=

l} Qy ltm =@

QDlJwm |a}@]

O= a=

n2 ; n +
=@ |}=y|=xrtHl} CUOx@
QO R= x W

n2 ; n +
R=

41

p}mWD =@

|=

xrtHOvJ I}y CUOx@

"

uDiQo ltm =@ xm CU= xOW C@=F

u= D

xRw t=

?r]t u}=

C F=

"OQw

pw= O a

O xW}ty

w |tv K}LY
QO

|O a

O ?}=Q O

CU= OwHwt O=BtU | =} Q x=o?w

QO

pw= O= a= uOQw

CtUk

QO x W xO=O |

x]@=Q

wO R=

l} I}y

|a}@]
"

O= a= |Q=

Po}=H ltm =@ O}yO O xW}ty

u= D

=Wv

CN=U

pw= O a

w |tv hr=
"5

K}LY |OOa V}=y|=xrtHl} ?}=Q

"

xty xm OW=@ |=xrtHOvJ l} |xW} Q xm |k}kL |OOa x@

O= a= |

OvyO|t u=Wv A =@
"

=Q |

Q@H

xty

| a

x wtHt
3 = }R

"

Ov} wo|t 1 |Q@H OOa 'OvW=@

|

CU=

x;

3 |=

xrtHOvJ

xW} Q

CU=

Q@H

|O a 3 p t |= @

=F

Q Q

A O}vm C@=F

(h (
?

r=

6= A

O}vm C@=F

Qo}O |DQ=@a x@

" #

=R =

xm Ow@ u}= Ow@ xOW KQ]t =yu=O| =} Q |=Q@ |tyt Q=}U@ p=w -U
" W v |

O =@

Q@H xm OwW|t Ci=} |k}kL

|O a

O =} =

x@ `k=w

QO w=

"

CU= 3 |Q@HQ}e

|O a

* xm OQm C@=F 2 u=tOv}r '|UtW|QHy

1261 p U QO
"1 "2 "3

algebraic number Lindemann non-algebraic number

x@ l}ORv xm xQ}=O`}@ QD

| r-

x =Ut 2 "OyO |ivt MU=B

%

x }=O

Q 1 `}@ QD
=Q

| r-

x =Ut x@ xm Ow@ u}= p=@vO

2000

CU= u}vJ Ow@

xO m p

weWt

=yu=O| =} Q uyP p=U

#O m

Q sUQ l} OL=w `=aW x@

|=x }=O @

= CL=Utsy |a@ Qt
| r-

u= D

w |t Q=oQB

3 Vm\N ltm =@ Qw]J

CU= Q} R

x =Ut
p ]

pO

=at xQ}=O`}@ QD

| r-

x =Ut xm O}vm C@=F w}W = qD = x@

Q o B w

=Q

GQ t

O Q}e Vm\N ltm =@ x@ |k}kL O

w x@ |]NxQ=B sUQ Q

|x

"

CU= Q} R

CQ Y

O= a= u

=tDN=U s}v=O|t

xRw t= 'u t

= Ov}r

| yV

T B

O}vm u}}aD |DvQDv}=

wHDUH ltm =@
#

"

Ov} wo|t R}v 4 |r=aDt

QO

O= a= '|

Q@H Q}e

O= a=

x@

xRw t=

CU= xOW hWm |r=U xJ

Q} R

O= a= R=

l} Qy

uO @

w |r=aDtQ}e xm

e: C:
"O m

5 QBv OOa
u v

w QBtJ OOa
|R U @ t "1

= ` Q

Q sUQ

p ]

x@ |]NxQ=B Q=oQB

GQ t

O Q}e Vm\N ltm =@ =} =} Q =}

u= D

w |tv |k} Q] I}y x@ xm OQm C@=F u=tOv}r Qat = O |m}

"2 "4 "5

e =@

(Euler) Qr

} w=

nQ @ u=O

| =} Q Q=NDi= x@ xm &CU=

| vO hw

| yO a R=

O a

transendental O u (Napier)
}= $O W

w |t

xO=O u

=Wv

:
x o?w QO =Q

p} ww}r OOa
|

"

CU= u}= xr=Ut &|r=aDt =}

Q@H

' vO RwQ C

=}

=k}kLD u} QN

R=

|m} uO}O

|= @

6 "O}v}@@ O=BtU |

=} Q

?}=Q
#

=@

| y

= xrtHl}

R= x W

p}mWD

|=

xrtHOvJ l}

xW} Q xm |k}kL
| a

O= a= |

xty Qo =
|O a

CU= CUQO Q} R

| y aO= R=

= =

l}

s= m '

O s}yO u=Wv B

x wtHt =@
A

=Q

OvW=@ =} wo

=B
'|

"

CU=

Q@H QiY RHx@

Q@H OOa Qy

wmat xm O}yO u=Wv

"

Ovv}@@

=Q

xUQOt

C=Q

=WDv= QW=v

x }=O

Q `}@ QD 'x} w=R E}rFD

? m

=D xm OwW|t x}YwD

u=

Ovtxkqa x@

"6

|=xrtHOvJ

l} |@=}=} wo xW}

"

O}v=wN@

=Q

Q} R uDt

"1

"

Ov} wo|t
"

|=

xrtHOvJ

K}LY

| y

= xW} Q
30

'

OvW=@ K}LY OOa xm

0 |=

|=

xrtHOvJ l} = xW} Q
|

| y

= xW} Q x@

s}@=}@
%

=Q 5

x3 ; x2 ; x +
18 41 CQ Y

xrtHOvJ K}LY

| y

xty s}y=wN|t
m t Z i

CW=O s}y=wN

u}=

QO

" W @ |=

O =

xrtHOvJ u}= K}LY

xW} Q l}

a s}v |

a3 ; a2 ; a +
18 41

30

=
"

s}vm|t

Q}oQwDm =i

O= a= |

xty

R=

a( a2 ; a ; ) +
5 18 41 5 18

30

a( a2 ; a ; ) = ;
41 | a

30

x wtHt

a= R=

|m} CU= umtt =yvD

a u Q =v

}= @ @

"

CU=

30

K}LY x}raswUkt l}

a u Q =v
" W @

}= @ @

O = Q} R

f+ ; + ; + ; + ; + ; + ;
1 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 6 6 10 "5

10

15

; +
15 xOR=wO

30

; g
30

Q@=Q@ =}

CU=

Q@=Q@ =}

ax
41

O}tyi

u= D

w |t OOa

u}= |UQQ@ =@

(; )3 ; (; )2 ; (; ) +
2 18 2 2 5

30

= =

( )3 ; ( )2 ; ( ) +
5 18 5 41 5

30

"

O}@=}@

=Q

Q} R

| y|=

xrtHOvJ K}LY

| y

= xW} Q

xty

hr=
?

x3 + x2 + x ;
5 3 27 57 9 11

x3 ; x2 + x ;
38 21

x3 + x2 + x ;

"

O}v=wN@

=Q

Q} R uDt

"2

"

Ov} wo|t

|=

xrtHOvJ
"

=} wo

| y

= xW} Q
41

'

OvW=@ =} wo
30 |=

|O a

xm

|=

xrtHOvJ l}

| y

= xW} Q x@

s}vm|t ZQi
" W @ |=

s}@=}@ =Q 5 3 =w

x ; x2 ; x +
18

xrtHOvJ |=} wo |=yxW} Q |xty s}y=wN|t

O =

xrtHOvJ u}=

| } o |

xW} Q l}

'

b2N

OW=@ l} Q@=Q@

b a
w %

s"s"?

xm

|Q ] @

w x w

ax b

CW=O s}y=wN

CQ Y

u}=

QO

a 2; a + = b b 3 2 a ; a+ = ! a ; 3 b b2 b 3 2 2+ a ; a b ; ab b3 = ! b3 ! a3 ; a2b ; ab2 + b3 =
18 41 30 5 18 41 30 5 18 41 30 5 18 41 30 "

a 3; b

s}vm|t

Q}oQwDm =i

|w

=UD AJ CtU

QO

O= a= |

xty

R= , qw=

a( a2 ; ab ; b2) + b3 =
5 18 41 30 5 18 41

! a( a2 ; ab ; b2) = ; b3
30

30

x}raswUkt

aT

B '

CU= l} Q@=Q@

b a
w % W @

s"s"? u J

=t=

&O W

w |t

; b3 x}r
30

as

wUkt
}= @ @

a u Q =v
"O W

}= @ @

O = Q} R

O= a= R=

|m} CU= umtt =yvD

a u Q =v

w |t

f+ ; + ; + ; + ; + ; + ;
1 1 2 2 3 3 5 5 6 6 10 "

10

15

15

+
O

30

; g
30

s}vm|t

Q}oQwDm =i

|w

=UD AJ CtU

QO

O= a= |

xty

R=

, v F

=} =

a3 + b(; a2 ; ab + b2 ) =
18 19 30 18 41 30

! a3 = ;b(; a2 ; ab + b2 )
5 5

|a}@\ x}raswUkt

bT

B '

CU= l} Q@=Q@

b a
w

s"s"? u J

=t=

&O W

w |t

a3 x}r

as

wUkt

b u Q =v
"O W

}= @ @

% W @

O = Q} R

O= a= R=

|m} CU= umtt =yvD

b u Q =v

}= @ @

w |t

f g
1 5 R=

|m} CU= umtt =yvD

ax b
3

s}UQ|t xH}Dv u}= x@

' , v F

=} =

, qw=

R=

pY=L G}=Dv

uO=O Q= k

Q sy Q=vm =@
32

"O W

Q} R OOa
30

+ ; + ; + ; + ; + ; +
1 1 2 2 3 5 5 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 5 1 5 1 6 1 6

10

; ;

10

+ +

15

; ;

15

+ +

; ;

30

1 10

1 10

1 15

1 15

1 30

1 30

+ ; + ; + ; + ; + ; +
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Q_v

QO

sy

=Q

CU= l} Q@=Q@

b a
w " W

s"s"?

\ W

Qo =

w &

CU=
32

|Q=

QmD
R=

O= a=

u}=

R= |Q

=}U@ xm O}vm xHwD O OaD s} Q}o@

Oy=wN

| y _ O a

Q =

O =D
3 5

u}=

QDtm Q=}U@ Q=}U@

m

O= a= O=

"O W

w |t
3 5

Q@=Q@ =yvD
3 5

ax

O}tyi

u= D

w |t

O= a=

u}= |UQQ@ =@

3 5

18

;
=Q

41

30

"

O}@=}@

Q} R

| y|=

xrtHOvJ

| } o | y

=w

= xW} Q

xty

hr=
?

x3 + x2 + x ;
5 3 27 57 2 9 10

x3 ; x2 + x ;
38 3 2 1 2

x6 + x4 + x2 +

x3 + x2 + x ;
"

CU= nvo

|O a

O}vm C@=F 'V}B O}vm C@=F w

p= -U QO x W

x =Q=

VwQ

ltm =@
o=

"3

"

CU=} wo

xW} Q Ok=i 4

x + ax +

CQ Y

u}=

QO '

jaj 6=

2 w

a2ZQ

"4

QUm

GQNt uOQm =} wo
Q} R = QUm QNt

"

O}vm =} wo

=Q

| y

"1

hr=
1 G 1

+ +

p p

? 1 1

+ +

p p

1 2

+ +

p p

O 4 1

1 3

+
=Q

p
Q} R

"

O}vm =} wo

| y

= QUm

QNt

"2

hr=
G

p
3

+
2

p
3

+
2

p
3

pp

O 5

p p 3

"

O}vm =} wo

=Q

Q} R

| y

= QUm

QNt

"3

hr=

p
3

p
3

1 6

p
3

? 9

p
2 2

+
O

q
2 2

p
2

" } Qw

CUOx@

=Q

Q} R

CQ a

=@ pY=L

"4

p +p
2

p +
3

+p

99

100