Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lucid and inviting full-color maps chronicle the changing internal and external boundaries of the Islamic world,
showing the principal trade routes through which goods, ideas, and customs spread. Ruthven traces the impact of
various Islamic dynasties in art and architecture and shows the distribution of sects and religious minorities, the
structure of Islamic cities, and the distribution of resources. Among the book's valuable contributions is the
incorporation of the often neglected geographical and environmental factors, from the Fertile Crescent to the
North African desert, that have helped shape Islamic history.
Rich in narrative and visual detail that illuminates the story of Islamic civilization, this timely atlas is an
indispensable resource to anyone interested in world history and religion.
Malise Ruthven is a former editor with the BBC Arabic Service and World Service in London and is the author of
Islam in the World and Islam: A Very Short Introduction. Azim Nanji is Professor and Director of the Institute of
Ismaili Studies and visiting professor at Stanford University.
HISTORICAL
ATLAS OF THE
ISLAMIC
WORLD
HISTORICAL
ATLAS OF THE
ISLAMIC
WORLD
Malise Ruthven
with
Azim Nanji
Book Copyright © Cartographica Limited 2004
Introduction
Since September 11th 2001, barely a day pas- nations: Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, Mombasa,
ses without stories about Islam—the religion Riyadh, Casablanca, Bali, Tunisia, Jakarta,
of about one-fifth of humanity—appearing in Bombay (Mumbhai), Istanbul and Madrid.
the media. The terrorists who hijacked four The list grows longer, the casualties mount.
American airliners and flew them into the The responses of people and their govern-
World Trade Center in New York and the ments are angry and perplexed. The far-reach-
Pentagon near Washington killed some three ing consequences of these responses for inter-
thousand people. This unleashed a “War on national peace and security should be enough
Terrorism” by the United States and its allies, to convince anyone (and not just the media edi-
leading to the removal of two Muslim govern- tors who mold public consciousness to fit their
ments, one in Afghanistan and the other in advertisers’ priorities) that extreme manifesta-
Iraq. It raised the profile of Islam throughout tions of Islam are setting the agenda for argu-
the world as a subject for analysis and discus- ment and action in the twenty-first century.
sion. The debates, in newspaper columns and Muslims living in the West and in the
broadcasting studios, in cafes, bars, and growing areas of the Muslim world that come
homes, have been heated and passionate. within the West’s electronic footprint under-
Questions that were previously discussed in standably resent the negative exposure that
the rarified atmosphere of academic confer- comes with the increasing concerns of out-
ences or graduate seminars have entered the siders. Islam is a religion of peace: the word
mainstream of public consciousness. What is “Islam,” a verbal noun meaning submission
the “law of jihad”? How is it that a “religion
of peace” subscribed to by millions of ordi- JAZIRA RASLANDA
Qarnqi JAZIRA
LUQAGHA
JAZIRA J. SQUSIYYA
nary, decent believers, can become an ideology IRLANDA Aghrims JAZIRAT
DANMARSHA
JAZIRAT
of hatred for an angry minority? Why has Jazira Dans
INQILTARA
Gharkafurt
BILAD
Islam after the fall of communism become so Hastinks
Londras BALUNIYYA
Shant Mahlu Na
Diaba
freighted with passionate intensity? Or, to use Jol
Sin hr
u ARD AFRIZIYYA
ALAMANIN Na h r Danu
Abariz Qaghradun
the title of a best-selling essay by Bernard Faynash Shant
ARD AFLANDRIS
AL AFRANJ Nah r D rawa
BILAD
BU’AMIYYA
Majial
Lewis, the doyen of Orientalist scholars, Kh
a
Janbara
Kradis K
al- ltj
ha
“What went wrong?” with Islamic history, An Liyun
l ij
Shant Ya‘aqub
al-
glis Ankuna
Ba
hin Burdal Raghusa
nad
with its relationship with itself, and with the Nabal
iqa
Bisha
Manubas
Munt Mayur Shaghubiyya Mashiliyya
modern world? Tarakuna J. al-Nar Labiuna
Messina Kashtara
Such questions are no longer academic, but Qartajanna J. Qurshiqa Barsana
al-Mariyya J. Sardaniyya J. Siqilliyya
are arguably of vital concern to most of the Jalfuniyya
Jaza’ir bani
peoples living on this planet. Few would deny Mazjani
Lebda
Fas
that Islam, or some variation thereof— Tarabulus Surt
l Da ran Barqa
whether distorted, perverted, corrupted, or J aba Jabal Daran
6
INTRODUCTION
(to God) is etymologically related to the word emies, are accused of viewing Islam through
salaam, meaning peace. The standard greet- the misshapen lens of Orientalism, a disci-
ing most Muslims use when joining a gather- pline corrupted by its associations with impe-
ing or meeting strangers is “as-salaam rialism, when specialist knowledge was
alaikum”—“Peace be upon you.” Westerners placed at the service of power.
who accuse Islam of being a violent religion This is fraught, contested territory and
misunderstand its nature. Attaching the label writers who venture into it do so at their own
“Muslim” or “Islamic” to acts of terrorism is peril. As with other religious traditions, every
grossly unfair. When a right-wing Christian generalization about Islam is open to chal-
fanatic like Timothy McVeigh blew up a US lenge, because for every normative descrip-
federal building in Oklahoma city, the worst tion of Islamic faith, belief, and practice,
atrocity committed on American soil before there exist important variants and consider-
9/11, no one described him as a “Christian” able diversity. The problem of definition is
terrorist. In the view of many of Islam’s made more difficult because there is no over-
adherents, “Westerners” who have aban- arching ecclesiastical institution, no Islamic
doned their own faith, or are blinkered by papacy, with prescriptive power to decree
religious prejudice, do not “understand” what is and what is not Islamic. (Even
Islam. Certain hostile media distort Western Protestant churches define their religious
viewpoints, prejudicing sentiments and atti- positions in contradistinction to Roman
tudes with Islamophobia—the equivalent of Catholicism.)
anti-Semitism applied to Muslims instead of Being Muslim, like being a Jew, embraces
The world according
Jews. Some scholars, trained in Western acad- ancestry as well as belief. People described as to al-Idrisi 549–1154
Ar
da Truiyya
l- Tabunt
ARD LASLANDA Buhayrat Janun
Sinubun
Ku
JANUB BILAD ma
niy
N ah
s
i
AL-RUSIYYA br ya
na
rA
a
Nahr Dnas
t .D mi Majuj
Kaw N Labada l ? Quruqiyya Khagan Majui
Shahadruj Jabal Su Adkash
Rushiyya n?? ARD MAJUJ
Basjirt
?
Tabriz Nahr
Sha Jaba
Amul
r al
s
Nahr
al-Mawsil l Ashla
th
Fra
Rudus
Jaba
?? D y l
???
m
?
F arg
a
Jazira Qum h
J. Iqritish Antakiyya Sisian
an
Wakhan
Yathrib
al A
al-Multan
la qa
Kashmir al-Kharija
lul
ttam
l Ja
Ba
N il Sandan
l- M
ARD SUFALA
ARD AL-ZANJ AL-NABR
ARD AL-WAQWAQ
J ab
7
a l a l- K a m r
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Muslims are religiously observant in different one of his companions, Abu Bakr (r. 624–632),
ways. One can be culturally Muslim, as one who was accepted as Caliph or successor by
can be culturally Jewish, without subscribing agreement of the main leaders in the communi-
to a particular set of religious prescriptions ty after the death of the Prophet. He, in turn,
or beliefs. It would not be inappropriate to appointed Umar (r. 634–644), who on his
describe many nonreligious Americans and deathbed designated Uthman (r. 644–656), after
Europeans as “cultural Christians” given the consultation with leading Muslims. Uthman
seminal importance played by Christianity in was succeeded by Ali (r. 656–661), again with
the development of Western culture. The fact the consent of leading Muslims of the time. In
that the term is rarely, if ever, used is reveal- the view of the Sunni majority the four caliphs
ing of Western cultural hegemony and its constitute a “rightly guided Caliphate.”
pretensions to universality. The Christian Over time the Shiites and Sunni both devel-
underpinning of Western culture is so taken oped distinctive community identities. They
for granted that no one troubles to make it are divided into various branches and organ-
apparent. At the same time the term ized into different movements and tendencies.
“Christian” has been appropriated by While these, and other groups, differed with
Protestant fundamentalists who seek to each other and often fought over their differ-
define themselves in contradistinction to sec- ences, the general tenor of relations, in pre-
ular humanists or religious believers with modern urban societies, allowed for a degree
whose outlook they disagree. of mutual coexistence and intellectual debate.
Similar problems of definition apply in the In recent times, however, there has been a
Muslim world. Just as there are theological tendency for extremist sects and radical
disagreements between Christian churches groups to anathematize their religious oppo-
over all sorts of questions of belief and ritu- nents, or to declare those ruling over them to
al, within the Islamic fold there are groups be outside the pale of Islam. This narrow
which differ among themselves ritualistically perspective may be contrasted with a growing
or in terms of their respective tradition of awareness among the majority of Muslim
interpretation and practice. people of the diversity and plurality of inter-
Among the major groups in Islam, histor- pretations within the Umma.
ically, the two most significant are the Sunni Currently, the climate of religious intoler-
and Shiites. ance manifested in some parts of the Muslim
The Shiites maintain that, shortly before world has complex origins and may be symp-
his death, the Prophet Muhammad (c. tomatic, like the puritan extremism that
570–632 ) designated Ali, his first cousin and flourished in Europe in the seventeenth cen-
husband of his daughter Fatima, as his succes- tury, of the dislocating effects of economic
sor. They further believe that this succession and social changes. As the maps and essays
continued in a line of Imams (spiritual lead- that follow make clear, modernity came to
ers) descendent from Ali and Fatima, each the Muslim world on the wings of colonial
specifically designated by the previous Imam. power, rather than as a consequence of inter-
The larger body of the Shiites, the “Twelvers” nally generated transformations. The “best
or Imamis, believe that the last of these lead- community” decreed by God for “ordering
ers, who “disappeared” in 873, will reappear the good and forbidding the evil” has lost the
as the Mahdi or messiah at some future time. moral and political hegemony it held in what
The Sunnis, on the other hand, maintain that was once the most civilized part of the world
the Prophet had made an indication favoring outside China. When Islam was in the ascen-
8
INTRODUCTION
dant, so was the climate of tolerance it detail. The story of Muhammad’s career as
engendered. Muslim scholars and theolo- Prophet and Statesman (if one can use a
gians polemicized against each other but rather modern term for the leader of the
were careful not to denounce those who movement that united the tribes of the
affirmed the shahada—the declaration of Arabian Peninsula) was constructed from a
faith—and who prayed toward Mecca. As the different body of oral materials. Known as
American scholar Carl Ernst observes, “In Hadith (traditions or reports about the
any society in the world today, religious plu- Prophet’s behavior), they acquired written
ralism is a sociological fact. If one group form after Muhammad’s death.
claims authority over all the rest, demanding The Koran is divided into 114 sections
their allegiance and submission, this will be known as suras (rows), each of which is com-
experienced as the imposition of power posed of varying numbers of verses called
through religious rhetoric.” [Carl Ernst, ayas (signs or miracles). Apart from the first
Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in sura, the Fatiha, or Opening, a seven-verse
the Contemporary World, London and invocation used as a prayer in numerous ritu-
Chapel Hill, p. 206.] als, including daily prayers or salat, the suras
In principle, if not always in practice, a are arranged in approximate order of
Muslim is one who follows Islam, an Arabic decreasing length, with the shortest at the
word meaning “submission” or, more pre- end and the longest near the beginning. Most
cisely, “self-surrender” to the will of God as standard editions divide the suras into pas-
revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. These sages revealed in Mecca (which tend to be
revelations, delivered orally over the period shorter, and hence located near the end of
of Muhammad’s active prophetic career from the book) and those belonging to the period
about 610 until his death, are contained in of the Prophet’s sojourn in Medina, where he
the Koran, the scripture that stands at the emigrated with his earliest followers to
foundation of the Islamic religion and the escape persecution in Mecca in 622, the Year
diverse cultural systems that flow from it. A One of the Muslim era. Meccan passages,
few revisionist scholars working in Western especially the early ones, convey vivid mes-
universities have challenged the traditional sages about personal accountability, reward
Islamic account of the Koran’s origins, argu- and punishment—in heaven and hell—while
ing that the text was constructed out of a celebrating the glories and beauty of the nat-
larger body of oral materials following the ural world as proof of God’s creative power
Arab conquest of the Fertile Crescent. The and sovereignty. The Medinese passages,
great majority of scholars, however, Muslim while replicating many of the same themes,
and non-Muslim, regard the Koran as the contain positive teachings on social and legal
written record of the revelations accumulat- issues (including rules governing sexual rela-
ed in the course of Muhammad’s career. tions and inheritance, and punishments pre-
Unlike the Bible, there are no signs of multi- scribed for certain categories of crime). Such
ple authorship. In contrast to the New passages, supplemented with material from
Testament in particular, where the sayings of the Hadith literature, came to be the key
Jesus have been incorporated into four dis- sources for the development of a legal system
tinct narratives of his life presumed to have known as the Sharia. Different scholars of
been written by different authors, the Koran Muslim thought added other sources to cre-
contains many allusions to events in the ate a methodology for the systematization
Prophet’s life, but does not spell them out in and implementation of the Sharia.
9
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
For believing Muslims, the Koran is the Islam beyond Arabia occurred on the basis of
direct speech of God, dictated without human the Arab conquest of the Fertile Crescent and
editing. Muhammad has been described by lands further afield in the century or so fol-
some modern Muslim scholars as a passive lowing the Prophet’s death in 632. Faith in
transmitter of the Divine Word. The Prophet Islam and the Prophet’s divine calling—as
himself is supposed to have been ummi (illiter- well as the desire for booty—united the
ate), although some scholars question this as he Arabian tribes into a formidable fighting
was an active and successful merchant. For a machine. They defeated both the Byzantine
majority of Muslims, the Koran, whose text and Sasanian armies, opening part of the
was written down and stabilized during the Byzantine Empire and the whole of Persia to
reign of the third caliph, Uthman (r. 644–656), Muslim conquest and settlement. At first
was “uncreated” and coeternal with God. Islam remained primarily the religion of the
Hence, for believing Muslims, the Koran occu- “Arab”. Muslim commanders housed their
pies the position Christ has for Christians. God tribal battalions in separate military canton-
reveals himself not through a person, but ments outside the cities they conquered, leav-
The illuminated double page
from the Koran in the Bihari
script. This copy was completed
in 1399, the year after Timur’s
conquest of Delhi. The passage,
from the Al-Tawba (Sura of
Repentance), refers to the
Prophet’s Bedouin allies who are
not to be excused for failing to
join one of his campaigns.
through the language contained in a holy text. ing their new subjects (Christian, Jewish, or
Other religious traditions, including Buddhism, Zoroastrian) to regulate their own affairs so
Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Sikhism, and long as they paid the jizya (poll-tax) in lieu of
Zoroastrianism, privilege their foundational military service. The process of Islamization
texts as sacred. Muslim rulers recognized this occurred gradually, through marriage, as the
common principle by granting religious tolera- leading families of the subject populations
tion to the ahl al-kitab (Peoples of the Book). sought to join the Muslim elites. It also
In its initial phase the rapid expansion of occurred as impoverished or uprooted sub-
10
INTRODUCTION
jects found support in the religion of their patterns of state and religious authority that
rulers, or as people disenchanted with their prevailed during the vast sweep of Islamic
former rulers found a congenial spiritual history from the time of the Prophet to the
home in one that honored their traditions present. But it is hoped that they will illumi-
while representing their teachings in a new, nate important aspects of that history by
creative synthesis. The role of early Muslim opening windows into significant areas of
missionaries was also crucial in this process. the distant and recent past, thereby helping
Muslim theology, however, did have one to explain the legacy of conflicts—as well as
dynamic cultural dimension, which may help opportunities—the past has bequeathed to
to explain its evolution of an “Arab” religion the present. Geography is vital for the under-
into a universal faith. As the quintessential standing of Islamic history and its problem-
“religion of the Book,” which represented the atic relationship with modernity.
divine Word as manifested in a written text, As the maps in this atlas illustrate, the cen-
Islam carried with it the prestige of learning tral belt of Islamic territories stretching from A world map drawn in 1571–72
and literacy into illiterate cultures. The cult of the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus Valley was by the al-Sharafi al-Sifaqsi family
the book, like La Rochefoucauld’s definition perennially at the mercy of nomadic or semi- in the town of Sfax, Tunisia.
of hypocrisy, was the homage not of vice to nomadic invaders. In premodern times,
virtue, but of illiteracy to learning. However before gunpowder weapons, air
revelation is perceived—whether proceeding power, and modern systems of
directly from God or by way of an altered communication brought
mental state comparable to the operations of peripheral regions under
human genius—Muhammad’s epiphany came the control of central
in the form of language. Time and again the governments (usually
nomadic peoples on the fringes of the Muslim under colonial aus-
empires would take over the centers of power, pices), the cities were
and in so doing civilize themselves, becoming vulnerable to attack
in turn the bearers of Muslim cultural pres- by nomadic preda-
tige. After the disintegration of the great tors. The genius of
Abbasid Empire, the dream of a universal the Islamic system
caliphate embracing the whole of the Islamic lay in providing the
world (and, indeed, the rest of humanity) converted tribesmen
ceased to be a viable project. The lines of com- with a system of law,
munication were too long for the center to be practice and learning within
able to suppress the ambitions of local a foundation of faith to which
dynasts. But the prestige of literacy, symbol- they became acculturated over time.
ized by the Koran and its glorious calligraphic In his Muqaddima, or “Proglomena” to
elaborations on the walls of mosques and the History of the World, the Arab philoso-
other public buildings, as well as in the metic- pher of history Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)
ulously copied versions of the book itself, was developed a theory of cyclic renewal and state
powerful. Even Mongol invaders, notorious formation, which analyzed this process in the
for their cruelty, would succumb to the spiri- context of his native North Africa. According
tual and aesthetic power of Islam in the west- to his theory, in the arid zones where rainfall is
ern part of their dominions. sparse, pastoralism remains the principal
The maps in this book do not aim to pro- mode of agricultural production. Unlike peas-
vide a comprehensive account of the shifting ants, pastoralists are organized along “tribal”
11
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
lines (patrilineal kinship groups). They are rel- a common or corporative asabiyya. The
atively free from government control. Enjoying absence of bourgeois solidarity, in which the
greater mobility than urban people, they can- corporate group interests of the burghers
not be regularly taxed. Nor can they be transcend the bonds of kinship, may partly
brought under the control of feudal lords who be traced to the operations of Muslim law.
will appropriate a part of their produce in Unlike the Roman legal tradition, the Sharia
return for extending protection. Indeed, in the contains no provision for the recognition of
arid lands it is the tribesmen who are usually corporate groups as fictive “persons.”
armed, and who, at times, can hold the city to In its classic formulation, Ibn Khaldun’s
ransom, or conquer it. Ibn Khaldun’s insights theory applied to the North African milieu
tell us why it is usually inappropriate to speak he knew and understood best. But it serves as
of Muslim “feudalism,” except in the strictly an explanatory model for the wider history
limited context of the great river valley systems of Western Asia and North Africa, from the
of Egypt and Mesopotamia, where a settled coming of Islam to the present. The theory is
peasantry farmed the land. In the arid regions, based on the dialectical interraction between
pastoralists move their flocks seasonally across religion and asabiyya. Ibn Khaldun’s concept
the land according to complex arrangements of asabiyya, which is central to his outlook
with other users. Usufruct is not ownership. on Muslim social and political history, can be
Property and territory are not coterminous, as made to mesh with modern theories of eth-
they became in the high rainfall regions of nicity, whether one adopts a “primordial” or
Europe. Here feudalism and its offshoot, capi- “interactive” model. The key to Ibn
talism, took root and eventually created the Khaldun’s theory may be found in two of his
bourgeois state that would dominate the coun- propositions singled out by the anthropolo-
tryside, commercializing agriculture and sub- gist and philosopher Ernest Gellner: (1)
jecting rural society to urban values and con- “Leadership exists only through superiority,
trol. In most parts of Western Asia and North and superiority only through group feeling
Africa, in contrast, the peoples at the margins (asabiyya)” and (2) “Only tribes held togeth-
continued to elude state control until the com- er by group feeling can live in the desert.”
ing of air power. Even now the process is far The superior power of the tribes vis-à-vis
from complete in places such as Afghanistan, the cities provided the conditions under which
where tribal structures have resisted the dynastic military government and its variants,
authority of the central government. royal government underpinned by mamlukism
Urban Moroccans had a revealing term for or institutionalized asabiyya, became the
the tribal regions of their country: bled al- norm in Islamic history prior to the European
siba—the land of insolence—as contrasted colonial intervention. The absence of the legal
with bled al-makhzen, the civilized center, recognition of corporative bodies in Islamic
which periodically falls prey to it. The supe- law prevented the artificial solidarity of the
riority of the tribes, in Ibn Khaldun’s theory, corporation, a prerequisite for urban capitalist
depends on asabiyya, a term which is usually development, from transcending the “natural”
translates as group feeling or social solidari- solidarities of kinship. In precolonial times the
ty. This asabiyya derives ultimately from the high cultural traditions of Islam constantly
harsher environment of the desert or arid interacted with these primordial solidarities
lands, where there is little division of labor, or ethnicities: they did not replace them.
and humans depend for their survival on the Formally the ethic of Islam is opposed to
bonds of kinship. City life, by contrast, lacks local solidarities, which privilege some
12
INTRODUCTION
believers above others. In theory there exists eleventh centuries was far ahead of its
a single Muslim community—the umma— Christian competitor eventually fell behind,
under the sovereignty of God. In practice this to find itself under the political and cultural
ideal was often modified by recognition of dominance of people it regarded—and which
the need to enlist asabiyya or tribal ethnicity some of its members still do regard—as infi-
in the “path of God.” Islamic practice stress- dels.
es communitarian values through regular The Islamic system of precolonial times,
prayer, pilgrimage, and other devotional embedded in the memory of contemporary
practices, and given time, generates the urban Muslims, was brilliantly adapted to the polit-
scripturalist piety of the high cultural or ical ecology of its era. Even if the strategy of
“great” tradition. But it does not of itself “waging jihad in the path of God” were
forge a permanent congregational communi- adopted for pragmatic or military reasons,
ty strong enough to transcend the counter- Islamic faith and culture were the beneficiar-
vailing dynamic of local ethnicities. Be they ies. The nomad conquerors and Mamluks
secular—based on differences of tribe, vil- (soldier-slaves), imported from peripheral
lage, or even craft—or sectarian religious— regions to keep them at bay, became Islam’s
based on divisions between different mad- foremost champions, defenders of the faith-
habs (schools of jurisprudence), or the mysti- community and patrons of its cultures and
cal Sufi orders which are often controlled by systems of learning.
family lineages, or the differences between The social memory of this system exercises
Sunnis and Shiites—such divisions militate a powerful appeal over the imaginations of
against the solidarity of the Umma. many young Muslims at this time. This is espe-
Like the Baptist movement in the United cially true when the more recent memory of
States, Islam (especially that of the Sunni modernization through colonization can be
mainstream, comprising about 90 percent of represented as a story of humiliation, retreat,
the world’s Muslims) is a conservative, pop- and betrayal of Islam’s mission to bring univer-
ulist force, which resists tight doctrinal or sal truth and justice to a world torn by division
ecclesiastical controls. While Muslim scrip- and strife. The violence that struck America on
turalism and orthopraxy provide a common September 11th 2001, may have been rooted in
language which crosses ethnic, racial, and the despair of people holding a romantic, ide-
national boundaries—creating the largest alized vision of the past and smarting under the
“international society” known to the world humiliation of the present. While those who
in premodern times—it has never succeeded planned the operation were almost certainly,
in supplying the ideological underpinning for educated, sophisticated men, fully cognizant
a unified social order that can be translated with the workings of modern societies, it does
into common national identity. In the West not seem accidental that most of the fifteen
the institutions of medieval Christianity, hijackers were Saudi citizens, several from the
allied to Roman legal structures, created the province of Asir. This impoverished mountain-
preconditions for the emergence of the mod- ous region close to the modern borders of
ern national state. In Islamdom the moral Yemen was conquered by the Al Saud family in
basis of the state was constantly undermined the 1920s, and still retains many of its links
by the realities of tribal asabiyya. These with the Yemeni tribes. Like all decent people,
could be admitted de facto, but never accord- Ibn Khaldun would have been horrified by the
ed de jure recognition. This may be one rea- indiscriminate slaughter of 9/11: but it is
son why a civilization that by the tenth and doubtful that he would have been surprised.
13
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
14
INTRODUCTION
15
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
16
GEOPHYSICAL MAP OF THE MUSLIM WORLD
one region to another, certain features distin- Unlike peasant cultivators, a portion of
guish the patterns of life from those of the whose product may be extracted by priests in
temperate zones to the north or tropical zones the form of offerings or by the ruler in taxes,
to the south. Where rainfall is scarce and nomadic pastoralists will often avoid the con-
uncertain, animal husbandry—the raising of fines of state power. People are organized into
camels, sheep, goats, cattle, and, where suit- tribes or patrilineal kinship groups descended
able, horses—offers the securest livelihood for from a common male ancestor. Military
substantial numbers of humans. The “pure prowess is encouraged because, where food
deserts” or sand seas of shifting dunes shaped resources are scarce, tribal or “segmentary”
by the wind, which cover nearly one-third of groups may have to compete with each other,
the land area of Arabia and North Africa, are or make raids on settled villages, in order to
wholly unsuitable for human and animal life, survive. Property is held communally, classi-
and have generally been avoided by herdsmen, cally in the form of herds, rather than in the
traders, and armies. But in the broader semi- form of crop-yielding land. Property and ter-
desert regions complex forms of nomadic and ritory are not coterminous (as they tended to
seminomadic pastoralism have evolved. In become in regions of higher rainfall) because
winter the flocks and herds will range far into the land may be occupied by different users at
the wadis or semidesert areas, to feed on the different seasons of the year. Vital resources,
grasses and plants that can spring up after the such as springs or wells in which everyone has
lightest of showers. In the heat of summer an interest, are often considered as belonging
they will move, where possible, to pastures in to God, and are entrusted to the custodian-
the highlands, or cluster near pools or wells. ship of special families regarded as holy.
17
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
20
MUSLIM LANGUAGES AND ETHNIC GROUPS
solidarities were reinforced by endogamous prac- through military power was balanced by the
tices such as marriage between first cousins, a moral force and cultural prestige of Islam.
requirement in many communities. Clan loyalties Time and again in precolonial times the pred-
were further buttressed by religion, with tribal ators were converted into Islam’s most trusted
leaders often justifying their rebellions or wars of defenders. To borrow a phrase of the anthro-
conquest by appealing to the defense of true pologist Ernest Gellner, “the wolves become
Islam against its infidel enemies. sheepdogs.” Just as the Prophet Muhammad
Viewed from the perspective of modern had tamed the Arabian tribes by his personal
Western history the systems of governance that example, the eloquence of the Koran, and the
evolved in the arid region were divisive and system of governance that proceeded from it,
unstable. In Europe, a region of high rainfall, so the Sharia (divine) law and human systems
the state emerged out of constitutional struggles of fiqh (jurisprudence) to which it gave rise
between rulers and their subjects animated by mediated the perennial conflicts between pas-
conflicts between social classes, within ethnical- toral predators, cultivators, and townsfolk.
ly homogeneous populations sharing common The system, embedded in the social memory
national, political, and cultural identities of today’s Muslim populations, was based on
(although these were sometimes contested, as in the duty of the ruler to uphold social justice by A Tuareg policeman in the Sahel
Ireland). In the arid zone dominant clans or trib- governing in accordance with Islamic law. The region south of the Sahara. From
ally based dynasties exercised power over subor- formidable task facing contemporary Muslim their center at Timbuktu, the
dinate groups or tried to ensure their dominance states is to harness political and social tradi- Tuareg controlled the trade
by importing mamluks (slave-soldiers), from dis- tions forged in a very different context from routes between the
tant peripheries, who had minimal social con- modern-day conditions. Mediterranean and West Africa.
tacts with the indigenous populations. Peasant
cultivators and townsfolk remained vulnerable
to the predations of nomadic marauders—the
proverbial “barbarians at the gates.” The
asabiyya (loyalties or group solidarity) that
bound the clans was stronger than urban soli-
darity. Lacking the corporate ethos of their
Western counterparts, the Muslim urban classes
failed to achieve the “bourgeois” or capitalist
revolutions that gave rise to the modern state
systems of Europe and North America.
There is, however, a different way of view-
ing the same historical landscape. Given the
predominance of pastoral nomadism in the
vast belt of territories where Islam took root,
stretching from the Kazakh steppes to the
Atlantic shores (and in similar regions in
northern India and south of the Sahara) the
inability of relatively weak agrarian states to
tax nomadic predators or control them
21
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
B.
LUX. CZECH.
SLOV. UKRAINE
AUS. MOLD.
SWITZ. HUN. ROM.
FRANCE SL. GYPSIES
C a s p
TATARS
B.H.
IT BOSNIANS
YUG. BULG. B l a c k S e a R
A GYPSIES POMAKS
i
Rome GEORG.
a
ALB. RUMELIAN TURKS
LY
n
Istanbul
Madrid ALBANIAN POMAK
AZA. ARM.
S e a
PORT. BOSNIANS Ankara
POMAK AZERI
SPAIN GREECE TURKMEN
Lisbon M e
d i TURKEY AZERI SHAHSE VAN
t a
r Athens CIRCASSIANS YORUK
Tunis ARABIC
Algiers KURDISH
r
a
n N CH Tehran
e
a
RUMELIAN TURKS
F RE SYRIA LUR
PERS
n
Rabat S e BAKHTIARI
Casablanca LEB. Baghdad
BERBER
a
QASHQA'I
Tripoli ISRAEL
O Alexandria HEBREW
IRAQ
CC
O Cairo JORDAN
R
ALGERIA
O
Al Kuwayt
M
E
A L I B YA ARABIC
N
EGYPT SAUDI
WESTERN R
A
G
Riyadh
SAHARA
B I C U.A.
L
F R E N C H ARABIA
TEBU
I
TEBU BEJA
MAURITANIA
TUAREG S ARABIC
MEIDOB H
BERBER MALI NIGER BILIN
TUKULOR TEBU
MIMI HAUSA
WOLOF FULANI BERI
SENEGAL SONGHAY KANEMBU CHAD ARABIC Khartoum JABARTI
EN
Dakar FULANI SONINKÉ KANEMBU
BUDUMA BUDUMA
MABA
TAMA
MASALIT FUR BERTI
BENI AMER
ERITREA YEM
SERER DIOLA FULANI HAUSA TUNJUR
BAMBARA KURI ARABIC HADDAD
MANDINKA MOSSI SONGHAY F U L A N I
ARABIC
BARMA
DAJU S U DA N TIGRE
SINYAR TUNJUR TAQALI WAYTO
MANDINKA KANURI HADDAD
FULANI BAMBARA
JAHANKA FULANI DYULA SONINKÉ
BURKINA SONGHAY HAUSA KANURI
FULANI KOTOKO
FONGORO FULANI
NUBA
AFAR
IA
VAI Lagos GURAGE
COAST AKAN OROMO
N
LIBERIA
AL
REPUBLIC
O
Accra SADAMA
O
Abidjan M
ER
TOGO CA M SO
GANDA OROMO SOMALI
SOGA
O
ONG
UGANDA
A T L A N T I C BENIN NYANKOLE KENYA
REP. C
NORTHEAST BANTU
O C E A N GABON Nairobi
CONGO SWAHILI
NYAMWEZI
Kinshasa
CENTRAL TANZANIAN
TANZANIA
Languages and peoples of Islam Dar es Salaam
SWAHILI
Muslim population, 50% or more Luanda
YAO
ENGLISH Imperial languages still in regional use
YAO
ANGOLA
YAO
A
I
B
ZAM
E
22
MUSLIM LANGUAGES AND ETHNIC GROUPS
K A Z A K H S TA N
A N
I
S MONGOLIA
S KAZAKHS Harbin
U
UYGUR
UZBE
KI
ST KIRGHIZ. UYGUR Shenyang
AN
KIRGHIZ
Beijing
TURK Tianjin N. KOREA
ME TURKMEN
NI TAJIK.
KIRGHIZ TAJIK Seoul
ST
AN
Delhi
BALUCH K NE
PA PA
L BH.
E MEOS
SINDHIS
URDU
Karachi
N Dhaka
Ahmadabad Guangzhou Taiwan
E. GUJARATIS Calcutta
G H BURMA Hong Kong
INDIA
AN
P A C I F I C
L I S (MYANMAR)
ORISSANS BANGLA-
M
MAHARASHTRIANS O C E A N
DECCANI DESH L
O
Bombay Hainan
A
OS
Hyderabad
VI
Rangoon Luzón
ET
THAILAND
Manila
NA M
MAPPILLA Bangkok
Bangalore Madras
TAMIL
CAMB.
LABBAI
PHILIPPINES
Ho Chi
TAMIL Minh
SRI Mindanao
LANKA
BRUNEI BAJAU
ACEHNESE
GAYO M A L AY S I A
BATAK
I N D I A N O C E A N MINANGKABAU GORONTALESE
TOMINI
Sumatra Borneo Sulawesi
WAND
OGAN-BESEMAH
BUGIS
I N D O
Jakarta N E S I A
N Java
Timor
23
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
24
LATE ANTIQUITY BEFORE ISLAM
E A S T E R N R O M A N
Ardabil Caspian
Attaleia Edessa Dara Sea
Dabiq Harran Nisibis
Aleppo Qazvin
Antioch
Ti
gr
Rayy
is
35°
Hamah
C Y PRU S Eu
ph
Tripoli Homs ra
t
Palmyra es
Jafula
Mediter ranean Nihavand
M
Sea Damascus es
Tyre op
ot Ctesiphon S A S A N I A N E M P I R E
Yarmuk Karbala am
Caesarea Isfahan
Alexandria Kufa ia
Jerusalem
Ajnadain Qadisiya P e r s i a
30°
Mu’tah
al-Fustat
(Cairo) Petra GHASSAN Basra Istahar
LAKHM (Persepolis)
KALB
E M P I R E
Pe
BAKR Siraf
rs
GHATAFAN
N
a
ile
A n
Sahara G
u
l f
Gulf
25°
Desert r
JUHEINA
o
f
Medina
R e
Bedr a Om
Tropic of Ca
an
ncer
KINDA al-Yamama
d
HANIFAH
S e
N O BATI A b
JA
MAZUN
a
S U L AY M
Z
DE
i
SE
Mecca Q U R AY S H
RT
20°
a
NO
HAWAZIN
MA
MA K K U R A
DS
li
ha er
K rt
DES
Dongola
al a
MAHRAH
AZD b qu
Sa
ERT
u y
R pt
san
em
NOM
t he
ian
ADS
15°
A LWA Arabian Sea
De
Ye m
N
pe
AX U M
n
en
en
d
cies 0 200 km
H I M YA R 0 200 miles
25
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
26
MUHAMMAD’S MISSION AND CAMPAIGNS
Campaigns
Marash Samosata
Edessa
Dabiq
Harran
Aleppo Mosul Qazvin
Ti
Antioch
gr
Rayy
is
35° Raqqa
Cyp r u s
Hamadan
Tripoli Homs
Jafula S A S A N I A N
E
Sea Damascus
ra
Ctesiphon E M P I R E
t
es
Caesarea
Wasit
Damietta Gaza Kufa Isfahan
E M
Heliopolis
30°
E
Dumat al-Jandal
I
T Shiraz
B Y Z A N
Pe
rs
Siraf
ia
H
N
n
i le
E
JA
G
u l
25°
f
Z
G
ul
Aswan 625 f o
Medina al-Yamama f Oman
R e
630
a
Mecca
r
20° l i t e
a r
h
MAKKURA K a
u
a l q
u b t y
R p
e m
t h e
633
ALWA A r a b i a n S e a
15°
Sana N
AXUM
633 0 400 km
0 400 miles
27
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
FR NG
N
A
I
A
N
Muhammad’s death left the Muslim communi-
K
E
AS
SH
I
O
D
C
TU
M
ty without an obvious leader. One of his oldest
AQ
RI
AS
UI
IC
companions, Abu Bakr (r. 632–634), was
TA
T
IN
acknowledged by several leaders as the first
E
N
LA
caliph, or successor. Under Abu Bakr and his
T
A
successor Umar (634–644), the tribes, who had
begun to fall away on the death of Muhammad,
were reunited under the banner of Islam and
Ag
a
di
r
converted into a formidable military and ideo-
Rome
logical force. The Arabs broke out of the penin-
B
E
sula, conquering half the Byzantine provinces
R
B
E
as well as defeating the armies of Sasanian
R
S
Persia. Ctesiphon, the Persian capital, fell in Ca
r
Ka thage
637, Jerusalem in 638. By 646, under Umar’s iro
ua 698
I F
n6
70
S
successor Uthman (r. 644–656), the whole of
R
I Q
The Dome of the Rock in Egypt had come under Arab Muslim control.
I Y
a
Jerusalem, built by the Caliph Acquiring ships from Egypt and Syria, the nomadic preda-
A
Tr
ipo
li 6
47
Abd al-Malik in 691–92, is the Arabs conducted seaborne raids, conquering tors would have
h
first great building to have been Cyprus in 649 and pillaging Rhodes in 654. taken the plunder or
Religious differences between the Byzantine held onto land, dispersing
a
constructed after the Arab
conquest. Embellished with rulers and their subjects in Egypt and Syria as landlords or peasants
r
Koranic quotations proclaiming ensured that the Muslims were met with indif- among the conquered peoples.
the unity of God, the building ference, or even welcomed by fellow monothe- In a farsighted decision Caliph
a
surrounds the rock from where ists embittered by decades of alien Byzantine Umar encouraged the tribes to settle
Muhammad is believed to have rule. But secular factors were also important. with a system of stipends paid from the
embarked on his miraculous The Arabs were motivated by desire for plun- common treasury, which took control of
“night journey” to heaven. der, as well as religious faith. In previous eras the conquered lands. The Arabs were kept
apart from the population in armed camps that
evolved into garrison cities such as Basra and
Kufa in Iraq. Although the tensions over the
distribution of booty would erupt into open
civil war the overall control exercised by the
fledgling Islamic government remained under
dynastic rule. Though individual dynasties
would often be challenged as ruling contrary to
Islamic principles of equality and justice, the
dynastic system of governance fitted the pre-
vailing form of social organization, the patriar-
chal kinship group, and remained the norm
until modern times. Under the Umayyads the
remarkable expansion of Islam continued, with
the Arab raiders reaching as far as central
France and the Indus Valley.
28
EXPANSION OF ISLAM TO 750
10
° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
S Expansion to 750
L
A V S Arab advance
B U L G A R S Battle site
Expansion of Islam:
AV
AR Under Muhammad
EM 50°
PI
RE H U N G A R I A N S Under Abu Bakr (632–634)
K
K. OF THE L
P I E S
R E
P L
Under the Umayyads (661–750)
V S
OM
O
BU E
LG P
BAR
AR
IA C
DS
I
K
Aral S yr
Da
R
Black Sea ry
751
a
Sea A
T U
Talas AN
Ca
Con T
B 673–7stantinop R GH
Y 7, 717 le A FER
spi
–18 40°
Z
N
A
an
SO
N ARMENIA
T I Am
X
Tiflis Derbend uD
N E
IA
ary
0
and 71
a
N
E M Samark
Sea
Erzuru
A
P I R m 710
M E A Bukhara
ZE
e
RB
d
AI
i t Tarsu M 664
JA
e
ES
r a 654 s
N
Cypr Antioch A
O
n e
Mosul 641 RG r 651 l 664
PO
u
a n 649 s GU Nishapu Kabu
Eu
TA
S e Rayy
ph
LIB a S
YRIA Jalula KHU Herat JAB
PUN
ra
YA Da te s
capital mascus 63 RASAN
IA
from 6 5
58 Kerbela Nehavend
Ram 642
la Yarmu 680 N 1
A an 71
Alex k 636 Ctesiphon N I
andr
ia Fih S A S A Mult 30°
646 Jerusalel
m 638 Kufa Susa I A
al-Fu Ajnada Qadisiya 636 Isfahan E R S
stat 6 in 634 P
Faiyu 70 Heliop
oli DU
m 640 s HIN
FA
us
SEISTAN
TES
Basra
E G 656 R Istahar 648 Ind STA
Y P K
S
Tabuk IR
T
M SI N D
BA
Pe A
HR
rs
N
Nil
ia
AI
AN
n MAKR cer
e
Can
ic of
Gu
Trop
H
lf
EJ
Medina O
Muscat
Arabian
Y
A M
M AN
A
M 20°
M A K
A
Re
Mecca A r a b i a n
622
K U
Dong
d
ola P e n i n s u l a
Se
R
A
a
I
T
N Najran U
A AN
Soba M
R
A OCE
H IAN
ALODIA
H
AD IND
YEMEN
KINGDOM
Aden 0 300 km 10°
OF AXUM
0 300 miles
29
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Expansion 751–1700
Islam expanded by conquest and conversion. (including Zoroastrians) the right to maintain
Although it was sometimes said that the faith of their religious practices provided they paid the
The tower of the great mosque
Islam was spread by the sword, the two are not jizya tax (tribute), a payment in lieu of military
in Kairouan, now in Tunisia,
the same. The Koran states unequivocally, service. Initially Islam remained the religion of
dates from the ninth century.
Built near the site of ancient
“There is no compulsion in religion” (2:256). the Arabs, a badge of unity and mark of superi-
Carthage, the design of three Following the precedent established by the ority. When conversions did occur the converts
superimposed towers is based on Prophet, who allowed the Jews and Christians were required to become mawali (clients) of the
the lighthouses and watchtowers to keep their religion if they paid tribute, the Arab tribes, the assumption being that the
of classical antiquity. caliphs granted all the people of the Book Arabs retained a hegemonic role.
Many factors, however, encouraged conver-
sion after the initial conquests. For those
Christians who were tired of centuries of eru-
dite theological wranglings over the precise bal-
ance between Christ’s divine and human
natures, Islam provided the hospitality of a reli-
gion in which Christ had an honored place as a
forerunner to Muhammad. Likewise for Jews
Islam could appear as a reformed faith in the
tradition of Abraham and Moses. Zoroastrians,
deprived of state support for their religion after
the Arab conquest of the Sassanian Empire,
would find in Islam a religion, like theirs, of
individual ethical responsibility and later, in the
Shiite idea of a Mahdi (messiah) from the
House of Ali, a concept similar to the Saoshyant
of Zoroastrian eschatology. Messianic ideas
have a universal appeal, and are found in nearly
all religious traditions. After the Islamic con-
quests in India, the Awaited Imans of the Shiite
eschatology would sometimes be identified with
a forthcoming avatar of Vishnu. In the metro-
politan areas converts from the older traditions
helped to detribalize the Arabian religion by
asserting their rights as Muslims, by emphasiz-
ing the universality of its message, and by stress-
ing its legitimizing function in the establishment
of the new social order and forms of political
power. Further afield the simplicity of the con-
version process (the mere utterance before wit-
nesses of the formula: “There is no god but
30
EXPANSION 751–1700
God. Muhammad is the Messenger of God”) numerous guises: educated, literate mer-
would contrast favorably with the often com- chants, wandering scholar-teachers, charis-
plex conversion procedures of the mystery reli- matic dervishes, native princes with impres-
gions. In Subsaharan Africa local spirits could sive retinues, sophisticated intellectuals and
be Islamized by incorporating them into the dais (missionaries) from esoteric traditions
This Koran, written using
Koranic storehouse of angels, djinns, and devils. who specialized in tailoring their message
muhaqqaq script, was produced
Ancestor cults could be accommodated by and rituals to suit audiences of widely differ- in Baghdad in 1308. The large
grafting local kinship groups onto Arab or Sufi ent cultural backgrounds. Lacking a central- format indicates that this
spiritual lineages. ly directed missionary program, the religion manuscript was a presentation
There were also more worldly considera- has proved itself sufficiently adaptable to copy, used for public recitation
tions behind many conversions. Islamic mar- spread organically. in the mosque.
riage rules are weighted in favor of spreading
the faith, for while a woman from one of the
ahl al-dhimma (protected communities) who
marries a Muslim is not required to change
her religion, the converse does not apply, and
the children are expected to be brought up as
Muslims, ensuring the Islamization of subse-
quent generations. This demographic advan-
tage would have carried considerable weight
in societies where it was customary for the
victors to marry the women of defeated
tribes. More generally, there exists the natu-
ral tendency of bright and ambitious individ-
uals to enter the ranks of the ruling elites. As
Islamic society developed in metropolitan
areas such as the cities of Iran and Iraq,
knowledge of the Law and the Traditions of
the Prophet, alongside secular learning in
such fields as literature, astronomy, philoso-
phy, medicine, and mathematics, became the
mark of distinction among the patrician
classes. Conversions inspired by social ambi-
tion should not be dismissed as mere oppor-
tunism: at its high point in the classical era,
the Islamic world was the most developed
and sophisticated society outside China. The
models of urbane sobriety and order it
offered would have exercised their own
appeal quite apart from conscious missionary
activity. Peoples on the fringes of the core
regions would have encountered the faith in
31
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
165° 150° 135° 120° 105° 90° 75° 60° 45° 30° 15°
70°
Arctic Circ Greenland
le
60°
Iceland
(to Denmark)
50°
IRELAND
ENGLAND
40° Newfoundland
New France
Nova Scotia FRANCE
Madeira
ATLANTIC MOROCCO
Tropic of Cancer Florida
PACIFIC OCEAN Canary Is.
Bahamas S a h
OCEAN
V
20°
ic
e- Cuba
R Hispaniola
oy
al Belize Jamaica ARMA
ty Puerto Rico
of St. Louis
Cape Verde Is.
Ne TERKUR
SONGHAI
ASHANTI
Santa Fé Elmina
de Bogotá
0°
Quito
Vi
Recife
ce
-R
Expansion 750–1700
al
La Paz
ty
of
40°
50°
60°
165° 150° 135° 120° 105° 90° 75° 60° 45° 30° 15° 0
32
EXPANSION 751–1700
0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 180° 165°
80°
ARCTIC
OCEAN 70°
AY
RW 60°
O
N
&
RK
EN S i b e r i a Okhotsk
DENMA
D
E
W St Petersburg 50°
R U S S I A N E M P I R E
S
Moscow
HOLY
POLAND
ROMAN
EMPIRE NOGAIS 40°
HUNGARY
KIRGHIZ
TU
UZ KALMYKS
RKO
BE
MA
Constantinople KS MANCHU
NS
KOREA JAPAN
PAPAL E CHINESE
STATES R
PI EMPIRE 30°
EM SAFAVID
OTTOMAN EMPIRE TIBET
MU
GH
Cairo A A
ra L Shan PACIFIC
h a r a States
b E Formosa
OCEAN
i MP
IRE 20°
a
Oman
Mecca
LA
ARAKAN AVA
OS
AN
FU
Philippine Is.
NA
YA
NJ
DARFUR
HA
ET HI O
TERRITORY
Hausa Hindu 10°
states AWSA
Kingdoms CAMBODIA
PI
A
OYO SAYLAN
OROMO ACEH
Malacca
Borneo 0°
Islamic
city states Celebes
Mombasa
INDIAN Sumatra Spice Is.
LUNDA LUBA
CONGO New Guinea
OCEAN MATARAM
Luanda Comoro Is.
Timor
10°
Mozambique
ROZWI
Madagascar
Mauritius
Bourbon
(Réunion) 20°
Delagoa Bay Fort Dauphin
New Holland
Cape Town
30°
40°
50°
60°
0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 180° 165°
33
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
34
SUNNIS, SHIITES, AND KHARIJI 660–c. 1000
35
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
40
°
courtiers were the poet
Abu Nuwas (d. 815), who
was renowned for his Li
sb
on
wine and his love poetry, Um
756 ayya To
–10 ds led
and the musician Ibrahim Sev 31 o
ille
al-Mawsili (d. 804). Abu Ta
Cor
Uma dova, c
ngi y ap
er Gib yad Em ital of
’l Hasan al-Kisai (d. 805), Rab ral irate
tar
at
who was tutor to al- Id
Tle
mc
789 risids en
–92
Rashid and his sons, was 6 Rus
Ma
rrak S 776 tamids
esh ijilmas –906
the leading Arabic gram- 30° sa
36
ABBASID CALIPHATE UNDER HARUN AL-RASHID
Sufism (Islamic mysticism) flourished under Barmaki family, led to a period of political
Abbasid Empire
the caliph. The famous ascetic and mystic and territorial decline. Harun’s decision to c. 850
Maruf al-Karkh (d. c.815) was among the lead- divide the empire between his two sons al- Extent of Abbasid Empire 786–809
ing expositors of Sufism in Baghdad. By con- Amin and al-Mamun, appointing the elder al- Other Muslim dynasties
trast, Harun instituted a policy of repressing the Amin (r. 809–813) as his successor, con- Islamic expansion 750–850
Shiites, who were thought to challenge this rule. tributed to a two-year civil war that was fol-
Byzantine Empire
The latter half of Harun’s reign was lowed by periods of continued instability and
Abbasid campaigns
marked by political instability. The granting insurrection. The reign of al-Mamun (r.
Islamic naval attacks
of semiautonomy to the governor of Ifriqiya, 813–833), though intellectually brilliant, was
Saffarid incursions
Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab, in 800, followed by marked by territorial decline and the waning
Qarmation expansion
Harun’s destruction of the all-powerful al- of Abbasid influence.
° °
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70 80
r
ga
sh
Ka
ya
R E
F
D ar
A
N U l
S yr
K Ara a
IS R Se nd
rka
Vo
H O lga
ma
EM P E h A
nc Sa N
PIR rge ZM
E U I IA
AR ara SO
X
W lkh
Ca
KH kh l
Bu AN a Ba
Ka
bu
sp
s R
anid T A m u D ary
ia
n
Corsic
Se Sam –1005
a
a
81 9 N
bent rv azn
i
850 Rome Black Sea Derr Me SAA Gh
846 jan
Tiflis rbai UR ah
ar
Sard Naple le Aze pur KH rat nd
inia s Constantinop Nis
ha He 861 Ka
827 PIRE m E NIA Arda
bil
Alg BYZANTINE EM Erzuru ARM
Indus
iers Palerm iz
o 831–33 Tabr 873
831 M
es ids
Tahir 73 AN
Messina o 821– ST
Tunis
834 Athens
Izmir Marash p
o ossu
l SI
M
Kairo 762–805 Edessa A t a han arid
s
uan Syracuse Tarsus R I rra Isfa Saff –1495
Aghla SY m a
M
Sam a
800–9bids
878 i Sus 867
If
Malta comes
09 ad be
e
d
Baghdsid capital
ri
870 871
876
it Q
Crete IRA Abba
qi
er ra uz
r a 825 us 762 905 Bas IA rm
Damasc S Ho
ya
Tripoli R
n e a
n S e a 899–805
PE
Bengazi m
Jerusale sca
t
901 B
Alexandria A Mu ian
H Ar
ab
R
A OM Sea
Cairo IN
Tulunids
AN
868–905
EGYPT
H dh
E ina Riya
JA Med s
ation
Z Qarm–1200 ul
a
894 ins
n Pen
R ca bia
e Mec Ara
d
Tropic of Cancer
N
S a h S
e EA
a r a a OC
D e s e r t IA
N
D
IN
EN
A EM
F Y n
R A Ade
I C Khartou
m
37
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
38
SPREAD OF ISLAM, ISLAMIC LAW, AND ARABIC LANGUAGE
39
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
10°
Ta
he Ro
rt
me
Tu
nis
Ifriqiy
This clay model clearly shows
the physical features that Arab
and Persian commentators noted
as typical of the Turkish soldiers M
a
Tr ed
ipo
recruited by the caliphs. li it
er
ra
A ne
an
f
Even at its maximum extent the Abbasid
r
Empire failed to contain the whole Islamic
world. In Spain an independent dynasty had i
been founded by an Umayyad survivor, Abd c
al-Rahman I (r. 756–788). A grandson of the a
Caliph Hisham, he escaped the massacre of
his kinsmen and after various adventures
made his way to the peninsula. Here he per-
suaded feuding Arabs and Berbers to accept Post-Imperial Successor
him as their leader, instead of the governor Regimes late 10th Century
sent by the Abbasids. In what is now Moroc- Abbasid Caliphate c. 900
40
SUCCESSOR STATES TO 1100
by the Fatimids in the tenth century, the At the heart of the empire, however, polit-
chronicler Ibn Saghir wrote: ical and religious tensions were rife. The dis-
“There was not a foreigner who stopped in puted succession between Harun’s sons
the city but settled among them and built in Amin and Mamun led to a civil war that last-
their midst, attracted by the plenty there, the ed a decade, weakening the Abbasid armies
equitable conduct of the Imam, his just behav- and the institution of the caliphate. Though
ior toward those under his charge, and the Mamun won the war, his attempt to impose
security enjoyed by all in person and property.” the Mutazili doctrine of the “created” Koran
i a
lga
A s
Blac
k Se
Con a
stan
BY tino
ple
Aral
ZA Sea
NT
Cas
Ath IN na
gha
ens E E
Sm
p ian
yrn MP Khwarizm r
a
IRE A rm eni a Fa us)
(Ox gar
Tiflis Kash 40°
Sea
arya
Tr ns Sy
rD
a ox Samarkan
d
Bukhara ia n
a
A
Alepp Tabriz
m
u
Se o Mosul D
ar
a Syria Daylam ya
Balkh
Eu
Alex
Tig r
ra
and
ria
te
Rayy Ghazni
s
is
Samarra
Qom Herat
Jerus Baghdad
Afghanistan
alem
Cair Karbala
o Isfahan
Iraq an
Egy
pt Basra Mult
Ahwaz 30°
Sistan
us
Shiraz
Ind
Pe Fa Kirman Indi
a
rs
ia rs
n
A r a b Gu
i a Bahrain lf
R e
He
r
f Cance
jaz
Medina
Tropic o
d
O
ma
n
S e
Mecca
a
Arabian 20°
Nu Sea N
bia
t
au
am
d hr
Ha
Y
em
e n
41
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
met with strong resistance from the populist Mamun’s most effective general, Tahir,
ulama (religious scholars) grouped around established a hereditary governorate. To off-
Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. For the latter, who saw set the power of the Tahirids Mamun’s suc-
the divine text as “uncreated” or eternal, the cessor Mutasim relied increasingly on merce-
doctrine of the created Koran derogated naries recruited from Turkish-speaking
from the idea of the Koran as God’s speech. tribes in Central Asia—a practice that has-
They looked to the Koran and the emerging tened the breakup of the empire and the
corpus of hadiths (traditions or reports establishment of de facto tribal dynasties.
about the Prophet Muhammad) as the sole The construction of a new capital at Samar-
sources of religious authority, with them- ra further isolated the caliph from his sub-
selves as qualified interpreters. They regard- jects. By the end of the tenth century the
ed the caliph as the executive of the will of Abbasid caliphs were mainly titular mon-
the community, not the source of its beliefs. archs, their legitimacy challenged by
As the caliph’s religious authority weak- claimants in the line of Ali. The most radical
ened, so did his political and economic con- of these movements, the Qaramatians,
trol. In cultivated regions including Iraq the fomented peasant and nomad rebellions in
system of iqta (tax-farming) built up a class Iraq, Syria, and Arabia in the name of a mes-
of landlords at the expense of central gov- siah descended from Ali through his descen-
ernment. In Iran and the eastern provinces dant Ismail bin Jaafar. In the 920s the Qara-
Tu
Vo
nis s i
l ga
Ifriqiy
A
Z
Blac
A
N Con k Se
a
T stan
IN tinop Aral
le Sea
Ath E
Ca s
M ens EM
Tr a
ipo ed Smy han
p ian
PI Khwarizm rg
a
li rna RE A rm eni a Fa
it
ya
er Tiflis gar 40°
ar
Kash
Sea
D
Tr
A ra Sy
r
ne ns
a
dria te
s Samarra Rayy
c Jerus Baghdad Qom Herat
alem an
a Cair Karbala Afghanist
o Isfahan
Iraq an
Egy Basra Mult
pt Ahwaz 30°
Post-Imperial Successor Sistan
s
Shiraz
du
Pe Fa Kirman Indi
a
rs
ia rs
Byzantine Empire A r a b n
Gu
i a
R e
Bahrain lf
He
r
Medina of Cance
jaz
Fatimids Tropic
O
d
ma
n
Qarkhanids Mecca
S e
Arabian 20°
a
Buyids Nu N
bia Sea
Ghaznavids
t
au
m
ra
dh
Ha
Y
em
en
42
SUCCESSOR STATES TO 1100
matians, who created an independent state in Turkish tribe of Qarluqs, led by the
Bahrain, shocked the whole Muslim world by Qaraqanid dynasty, which he did his best to
pillaging Mecca and carrying off the Black confine to the Oxus basin in the north. Mah-
Stone. In 969 Egypt—already semi-inde- mud crossed the Indus Valley, establishing
pendent under Ibn Tulun and his successors, permanent rule in the Punjab, and conducted
the Ikhshids—was taken over by the Ismaili raids into northwestern India, plundering
Fatimids, who established a new caliphate cities and destroying numerous works of art
under a “living imam” descended from Ali as idolatrous. This earned him a fearsome
and Ismail. In northern Syria and the Upper reputation as a ghazi against the infidel. On
Tigris the bedouin Arab Hamdan family— his western front, in the lands of “old Islam”
also Shiite—ruled a semi-autonomous, he pushed the Buyids back almost to the fron-
sometimes independent, state. In Khurasan tiers of Iraq.
and Transoxiana the Samanid family
replaced the Tahirids as defenders of the
mixed Arab-Persian high culture against
incoming nomadic tribes. Even in the central
heartlands of the empire—Iraq and western
Iran—the caliphs were virtual prisoners of
the Shiite Buyids, a warrior clan from Day-
lam, south of the Caspian.
In Inner Asia, where the Samanids had
established a flourishing capital in Bukhara,
the adoption of Islam by Turk-
ish-speaking tribes subverted the
role of the Samanids as ghazis.
These were frontier warriors
entrusted with the defense of
Islam against nomadic incur-
sions. The practice of recruiting warrior-
slaves, known as mamluks or ghulams, from
mountainous or arid regions hastened the
disintegration of the empire. When
power declined at the center, the
mamluks went on to establish
their own “slave-dynasties.”
Thus the Ghaznavids who supplant-
ed their former Samanid overlords in
Mahmud of Ghazna crosses the Ganges. The
Khurasan started as slave-soldiers in the fron- Ghaznavids, Turkish military governors, enjoyed great
tier region of Ghazna, south of Kabul. When renown in later times as the first to extend Muslim
the Samanid regime collapsed in 999, Mah- power into India. This image is from the Compendium of
mud of Ghazna (r. 998–1030), son of a slave- Chronicals, composed for the vizier Rashid al-Din in the
governor, divided their territory with the early fourteenth century.
43
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
44
THE SALJUQ ERA
ment of his supreme authority. In exchange for Crusade in 1096. Although the Saljuqs con-
formal recognition, the sultans agreed to uphold quered half of Anatolia, laying the foundations
Islamic law and defend Islam from its external for later Ottoman-Turkish rule, their system of
enemies. The massive defeat inflicted by the authority was too fragmented to maintain the
Saljuqs on the Byzantine army at Manzikert in unity of the empire, or to defend the frontiers of
1071 was one of the factors leading to the First Islam against further nomadic incursions.
E G S
Sarkel
Vo
1028–38 S
U R
lg
a
G H
t o C h e r n i g ov U I
K H A Z
A R S
Aral
Sea Sea
gar
r rya Kash
Otra Da
Ca
.A
Ca yr
S
mu D
uc
a su Urgench kent
sp
Trebizo sM Tash
nd
a
ry
ia
ou a
nta
n
D A NI ins d
SHME rkan
ND Sama
Se
EMIR
na
soxia
AT E
Dandangan Bukhara Tran
a
from 109 sh
5 Manzikert
108 Ku
0 1071
du
in
Merv H
Aleppo Mosul Balkh
l
Kabu war
Homs Nishapu
r Pesha
Eu
1042
ph
ot
ra
Damasc
te
s
Rayy Sialk
2
us 1040–4
Hamadan
Baghdad Kermanshah
Isfahan
I r a q
s
du
Shiraz
In
A R A B
Pe
S
rs
a
i
n Siraf
G
ul
Medina f The Saljuq Era
Major Saljuq campaign
A O Muscat
r a b i m Saljuq sultanate at its
a a n maximum extent, c. 1090
45
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
qanids, and Saljuqs—were created by ethnic 3 Turkic nomads, from Central Asia
minorities, including mercenaries from the
4 Al-Qaitis, from Yemen
Caspian region, and Turkish and other
nomadic peoples from inner Asia. Since new 5 South Atlas, from South Atlas Mountains
46
MILITARY RECRUITMENT 900–1800
of recruiting erstwhile nomadic predators to the Circassians in the Caucasus) the Egyptian
defend society against other nomads—of mamluks resisted becoming absorbed into the
making “wolves into sheepdogs”—is found ranks of the indigenous elites. For the most
throughout the Muslim heartlands, from the part they remained a one-generation aristoc-
Maghreb to the Indus Valley. racy, without ties of blood to the rest of
The system of military slavery reached its Egyptian society.
fullest development in Egypt, a densely popu- Under the Ottomans military slavery
lated country of peasant cultivators without evolved in a somewhat different direction.
an indigenous military class. The system was From the late fourteenth century the sultans
institutionalized so successfully that mamluk began to offset the power of their sipahi cav-
rule lasted for more than two and a half cen- alry units levied from the estates of the nobil-
turies (1250–1517), and resurfaced in a mod- ity or recruited as mercenaries from Arabic,
ifed form under the Ottomans (1517–1811). Kurdish, and Farsi-speaking nomads, an
By constantly replenishing their ranks from infantry corps of “new troops”, Janissaries,
abroad (firstly from among the Kipchak levied mainly from its Christian provinces in
Turks from Central Asia, later from among the Balkans. The levy (known as the
a Shemakha Tashkent
O u
ca U Z
T su Baku B E K H S
T s
O M E
A N E M PIR
SA Balkh Kashgar
Morea Athens
Adalia F A Tabriz
Aleppo V
Mosul I Kabul
Crete
D
Cyprus
a n
S
KHORASAN KASHMIR
e a
Baghdad E Isfahan PUNJAB
TIBET
M LO
P DI
Alexandria IR SU
E
LT
MULTAN 30°
AN
Delhi NEPAL
Bandar Abbas OF
rs
MA MLUK E S DE
LHI
i
a RAJPUTANA
N A r a b i a n Hormuz
Gul BIHAR
ile
f
Re
SIND
BUNDEL-
d
MALWA KHAND
Muscat BENGAL
GUJERAT
Se
Mecca Diu
a
Arabian
Damah BERAR
Suakin Sea
ORISSA Bay of
UT AHMADNAGAR BIDAR GOLCONDA Bengal
MA Hyderabad
RA BIJAPUR
YEMEN DH
HA 45°
4
VIJAYANAGAR
ABYSSINIA
47
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
48
MILITARY RECRUITMENT 900–1800
49
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
The Shiite Ismaili caliphate of the Fatimids was the Fatimid caliphate
0°
established in Ifriqiya in the Maghreb when a embarked on its decline.
group of Kutama Berbers accepted the claims of Northern Syria was
Abdallah al-Mahdi to be the rightful descen- irrevocably lost in
dant of Ali and Fatima and rose against the 1060. By then,
a l-
An
Aghlabids in 909. By 921, al-Mahdi had settled the Fatimids
da
Có
rd
lus
in his new capital city of Mahdiyya on the were con-
ob
E
a
AT
coastline of Ifriqiya. As successors to the Agh- fronted E MI
R
D
labids, the Fatimids also inherited their fleet and with the YA
AY
UM
Ag
the island of Siqilliyya (Sicily). By the end of al- grow-
a
di
r
M
Mahdi’s reign (909–934), the Fatimid state ing
ag
hr
extended from present-day Algeria and Tunisia
eb
to the Libyan coast of Tripolitania. The third
F
A
Fatimid caliph al-Mansur (r. 946–953) built a
Tu Sicil
T
n
new capital city named Mansuriyya after him- Ka is
iro
y
I
ua
n
self. Situated near Sabra to the south of M
M
ah
diy
ya
Qayrawan, Mansuriyya served as the Fatimid
I
capital from 948 until 973.
D
S Tr
ipo
Fatimid rule was firmly established in North a li
C
Africa only during the reign of the fourth mem- h
A
ber of the dynasty al-Muizz (r. 953–975), who
L
a
transformed the Fatimid caliphate from a menace r
regional power into a great empire. He suc- of the Saljuq a
ceeded in subduing the entire Maghreb, with Turks, who were
the exception of Sabra, before concerning him- laying the foundations
self with the conquest of Egypt, an objective of a new empire. In 1071,
attained in 969. A new Fatimid capital city was Damascus became the capital of
built outside Fustat; it was initially called the new Saljuq principality of Syria and
Mansuriyya, but renamed al-Qahira al- Palestine. By the end of al-Mustansir’s rule, of
Muizziyya (Cairo), “The Victorious City of al- the former Fatimid possessions in Syria and
Muizz,” when the caliph took possession of his Palestine, only Ascalon and a few coastal
new capital in 973. The extension of Fatimid towns, like Acre and Tyre, still remained in
power in Syria became the primary foreign pol- Fatimid hands. By 1048, the Zirids, ruling over
icy objective of al-Muizz’s son and successor al- Ifriqiya on behalf of the Fatimids, placed them-
Aziz (r. 975–996). By the end of his reign, the selves under Abbasid suzerainty. By 1070, when
Fatimid Empire had attained, at least nominal- they lost Sicily to the Normans, Barqa had
ly, its greatest extent, with Fatimid suzerainty become the western limit of the Fatimid Empire,
being recognized from the Atlantic and the which soon became effectively limited to only
western Mediterranean to the Red Sea, the Egypt. Ascalon, the last Fatimid foothold in
Hejaz, Syria, and Palestine. By 1038, the Syria-Palestine, was lost to the Franks in 1153.
Fatimids had also extended their authority to Fatimid rule ended in 1171, when Salah al-Din
the emirate of Aleppo. (Saladin), who became the last Fatimid vizier
In the long reign of al-Mustansir (1036–94), after taking over Egypt, had the khutba (ser-
50
FATIMID EMPIRE 909–1171
80°
30°
BY
70°
40°
ZA
50° 60°
N
T
IN
KHAZAR
E
B l a S Aral S yr
Talas
Da
Ca
c k
S e a TURKS Sea r
ya
40°
sp
Con
stant
inople
ia
Am
u
n
Da
r ya
EM Tiflis Derbend
PI and
RE Samark
M
Bukhara
Se
e Erzurum
D S
d
A N I
a
i t Tarsu
e s S A M
r r
Tabriz Ardabil Balkh
Ale Merv
Antio ppo Edess
a n
Bar a
Ti
qa e a ch
gr
is
n Mosul r
Nishapu l
Kabu
S e
a
Eu
Rayy
ph
I Herat ni
Jalula Ghaz
at
r
Istakar
Ind
Tabu
k
Pe
rs
Nil
ncer
of Ca
ia
Tropic
e
n
KA
RM Gu
lf
AT
r
Medina IA Sea
Arabian
Badr NS Suhar
Muscat
a
20°
b
M AK
KURA
Re
Mecca
i
Dong
d
ola
Se
a
a
Najran AN
Soba OCE
IAN
IND
N
0 300 km
10°
Aden 0 300 miles
51
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
52
TRADE ROUTES c. 700–1500
extended as far south as Sofala in modern The land routes linking western Asia and
Mozambique. Intrepid Muslim travelers the Mediterranean with eastern and south-
penetrated the African interior in search of ern Asia were just as important as the mar-
gold, slaves, ivory, rare woods, and precious itime routes. With many cities landlocked or
stones centuries before Europeans followed distant from rivers and oceans, even bulky
in their paths. items had to be carried by animals. Careful
When the decline of Abbasid power and planning was needed before the caravans set
the incursions of Turkish tribesmen made out on long journeys. Food had to be pro-
the trans-Syrian route less secure the alter- cured for animals and humans, and nomadic
native water route, via the Red Sea and the tribes had to be hired as guards. In remote
Nile, came into prominence. It was the more areas networks of khans (overnight resting
difficult as the land route from the Gulf of places) or khaniqas (Sufi lodges) provided
Suez to the Nile was more arduous than the food and hospitality. Some were built like
route across Syria, except for a brief period fortresses for defense against Bedouin
when the Mamluk sultans revived an ancient marauders. The vast distances over rough
canal originally dug by the pharaohs. Red terrain, combined with the breakdown in
Sea ports such as Aden, Jidda, Aydhab, and territorial authority, made road construction
Qulzum benefited from this trade, as did impracticable. Even by late Roman times,
Cairo and Alexandria. Trade on the Indian wheeled traffic had all but disappeared. The
Ocean was monopolized by Muslims until results can be seen in many of the cities of
the arrival of the Portuguese, followed by western Asia and North Africa. Before mod-
the English and Dutch from the sixteenth ern times few of them had boulevards broad
century onward. enough for carts or carriages.
53
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Iceland
WA -
NOR ARK
(Denmark)
Y
EN
ED
M
SW
DEN
60°
RU S S I A
SCOTLAND
ARS
TAT
ENGLAND POLAND-
KA ZAN
HOLY LITHUANIA
ROMAN
A T LA N T I C O CE AN NOG
EMPIRE AIS
AN
HUNGARY
A KH
S
FRANCE TR AR Astrakhan
45°
Venice AS TAT
TUR
Pisa O
Marseille Rome TT Edirne
OM
KO
VENICE Constantinople
AN
M
PAPAL
SPAIN NS
A
STATES Amalfi Bursa EMP
PORTUGAL IRE
Azores Denia Ardabil
(Port.) Cordoba Konya Tabriz
Algiers Tunis Palermo Izmir Lajazzo Nishapur
Almeria
ALGIERS Kairouan
Mahdia Crete Cyprus Samarra Damghan
Tlemcen Damascus
Fez TUNIS Baghdad S A F AV I D
Meknes Tripoli
Marrakech TRIPOLI Jerusalem
Basra
EMPIRE
30° MOROCCO Cairo
A
Siwa
R
Canary Is. Sijilmasa
A
(Spain)
B
Ghat
N
Tropic of Cancer Kubra Medina O M
C A M E Muscat
L A
N O M D OMAN
A D Mecca S
S
Suakin GHARRA
FUNJ
Timbuktu MAHRA
Cape Verde Is. Sanaa
15° (Port.) SENEGAL SONGHAI KANEM-
Soba HADRAMAUT
Abeche
YEMEN
Cacheu BORNU
(Portugal) MOSSI Aden
MALI STATES HAUSA WADAI DARFUR
STATES Zaila
ADAL
AKAN
OYO ETHIOPIA
N
NI
Benin
BE
Elmina Galla
(Portugal) Fernando Póo DROMO
(Port.)
Mogadishu
0°
Lamu
LUBA Mombasa
(Portugal)
CONGO LUNDA Zanzibar
ISLAMIC
CITY-STATES
15°
Madagascar
54
TRADE ROUTES c. 700–1500
N
A
Balkh P
MUGHAL JA
Herat EM TIB E T MING
Lahore CHINESE
PI
EMPIRE
ISL
Delhi
E
AM
IC
A RAJPUTANA
N
D
HI
ND
U ST BURMESE
Taiwan
Kambaya AT E S BENGAL KINGDOMS P A C I F IC OCE AN
Thana LAOS
Goa ORISSA
(Portugal) PEGU
AN
A
NA
Y
HA
VIJAYANAGARA
Philippine
TT
Islands
CAMBODIA
Kulum Mali
AY U
SAYLAN
Colombo Ceylon
(Portugal)
ACEH
Malacca
(Portugal)
MALACCA Borneo
I NDI A N O C E AN Sumatra M
AL
AYA New Guinea
N IS L A M
N
IC STATES
Java
Timor
(Port.)
AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINAL
HUNTER-GATHERERS
55
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Crusader Kingdoms
35°
The Crusades occurred at a time of
Islamic disunity and retreat.
SALJUQS OF RUM There were Christian
County advances in Spain—
Gargar
GREAT
Behesni
Toledo fell in 1085—
Marash
SALJUQ
of
Samosata
and in Sicily, which
Sis EMPIRE
Cilicia Rancular
the Normans con-
Aintab
Saruj
quered in 1091–92.
Adana
Tarsus Turbessel
Eu
Economically, the
Ravendam
BYZANTINE EMPIRE decline of the Abbasid
ph
Alexandretta
rate
1097 Edessa
ch
t io
s
Asas caliphate and the Saljuq inva-
An
Antioch
sions had diverted the East Asian
of
1097 Tab
trade away from Baghdad and
p al
n tes
n ci
Cerep
Constantinople. Sending it through Egypt
Or o
P ri
Homs
ri p
Mediterranean Tripoli 1109 Byzantine and Fatimid Empires allowed the cities of
T
of
Sidon 1110
Li
Damascus
bands of Oghuz Turks, not all of them under Saljuq
Tyre 1124
control. Alarmed at the danger to Christendom
Acre 1104 Lake posed by the Turks as well as by Norman attacks on
Haifa 1099 Tiberias
Tiberias Byzantine lands in Italy, Pope Urban II launched a
EMIRATE
Caesarea 1101 OF Holy War for the defense and unity of Christendom.
DAMASCUS
The movement was stimulated by charismatic, pop-
Arsur 1101
Jo r d a n
Jaffa 1099
Nablus ulist preachers such as Peter the Hermit and by the
as-Salt
growing popularity of the pilgrimage to Jerusalem as
Ascalon Jerusalem
Gaza Dead
a way of earning spiritual merit or as an act of atone-
Darum
Hebron Sea
ment for sins such as murder.
Krak des
Moabites Christian Crusades In the event, the knights from the Latin West,
Segor First Crusade, Norwegian
FATIMID (including England, Scandinavia, Germany, Italy,
1099–1100 Crusade, 1107–40
CALIPHATE KINGDOM OF
N JERUSALEM
Territory held
by Crusaders to
Crusades of Pope and France) supported by ragtag armies of towns-
Calixtus II, 1122–26
Montréal
1100 folk and peasants lured by the promise of indul-
Crusaders’ Crusade of 1128–29
S i n a i gains, 1100–44 gences, were not wholly interested in saving
1110 Date of Crusaders’
Crusaders’
D e s e r t losses, 1144–45
conquest Christendom by helping their Orthodox brethren.
0 50 km
Muslim territory
Maximum range of (They actually sacked Constantinople in 1204,
0 50 miles Egyptian warfleet
Aila
Other Christian inflicting untold damage on the capital of Eastern
territory Prevailing wind
Christianity.) They wanted to carve out feudal
56
CRUSADER KINGDOMS
Orontes
Turkish advance on Christian domains, the
Kyrenia Latakia
Crusaders’ attacks on Byzantium helped to destroy Nicosia Gastria Jabala
Apamea
the only polity that could have prevented it. Though 35°
KINGDOM Famagusta
Margat Shaizar
OF CYPRUS Maraclea Masyaf Hamah
the Latin kingdoms were eventually eliminated, Tortosa Coible
Mamluk tributary from 1260
Limassol
their existence damaged the previously good rela- 1270 Mamluk fleet
Christian until 1302 Ruad
Chastel Blanc Krak des Chevaliers
founders off Limassol Coliat County Homs
tions that had existed between the eastern churches, Villejargon of Halba
Tripoli
E
their Muslim protectors, and local Islamic commu- Nephin Tripoli
Gibelcar
Botron
nities, leaving a legacy of mistrust of the West that
T
Gibelet Baalbek
has lasted to the present.
Beirut
ni
a
Lit
A
KINGDOM ANTI
OF LEBANON
Entry of the Crusaders into Damietta, Egypt, in June 1249. Sidon
JERUSALEM
Damascus
N
After losing Jerusalem, the Crusaders made several attacks Belfort Tibnin
e tt a Tyre
Belinas
mi
on Egypt in the hope of regaining territory in the Holy Da Toron
Chastel Neuf
Montfort
rf om
A
Jacob’s Ford
Land. From an illuminated manuscript painted in Acre Acre Safad (Saphet)
Hammon Tiberias
Haifa GALILEE L. Tiberias
Château Pèlerin Nazareth
T
shortly after 1277. This school of illuminators was probably Zir’in
Meggido Jisr al-Majami
founded by Louis IX during his stay in Palestine, 1250–54. Caesarea Belvoir
Bethsan
L
SAMARIA
Jericho
S
Ascalon Jerusalem
Bethleem
Gaza Dead
Darum Hebron Sea
K
The Mamluk conquest
U Kerak of the coast
(Krak des
L Moabites) 1263–1291
Muslim conquests
N M 1263–1271
A Montréal Muslim conquests
M 1285–1290
Christian territory
after 1291
0 50 km
Aila Castle
0 50 miles
57
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
58
SUFI ORDERS 1100–1900
59
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
In contrast to the ulama, who tended to in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
reflect the consensus of the learned, the Sufi The term “neo-Sufism” is sometimes applied
tariqas developed elaborate hierarchical to movements that strive to balance “out-
organizations with spiritual power concen- ward” political activity with “inner” spiritu-
trated into the hands of the leader—known al experience, with the structure of the
variously as the shaikh, murshid, or pir. tariqa providing the vehicle for the transmis-
Murids (members or aspirants) were bound sion and implementation of ideas. A well-
by the baya, oath of allegiance, to the leader known example is the Nurculuk movement
or murshid who headed a hierarchy of ranks in Turkey founded by Said Nursi (1876–
within the order based on ascending spiritu- 1960). A Naqshbandi-trained preacher and
al stages. Although the systems varied con- writer, he sought to revitalize Islamic
siderably, with some tariqas being more thought by integrating science, tradition,
exclusive and tightly controlled than others, theology, and mysticism in a new version of
the combination of devotion to the leader the Naqshbandi slogan of “the hand turned
and rankings within the organization made to work and the heart turned to God.” In
it possible for the tariqas to convert them- contrast to the Muslim Brotherhood in
selves into formidable fighting forces. In the Egypt, which was also influenced by Sufi
Caucasus the Imam Shamil waged his cam- ideas, the movement works with the grain of
paign against the Russians from 1834 to 1839 Turkey’s secular state.
under the spiritual authority of his murshid In recent decades Sufi ideas and devotion-
and father-in-law Sayyid Jamal al-Din al- al practices have come under attack from two
Ghazi-Ghumuqi, shaikh of the Khalidiyya quarters—modernists, who regard Sufism as
branch of the Naqshbandiyya. In North retrograde, and Wahhabi-inspired Islamists,
Africa Abd al-Qadir, a shaikh of the who have taken over many Islamic insitutions
Qadiriyya, took the lead in the struggle with financial support from Saudi Arabia
against the French; in Cyrenaica the and other oil-rich countries. Though the two
Sanusiyya were at the forefront of resistance agendas are somewhat different, the conse-
against the Italian occupiers. In other region- quences are the same. Modernists, adapting
al contexts, however, the tariqas ran with the the ideas of the European Enlightenment,
flow of colonial power. In Morocco during began with demands for a “rational” reli-
the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen- gion. They ended by turning against religion
turies the influential Tijaniya order accepted altogether. The Islamists, reacting against the
lavish subsidies from the French, who used modernists, are caught in the same “all-or-
the order to further their colonial interests. nothing” attitudes.
In Senegal the Muridiya order founded by Sufism occupies the middle ground
Amadu Bamba (c. 1850–1927) turned away between modernism and fundamentalism,
from resistance to develop a work ethic enabling religion to accommodate itself to
based on peanut cultivation that brought changing social conditions. Without the medi-
economic stability to the country under the ating, adaptive power of Sufism, it is unlikely
French-dominated regime. that the advocates of political Islam (or
The tariqas, in many cases, provided the “Islamism”) will succeed in accommodating
leadership for the reform and revival move- the variegated strands of Islam within the
ments that swept through the Islamic world “restored” Islamic order that they seek.
60
SUFI ORDERS 1100–1900
60°
45° 60° 75° 900°
0 200 km
20
0 200 miles
Ashtalfiyya
rs
ia
n
Gu Ajmer Shaltariyya
Wafaiyya lf
Firdawsiya
Tropic of Cancer CHISHTIYYA
Humalthira
Re
dS
Alwaiyya Ba y o f
ea
Alwaniyya Ben ga l
15°
A ra b i a n S e a
INDIAN OCEAN
0°
61
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
62
AYYUBIDS AND MAMLUKS
D
(Konya)
ARM E NIA Tabriz
Maras
S
Adalia Mayyafariqin
Tarsus Edessa Maragha
1144 Zangi D I YA R BA K I R ISMAILIS
Aleppo takes Edessa Mosul Alamut
CRETE Antioch Sinjar 1127 Zangi appointed
35° 1128 Zangi Raqqa
atabeg of Mosul
takes Aleppo 1171 Mosul recognizes
Hamah
CYPRUS Masyaf suzerainty of Nur al-Din
Limassol ISMAILIS Homs
Tripoli Euphr Hamadan
at e
Tig
SYRIA
s
Kermanshah
ris
M e d Damascus
i t e r r a n e a n S e a Hattin
Acre 1154 Nur al-Din Baghdad
takes Damascus
I R A N
Jaffa Rama Hilla
Damietta Ascalon
Alexandria Jerusalem Kufa IRAQ
Tig
30° S Eup
hra
ris
Cairo t es
1169–1171
Saladin overthrows
N Basra
Fatimid caliphate
I
E G Y P T
U
O
Pe
D
rs
E A R A B I A an
i
B
N
Gu
ile
lf
Qus
25°
Medina
Aswan Yenbo
R
e
HEJAZ
d
Ibrim Aydhab
NUBIA
Jedda
S
Mecca
20°
e
a
Wh
Christian territory, c.1174 Sada 0 100 km
Dahlak
15° Seat of caliphate (Abbasid) Islands 0 100 miles
Massawa
Seat of caliphate (Fatimid) Sana
YEMEN
63
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Ri
PO
ga
leaders: Attila, who Anatolia.
LA
N
D
W Legn 1
ravaged central Europe The Mongols were not
ar ica
sa
M
w
12 nica
in
in the fifth century just ruthless and violent sk
4
Leg 241
ITIES
1
PAL
with his Huns, is a nomads. Their sys- R I N I
C
P
AN
Mo 241 NGA
SSI
1 U
hi
well-known example. tem of communi- RU
H
Ki
The Chinese emperors ev
RY
BYZANT
understood the dan- O
de
ssa
gers of these large for-
NE EI
mations of horse-
MP
Co Bl
ns ac
IR E
ta
borne invaders, and nt
in
op
kS
ea
le
used their forces to
break them up when- SAL
J UQ
TUR
ever strong enough to KS
GE
OR
Tif
lis
GI
De
rbe
do so. The Great Wall Al AZ
A nt
ex ER
an
had been built as a dr
ia
Da
m Al
ep
BA
IJ A
as po N
Ain cu Ta
defensible barrier to Ca
iro J
12 alut
s bri
z
60 Mo
keep them out. sul Ala
AY TE
Y U B I D S U L T A NA mu
Early in the thir- t
Nile
Qa
zvi
E u ph r
n
teenth century a Ba
Ra
i
ates
gh
da
new formation d
Qo
m
R e d Se a
A
developed CA BBAS
LI
PH ID
among the AT
E
Mongols in
A r
sia
N
the time of his death he had dominated most of
AN
64
THE MONGOL INVASION
cations and knowledge of the latest warfare families of notables actively collaborated, and
Mongol Invasions 1206–59
techniques were sophisticated enough to enable even encouraged attacks on their Muslim ene-
OIROTS Original tribe
them to wreak unprecedented levels of destruc- mies in order to gain favor with the conquerors.
Homeland of the Mongol
tion. In the initial conquests, entire populations Members of the ulama rose to prominence and tribes
of cities were massacred, without regard to age power. For instance, the Sunni historian al- Mongol Empire, 1206
or gender. Buildings were leveled, rotting heads Juvaini accompanied the Mongol army under
Mongol Empire, 1236
stacked in gruesome pyramids. Mongol cruelty the warlord Hulegu to Alamut, where the last
was a form of psychological warfare designed to Ismaili stronghold to survive the fall of the Mongol Empire, 1259
send the message that resistance was useless. As Fatimids was destroyed in 1256. After the con- Area paying tribute or under
loose Mongol control
a strategy, terror was highly effective: the quest of Baghdad two years later, al-Juvaini
Mongol campaign
30
amirs who governed in the Iranian high- became its governor. Within a few generations
°
°
60
N
lands hastened to demonstrate the western Mongols had converted to Islam, City sacked by Mongols
ov
0°
14
go
40
°
ro
Ya
their homage. The local opening a brilliant new era in the story of
d
ro
sla
vl
50
bureaucrats and its development. 130
°
a
°
tsk
Se
kk of
ho
M Vl na
os ad ° e
co im 60° 120 L
O
Ry w ir
az
an 70° 110°
80° 100°
90°
°
50
Bu
Ye
lg
n is
G O ar
L D
ey
E
N
H
O Am
R
Volga
ur
D BURYATS
LS
O
E NG
MO
I rty
sh
OIROTS
ITS
Ol
RK
dS ME R
era
i KERAITS TAR S
TA
NS
IMA
NA
A
m
Karakoru
Caspian
N g
EM
M O N G
of n
TR EM
IRE
a
CHAGA IN Jap
Otrar
TAI CH
KHANA
OF TH
TE
Tash Balasaghun
ken t ing son
g
Pek ijing)
ng (Be Kae
Nish EM PIRE Dato
Bukh Kokend NIXIA ong
E KHWARIZM
xia ng
Ning Jini Yel ea
an
ng
Kashgar
1226 Taiyu S
a
Amu
Hu
D ary a
Balk u
ang cho
h Pingy Zai
ng
Hera Kabu Kaife
t l
A 30°
Hsian N t
IR LA I Eas na
Ghaz M DA H chou
i
Ch ea
ni SH C Han
SHA
KA KH S
T I B E T R E
P I
H
Chengdu E M
G
S U N
u s
Ind Lhasa
SULTA ng
ia
NATE O ncer
of Ca
J
F DELHI
ng
Tropic
Cha
Delhi
n
Arab Cantongzhou)
ian Gan
ges ASSAM (Gua
Sea T
RA
JE
GU BENGAL
YADAVA Hanoi
A Daluo
ISS
OR
Bay of Bengal
65
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
KI
~ Bordeaux
N
La Coruna Venice
G
Turin Po
Rhône
Oviedo AQUITAINE O
D
718 Santander
CANTA
BRIAN Genoa M
S BASQ Toulouse O
U ES 721 Nice
F
Eb Florence
Marseille Frejus Ancona
Ti
ro
Oporto
ber
Ad
40° ria
713
T
U
tic
H
Zaragoza Corsica Se
E
713 LO a
Madrid Barcelona Rome M
M
from
gus BA
Ta
Toledo RD
711
Lisbon 711
712 Sardinia Naples S
Valencia Taranto
A
Palma s
Cordoba 711 nd
s la
c I
Y
Baleari
712 711
from
Granada Cartagena
Cádiz
Y
711
Gibraltar Sicily
Tangier
Bône
652–6
8 B
A
Tunis 698
Tahant
D
Meknès Kairouan
Taza 683 670 M
Fes 698
e
C d i
A t
L P H A
Gabès
Aghmat T E Tripoli
Sijilmasa 647
30°
Misurata
E R B E
B R
Wargla
S
Muslim conquests in North Ghadamés
Africa and Europe El Galsa
634 to 732
Conquests under Muhammad
By 644
Garama
By 720
66
MAGHREB AND SPAIN 650–1485
0° 30° 40°
EMPIRE
C a u c a s u s M t
s Baku
LAZICA
by 66
BULGARIA 1
B l a c k S e a
be
D anu
B a l k a n s Varna
Resht
Qu
izi
E
l U zun
Constantinople 716
7 R
–7
Salonika 670 I
A n a t o l i a
Hamadan
Aegean
P Mosul
4
by 64
Sea
M Mts
Ti
Smyrna Konya us
E
gri
Adana
r
s
Ta u
Athens Aleppo
E Hama
I N
Y Z A N T Cyprus
Homs
Tripoli
Euphrate s
Crete Candia Beirut Basra
Damascus
a Haifa
S e
e r r a n e a n
Jerusalem
Gaza
642
Ajdabiya Alexandria
646 Tanta
al-Fustat
al Giza (Cairo) A R A B I A
al Faiyum Under Muhammad
Awjilah 640
644
al Minya
E g y p t
N
ile
R
Luxor
e
al Kharga Medina
d
S
W
ad
e
ia
sS
a
Aswan ub
Aidnab ai
ny a
di Ra
Jedda Mecca Wa
N
Kuffra W
to Dongola
652 NUBIANS
Suakin
67
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Archdiocese
years. The first Muslim contact with the Almohad rule, various Christian rulers had
Important Jewish community region came in 711. A Muslim army crossed united to begin the period of reconquista.
Population the Straits of Gibraltar from North Africa Except for the rule of the Nasrids in Granada
Christian
and by 716 a number of cities and kingdoms until 1492, most of the Iberian Peninsula was
Mostly Berber and converts had been defeated. The nature and extent of lost to Muslim authority.
Mostly Arab Muslim rule in the area was dramatically After the 1492 defeat of Granada, most
Muslims and Jews fled to
North Africa to avoid the
N
F R A N C E Inquisition. Some submitted
and converted to Christianity,
Bilbao
Oviedo Vizcaya Guipuzcoa while a small number were
1 02 8–
C a 3 5 r uled b
Santiago de
Pamplona
Compostela
NAVARRE ARAGON BARCELONA 42°
allowed to retain their faith,
San Marcos
s t y Cas
L E Ó N e Saragossa Barcelona
S a ra g o ssa strained circumstances. By the
Zamora
Oporto sixteenth century, however, the
Salamanca As
Sahla process of conversion and
n ds 40°
la
a
Alpuente Is
expulsion of Muslims was
ci
ic
Toledo ar
n
B a d a j o z e Valencia e
a l - A n d a l u s Val B
al almost complete and the pres-
ence of Islam in the region
Lisbon Badajoz
Denia
38°
Merida
Córdoba
Alicante remained only through cultural
Murcia
Seville Córdoba Granada Murcia Mediterranean Sea traces.
Mertola Ecija
Lucena Almería Cartagena The civilization engendered
Ben i Niebla
Muzai n Bah r i s Seville Moron Granada
in Muslim Andalusia was
a
Ronda
g
36°
Cádiz
la
Málaga linked to the broader develop-
M á
9° Gibraltar ments in the Middle East and
6° 3° 0° 3°
North Africa, but was distinc-
tive in several respects. The art
F A T I M I D S
0 100 km
and architecture associated
0 100 miles
with the cities of Córdoba,
Granada, Seville, and Toledo
affected by the collapse of the Damascus- remain as landmarks. The literary heritage
based Umayyad dynasty in 750. A member of that flowered in the later period was also dis-
the family fled to Spain, becoming a governor tinctive in its contribution to Romance litera-
before initiating a new Umayyad dynasty, ture. But perhaps the most enduring legacies
which eventually declared Iberia and North were reflected in the philosophical, theologi-
Africa as a separate caliphate. cal, and legal writings of Muslims and Jews,
Inspired by a more orthodox vision of which would exercise a great influence on
Muslim rule, the two movements arriving in subsequent Latin scholasticism in Europe.
North Africa established control over the Among this tradition’s most outstanding
68
MAGHREB AND SPAIN 650–1485
9° 6° 3° 0° 3°
B a y o f B i s c a y F R A N C E
A s t u r i a s Guipuzcoa
Vizcaya Cerdagne
G a l i c i a
KINGDOM Roussillon
Santiago de R.
Compostella
Eb
ro OF
Burgos
NAVARRE
o L e ó n A r a g ó n
Miñ
R.
O l d C a t a l o ñ a
42° Mallén Saragossa
Castrotorafe
KINGDOM OF ARAGÓN
C a s t i l e
Belchite
Castronuño Caspe
Tarragona
R . D ou
ro Penausende
Alfambra
KINGDOM C A S T I L E Culla
Pulpis Peñiscola
Villel
Onda
OF Consuegra Libros
Valencia ds
Soure Ocaña l an
40° Bétera Is
PORTUGAL Alconétar Toledo Olocau Valencia ic
Mora ar
Alcázar de e
San Juan Torrente
Silla B al
Belver N e w C a s t i l e Sueca
Malagón
s
Montánchez a
Ta ia n
ua d
Lisbon
R.
Coruche R. G Calatrava Reconquest
la Vieja Montiel Enguera
Almagro Murcia Date of reconquest
Almada Alange
Palmela Socovos
Evora Hornachos Yeste Cieza 1080
Setúbal Usagre Segura Moratalla Ricote 1130
Santiago Moura A n d a l u s i a Caravaca Cehegin
1210
de Cacem Llerena Baeza 1250
38° Setefilla u i vi
r
alq Aledo 1275
Aljustrel Serpa uad
Lora .G Martos Muslim
Alcaudete
R
Mértola domination
Estepa 1275
Marachique Seville Archdiocese
Muslim
a
Military orders
Morón
S
G R A N A D A Hospital
Cote
n Santiago
a N lif
e Che
Caltrava
n Alcántra
Medina Sidonia Alcalá de los Gazules
r r a
Avis
Vejer i t e Cristo
0 100 km M e d
Montesa
36°0 Ceuta
100 miles
Tangier
S U L T A N A T E O F M O R O C C O
69
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Subsaharan Africa—East
From the time of the ancient pharaohs the prestigious of all Islamic lineages in the form of
Upper Nile regions of East Africa had belonged Quraishi pedigrees, a trend that would emerge
The southernmost outpost of
to the same cultural universe as Egypt. Ethiopia among other religious and tribal leaders. While
Dar al-Islam until modern times,
was Christianized by Coptic missionaries from Arabic and—in some cases—Persian brought by
Kilwa had a population of about
the fourth century, and according to the earliest mariners retained their prestige as the language
10,000 in 1505, when the
Portuguese took the island by
Islamic sources, the Christian Negus gave of “True Islam,” vernacular languages devel-
storm. The first Muslim refuge to a group of persecuted Muslims from oped rich oral literatures that would eventually
occupants were mariners and Mecca even before the Hijra. The Arab con- acquire written form. The first Swahili text
merchants from the Persian Gulf querors of Egypt reached Aswan in 641 and for dates from 1652. The Swahili culture that dom-
who settled around AD 800. centuries continued to move southward, giving inates the thousand-mile coastal strip from
Mogadishu to Kilwa is the fruit of many cen-
PLAN OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT KILWA turies of interaction between the ideas brought
by Arab-Persian merchants, traders, and set-
tlers, and the indigenous peoples of the eastern
seaboard with whom they intermarried.
After Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape
of Good Hope in 1498 the Portuguese sys-
tematically destroyed the prosperous
Swahili cities that had sprung up along
the coast. In 1505 Kilwa was captured and
Mombasa was sacked. By 1530 the
Portuguese controlled the entire coast
from their fortresses on Pemba, Zanzibar,
and other islands. In the 1650s, however,
the Omanis who were Ibadi Muslims
0 15 m expelled them from Muscat, restoring the
N
70
SUBSAHARAN AFRICA—EAST
Muscat
R
r
Faras Jedda A r a b i a
Mecca
migrants were Muslims from minor-
N ubian Desert
20° ity communities including Momens,
Suakin T
Old Dongola ALWA Berber A
U Ithnashari Khojas, and Ismailis.
M
A
R
an
Dahlak H
D
of
Soba A
rd
Dibarwa H Shihr
F U NJ Y E MEN
Ko
Bl u e N
Aden Socotra
h i te N
Lalibela
i
e Saylac
l
R.
AGAU
ETHIOPIA Berbera Ras Xaafuun
10°
W A DA L
Debre Libanos Debre Birhan
S OM A L I
Bernra Dakar
y
OR OM O
e
l l
NILOTES
V a
Lake
Turkana
Jasiira Mogadishu
f t
Baraawe I N D I A N
Equator Bigo S WA H I L I
0°
i
C I T Y S TAT E S
R
Lake
Victoria O C E A N
Shanda
Ungwana Manda
Gedi Malindi
Mombasa
N
Pemba
Lake
Tanganyika Zanzibar
Kikulu
Sanga Kamilamba Mafia
Kalongo
Kilwa Kisiwani
10° 0 300 km
Comoro
Is. 0 300 miles
Lake
Nyasa
Vohémar
SHONA
W
Zamb ez i River
L
K I East African Slave Trade The entrance to a private house in Stone
MWENEMU TA PA to 1500
Town, Zanzibar. The decorated portals
Tananarive Slave trading states
20° Great carved from local hardwoods or trees
Khami Sofala
Zimbabwe Approximate area
TORWA imported from the mainland symbolized the
Madagascar supplying slaves
Mapungubwe Manekweni Chibuene social status of the house’s owner. The walls
Li m popo R Slave routes
Tropic of Capricorn iver
Other kingdoms and states
are made from coral rag and need constant
maintenance to prevent destruction by
30° 40° 50°
torrential monsoon rains.
71
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Subsaharan Africa—West
The expansion of Islam in West Africa was reunited the petty principalities of al-Andalus
largely peaceful. The introduction of camels for to ward off the threat of the Christian recon-
Detail from a fourteenth-century
transportation into the Sahara sometime before quest. There were some forcible conversions of
Catalan map showing a king
AD 600 had established a growing network of Africans south of the Sahara, but these were
enthroned, with his royal regalia.
The portrait may be of Mansa
caravan routes between the Maghreb and the mostly rare. The earliest converts were usually
Musa of Mali, whose wealth Sahil (shore), the vast belt of grassy steppelands the royal families that had always relied on reli-
made a great impression on his that lies between the Sahara and the tropical gious prestige to extract taxes or military serv-
contemporaries when he traveled forests of Guinea. The principal export from the ice from subordinate clans and communities. As
to Mecca in 1324–25. south was gold from Bambuko on the Senegal Muslim merchants settled in Sahil cities (most
River, which was of which had their own Muslim quarters by the
for centuries the late tenth century) the royals would seek to ben-
principal source efit from the cultural prestige they carried by
of gold for the adopting Islam as the court religion.
Maghreb, West For the most part local kingdoms continued
Asia, and Europe. to form and re-form under different tribal
Gold—along dynasties, with Islamic rituals and practice
with slaves, hides, intermingling with tribal customs. With each
and ivory—was new state the capital would become a center of
exchanged for wealth and Islamic learning, as rulers sought
copper, silver, prestige by patronizing religious scholarship.
handcrafted arti- The most spectacular cultural center was the
cles, dried fruits, Tuareg city of Timbuktu on the Niger. The
and cloth. More Tuaregs were a camel-borne elite who grew
significant than rich from the trans-Saharan trade, using slaves
the trade, how- to exploit the salt mines and settling serfs
ever, was the dif- from African tribes to cultivate the oases
fusion of ideas. along their routes.
Islam was brought south by merchants, teachers, The most celebrated Muslim ruler from
and Sufi mystics the French had named Subsaharan Africa was Mansa Musa (1307–32),
Marabouts Arabic Murabits. The latter were king of Mali. He made the pilgrimage to Mecca
often members of saintly families who acted as in 1324–25 in the grandest possible style, leav-
hereditary arbiters among rural tribesfolk. ing an impression that would last for genera-
In the eleventh century Murabits from the tions. Unlike the Nilotic Sudan where the
Lamtuna Berber group established a center in Arabic language took root, Islam was diffused
Mauretania for the propagation of Islam, from in local vernaculars from a relatively early
where they launched a jihad against the kings of stage. From around 1700 (and possibly earlier)
Ghana, rulers of the largest and wealthiest of scholars and teachers developed a modified ver-
the West African states. The reforming zeal of sion of Arabic script to convey Islamic teach-
the Murabits (known as Almoravids in Spanish) ings in Fulfulde and Hausa, the leading lan-
carried them northward to Iberia, where they guages of the western Sahil.
72
SUBSAHARAN AFRICA—WEST
Trade route
Marrakesh
Sijilmasa
Alluvial gold 30°
Ghadamés
Canary Islands
Tuat
S a h a r a D e s e r t
Tropic of Cance
r
Taghaza
Wadan
(Ouadane)
B E R B E R S
Ribat Chinguetti T U A R
20° E G
SANHAJA
LAMTUNA
Awdaghust Tadmekka
Walata
SONINKÉ
Timbuktu
TOKOLOR Gao
Se
ne
g al Kumbi Saleh MOSSI Koukya
R. Ghana Empire capital Azelik
G am BAM
b ia
R. B INKE
Jenne SONGHAY
SOSSO MAL Sokoto
UK
O
Kirina Niamey
Ni
ge
r
R.
Niani
BURE
10°
Volt
a
Sassandra R.
Akan goldfields
R.
Bito
0 300 km
0 300 miles
73
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Jihad States
From the seventeenth to the nineteenth century merging with the local elites prior to the French
a series of jihad movements occurred in West conquest. The most famous of the West African
Africa that led to the creation of a number of jihad leaders was Uthman Dan Fodio
Islamic states and transformed the presence of (1754–1817) a mallam (religious scholar) from a
Islam in the region. Most of these jihads well-established family of scholars in the inde-
involved rebellions by nomadic tribesmen pendent Hausa kingdom of Gobir. After attack-
against nominally Islamic rulers who held to ing the king for mixing Islamic and
traditional African concepts of divine kingship, pagan practices, Dan Fodio fol-
10°
mixing rituals of pagan origin with symbols lowed the classical Muhammadan
scenario of making the hijra
Mudbaked mosque at
beyond the borders of the king-
Djenne, Mali. Designed in
dom, before waging jihad
the local vernacular style,
against the king and other Fez
the building fabric is
Hausa rulers in
O
constantly renewed from the Marrakesh
the name of C
material of which it is made. C
a purified O
R
O
M
BANNU
HASSAN
Ouadane
Argvin MASINA
Chinguetti
derived from Islam. The leadership of these 1810
movements usually came from the literate class
of ulama—scholars, teachers, and students— Oualata
Timbuktu
WALO KAARTA
who had studied with Sufi masters locally or St. Louis
FU
CAYOR SEGU
TA
6 Segu Jenne
RO
74
JIHAD STATES
Islam. His preaching conveyed a powerful mes- expanded to include most of what is now Jihad States c. 1800
sage of social justice in the classic manner of northern Nigeria and the northern Camer-
Extent of Islam, c. 1800
Muhammad, mixing theological attacks on oons. In 1817 Dan Fodio retired to a life of
Center of Islamic learning
idolatry with denunciations of illegal taxes, reading, writing, and contemplation, leaving
European trading post,
sequestration of property, compulsory military the empire to his son Muhammad Belo, who 1600–1800
service, and the enslavement of Muslims. By became the Sultan of Sokoto—the most power- Arab trading post or city
1808 the movement had overthrown most of the ful Muslim emirate in what eventually became States established by jihad
Hausa kingdoms; in the next two decades it with date
the British colony of Nigeria.
SAN Major tribe
Tunis
Tlemcen
E
ALGIERS M e di te rr ane an S e a
Tunis
R
Alexandria
Tr 30°
ip
I
oli ic a
Cy rena Cairo P
O Egyp t
T M
T E
O M A N Asyut
Re
d
T U A R E G Medina
Aswan Tropic of Cancer
Se
a
Mecca
Jedda
20°
AIR C H A D
Dongola
A R A B S Suakin
FUNJ
Massawa
Hodeida
HAUSA BO RN U WADAI
STATES DARFUR Sennar Axum Zabid
KAN E M
Kukuwa Gondar AWSA Aden
Wara El Fasher
S Ngarzagmu
O Kano Awsa
ETHIOPIA Saylae
BA
K
BORGU O INGALA GI
RM
Berbera 10°
MAHI O
T
O 1 I
OY 804
DAHOMEY OLD –17
Harer
A LI
Lagos BENIN
IGBO S OM
Benin
BOBANGI GALLA
Old Calabar NILOTES
Brass OROMO
Bohney
Porto Novo
BABWA Mogadishu
Quida
Baraawe
Equator
75
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
20
30
Al
°
ex Al Tif
an ep
guide of the first century, describes two mar- dr
ia An po lis
tio
ch
itime trade routes commencing from ports on Ca Ta
bri
iro Mo z
Qu sul
the Red Sea (i.e., Myus Hormus, Leuke Jer
Tigris
lzu u
m sal
em
Kome, and Berenike). These connected mer-
E u ph r
Ay
la Ba
gh
chants of the classical Greco-Roman world
ates
da
d
P e rs
went down through the Red Sea to southern d a a
Me Bah
rain
ia n
cca
R e d
Arabia by Muza (Mocha) and Dioscurides
Gu
f
l
A
Sea
Suha
Dhow is a generic term for a variety of R O r
A m
B an
lateen-rigged craft that plied the Indian I A
Ocean. Designed for seasonal San
’a
monsoons, the dhows stayed close to the Mo
Ax ch a Shih
coast, planning their runs to coincide um r
Ad
Zay en
A la
with the monsoon cycles.
f r
Ber
i c ber
a Soco
a Islan tra
d
Mo
Mo gad
ishu
mb
asa
Zan
ziba Pem
r ba is
land
Kilw
a
Madagascar
76
THE INDIAN OCEAN TO 1499
veered toward India’s northwestern shores by powered navigation, the northeast monsoon
Barygaza (Broach) and then south to Muziris allowed the large lateen-rigged sails of the
Cranganore and Komar (Cape Comorin). Arabian, Persian, and Indian dhows to sail
The movements of people and goods were such routes as Aden to Cochin with the sails
regulated by the Indian Ocean’s predictable trimmed to keep the ship pointing as closely as
monsoon cycle. The benign northeast or win- possible into the direction of the wind. They
ter monsoon lasts approximately half the year traded up the Malabar coast of India on the
(from November to March). Before the days of opposite tack before returning with their sails
° ° °
50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120 130 40° 140
Caspain Sea
A
Se ral rum
a Karako
Trade routes to 1500
Urg Trade routes
ench
e
low
gH
Kashgar Yel ea
A
an
uD S
Hu
ary
30°
a
ng
P E Hera Kaife
R S t
ou
I A Luoy
ang nzh
Ha
A
I N
Hor
muz C H er
Canc
ic of
u s
ng Trop
Ind Multan Lhasa Jia
ng
zhou
Cha
Quanchou)
Mu an
sca t
Delhi (Chu 20°
Daybul
n
Ahmedabad Cantou)
Gan
ges
ngzho
Mus
Cambay
Is. ira
Broach (Gua
Diu
Surat Chittagong Hanoi
A r a Daman
b
S e ai a n Annam
I N D I uth
A Burma
M e So
kon
h ina
g
C
a
Champa Se 10°
Mala
B a y o f B e n g a l
bar C
Khmer Min
dana
o
Sulu
oast
Calicut Sea
Quillon Gulf
of bes
Cape Siam Cele a
Comorin
Se
0°
Maldive
Islands
Malacca eo
Born
S
u
m
a
t
I N D I A N r
a
s Sea
Java Sea Flore
O C E A N
10°
Java
77
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
full and their yard arms swinging free before trade routes were caught up in increasing
the wind. The southwest monsoon, which rivalry between the Byzantine and Sasanian
brings rain to western India and generates (Persian) Empires. The Byzantines supported
more turbulent weather, was best avoided. Ethiopian raids on South Arabia from ports
By the seventh century, the trading worlds on the Red Sea, while the Persians secured
described in The Periplus had long disap- their control over the Persian Gulf (Bahrain)
peared. Western Indian Ocean ports and and southern Arabia at Aden, Suhar, and
78
THE INDIAN OCEAN TO 1499
Daba. In between the two empires were the Political and economic control over Indian
Quraish, who would become the first Ocean trade routes by Muslim dynasties based
Muslims engaged in land-based trade at their in the Middle East was complemented by the
sanctuary at Mecca. growth of Muslim communities, mercantile
The early trajectory of Muslim conquest centers, and independent states around the lit-
and expansion was away from the Indian toral, many of which have complex and multi-
Ocean and toward the Mediterranean. But stranded histories that have yet to be studied.
successive Muslim dynasties made efforts to The eastern African coast, and its Swahili-
gain political and economic control over the speaking peoples, had multiple connections to
Indian Ocean. The Umayyad conquest and the Arabian Peninsula, the Persian Gulf, and
occupation of Daybul in Sind in 712 was a India. Muslim settlements (mosques and bur-
first step in this direction. Subsequently, the ial sites) at Shanga date to the latter half of
Abbasids’ founding of their capital Baghdad the eighth century and there is evidence to
in 762 near the Tigris, with its access via support the presence of local Muslim dynas-
Basra to the Persian Gulf, provided further ties and their control of island settlements on
impetus to Muslim maritime trade and settle- Pemba, Zanzibar, Mafia, and Kilwa between
ment from the shores of East Africa to south- c. 1000 and 1150. Many of these communities
ern China. Mariners’ reports collected in the were thriving when Ibn Battuta visited the
Akhbar al-Sin Wal-Hind (c. 850) provide a region by way of Mogadishu in 1331.
glimpse into what a typical round-trip mer- Ibn Battuta is also a source of information
cantile sea voyage from Siraf (south of for the presence of Muslims along China’s
Shiraz) to Canton would have been like in southern coastline up to Quanzhou (Zaitun),
Abbasid times. Contemporary maritime which he reached in 1347. At Quanzhou, buri-
activity in the southwestern Indian Ocean, als and a mosque (c. 1009) mark the presence
from Arabia to East Africa (Bilad al-Zanj), is of a Muslim community at the trading port.
attested to in the Muruj al-Dhahab of al- The histories of Muslim communities in
Masudi (d. 928). Southeast Asia are also informed by
In 969, the Fatimids conquered Egpyt and transoceanic trade. By the fifteenth century, it
founded Cairo, posing a serious political and was the entrepot of Malacca on the Malay
commercial challenge to the Abbasids. The coast that emerged as a major maritime cen-
Fatimids succeeded in diverting trade in the ter in the larger Muslim Indian Ocean trading
western Indian Ocean from Baghdad and the network, eclipsing centers on Java and
Persian Gulf to Fustat and the Red Sea. The Sumatra. Malacca had a sizeable Muslim
commercial importance of Egypt and the Red population that had strong connections to
Sea trade route to the western Indian Ocean western Indian merchants and ports such as
was maintained by the Fatimids’ successors, Cambay (Gujarat). Ironically, Ibn Majid, the
the Ayyubids and Mamluks. Documents from mariner credited with piloting Vasco da Gama
the Cairo Geniza collection offer evidence of through the Indian Ocean in 1498, provides an
the complex network of Fustat-based traders, unfavorable description of Malacca. The port
stretching between North Africa and India via fell to the Portuguese in 1511, marking the
the western Indian Ocean, operating between firm establishment of the first European mar-
the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. itime power in the Indian Ocean.
79
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Red Sea
to the harbor of Muscat were Good Hope in 1498 was an epoch-making 20
°
originally built by the event, putting an end to the Muslim mono-
Portuguese in the sixteenth poly of trade in the Indian Ocean and open-
century on the site of earlier ing the way for the British and Dutch
strongholds. After surviving Empires in South Asia and the East Indies.
Ottoman attacks, the The era of European imperialism began with
Portuguese garrisons merchant adventurers who established trad-
surrendered to the Omani Imam ing posts in the southern seas, which became
Sultan bin Saif in 1650. the bases for further expansion. The
Portuguese were the pioneers, taking Kilwa
and sacking Mombasa in 1505 before
establishing bases in Zanzibar and Pemba.
In 1509 they defeated a combined
Egyptian-Indian fleet to take Goa on the
Malabar coast. In 1515 they conquered
40
°
Malacca and in the same year Hormuz
on the Persian Gulf. Portuguese hegemony
O
TT
30
° from the lucrative pepper and spice trade.
PIR
SA
FA
Red Sea
VI
20 (PE D EM
Indian Ocean
Per
c. 1580 ° RS P
IA) IRE
A r
Bah
sia
151 rain I
Portuguese possession 5 Ban HU
Tro –1622 MANC
n
.
da
a b
Ma pic
u
of C lf m s 150
ssa anc 1515– uz 7–16
22
i a
A
i lf o f A d e n bay 58
N
c Chaul EMPIRE
N
a 1509 Bay of –1613
Syriam 1520
A
Soc
1516 otra I. Bengal
M
–11 Masulipatam SI A M
1505 A a
njediva 1570–1605 Ayutthay
1560–16
37 Bhatka
1510–16 i
16 Cannanor Mangalore Singapor
e
Mo e Cal
Bar g icut 1510–1616 1526
aw adishu 1502 Cochin
a Jaffna 1560
M Quilon Malacca
Mo alind 1512 Colombo Batticaloa
1511–1641
mb i 152 1519–1638
Pem sa 150 0
a 1518
5–2 Galle Sri Lanka Pasei
Zan ba I.
1 8 Maldiv
1518–1640 1518 1514–1641 Atjeh 1520–24
Kilw zibar I 520
e Is.
aK .1503 Pidie
i
1505 siwan 1509
i I N Baros Su
to M D I 1519 m
oçam A N N a
biqu O C E tr
e 150 A N a
7
0 500 km
Bantam
Equato 0 500 miles 1512–96
r
80
THE INDIAN OCEAN 1500–1900
AN U
G
)
OTTOMAN EMPIR
(J AN
AP
P
ZI
a
him
ki aS
SA asa neg
FA E Nagshima) Ta 2
VI P IR (De –1859 154
(PE D EM U EM 1
164 t
MANCH
Per
RS P A )
IA) IRE
E
N Easna
(CHI i ng)
sia
Ch ea elu
S (Ke
A r
or
n
Tro vad
Sal
G
pic
San
u
of C lf
sa)
Ft. 2–62 Formo
a b
anc
er
Delhi 164 wan (
Tai 62
i a
–
Agra dore
s Is. 1624
1602 Pesca 1622–24 dia N
eelan EA
Ft. Z 1624–62
Ahmedabad
1612 Maca 5
o OC
1 5 5 C
Diu 1640 Hooghly FI
1530–1 15 Surat 1618–83 Serampore CI
664 Port 35 A
BU RM P A
Daman 15 1616 1 Lambok I.
1661 En . Bombay
Gu
lf o f A d e n 58
Arab glish Pipli A Ph 1674–92 (Dutch protectorate)
ia Chaul MOGUL N
Sea n 1509–17 1637 i l
–49
Bay of ip Sumbawa I.
37 EMPIRE h
Syriam 1635 Sout a pi 1669–75 (Dutch protectorate)
N
Bengal
Chin ne
A
Masulipatam 1605–1781 Neth. SI A M Sea I 2 Kupang
M
1637 N a s.
eth., 16 1510 Goa
Armagon 1620 1611 English Ayutthay 1640 Port.
38 En 1607 anao
1565–17 glish Bhatkal Madras Pulicat 1609 a n I.
M /1642
in d 1653 Neth.
81 Manga 163 9 Sadras 1658 la w
1596
P a
lo
1663 Canna re Tranquebar 1616
nore Negapatam 1658
1663 Cochin rch.
Su /46–63
Jaffna 1658 l u A
1661 Quilon 3 8 ilalo era
Tutticorin Trin coma li 1639 1 6 o Dja almah21
Negombo 1640 ttani 1602 enad 7 H –16 Ne nea
w
1522
1658 Pa M 5
Colombo 16
ah 1642 ui
ds
1656 Galle Sri Lanka ei K ed 7 7 G
1657/
1601 English Atjeh Pas mudra a n
Perak 1655
Maldiv Sa l
e Is. 1640 1644–1795/1815 1649 Neth.
Is
Pidie 1520–1640 9–50
a
41 cc Is.
alaccare161641
I.
M S a m bas 160n e o olu am
Cer 8/52 Aru 3
Tiku Jahogapore1526 r M I. 0 1 6 2
s 1641 Sin tan I. B o
ana be s r u
Bu 2/58 16
I N 1519–1668 Port. Baro Bin Sukad7–35 Neth. Cele 162 Is. I.
0 bar
D 1668 Neth. 1628–175 a I. 160
Su
b
Equato d Sum
0 500 miles ok an
G
)
r Lamb
(J AN
a Dutch possessions
ega
Sh
im
The Dutch defeated the Portuguese at
n
Ta 2 Portuguese possessions
Easna
t 154 Amboyna in 1605, taking Banda in 1621,
i
E Ch ea Spanish possessions
P IR S Ceylon (Sarandib, now Sri Lanka) in 1640,
EM gpo
Nin –45 and Malacca in 1641. Batavia (now Jakarta), British possessions
1533
A) which would become the capital of the Danish possessions
IN
(CH Factory
gcho
w Dutch East Indies, was founded in 1619.
Chan47–49
15
Can t o n N Although the process was a gradual one,
hn I. ow Shan)
EA
o S t J o OC the Portuguese intervention introduced
Maca 5 (Shangc
h
155 FIC
1555 CI
PA changes in the patterns of trade and in the
Ph political economies of the Muslim states in
h
Sout a ili
Chin
pp
in
the region. By the end of the seventeenth cen-
Se a e
Is
. tury England and Holland, two small coun-
tries perched on the western periphery of
e Is.
Spic 1621 21
– –16 Eurasia, had become (with France) the domi-
1512 1522
e r nate
ado T
Men1540 nant forces in world trade. Cargoes of raw
1564 an I. commodities—timber, grain, fish, and salt—
Batj 1558 .
na I
orneo boi
B es
Am 1–99
15 1 replaced the traditional trade in luxury
C eleb
goods. The shift in cargoes heralded even
ssar
Maka 667 more far-reaching changes, whereby the
1545–
1 520
Sea a or 1
Java ntuk Tim
Lara 1557 world would be divided between colonies
Fort
Ja va
producing raw materials and industrial and
81
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
commercial centers producing high-value (these had included the Venetians and 30
°
goods and services. Viewed from the perspec- Genoese who plied the waters of the eastern
tive of the twenty-first century, Vasco da Mediterranean as well as the Muslim Eg
yp
Gama’s voyage represents the beginnings of a traders who carried goods by land). The t
The Portuguese ships were larger and stur- that could afford to make the
dier than their Arab and Persian counter- costly investment in artillery Bri
tis
hE
parts, and thus able to hold more cargo and and firearms. As military Af
ric
ast
a
engage in longer runs. The new route around technology advanced, a shift
Ge
rm
southern Africa to the Indies bypassed the took place in the balance of Af
an
Ea
ric st
West Asian trade routes, bringing goods power between the tradi- a
Za
nzi
bar
from South Asia and the Indies—spices, tional warrior classes, for
cloths, and other valuable commodities— whom military prowess was vested
directly to Lisbon, enriching the merchants in notions of tribal solidarity, honor,
there but cutting out the intermediate benefi- prestige, and courage (classic virtues of the
ciaries of the trade between Europe and Asia nomadic conquerors), and economic powers
82
THE INDIAN OCEAN 1500–1900
technology. Under European pressure the frag- European, U.S., and Spheres of influence,
Japanese territories in Asia c. 1907
mented Muslim states that followed in the Russian Empire,
British British 1855
wake of Arab caliphate and the Mongol inva- Allied to British To Russia
French by 1900
sions were consolidated into larger units dom- administration
French Occupied by
inated by the three great “gunpowder Russian Russia, 1900
Dutch
empires”: Ottoman Eurasia, Shiite Iran, and German
Portuguese Treaty Port in China,
Mughal India. Japanese with date of opening
German
Major railway
United States
0
15
60
St.
0°
°
Pe 14
ter 40°
sb
ur
g 50° 0 °
M a 13
os en
co ° L
Ki 60° 120 R
w .
50 ev
° R 70° 110° E
U 80° 100°
S 90° R
S I
R.
Sam I A M P
N E
Ye
ara
nis
Bl Omsk Krasnoyarsk
ey
ac Ro
R. Volga
kS sto Or
ea enb Ma
v urg Chita n c R. Am
R.
40 hu
O T°
ur
Irty
ri
T Irkutsk rkhne a
sh
O Tuva Ve k
sto
bin ivo
M
Al Har ad
Caspian Sea
ep
Urga Vl
A
po A Kaza
Se ral nlins Sea f
N
Da Ba a k o n
Je ma ku a
EM
IRE
e s t r
912 aut 18 8 Arthu oul ea
PIRE
sk Khiv a n (1
S a t Se or a
Bukh amarkan
Kuldja Urumchi Por ak
Ba
gh yr Darya 1858 K Os
EMP
d ara d R. S chow ei
ad 190
7– Khokan
d
Hami Tung fo o ih a i w
ak i
17 R
(Beijin
g ) Che8 We ow gas
ussi Na
R.
SE
e S i n k i a n g g
u Yarkand kin g 18
Ku Naninkian ai 1842 895
Ho
D a rya
wa
NE
it P Ch hangh ou 1
g
PA
S H AN Peshaw
M Ba I A ISTA ar N Ninenchou876
P er
ed 186 hrai N
C H I i c)
in a 7 Br n publ Ichang ko w W uhu 1 JA
Han
s ia
( 1 9 1 2 Re
itish P u n ja b R.
1907 W 42
Tro – 1876
Britis 19 1862
nG
Lahore 8
king ou 1
Ch
pic
Me A
sphe h
T i b e t Chung ooch
ang
of C
ul
cca 1895 h i F
Red Se
anc re n s
f
r
sta us Sha Amoy
er c hi Ind
Jiang
a Lhasa 1895
b B a lu R. Delhi 1842
i to Om NE N
O
an Agra on
Can2t
a PA tou EA
a
an Mas
m
pine
Soco
Benga l
s
tra
a Yanaon Rangoon Philip
ali Goa S I A M
h
Sout
om
a
Chin
nS Mysore Cambodi
a Sea
lia Laccad Madras
Ita ive Is.
Mahé Pondicherry Andaman Is.
Karikal Saigon
ah
1896 Brun Sab w
I N Colombo ei Ne nea
Maldive Is.
N Federal s
e
w
a
O C
S
Malay S ar d
i
E A States n
N u I
eo bes
m Singapore Born Cele t
a
a s
N t E
r h
a t c or
D u Tim
0 500 km
Java r
Equato
0 500 miles
83
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
b
50° 0° 10°
A
Milan Venice
VO
VE
defeated the Saljuqs, making them vassals, RE NE
Y
The great period of Ottoman PU TIA
Genoa BL N
expansion occurred during the and pushing increasing numbers of Turkish IC
A
REP. OF GENO
reign of Suleiman I “the nomads into the peninsula in search of pas- P AP A L
Magnificent.” The painting turage and booty. The breakup of Saljuq SPA
IN Corsica S T AT E S
below depicts an Ottoman fleet power led to the creation of several petty Rome
N A P L ES
attacking the French town of states under loose Mongol overlordship. After 40°
ds S A R D I N IA
taking Bursa, which they made their capital in slan
Toulon in 1545. ic I
e ar
Ba l T yrrehenian
Sea
Jerba
1560
Tripoli
TR
IPO
Wargla 1551 LI
1566
30°
S
a h a
established their control over the western Ottoman territory, 1481 Ottoman territory, 1630–72
(Muhammed II)
Balkans by defeating the Serbs at the Battle of Ottoman vassal from 1475 Ottoman vassal from 1664
Kosovo in 1389. Successive campaigns involv-
ing coalitions of Latin and Orthodox powers
84
RISE OF THE OTTOMANS TO 1650
R
30° 40° 50°
Do n ets
20°
POLAND
Dn
ie pe
r
EA
L IA RIM of TU
PODO F THE C Az RK
Y
Dniester
AT EO OM
NGAR K H AN AN
HU C
Vienna AN
a S
1529 M O L D AV
IA JEDIS sp
164 ia
Buda Tere
k
DA 5 vass
T R A N S Y LV A N
IA GE al
n
B U JA K Caucasus ST
HUNGARY 1664 AN
1541 Kaffa
S
ea
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GIA
1526 WALLACHIA OR
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c k 1
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Belgrade Nicopolis b B l a 157 BA
1396 Do nd RA
Sarajevo Varna Sinop
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BULGARIA 159 N
SERBIA 1444 Samsu IJA
T R EBIZ O N D rum BA
Sofia Erze NIA iran ZE
R
Kosovo
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Tab
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1389 A
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op Van
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HERZEGOVINA R Ankara S HA V E
Salonika Bursa HR F A R
ST A
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R S A P I
Otranto KARASI MIY
A
MAN KURDI E M
AL
Aegean G ER K A R A MA NI A N
A R A TA
B
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Konya IA MES
O P O T AMI A RIS
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Athens E Adan
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1571 ES H KE
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dad
T
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Euphrates
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Bas
R
1516
Crete
Pe
Y
rsi
an
S e a E G
S
n
r a n e a L ul
M e d i t e r A f
lem H
Jerusa A
S
Benghazi dria r A
Alexan
CA Cairo
Aqaba
N AI
R E 1521 a
H
CY
E J 517
A
PT Z
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1
cer
Can
1517 ic of
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b
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i
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e
a
a
Mecca
i Am
Wad
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ba
EN
ra
0 200 km
YEM
0 200 miles
85
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
(including Naples, Venice, Hungary, but also to practices and structures derived
Transylvania, Serbia, and Genoa) failed to from the Roman–Byzantine Empire it
stem the Ottoman advances into Europe. In replaced. Straddling the Christian Balkans
1453 Constantinople fell to the forces of and the western reaches of Dar al-Islam, it
Mehmet the Conqueror, fueling Ottoman was a bridge between rival civilizations. Being
imperial ambitions and providing the basis close to Constantinople, which had long been
for further expansion. In 1521 the Ottomans the goal of Muslim conquest, the state ruled
captured Belgrade from the Hungarians. By by the Osmanli family (from which the
1529 they had reached the gates of Vienna, English spelling Ottoman derives) attracted
the Habsburg capital. By the time of the many of the ghazis (holy warriors) seeking
death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566 glory in the jihad against Christendom. In
they controlled a swath of European territory Anatolia these Turkish incomers and pas-
from the Crimea to southern Greece. toralists tended to be prejudiced against the
Ottoman victories were even more spec- Christian villagers, some of whom may have
tacular in the lands of Islam. After defeating converted to avoid persecution. Among the
the Safavids at Chaldiran in 1514, the incomers, however, there were also dervishes
Ottomans annexed eastern Anatolia and and members of Sufi brotherhoods from
northern Mesopotamia, enabling them to Inner Asia, such as Hajji Bektash (d. 1297).
control the central Asian trade routes linking He preached versions of Islam that tended to
Tabriz and Bursa. In 1516 and 1517 they took merge Islamic beliefs, both Sunni and Shiite,
over the Mamluk Empire in Syria and Egypt, with Christian beliefs and religious practices,
giving them control of the holy places of the facilitating the conversion of Greek and
Hejaz. Building on the Greek seamanship Armenian-speaking peoples. The Ottoman
acquired from their Byzantine predecessors, rulers assisted this process by excluding bish-
they contested the power of Venice in the ops and metropolitans from their sees, leav-
eastern Mediterranean and challenged the ing the Christians without leaders, and by
dominance of Habsburg Spain in the western replacing the Orthodox infrastructure of hos-
Mediterranean, taking Algiers (1529), Tunis pitals, schools, orphanages, and monasteries
(1534–35), Jerba (1560), and the strategic with Islamic institutions staffed by Persian
island of Malta, the last Crusader strong- and Arab scholars. By the fifteenth century
hold, in 1565, as well as Cyprus in 1570. This more than 90 percent of the Anatolian popu-
string of naval victories finally provoked a lation had become Muslim, though substan-
successful counterattack. In 1571, the defeat tial minorities of Christians and Jews
of the Ottoman navy at the Battle of Lepanto remained in the cities. While the peasants
by a Venetian–Habsburg coalition was cele- were mostly converted, the nobility and civil
brated all over Europe as a triumph for servants of the old imperial system were inte-
Christendom. Although the Ottomans refur- grated into the Ottoman armies and adminis-
bished their fleets and retook Tunis in 1574, a tration, giving the state a distinctly Byzantine
balance of power was achieved in the character. Though a measure of religious
Mediterranean, confirming the frontiers that autonomy was permitted through the millet
remained between the Muslim lands to the system of self-governing minorities the
south and Christian lands to the north. Ottoman state was highly centralized. In
Paradoxically the early Ottoman state was other Muslim lands (including some of the
both militantly Islamic and strongly influ- Arab provinces that came under the looser
enced by Greek culture, heir to the Saljuqs forms of Ottoman dominion) the practice of
86
RISE OF THE OTTOMANS TO 1650
87
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
G ERMANY
50°
At its peak in the sixteenth century the
Ottoman system was highly efficient. But it Paris
also contained crucial weaknesses, notably the
Vienna
system of succession. In nomadic societies the
F R A N SWISS AUSTRIA-
absence of a fixed mode of succession has a C E CONFED.
HU
sound Darwinian rationale: after a struggle
Milan Venice
with his peers, a chief will emerge who is fittest Po
I
Se
a
A
Marseille
L
Abdul Hamid II was the last SPAIN Corsica
Y
Ottoman sultan to wield Rome
Barcelona
effective power over the Empire.
40° s
land Sardinia
An absolute monarch and ri c Is
Ba lea T y rrehenian
opponent of political Sea
liberalization, he nonetheless
encouraged educational, legal, Sicily
Barbary Coast
and economic reforms. Algiers Bona
Tunis
Algeria M A LTA
1830 French
Tunisia
1881 French
Tripoli
Tr
ipo
li
Wargla
30°
Fez
zan1 9 1 2
intrigues, lacked experience in the field and 1811 Date granted autonomy
familiarity with the realities of politics. The 1830 Date of territory lost
0 200 km
power of the state and the army held up briefly 0 200 miles
88
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1650–1920
LIA EA
PODO RIM
9 9 HEC
Dni 1 6 F T Azo
v
e st
EO C
N AT 4
e
r
BE a
SS
AR K HA 177 sp
AN DA
AB J E D IS G i
MO
IA
1792 ES
a
TA
HUNGARY
LD
n
LVANIA Caucasus N
AV
T R A N SY 172
18
182
3
12
Se
1699
IA
u
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9
pol
UNGARY ANAT Sevasto Bak
GIA
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B
1699 1718 D O B RU
JA OR
A GE 1730
WALLACHI 1878
a
Sava 1829 S e AG
Bucharest
k B
B l
a c RA
BOSNIA Belgra
de 1908 izon d K A 1730
inope Treb
D a n u be
1878 S
JA
N
1878 Bulgaria Varna Sams
u
A I 730
Sarajevo SERBIA T R EBIZ O N D eru
m
NIA ER
B 1
1878 Erz
1878 Sofia R ME AZ riz
a Van
E. Rumeli A Tab A
1913
I
tinople Sintori S
R A G U SA Constan Ankara R
E
Alb a nia
1913
i a
do
1913 o l AN
a t
ce
A n ST
Aegean Me sop RI
Ma
1881 Kony
a otam LU 1730
Ti g
a
Sea Adan ia
r is
o
Alepp
d
Athens hda
Bag
Ionian GREECE
1830 1878
a
Sea Eu
1912 to Britain Famagu
sta phr
ates
i
ra
to Italy Bas
s orate
Cypru AIT protect
r
KUWBritish sian
Crete 1899 Per ulf
y
1898 A E G
S e a l
S
n e a n H rain in
Bah7 to Brita
e r r a r a
M e d i t lem sa
Jerusa
168
a
dria
Alexan
Benghazi
Cairo a
b
ca Aqab
ai H
r en ej 1853
az from itain
Cy
i
pt to Br
Egy
t o I t a l y
1811
a
1882
British R
te a
Protectora Medin
e
d
a
r S
a
Nile
e
a
a
Mecc
nc er
Tropic of Ca
a
c
i
f r
i Am
Wad
Sana
At
ba
EN
YEM
ra
89
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
(r. 1656–61), son of an Albanian Christian, and some of these territorial losses during the first
his son Ahmed (r. 1661–76), allowing further half of the eighteenth century, in the longer
expansion north of the Crimea and (after term they were unable to stem the tide of
Ahmed’s death) even a second siege of Vienna Russian advance. In 1768 the Russians began a
(1683). The process of decline, however, proved new campaign, occupying Moldavia and
irreversible. The influx of Spanish silver from Wallachia (modern Romania) and the Crimea.
the Americas created a massive inflation prob- Under the humiliating terms of the treaty of
lem, undermining the commercial classes and Kuchuk Kaynarca (1774) the Ottomans were
the ability of government to pay for troops obliged to allow Russia a foothold on the Black
whose modern weaponry (muskets and gun- Sea, as well as freedom of navigation and com-
powder) required cash rather than booty. merce, with access to the Mediterranean and
Provincial governors and local magnates gained to overland trade in the Empire’s Asian and
power at the expense of the center, hiring pri- European provinces. Although Moldavia and
vate armies or raising taxes for themselves. The Wallachia remained technically under Otto-
Janissaries, who had evolved into a privileged man suzerainty, the increased autonomy they
body within the state, became enmeshed in were granted laid them open to Russian manip-
large-scale nepotism and misrule. Land conces- ulation. Under Russian pressure a clause per-
sions that should have nurtured agriculture mitting the erection of a Russian church in
degenerated into tax-farms, driving cultivators Istanbul would be converted into a general
off the land, and creating gangs of rural ban- right of Russian intervention on behalf of all
dits or urban migrants who drifted into cities the sultan’s Orthodox Christian subjects.
already overcrowded and subject to famine, The flow of ideas that followed in the wake
plague, and disorder. The millet system, which of European victories would prove even more
allowed the Christian and Jewish communities devastating than military defeats. Napoleon
(and in Iraq the Shiite) a high degree of admin- Bonaparte’s brief occupation of Egypt in 1798
istrative autonomy, undermined the legitimacy planted the seeds of modern scientific thought
of the state by privileging Western traders and and revolutionary change in the Empire’s
encouraging Greek and Balkan Christians to wealthiest (but most neglected) province. By
look toward the Empire’s enemies in Russia and defeating the neo-mamluk amirs who governed
Western Europe for inspiration and support. Egypt under Ottoman authority, Napoleon
Internally decentralized, the Empire proved opened the way for penetration of Western
no match for the rising powers of Europe, ideas under the modernizing dynasty of
whose military and economic systems were Mehmed Ali (r. 1805–48), an Albanian officer
beginning to benefit from the revolution in sci- who seized power in 1805, making himself an
entific thought. During the last two decades of independent ruler in all but name. The colonial
the seventeenth century, the European powers ambitions of a restored French monarchy led
made significant advances at the Empire’s to the loss of Algeria from 1830 and the estab-
expense. Between 1684 and 1687 the Habs- lishment of a protectorate in Tunisia (1881).
burgs took most of Hungary north of the The winds of nationalism that tore through
Danube and took Serbia in 1689. The Europe in the wake of the French Revolution
Venetians seized Dalmatia and southern reached the Christian communities in the
Greece (Morea). Poland invaded Podolia, and Balkans, starting with the Serbian revolt of
the Russians, under the newly modernized 1804–13 and the Greek war of independence
army of Peter the Great, took Azov in the (1821–29). They culminated in the treaty of
Crimea. Although the Ottomans regained San Stefano in 1878, by which the Ottomans
90
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1650–1920
were forced to concede the independence of worldwide war, with the Ottoman Empire
Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro. ranged alongside Austria and Germany
The final dismemberment of the Empire was against Britain, France, Italy, and Russia. The
only postponed because of rivalries between defeat of the Central Powers in 1918, the abdi-
the European powers, with Britain and France cation of the sultan in 1922, the abolition of
propping up the “sick man of Europe” against the caliphate in 1924, as well as the exchange
Russia in the Crimea (1854–56) while Austria of populations between Turkey and Greece in
competed with Russia for ascendancy in the 1921 brought the Ottoman Empire to its end.
Balkans. In 1911, Italy invaded Tripoli and
Cyrenaica, forcing the Ottomans to concede
their suzerainty. In 1912, the combined Balkan
powers (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and The Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul. The classical Venetian-
Montenegro) took all the remaining Ottoman style facade of this palace, like others built for the
territories in Europe, except for a strip of land Ottoman sultans in the nineteenth century, reveals
around Istanbul, before arguing among them- change in cultural orientation, as they abandoned their
selves. In August 1914 the rivalries between the former seclusion and displayed their power like
European powers in the Balkans erupted into a European monarchs.
91
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Iran 1500–2000
The history of modern Iran began with the tombs of Sufi saints desecrated, and khanaqas
ruling Safavid dynasty (1501–1722) which (hostelries) given over to Shiite youth. Jews and
established Twelver Shiism as the state religion. Zoroastrians were subjected to forcible conver-
The dynasty’s founder Shaikh Safi al-Din sion. The pilgrimage to Mecca was discouraged in
(1252–1334) was a Sufi teacher and mujaddid favor of ziyaras (visits) to the lavishly-endowed
(renovator) of Sunni allegiance who started a shrines of the Shiite imans. In the eighteenth cen-
movement of reform among the tribes of eastern tury, following the disintegration of the Safavid
Anatolia and Empire, Iran endured a period of anarchy with
northwestern Iran. Ottomans and Russians controlling the north, and
His descendant Afghans, Afshars, Zand, and Qajar tribal chiefs
Shah Ismail vying for power in the south. Though Nadir Shah,
(1487–1524) acti- an Afshar chieftain who proclaimed himself Shah
vated popular in 1736, curbed the power of the Shiite ulama, the
eschatological turbulence of the eighteenth century permitted the
expectations in the ulama to obtain a higher degree of institutional
period of disorder autonomy than their Sunni counterparts.
following the col- Under the Qajar dynasty (1779–1925) the pow-
lapse of the ers of the Shiite ulama were enhanced by zakat
Timurid Empire by and khums (religious taxes), which were paid to
Shah Suleiman and his courtiers proclaiming himself the Hidden Imam, or them directly, while their custodianship over
with Western visitors, shown expected Shiite messiah. Led by a fearsome band shrines and waqfs (charitable trusts) gave them
against a lyrical European-style of warriors known as Qizilbashis (red heads) access to rents from land and housing. The loca-
landscape. The Safavid rulers from their distinctive red turbans, the movement tion of two of the most important shrines at
exported carpets and silk to
enabled Shah Ismail, who proclaimed himself Karbala and Najaf in Iraq, in Ottoman-controlled
Europe as well as ceramics
king in Tabriz in 1501, to conquer most of Iran in territory, gave them a power base outside the
designed by Chinese craftsmen
the course of the next decade. domain of the state. The mourning ceremonies
for the Western markets. They
Though the power of the Safavid state, based commemorating the martyrdom of the Imam
broke with the traditional
on the brilliant new capital built by Shah Abbas Hussein at Karbala and the associated taziya (pas-
religious hostility toward
figurative painting by claiming
(1588–1629) in Isfahan, was limited, relying for its sion plays) became characteristic features of pop-
that the Imam Ali, revered by authority on a network of uymaqs or smaller ular religiosity, making Shiism a component ele-
the Shiites, had been a painter as chieftains and the traditional iqta system of tax- ment in Iranian national identity.
well as a calligrapher. farming, the Safavid strategy of religious consoli- As pressures from Russia and Britain began to
dation gave Iran the distinctive Shiite character it impinge on Iran in the nineteenth century, the
retains to this day. Once the Qizilbashis had done ulama came to the forefront of nationalist resist-
their work Ismail’s messianic claims were deem- ance. In 1873 they forced the Shah to cancel far-
phasized, and Shiite scholars were imported from reaching economic and financial concessions
Syria, Iraq, Bahrain, and al-Hasa to promote the made to a British citizen, Baron de Reuter, and in
“official” version of Twelver Shiism, according to the 1890s they led a national boycott against a
which the return of the Imam/Messiah is indefi- tobacco monopoly granted to another Briton,
nitely deferred. Sunnism was suppressed, the Major Talbot. The political momentum engen-
92
IRAN 1500–2000
dered by the tobacco agitation culminated in the es and agribusiness (in which the ruling family had
Constitutional Revolution of 1906, when a coali- interests), while alienating the ulama, many of
tion of liberal ulama, merchants, and members of whom were themselves wealthy landowners or
the Westernized intelligentsia forced the Shah to controlled extensive waqfs in land. The sudden
convene a national assembly and to submit to a increase in oil prices after 1973 increased wealth in
form of parliamentary government. A brief period the small modernized sector of the economy, while
of constitutional rule, during which tensions adversely affecting small businesses in the bazaari
between conservative ulama and the liberals came community, which had close links to the ulama.
to the surface, was brought to an end by the The corruption of the Pahlavi family and ruthless
Russians in 1911, when they intervened to restore repression by SAVAK, the secret police, alienated
the Shah’s autocracy. the educated middle classes, and especially the
In 1925 Reza Khan Pahlavi, an officer in the younger generation of students, who had come
Cossack Brigade, came to power after a period of under the influence of Marxism and the leftist ver-
instability following the Russian Revolution. Reza sions of Islamic ideology promoted by Dr Ali
Shah instituted a radical modernizing regime that Shariati and Jalal Al-e-Ahmed, author of a highly
sought to break the power of tribal leaders and to influential tract entitled Westoxification. Poor
curb the autonomy of the ulama by introducing rural migrants to the cities provided the tinder for
secular education and government supervision of revolution.
religious schools. Secular courts were established Under a deal reached between the Shah and
depriving the ulama of their legal monopoly, Saddam Hussein, Iraq expelled the dissident cleric
which included the lucrative business of registering Ayatollah Ruhallah Khomeini from the Shiite cen-
land transactions. During the Second World War ter of Najaf, where his lectures calling for a
Britain and Russia, who needed a compliant restored Islamic government under ulama supervi-
Iranian government to facilitate the passage of sion found a receptive audience among ulama and
war material to the eastern front, forced Reza students. From his place of exile in a Paris suburb
Shah to resign and replaced him with his son, the Khomeini had access to the international media,
young Muhammad Reza. while taped copies of his fatwas and sermons
After the Second World War oil, first discov- denouncing the Shah were smuggled into Iran.
ered in 1908 and leased to the British under gener- Early in 1979 a series of massive demonstrations,
ous concessions, became a bone of contention timed to coincide with the ritual of Ashura (the
when the nationalist Prime Minister, Muhammad Day of Mourning for the Imam Hussein), forced
Mosaddeq, attempted to nationalize the Anglo- the Shah into exile, bringing Khomeini home to a
Iranian Oil Company. In the crisis engendered by tumultuous reception. For ten years, until his
a boycott of Iranian oil by Western oil companies, death in 1989, he ruled the Islamic republic as the
the CIA intervened to help the army restore the supreme religious leader. Although the Ayatollah
autocratic Pahlavi regime. Khamenei, Khomeini’s successor as the supreme
The collapse of the regime in 1979 and the religious authority, lacks Khomeini’s charisma, the
ensuing Islamic revolution were the result of a right of the Guardianship Council which he con-
complex combination of economic, cultural, and trols to vet candidates for the parliament has effec-
political factors. Far from benefiting small tenants tively curbed its power to introduce changes that
and landless peasants, the Shah’s ambitious land the religious establishment regards as being con-
reforms in the 1960s favored large-scale enterpris- trary to its interests.
93
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
E
Sm Ank BIZ
y ara ON
contact with the sedentary peoples of Iran, 140 rna 140 D
2
by T 2: Ottom Sivas
Baye imur. Ott ans defe 1400
Khwarzm, and Transoxiana. Brought by the mer- zid I oman ated
dies S u lt
in ca
Kon ptivit an
SAL ya
JUQS y
chants and Sufi dervishes who traveled along the Me OF RUM
The Shah mosque (now Imam Silk Road, Islam in inner Asia acquired a mystical, dit
err
mosque) in Isfahan, with the pluralistic character resulting from its encounters an
ea 1400
Alep Mosu
n S po l
names of God and Muhammad with Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Nestorian ea
Eu
Dam
ph
written in bold geometric
Christianity, and older traditions of shamanism. Ale ascu
r at
xan s
1400
es
characters on the minaret. Built dria
The conversion to Islam by Tarmarshirin Jeru
between 1612 and 1630, its salem
(r. 1326–34), the ruler of the lands in Transoxiana
spectacular blue-tiled decoration Cairo
A
AT
E
ed by the impoverished clan of Turkomans.
b
94
CENTRAL ASIA TO 1700
Under Timur, his successor Ulugh Beg distinguished scholars, artists, historians, and
(r. 1404–49), and the Uzbek Shaybanids poets of his time, setting the stamp of “royal”
(1500–c. 1700) who inherited Timurid power in Islamic high culture that would be imitated
inner Asia, Herat, Samarkand, and Bukhara with rather more refinement by his successors.
were transformed into world-class cities. They He was broad-minded on religious matters.
were embellished by the plunder and legions of Though a Sunni Muslim who launched his con-
skilled craftsmen and artisans Timur and his quests in the name of the Sharia under the pre-
successors had imported from Persia, India, text that his enemies were apostates and trai-
Iraq, and Syria. Though utterly ruthless and tors to Islam, he gave his protection to the
cruel (before taking Delhi, he had thousands of Shiites. Shaikks (Sufi pirs) were his chief spiri-
male prisoners executed so they would not be tual advisors. The Naqshbandi Sufi order,
able to change sides) Timur was far from being named after Baha al-Din Naqshband (d. 1389),
an ignorant barbarian. He mastered Persian, who is buried near Bukhara, put down deep
and surrounded himself with some of the most roots in inner Asia during this period.
ke
lga
La Sultanate of Delhi
Astrakhan
Khanate of the Golden Horde
Aral
Sea
GA TA I Mamluk Sultanate
CHA
Ca
sp
Derben
t nt N AT E Chagatai Khanate
KHA
ian
1383
Am
E
TH
u Da
rya
E OF
Balkh
PIR N
Nishapur EM HA
A T K
E M Kabul GR
E
P I R E Herat
Baghda
d O F T I M U R
1401
Isfahan
1387 Kandahar
Multan
Shiraz
Delhi ur invades India
Ganges
s
du
98: Tim
In
Pe 13 cks Delhi
N rs and sa
ian
HI
Gu DEL
OF
lf TE
ANA
S U LT
95
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
India 711–1971
Islam first appeared in the South Asia subconti- temples. While there was an initial period of
nent with the Arab invasion of Sind (711–713). In Muslim immigration into India from Afghanistan
the tenth century Fatimid dais (missionaries) and Central Asia after the conquests, the process
from Cairo converted local rulers in Multan to of conversion and Islamization was slow and rel-
Ismailism. However, these were replaced by Sunni atively limited. It is doubtful if more than 20 or 25
governors appointed by the Ghurids in the after- percent of the Indian population became Muslim,
math of the conquest of the Punjab by Mahmud with the Muslim populations concentrated in the
of Ghazna, who sacked Lahore and devastated Indus Valley, the northwestern frontier region,
northern India in 1030. The systematic conquest and Bengal. While the ruling classes were the
of the subcontinent began with the Ghurids, who descendants of warriors from Afghanistan, Iran,
occupied Multan, Lahore, and Delhi (1175–92) and inner Asia, most of the converts were from
before one of their generals, Qutb al-Din Aybeg, the lower Hindu castes or tribal and rural peoples
established the first of several independent sul- whose lives were improved by joining the religious
tanates in Delhi. These endured from 1206 to community of the rulers. The fullest diversity of
1526 under a succession of different dynasties. Islamic faith, practice, and tradition came to be
The Delhi sultanates help to establish the distinc- reflected among Indian Muslims, Sunni, Shiite,
tive character of Indian Islam, a legacy carried by and Sufi, with a vast number of variations. The
the Timurid Mughal Empire founded by Timur’s pluralistic character of Indian Islam is reflected in
grandson Babur in 1526. This lasted more than its magnificent architectural heritage where
three centuries until its dissolution by the British motifs drawn from Islamic and Hindu vernacu-
after the “Mutiny” or Great Rebellion in 1858. lars were blended into a new, creative synthesis.
The Mughal Empire absorbed a number of inde- Muslim devotional literature, including poetry,
pendent Muslim dynasties that had been estab- exists in a large number of Indian languages in
lished in Bengal (1356–1576), Kashmir addition to Arabic and Persian, the languages
(1346–1589), Gujerat (1407–1572), and the taught in the institutions of higher learning along
Deccan (1347–1601). At the Empire’s greatest with law, theology, and mysticism.
extent under Aurungzeb (r. 1658–1707) the While the ruling dynasties reflected an urban
emperor’s name was read from the pulpits of pattern of Muslim life, which had much in com-
mosques as far apart as Kabul and Mysore. mon with the cosmopolitan culture of other
Some of the early Muslim rulers were fired Muslim regions such as Iran and Central Asia,
with iconoclastic zeal against “idolators” and rural Muslim populations retained a strong ver-
destroyed Hindu temples, replacing them with nacular heritage, with local Hindu rituals and
large mosques intended to symbolize Islamic customs often mixed with Islamic beliefs and
domination. The Tughluq dynasty (1320–1413), practices. Sufi teachers and religious orders played
however, initiated a pattern of tolerance that a particularly important role in the spread of
would help to establish a pluralistic version of Islam in South Asia. Among the most important
Islam in India that contrasted with the more rigid tariqas were the Suhrawardiyya and the Chistiyya.
and austere varieties of earlier times. To counter Though organized hierarchically in a way that fit-
the political influence of well-established Muslim ted the character of Indian society, the social roles
families, the dynasty’s founder Muhammad of the tariqas differed greatly. Whereas the
Tughluq (r. 1325–51) appointed non-Muslims to Suhrawardis maintained close relations with the
military and government offices, took part in Delhi sultans, benefiting from endowments and
local festivals, and allowed the construction of gifts of land that gave their leaders the status of
96
INDIA 711–1971
us
um
Ind
In
H
d
Kurram us
Hindu shrine
R.
Pass
Brahmaputra
Muslim shrine
Nagarkot and Kangra
Punj ab Lahore
Jawalamukhi R. Su
tlej
vi
b
na Ra
he R.
C
Dipalpur H
R.
30°
Multan lej Thanesar i
Sut Gangadvara m Lhasa
R.
Sirsa Tahari a R . Brahmaputra
Uch c. 1192 l
a
y
Delhi a s
R.
us Th a r G ang Kathmandu
d
es
In
Desert Mathura
R.
Tirhut tra
Pushkar bal pu
Ajmer R. Brah m a
i ham R
.J R
R. L un R.
C um
na Jaunp u r . Gogra
Jaunpur Pandua
Maner Bihar
Nalanda Gaur Sylhet
Canderi Prayaga Warandsi Bodh Gaya
M oe In
th
R.
Rann of Cut Dharmanatha Ga Sonargaon
ut d
hs ch R. Son ng
us o f Khajuraho e
Tropic of Cancer
s
Arbuda Sanchi
G. Ahmadabad
Gujerat da Chittagong
o f C utch
. Na
rma Bengal
Khambhat R
s
Girinagara Mandu M a l w a an
ge
Baruch R he G
. Ta R. Mahanadi M o u t h s of t
p ti Burhanpur
Somnath Gulf of Orissa Ratnagiri
Cambay Bhubaneswar
20°
W e s t
R. G Puri Konarak
oda Daulatabad
vari
. Indrava t i
R
R. s
Bh t
i a Bay of Bengal
D e c c a n
m
h
e r n
a
R. K
Bidar G
Gulbarga
istn
Arabian Sea
n
a
Bijapur
e
Golconda
G h
t
s
a
a t
extent, c. 1100
R . Penner
s
1206–10
Chidambaram
Under Itutmish, 1210–36
div
Kumbakonam
Tanjore Under Ala-al-Din Khalji,
e I
10° it 1296–1316
Madurai tra
sla
PA N D Y A S
ds
Kandy
INDIAN OCEAN 97
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
60° 90°
A mu D 70° 80°
Hu
arya
Ka Major European trading
rg
sh settlements, c. 1700
French settlement
A F G H A N I S TA N
Dutch settlement
Hari Rud Kabul
Peshawar British settlement
I
nd
Kabul
d
ar
Danish settlement
an
Kashmir
us
H ud
us
ra
h lm T I B E T
He
d
Fa
Portuguese settlement
In
Attock
Kandahar SIKHS
Lahore
Lahore Sut
lej
man
H el b
a i
av
en
R
Ch
30°
lej Delhi
Sut
H
Multan Lhasa
i
Samana m
Multan Panipat a B rahmaputra
1526 l a
Dehli y a
Baluchistan
Th a r Ga JATS s
D e s e r t Aj mer SATNAMIS nges
s
du
Laswari
In
(Raj putana)
l
ngo
Ta t t a Biana Ju O u d hG Brahm a p u
Jodhpur mn og
Hindaun a
ra
L u ni Gwalior Allahabad Bihar Rajmahal
RAJPUTS A g r a Benares Patna
Bengal
Lahari Bandar Allahabad
MeR
Tropic of Canc
th
er Kasimbazar
ou . I
Rann of Cu Dacca
Son
t h nd
so tch
us f Sarkhej Plassey
Ahmadabad Hooghly Chandernagore
G.
o f C utc h ada Serampore (Frederiksnagar) Chinsura
N ar m Calcutta Chittagong
Cambay Baroda M a l w a
Gujerat Asirgarh
Ara bian Sea Broach
Mahanadi Pipli of
Diu Surat Buranphur M o uth es
Nagpur Balasore the Gang
20° Gulf of Gondwana
Karanja
Cambay Daman Khandesh
God Assaye
sa
W e s
Bassein ava
ri s
Berar
Bombay Ahmadnagar ndra
vati s ri
I
t O
Chaul D e c c a n a
Janjira Poona h Bay of Bengal
t e r RATHAS
Hyderabad
n
r
n
Vengurla Bijapur
t
Masulipatam
G h
Vi j aya n a g a r
s
1526 – 1707
E
a
Nellore
t
Bijapur Pulicat
Madras Mughal conquest by 1539
INDIAN OCEAN Mangalore
Sadras
Empire at Akbar’s death,
La
Pondicherry
very Fort St. David 1605
c
Cau
ca
Tranquebar
10° Negapatam
ve
Cochin Madura lk
la
Tuticorin
Quilon
s
98
INDIA 711–1971
service, living by cultivating wastelands and from tion of Shah Wali Allah encouraged Muslims to French base, 1700
donations by their devotees. avoid collaboration with power or social mixing Portuguese
base, 1700
The pirs (Sufi shaikks), who won converts with non-Muslims. While Sufi devotional prac-
Dutch base, 1700
among tribal or marginal peoples or from the tices (including worship at the shrine of saints and
British territory,
lower Hindu castes, used local languages (includ- colorful popular festivals) continued to attract the c. 1785
ing ritual languages) to convey the Islamic mes- poor, the reformist currents gained ground Maratha territory,
c. 1785
sage in social and religious milieus that were very among the emerging class of literate profession- Mysore territory,
c. 1785
different from those prevailing in the regions als. The reform college of Deoband, founded in Center of Gurkha
power, c. 1785
where Islam originated. At a popular level it mat- 1867, used the new technology of print in Urdu
Campaigns
tered little if a holy man presented himself as a and the burgeoning rail network to reach a mass Nadir Shah
of Persia
Muslim or a devotee of Shiva: what inspired Muslim audience throughout the subcontinent,
Ahmad Khan
bakhti (devotion) was his individual aura of holi- Abdali of
Afghanistan
ness. At an intellectual level the philosophical jus- R. A
m
BUKHARA 60° 50° 1759 40°
Haidar Ali
u D ar ya
Faizabad of Mysore
7
Gurkhas
Islam and what would come to be known as 1738
KASHMIR Chinese
Kabul
Hinduism (a term invented by Europeans in the 1752 R
1739
.I
nineteenth century) could be found in the writ- Rawalpindi Marathas
nd
1738 1 C H I N A
75
u
s
AF G H AN I S TAN 2
Lahore
whose doctrine of “unity of being” could be har- R.
Ra
v
17
57 1720
Quetta Punjab T i b e t
monized with the spiritual teachings of the Vedas 30°
1761 1739
1790 Lhasa
1739 R . Brahmaputr a
DELHI
and the Upanishads. The high point of Hindu- BELUTSHISTAN
Multan 1761 Dehli N
1792
im
Rampur E P
R
kk
an
u AGRA
ge 1790 1787
Si
d
R. In
R A J P U TA NA Kathmandu Bhutan
the reign of Akbar I (1556–1605), a supporter of Sind Agra
176
Jodhpur Ajmer 1 Lucknow
the Chistis who instituted the Din-i-Ilahi (divine Hyderabad Benares
Bihar 1789
R.
1761
Karachi G Bengal
religion). This was an imperial cult with Akbar at
an
ge
179
1738
Chandernagore
philosopher-king. Gujerat
M A R AT H A
Calcutta
CONFEDERACY
In due course, however, practices seen by the Diu Nagpur
ck
20°
Cut
rs
R. G Bay of Bengal
the targets of reformist movements inspired by
ca
oda
var
ir
Bombay
C
1791-92 1760
more orthodox teachings emanating from the
n
Nizam’s
er
Dominions
th
Hyderabad
N
GOLCONDA
Yanam
tendency were Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi 1736
Goa
(1564–1624) and his follower Shah Wali Allah Arabian Sea
(1702–63). The public form of this reaction began 1779
MYSORE 1740
Bangalore
under Akbar’s grandson Aurungzeb, who Madras
t i c
Mangalore
1771 1780
1783
reversed the policy of accommodation with 1769
n a
Pondicherry
La
Mahé 1776
1779 Karikal
a r
MALABAR
cca
it
div
TR
AV
AN
Gulf of
CO
an
Mannar
R
Ce y l o n
E
ds
99
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
reinforcing Muslim communal distinctiveness. arate Hindu and Muslim electorates at local level,
“To like and appreciate the customs of the infi- thereby consolidating a separate identity of
dels,” wrote leading Deobandi scholar Maulana Muslims legally and politically. From there the
Ashraf Ali Thanawi, “is a grave sin.” “two-nations” theory, which held that Muslims
The sense of Muslim separateness was and Hindus constituted distinct and separate
encouraged by the British, who tended to stress nations, was a small but inevitable step. The same
the importance of religious ties over family, lin- logic decreed that the Muslims of India were enti-
eage, language, caste, regional, or class affilia- tled to their own territorial homeland. The state
tions among India’s variegated communities. The of Pakistan, created on Indian independence in
Indian Councils Act of 1909 institutionalized sep- 1947, was constructed out of a disparate variety
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
AmB U K H A R A 60° 50° 40°
uD
ar ya
Faizabad s h Tu r k e s t a n
K u 0 200 km
u
n d
H i 0 200 miles
1893
Ladakh
Herat 1753
1842 Kashmir and Jammu
A F G H A N I S T A N Kabul
Peshawar 1846 British protectorate N
In
C H I N A
du
Rawalpindi
s
1839
1891 Jammu
Kandahar Punjab Amritsar
us
Lahore Jullundur T i b e t
Ind
vi
Ra
b
Firozpur
ab
30° R.
en
Quetta u tl
Ch
S
R. Lhasa
r Meerut
l pu B rahmaputra
cy
wa Rampur N Lhasa gen
a Dehli E P er A
h nti
Ba A L ro n
st F itai s s
am
Bareli Ea o Br A
G
Baluchistan an
ge rth 14 t
Kathmandu No 913–
PERSIA Rajputana s
Mainpura Sitapur B h u tan 1
Indus
a
tr
1818 British protectorate Agra O u d h ma p u
Ajmer Lucknow Brah
Kanpur Azamghar B i h a r Darjeeling Carchar
Sind Jodhpur Nimach 1 85 1882 British protectorate
7–5 Patna
Hyderabad Gwalior 8
Karachi Kalpi Benares Ga Manipur
Erinpura Jhansi Allahabad ng 1886 British protectorate
es
Nimach 18 U ppe r
Tropic of Cancer Fatehpur 57
I N D I A Sikri B en gal Dacca Bur ma
Rann of Bhopal Dum-Dum 1886 to Britain
Cuch
Indore Chandernagore Chittagong formerly Chinese territory
Arabian Sea Jabalpur Calcutta Mandalay
Baroda Mhow
British Conquest of
India Central Indian Provinces
Surat Nagpur 1826
ck
British
20° annexation Diu Orissa Cuttack
Daman
ta
Coorg
Boundary of British India, Pondicherry
c. 1890 Mahé
n a
Laccadive Cochin ai
Str
Tr a
Portuguese Islands l k
Pa Jaffna
van
French
co
British campaigns
100
INDIA 711–1971
du
Rawalpindi
s
under Indian control Aksai Chin area
minorities, Muhajirs, or refugees from India. The 1971
us
Himcha l N
Ind
thousands of people were killed in communal Pra desh
Lahore
rioting. The unresolved dispute over Kashmir, P A K I S T A N Amritsar
1965
where the Hindu ruler chose to accede to the Punjab
ab
with military help from India, East Pakistan returning from Ayodhya were attacked by
broke away from western Pakistan to form the Muslims in Gujerats, causing widespread com-
independent Muslim state of Bangladesh. The munal conflict in the region.
fractious relationship between India and Pakistan
The Taj Mahal, Agra, India
(both of them now nuclear powers) has yet to be
(completed 1653). One of the
resolved. The erosion of India’s secular culture
world’s best-known monuments,
consequent on Hindu political revival and official
it is the most enduring emblem of
Islamophobia occasionally tolerated in some
Mughal rule in India. It was built
states—notably Gujerat—has made the position
by the Emperor Shah Jahan in
of the Muslim minority remaining in India—
memory of his wife Mumtaz
which numbers some 120 million, about 10 per-
Mahal. Shah Jahan, who was
cent of the population—more vulnerable than at
deposed by his son Aurungzeb, is
any time since partition. The legacy of the
also buried there.
Muslim conquests has yet to be fully absorbed in
Indian popular consciousness. A mosque in
Ayodhya, said to have been built by Babur on the
site of a temple devoted to the hero-deity Rama,
101
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
102
RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN TRANSCAUCASIA AND CENTRAL ASIA
China, forestalling potential British rivalry. and its replacement by Latin and later Cyrillic
Tashkent was occupied in 1865, Samarkand in scripts ensured that future Soviet generations
1868, and Bukhara was forced to open its would have much less access than in the past
frontiers to Russian traders. In the north to the canonical texts of Islam.
Caucasus the Russians overcame resistance The potential for political solidarity among
inspired by the Naqshbandi and Qadiri Soviet Muslims was attacked by a deliberate
orders, overthrowing the Islamic state estab- policy of divide and rule. Central Asian states
lished by Imam Shamil in 1859. By 1900 the of today owe their territorial existence to
tsarist conquest of Transcaucasia and Central Stalin. He responded to the threat of pan-
Asia was virtually complete. Turkish and pan-Islamic nationalism by parcel-
Far from leading to the dissolution of the ing out the territories of Russian Turkestan
tsarist empire in Asia the Bolshevik revolution into the five republics of Uzbekistan,
of 1917–18 led to its consolidation. In their Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and
struggle against their own conservative reli- Tajikistan. The prosperous Fergana Valley,
gious establishments, intellectual advocates of which lies at the core of the region and had
Islamic reform, known as jadidists, joined the always been a single economic unit, was divid-
Communist Party. They hoped to modify ed between Uzbeks, Tajiks, and Kyrgyz. Stalin’s
Russian policies to meet the needs of the policies demanded that subtle differences in
Muslim populations and to promote versions language, history, and culture between these
of Muslim nationalism in alliance with Soviet mainly Turkic peoples be emphasized in order
Russia. The Muslim nationalists were outma- to satisfy the Leninist criteria on nationality,
neuvered by Stalin and the party centralizers. which required a common language, a unified
Their leading advocate Mir Said Sultan Galiev territory, a shared economic life, and a com-
(b. 1880) was arrested in 1928 and disap- mon culture. To the new territorial configura-
peared soon afterward. However, a sense of tions were added the straitjackets of collec-
shared values between Islam and communism tivization and monoculture. Under Khrus-
(social justice, the priority of public over pri- chev’s Virgin Lands scheme vast tracts of
vate interest, of community over the individ- Kazakhstan were given over to cereal produc-
ual) encouraged them to work for their inter- tion, and when the mainly pastoral Kazakhs
ests within the party by adopting a strategy of resisted, Slavs and other peoples were imported
taqiyya (dissimulation). But official Islam suf- to do the work. In Uzbekistan more than 60
fered serious assault during the 1930s when percent of gross domestic production was
Stalin launched his “second revolution” from turned over to cotton. This served the interests
above. Mosques were placed in the hands of of the ruling party elites, some of whose mem-
the Union of Atheists, to be turned into muse- bers became involved in gargantuan frauds
ums or places of entertainment, while two of based on the systematic falsification of pro-
the five “pillars” of the Islamic faith, the pil- duction figures. It also left a devastating envi-
grimage to Mecca and the collection of zakat ronmental legacy by starving noncotton crops
(the religious dues used to maintain mosques of irrigation and drying up the rivers and lakes,
and provide funds for the needy) were effec- including the Aral Sea.
tively forbidden. The ban on Arabic script Distrusting the loyalty of Muslims during
103
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
CIR
BLACK SEA
Astrakhan Guryev
CA
PROVINCE Stavropol
SS
century of repression may partly be 1829
IAN
S
G RE
accounted for by the mystical Sufi tradi- 1864
AT
B l a c k Pyatigorsk
tions. Originating in Central Asia, they had ABKHAZIA AB
K
S e a ARMozdok
1810 1858 D IA 1784
retained their roots. Naqshbandi Sufism, in
C
Poti 1803 Fort Shevchenko
1829 1806 1817
particular, was able to survive official perse- 1804 1846
a
1804 Vladikavkaz
Kutais
Batumi 1859 Petrovsk Russian vassal
DA
cution as the tradition of “silent” rituals 1824
s p
KHANATE 1884 from 1731
GH
1829 Tiflis
1878
ES
enabled meetings to take place under other
TA
Kars OF GEORGIA
Derbent 1806
N
Aleksandropol 1830
i a n
guises. Additionally old family networks founded KHANATE
1877 KHANATE 1804
T
OF KUBA
based on the asabiyya of extended kinship OF ERIVAN 1806
Kuba
Erivan Gandzha
U
founded KHANATE OF 1806
groups persisted or even flourished by tak- 1827 K. OF KARABAGH
Shemakha 1806
R
NAKHICHEVAN
ing control of communist institutions. In 1828 Shusha 1805 KHANATE Baku
K
Nakhichevan OF
S e
SHIRVAN Krasnovodsk
Chechnya where Russia has fought two bru- KHANATE OF 1869
TU TALISH
tal wars in 1994–96 and 1999–2002 to sup- (O RK 1813
TT EY
a
OM Tabriz
press local independence movements, the EM
PI AN Turkmanchai
persistence of Sufi networks and allegiances RE Chikishilyar
)
after seven decades of Soviet rule provides a Resht
104
RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN TRANSCAUCASIA AND CENTRAL ASIA
1707–18
50°
E
A K M O L I N S K 1763
4
82 R
–1
31 Semipalatinsk
1730 17 I
A N M P
E
N S K URYANKHAI
A T I 1864
TERRITORY
Turgai L
A
T U R G A I I P
Irgiz M 1912–21
U R A L S K E under Russian Prot.
1845 Ulutau S
1846
K A Z A K H S
Lake Balkhash
Aralskije (Raim) Syr 1854
1847 Dar Kopal
1853 ya W 1847
Kazalinsk all
1859 Kuldja
Aral Sea Perovsk 1871–81
(Ak-Mechet) Djilek
K
1861 1854
1853
A
1864
Verny
R
A
K K o k a n d W a l l Tokmak 1854
A L Well Irkibai Przhevalk
P A K S Turkestan
(Karakol)
1873
Chimkent 40°
KHANATE 1873
K y z y l K I R G H I S 1871
OF KHIVA K u m
Russian Prot. Naryn
from 1873 Khiva Tashkent 1868
1865 Kokand
Well Orta-Kuju C H I N A
1876
O
Ka
M ra Bukhara Samarkand
1868–70 T A D
1881
E Ku
m J I K
N S
KHANATE OF BUKHARA Pam 1895
Ashkhabad ir s Expansion of Russia in Asia
Russian Prot. from 1868
Merv 1598–1914
Acquisitions by 1796
Meshed Penjdeh
1885 K a s h m i r Acquisitions by 1801
Kushka
Acquisitions by 1825
Acquisitions by 1855
Herat
Acquisitions by 1881
A F G H A N I S T A N Acquisitions by 1894
P u n j a b
Acquisitions by 1914
30°
I N D I A Russian sphere of influence
105
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
SIAM Hue
PH
Andam
an Bangkok
Sea
IL
Vijaya South China
IP
CHAMPA
PI
Sea Min
do
NE
ro
Gulf of
Str
Siam
ait
S
Saigon
Palawan
Kedah Rattani
Sulu Sea Mindinao
Pasai Kelantan
S tr
Samudra
a it
ACEH Trengganu
Malay
of
M
Peninsula Brunei
ala
Pahang Brunei
cc
a
Singke BATAK
Malacca
Fansur
Celebes Sea
Johore
S
Singapore
u
it
m
t Tidore
Stra
ai
Borneo
Str
Ternate
a
ie r
ar
M
ass
p
Ka
IN
m
t
Da
ri
k
AN
Moluccas
Ma
ma
Tanjungoura
r
G KA
ta S
Celebes
a
BA
Palembang
trait
U
Banjermasin Serang
Martapura Ambon
Batang
Ja va S e a
Bay Bandanera
ait Macassar
Sunda Str Banlam Batavia
Demak
Tuban Banda Sea
Cheribon
J a v Gresik
a Pajang
ok
AN Matar
it
Lo
am
Stra
OCEA Bali
Sumbawa Flores
N
ok
b Arafura Sea
L om Sum
ba Timor
Timor Sea
AUSTRALIA
106
EXPANSION OF ISLAM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA c. 1500–1800
leading maritime power from the sixteenth and Portuguese along with the expansion of
century. Having taken Goa in 1509, the trade had the reverse effect, bringing contact
Portuguese conquered Malacca on the Malay with the Ottoman Empire and an influx of
Peninsula in 1511. Paradoxically, this aided the scholars and Sufis from Mughal India, espe-
spread of Islam by sending Muslim teachers cially in Acheh.
and missionaries to the courts of rulers in Differences between the coastal regions and
Acheh and Java, which became centers of the interiors, the legacies of Hindu and Buddhist
resistance to the Portuguese. The appearance kingships, the varying impacts of Portuguese,
of the Dutch (who founded Batavia, later Dutch, and British rule, and the different degrees
Jakarta, in 1619) in search of pepper, cloves, of resistance they engendered produced con-
nutmeg, and tin complicated the picture, but trasting Islamic styles throughout the Malay
did not reverse the spread, or appeal, of Islam Peninsula and Indonesian archipelago. A com-
in the region. Indeed conflict with the Dutch mon element is the rainfall and rich tropical soil
that makes much of the land highly produc-
15°
tive—this fed colonial appetites for cash crops
Expansion of Islam in such as coffee and, later, rubber. In Southeast
Southeast Asia Asia Islam encountered societies of settled culti-
1500 – 1800
vators and relatively ancient polities whose deep
Area of Islamic conversion by 1500
territorial roots contrast strikingly with the
Area of Islamic conversion by 1800 10°
flows of pastoral peoples that dominate Islamic
Islamic trade routes
history in Central or Western Asia. In some
Modern borders
instances the tides of the faith coming from
India and Arabia left a residue of ritual and
practice that combined with the older traditions.
5°
OCEAN In Java, for instance, villagers will describe
PA C I F I C themselves as Muslim, but their actual culture
combines Islamic with Hindu and animist ele-
ments. Elsewhere, as in Minangkabau, after a
period of economic upheaval in the eighteenth
0°
century, reformist currents preaching closer
adherence to the Sharia became dominant, gen-
erating social conflicts that resulted in Dutch
rck intercession and conquest (1839–45). Generally,
Bisma
Sea the Islamic legacy in Indonesia has crystallized
5°
N EW GU IN EA
into two broad tendencies—the rural abangan
style, which allows a tolerance for non-Sharia
customs including matrilineal forms of inheri-
tance, and the stricter santri tradition of the
Papua
cities. Though modern Islamists in both
10°
Malaysia and Indonesia generally oppose plural-
ism and cultural mixing, the fact remains that
Cape York
Coral both nations have undergone industrial revolu-
Sea tions that have placed them well ahead of Iran,
Pakistan, and the Arab-Muslim countries in
15°
terms of economic development.
107
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
108
BRITISH, FRENCH, DUTCH, AND RUSSIAN EMPIRES
of reform in Indian Islam. His aim of creating order, which had accepted Ottoman suzerainty,
an Islamic state on liberated territory outside became the source of organized resistance after
British control was frustrated by the Sikhs, who the Italian invasion in 1911.
defeated him at Balakot in 1831. The Northwest The British and French encountered similar
Frontier, however, continued to be the focus of movements of resistance throughout Muslim
resistance to British rule long after Barelwi’s Africa. Abd al-Qadir, a shaikh of the Qadiriyya
death. Between 1847 and 1908 there were no order, led the resistance to French rule after the
less than sixty rebellions against the British. conquest of Algiers in 1830. He established an
Many of them had millennarian overtones and Islamic state in the western Sahara. This lasted
nearly all were legitimized as jihads against until 1847, when the French finally overwhelmed
infidel rule. it and sent him into exile. In 1881 Muhammad
Iceland 15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 150° 165° 60°
E M P I R E Okhotsk
SWEDEN R U S S I A N
60° St Petersburg
GREAT
BRITAIN NETH. Moscow
THE POLAND
50° EMPIRE
Mongolia
Paris
FRANCE E M P I R E
OT Constantinople M A N C H U
PORTUGAL Madrid TO Korea JAPAN
40° MA ( C H I N A )
SPAIN Minorca N
EM
PI
Madeira CO
ALGIERS
TUNIS
RE
PERSIA Nagasaki Eurasian Empires c. 1700
OC AFGHANISTAN Tibet
Canary Is. M OR
30° Cairo Spanish possessions
Delhi
EGYPT A
ra MOGUL EMPIRE Formosa
Tropic of Cancer Calcutta Portuguese possessions
bi
Diu Macao
a
S a h a r a BURMA
20°
Daman
AN
Gorée Bombay
British possessions
N
St Louis Goa
AM
10°
a
cr
m
s
Colombo
As
Borneo
at
0° Danish possessions
ZANZIBA
ra
Celebes
Comoro Is. Makassar Russian possessions
Loanda Batavia
S. Salvador Java
Many of these movements against European Ahmad, a shaikh of the Sammaniya branch of
imperialism were led by men trained in the dis- the Khalwatiya, proclaimed himself Mahdi in the
ciplines and hierarchies of the Sufi tariqas. In Upper Nile region, and launched a jihad against
the Caucasus the Imam Shamil, a leader in the the Egyptian government and its foreign backers,
Naqshbandi tradition, waged a campaign who were penetrating the region under European
against Russian penetration lasting from 1834 commanders. The defeat of the Mahdi’s succes-
to 1839. Although the Islamic state he founded sor at Omdurman in 1898 was hailed by Winston
was eventually incorporated into the tsarist Churchill, who witnessed the battle, as “the most
empire, Shamil’s memory remained vibrant signal triumph ever gained by the arms of science
among the peoples of Daghestan and Chechnya, over barbarians.” The “arms of science” on this
who mounted successive revolts against the occasion were the British machine guns. Familiar
Russians in 1863, 1877, 1917–19, during the weapons in small-scale punitive expeditions in
Second World War, and against the post- much of Africa in the 1890s, here they were used
communist administrations of Boris Yeltsin and for the first time against an army of more than
Vladimir Putin. In Cyrenaica, the Sanusiya fifty thousand men.
109
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
110
NINETEENTH-CENTURY REFORM MOVEMENTS
broke with his mentor’s hostility to imperialism need for new applications of the principle of ijti-
and, returning to Egypt via Syria, decided like had (individual judgement) to meet modern con-
Ahmad Khan to work with the grain of British ditions. Abduh’s views were disseminated through
power, seeing in it a necessary force for modern- his legal rulings, writings, and lectures and after
ization. After rising in the legal service to become his death through the periodical al-Manar (“The
chief mufti or law officer of Egypt, Abduh sought Lighthouse”), published by his Syrian disciple
to modernize the Sharia and to introduce subjects Rashid Rida, a member of the reformist
such as modern history and geography into the Naqshbandi order, which ran from 1897 to 1935.
curriculum of al-Azhar in Cairo, the foremost As a mujaddid (reformer or renovator) of modern
academy of Sunni Islam. He paid particular atten- Islam Abduh’s influence can hardly be underesti-
tion to the principle of maslaha (public interest) to mated. In Southeast Asia the Java-based mission-
enable the law to be changed in accordance with ary Muhammadiyah movement founded in 1912
modern requirements, stating, “If a ruling has by Ahmad Dahlan, which now has millions of
become the cause of harm which it did not cause male and female adherents, owes much to Abduh’s
before, then we must change it according to the ideas. In the Arab world Dahlan is regarded, with
prevailing conditions.” Abduh believed that, prop- Afghani, as the founder of the Salafiyya move-
erly understood, revelation must be in harmony ment, inspired by the example of the “pious fore-
with reason, because Islam was “natural religion” bears,” classically thought of as the first three gen-
designed by God to fit the human condition. Like erations of Muslims who received the message of
Ahmed Khan he sought to distinguish between the Islam in its original context. Modern Salafists who
essentials and nonessentials of revelation, preserv- can claim a part of Abduh’s intellectual legacy
ing the fundamentals while discarding those range from militant activists who seek to establish
aspects that were historically contingent or time- modern Islamic states, if necessary by violent
specific. He tirelessly opposed what he saw as the means, to secular nationalists who interpret
hidebound conservatism of the traditional ulama Abduh’s ideas as requiring a complete separation
and, again like Ahmad Khan, emphasized the between political and religious realms.
111
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Modernization of Turkey
The modernization of Turkey extends back at sors in a series of programs known as the
least two centuries, when the Ottoman Sultan Tanzimat-i Hairiye (Auspicious Reorderings)
Selim III (1789–1807) attempted to introduce a that lasted from 1839 to 1876. Modern postal
series of educational and military reforms. His systems, telegraph, steamship navigation, and
efforts threatened the interests of the ulama railroads were introduced alongside radical
and Janissaries and he was deposed. But after a legal reforms with Western-style courts and law
string of defeats in the Caucasus and Greece his codes. A new civil code, the Mejelle, followed
successor Mahmud II (r. 1807–39) made new the Sharia law in content, but differed from tra-
efforts at reform by introducing new Western- dition by being administered by state courts.
oriented schools, destroying the Janissary corps In 1855 the jizya (poll tax)—a formal mark
and dissolving the Bektashi Sufi order linked to of religious inferiority—was replaced by a tax
it. The autonomy of the ulama was weakened on exemption from military service. The new
by the state takeover of waqfs (religious endow- centralized government that was coming into
ments), Sharia courts, and schools. A symbolic being was founded on a social base of new
separation of religion and state was effected by professionally trained bureaucrats. The small
a decree abolishing the wearing of turbans. For urban middle class enjoyed a rising economic
everyone except the official ulama turbans, status that enabled it to challenge the religion-
often the mark of allegiance to one of the Sufi based power-structure of the religious commu-
tariqas, were replaced by the fez, the red-felt nities. The Tanzimat reforms altered the
cylindrical hat imported from the Maghrib. previous basis of Ottoman society by abolishing
Mahmud’s ambition to create a centralized, the autonomy of Islamic educational and judi-
absolutist state (along the lines of prerevolution cial institutions, bringing them under state con-
France or Prussia) was carried on by his succes- trol. The reforms stimulated the emergence of
112
MODERNIZATION OF TURKEY
Austro-Hungarian retreat Allied retreat Allied attempt to take Gallipoli German counteroffensive forces
3 7 Romanians to retreat Sept.–Dec. 1916
peninsula fails Feb.–Dec. 1915
Serbian counterattack Turkish counterattack
a
a°
B e s s a r a b i 30
T r a n s y l v a n i a
A U S T R I A – H U N G A R Y
S ava
Temesvar
Ar g e
1 2
s
Belgrade
8 R O M A N I A
Oit
Bucharest
Constanta
44°
j a
ina ru
M ora
ube
Dr Dan b
Do
va 7
r
ka
Is
MONTENEGRO S E R B I A B l a c k
Pristina Tundza
5 4 Sofia S e a
B U L G A R I A Burgas
Lake Kosovo
Scutari Maric
Scutari Uskub Philippopolis a
Drini
Adrianople
Ne
Serbian Army st
rescued by Allies Durazzo
os
T r a c e
and transported to Salonika h
O T
Constantinople
Adriatic
Lake Lake Monastir Str
Sea uma
T O
ce Marmara
Ma
rait
A L B A N I A
M
Thasos
C E AlliedSalonika
A
Vjo
N
22°
Pristina Sofia Allied front lines,
Lake 1 15 September 1918
Scutari
SERBIA BULGARIA
Scutari Uskub Allied front lines,
2
S tru
2 29 September 1918
ma
September–November 1918
o
Lake Monastir
Ohrid 1 British advance and
Lake
Prespa front line
French advance and
front line
Vjo
s Salonika
Serbian advance
on
a
113
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
the “Young Turks,” a movement among the With help from Germany, whose military advis-
intelligentsia who wished to move in a European ers were driving reforms in the army, the
direction. In 1908 the vanguard of this move- Berlin–Baghdad railroad was constructed. The
ment, the Committee for Union and Progress first decade of the twentieth century also saw
(CUP), which had infiltrated the army, came to the construction of the famous Hejaz railway
power in a military coup. The sultan was forced from Damascus to Medina (the link to Mecca
to restore the constitution he had suspended in was never completed). While facilitating the
1876 and there was a front of parliamentary passage of pilgrims to the holy places of Islam,
government. The real power remained with the the railway was also designed to speed the pas-
army and the CUP, which embarked on a radical sage of troops into the Peninsula to control trib-
program of secularization, reducing the powers al revolts in Syria and Arabia. The Ottomans
of the shaikh al-Islam (the chief religious func- continued to lose territory during the second
decade of the twentieth century with the loss of
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,
Libya, Albania, and most of their European
1881–1938, founder of the
possessions in the Balkan wars. The coup de
Turkish secular state.
grâce came with the First World War (1914–18).
Having joined the Central Powers (Austria and
Germany) against Britain, France, and Russia,
the Empire lost its remaining Arab provinces to
the three-pronged attack launched by Britain in
Iraq and Palestine, and to the Arab tribes led by
the Sharif of Mecca’s son Faisal with the help of
the British adventurer T. E. Lawrence.
Despite the loss of its Arab provinces Turkey
itself retained its independence as a Muslim
country after the First World War, thanks to the
efforts of Mustafa Kemal (later to be called
Atatürk, “Father of the Turks”). A Young Turk
general, he had saved Istanbul by defending the
Gallipoli Peninsula from invasion by the British
imperial forces in 1915. After forming a provi-
sional nationalist government Atatürk mobi-
lized the Turkish people against the partition of
the Anatolian heartland, and losses to French-
controlled Syria and to Greece, as well as to
Kurds and Armenians (whose proposed state in
the northeast was effectively partitioned
between Turkey and the newly emergent Soviet
Republic). Having defeated the Greeks (who
had been awarded the mainly Greek area
around Smyrna (Izmir) under the humiliating
tionary), and imposing government control over terms of the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres) Kemal won
Sharia courts and Muslim colleges. Though international recognition for complete and
nationalist in outlook the Young Turks aimed to undivided Turkish sovereignty in Anatolia,
keep control of the eastern part of the Empire. Adrianople (Edirne), and eastern Thrace
114
MODERNIZATION OF TURKEY
(European Turkey) at the Treaty of Lausanne in civil code to Turkish needs. The Latin alphabet
1923. Atatürk resolved its problems with Greece was introduced for the Turkish language
by the brutal but effective means of an exchange (which had previously been written in Arabic
of populations. script), with a view to separating Turkey from
Having established his authority as the vic- the Islamic past and making literacy more
tor or ghazi-warrior over Turkey’s enemies, accessible. The Sufi orders were banned and
Atatürk embarked on a radical program of driven underground. The fez, which had ironi-
modernization. In 1923 the sultanate was sepa- cally acquired the status of an “Islamic” item
rated from the caliphate, and the former abol- of headgear, was abolished, to be replaced by
ished. The following year the caliphate was the peaked cloth cap worn by European work-
abolished, along with the Sharia courts. ers at that time.
Islamic law was replaced by adapting the Swiss
Adrianopole
Istanbul
30° 35° Sinope Black Sea 40° 45° 50° 55° 60°
Uskudar Zongdulak
Gallipoli Skelessi Trebizond Caspian
40° Mudania
Bursa
Nicoea Kars U S S R The New Turkey 1926
Eskisehir Ankara Baku
Sakarya Erzurum British possession, 1914
Izmir TURKE Y Sivas
Usak A r m e nia Sea
Alasehir Kayseri British mandate, 1920
Konya 1920–22
Malatya
Antalya to France Tabriz Under British protection, 1914
Gaziantep
Urfa Rasht
Hatay Aleppo French mandate, 1920
1920–22 Mosul Sharud Mashad
35° to Greece Latakia
Eup
Kirkuk Tehran
hr
Alawites
es
Tig
of Lausanne, 1923
r
le
Bandar-Abbas
s
Hej az
i
a
1916 independent N e d j n
Dhahran
25° 1925–26 to Nedj G u
l f Jask
Gu
QATAR f
l
Tropic of Ca Medina of
ncer Aswan Riyadh ST O m an
A
CO
P I R ATE
Muscat
20°
R
A s i r
e
d
Anglo-
S
Egyptian Abha
R.
e
At
Sudan
ba
ut
ra
Asmara d
Ha
ue
i r
Aduwa t r Mukalla 0 200 km
e e
a torat
ABYSSINIA otec
de n Pr 0 200 miles
A
Aden
115
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
COAST
which since 1882 had occupied Egypt, the cultur- Lagos Br. M
QUATO
RO
LIBERIA
al center of the Muslim world, permitted the for- Accra
ME
CA
Fernando Póo
mer Ottoman province a nominal independence
CH E
116
MUSLIM WORLD UNDER COLONIAL DOMINATION c. 1920
Muslims—into a mosaic of different treaties and who had liberated Damascus from Ottoman
European Imperialism in
agreements, placing them and their Muslim sub- Turkey with British help, had intended to make the Muslim World
jects under the umbrella of British rule. In Syria an independent Arab state in accordance Independent Muslim state,
1920
Southeast Asia Britain controlled the Malay with a somewhat ambiguous undertaking his Territory under colonial rule 1920
states, while the Netherlands had extended its father had received from Sir Henry McMahon, British
sway beyond its original colonies in Java and the British High Commissioner in Egypt in 1915. French
Sumatra. In Muslim Central Asia and the In the aftermath of the war, however, it became
Italian
Caucasus region, the communist revolution and clear that for the Muslim world imperial interests
Portuguese
subsequent civil war had consolidated the power would supersede the national right of self-
Spanish
of Moscow within a new regional order. determination famously proclaimed by President
In the core region of the Mashriq, Palestine Woodrow Wilson as the basis for the postwar set- Dutch
had been opened to Jewish settlement under the tlement in Europe. Protest at the double standard United States
terms of the mandate granted to Britain by the that allowed the recognition of national rights Russia
League of Nations. Under the terms of the secret for the subjects of Christian empires in Europe
Dependent princely state
Sykes-Picot agreement reached with France in (including Czechs, Slovaks, Hungarians, Jews,
Area of British influence
1916 Britain also acquired mandates—a euphe- and Irish, as well as former Ottoman subjects in
Area of Russian influence,
mism for colonies—in Transjordan and Iraq, the Balkans) while denying them to Muslims ani- 1907–21
while France took control of Lebanon and Syria. mated the anticolonial resentment that would Muslim concentration: Muslims
live in scattered communities
Faisal ibn Hussein, son of the sharif of Mecca surface throughout former Ottoman territories. throughout China
ROM. MONGOLIA
1921–24 People’s Rep.
R U S S I A N E M P I R E
BULG.
Istanbul Tashkent
Peking (Beijing)
SIN KIAN G
GREECE TURKEY
KOREA
Athens C H I N A Weihaiwei
SYRIA
Soviet
French influence Tehran E
Mandate
date AFGHANISTAN
R
an
PI
sh M
i PERSIA Nanking
Brit IRAQ
EM
TIBET Shanghai
Cairo JORDAN
SE
KUWAIT British Delhi NE
influence PA
NE
L BHUTAN Ryu Kyu Is.
EGYPT BAHRAIN
PA
Medina Riyadh Taiwan
Chandernagore Canton
JA
BR. BRUNEI
O
S MALAYA
AN
Maldive Is. SARAWAK
I
UGANDA AL Singapore Halmahera
BELGIAN KENYA IT
Sumatra Borneo
Belgium Nairobi Celebes New
Seychelles DU Guinea
Mandate TC
CONGO H E
Chagos Is. Djakarta AST
TANGANYIKA Zanzibar Amirantes Java INDIES
Br. Mandate
Cocos Is. Christmas Is. Timor
117
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
118
BALKANS, CYPRUS, AND CRETE 1500 – 2000
culture. After a prolonged antireligious cam- communist governments (including the elimina-
paign by the communist government, which tion of Muslim first and family names).
declared the country to be the world’s first offi- In Bosnia Muslims constitute about 45 percent
cially atheist state, Islamic beliefs and practices of the population. The civil war (1991–95)
are being revived. Substantial Muslim minorities between the Serbs and the Muslim-Croat coalition
remain in Bulgaria (13 percent), although the led to a series of atrocities including massacres and
Bulgarian Turks (who number around 600,000) attempts at “ethnic cleansing,” which prompted
have migrated to Turkey in considerable num- intervention by NATO air forces and the signing of
bers following a sustained campaign of the 1995 Dayton Accords dividing Bosnia into sep-
Bulgarianization by communist and post- arate Muslim-Croatian and Serbian states.
Dn Bug
30°
iest
20° r R U S S I A N
E M P I R E
until 1917
Pr
K I N G D O M
ut
S ir
O F S e a o f
et
a
sz
Ti
H U N G A R Y MOLDAVIA BE
A z o v
SS
AR
AB
IA
Aust. Prtot. 1878 1878 C r i m e a
Annexed by Austria to Russia
1908–09 ul Izmail
A
O tt Galati
I
1878
N
B O S N I A A created 1858
R O M
Mitrovica
Bucharest
W A L L A C H I A DOBRUJA
Belgrade B l a c k S e a
Craiova
Mor
Dr
in e
ub
ava
a D an
P R . O F
S E R B I A Plevna 1908 Varna
1878 B U L G A R I A
Nish
PR. OF SANJAK
Sofia Yamboli Burgas
MONTE- OF 1878 to Serbia EAST RUMELIA
NEGRO NOVIPAZAR
Maritsa
1878 Prizren
Cattaro Gusinje Adrianople
Strum
Va
a
r
in
O Dedeagach Sea of
da
ALB
T
r
Marmara
Durazzo I A
N Angora
O T Mudania
AN
M
Lemnos M
Larisa E
EPIRUS
A e g e a n A I R
(Shkadra) THESSALY Mitilini N E M P
Corfu
1881 to Greece (Lesbos)
LIVADIA S e a Smyrna
various minor border Euboea
Chios
adjustments in favour KINGDOM
of the Ottoman Empire Samos
1897 OF Athens
I o
GREECE Corinth
n i
I o n i a n
D
a
o
n
d
e
S e a c
an
I
l a Navarino Cyclades
s
e s Rhodes
n e
d s 1878 to Britain
1863 to Greece Cerigo Cyprus
N
Crete
1824–40 to Egypt
1908 to Greece The Balkans,
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a Crete, and Cyprus
0 200 km 1878–1912
0 200 miles
1878 date of independence
119
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Dn Bug
20° 30°
iest
r R U S S I A N
The Balkans,
E M P I R E
Pr
until 1917
Crete, and Cyprus
ut
Sir
1912–13 S e a o f
et
a
sz K I N G D O M
Ti
MOLDAVIA BE
A zterritory
Ottoman o vin 1913
SS
O F AR
AB 1913 date of independence
IA
A
H U N G A R Y
NI
A
ul Izmail
Ot t
M
Galati
O
R
JA
B O S N I A F
O
BRU
M
Mitrovica
G DO Bucharest
DO
Belgrade KIN B l a c k S e a
Craiova
Mor
1913
Dr
e
in ub to Romania
ava
a D an
K I N G D O M
Plevna Varna
O F
S E R B I A Nish KINGDOM OF
K. OF BULGARIA Yamboli Burgas
MONTE- Sofia
NEGRO
1913 to 1913 to Bulgaria
Montenegro Maritsa
Cattaro Gusinje Djakova Kumanovo 1913 Adrianople
Üsküb (Skopje) to Bulgaria 1915 to Bulgaria Constantinople
Scutari THRACE 40°
Dr
(Shkadra) Va
1913 to Serbia 1913 to Bulgaria
in
Sea of
rd
St
Durazzo
ar
Lemnos
Janina Larisa A e g e a n
EP
IR THESSALY Mitilini
Corfu US
(Lesbos)
KINGDOM E M P I R E
S e a Smyrna
LIVADIA Euboea
Chios
OF Samos
GREECE Corinth Athens
I o
PELOPONNESE
n i
I o n i a n
D
Tripolis
a
o
n
d
e
c
an
I
S e a s
l a Navarino
Cyclades es Annexed in 1914
n 1912 e Rhodes
d s by Britain
Italian occupied
Cerigo Cyprus
N
(Kythira)
Crete
M e d a n S e a
i t e r r a n e
0 200 km
0 200 miles
120
BALKANS, CYPRUS, AND CRETE 1500 – 2000
Dn Bug
20° 30°
iest
r
U . S . S . R The Balkans,
H U N G A R Y
Pr
Crete, and Cyprus
ut
Sir
1920–23 S e a o f
et
a
sz demilitarized zone
Ti
MOLDAVIA A z o v
BE 1920–22
SS
AR
TRANSYLVANIA AB
IA
1918–20
R O M A N I A to Romania
ul Izmail
Ot t
Ploesti
VO Galati
JVO
SLA DIN
JA
VO A
NIA
BRU
Mitrovica
Bucharest
DO
B l a c k S e a
Y Belgrade
U Craiova
Mor
G
Dr
e
in O ub
ava
a
S D an
L
A SERBIA
V Plevna Varna
BOSNIA IA
Nish BULGARIA
Yamboli Burgas
Sofia
MONTENEGRO
Maritsa
Adrianople
Cattaro Gusinje Djakova (1923 Edirne) Constantinople
Kumanovo
Üsküb (Skopje) 1920–22 (1923 Istanbul)
Scutari
to Greece 40°
Dr
(Shkadra) Va
THRACE
in
Sea of
rd
St
Durazzo
ar
ru Dedeagach Marmara
A ma Ankara
NI Mudania
O
ALBANIA E
D Thasos Gallipoli
C Salonika
A
M
Lemnos T U R K E Y
Janina Larisa A e g e a n
EP
IR THESSALY
Corfu US Mitilini 1920–22
GREECE to Greece
Euboea
S e a Smyrna
Chios
Samos
Corinth Athens
I o
PELOPONNESE
n i
I o n i a n
D
Tripolis
a
o
n
d
e
c
an
I
S e a s
l a Navarino
Cyclades e
n Italian s e Rhodes
d s
Kythira Cyprus
N
Crete
M e d a n S e a
i t e r r a n e
0 200 km
0 200 miles
121
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
122
MUSLIM MINORITIES IN CHINA
New Teaching or New Sect, which attacked the the more traditionalist Hanafis known as
cult of saint-worship. In the 1860s and 70s Gedimu (from the Arabic qadim, meaning
another Naqshbandi shaikh, Ma Hualong, old). Though all Muslim groups were perse-
launched a major rebellion, which cut off the cuted during Mao Zedong’s Cultural
Qing (Manchu) Empire from the northwest, Revolution (1966–76), with at least one major China under
the Manchu
opening the way for rebellion of the Uighurs in massacre of Hui in the wake of an uprising in Dynasty 1840–1912
Xinjiang. In more recent times a Wahhabi- Yunnan, state patronage of the Yihewanis per- Area of rebellion
inspired reformist movement at the turn of the sisted in the more relaxed climate that followed Muslim rebellion,
1863–73
twentieth century known as the Yihewani the accession of Deng Xiaoping. British attacks,
1840–41
(from the Arabic ikhwan, meaning brother- After the incorporation of Hong Kong into the (the Opium War)
hood) was active in opposing practices deemed People’s Republic of China, the small Anglo-French
attacks, 1858–60
idolatrous. Such practices included the venera- Muslim community on the island Sino-French War, 1883–85
tion of Sufi saints or the wearing of Chinese has also built relations with Chinese attacks
0°
a
mourning dress. Under communist rule the other groups on the 14
Se
sk
40° French attacks
kh of
ot
°
Le
na 130
Yihewani received more state patronage than mainland.
O
5 0°
120°
60°
E
110° R
05
I a 19 an
80° 100°
oR ussi ap
to J
90° P
60 t
R.
M 18
Ye
E
nis
N
ey
R U S S I A
R. A
E
I rty
mur
ur ia
nch ussia
sh
chins
k by R
Ner M a 5 occupied Japan ence
R
R.
– 0 d b y influ
1900 occupie panese
1905 1905 Ja
I
1912 to Russia after
50°
P
hin
orc
M
Urga
Sea
Kh
n
kde of n
O L I A Mu
E
ia M O N G
a
ar Jap
n g sia 191 2 i n d e p e n d e nt ia
D z u864 to Rus g ol 19
K
o
1 re
on ) )
10
to
M a r jing
E
Jap a
Urumchi
er a h (Bei an
ary
yr D a n Pe king
R. S 1871–81 In h S
K ok a n to Russia ( C
40° d
o
ng
gH
Aksu ntu
Shansi
low
Chihli
Sha Yel ea
uan
Hui-Pu
N
Da S N
R. H
rya Kashgar
u
ngs p’ing
A
mir A wei
t
C I N Eas na
A FGH H Anh i
A
g Ch ea
ANIST
Hu peh kian
AN
T i b e t Che S
J
n
Punja S zechwa ngsi
Kia
ng
b ia an
s 30° gJ Hun
ien
u n
ha
Ind .C Fuk
R
Lhasa
NE how
PA K w e ic an
Taiw osa)
L ng tung
BH UTAN s am Kwa o r m
(F 1895
Oudh
As -t’ien an
si Chin to Jap
British R. G Yunna
n Kwan 1860 ng
India ’i
Tropic of Ca ang T’ai-p n
ncer es io
Bengal rebell ak
o re
u tb
Burma French
Indo-
C h in a
Bay of Bengal
20°
SIAM
123
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
R K E Y
32° 36°
Urfa
The Last Years of Turkish Rule Ceyhan
Gaziantep
Adana
Eup
Antalya
1882–1916
Mersin
hrate
Official attempts to prevent Zionist of
n
lf ru Kilis
Gulf ofimmigrants landing
s
Gu n d e Iskenderun
Antlya Gö ke
ksu Is (Alexandretta)
Jewish settlements 1886–1914
A
ssi
Areas declared by Sharif of Mecca to Nicosia Famagusta Hama
(O nte
CYPRUS
ro
be part of a purely Arab kingdom
(5 November 1915) Larnaca
s)
Limassol Homs
0 50 km
Tripoli N
0 50 miles
T
U
Beirut Rayak
I R
Zahle
B E
Saida
Damascus
O F
VILAYET
Metulla
OF
Y E T
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a DAMASCUS
Acre Safed
V I L A
Haifa
Nazareth Al-Suwaida
Hadera
Netanya
Jordan
Lake
500
a
Harzala Beersheba d
i
Si 200
El Arîsh rh
an 100
Suez Canal
0m
El Qantara
E G Y P T Bayir
El Quseima
124
THE LEVANT 1500 – 2002
northern Lebanese highlands adopting Latin rites Druzes was relatively even, with Ottoman gover-
and acknowledging Papal supremacy. The south- nors balancing the interests of both groups. How-
ern highlands overlooking the plains of Galilee ever, the decline in Ottoman power from the eigh-
were the homeland of the Druze people, a schis- teenth century saw increasing tension and sectar-
matic Shiite sect regarded as heretical by other ian rivalry between Maronites and Druzes, abet-
Muslims. Under the Maan family (1544–1697) ted by competition between France and Britain.
and the Shihabs (1697–1840), who replaced them, This led to a succession of massacres and bitter
the division of power between the Maronites and sectarian wars between 1838 and 1860.
K
Sivrihisar Siyas Erzincan a 40°
Akhisar Erzurum
Izmir Manisa Usak Afyon
Alasehir TURKEY ARMENIA
Kayseri Caspian
Aydin Nazilli Aksaray
Men dares Malatya Khvov
Konya Sea
Bitlis
yan Adiyaman Diyarbakir Tabriz
Karaman Maras
Sa
Antalya Hakkari
Rhodes Adana Gaziantep Urfa Rasht
Mardin
Qe
el O
z
Alexandretta uz
an
Antakya Aleppo Mosul
Qazvin
Latakia SYRIA Eup
Nicosia Kirkuk Tehran
P E R S I A
hr
C Y P R U S Limmasol Hama
at
es
(British)
Tripoli Homs Tig
ris
Hamadan 35°
Qom
Mediter ranean Beirut Kermanshah
Sea Kashan
Damascus Borujerd
Habbaniyah Baghdad Khorramabad
Haifa
PA L E S T I N E I R A Q
Tel-Aviv Karbala Al Hillah
Amman Esfahan
Jerusalem Dezful
Alexandria An Najaf
Port Said Gaza Shushtar
Damanhur
Tanta Beersheba
Zagazig
Ahvaz
El Giza Cairo Abu Dhabi
Basra
Bandar-e
El Faiyum Al Jawf Sakakah Abadan Sharpur
E G Y P T Beni Suef 30°
(under British protection) K U WA I T
JEBEL SHAMMAR Kuwait
Pe
Bahariya Oasis
rs
El Minya Tabuk
ia
n
Oasis of
Gu
BAHRAIN
JA
125
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
The Ottoman defeat in 1918 saw the division imposed direct rule on Syria and Lebanon while
of the Levant between French and British Britain opened up Palestine for European Jewish
spheres of influence, with the victorious allies settlement and established client monarchies in
creating four colonial dependencies—Iraq, Transjordan and Iraq. While creating a modern
Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine—out of the for- bureaucracy in Syria along with an infrastructure
mer Ottoman provinces. After ousting Faisal, of roads and communications networks, the
son of the ruler of Mecca and leader of the Arab French undermined national integration by
revolt against the Turks who had set up a provi- organizing administrative districts that reinforced
sional government in Damascus, the French ethnic and religious divisions. In particular they
Qe
French
z e Mandate, 1921,Lahijan
(areas formally
Iskenderun underl Ottoman
Ou rule)
HATAY za Babol
Antakya Aleppo Mosul Arab areasnhelped by Britain in their
Qazvin
revolt against Ottoman rule, then
35° Latakia becoming independent
Eup Kirkuk Tehran
Nicosia British Mandate, 1921, (areas formallySemnan
Damavan
TERR. OF
hr
CYPRUS Hama
at
Mediter ranean Tripoli Homs IRAQ Areas under British rule or control in 1914
( M E S O P O TA M I A ) Qom
Sea Beirut
Ti g
Palestine in 1922
LEBANON ri Kashan
Damascus s
Tabuk Firuzabad
rs
al-Minya
ia
n
Asyut Tayma
Hail G
ul
N
f
ile
Re
Gena
d
al-Wajh al-Qatif
Burayda
Dhahran BAHRAIN
Unayza
25°
Se
al-Hufuf Q ATA R
a
Medina
Aswan Yanbual Bahr Riyadh
Wadi S
H E D J A Z A N D
a h ba
N E J D
TRUCIAL
Tropic of Cancer S TAT E S
Wadi Halfa
126
THE LEVANT 1500–2002
Saida Damascus
basis for rule after independence. The system
Mediterranean
ensured a modicum of social peace but militated
IRA
Metulla
Sea S Y R I A
against national development. When Palestinians
Q
Haifa Es Suweida
Nazareth
used Lebanese territory to launch attacks against
Jordan
Netanya
Tel Aviv- Nablus Israel in the 1970s the Israeli reprisals reopened
32° Jaffa Jerico Amman
Jerusalem N
sectarian divisions leading to widespread civil
Bethlehem
Gaza
Hebron Kaf war (1975–82) and the fragmentation of Lebanon
Beersheba
into zones controlled by rival Christian, Shiite,
Bayir Sunni, and Druze militias. The chaos was com-
raba
T R A N S
Wadi A
J O R D A N Shubaih
N E J D
YP
Aqaba
Hejaz
Maronite regime allied to Israel. While the for- Invasion of Lebanon
Taba June 1982 – September 1983
0 80 km
Haqal
mer objective was achieved with the expulsion of Israeli attacks
0 80 miles
the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Israeli withdrawal
Pledges and Border Changes from its Lebanese bases, the principal outcome of Israeli front line 6 June 1982
Tebuk
1920 – 1923 Israeli front line
The Palestine Mandate, granted to Britain
the invasion was the establishment of a de-facto 3 September 1983
28°
Baabda
sance) Party, establishing a sectarian dictatorship Aley
O
Jebel
Barouk
Mediterranean
tem of asabiyya (group solidarity). Sea
A
ni
S Y R I A
lims from the Sunni and Shiite communities. Mt Hermon
U N Force
Hammadiye
Building on Ottoman precedents they instituted a Marjayoun (after 1978)
Tyre U N Force
B u f f e
Z
G o l a n
dent and commander-in-chief of the army,
r
r
e l i H e i g h t s
I s r a u
Z o n
0 25 km
of power along sectarian lines was reaffirmed in
e
0 25 miles
I S R A E L
the 1943 National Pact, which established the
127
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Prominent Travelers
The pilgrimage to Mecca gave rise to a rich Asia as the chief Ismaili dai (missionary) for
genre of travel writing. Pilgrims kept jour- the Fatimid Imam-caliph al-Mustansir
nals of their travels or dictated their (r. 1036–94). Attacked for his preaching by a
accounts to scribes, providing fascinating Sunni crowd in the city of Balkh, (probably
details about everything from food to at the instigation of Saljuq officials) he took
Ibn Battuta spent more than a
architecture. refuge in Badakhshan in the western Pamirs,
year in the Maldive Islands,
One of the most interesting accounts is where he spent the rest of his life under the
where, with some reluctance, he
accepted the post of qadi
the Safarnama (travelogue) of the Persian protection of an Ismaili prince. The Ismailis
(judge). He regarded the people philosopher-poet Nasir Khusraw (1004–c. of the Pamirs (located in eastern
as “upright and pious” but 1072), who journeyed to Cairo by way of Afghanistan and the autonomous region of
disapproved of the way women Nishapur, Rayy, Lake Van, Aleppo, and Gorno-Badakhshan in the former Soviet
were bare from the waist Jerusalem. From Cairo he made two pilgrim- Republic of Tajikistan) revere him as their
upwards. ages to Mecca before returning to Central founding saint. In local legend, he not only
converted the people to the Ismaili faith, but
named all their villages, canonizing the
topography of places far removed from each
other (in the same way that Ireland’s patron
saint is associated with regions as far apart
as Mayo, Tipperary, Antrim, and Armagh).
While his poems reflect the loneliness of
exile, the rationalist temper of his philo-
sophical writings made him acceptable to
the communists who took over the region in
1920 and he retains his status as a national
hero in Tajikistan.
The Cairo Nasir described in his book is
a model for wise and just administration.
The artisans are decently paid, leading to an
improved quality of their products. The sol-
diers are paid regularly, making them less
likely to molest the peasants. The judges get
good salaries, ensuring fairness and sparing
citizens from corruption and injustice. If a
merchant is caught cheating a customer,
according to Nasir, “he is mounted on a
camel with a bell in his hand and paraded
about the city, ringing the bell and crying
out: ‘I have committed a misdemeanor and
am suffering reproach. Whoever tells a lie is
rewarded with public disgrace.’”
128
PROMINENT TRAVELERS
The Arabic version of the pilgrimage- of information about the Crusades, the state
travelogue is known as a rihla. The genre of navigation in the Mediterranean, and the
was devised by the Andalusian Ibn Jubair political and social conditions of the times.
(1145– 1217), who wrote a famous account It served as a model for many other narra-
of the two-year journey he made from tives, most importantly the rihla of the
Granada, starting in February 1183, to greatest of all Muslim travelers, the Moroc-
Mecca. Here he spent nine months before can Ibn Battuta (1304–c.1370), whose jour-
returning from the Muslim Holy Land by neys took him from his native Tangier to
way of Iraq and Acre, where he boarded a China and Subsaharan Africa. Ibn Battuta
Genoese ship bound for Sicily. After surviv- made at least six pilgrimages to Mecca in
ing a dramatic shipwreck in the Straits of the course of his travels and the earlier parts
Messina, he reembarked at Trapani, arriving of his narrative conforms to the rihla genre.
safely at Granada in April 1185. Ibn Jubair’s However, as his journeys became more
narrative provides an abundance of informa- extended his book grew more comprehen-
tion about the countries and cities through sive, evolving into an unrivaled description
which he passed, and is an invaluable source of the known world. As with Marco Polo’s
BY
M
N
TI
C aspian S
UM
it
12,000
er
ra AR
M 6,000
E Jax
n
ea Ak NIA Ara ar
t 3,000
lat AZ KH
Al Sea l
es
ex n ER WA 1,500
Tr
(Sa
an Lake BA RIZ
E dr
Se i
Be poli Al IJA M
yh
600
G ia a
ir M ep Ha Van N
un
Y Ty ut al- aar po rra 0 ft
)
P r Nu rat n
T Ca Ha Acre e ma
ea
cu
(Ja
s AN
Jer R SO
yh
Q us XIA
ul ale IA N
un
zu m Da A
yla
le
m
)
m
Ni
As
yu Ba
t IR ghdad Ray
y Bista
A m Bukha
Q ra Sama
Sim Damg Merv rkand 40°
T H E
ma han
n Nish
Ku apu Sarakhs
fa r
Marv
As Ba Rud Balkh
H I J A Z
wa sra
n Isfah
an BAD
A Nain Hara
AKH
SHA
R QA Taba Qain t N
A RM
s
B AT
Yazd
I OF I S
A BA
HR TA
Per
Ay Me TE
dh al- din AY
N
PER
ab Jar a SIA
Shira
z (IR
sia
Jed
La
hsa AN)
da
n
Me
cca Ba
Fal hra
G
Red Sea
aj yn
u
Ta
l
if f
du
s INDI 30°
In A
UM SI N D
AN
129
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
equally famous travelogue, Ibn Battuta did however, cannot detract from Ibn Battuta’s
not write his book himself but dictated it to reputation as one of the greatest travelers of
a collaborator—in his case the Granadan all time. The wealth of information he
scholar Ibn Juzay (1321–c.1356). He wrote passed down to posterity about the world of
down Ibn Battuta’s narrative at the behest his era is unparalleled. Like all great travel-
of the ruler of Fez, Abu Inan ers, his observations tell us as much about
(r. 1349–58). By the time the book was writ- his own social world as the countries in
ten the rihla genre had already become well which he traveled. He had a sharp eye for
established among educated people and detail. His curiosity takes his readers behind
questions arise (as with most other trave- life’s obvious appearances, with every sen-
logues) as to the reliability of some of Ibn tence underpinned by a wealth of question-
Battuta’s descriptions. A modern scholar ing: “The Chinese infidels eat the flesh of
suggests that Ibn Juzay may have “systemat- swine and dogs, and sell it in their markets.
ically exaggerated in the direction of fanta- They are wealthy folk and well-to-do, but
sy tendencies which in the original work they make no display either in their food or
were certainly more moderate” and re- in their clothes. You will see one of their
arranged some of Ibn Battuta’s itineraries principal merchants, a man so rich that his
for stylistic reasons. Scholarly quibbles, wealth cannot be counted, wearing a coarse
B Y
TUG
ARAGON
40° Rome Z A
CASTILE N T
POR
I N E
E M P I R
E
Granada
Granada
Trapani St. of Messina Syria
Sic ily
Hammadids
Damascus
Zirids Iraq
Acre
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
E
T
30° Alexandria A
I PH
C AL
D
MI
A r a b i a
I
FAT
Medina
R
Tropic
e
of C
d
ancer
Mecca
S
e
a
20°
Travels of Ibn Jubair 0 100 km
1183–85
0 100 miles
130
PROMINENT TRAVELERS
societies, where textiles were highly valued This eleventh-century map was
Lake Balkhash
Venice EMPIRE OF THE
Astrakhan Aral Sea 45°
CHAGATAI GREAT KHAN
Ca
Black sea
Am
Rome Constantinople
spi
KHANATE G o b i
uD
Khanbaliq
an
Anatolia ar Samarkand
sea
ya
Granada Medit
err
an Antioch Tabriz Balkh C H I N A
Tangier ean
Fez
Sea II-KHANATE
Acre Baghdad TIBET
32 Hangzhou
1
–5 Delhi Sea
MAMLUKS
s
Indu
4 Hormuz
s
ia n
Gu Gan
ges Quanzhou
Red
lf
S a h a r a Guangzhou Tropic of Cancer
Se
Mecca
a
Peninsula
Timbuktu Ara bian Bay of South
Sea Bengal China
A F R I C A Angkor Sea 15°
MALI Jenne Aden
N
i
Calicut
ge
r
Is.
Niani
s
Maldive
1346
1341
Ceylon
–3 0
Mogadishu
13 27
Equator
0°
Malindi Sumatra
Momcasa I N D I A N O C E A N
Zanzibar
Java
Kilwa
131
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Egypt
1866 vice-royalty
of the Ottoman Empire Tropic of Cancer strong since the eighteenth century.
R
Massawa
1862–83 to Egypt
trade in gum arabic, ostrich feathers,
Lake Darf ur and ivory, damaging local business.
Chad WADAN
SOKOTO
BORNU K ordofan ETHIOPIA
Under pressure from Britain the govern-
EMPIRE H arar
Nige 1874 to Egypt 10° ment signed a convention abolishing the
R.
wa
rR
Ben ue
Ada
ma slave trade (1877). The ensuing resent-
nd
SOMALI
.
ila
I B O
Benin E quatoria ments flared up in the great rebellion
al
Yoruba
om
132
BRITAIN IN EYGPT AND SUDAN IN THE 19th CENTURY
E
M e d i
t e r r a n
e a n R
S e a
Tripoli I
Bengazi
P
T r i p o l i
Alexandria M
Suez 30°
Cyrenaica E Canal
N 1869
A Cairo
O T T O M
A
Lib y a n Jagbub Tel-el-Kebir r
1882 a
Des er t headquarters of b
Sanusi Order Ni
F e z z a n le
i
R.
a
R
Muzuk
e d
Aswan
Tropic of Cancer
E G Y P T
from 1882
S
under British occupation
e a
Mecca
20°
Suakin
1883
Dongola 1887–90
Italian
occupation
1818–66 to Egypt
Omdurman Massawa
1898
MAHDIST Khartoum TIGRÉ Dahlak
Adowa
E Is.rit
STATE 1895 r YEMEN
1896 ea
Da r f u r Senna AMHARA
Northeast Africa WADAI al-Obeid 1883
1874 Mahdist capital Gondar
B lue N
Fashoda 1874
AW
To Egypt, 1871–74
NUER SOMALI
AD
WALLEKA
Main area of activity HARAR
of Sanusi Order, Islamic
I
DINKA JIMMA
eN
Lake
Ethiopia at its Turkana
maximum extent under Co n g o F r ee S ta te
Menelik of Shoa from 1885
(Menelik II), c. 1907 N
British East Africa
Occupied by Britain, NDA
GA
1882 Equator
BU
0°
0 100 km
To Italy by 1889
French Lake
Victoria INDIAN
Congo 0 100 miles German East Africa OCEAN
To France by 1890
from 1885
To Belgium
133
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
great reputation for piety. Declaring himself to the union was overwhelmingly rejected after
be the Mahdi (the Muslim messiah, widely the 1952 Egyptian revolution the bitter rivalry
expected to appear at the end of the thirteenth between the two religiously based parties per-
hijri century in November 1882), he roused the sisted, opening the way for military rule under
Baqqara cattle-herding tribes against the “infi- General Ibrahim Abbud (r. 1954–64) and later,
del” Turko-Egyptian government. Having under Jafar Numairi (r. 1969–85). Initially
annihilated a force of 8,000 levies under Hicks Numairi tried to heal the divisions between
Pasha at Sheikhan, the Mahdi went on to take the Muslim north and predominantly non-
Omdurman and Khartoum. General Gordon Muslim (Christian and animist) south by
(who had disobeyed his instructions to evacu- granting limited autonomy to the Bahr al-
ate the garrison) was killed here on the steps Ghazal, Equatorial, and Upper Nile provinces.
of the Governor’s mansion. This left the Vic- In 1983, however, Numairi radically switched
torian public in Britain with a thirst for directions, launching a campaign of total
revenge. The Mahdi died (probably of typhus) Islamization. He was supported by Hasan al-
six months after his triumphal entry into Turabi, leader of the National Islamic Front
Khartoum. Under his successor, the Khalifa (the Sudanese version of the Muslim Brother-
Abdullahi al-Taishi, the movement continued hood). Though overthrown in 1985 after
to expand southward into the Nuba Moun- becoming increasingly erratic and unstable,
tains and Bahr al-Ghazal regions. This the program of Islamization continued under
brought many non-Muslim animists including General Umar al-Bashir, who seized power
the Nuer, Dinka, and others into their orbit, with Turabi’s support in 1989. Turabi’s insis-
planting the seeds of future conflict. tence on Arabizing and Islamizing the non-
Having challenged and humiliated British Muslim population, which was subjected to
power in a strategically sensitive region where Islamic punishments, provoked increasing
France also had imperial designs, the Mahdist resistance among Southerners. Many joined or
state was doomed. In 1898 the Khalifa’s army supported the Sudan People’s Liberation
of 50,000 was massacred by an Anglo- Movement led by Colonel Garang. The strug-
Egyptian force commanded by General Her- gle between north and south, Africa’s longest-
bert Horatio Kitchener. The Khalifa’s spears running civil war, has been described by a
and elderly rifles were no match for the new leading historian as a “civil war of genocidal
Gatling guns Kitchener had brought up the proportions… with tactics that include starv-
Nile in his flotilla of armored steamers. ing the civilian populations and forcing them
The defeat of the Mahdi led to more than a to migrate.” [Ira Lapidus, A History of Islam-
half-century of British rule under the Anglo- ic Societies, 2nd edition Cambridge, 2002, p.
Egyptian Condominium. The Mahdi’s former 768.] Peoples adhering to African religions,
followers—known as the Ansar, after Muham- such as the Nuer and Dinka, have been sub-
mad’s original “helpers” in Medina—adopted jected to forcible conversion. Bashir used the
the “peaceful” jihad, extending their influence NIFs program, which included purges and exe-
in urban areas. In 1944 their leader Sayyid Abd cutions of non-Islamists in the top ranks of
al-Rahman, a son of the Mahdi, formed the the army and civil service, to smash the power
Umma Party, which remained well-disposed to of the traditional political parties, dominated
the British while working for independence. by the Sufi (mystical) brotherhoods. Ten years
The Khatmiyya formed the National Union into the dictatorship, Turabi had served his
Party, which favored a union with Egypt to purpose. In December 1999 the General oust-
counter the influence of the Ansar. Though ed him in a “palace coup.”
134
BRITAIN IN EYGPT AND SUDAN IN THE 19th CENTURY
20°
10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°
PORTUGAL SPAIN
Algiers
Tangier Tunis
Oran
Madeira Tunis
Fez 1881 protectorate
O Algeria
CC Tripoli
Mediterranean Sea
RO conquered
O 1871–90 Alexandria
Canary Is. M
Tripoli 30°
Ifni Ottom. Prov. Cyrenaica Cairo
Canary Is.
to Sp.
Fezzan Vice-royalty A r a
Ottom. Prov. of Egypt b i
N
a
ile
pro r o
te
Mourzouk
ora
R
R.
i sh O
tect
e d
1882 British occupation
Tropic of Cancer
p an e
Aswan
4S d
1 88 i o
Wadi Halfa
R
S
e a
S a h a r a 20°
Berber
Senegambia Marewe 1884 to Mahdi
St. Louis Timbuktu 1885 to Mahdi
DARFUR Massawa
Dakar Khartoum 1885 to Italy
Kayes KANEM
1885 to Mahdi
ER
Gambia SOKOTO BORNU
YATENGA El Fasher Assab
IT
Sokoto Sennar Gondar
RE
Segu WAGADUGU CALIPHATE Kuka Lake Chad to Italy
A
Port. Guinea GURMA Nige WADAI El Obeid Obok
Kano BA
G MAHDI’S DOMINION
rR
0°
UGLake
B
Gabon Victoria
Congo
Witu
Brazzaville 1885–90 to Germany
R. German Mombasa
Leopoldville
Cabinda East Pemba Is.
SO UTH ATLAN TI C 1886–91 to Portugal
Lake Africa Zanzibar Is.
Tanganyika
Ambriz LUBA
O CEAN
Loanda Aldabra Is.
LUNDA KAZEMBE
o l a
10°
Nyasa
ca
A
f Mozambique
Conference 1885 LOZI A
Tete st
British possessions MATABELE Ea Tananarive
EMPIRE se
German
t u gue
SOUTH
protectorate AFRICAN P Tropic of Capricorn
NA
Portuguese possessions
REPUBLIC
UA
Lüderitz
1883 to Germany CH Johannesburg
Spanish possessions BE
nge
eR
Orang . a te ZULULAND
German possessions Or e Sta
e
Fr B. Natal
Durban
African state 30°
0 500 km
INDIAN
Boundary of Free Trade Zone Cape Colony OCEAN
Cape Town
(Berlin Act), 1885 0 500 miles
135
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Bissau I BADAN
Freetown EMPIRE with the Sul- of the Fourth Republic and brought General de
ADAMAWA
Sierra Leone ILORIN
EY
ASHANTI
LI Accra
BE Monrovia Whydah BENIN
RI
A founded 1821
GOLD COAST
M o r o c c o . colonists’ expectations, however, de Gaulle con-
1821 to Britain Fernando Póo
N Bight 1483 to Portugal Fo l l ow i n g ceded Algerian independence. After protracted
gi
Uban
136
FRANCE IN NORTH AND WEST AFRICA
over into neighboring Tunisia, an autonomous by nationalist revolt was repeated less starkly in
Ottoman province that France took over pro- other parts of the French empire in Africa,
gressively after 1881. By 1945 there were some where France had economic ambitions but little
144,000 European settlers occupying about one- interest in colonization. Its primary economic
fifth of the cultivable land. These settlers, how- interest was to stimulate the production of cash
ever, never formed such a powerful domestic crops such as peanuts, timber, and palm oil.
lobby as their counterparts in Algeria. After The French collected taxes in cash and used
being defeated in Indo-China after the Second forced labor on
N
10° 0° 10° 20° 30°
World War France conceded Tunisian independ- banana, cocoa, and
ence in 1956. The same pattern of French eco- coffee plantations. Spanish
Algiers
Tunis
Morocco Tangier Oran
nomic penetration followed by administrative They built railways to Casablanca Fez Tunisia
Tripoli
Mediterranean Sea
Morocco Algeria Benghazi
control and colonization occurred in Morocco, transport goods from Agadir
Ifni
Alexandria
with the important difference that the country the interior to the Spanish
Sahara L i b y a
Cairo
E g y p t
retained its status as a Muslim polity under the Atlantic, destroying Rio de Murzuq
Oro S a h a r a
Sharifian dynasty (claiming descent from the the time-honored
Prophet) that came to power in the seventeenth camel traffic
St. Louis
F r e n c h W e s t A f r i c a
l A fric a
century. Like the Iranian rulers of his day, the across the Sahara. Dakar
Sen egal
Timbuktu
Niger A ng l o-
Gambia French Sudan Eg y pt i a n
Moroccan Sultan was short of revenues from African trade was L. Chad
S uda n
a t o ria
Port. Guinea Vo lta C h a d
p er Sokoto Fort Lamy
Up
which to pay his armies. This was especially so undermined, with French Guinea
E qu
Dahomey
Togolan
Gold Ni ger i a
Sierra
after the production of one of his most valuable Levantine Arabs, Coast
nch
Leone
Ivory Lagos
F re
LIBERIA Coast Accra Lomé Ubangi Shari
commodities, sugar, passed into European Greeks, and South K am e r un
Douala
hands with the development of plantations in Asians taking over the Rio Muni
the Canaries and the Americas. In order to main- retail trade in French 0 500 km French Equatorial B e l g i a n
Africa C o n g o
tain his hegemony over insubordinate tribes, the colonies. African edu- 0 500 miles
sultan mortgaged his customs revenues and bor- cation was neglected,
rowed heavily from French banks. When this with only 3 percent of
Northwest Africa
provoked a revolt among the ulama the French Africans in the French to 1914
intervened directly, imposing a protectorate empire enabled to go British possessions
(alongside a smaller one granted to Spain) in to school. Nevertheless
French possessions
1912. Moroccan land was opened up to purchase a small Francophone
Spanish possessions
by Europeans, who by 1953 controlled about 1 elite was fostered,
million hectares, or 10 percent of the crop land, which would come to Portuguese possessions
and 25 percent of orchards and vineyards power after independ- Belgian possessions
(though Europeans formed barely 1 percent of ence. In 1958 de Gaulle German possessions
the population). Unlike in Algeria and Tunisia, offered to France’s
Italian possessions
however, the dynasty was able to place itself at African colonies the
Independent state
the head of the movement for independence. In choice between imme-
1953 the French made Sultan Muhammad V into diate independence or
a hero by sending him into exile when he refused self-government within the French economic
to agree to a system of dual sovereignty. After community. Only Guinea opted for immediate
massive protests and violence the French allowed independence (a costly decision that seriously
the sultan to return, conceding independence in impaired its economic development). France’s
1956. The dynasty remains in power under Sul- remaining dependencies in West Africa
tan Muhammad’s grandson, Muhammad VI. acquired complete independence in the course
The pattern of colonial conquest followed of the 1960s.
137
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Gaza
Spread over several days the reformed versions
Kufa/Nadjaf An Najaf
35 days to Mecca
27 days to Mecca
Manarat al-Kurun
Samawa include the tawaf (circumambulation) around
al-Kahira
Maan
Wakisa
Basra the Kaba, the square temple at the center of
Suez 30° Salman
Akaba
the sanctuary in Mecca; the say or ritual run-
Zubala
ning between the hillocks of Safa and Marwa;
Pe
al-Tur
Madyan
rs
Tabuk
Aynuna Hafar
ia
Tayma
G
Ha'il
onrush—now a massive jam of people and
u
Safa
lf
Komombo Medina
n
Yanbu‘ Riyadh
Abyar
al-Yamama
Ali
Madan 'Afif al-Kusuriyya Wadi S mad may have redirected a series of solar,
R
a h ba
Sufayna
Rabigh
al-Djuhfa
Shurma rainmaking, and other rituals surrounding the
e
Aydhab
Jedda
Usfan
Dhat Irk
Black Stone. A mysterious “heavenly rock” or
d
Kurn al-Manazil
Mecca
At Taif
Turaba a meteorite, it is set in the southeastern corner
Yalamlam
Barara
20°
Port Soudan Raghdan Tabala
of the Kaba toward the exclusive worship of
S
Bisha
Sawakin
Sadwan Allah as revealed to the patriarch Abraham
Kunfida
e
Ibl Hamdha
From Central Africa Mahayl Dahban (Ibrahim) and his son Ishmael (Ismail), the
a
Wakasha
Zahran mythical ancestor of the Arabs. The final act
Khor Baraka
N
At
Djizan
of the hajj, the sacrifice of an animal com-
bara
Sada
Mushaynika
al-Abr Tarim
Kawuda
memorating the sheep that Allah accepted in
15°
Sana
Mabar 43 days to Mecca
Rada'a al-Shihr place of Abraham’s son, is celebrated
Dhamar
T
ak
az al-Sawadiyya
0 200 km
ze
Zabid
Aryab Sala
la throughout the Muslim world at the Id al-
Taizz From
138
GROWTH OF THE HAJJ AND OTHER PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE
in
1 The Quarter of Jirwal.
Pla
Road from Jedda 36 2 The Quarter of el-Bab.
dy
protect the pilgrims from the attacks of the paved
road 3 The Quarter of esh-Shebeka.
San
38 35
4 The Quarter of Suq es-saghir.
marauding Bedouin or (from the late eigh- 5 The Quarter of el-Mesfala.
teenth century) the tribes belonging to the 6 The Quarter of Bab el-Umra.
7 The Quarter of Shamiyya.
Wahhabi-Saudi movement regarded all non- 16 8 The Quarter of Sueqa.
9 The Quarter of Qarara.
14
Wahhabis as infidels. Ibn Jubair, who made 10 Huts.
13 11 The Quarter of Rakuba.
15
the pilgrimage in 1184, described the tent of 12 16 12 The Quarter of en-Naqa.
39 19 13 The Quarter of al-Selemaniyya.
the commander of the Iraqi caravan on the 11 18 14 The Quarter of Shib Amir.
22 17 15 The Haddadin (Blacksmiths’ street).
20
Plain of Arafat as resembling a “walled city” 10 16 The street el-maala.
9 23 22 21 17 The Gazza quarter.
or “powerful fortress” with “four lofty Jabal Hindi 9
27 18 Palace of the Grand Sherif Aun ar-
1 8 24 26 Rafiq (1882–1905) built by his father
gates,” through which one entered a series of A
34 25
Muhammed ibn Aun.
7 24 27
32 31 19 Palace of the Grand Sherif
vestibules and narrow passageways. In the 6 30 Abdallah, elder brother of Aun ar-
37 28
Rafiq.
nineteenth century the arrival of steamship Burial ground of 3 6 29
29
20 The Quarter of Shib el-Maulid.
esh-Shebeka 4
navigation under colonial auspices, com- 5 Sandy Plain
el-Haram (the Mosque)
21 The Quarter of Suq el-lel.
5 22 The Quarter of el-Muddaa.
bined with the emergence of special hajj sav- 23 El-Merwa.
The Great Castle 24 El-masa.
ings clubs, placed the pilgrimage within reach Jebel Omar
25 Stone Street (Zuqaq el-Hajar).
A 26 Maulid Sittana Fatma.
N
of thousands of ordinary peasants and 27 The Quarter of el-Qushashiyya.
28 Es-Safa.
fen
gal, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies who Vegetable and Foundation building, and the new
fruit gardens Government building).
could never have hoped to fulfill the religious 30 Main Guard house.
31 House of Wali (Governor) of the
duty in preindustrial times. Hejaz. The Police office etc.
A disastrous side effect of the consequent 1893, when almost 33,000 pilgrims out of a 32 Madrasah, now used as office of
the Committee for the Aqueduct of
increase in attendance was a series of devas- total of 200,000 perished at Jedda, Mecca, Zubaydah and bureau of the Reyyis
(Chief of the muaddhins).
tating cholera outbreaks. In 1865 an epidem- and Medina. The epidemics continued until 33 Birket Majin (pronounced Majid)
great cistern in connection with the
ic originating in Java and Singapore killed an 1912, by which time the strict quarantine reg- aquaduct.
34 Court of Justice and dwelling house
estimated 15,000 out of 90,000 pilgrims ulations had finally taken hold. Compared of the Qadhi.
35 Tomb of Abu Talib (uncle of
before the hajj—which occurred in May— with the horrors of the late nineteenth and Muhammad).
36 Water place in connection
was over. By the following month the disease early twentieth century, recent disasters to with aquaduct.
have afflicted the hajj, such as the deaths of 37 Tomb of Seyyid Aqil.
had spread to Alexandria, where 60,000 38 Tomb of the Saint Shikh Mahmud.
more than four hundred mainly Indonesian 39 Jebel Queqian.
Egyptians died. By November the disease 40 The Quarter of Maabda.
had spread as far as New York. Quarantine pilgrims in the fire that broke out at Arafat 41 Reservoir of water from the
aquaduct. Several such reservoirs
restrictions introduced by the Ottoman and in 2000, seem almost minor. are now in all the main streets.
A Bedouin huts.
colonial governments shielded Egypt and Many, if not most, pilgrims supplement
Europe from infection, but cholera contin- the hajj with a visit to the Prophet’s mosque
ued to rage in the east and in the Hejaz, at Medina, where Muhammad’s family,
where there were eight epidemics between wives, and prominent Companions are
1865 and 1892. The worst of all occurred in buried. In 1925 the puritanical Saudi-
139
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Wahhabi movement leveled all the structures tion of Wahhabism, which was manifested in
marking these graves. Ziyara (the custom of the Saudi–Wahhabi attacks on the shrines of
visiting graves or praying at them) was the Shiite imams, Ali and Hussein at Najaf,
severely restricted. According to Wahhabi and Karbala in Iraq, in 1801. However,
tenets, not shared by other Sunni communi- ziyaras to the tombs of the imams and their
ties, ziyaras amount to saint veneration or descendents are an important aspect of pop-
shirk (idolatry). The restrictions are an ular Shiism. Some of these ziyaras are per-
aspect of the virulently anti-Shiite orienta- formed at all times of the year, others at spe-
140° 130° 120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10° 0°
GREENLAND
Alaska
60°
UNITED
KINGDOM
IRELAND
C A N A D A London
50° Vancouver
Seattle FRANCE
U N I T E D
Chicago Boston
New York
PORTUGAL
40° SPAIN
San Francisco S T A T E S Norfolk Azores
Los Angeles O
San Diego CC
RO
30° O
Canary M AL G
New Orleans Islands
A T L A N T I C WESTERN
SAHARA
Tropic of Cancer MEXICO Gulf of
Mexico CUBA
20° O C E A N MAURITANIA
Br. MA L
Honduras Caribbean Sea Cape Verde SENEGAL
Islands GAMBIA BURKINA
GUINEA FASO
10° BISSAU GUINEA
VENEZUELA Br. IVORY
Panama SIERRA LEONE COAST
Guiana
TO
PACIFIC OCEAN COLOMBIA LIBERIA
G
GHANA
0° Galapagos
Islands ECUADOR
PERU B R A Z I L
10°
BOLIVIA
20°
Tropic of Capricorn PARAGUAY
30°
ARGENTINA
CHILE
40°
50°
The Growth of the Hajj
Falkland
Pilgrims traveling to Mecca Islands
Cape Horn
140
GROWTH OF THE HAJJ AND OTHER PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE
cial times in the Muslim calendar. For exam- annual festival of Ashura (the day of his
ple, the ziyara of the Imam Rida in Mashhad martyrdom) when thousands of Shiite pil-
is recommended in the month of Dhu al- grims from all over the world congregate at
Qada. Ziyaras are popular with women, the mosque surrounding his tomb. Other
especially to the shrines of female saints Muslim saints have shrines whose sanctity is
such as Sayyida Zainab (daughter of the associated with national or regional identi-
Imam Ali) in Cairo and Sayyida Ruqayya ties. Two of the most prominent are the
(daughter of Imam Hussein) in Damascus. shrines of Moulay Idris (founder of the
The shrine of Hussein at Karbala is visited Idrisid dynasty) at Fez in Morocco and
on Thursday evenings, but especially at the Amadu Bamba (c. 1850–1927) in Senegal.
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120° 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° 180° 170°
N
AY
DE
RW
SWE
NO
EST.
LATVIA R U S S I A N F E D E R A T I O N
Moscow
LITH.
BELARUS
Berlin POLAND
GERMANY
CZ. SLO.
AUST. UKRAINE K A Z A K S T A N
SWITZ. HUNG.
SL. ROMANIA M ONGOLIA
CR. B.H.
SER.
IT BULG. UZ
AL BE
N
Y AL. GEORGIA AZER- KI KYRGYZSTAN
ARM. BAIJAN ST
TURKEY AN Peking
(Beijing) KOREA
A
GREECE TAJIKISTAN
SYRIA
TURKMENISTAN Tokyo
Malta
TUNISIA
Suez C H I N A P
Canal IRAQ IRAN AFGH. A
Shanghai
JORDAN J Midway
GERIA PAKISTAN NEPAL
LIBYA
EGYPT SAUDI I NDI A BANG.
ARABIA
Mecca Calcutta Hong Kong
LA
BURMA Mariana
OS
LI
NIGER CHAD Islands
THAI. PHILIPPINES Guam PACIFIC OCEAN
SUDAN Aden CAM. VIETNAM
NIGERIA ETHIOPIA
IA
CENT. AFRICAN
BE GO
BRUNEI
AL
MALAYSIA
N
SO
GABON
NG
CONGO
CO
INDONESIA
TANZANIA Solomon Is.
ANGOLA
M.
ZAMBIA
UE
Fiji Is.
S CA
Q
Coral Sea
BI
I N D I A N
M
AGA
ZIM.
MOZA
MAD
NAMIBIA BOTS.
O C E A N
A U ST R A L I A
SWAZ.
Brisbane
SOUTH LESOTHO
AFRICA Perth Sydney
Cape Town
Auckland
Melbourne
D
N
Cape of
A
AL
Good Hope
ZE
EW
N
N
0 2500 km
0 2500 miles
141
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Expanding Cities
Baghdad the caliph was murdered along with thousands
Founded in AD 762 by Abu Jafar al-Mansur, the of his subjects. Whole quarters were destroyed
second Abbasid caliph, the city of Baghdad was by looting and fire. The irrigation system on
originally built on the west bank of the Tigris which the city and its gardens depended was
River. wrecked, adding dramatically to the city’s
Although its original name was Madinat decline. By the time Baghdad became part of
al-Salam (City of Peace), Baghdad was more the Ottoman Empire in 1534 it had suffered
popularly known as the Round City from the obscurity and neglect for several centuries.
circular walls surrounding it. The caliph’s Improvements were made on a modest scale
palace and the grand mosque stood at at the beginning of the twentieth century with
the center, with four roads radi- the building of schools and hospitals. The oil
Syrian ating outward. Towering boom of the 1970s brought increased wealth to
N Gate
above the palace was Baghdad and the city began to develop on a
outer
wall the Green Dome, much more impressive scale, with the construc-
standing nearly tion of middle-class residential areas. New sew-
ices hou 165 feet high, ers and water lines were laid and above ground
o ff ses
topped by a a network of superhighways was constructed,
nt
guard room
an
me
ds
ern
hop
beyond the now the heart of the city from which its main
hou
me
inner
s es
an
ern
ds
hop go
v
wall
original walls streets radiate.
s
to the east bank Under the dictatorial regime of Saddam Hus-
of the Tigris, the sein a number of massive monuments were con-
0 500 metres two halves were structed, including the notorious “Victory
0 500 yards Kufa
joined by a bridge of Arch”, a vast confection in bronze actually
Gate boats. The eastern section modeled from maquettes of Saddam Hussein’s
was called Rusafa. forearms. An altogether more impressive exam-
Baghdad reached the height of its commer- ple of recent monumental art is the Shahid
cial prosperity and cultural power during the (Martyrs’) Monument commemorating the
eighth and ninth centuries. Under the rule of dead of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–88). Designed
the caliphs al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid, it by Ismail Fattah, it consists of a vast onion-
stood at the nexus of the trade routes between dome vertically sliced into two sections and
the East and West linking Asia with Europe. Its glazed with traditional blue ceramic tiles. Apart
impressive buildings and magnificent gardens from these monuments most of the improve-
gave it the reputation of the richest and most ments to Baghdad were brought to a halt by the
beautiful city in the world. war with Iran in the 1980s, the Gulf War that
In the latter half of the ninth century, the followed Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, and the UN
Abbasid caliphs’ power was weakened by inter- sanctions imposed afterward. The major excep-
nal strife leading to civil war. When the Mon- tions to this story of renewed decline were the
gols invaded Baghdad in the thirteenth century, presidential palaces, actually vast compounds
142
EXPANDING CITIES
surrounded by high walls or fences, containing university. Cairo was founded by Jawhar in 970.
Saddam’s lavishly decorated residential villas Later it was embellished by the mamluk amirs,
for visiting dignitaries set beside artificial lakes. who built hundreds of mosques, tombs, inns,
Before the removal of the Iraqi Baathist regime hospices, hospitals, and other public buildings.
by US military action in March 2003 access to Their distinctive decorative style made use of
these sites by UN weapons inspectors had been the same Muqattam limestone as the pyramids
a major source of contention between the of Giza (and in some cases, using the pyramids’
regime and the United Nations. outer casings). Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin)
who took over
after the collapse
Jazirat al-Fil Cairo at the time of
Sultan al-Nasir of the Fatimids,
Densely settled walled city
built the magnif-
icent citadel to
mostly dry
Well-populated sections
outside the walls
the south where
Newer sections being
opened to settlement Muhammad Ali,
Nile River
al-Maqs
Bab al-Nasr Wall century reform-
er,
cemetery
riv
ing autocrat,
of
Qayt-Bay Qarafa
cemetery that still commands the old city.
Bab-Zuwayla
Bab-al-Luq The earliest settlement in this crucial spot on
Birkat
al-Nasiri the east bank of the Nile, opposite the
Citadel
Birkat
al-Quarun
mosque of Cairo at the time of
Imam Tulun
Rawda Fumm al-Kalij Ismail 1869 – 1870
Old city
tomb of
Imam Shafi N Clo
tB Added by Ismail
ey
mosque of Amr Planned new arteries
l
ana
Cairo
et
Stre
l Aziz
e
bridg
d
al-Nil
Ali
143
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
0 2 km
0 2 miles
Growth of Cairo
1800 – 1947
Developed before 1800
Added up to1905
Added up to 1915
Added up to 1925
Added up to 1947
pyramids, was Babylon (now Misr al-Qadima), medieval walls of al-Qahira. The European-
a fortress built by the invading Persians in 525 style city of fine boulevards and circuses was
BC to guard an important crossing of the Nile. laid out in the 1860s in conscious imitation of
The city’s steady northward migration (which Baron Haussmann’s redesigned Paris. Improved
continued into the twentieth century with the flood control and the stabilization of the river-
construction of the desert suburb of Heliopo- banks and the two large islands of Rawdah and
lis) was influenced by the prevailing northerly Gezirah allowed the city to expand across the
breezes, which sent the smells of ordure and river toward Giza and Imbaba. This makes
burning rubbish southward. Before the nine- modern Cairo (with 18–20 million people) one
teenth century the city’s westward expansion of the world’s largest megalopolises.
was limited by the river’s floodplains. The
Mamluk amirs and Ottoman princes built fine Tashkent
palaces with vast palm-shaded gardens while Until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991
most of the populace lived in labyrinthine Tashkent, with a population of 2.3 million, was
streets and alleyways contained within the the fourth-largest Soviet city after Moscow,
144
EXPANDING CITIES
Leningrad, and Kiev. Much of it was destroyed city recovered some of its previous prosperity
by an earthquake in 1966, which wrecked under Timur and his successors. Contested by
95,000 homes and left 300,000 people (one- successive rulers, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Persians,
third of its population) homeless. Rebuilt as a Mongol Oirots, and Kalmyks, it nevertheless
model Soviet city, it has broad boulevards, wide maintained a degree of autonomy. In the eigh-
public spaces with splashing fountains, and teenth century it was divided into four, some-
rows of concrete office and apartment build- times mutually hostile, quarters sharing a
ings in the international modernist style, common bazaar. Conquered by the Russians
though it retains traditional Uzbek motifs and in 1865, its population had almost tripled
arcades, and galleries with open verandas, (from 56,000 to 156,000) by the time the
mosaics, and paneling. The city has spacious Transcaspian Railway reached Tashkent in
parks and a modern underground railway sys- 1898. The Soviet period saw intensive industri-
tem. After Uzbekistan became independent in alization and the expansion of residential
1992 the Russians, who formed about half of quarters with generous parks and gardens.
the population, were reported to be leaving at Mosques, madrasas, and other religious build-
the rate of 700 a week. However, Russian is still ings were either destroyed, or converted into
spoken by at least half of Tashkent’s citizens. factories, warehouses, or printing presses.
Before the reconstruction there were two Since independence the whole city has been
distinct cities, the old Islamic city and the reasserting its Islamic character, with large
modern Russian one, separated by a canal. brightly domed mosques being constructed
Some of the labyrinthine streets and alleyways alongside modern shopping malls and arcades
of Old Tashkent, with traditional homes built stocked with goods from Southeast Asia.
around pleasant vine-shaded
courtyards, survived the
ur
H
us
earthquake. Tashkent is the
Amir Tem
nid
d in
As
om Tashkent
most recent of several names ov
M
M Metro station
Saghb
I Internet access
nally an oasis settlement for
M
nomads and traders on the M
I hkin
M Pus
army at the Battle of Talas M M
M Navo
I M
Par
ken
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M i AvenI M cha
M si
Furkat
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in 751 the settlement was M
M
P ush
kin
M M M
known as Chach, Arabized M
ue
M M
Aven
M M
M M M
to al-Shash. Arab writers
hidov
M M M I I
Movaroun
f Ras
described it as a prosperous
Sharo
M M
place of vineyards, teeming
nakhr
M I
M M
with bazaars and busy M
N
M
craftsmen. Tashkent, mean-
Bobu
M
Fa
ue
rgh
en
M
Av
on
r
M
ing “stone-town” in the local
igi
a
stl
M
Du
Yu
uk
li
er
im
Turkic languages, first
alk
y M M
eli
Kh
M M tav
us M
us
aR
M
appears on coins in the uk
ot
N
Sh
0 1 km
145
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
146
IMPACT OF OIL IN THE 20th CENTURY
zens (whose average per capita income in 1998 Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan
amounted to more than $22,000 per annum) have promising oil reserves, but cannot export
are able to enjoy an extensive cradle-to-grave their oil without sending it through pipelines
welfare system, with state utilities, health that pass through neighboring countries. The
care, housing, telecommunications, and edu- most economical route from Turkmenistan and
cation all heavily subsidized by the state. Azerbaijan would run though Iran to the Gulf
The political volatility of the Gulf region, using Iran’s existing network of pipelines. This
demonstrated by three major wars since 1980, route, however, has been opposed for political
has stimulated the search for oil in other reasons by the US, which favors a much more
Muslim regions, notably Central Asia and the expensive project running to Ceyhan on
Caspian. The post-Soviet states of Azerbaijan, Turkey’s Mediterranean coast.
UKRAINE Volgograd
Rostov K A Z A K H S TA N
MOLDOVA MONGOLIA
Lake
Balkhash
Aral 45°
Caspian Tangiz
Novorosisk Sea
Sea
Ossetia Chechnya UZBE
Black Sea KI Xinjiang
Abkhazia ST
GEORGIA A KYRGYZSTAN Turfan
Istanbul
N
s Ceyhan
Marw
C H I N A
SYRIA Tehran Kabul
Mediterranean
LEBANON Baghdad AFGHANISTAN
Sea Lahore
IRAN
Alexandria IRAQ
ISRAEL
JORDAN KUWAIT 30°
Cairo
The Kharg Island PAKISTAN New Delhi N
EP
Dhahran Gulf AL
BHUTAN
EGYPT BAHRAIN
QATAR
Riyadh Karachi
R
Arabian BANGLADESH
SAUDI ARABIA UNITED Sea
S
ARAB I NDI A
e
EMIRATES BURMA
a
Bombay
M
O
Hyderabad
Bay of
Bengal
Khartoum
ERITREA EN 15°
YEM en
S U DA N Ad
of
lf Bangalore Madras
Gu
DJIBOUTI
Addis
Ababa
Oilfields and Pipelines
ETHIOPIA N
in the Middle
SRI East and Inner Asia
LANKA
IA
0 300 km
Oil and gas reserves
AL
147
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Water Resources
Water and its scarcity have had a determining 1956 Suez crisis by nationalizing the Suez Canal
impact on the core regions of the Islamic world. after the US refused to finance the High Dam at
In ancient Egypt many centuries of human expe- Aswan. Built with Soviet help, the dam at the head
rience in ordering the flow of the Nile’s annual of Lake Nasser now controls the river by storing
flood through complex systems of basin irriga- its floodwaters in what is now the world’s largest
tion lay behind the finely calibrated geometry of artificial reservoir. Some experts consider the
the pyramids. In Mesopotamia, as in Egypt, the High Dam to have been a long-term ecological
state, with its bureaucratic structures of power disaster. The dam has stopped the river from
and control, was the gift of the river. In Arabia bringing the rich nutrients from the tropical
the aridity of the land and the value of water is regions, increasing the salinity of the soil, and
fundamental to the language of Islam. In the reducing fish stocks in the eastern Mediterranean.
Koran the rare and precious rain that makes the Dams built by Turkey on the Euphrates have been
desert bloom overnight is one of the ayas (signs no less contentious. The Keban (1975) and
or proofs) of God, a metaphor for the resurrec- Karakaya (1987) dams, each designed to store
tion. “…for among His signs is this: thou seest about 30 million cubic kilometers of water to gen-
the earth lying desolate—and lo! When We send erate electricity and to regulate the river’s flow,
down water upon it, it stirs and swells [with life] were partly financed with loans from the World
Verily, He who brings to life can surely give life to Bank. However the World Bank refused to con-
the dead … for behold! He has the power to do tribute to the larger Ataturk Dam, which has a
anything!” (Koran 41:39). The root meaning of storage capacity of 46 cubic kilometers, because
Sharia—the divine law—is the way or path to a the downstream riparians, Syria and Iraq, failed
watering place, the source of life and purity. An to approve the project. The dams and associated
eighteenth-century Arabic dictionary likens the irrigation projects have reduced the flow of the
Sharia to the “descent of water” that quenches Euphrates by almost half, from some 30 million to
man’s thirst and purifies him through fasting, just below 16 million cubic meters per year. In
prayer, pilgrimage, and marriage. Water man- defense of its action Turkey argues that the aver-
agement was fundamental to the success and age use of the flow by Syria and Iraq has never
failure of Islamic governments in the past. In the exceeded 15 cubic kilometers per year—so neither
Upper Euphrates region the early Abbasid rulers need suffer. Turkey is also developing the Tigris
restored and extended the system of underwater through a series of projects that may lead to
channels built by the Sasanians, bringing new reductions in flow, but improvements in reliability.
lands under cultivation. Neglect of irrigation in Iraq is the main beneficiary of the Tigris. Any
subsequent centuries hastened the dynasty’s eco- shortfall affecting the Euphrates as a result of
nomic and political decline. Turkish engineering could be made good by devel-
Water management was central to the oping the Tigris waters.
development of modern Egypt. Under the dynasty Nowhere is the highly charged issue of water
of Muhammad Ali the first barrages were built to management more apparent than in discussions
control the Nile floods, bringing new lands under about sharing the waters of the Jordan River, cen-
cultivation and releasing the floodplain between tral to the Arab–Israeli dispute. The peace treaty
Cairo and Gizeh for a new European-style city of between Israel and Jordan signed in October 1994
circuses with radiating boulevards. Gamal Abd al- included the provision of a phased 200 million
Nasser, the charismatic nationalist leader who cubic meters of water per year for Jordan, to be
overthrew the monarchy in 1952, precipitated the allocated partly from current Israeli sources and
148
WATER RESOURCES
partly from joint development. During the pre- 34° 30' 35° 35° 30'
liminary negotiations between Israel and the
The Struggle for Water
Palestinians, known as Oslo (1993) and Oslo II 1950 – 1967
L E B A N O N
(1995), water was included as one of five crucial Groundwater area and
direction of flow
issues along with territory, Jerusalem, Jewish set- Water divide Tyre
Litani
intifada (uprising) and the breakdown of the so- Extension of east Ghor canal
Pre-1967 proposal for
called “road map to peace” sponsored by the US, west Ghor canal SYRIA
National water carrier
the UN, the European Union, and Russia, the
Planned Arab division
issue remains unresolved. However the very fact Proposed routes for Mediterranean Golan
33°
that the sharing of water could have been part of Sea – Dead Sea canal Heights
Acre
the negotiations illustrates an important truth: Nahariya
Lake
the principal water resource for the Israeli, Haifa Tiberias
Y
“Virtual water” is a concept used by econo-
mists and hydrologists to indicate the quantities of 33° 30'
water needed to produce imported foods, such as
Beit
Mediterranean Sea
wheat from water-rich regions like North SAMARIAN
MOUNTAINS
Shean
Jordan
Jenin
modity requires approximately one thousand Northern
Tulkarm aquifer
J O R D A N
times its volume in water to produce it. Judging by
Nabulus
L
Netanya
the rate of cereal imports into western Asia and SAMARIAN
Zarqa
MOUNTAINS
North Africa, the region has been “running out” Kalkiliya King
Talal
Tel Aviv Western
of water since the 1970s. This has not, however, Jaffa Dam
E
aquifer
Eastern
led to starvation. By importing wheat and other aquifer 32°
(after 1967)
subsisted by means of the “virtual water”’ embed-
Ashdod
ded in the staples they import. According to this Soreq
Jerusalem
analysis, it is cheaper and much more sensible to
R
Bethlehem
import food measured in terms of “virtual water”
than to produce it locally. For example, Saudi
S
JUDAEAN
Arabia is using fossil water from nonrenewable Sh Dead
iq Hebron HILLS
Gaza 32° 30'
aquifers to grow wheat in considerable quantities. ma
N
available for $120 on the world market. The glob-
Beersheba
al trading system in grain can deliver 40,000 mil-
lion cubic meters of virtual water embedded in
0 20 km
grain imports without visible stress. No engineer-
0 20 miles
ing system could mobilize one-tenth of that
31°
amount with the same degree of flexibility.
149
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
LY
was taken in October 2003, at a PORT.
SPAIN
time when peace talks with India
over the disputed territory of
Kashmir were apparently stalled.
CO
C
O
R
O
M
ALGERIA
L I B YA
WESTERN
SAHARA
MAURITANIA
MALI NIGER
CHAD
SENEGAL
BURKINA
LIBERIA REPUBLIC
O
O
ER
states are infused with the culture that creates TOGO CA M
O
NG
150
THE ARMS TRADE
developing world. None has an advanced indus- nowadays mostly within the orbit of the US.
trial base, which means that all their major Consequently such states tend to train and
weapons systems have to be imported. The organize along US lines. This is continuing to
exceptions to this are twofold. First, rifles, pis- replace earlier British, French, and Russian
tols, their ammunition, and other small-scale influence except in the cases of Syria and
weapons are produced in abundance. Second, a Libya, where Soviet era weapons and organiza-
few states with powerful allies, notably tion are quite noticeable. Iran is perhaps excep-
Pakistan, Turkey, and Egypt, have been given tional in developing an independent center of
some assistance in developing a manufacturing military practice, but this is still in a weak and
industry for weapons. Pakistan is thought to early stage of development. Some members of
have obtained technical assistance for its the Iranian government have proclaimed
nuclear program from China. nuclear weapons un-Islamic. While similar sen-
In common with the vast majority of states, timents are expressed in Christian countries, it
Islamic nations from Morocco to Indonesia are is rare to find them inside government.
UKRAINE
MOLDOVA K A Z A K H S TA N
MONGOLIA
ROMANIA
BULGARIA UZBEK
IST
GEORG. A KYRGYZ.
N
AZA. ARM.
TURKMEN. N. KOREA
TURKEY TAJIK.
GREECE LEB. C H I N A
SYRIA S. KOREA
ISRAEL AFGHAN.
IRAN JAPAN
IRAQ
N
TA
JORDAN
IS
K NE
PA PA
L BH.
EGYPT SAUDI
A. E.
TAIWAN
BANGLADESH
ARABIA I NDI A BURMA
N
A
L
M
Hainan
A
O
OS
Luzón
IE
N THAI.
TNA M
Y EME
S U DA N
CAMB.
P HIL IPPINES
M
SO M A L AY S I A
UGANDA Military Spending and Service c. 2000
KENYA
7% or more Sumatra Borneo Sulawesi
More than 2 years
CONGO
5% – 6.9%
1–2 years
TANZANIA Jakarta I N D
O N E S I A
3% – 4.9% Java
6 months – 1 year Timor
1% – 2.9%
Up to 6 months
IA Less than 1%
B
ZAM AUSTRALIA
Voluntary military service
No data
151
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
LA
MA R)
O
1948
S
THAIL
AN
(SIAM D Hue
)
1954
Andam
an Bangkok
Sea
M
CAMBOD
NA
IA
1953
ET
Gulf of
Siam VI
Saigon
1954
Kedah Rattani
Pasai
Kelantan
Str
Samudra
a it
Trengganu
of
Kual
Ma
Lumpu a Pahang
r
lac
M
ca
Singke A L A
Fansur
Malacca Y
Muslim involvement in the formation and develop- 1957
Johore
S
1957
years has been diverse. It has been punctuated, in
m
Ka
ri
t
ta S
trait
Palembang
152
FLASHPOINT SOUTHEAST ASIA 1950–2000
state religion of Malaysia. Since before its founding, establishment of an autonomous homeland for
there were recurrent tensions in Malaysia between its Philippine Muslims. Successive Philippine govern-
Chinese and Malay populations, which erupted into ments have attempted to broker settlements with
the race riots that took place in 1969. Insofar as Muslims in the region. Muslims in Thailand are pri-
Malays are Muslim and constitute a majority, such marily located in Satun in northwestern Thailand,
intercommunal conflicts have a religious dimension. and the southern provinces of Pattani, Yola, and
But Malaysia is also witness to intracommunal ten- Narithiwat, which border Malaysia. Muslim resist-
sions in which Muslims continue to debate the nature ance to the Thai state in the form of armed strug-
and extent of Islam’s role in the matters of governance. gles and separatist calls reached their climax in the
In the Philippines, Muslims (often referred to as 1990s. Muslims in Myanmar (Burma) mostly reside
Moros) reside mostly on Mindanao and the Sulu in Arakan on the Myanmar border with
archipelago. The early 1970s saw Muslims calling Bangladesh, and since the 1950s have been in con-
for separation from the Philippine state and the tinual conflict with Myanmar about their status.
Independence war
Manila
IL
conflicts
PI
Sea Min
do
NE
ro
10°
Str
ait
1946
S
go
ela
hip
Palawan
rc
A
lu
Su Sulu Sea
Mindinao
OCEAN 5°
PA C I F I C
Sabah
1984
Brunei 1963
Brunei
S I A Celebes Sea
Sarawak
1963 0°
it
t
Stra
ai
Str
ie r
ar
Borneo
ass
Halmahera p
m
Da
k
Ma
Tanjungoura
rck
Sulawesi
M
a l u Bisma
k u Sea
(Celebes)
Banjermasin 5°
Seram
Martapura Buru
Ja va S e a Ambon 1963 to Indonesia
Bandanera PA P UA E A
D O
Macassar
I A NEW GU
IN
N E S 1984
1949 Banda Sea
ok
J a v Flores Sea
mb
a 10°
it
Timor
Lo
Stra
Bali
Sumbawa
Annexed by Indonesia 1976
Flores
Arafura Sea Coral
ok
b
Lo
m Sum
ba Timor Sea
Cape York Sea
153
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
19
8
1
Intended link-up
with Russian forces Tabriz
Adiyaman Lake
Urmia airbases at Shuaiba and Habbaniyya, and a
Hakkari
controlling interest in the IPC (Iraqi Petroleum
O
Urfa Mardin
Rasht
Company), which started exporting oil in
Q
ez
el Lahijan
Ou
zan
Mosul 1934. Though the Iraqi elite was included in the
M
ne
ce li Pakistan) aimed at containing Soviet power
t lin
Nasiriya
va n
fron
Three British
sh a
Fort Kurna
T urk
fail
Hawr al
Hammar Abu Dhabi
flooded in R
Basra
Sh Bandar-e nist support, overthrew the monarchy in
at
Sharpur
road to fort
ta
January
1958. However the new military government
lA
Ti
gr Fao Is. 30°
Townshend
ra
N
is E
Kut-al-Amarah British was itself replaced in 1963 (and again in
Protectorate Kuwait
Woolpress
Village Mosque K U WA I T
Pe r s i a n
Gulf
1968) by officers belonging to the secular-
British garrison
flooded in
February l-Hai surrenders 29 April 1916
0 100 km
oriented Baath (Renaissance) Party. Under
Shatt-a
El Hasa
snipers
0 100 miles Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti (vice president to
General Hasan al-Bakri and the regime’s
154
FLASHPOINT IRAQ 1917–2003
atin
and pre-Islamic Mesopotamian heritage, with Kuwait
lB
d ia
Wa
US Marines
Iraqi units
from the Dawa movement founded by the
Allied
Basra
murdered Ayatollah Baqr al-Sadr in the 1960s. movements
Iraqi airbase As Salman
After coalition forces drove the Iraqis out of destroyed Abadan
Bridge destroyed
I R A Q
Kuwait in 1991, a Shiite rebellion in a number Advance lines
101st Airborne
of southern cities including Basra, Najaf, and with timing
Division set up
resupply depot
Iraqi retreat
Karbala was ruthlessly suppressed—despite K U WA I T Persian Gulf
Rafha
U.S. Marines
NEUTRAL After 48 hours
ZONE Warah
tion the government then proceeded to drain S A U D I
After 12 hours
N A R A B I A
the southern marshlands inhabited by the
0 100 km
Shiite. The Kurds, however, were protected by 0 100 miles Hafar al Batin Khafji
I R A Q
gal oil exports and the UN-approved “oil for Bridge destroyed
After 100 hours
Advance lines
food” program. The destruction of the regime with timing
defense line
Saddam Hussein in December. It was far from U.S. Marines
ia
d
Wa
After 80 hours
NEUTRAL
clear, however, if the Americans would succeed ZONE Warah
S A U D I
in their stated purpose of installing a democ- N A R A B I A
155
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Afghanistan 1840–2002
A mountainous region with deep valleys, education introduced. Habibullah’s son
deserts, and arid plateaus, Afghanistan has Amanullah (r. 1919–29) pushed the process of
never been a single political entity although modernization further by enacting sweeping
parts of it were incorporated into the Pushtun legislative changes, including the abolition of
Empire founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani (r. slavery. He began to allow the education of
1747–72). The population is extremely varied, women and brought about changes in their
with that largest ethnolinguistic grouping, the status including almost equal rights in mar-
Pushtuns, comprising about 47 percent. This riage, divorce, and inheritance. He also intro-
group is concentrated in the southern belt of duced Western dress at court. The reforms
the territory that straddles the border with provoked a rebellion by the conservative
Pakistan, with Tajiks, the second-largest ulama and chieftains affiliated to the
group (comprising 35 percent) living mainly Naqshbandi order and Amanullah was forced
in the north, along with Uzbeks, Turkmen, into exile in 1929.
and Kirghiz (8 percent), and the Imami Shiite The Pushtun military leader Nadir Shah (r.
Hazaras (7 percent). 1929–33) took over from Amanullah and his
The disintegration of the Durrani Empire successor Zahir Shah (r. 1933–73) reinstated
into fratricidal strife in the nineteenth century the Sharia courts. He rewarded the Pushtun
opened the way for Russian and British pene- tribes on which they depended by granting
tration. Britain’s concern to protect its empire their leaders government posts and allowing
An Afghan mujahid (warrior) from Russian encroachments prompted its rampant discrimination against non-
carries a shell to the front line. two invasions of Afghanistan in 1839–42 and Pushtuns in the allocation of resources. At
Later these fighters would 1879–80. Needing a strong central government the same time the program of modernization
receive the Stinger Surface-to-Air
to consolidate Afghanistan as a buffer state was resumed in a modified form, with the
missiles. This weapon, though
against the Russians Britain installed the state taking the leading part in economic
light and portable, contained
“Iron Amir,” Abd al-Rahman Khan (r. development. Under the combined strategic
sophisticated target-seeking
1880–1901). He consolidated his power over pressures of the Cold War and the regime’s
electronics. Secretly supplied to
the country by waging jihad against the Shiite Pushtun-oriented nationalism (which gener-
the mujahidin via the Pakistani
intelligence services (ISI), it had
and forcibly converting the indigenous non- ated tensions with neighboring Pakistan) an
a devastating impact on the Muslim “infidels” of Kafiristan. Departing influential part of the Pushtun elite moved
Soviet occupation, enabling with precedent he claimed to rule by divine closer to Moscow. This process resulted in
relatively untrained tribesmen to right rather than tribal delegation. Non- the ousting of Zahir Shah by his cousin and
bring down helicopter gunships. Pushtuns were discriminated against and suf- former prime minister, Muhammad Daud,
fered oppressive taxation. with support from Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,
Elements of the modern state, however, and Iran. Daud abolished the monarchy and
were also introduced, with a centralized army proclaimed himself president of the republic
used to repress rebellious tribes and the gov- of Afghanistan. The Soviets responded by
ernment organized into separate departments sponsoring a coup by the communist People’s
of state. During the reign of Abd al- Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a
Rahman’s son Habibullah (r. 1901–19) the move that resulted in direct Soviet interven-
army was professionalized and modern tion in 1979 to prop up the Parcham (non-
156
AFGHANISTAN 1840–2002
Pushtun) faction of the PDPA under Barbak dominated Taliban regime (supported by
Kamal. The ensuing jihad—supported by Saudi Arabia and Pakistan) headed by Bin
Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Laden’s close ally Mullah Muhammad Omar.
States—attracted volunteers from many After taking Kabul in 1994 the Taliban barred
Muslim countries, including the wealthy women from schools and other workplaces,
Saudi Islamist Osama bin Laden. With the massacred the Shiite Hazaras, and brought
help of US-supplied Stinger missiles, the Iran to the brink of military intervention by
I R Maimana
Aug. 1981 Kunduz R
A N Heret
Faizabad
Airlift
A Bahlan
F
G Shamali Operation May 1982–
ft
H
Airli
Nov. 1983 May 1984
Shindand A May 1985
N Bagram
I Shamali eastern
S Kabul
Farah T offensive, 1985
A Jalalabad
N
Zhawar Campaign, 1986
Ghazni
Gardez Peshawar
Lashkar Gah
Srinagar
Kandahar
Kashmir
P A
K I
S T
A N
land over 2000m
200 m Quetta INDIA
Lahore Amritsar
mujahadin forced the Soviet Union to with- murdering nine of its diplomats.
draw its troops from Afghanistan in 1989. Far After the attacks on New York and
from generating a sense of national unity, Washington in September 2001 by terrorists
however, the struggle against the Soviets allegedly belonging to Bin Laden’s al-Qaeda
served to intensify interethnic strife, as the network the Americans removed the Taliban
central institutions of state disintegrated. regime by a massive bombing campaign. The
The factional fighting that followed the new Pushtun leader Ahmad Karzai, installed
Soviet withdrawal and the collapse of the by the United States following an interna-
Marxist regime of General Najiballah in tional conference in Berlin, is a cousin of
1992 opened the way for the radical Pushtun- Zahir Shah.
157
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
158
ARABIA AND THE GULF 1839–1950
Tabriz
OT35°
Maras
40°
Diyarbakir Hakkari
45° 50° 55°
Adana TO
M Rasht Lahijan Arabia and the Gulf c. 1900
Qe
ze
Iskenderun A lO
Tig
es
ris
Hamadan Qom
Beirut E I r a q Ottoman Empire c.1900
Kermanshah Kashan
Damascus Borujerd
Haifa Habbaniya Baghdad
Khorramabad
PAL E STINE Karbala al-Hilla Isfahan PER SIA
LA
Gaza
Amman RUWA Dezful
Jerusalem An Najaf
A N IZ A Yaid
Tabuk
P
U
e
W
r
A
Tayma H
Y
s
UJM AN a lil
TA
Hail
H
i
Bandar-Abbas
a
T
as
n
N E J D Bandar-e
HUTAYM al-Qatif BAH RAIN
HAR B Lengeh
a
G
Q ATA R f
25° S U B AY t Sharjar
a s
fo
JUH
3
AY N
85
t e Abu
ma
BANI P i r a Dhabi Prot
.1
Medina Riyadh
n
A
t. Khabura
B ri
R
Yanbual Bahr
TR
N
UC n d er
I A L O MAN U
T A
H A R B Wadi S
a h ba Muscat
H
e
M U
Q
OM A N
R R British Protectorate
d
SUB A 1891
ZAHRAN AY
H U
Jedda
Mecca
D
al-Taif GHAMID
H
DAWASIR
A
S
L
Y
20° i
ANGLO- l
EGYPTIAN a
e
h
SUDAN Suakin Asir K
e l
a
b
Abha R u
N
YAM
Khor Baraka
At
bara
Kassala Massawa Ye m e n
ERITREA H A D H R A M AU T
15° (to Italy 1899) Asmara British Protectorate 1888
Sana Ara bian Sea
al-Hudayda
T
ak
az
ze Mukalla 0 100 km
Aduwa Zabid
Taizz
ADEN
British Protectorate 1903 0 100 miles
ABYSSINIA Mocha Shuqra
Arabia in 1932. descendent Abd al-Aziz (known as Ibn Saud) Additions by 1926
followed the same classical pattern of combin-
Major attacks and campaigns
ing the military power of the tribes with the
moral force of a religious revival. All who SUBAY Major tribe
failed to adhere to the Wahhabite code were Territory under British control
160
RISE OF THE SAUDI STATE
Qe
el O
z
Iskenderun uz Gorgan
S.A . Mosul
an Babol
Antakya Aleppo Sharud Nayshabur
Qazvin Damghan
Latakia Damavan
TERR. OF
Eup Kirkuk Tehran Semnan
hr
35° Hama
at
SYRIA
Tig
Tripoli Homs (1907–21)
ris
French Mandate Hamadan Bejastan
L E BA NON 1920 Qom
Beirut I R A Q
British Mandate Kermanshah Ferdow
Kashan
Damascus 1920 Borujerd
Haifa Habbaniya Baghdad
Khorramabad
IRAN
PAL E STINE Karbala al-Hilla Isfahan
LA
Gaza
Amman RUWA Dezful
Jerusalem An Najaf
A N IZ A Yaid
26
TRANS-
19
Abu Dhabi
/1
Suzerainty, 1923
92
Basra
6
P
U
e
W
r
A
Tayma H
1921
Y
s
UJM AN a lil
TA
Hail
i
Bandar-Abbas
a
T
n
N E J D
1902
4 (to Oman)
19
1926 to Nejd u l
’UTAYBA AWAZIM ul Jask
G
Q ATA R f
25° S U B AY Sharjar fo
JUH
al-Hufuf fO
AY N
Medina ma
Riyadh BANI Abu Dhabi n
A
AN Khabura
R
1902 OM
TRUCIA L
T A
H A R B Wadi S
a hba Muscat
H
e
6
192
02
A
19
M U
Q
OM A N
1924 R R
d
SUB A
ZAHRAN AY
H U
Jedda
Mecca
D
DAWASIR
A
S
L 20
Y
20° – i
ANGLO- 19 l
19 a
EGYPTIAN
193
e
h
SUDAN ASIR
4
Suakin K
1920 to Nejd
e l
a
1919–20 1932
b
Abha R u
N
YAM
Khor Baraka
At
bara
1934
Kassala Massawa YEMEN
Independent 1919 H A D H R A M AU T
15° Asmara
Sana Ara bian Sea
ERITREA al-Hudayda
T
ak
az
ze Mukalla 0 100 km
Aduwa Zabid
Taizz
ADEN
0 100 miles
ABYSSINIA Mocha Shuqra
Aden
161
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Flashpoint Israel–Palestine
The roots of the Arab–Israeli conflict lie in the
age-old yearning of Jews to return to Eretz Yis-
The Six-Day War –
Israeli Attack 36° rael, the land promised by God to the Prophet
N
14–30 May 1967 Abraham. Modern Zionism built on this tradi-
Pre-war borders Latakipia tion, seeing salvation from persecution in the
Main Israeli attacks acquisition of land where a Jewish sovereign
Israeli air strikes CYPRUS state could be created. In 1878, the first Jewish
Airborne landing settlement was established at Petah Tikva. Dur-
ing the First World War the British made contra-
Tripoli
dictory commitments to Arabs and Jews. They
LEBANON promised an independent state to the Sharif of
Beirut Mecca, whose sons Faisal and Abdullah led the
Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Turks, while
Damascus allowing the establishment of a national home-
Metulla land for the Jewish People in Palestine—a proj-
Me di t er ranean Sea
ect that met with increasing support among Jew-
Haifa Nazareth
ish communities in Europe after the Nazi acces-
Jordan
Wadi A
Bitter
Lake Wa
d i “each entwined in an inimical embrace like two
Cairo fighting serpents,” in the words of one official,
El Giza Suez
Port Taufiq Ma’an
Nekhl was accepted by the Jewish leaders but rejected
adi Batat by the Arabs. On May 14 1948, the British with-
W
El Thamad Eilat
El Faiyûm S i n a i Aqaba drew and on the following day Israel’s independ-
Gu
ba
lf
di Ara
new state survived simultaneous but poorly
e
Wa
Nil
of
SAU D I
f of
Gul
Maqna
Tar
fa El Tur tory than had been awarded to it under the UN
El Minya Wadi
Nabq Haraiba
28° plan. Transjordan—later Jordan—gained con-
Sharm el Sheikh trol of a part of Palestine, including East
Jemsa
Jerusalem, which contains shrines sacred to
Red Sea
Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Attacks by Jew-
Wad
Asyût
ish irregulars, such as the massacre of Palestin-
i Qena
0 50 km
0 50 miles
ian villagers of Deir Yassin in 1948, prompted
32° 36°
the flight of thousands of Palestinians, creating
162
FLASHPOINT ISRAEL–PALESTINE
the refugee problem which would fuel subse- and Jordan in 1994. The Palestinian problem,
quent wars in 1956, 1967, 1973, and 1982. however, remains unresolved. Although the Pales-
The third Arab-Israeli war, in June 1967, left tine Liberation Organization, under its chairman
Israel in control of Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank, Yasser Arafat, recognized Israel’s right to exist in
and the Golan Heights, with Israel subsequently 1988 and achieved limited autonomy for Pales-
annexing Arab East Jerusalem and planting Jew- tinians in Gaza, Jericho, and other parts of the
ish settlements in the Occupied Territories. Limit- West Bank under the 1993 Oslo accords, the
ed military success achieved by the Egyptians in Islamist organizations, including Hamas and
the fourth Arab-Israeli war in October 1973 Islamic Jihad, reject the peace process. Continu-
emboldened the Egyptian President Anwar Sadat ing Jewish settlements, terrorist attacks on civil-
to make his historic visit to Jerusalem in 1977. ians (including suicide bombings), and Israeli
This initiated the process that culminated in the measures such as the creation of a Berlin-style
signing of the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty at wall between Israel and the West Bank and the
Camp David in 1979, followed by disengagement targeted killings of Palestinian leaders, have made
agreements with Syria and a treaty between Israel the prospects for peace increasingly difficult.
Jordan
Amman Netanya
Rehovot Jericho West
Jerusalem N Tulkarm
Bethlehem Nablus
Dumyât Gaza Hebron Kalkiya Balata
refugee camp
Port Said
Beersheba Nl’llin
al-Mahalla al-Arîsh Tel Aviv
Suez Canal
E G Y P T Bitter
Lake Ashdod
Cairo Geneife Sore
q Jerusalem
Kuntilla
Suez
Nekhl Bethlehem
fi
q
Beit Omar
Ta u Sudr
Port Ashkelon
S i n a i Eilat Aqaba Sheikh Radwan Jabaliya S h i q Dead
Hebron
G ul
ba Gaz a Strip
refugee camp
a ba
di Ara Nusseirat
S ue
Wa
of Aq
Abu S A U D I
z
Abu Durba
Bes
Dahab
Maqna Beersheba N
o
r
fa
ar al-Tur Keziot
Wa d i T
30° Nabq I S R A E L
0 50 km
163
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
British attacks
sugar-producing islands of the Caribbean
lah
Diya
27 Road number were fought over frequently in the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries. Oil provided
the money for states in the region to acquire
BAGHDAD very large quantities of armaments in the sec-
Eu
I R A N
ph
164
FLASHPOINT GULF 1950–2003
chemical weapons the international communi- place and the extent to which the Iraqi regular
ty remained silent on the matter. This issue army fought against overwhelming odds
continues to influence Iranian attitudes to remains unclear. Despite the success of the
what it regards as Western double standards Americans in capturing Saddam Hussein in
on weapons of mass destruction (WMD). December 2003, the coalition forces continued
The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August to be subject to sporadic guerrilla attacks.
1991 was probably triggered by Iraq’s poor
financial condition and a misreading of the 0 75 km
43°
likely international reaction. Not only was the The Advance to Baghdad
0 75 miles
attack on a UN member state (and a member Tikrit March 30 – April 12, 2003
XX
However Iraq had formally recognized 3
Ti
Kuwait’s sovereignty within its present borders Karbala gr
is
7 al-Amara
tions that the UN itself had failed to carry out III
1 24 MEU
and that Iraq presented a regional and indeed
global threat from weapons of mass destruc- As Samawah
165
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
64°
EEC member added 1973 been settled as families were
ICELAND N
Y
EEC member added 1986
Norwegian
Sea
established. Although there
N
A
Became part of the EEC after
unification of Germany, 1990
are significant communities
E
of Muslims in Marseilles,
W
EEC member added 1995 F I N L A N D
D
60° EEC membership approved R Lyons, and Lille, Paris is the
May 2004
primary city of settlement.
E
O
Membership pending
Directions and the sources
W
RUSSIAN The main Paris mosque was
N
52°
Manchester
LA N
IRELAND
Birmingham Amsterdam Berlin
GERMANY origin with many mosques
ER
Utrecht P O L A N D
The Hague
H
Lille
Indonesia Frankfurt
48°
L. CZECH REP.
Paris SLOVAKIA active in Paris, especially
ATLANTIC Munich those from the North
F R A N C E
OCEAN
Bern AUSTRIA HUNGARY R O M A N I A African traditions such as
SWITZERLAND
the Darqawiyya and
Sea
SLOVENIA
44°
Lyon Trieste
Milan
Bordeaux CR Alawiyya. These groups
ack
Turin BOSNIA
D anube
Genoa Venice O HERZEG.
AT
attract some French con-
Bl
I A IA SERBIA BULGARIA
Marseille Monaco T
dr
ANDORRA A
ia
ti
c MONTE-
verts to Islam.
S e ALBANIA NEGRO
L
AL
Rome a
TU
40° Barcelona
TUG
Sea
POR
Ba
lea
G R E E C E
Munich, Frankfurt)
Andalucia
Alicante Muslim migration to Ger-
36°
Cádiz Almeria
M e d i t e r r a
many is dominated by
n
Tangier e
a
n
Turks. During the 1950s,
TUNISIA
MALTA S e a Germany actively encour-
MOROCCO A L G E R I A 0 200 km aged the migration of
workers from Turkey.
0 200 miles LIBYA
Most of the employment
France (Paris) opportunities on offer
The majority of migration to France from Muslim were unskilled or semiskilled. During the 1970s,
countries has been from Algeria, prior to the 1960s. there was an increased movement of Turkish
Increasingly, other Moroccan and Tunisian Muslims, workers to Germany that led to the development
as well as those from western Africa, have established of particular focused communities. During this
166
MUSLIMS IN WESTERN EUROPE
period, families joined the original migrants. exploration rather than accepting the religious
Most workers were accorded the status of “guest assumptions and practices of the previous gener-
worker,” which emphasized the official notion of ation. As in other European contexts, Sufism
the settlement being temporary. During the plays a significant role as a religious movement,
1980s, the Muslim communities began to estab- especially in attracting converts.
lish social and religious provision by building
mosques and forming religious associations, The Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
many linked to groups based in Turkey. Like- The Hague, Utrecht)
wise, Sufi groups, such as the Naqshbandiyya, The Netherlands has a diverse Muslim communi-
have been very active and often through these ty made up of Turks and North Africans as well as
groups, converts to Islam have played a signifi- Moluccans from the former Dutch East Indies. As
cant role in the Muslim communities. the communities established themselves, there has
been an increase in the number of mosques since
United Kingdom (London, Glasgow, the 1980s. Many of these mosques are linked to
Manchester, Birmingham, Bradford) the countries of origin, especially those of Turkish
Muslim migration to the UK began from the mid- origin, where imams are provided by Turkey. The
nineteenth century with settlement of Yemeni Dutch state provides the teaching of home lan-
seamen in the ports of Cardiff, South Shields, guages in schools, but as in other parts of Europe,
Liverpool, and London, and eventually in Birm- religious education is provided by the mosques.
ingham. However most Muslim migration to the
UK has been from southern Asia (Pakistan and Italy (Rome, Milan, Turin)
Bangladesh), where, during the 1950s and early Italy has a diverse Muslim community, pre-
1960s, many economic migrants arrived to take dominantly made up of Moroccans and
up employment by invitation. During the 1960s, Tunisians with increasing numbers from the
the arrival of families led to the establishment of former Yugoslavia. During the 1980s and 90s
various provisions of religious and cultural servic- the Moroccan community in particular estab-
es, as happened in most migrant communities in lished mosques and the provision of religious Built around 1750, the mosque in
Europe. London, in particular, has attracted educational needs. the castle garden of
diverse communities. This has led to a more liber- Schwetzingen, Germany, blends
al cultural and religious perspective than among Spain Islamic motifs with European
other Muslim communities in the UK. Significant Spain, with its Muslim history, is significant as a baroque influences.
numbers of Arabs, as well as Pakistanis and European country developing a resurgence of
Bangladeshis, mix with more recent Muslim engagement with Islam, especially in the south.
refugees and overseas Muslim students. Bradford The majority of migrant Muslims to Spain have
has a more homogeneous community of Pak- been from North Africa, the majority from
istani origin, which has led to a less diverse reli- Morocco. There are also communities from Sub-
gious focus. Birmingham, on the other hand, saharan Africa and the Middle East. There has
though constituting a community predominantly been an increasing number of mosques established
of Pakistani origin, has a far more diverse Muslim and the provision of religious education. General-
community that includes a significant number of ly, Spanish attitudes to Islam are quite sympathet-
converts of Afro-Caribbean origin. Increasingly, ic and there is a significant convert movement of
Muslim youth in the UK are rediscovering Islam Spaniards, in particular in Andalusia. Here the
as a part of their personal identity. Young Muslim assertion of regional autonomy and conversion to
women are adopting the use of hijab as a means Islam may be experienced as the rediscovery of an
of asserting their own identity based on self- identity suppressed for many centuries.
167
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
168
MUSLIMS IN NORTH AMERICA
sity of Illinois-Urbana,
has been particularly
significant in assert-
ing a Muslim iden-
HAWAII
tity in contradis- YUGOSLAVIA
PAKISTAN
tinction to an eth- ALBANIA
TUNISIA
SYRIA
BANGLADESH
P a l e s ti n ia ns IRAQ IRAN
nic identity. Other after 1948 KUWAIT
ALGERIA EGYPT SAUDI INDIA
umbrella organizations ARABIA
SUDAN YEMEN
in the US and the Council
MALAYSIA
of Muslim Communities of
Canada have made significant INDONESIA
169
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
170
MOSQUES AND PLACES OF WORSHIP IN NORTH AMERICA
over 200
100–199
50–99
10–49
1–9
WAS
HING
TON
MONTA
NA NE
MINNESOTA MAI
NORTH DAKOTA MI
OREG C VT
ON H
IG
IDAHO A NH
SOUTH DAKOTA WISCONSIN
RK MA
N
WYOMIN N EW YO
G CT RI
NIA
SYLVA NEW
IOWA PENN Y
NEVA NEBRASKA JERSE
A
DA OHIO
WARE
IAN
M D
UTAH ILLINOIS DELA
IA
RG ST
IND
IN
COLORADO
VI WE
CALI
FO IA
RNIA KANSAS MISSOURI VIRGIN
Y
KENTUCK
OLINA
R T H CAR
ARIZO TENNESSEE N O
N A NEW MEXICO
OKLAHOMA ARKANSAS SOUTH A
IN
CAROL
PPI
SSI
A
ALABAM
SSI
IA
GEORG
MI
TEXAS
LOUISIANA FLORIDA
ALASKA
HAWAII
171
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Islamic Arts
A vibrant tradition of the arts flourished in religious contexts probably out of the same
Islamic lands. In contrast to other artistic tra- fear of idolatry that other religions had grap-
ditions elsewhere, the most important arts in pled with in earlier times. In other contexts,
particularly private and courtly settings, a
lively tradition of pictorial art evolved. The
walls of palaces, for example, were often
painted with figural scenes; mosques were
not. There, nonrepresentational decoration
based on geometric, vegetal, and epigraphic
ornament reigned supreme. While all figural
art produced in the lands of Islam is, by def-
inition, not religious, the converse is not nec-
essarily true. Nonrepresentational art was
appropriate and esteemed in any setting,
whether secular or religious.
Textiles were the mainstay of economic
Chinese porcelain was much life in medieval Islamic times. Made of wool,
admired in the Islamic world and flax, silk, and cotton, they ranged from gos-
its influence can clearly be seen in samer organdies and muslins (named after
this Saljuq jug. the towns of Urgench in Central Asia and
Mosul in Iraq) to the sturdy rugs, felts, and
Far right: Equally, in the portrait
cloths used by nomads for their tents. Cloth
of Selim III, European influences
was not only used to dress individuals but
can be seen in this personal
also served to define and furnish spaces in
representation.
this dry land of little wood where people nor-
Islam are those considered “decorative,” mally sat on carpets and leaned against bol-
“minor,” or “portable” in other traditions, sters. People at all levels of society used tex-
such as textiles, calligraphy and the book tiles. The majority were plain, but wealthy
arts, ceramics, metalwork, glassware, and the patrons, ranging from caliphs to merchants,
like. Most of them involved the transforma- coveted exotic, brightly colored, elaborately
tion of humble materials, such as plant or decorated cloths. Raw fibers were enlivened
animal fibers, sand, clay, or metal ores, into with bright dyes made from a variety of
sublime works of art, characterized by lumi- materials, which were themselves traded
nous colors and intricate designs. Many of widely. Artisans developed an amazing range
the finest objects are ultimately utilitarian of techniques, from embroidery and tapestry
pieces, such as bath buckets and serving to drawloom weaving and ikat dyeing, to
trays, to be used in everyday life. make their fabrics beautiful.
It is often said that Islam prohibited figur- The veneration of the word in Islam meant
al representation in its art, but that is not so. that books and writing were highly valued
Rather, Islam discouraged depictions in all everywhere. The introduction of paper from
172
ISLAMIC ARTS
Central Asia in the eighth century led to an and Muslim craftsmen took the art of fash-
explosion of books, book learning, and book ioning wares for daily use from copper alloys,
production, with the associated arts of callig- such as brass and bronze, to new heights.
raphy, illumination, binding, and ultimately, Many of these trays, basins, bowls, buckets,
illustration. The fanciest manuscripts were ewers, incense-burners, lamps, candlestands,
copies of the Koran, made first on parchment
and later on paper. They often had superb
nonfigural illumination but were never illus-
trated. Books with pictures, particularly
copies of Persian epic and lyric poetic litera-
ture, became popular in the Persianate world
from the fourteenth century, when Persian-
speaking rulers in Iran, Turkey, and India
established ateliers that produced some of the
most magnificent books ever made anywhere.
Many of the other arts associated with the
lands of Islam use fire to transform materials
taken from the earth. Muslims inherited ancient
traditions of pottery from the Near East but
transformed them through the development of
new ceramic bodies, colorful glazing tech-
niques, and decorative repertoires. Some of
these features, such as overglaze luster painting
developed in ninth-century Iraq, the artificial
paste (fritware) body developed in twelfth-
century Egypt and Iran, and underglaze paint-
ing developed in twelfth-century Iran, erupted
in a burst of creative ceramic activity unrivaled
until the eighteenth century in Britain.
Although the majority of production was
unglazed earthenware for storing and transport-
ing water and foodstuffs on a daily basis, fancy
dishes, bowls, jugs, bottles, and ewers made in
the Islamic lands were avidly collected and imi-
tated from China to Spain. Glassblowing, a
technique that had been invented in pre-Islamic candelabra, and the like were decorated with
Syria, remained a specialty of the Levant. Glass- inlays of precious metal to enliven their sur-
makers made thousands of gilded and enameled faces. Metalwares used in religious settings
lamps used to light the many mosques and differed from those used in domestic settings
schools erected to spread God’s word. only in their decoration, which tended to be
The Prophet Muhammad is said to have epigraphic, geometric, and vegetal, rather
discouraged the use of gold and silver vessels, than figural.
173
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
GERM.
15° 0° BEL. 15° 30°
LUX.
Islamic Arts CZECH. UKRAINE
Paris
Carpets
AUS. MOLD.
Ceramics FRANCE SWITZ. HUN.
ROMANIA
Textiles
45° Beograd
Metalwares
B.H.
Shumen
Glass IT YUG.
A BULGARIA
RomE
Ivory carving
LY
PORTUGAL
S PA I N ALB. Istanbul
Jade Iznik
Toledo Bursa
Book illustration/illumination
GREECE
Lisbon
Cordoba Murcia Palermo Athinai
Grenada
Tunis
Malaga
M
Kairouan
ed
it
TUNISIA Sfax er
Gafsa ra
Rabat Fez
ne
an
Sea
O
CC
AT L A N T I C Marrakesh Alexandria
30° RO Cairo
O
M
ALGERIA
OCEAN
L I B YA
MAURITANIA
MALI NIGER
CHAD
15°
Dakar
SENEGAL
S U DA N
BURKINA
GUINEA
BENIN
Conakry
NIGERIA
GHANA
TOGO
IVORY CENTRAL
COAST AFRICAN
Lagos
REPUBLIC
LIBERIA Accra
N
Abidjan
O
O
ER
CA M
GO
CON
CONGO
0°
REP.
GABON
174
ISLAMIC ARTS
K A Z A K H S TA N
(14C) EK
IST
sp
GEORGIA AN
KYRGYZSTAN
ia
n
Sea
N
Kirman TA
Shiraz
IS
Delhi
K NE
Pe PA PA
rs
Agra L BH.
Jaipur
ia
n
G
ul
Karachi
SAUDI f
Riyadh Ahmadabad
U. A. E.
Re
ARABIA Calcutta
d
Se
Mecca
a
INDIA BANGLA-
N
DESH
A
Bombay
M
O
Ara bian Sea Hyderabad
EN
Khartoum Sana YEM
Bangalore Madras
Addis
Ababa
ETHIOPIA SRI
LANKA
IA
AL
M
SO
INDIAN
UGANDA OCEAN
KENYA
175
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
176
MAJOR ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURAL SITES
way, patrons were able to use a charitable foun- churches, where they were used to wrap the
dation to justify the construction of a tomb. bones of Christian saints.
Muslims were buried directly in the Archaeological finds attest to the broad
ground, wrapped only in plain white shrouds. network of trade routes that crisscrossed
Thus, the burial goods that archaeologists the Islamic lands, connecting China, India,
depend on for understanding other cultural and tropical Africa with Europe. Thanks to
traditions do not exist in the Muslim lands. the domestication of the camel before the
The relative aridity of much of the region, rise of Islam, most trade went overland,
particularly Egypt and Central Asia, however, with caravanserais often erected at 15-mile
has helped preserve fragile organic materials intervals to accommodate travelers, their
that might otherwise have been lost through beasts, and their wares. Some trade went by
burial. The most important of these are sea, following the Mediterranean coasts or the
textiles, which played the central role in the monsoon winds around the Indian Ocean.
medieval Islamic economy. Many of these Recent advances in underwater archaeology
fragments appear so unprepossessing that have allowed the exploration of shipwrecks,
they are rarely displayed in the museums; such as the eleventh-century one found at Serçe
paradoxically, the best-known textiles from Limani off the coast of Turkey. This site
the Islamic lands, many inscribed with yielded a huge quantity of cullet, broken glass
Arabic blessings, were preserved in European collected for recycling.
177
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Architectural and
Archaelogical
15° Sites 0° 15° 30° 45°
Ca
Black Sea
IT YUG. BULGARIA
A
sp
Rome Plovdiv Edirne GEORGIA
ia
LY
Saragosa
PORTUGAL
n
S PA I N ALB. Istanbul
11C
Sea
Iznik Amasya AZA. ARMENIA
Toledo Bursa Erzurum
Dogubayezit
GREECE TURKEY Kaiseri Malatya
Lisbon
Palermo Athens Tabriz Ardabil
Cordoba Grenada Konya Dyiarbekr
13-15C Algiers Tunis
Bodrum Sultaniya 14-17C B
14C Damghan
AT L A N T I C Kairouan Sousse M Aleppo Raqqa Mosul Tehran
Tlemcen ed
it SYRIA IRAQ Qum
OCEAN
Sfax
er Hama
Rabat
ra
ne Tripoli
Fez Jerba
an Baghdad Isfahan
TUNISIA Sea LEB.
Meknes Damascus Ukhaidir 8-17C
Tripoli Bosra Kufa 8C
ISRAEL Jericho 7C Wasit
Alexandria Susa
Marrakesh O Gaza (Khirbat al-Mafjar) 8C 8-9C
CC Adjabiya Cairo
Amman
JORDAN Samarra Basra
30° RO 10C 9-10C 8-10C
O Shiraz
M Jerusalem
ALGERIA
L I B YA
EGYPT
Queseir Bahrain
WESTERN Qus to14C SAUDI QATAR
SAHARA Riyadh
Re
Aswan Medina
Tropic of Cancer
d
ARABIA
Se
a
Jedda Mecca
Chinguetti Taif
M A U R I TA N I A Suakin
MALI NIGER
Timbuuktu Agadez
Gao EN
CHAD YEM
15° Khartoum
Sanaa Shibam
SENEGAL Djenne Zabid
Daura S U DA N Ta’izz
BURKINA Kano
Bobo-Dioulasso Maska Zaria
GUINEA
Conakry
BENIN
Addis
Ababa
Larabanga
TOGO
COAST CENTRAL
IA
Lagos AFRICAN
REPUBLIC
AL
LIBERIA
N
Accra
O
Abidjan
M
O
ER SO
CA M
GO
Mogadishu
UGANDA
CON
Equator K E N YA
0°
REP.
GABON
TANZANIA Zanzibar
Dar es Salaam
Luanda Kilwa
178
MAJOR ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURAL SITES
K A Z A K H S TA N
MONGOLIA
Harbin
Aral
Sea
Urgench
14C Turkestan City
UZB 14-15C
EK
IST Shenyang
Khiva A KYRGYZSTAN
19C
N
Beijing
Bukhara
TURKMENI Samarqand Tianjin N. KOREA
ST
AN Termez TAJIKSTAN
10-14C Seoul
Bastam Mashad Balkh
Merv S. KOREA
8-12C C H I N A
Nishapur
(9-13C)
Herat Kabul Xian
Kashmir
Ghazni
Lahore Yangzhou
Yazd AFGHANISTAN
IRAN Chengdu Shanghai
Multan
N
Wuhan
TA
Chongqing
Kirman
Delhi N
IS
K Fatehpur
EP
Bam PA Agra AL
9-13C Jaipur Sikri BH.
16C
Ajmer
Jaunpur
U. A. E. Karachi Sasaram Pandua
Tatta
Guangzhou Taiwan
Ahmadabad Mandu Calcutta
Hong Kong
I ND I A BANGLA- BURMA
N
DESH
A
Bombay
M
O LA Hainan
Bijapur O
Ara bian Sea Gulbarga Hyderabad
S
Rangoon Luzón
VI
THAILAND
ET
Manila
NA M
Bangkok
Bangalore Madras CAMBODIA
Ho Chi
Minh P H I LI P P I NES
SRI Mindanao
LANKA
M A L A Y S I A
Malacca
INDIAN
OCEAN Borneo
Sumatra
Sulawesi
I N
Jakarta
D O
Demak Kudus N E S I A
Java
Timor
179
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
180
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF MUSLIMS 2000
and Tahert in southern Algeria. Shiite are con- tions under progressive state control—has
centrated in Iran, southern Iraq, Kuwait, and eroded the autonomy of the ulama who inter-
Bahrain, with substantial minorities in preted, diffused, or administered the Sharia in
Afghanistan (3.8 million or 15 percent), India the past. At the same time their religious
(3 percent or 30 million), Lebanon (34 percent authority, based on the exclusive access to the
or 1.2 million), Pakistan (20 percent or 28 mil- scriptures, has been undermined by the rise of
lion), Syria (12 percent or 2 million), Turkey secondary education and the spread of litera-
(20 percent or 3 million), the United Arab Emi- cy. Many of the Islamist movements are led
rates (16 percent or about half a million), and and supported by the beneficiaries of modern
Yemen (40 percent or 7 million) The great technical education who have come to Islamic
Far left: Calling the faithful to
majority of the Shiite—about 85 percent— teachings directly through primary or second- prayer, a sound that echoes
belong to the Imami or Ithashari (Twelver) tra- ary texts (the Koran, hadith, and the writings across the diverse Muslim world.
dition. Most of the Imami Shiites adhere to of modern ideologues and scholars) rather
one or other of the senior religious leaders or than through the mediation of traditional
Grand Ayatullahs known as Marjas (“sources” scholarship.
of emulation or legal judgement) who act as At first sight the trend toward what might
the qualified interpreters of Islamic law. Other be called the laicization or democratization of
Shiite communities include the Zaidis in religious authority in Islam could lead to more
Yemen and the Ismailis or Seveners belonging orthodox or standardized versions promoted
to two surviving traditions. These derive from by such organizations as the Saudi-based
the Fatimid caliphate: the Mustalians (known Muslim World League. However, despite the
in South Asia and East Africa as Bohras) who attacks of reformers and the religious imperi-
follow the Dai Mutlaq (chief missionary) of alism emanating from wealthy but culturally
the Imam-Caliph al-Mustali (d. 1101) and the conservative oil-producing regions, the mysti-
Nizaris, who follow the guidance of the cal traditions of Sufism have proved highly
Aga Khan, a nobleman of Persian ancestry resilient and adaptive. In Subsaharan Africa
descended from Muhammad b Ismail whom and many regions of Asia (including the for-
they regard as their Living Imam. The Nizaris mer Soviet territories) versions of Islam medi-
lived in small communities in Syria, Persia, ated through charismatic leaders trained in dis-
inner Asia, and northwestern India until ciplines that supplement (but do not necessari-
migrations to Africa and the West, beginning ly replace) the formal religious duties of prayer,
in the nineteenth century. fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage are contin-
Many active Muslims whether Sunnis or uing to make headway, building on traditions
Shiites adhere to one of the legal traditions that have long been communicated orally or
outlined above. In many countries with Mus- through interpersonal relationships. The vari-
lim majorities, however, elements of Islamic eties of Islamic faith and practice embedded or
law (especially laws involving personal status, “frozen” in texts are only a part of its rich
such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance) symbolic vocabulary and repertory of mean-
have been incorporated into the legal systems ings. As the older forms of religious authority
of the state. In most Islamic countries the decay or prove inadequate to address the chal-
modern state—starting with the Ottoman lenges of modernity, other forms of spiritual
Tanzimat reforms that brought Islamic institu- authority and social power emerge.
181
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Baf
Vi c t o r i a I s l a n d fi
n
Is
l GR EENLA ND
a
Al as ka
nd
ICELAND
AY
Reykjavik
RW
Anchorage
NO
60° Oslo
C A N A D A
UNITED
KINGDOM DEN.
Copenhagen
Edmonton NETH. Berlin
IRELAND Rotterdam
Saskatoon London
Calgary GERMANY
Regina B. CZ.
Vancouver Winnipeg
Newfoundland Paris LUX. REP.
Seattle Quebec St-John’s
Duluth SWITZ. AUS.
Sault Ste-Marie
Portland Montreal S.
45° Minneapolis FRANCE
Toronto Halifax
Milwaukee ITALY
Detroit Boston Rome
Salt Lake City Chicago
Pittsbg. New York
U N I T E D S T A T E S Philadelphia PORTUGAL Madrid
Kansas City Cincinnati Baltimore SPAIN
San Francisco Lisbon
Washington Tunis
O F A M E R I C A Algiers
Los Angeles Rabat
Atlanta TUNISIA
San Diego Phoenix Casablanca O
CC Tripoli
New Orleans O
30°
R
O
Houston
M
ALGERIA
Miami
Monterey WESTERN
SAHARA
MEXICO
CUBA DOMINICAN
Mexico City
HAITI REPUBLIC MAURITANIA
Puebla MALI NIGER
BELIZE JAMAICA
15° GUAT. HONDURAS SENEGAL
Guatemala Dakar
EL SALVADOR NIC. THE GAMBIA BURKINA
Managua GUINEA-BISSAU FASO
San José Caracas GUINEA
BENIN
GHANA
COSTA RICA GUYANA Conakry NIGERIA
PANAMA VENEZUELA SIERRA-LEONE CÔTE
SURINAM D’IVOIRE Lagos
LIBERIA
FRENCH Abidjan Accra
Bogatá
GUIANA TOGO CAMEROON
COLOMBIA
EQU.
0° GUINEA
Quito
EQUADOR Belém GABON
REP. CONGO
Recife
B R A Z IL Luanda
PERU
Lima
Salvador
15°
La Paz Brasilia
BOLIVIA
NAMIBIA
PA R
AG Rio de Janeiro
Säo Paulo Muslim population
UA
Santiago
URUGUAY
Over 50%
Buenos Aires
Montevideo
ARGENTINA Over 20%
Over 5%
Over 1%
45°
Less than 1%
182
WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF MUSLIMS 2000
Novaya
Zemlya
FI
SWEDEN
NLA
RU S S IA N FE DE R AT IO N
ND
Helsinki
St-Petersburg
Stockholm EST.
Nizhniy Perm
LAT. Novgorod Yekaterinburg
LITH. Moscow Chelyabinsk Omsk Novosibirsk
Minsk
POLAND BELORUSSIA Samara
Warsaw Sakhalin
Kiev
. UKRAINE Kharkov
SLOVAKIA Volgograd
MOLDOVA Rostov K A Z A K H S TA N
HUN. MONGOLIA
. C. ROM. Harbin
Belgrade
B.H.
YUG. UZBE
BULG. KI Shenyang
Hokkaido
ALB. M. Istanbul
GEORGIA S KYRGYZ.
Beijing
TA
S. KOREA Tokyo
SYRIA Tehran Kabul C H I N A Pusan
AFGHAN. Yokohama
LEB. Baghdad Lahore
ISRAEL IRAN
AN
Alexandria
IRAQ Chengdu Shanghai
JORDAN
ST
Cairo Wuhan
NE
KUWAIT KI Delhi PA BHUTAN
L I B YA PA L
EGYPT SAUDI
QATAR
Riyadh Karachi Ahmadabad Dhaka Guangzhou
U.A.E Taiwan
Calcutta
N
BANGLA-
M Bombay DESH
Hainan
O
V
OS
IE
YEM Manila
S U DA N Bangkok
Bangalore Madras CAMB.
Addis DJIBOUTI
Ababa PHILIPPINES
Ho Chi
Minh
IA
REPUBLIC BRUNEI
M M A L AY S I A
UGANDA SO
KENYA
Nairobi Sumatra Borneo
CONGO RWANDA Sulawesi
Kinshasa BURUNDI I N
D O PA PUA
Jakarta N E S I A NEW GU I N E A
Dar es Salaam Java
TANZANIA
EAST TIMOR
MALAWI
ANGOLA
IA
UE
B
R
ZAM
SCA
Q
BI
GA
O Z AM
ZIMBABWE
DA
A
AN
MA
SW
M
T AU S T R A L IA
BO Maputo
Johannesburg Brisbane
SWAZILAND
SOUTH Durban
LESOTHO Perth
AFRICA
Cape Town Sydney
Adelaide
Melbourne
NEW
ZEALAND
183
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
184
WORLD TERRORISM 2003
185
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Baf
Vi c t o r i a I s l a n d fi
n
Is
l GR EENLA ND
a
AL A SK A
nd
ICELAND
AY
Reykjavik
RW
Anchorage
NO
60° Oslo
C A N A D A
UNITED
KINGDOM DEN.
Copenhagen
R
30°
O
Houston
M
ALGERIA
Miami
Monterey WESTERN
SAHARA
MEXICO
CUBA DOMINICAN
Mexico City
HAITI REPUBLIC MAURITANIA
Puebla MALI NIGER
BELIZE JAMAICA
15° GUAT. HONDURAS SENEGAL
Guatemala Dakar
EL SALVADOR NIC. THE GAMBIA BURKINA
Managua GUINEA-BISSAU FASO
San José Caracas GUINEA
BENIN
GHANA
COSTA RICA GUYANA Conakry NIGERIA
PANAMA VENEZUELA SIERRA-LEONE CÔTE
SURINAM D’IVOIRE Lagos
LIBERIA
FRENCH Abidjan Accra
Bogatá
GUIANA TOGO CAMEROON
COLOMBIA
EQU.
GUINEA
0° Quito
EQUADOR Belém GABON
REP. CONGO
Recife
B R A Z IL Luanda
PERU
Lima
Salvador
15° Brasilia
La Paz
BOLIVIA NAMIBIA
Belo Horizonte
PA R
AG Rio de Janeiro
Säo Paulo
UA
Y
30°
C H I L E
Santiago
URUGUAY
Buenos Aires
Montevideo
ARGENTINA
186
WORLD TERRORISM 2003
Novaya
Zemlya
FI
SWEDEN
NLA
RU S S IA N FE DE R AT IO N
ND
Helsinki
St-Petersburg
Stockholm EST.
Nizhniy Perm
LAT. Novgorod Yekaterinburg
LITH. Moscow Chelyabinsk Omsk Novosibirsk
Minsk
POLAND BELORUSSIA Samara
Warsaw Sakhalin
Kiev
. UKRAINE Kharkov
SLOVAKIA Volgograd
MOLDOVA Rostov K A Z A K H S TA N
HUN. MONGOLIA
. C. ROM. Harbin
Belgrade
B.H.
YUG. UZBE
BULG. KI Shenyang
Hokkaido
ALB. M. Istanbul
GEORGIA S KYRGYZ.
Beijing
TA
S. KOREA Tokyo
SYRIA Tehran Kabul C H I N A Pusan
AFGHAN. Yokohama
LEB. Baghdad Lahore
ISRAEL IRAN
AN
Alexandria
IRAQ Chengdu Shanghai
JORDAN
ST
Cairo Wuhan
NE
KUWAIT KI Delhi PA BHUTAN
L I B YA PA L
EGYPT SAUDI
QATAR
Riyadh Karachi Ahmadabad Dhaka Guangzhou
U.A.E Taiwan
Calcutta
N
BANGLA-
M Bombay DESH
Hainan
O
V
OS
IE
YEM Manila
S U DA N Bangkok
Bangalore Madras CAMB.
Addis DJIBOUTI
Ababa PHILIPPINES
Ho Chi
Minh
IA
REPUBLIC BRUNEI
M M A L AY S I A
UGANDA SO
KENYA
Nairobi Borneo
N CONGO Sumatra Sulawesi
RWANDA
Kinshasa I N
BURUNDI
D O PA PUA
Jakarta N E S I A NEW GU I N E A
Dar es Salaam Java
TANZANIA
EAST TIMOR
MALAWI
ANGOLA
IA
UE
B
R
ZAM
SCA
Q
BI
GA
O Z AM
ZIMBABWE
DA
A
AN
MA
SW
M
T AU S T R A L IA
BO Maputo
Johannesburg Brisbane
SWAZILAND
SOUTH Durban
LESOTHO Perth
AFRICA
Cape Town Sydney
Adelaide
Melbourne
NEW
ZEALAND
187
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Muslim Cinema
Motion pictures entered Muslim societies soon began public screenings of films at a beer hall in
after their emergence in the West and were ini- Galatasaray Square in Istanbul. In Iran, Ovenes
tially introduced to select audiences. Within a Oganians, an Armenian-Iranian, began the
few months of debuting in Europe in 1896, the building of public cinemas in 1905, establishing
films of the Lumière brothers were screened in the first film school in 1929 and producing the
the Arab world to a predominantly elite audi- first Iranian feature film in 1930.
ence. In Egypt, for example, screenings were Most parts of Africa and Asia were exposed to
film as part of the colonial experience. Thus, the
Arab world provided largely an exotic backdrop
for Western films. As such, French audiences were
enamored with North Africa, Palestine attracted
great interest as the Holy Land, and Egypt was
intriguing for its ancient history. While the colo-
nial industry produced 200 films in North Africa,
only perhaps six starred Arab actors.
The introduction of sound in vernacular
languages boosted local film production, with
Egyptian cinema, for example, attracting both
local investors and audiences by including pop-
ular Egyptian musicians and singers such as
Umm Kulthum. Egyptian cinema not only
became a leading force in other Arab countries
but also influenced cinema further afield, such
as the film farsi genre of pre-Revolutionary
Iran. In most other Arab countries, however, a
native film industry failed to develop because of
held at the Tousson stock exchange in Alexan- financial constraints and colonial pressures.
dria, and in Morocco at the Royal Palace in Fez. Most of these countries entered the film indus-
In Turkey, private showings were held at the sul- try after their independence (Lebanon and
tan’s court, the Yildiz Palace in Istanbul. In Syria in the 1940s, North Africa in the 1950s
1900, the Iranian monarch Muaffar al-Din and early 1960s).
Shah traveled to France to see the “cinemato- During the colonial period, films imported
graph” and “the magic lantern.” In the same to the Arab countries were often used instru-
year Mirza Ibrahim Khan, his photographer, mentally to promote colonial interests. Even the
filmed The Flower Ceremony in Belgium and Japanese, during their occupation of Indonesia
produced the first Iranian film. (1942–45), used the burgeoning Indonesian film
The local film industry in these states industry to bolster their war efforts. At the same
emerged from the efforts of foreigners or minor- time film assisted in the standardization of
ity individuals. For example, it was a Romanian Indonesian as a national language. In the Arab
citizen of Polish origin, Sigmund Weinberg, who world film production took on an increasingly
188
MUSLIM CINEMA
nationalist and socialist bent after independ- Turkey suddenly dropped, though it rose again
ence, with states such as Syria, Algeria, and toward the end of the 1980s.
Tunisia using the film industry to promote their Most of the states in the region maintain a
national identity on screen. In Iran, Daryush firm control on the film industry, recognizing its
Mehrjui’s prize winning film The Cow and importance as an agency for change and vehicle
Massoud Kimiai’s Qeysar, both produced in for protest. In Turkey, for example, this strict
1969, mark the beginnings of the New Wave, censorship operates at two levels: that of the
Iranian art cinema, after which Iranian films screenplay and of the finished film. A similar
gained increasing international acclaim. process occurs in Indonesia, where censorship is
Around the same time, in 1970, Yilmaz Guney’s applied both before shooting and during editing.
Far left: Iranian director Samira
Umut (Hope), also a prize-winning film, In Iranian cinema, screening of all final products Makhmalbaf poses for
became a turning point in Turkish cinema and requires state approval. With few exceptions, this photographers after being
marked the New Wave period of Turkish films. approval is also required at the postscript stage. awarded the Jury prize for the
In Iran, filmmakers faced an uncertain future In most Arab countries, film projects must first film Panj E Asr (Five in the
between 1978 and 1982 as a result of, among obtain a shooting license before obtaining other Afternoon), during the closing
other things, financial instability and govern- licenses from the Ministry of Information or ceremony of the 56th Cannes
ment’s lack of interest in cinema during the other such censorship authority in order to film festival in May 2003. The
transitional period. With a few exceptions, no ensure their commercial viability. daughter of acclaimed director
films of any quality were produced during this Mention should be made of Bollywood, the Mohsen Makhmalbaf made her
first film, The Apple (1998),
time. Prior to the revolution, most of the ulama Indian cinema industry based in Mumbhai, not
when she was only 18. The
either rejected cinema or ignored it. However, only because it was heavily imitated in many
Blackboard (2000), a film about
after the revolution, the Islamists came to recog- Muslim countries, especially during the initial
Kurdish refugees on the Iran-Iraq
nize its power and decided to bring it under decades, but also because of the significant
border, also won a Jury prize at
their control. For Khomeini the adoption of presence of Muslims as scriptwriters, produc- Cannes.
cinema became an ideological weapon with ers, musicians, and actors. There is also a genre
which to combat the pro-Western and imperial- known as the Shahenshah (king of kings),
ist culture of the Pahlavi regime. By 1989 (the which goes back to Pukar (1939), a film about
year of his death), films like Bayzai’s Bashu, The the Mughal emperor Jehangir. It is regarded as
Little Stranger, gained Iranian cinema interna- the first notable “Muslim social film.” While
tional acclaim once more. By providing the the latter continued to surface in other films
space for an ongoing discourse within society, such as Mughal-e-Azam, in later productions
Iranian cinema has become an important medi- the Muslim social presence took on a less regal
um in the discourse of change. character, dealing mainly with the North Indi-
During the 1980s, the Arab states started to an Muslim middle class. This genre gradually
withdraw from cinema production. The Alger- declined after the 1970s. Finally, after a notable
ian film industry went bankrupt while the absence, with less than forty full-length films
Egyptian one faced a major economic crisis. and shorts, Afghanistan rejoined the world cin-
Television and mass video production com- ema stage with Osama (2003), a co-production
pounded this decline in filmmaking across the of Afghanistan, Japan, and Ireland. The first
regions. Films in North Africa, Syria, and espe- feature from post-Taliban Afghanistan, it was
cially Lebanon were coproduced with the West. screened at various international film festivals
In 1980 the number of films produced in including Cannes and London.
189
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Internet Use
Before the digital age Islamic questions were ings by living marjas (sources of imitation/
often addressed locally with the ulama, the emulation) such as Grand Ayatullah Sistani,
acknowledged interpreters of the tradition, the leading marja in Iraq. Web pages on this
acting as the primary agents of religious site cover contemporary concerns such as
authority. In the Sunni world the spread of credit cards, insurance, copyright, autop-
literacy and secondary education was erod- sies, and organ donation, as well as advice
ing this primacy even before the appearance about religious duties. Some Sufi orders
of the World Wide Web. The Internet is maintain websites detailing the spiritual lin-
accelerating this process by facilitating the eages of their shaikhs and transcripts of spe-
individual exercise of ijtihad (independent cial prayer and dhikr (rituals of remem-
judgment based on the primary sources of brance) practices. However, since many Sufi
Koran and hadith). Once the exclusive
GERM.
preserve of qualified scholars, this devel- B.
LUX. CZECH.
Paris
opment is eroding traditional hierarchies
FRANCE AUS.
HUN.
of learning. SWITZ.
Beograd
Muslim websurfers do not have to con- B.H.
YUG.
IT
A
sult Koranic concordances or weighty Roma
ALB.
LY
PORT. Madrid
books of fiqh (jurisprudence) to arrive at S PA I N
Lisbon
judgments but can simply access the Tunis
Algiers
sources online by scanning the Koran or Rabat
Casablanca
collections of hadith (reports of the C
CO
Tripoli
O
R
Prophet Muhammad’s sayings or actions)
O
M ALGERIA
LIBERIA
stances. For example, the answers to ques- Accra REPUBLIC
RO
Abidjan
ME
TOGO CA
tions from young women living in North
O
NG
BENIN
CO
GABON
190
INTERNET USE
practices are closed to outsiders, only the net spreading rapidly throughout the Mus-
more orthodox orders maintain sites. Politi- lim world, the long-term effects are ambigu-
cal Islam is widely represented, with most ous. On the one hand a “universal” Islamic
political parties, including Islamist ones, discourse is emerging that transcends the
accessible through their websites. Opposi- local traditions, including even the main-
tion forces are also represented, although in stream traditions represented by institutions
some cases access to banned groups is such as Cairo’s al-Azhar. On the other hand,
restricted by governmental controls. Islamic the emerging discourse cannot avoid accom-
women’s groups are active in cyberspace modating diversity and dissent, as minori-
countering patriarchal practices such as ties and splinter-groups are able to challenge
those promulgated by the former Taliban mainstream opinion in cultures where reli-
regime in Afghanistan in the name of “true” gious and political pluralism have often been
Islamic teachings. With access to the Inter- repressed.
UKRAINE Kharkov
Volgograd
MOLD. K A Z A K H S TA N
ROM. MONGOLIA
Harbin
UZBEK
BULG. IST
GEORG. A Shenyang
KYRGYZ.
N
Istanbul Beijing
Ankara AZA. ARM.
TURKMENIS Tianjin N. KOREA
TA TAJIK.
TURKEY
Seoul
N
Athens
S. KOREA
GREECE
SYRIA Tehran Kabul C H I N A Pusan
LEB. Baghdad AFGHANISTAN Lahore
IRAN
Alexandria ISRAEL IRAQ Chengdu Shanghai
N
JORDAN
TA
K Delhi NE
PA PA
L BH.
EGYPT SAUDI
Riyadh Karachi
A.E. Ahmadabad Dhaka Guangzhou Taiwan
ARABIA Calcutta
Hong Kong
IN D IA BURMA
N
BANGLA-
A
DESH L PACIFIC
M
Bombay Hainan
A
O OCEAN
OS
Khartoum N THAILAND
TNA M
Y EME Manila
S U DA N Bangkok
Bangalore Madras CAMB.
Addis Ho Chi PH ILIP P I N ES
Ababa Telephone Lines Minh
SRI
ETHIOPIA per 100 people 2001 Mindanao
IA
LANKA
AL
70 or more
M
SO M A L A Y S I A
UGANDA 50 – 69
KENYA
30 – 49 Sumatra Borneo Sulawesi
Nairobi
CONGO
10 – 29
INDIAN OCEAN
TANZANIA Jakarta I N D
Dar es Salaam 1–9 O N E S I A
Java
Under 1 Timor
No data
IA
B
ZAM
191
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
192
DEMOCRACY, CENSORSHIP, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND CIVIL SOCIETY
press is also conspicuously absent in most Mus- as Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Sudan, and the
lim countries, though restrictions vary from Islamists who sometimes oppose them, argue
one state to another. Opposition forces, includ- that safeguards enshrined in the Koran are just
ing Islamists, protest against measures which as valid as those protected by Western law.
muzzle them politically. Islamists themselves, They hold that the public and private spheres
however, have demonstrated their opposition to are both subject to the law and that secularism
unrestricted freedom of speech by attacks on is alien to their history. The proponents of
writers they regard as critical of Islam, includ- democracy, however, who include some leading
ing Farag Foda (assassinated in 1992), the Islamist thinkers as well as the advocates of sec-
Nobel laureate Neguib Mahfouz, Egypt’s fore- ular liberalism, believe that such arguments are
most novelist, physically attacked and injured simply being used as strategies for retaining
by the same assassin, and Nasr Abu Zaid, an power. In the aftermath of “9/11” and the wars
Egyptian scholar who was forced into exile for in Afghanistan and Iraq, avenues for peaceful
applying historical-critical methods in inter- political change have been closed off, leaving
preting the Koran. people to choose between tolerating the status
Islamic version of democracy
The “war on terrorism” launched by the US quo, exile (for those who can manage it), or dates back to the concept of the
administration in the wake of the September violence. Critics of the West point out that it shura (participatory discussion).
11 attacks on New York and Washington, has tacitly accepted this pattern of repression However, the Western ideal of
which overthrew the governments in Afghan- for reasons of expediency, and in the case of the the popular vote by the adult
istan and Iraq, led to a curtailment of civil oil-bearing regions of western Asia, to protect population is not available in
liberties in the United States. There the US its energy supplies. many Muslim majority states.
Patriot Act permitted the indefinite detention
of terrorist suspects and the administrative
detention of jihadis (some of them barely older
than children) accused of fighting for the Tal-
iban regime in Afghanistan. At the same time
the neoconservatives running the administra-
tion stated that their aim was to bring to coun-
tries such as Iraq and Afghanistan Western
standards of democracy, good governance, the
rule of law, human rights, and women’s rights.
Many people in the Muslim world, however,
doubted whether such standards could be insti-
tuted as a result of military action. Both in the
Arab and the wider Islamic world the incum-
bent regimes and their Islamist opponents
would argue that the indigenous tradition of
shura, combined with that of baya (obedience
to an established ruler) provided a better
model for stability, whereas Western-style plu-
ralism was a recipe for fitna (strife).
Both the ruling authorities in countries such
193
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
194
MODERN ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS
might be waged against governments which jihad against the Soviet occupation in
prevented the preaching of true (i.e., the Afghanistan (1979–89) when thousands of vol-
Islamist version of) Islam. Taking his cue from unteers received training in methods of irregu-
Maududi, Qutb likened contemporary Islamic lar warfare. Fired by what they see as their
society to the jahiliyya, the “state of igno- divinely supported victory in Afghanistan, the
rance” prevailing in Arabia against which the militants aim to “liberate” all lands that were
Prophet himself inveighed and fought. once Islamic (including Spain) from rule by
In most Sunni countries the Brotherhood non-Muslims or by unjust “infidel” govern-
and its offshoots can be divided into a main- ments (by which they mean most existing
stream tendency that will work within the
frame of existing governmental systems,
where permitted, and is also engaged in social
welfare work, and a radical or extremists ten-
dency that seeks to achieve its aims by vio-
lence. However the lines dividing the extrem-
ists from the mainstream are not always clear.
Violence is interactive and in many cases, such
as the atrocities perpetrated by Islamist terror-
ists in India, Israel-Palestine, and Egypt, it
may be seen as a response to that inflicted on
the Islamists by governments which themselves
use violence, including torture and “targeted
killings,” to repress or destroy opposition.
Where opportunities for political participa-
tion have been available, as in Jordan, Yemen,
Kuwait, and Malaysia, the level of violence
has been notably less than, for example, in
Israel-Palestine or Algeria. In Egypt violence
by extremist factions of the Islamic Associa-
tions, including attacks on tourists, seriously
alienated the mass of public opinion, not least
because millions of Egyptians are dependent
on tourism for their livelihoods.
There remains, however, a hard core of
Islamist militants who are committed to the
“liberation” of Muslim lands from “infidel”
rule, regardless of circumstances. This arm of
the movement, inspired by the writings of Muslim states). Since they see Western finan-
Sayyid Qutb and the fiery rhetoric of Abdul- cial and military support as a primary factor
lah Azam—one time mentor of the Saudi dis- in the survival of “non-Islamic” regimes, they
sident Osama bin Laden—gained momentum have not hesitated to take their jihad into the
during the American- and Pakistani-backed heart of Western power.
195
HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Chronology
c. 570–622 Muhammad in Mecca. (present-day Tunisia).
622–632 Muhammad in Medina. 922 Execution of al-Hallaj for heresy, a martyr for later Sufis.
632–634 Caliphate of Abu Bakr. Muslims triumph in wars of 929–961 Umayyad ruler Abd al-Rahman III establishes
apostasy. Arabia unified. Umayyad caliphate at Cordoba (Spain).
634–644 Caliphate of Umar. Most of Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and 940 Beginning of the Greater ghayba (absence or
much of Iran conquered. Expansion into North Africa. occultation) when Twelvers lose contact with their
644–656 Caliphate of Uthman. Conquests continue Imam.
northward, eastward, and westward 945 Shii Buyids take Baghdad, making caliph a virtual
Text of the Koran collected and standardized. prisoner.
656–661 First fitna or civil war during caliphate of Ali. 969–1171 Fatimid (Ismaili) caliphate in Egypt.
660, 668, 712 Arabs fail to capture Constantinople. 998–1030 Mahmud of Ghazna (present-day Afghanistan)
661 Murder of Ali. Establishment of Umayyad caliphate invades northern India.
by Muawiya in Damascus. 1037–1220 Saljuq Turks, starting in central Iran and moving
680 Second fitna. Muawiya’s succession by his son Yazid westward, restore Sunni orthodoxy to the heartlands.
provokes rebellion by Hussein b. Ali. “Martyrdom” 1056–1167 Almoravid dynasty, originating in Subsaharan Africa,
of Hussein and followers at Karbala. halts Christian advance in Spain.
685–705 Reign of Abd al-Malik, builder of the Dome of the 1071 Saljuqs defeat Byzantines at Battle of Manzikert,
Rock in Jerusalem. opening Anatolia to Turkish settlement.
687–691 Kharijis prevail in much of Arabia. 1090–1118 Nizari Ismaili uprisings against Sunni caliphs.
711 Arabs advance into Spain. 1091 Saljuqs make Baghdad their capital.
712–713 Arabs conquer Transoxiana (Bukhara and 1096–1291 Crusaders hold parts of Syria and Palestine.
Samarkand). 1099 Crusaders take Jerusalem.
728 Death of Hasan al-Basri, early Sufi master. 1111 Death of al-Ghazali (b. 1058), Sunni mystic and
732 Battle of Poitiers: Charles Martel checks Arab theologian.
advance into France. 1130 Death of Ibn Tumart, founder of Almohad dynasty
744–750 Third fitna. Weakened by internal dissent, Umayyad in Spain.
dynasty overthrown by Abbasids (749). 1187 Saladin (Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi) expels Crusaders
756 Umayyad rule established in Spain. from Jerusalem.
765 Death of Jafar al-Sadiq, sixth Iman of the Shiite. 1198 Death of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (b. 1126), philosopher.
Movement divided between Ismailis, Ithnaasharis 1205–87 Rise of Delhi Sultanate in India.
(“Twelvers”) and Zaidis. 1220–31 Mongol raids in Transoxiana and eastern Iran cause
767 Death of Abu Hanifa (b. 699), founder of the Hanafi massive destruction of cities
legal school. 1225 Almohads abandon Spain. Muslim presence reduced
786–809 Reign of Harun al-Rashid, model caliph of Islam’s to small kingdom of Granada (1232–1592).
“golden age.” 1227 Death of Chingiz Khan.
795 Death of Malik b. Anas (b. 713), founder of the 1240 Death of Ibn Arabi (b. 1165), Sufi theosophist.
Maliki school. 1256 Fall of Alamut, last Ismaili stronghold south of the
801 Death of Rabia of Basra, mystic and poet. Caspian Sea.
813–833 Caliphate of al-Mamun. Ascendancy of Mutazili 1258 Destruction of Baghdad by Mongols.
(“rationalist”) school of theologians. 1260 Mamluks (military slaves) who succeed the Ayyubids
820 Death of al-Shafi (b. 767), founder of the Shafi in Egypt, defeat the hitherto invincible Mongols at
school of law. the Battle of Ain Jalut in Syria.
847–861 Caliphate of al-Mutawakkil, who reverses pro- c. 1300 Emergence of Ottoman (Osmanli) dynasty in Bithynia
Mutazili policy. on the Byzantine frontier in western Anatolia.
861–945 Breakup of Abbasid Empire as provinces become 1326 Ottomans capture Bursa, their first real capital.
independent until caliphate government loses 1362 Ottomans capture Adrianople (Edirne) in Balkans.
territorial power completely. c. 1378 Emergence of Timur Lenk (Tamerlane) a Turk who
855 Death of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (b. 780), founder of rose in the Mongol service in Transoxiana to conquer
Hanbali school. much of central and western Asia.
870 Death of al-Bukhari (b. 810), hadith collector. 1389 Ottomans defeat Serbs, assisted by Albanians,
873 Death of Muslim (hadith collector). Bulgarians, Bosnians, and Hungarians, at Kosovo in
“Disappearance” of 12th Imam of the Shiite, central Serbia.
Muhammad al-Muntazar (the “Awaited One”). 1405 Death of Timur.
873–940 Lesser ghaiba or Absence during which Imam of 1453 Mehmed “The Conqueror” (1451–81) captures
Twelver Shiite is represented by Four wakils Constantinople and subdues Byzantine Empire.
(deputies). 1498 Vasco da Gama rounds the Cape of Good Hope,
874 Death of Abu Yazid al-Bistami, first of the ending Muslim monopoly of Indian Ocean trade.
“drunken” Sufis. 1501 Rise of Safavid power in Iran. Twelver Shiism
909 Creation of first Ismaili Fatimid state in Ifriqiya becomes the state religion.
196
CHRONOLOGY
1517 Ottomans conquer Egypt and Syria. Mahdist revolt against British-backed Egyptian rule.
1526 Battle of Paniput (India) enables Babur, a Timurid 1889 Return of Muhammad Abduh, al-Afghani’s disciple
prince, to become founder of the Mughal Empire; to Egypt, who decides to collaborate with the British.
Battle of Mohacs makes Catholic Hungarians Military students in Istanbul found first “Young
tributaries of Ottomans. Turk” revolutionary organization, Society of Union
1529 Ottomans besiege Vienna. and Progress.
1552 Kazan Khanate annexed by Moscow. 1897 Death of Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (b. 1838),
1556–1605 Reign of Akbar, third Mughal emperor, who fosters pan-Islamic reformer and activist.
Hindu-Muslim cultural and religious rapprochement. 1898 Defeat of the Mahdist movement by an Anglo-
1682–99 Ottomans lose Hungary and Belgrade in war with Egyptian force under General Kitchener at the Battle
Austria and Poland. of Omdurman.
1718 Peace of Passarowitz consolidates Ottoman losses to Death of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan (b. 1817), Islamic
Habsburgs. modernist reformer and founder of Aligarh College
1739 Delhi sacked by Iranian monarch Nadir Shah, ending (1875).
effective Mughal power. 1905 Death of Muhammad Abduh (b. 1849), founder of
1757 Wahhabis take al-Hasa in eastern Arabia. British the modern salafiyya reform movement.
victory at Plassey opens India to British expansion. 1906 Muslim League founded in India.
1762 Death of Shah Wali Allah, Indian Sufi reformer in 1906–08 Constitutional Revolution in Iran.
Sirhindi tradition. 1908 Young Turk revolution forces sultan to restore
1774 Treaty of Kuchuk Kaynarji. Following defeat by constitution and reconvene parliament.
Russia, Ottomans lose Crimea. Tsar recognized as 1909 Separate Muslim and Hindu provincial electorates in
protector of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman lands. India.
1779 Qajar dynasty established in Iran. 1911–13 Italy takes Tripoli from Ottomans.
1789–1807 First Westernizing Ottoman reforms under Selim III. 1912 French protectorate in Morocco.
1798 Napoleon Bonaparte lands in Egypt, defeats the 1914–18 Defeat of Ottoman Empire in First World War. Egypt
Mamluks at the Battle of the Pyramids, generates formally declared British Protectorate.
interest in European culture. 1916–18 British-backed Arab revolt against Turkish rule under
1805–48 Muhammad (Mehmed) Ali begins modernizing leadership of Sharif Hussein of Mecca, his son
process in Egypt. Faisal, and Colonel T. E. Lawrence.
1806 Wahhabis sack Shiite shrines of Najaf and Karbala. 1917 Balfour Declaration opens the way for increased
1815–17 Serbian revolt against Ottomans. European Jewish settlement in Palestine.
1818 Britain becomes paramount power in India. 1917–20 Russian Revolution and civil war leads to
1820 Muhammad Ali begins conquest of Sudan. Soviet–Muslim conflicts in Central Asia. Muslims of
1821–30 Greek War of Independence. Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and the Caucasus struggle
1830 French occupation of Algeria begins. Khartoum for regional independence. Overthrow of Autonomous
founded as British-Egyptian outpost on the Upper Nile. Republic of Turkestan by Russian forces (1918)
1832–48 European powers save Ottoman Empire from precipitates Basmachi revolt. Bukhara and Khiva
invasion by Egyptian Viceroy, Muhammad Ali. absorbed into Soviet states. Some leading Muslim
c. 1839–61 Failure of Indian “Mutiny” leads to abolition of the Jadidists (renovators) join the Communist Party.
East India Company, opening the way for 1919 San Remo Conference. League of Nations Mandates
incorporation of India into British Empire. awarded to Britain in former Ottoman territories of
1859 Defeat of Imam Shamil in Caucasus followed by Palestine, Transjordan, and Iraq, and to France in
Russian annexation of Chechnya and Daghestan. Syria and Lebanon.
1867 Foundation of the academy of Deoband in northern Faisal b. Hussein expelled by French from Damascus
India by a group of the reformers who eschew and established on throne of Iraq. His younger
contact with the British. brother, Abdullah, established on throne of
1868 Russian annexation of Kazakhstan completed. Transjordan.
Amirate of Bukhara becomes Russian protectorate. Egyptian leader Saad Zaghlul leads wafd (delegation)
1869 Opening of the Suez Canal. demanding independence for Egypt. His deportation
1875 Collapse of Egyptian finances. Suez Canal sold to sparks nationalist “revolution.”
British. Ottoman suzerainty abolished in Egypt. Britain keeps
1876 First Ottoman constitution promulgated after palace control of defense, foreign policy, Sudan, and the
revolution. Suez Canal.
1876–1909 Sultan Abd al-Hamid suspends constitution, enacting 1919–22 Turkish War of Independence: Mustafa Kemal
major reforms in education, transportation, and (Atatürk) rallies nationalist forces to defeat Greek
communications through dictatorial rule. invaders and resist European dismemberment of
1881 French protectorate in Tunisia. Anatolia.
1882 British occupation of Egypt. 1923 Treaty of Lausanne ensures Turkey’s territorial
1885 General “Chinese” Gordon killed in Khartoum during integrity.
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HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
1924 Soviet Central Asia reorganized under socialist 1958 Pro-British Iraqi monarchy overthrown in bloody
republics of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, coup d’état masterminded by General Abd al-Karim
and Kirgizia. Qasim.
Ottoman Caliphate abolished. Turkish Sharia courts 1963 Execution in Egypt of Sayyid Qutb, writer and
replaced by civil courts. Muslim Brotherhood’s most militant ideologist.
Khilafat movement in India blames British for Iraq’s President Qasim overthrown in coup by
abolition. Ibn Saud conquers Hejaz, expelling the Baathist military officers under Abd al-Salam Arif.
Sharif Hussein and establishing neo-Wahhabi 1965 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) founded.
kingdom. 1967 (June) The Six Day War leaves the whole of the Sinai
1926 Lebanon enlarged and detached from Syria under peninsula, the West Bank (including the Old City of
French auspices. Jerusalem), and the Syrian Golan Heights under
1928 Hasan al-Banna, Egyptian schoolteacher, founds the Israeli military control.
Muslim Brotherhood. Yassir Arafat (Abu Ammar), commander of al-Fatah,
1932 Iraq granted independence and admitted to League the largest guerrilla organization, becomes leader of
of Nations. the PLO.
1935 Death of Rashid Rida (b. 1865), Islamic reformer and 1968 President Abd al-Rahman Arif (brother and
leader of the salafiyya movement. successor of Abd al-Salam) overthrown by General
1936 Palestinians revolt against British rule in Palestine Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr. Real power held by Saddam
and the increase in Jewish immigration caused by Hussein al-Tikriti.
Nazi rule in Germany. Muhammad Ali Jinnah 1969 Pro-British Sanusi monarchy in Libya overthrown in
assumes leadership of Muslim League, ending Nasser-style coup d’état led by 27-year-old Colonel
Muslim backing for Congress. Muammar al-Qadhafi.
New Soviet Constitution organizes Muslim Central Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)
Asia into six Union Soviet Socialist Republics established to promote Islamic solidarity and foster
(Uzbekishan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, political, economic, social, and cultural cooperation
Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kirgizia) and eight among Muslim states.
Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics including 1970 Hafez al-Asad, an air force general from the Alawi
Tataristan, Bashkitia, Daghestan, and other (Nusairi) minority, takes power in Syria at the head
Caucasian units under communist control. of the Baath Party.
1938 Death of Muhammad Iqbal, poet, philosopher, and Civil war in Jordan between the army and Palestinian
progenitor of Pakistan. guerrillas (“Black September”).
1940–47 Muslim League adopts idea of separate Muslim Anwar al-Sadat succeeds to the Egyptian presidency
states for Indian Muslims. following the death of Abd al-Nasser.
1941 British suppress pro-Axis revolt by Iraqi army officers. 1972 Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan, wins
1942 British force Egyptian King Farouq to replace pro- independence with Indian army help.
Axis prime minister with one more amenable to the 1973 October (Ramadan/Yom Kippur) War. Egypt
Allied cause. establishes a bridgehead on the East Bank of the Suez
1943 Beginning of Zionist terror campaign against British Canal—the first major success of Arab arms against
in Palestine Israel.
1945 Arab League founded. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
1946 Transjordan, Lebanon, and Syria recognized as (OPEC) under the leadership of Iran and Saudi
independent. Widespread Hindu-Muslim rioting in Arabia imposes a four-fold increase in the price of
India. crude oil, leading to massive “petrodollar” surpluses
1947 Indian independence. Creation of Pakistan out of for investment in industrialized economies and
Muslim majority areas, excepting Kashmir. support for Islamic movements (as well as worldwide
1948 British end mandate in Palestine. Arab armies routed economic recession).
following proclamation of Israel. Palestinian exodus 1975 Lebanese civil war provoked, in part, by presence of
creates massive refugee problem. Amir Abdullah of militant Palestinian refugees and Israeli reprisals
Transjordan annexes east Jerusalem (including the against them.
Old City and the West Bank). Egyptian prime 1977 Beginning of negotiations between Egypt and Israel.
minister Muhammad Nuqrashi assassinated. Zia ul-Haqq, Pakistani general, assumes presidency
1949 Hasan al-Banna assassinated by Egyptian security and imposes martial law. Former President Zulfiqar
agents in retaliation for the murder of Nuqrashi. Ali Bhutto executed. Zia initiates Islamization
1952 Egyptian monarchy overthrown by Arab nationalist program.
army officers led by Gamal Abd al-Nasser with Death of Ali Shariati (b. 1933), Islamist philosopher,
support from the Muslim Brotherhood. in Southampton, Britain.
1956 Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal, provoking 1978–79 Growing unrest in Iran against dictatorship of Shah
Anglo–French military intervention in secret Muhammad Reza Pahlavi.
collusion with Israel. 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini returns from exile in Europe to
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CHRONOLOGY
establish the Islamic Republic in Iran. Fifty-two US first round of the general elections. The army
diplomats taken hostage and held for 444 days. intervenes to prevent victory for the FIS in the second
Camp David peace accords between Egypt and Israel round, provoking an eight-year civil war said to have
begin the peace process between Arabs and Israelis. cost at least 100,000 lives.
Death of Abu al Ala al-Mawdudi (b. 1909), Indo- 1992 Farag Foda, the prominent Egyptian humanist and
Pakistani ideologue and founder of the Jamaati-i-Islami. writer, gunned down by Islamists in Cairo.
President Zia al-Haqq introduces Hudood ordinance, “No-Fly Zones” established in northern and
prescribing Koranic penalties for certain categories of southern Iraq to prevent Iraqi attacks on Kurdish and
theft, sexual misconduct, and drinking alcohol. Shiite populations. UN sanctions imposed on Iraq
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in support of ailing lead to significant hardship among vulnerable
communist regime. Western training and armaments groups, especially children.
for the mujahidin (holy warriors) creates a well- 1994 Cheb Hasni, a popular rai singer, murdered in
trained cadre of Islamist militants. France. Tahar Djaout, award-winning novelist and
1980–88 Iran–Iraq war, provoked by Iraqi attack on Iran, editor, shot outside his home in Algiers.
becomes the longest-lasting international conflict of 1995 More than 7,000 Muslims massacred at Srebrenica in
the twentieth century, leading to the loss of at least Bosnia after UN fails to protect enclave from Bosnian
half a million lives on the Iranian side and massive Serb attack.
economic dislocation. 1996 Taliban movement based on madrasa-educated
1981 Assassination of Anwar al-Sadat by Islamic extremists. students in rural Afghanistan captures Kabul. Its
1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon and expulsion of PLO to program of pacification bears harshly on women and
Tunisia. Up to 10,000 people killed in government minorities.
reprisals after failed Muslim Brotherhood rebellion 1997 More than 60 European tourists massacred near
in Syrian city of Hama. Luxor by Islamists.
1987 Beginning of the intifada—a massive, popular Muhammad Khatami, former minister of culture,
uprising of Palestinians against Israeli occupation, elected President of Iran.
spearheaded by stone-throwing children. 1998 Taliban fighters murder between two and five
1988 Shaikh Ahmad Yasin, head of the Islamic Center in thousand members of the Shiite Hazara community
Gaza and a member of the Muslim Brotherhood, after the capture of Mazar-el-Sharif.
founds Hamas, the Islamic Resistance Movement. Al-Qaeda attacks the US Embassies in east Africa.
Ayatollah Khomeini, Iran’s religious leader, 1999 In Algeria Abd al-Aziz Bouteflika, former foreign
“swallows poison” and accepts a ceasefire with Iraq. minister, elected President on a program of
Death of President Zia al-Haqq of Pakistan in reconciliation.
suspicious air crash. Pro-democracy demonstrations in Iran suppressed by
Publication of The Satanic Verses by British Muslim police and street gangs under conservative control.
author Salman Rushdie. NATO bombing campaign forces Serbs to relinquish
Muhammad Mahmud Taha, leader of the Kosovo, reversing “ethnic cleansing” of mainly
Republican Brotherhood and a reformer with Sufi Muslim Albanians.
leanings, hanged for “apostasy.” Russia bombs Chechnya on pretext of suppressing
1989 Fatwa pronounced against Rushdie by Khomeini “Islamic terrorism.”
prevents detente between Iran and the West, despite 2000 (February) Russians occupy Grozni, the capital of
the presence of pragmatists in the government. Chechnya.
June: Khomeini dies and is succeeded as supreme In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf overthrows
religious leader by Ali Khamenei. democratically elected government of Nawaz Sharif.
In Algeria the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) wins 55 2001 (September) Suicide hijackers linked to al-Qaeda attack
percent of the vote in the regional elections. the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon
1990 Invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein. in Washington, killing approximately 3,000 people.
1991 Operation Desert Storm, led by the United States US bombs Afghanistan, removing Taliban regime.
with military support from Britain, France, Italy, 2002 (October) Terrorist group linked to al-Qaeda kills
Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, and Pakistan, expels Iraqi more than 200 people, mostly Australians, in
troops from Kuwait. Shiite revolt in Iraqi cities of bombing of nightclub in Bali, Indonesia.
Najaf and Karbala brutally suppressed. 2003 (March) US and UK attack Iraq without UN support,
Disbanding of Soviet Union after failed anti- on pretext that Saddam Hussein is hiding weapons of
Gorbachev coup leads to independence for the mass destruction. No such weapons found.
former Soviet Republics of Central Asia (under the Islamist terrorists linked to al-Qaeda kill civilians in
leadership of ex-members of the Soviet Casablanca, Riyadh, Istanbul, and other cities.
nomenklatura). In Tajikistan rivalry between the ex- (December) Saddam Hussein captured near his home
communist leadership and Islamist opposition leads town of Tikrit.
to a bitter and costly civil war. 2004 Reformists defeated in Iranian parliamentary
In Algeria the FIS wins 49 percent of the vote in the elections after clergy-dominated guardianship of
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Glossary
Abd “Servant” or “slave”; commonly used as a name rule, later applying to lands where Muslim institutions
when coupled with one of the names of Allah. See were established.
also Ibada. Dawa “Propaganda” or mission.
Adhan Call to prayer performed by muadhin (muezzin). Dervish “Mendicant”; member of a Sufi tariqa.
Ahl al-Bait “People of the household”; specifically used for the Dhikr “Mentioning” or “remembering”; specifically used for
Phrophet’s family. Sufi rituals designed to increase consciousness of God
Ahl al-Kitab “People of the book”; originally referred to Muslims, which include the repetition of his name(s).
Jews, and Christians but came to include Dhimmi Non-Muslim peoples afforded security of life and
Zoroastrians and other groups prossessing sacred property under the Sharia on payment of a jizya (poll
texts. tax).
Ahl al-Sunna “People of the Sunna” (Sunnis); those who uphold Din “Religion” or “belief” as opposed to dunya (worldly
customs based on the practice and authority of the existence).
Prophet and his Companions, as distinct from the Dua Prayer (additional to salat).
Shiites and Kharijis. See also Sunna. Fana The extinction of individual consciousness, and thus
Al “Clan” or “House”; as in Al Imran (3rd Sura of union with God, in Sufism.
Koran), Al Saud, etc. Not to be confused with al-, Faqih Exponent of fiqh.
the definite article. Faqir “Pauper”; term applied to ordinary member of Sufi
Alawi Member of ghulu (extremist) Nusairi sect in tariqa.
northeastern Syria which venerates Ali. Fatwa Legal decision of a mufti.
Alid Descendant of Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the Fidaiyyia Soldiers prepared to sacrifice their lives in the cause of
Prophet. Islam. Now used for guerrilla fighters. (Singular: fidai.)
Alim See Ulama. Fiqh “Understanding” of Sharia, the system of jurisprudence
Amir “Commander”; originally military commander but based on the usul al-fiqh.
subsequently applied to rulers and members of their Fitna “Temptation” or “trial”; the name given to the civil
families. Amir al-Muminin (“Commander of the wars which broke out within the expanding Muslim
Faithful”), a title held by caliphs and some sultans. empire during the first 200 years after Muhammad’s
Ansar “Helpers” of Muhammad native to Medina, as distinct death.
from the Muhajirun who accompanied him from Ghaib “Unseen” and “transcendent”; hence al-ghaiba, the
Mecca. “occultation” of the Hidden Imans in Shiite doctrine.
Asabiyya Tribal or group solidarity; a term used by philosopher Hadith “Tradition” or report of a saying or action of the
Ibn Khaldun in his theory on state formation in North Prophet. One of four roots of Islamic law. See also
Africa. Sharia, Usul al-fiqh.
Ashura The tenth of the month Muharram, when Shiite rituals Hajj The annual pilgrimage to Mecca. One of the five rukns
are held commemorating the death of the Prophet’s (duties) of Islam, required of every believer once in his
grandson Hussein. life if possible.
Aya “Sign” or “miracle”; used for verses of the Koran. Halal That which is “permissible”, particularly foods which
Baraka “Sanctity” or “blessing” vested in, and available from, comply with Islamic dietary rules.
holy people, places, or objects. Hanafi Referring to the Sunni legal madhhab ascribed to Abu
Bast “Twelver” Shiite institution of sanctuary in mosques Hanifa.
and other holy places. Hanbali Referring to the Sunni legal madhhab ascribed to Abu
Baya “Contract” or oath of allegiance binding members of Hanbal.
an Islamic sect or Sufi tariqa to their spiritual guide. Haram A sanctuary, “that which is forbidden” by the Sharia.
Chador Traditional Iranian garment covering women from head Hijab “Screen”, veil traditionally worn by Muslim women in
to foot. See also Hijab. public. Always covers the head, but not necessarily the
Dai “Propagandist” or missionary, especially in Shiite face and hands.
Ismaili movements. See also Dawa. Hijra “Emigration” of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in
Dar al-Harb The “realm of war” or those lands not under Muslim AD 622, the base year of the Muslim calender.
rule, where, under certain circumstances, a war or jihad Ibada Religious worship.
can be sanctioned against unbelievers. Id al-Adha “The festival of the sacrifice” on the last day of the
Dar al-Islam “Realm of Islam”; originally those lands under Muslim Hajj.
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GLOSSARY
Id al-Fitr “The festival of breaking the fast” at the end of Khaniqa Sufi hospice, mainly in areas of Persian influence.
Ramadan. Kharijis “Those who go out”; members of a group of
Ijima Consensus of the Muslim community or scholars as a puritanical Muslim sects during Umayyad and early
basis for a legal decision. Shiites interpret it as a Abbasid times. (Arabic plural: Khawarij.)
consensus of Imams. Khums “Fifth’, a tax of one-fifth of all trading profits, payable
Ijtihad Individual judgement to establish a legal ruling by to mujtahids in Shiite areas.
creative interpretation of the existing body of law. See Khutba Sermon preached at Friday prayers.
also Muijtahid. Kiswa Black clothing or covering of the Kaba, renewed
Ikhwan The “Brothers”, soldiers of Abd al-Aziz, founder of the annually.
Saudi dynasty, and adherents of the Hanbali reformer, Kitab “The book”, or religious scriptures.
Abd al-Wahhab. Koran (Quran) “Discourse” or “recitation”, the immutable body of
Ikhwan al- Muslim Brotherhood, a society founded in 1929 by revelations received by Muhammad.
Muslimin Hasan al-Banna; originally aimed at reestablishing a Kufr “Disbelief”, an ungrateful rejection of Islam. See also
Muslim polity in Egypt. Kafir.
Ilm “Knowledge”; in particular, religious knowledge, of Kuttab School at which the Koran is taught.
ulama. Madhhab “Adopted policy”, specifically applied to five recognized
Imam “One who stands in front” to lead the salat, hence the systems of fiqh (jurisprudence).
leader of the Muslim community. In Shiite tradition, Ali Madrasa “College”, especially for religious studies.
and those of his descendants considered to be the Maghrib “Sunset”, hence the salat (prayer) at sunset. Also
spiritual successors of Muhammad. Muslim “occident”, i.e., northeastern Africa, Morocco,
Iman “Faith” or religious conviction. for which the French transliteration “Maghreb” is
Intifada Uprising, especially of Palestinians against Israel in commonly used.
1900s and after 2002. Mahdi “Awaited One”; a Messiah and reformist leader who
Infitah The “opening up” of the Egyptian economy to the West aims to restore the original purity of the Islamic faith
in 1972, in the hope of attracting foreign investment. and polity. In Shiite tradition the Twelfth Imam.
Islam “Self-surrender” or “submission”; reconcilliation to the Maliki Referring to the Sunni legal madhhab ascribed to Malik
will of God as revealed to Muhammad. See also ibn Anas.
Muslim. Maruf “Known”, term used in the Koran for familiar and
Isnad “Support”; chain of authorities transmitting a hadith, approved custom; hence, generally, “the good.”
thus guaranteeing its validity. Mashriq “Sunrise”; Levant.
Jafari Referring to the sole Shiite madhhab ascribed to the Maslaha That which is “beneficial”; term used for the principle
Imam Jafar al-Sadiq. of public interest in the Maliki madhhab, adopted by
Jahl “Ignorance”, hence jahiliyya (period of ignorance), or modern legal reformers.
pre-Islamic times. Mawlid “Birthday”; festival celebrating the anniversary of a
Jihad War against unbelievers in accordance with Sharia. religious figure.
Also applied to an individual’s struggle against baser Mawali “Associates” or “clients”; status at first given to non-
impulses. Arab converts to Islam. (Singular: Mawla.)
Jizya Poll tax levied on dhimmis in a Muslim-ruled society. Mihrab Niche in wall of mosque indicating Qibla.
Kaba Cubic building in Mecca containing the Black Stone, Millet Non-Muslim religious community within the Dar al-
believed by Muslims to be a fragment of the original Islam.
temple of Abraham. Focus of salat (prayer) and the Mufti Expert on the Sharia, qualified to give fatwas (rulings)
Hajj. See also Qibla. upon questions of law.
Kafir “Disbeliever” or infidel who has rejected the message of Muhajirin Those who emigrated from Mecca to Medina with
the Koran. Muhammad. See also Hijra.
Khalifa Caliph, the “deputy” of God on earth. In the Koran Mujahid Soldier fighting a holy war or jihad. (Plural:
applied to Adam, and hence to all humanity in relation mujadidun.)
to the rest of creation; specifically applied to the early Mujtahid Religious scholars sanctioned to make individual
successors of the Prophet as leaders of the Islamic state interpretations to determine points of law, especially
or khilafa, and to the successors of founders of Islamic among Shiite.
states or Sufi tariqas. Mukhabarat Intelligence services, security police.
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Munkar “Unknown”; term used in the Koran for wrongful Sunni See Ahl al-Sunna.
action as distinct from maruf: hence evil generally. Sura Chapter of the Koran.
Murid “Aspirant”, or follower of a Sufi master. Sultan “Authority” or “power”; actual holder of power, as
Murshid Sufi master. distinct from the khalifa; later common term for
Muslim One who has submitted to God; a follower of the sovereign.
religion revealed to, and established by, Muhammad. Tahlil Prayer—la ilaha illa allah (there is no deity but God)—
See also Islam. particularly used in Sufi rituals.
Mutazilis “Those who stand aloof”; theologians belonging to the Taifa Organization of a Sufi order, as distinct from its
rationalist school which introduced speculative spiritual path.
dogmatism into Islam. Takbir The phrase “Allahu Akbar” (God is most great).
Nisab Minimum amount of wealth prior to assessment for Tanzimat Administrative decrees, reforms instituted by the
zakat. nineteenth-century Ottoman sultans.
Pir Persian Sufi master. Taqiyya Dissimultation of one’s beliefs in the face of danger,
Qadi Judge administering Sharia. especially among Shiites.
Qibla Direction of the Kaba to which Muslims turn while Taqlid “Imitation”, or the basing of legal decisions on the
praying, hence the recess in a mosque which shows it. existing judgments of the four Sunni madhhabs.
Qiyas “Analogy”; the principle in jurisprudence used to deal with Tariqa “Path” of mystical and spiritual guidance. A term
new situations not mentioned in the Koran or Sunna. which also came to be applied to the organization
Ribat Sufi hospice. through which a tariqa extends itself in Muslim society.
Risala “Report” or “epistle”. (Plural: rasail.) Tasawwuf See Sufi.
Rukn “Pillar’; one of the five religious duties prescribed for Tawaf Ritual circumambulation of the Kaba by a pilgrim
Muslims—hajj, salat, sawm, shahada, and zakat. during the Hajj or Umra.
Sadaqa Voluntary contribution of alms. Tawhid “Unity” of God. Central theological concept of Islam.
Salaf “Predecessors”; appellation of the first generation of Tawil Esoteric or allegorical interpretation of the Koran,
Muslims. Salafi: term describing the twentieth-century predominant among Shiites.
reform movement inspired by them. Tekkes Sufi centers in Turkish-speaking areas.
Salat Ritual worship performed five times daily, one of the Ulama “Learned men’, in particular the guardians of legal and
rukns (five pillars) of Islam. religious traditions. (Singular: alim.)
Sawm Annual fast and daylight abstinence during the month Umma Community of believers, in particular the community
of Ramadan, one of the rukns of Islam. of all Muslims.
Sayyid Descendent of Ali’s son Hussein. Sidi (local usage in the Umra Lesser pilgrimage to Mecca which can be performed at
Maghrib) is applied to members of saintly lineages. any time of the year.
Shahada Profession of faith whereby a Muslim declares his Usul (al-Fiqh) “Roots” or foundations of jurisprudence. In the Sunni
acceptance of God and his Prophet; one of the rukns of madhhabs they comprise: the Koran, the Sunna, ijma
Islam. (consensus) and qiyas (analogical deduction). See also
Shaikh “Elder”; head of a tribe or Sufi master. Fiqh.
Sharia “The path to a water-hole’; a name given to the sacred Wali “One who is near God”; a saint in popular Sufism.
law of Islam which governs all aspects of a Muslim’s Waqf Pious endowment, originally for a charitable purpose;
life. It is elaborated through the discipline of fiqh. sometimes used as a means of circumventing the
Shiites “Party” of Ali, comprising those groups of Muslims Sharia’s inheritance laws.
who uphold the rights of Ali and his descendants to Watan “Homeland” or “nation”.
leadership of the Umma. Wazir Administrator or bureaucrat apponted by the ruler.
Shirk “Association” of partners to the divinity; idolatry. Zakat “Purity”, a term used for a tax of fixed proportion of
Shura Consultation. Majlis al Shura Parliament. income and capital (normally 21/2 percent) payable
Silsila “Chain” of baraka (inherited sanctity) or kinship annually for charitable purposes; one of the “five
connecting the leaders of Sufi orders to their founders. pillars” of Islam.
Sufi Follower of Sufism, the Islamic mystic path, from suf Zawiya “Corner”; building for Sufi activities.
(wool) garments worn by early adepts. (Arabic: tasawwuf.)
Sunna Custom sanctioned by tradition, particularly that of the
Prophet enshrined in hadith.
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GLOSSARY AND FURTHER READING
Further Reading
Ahmed, Akbar S., Living Islam – From Samarkand to Stornoway, Guillaume, A. (tr.), The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn
London, 1993. Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Attah, Karachi and London, 1955.
Ahmed, Akbar and Donnan, Hastings (eds.), Islam, Globalization Hillenbrand, Robert, Islamic Art and Architecture, London, 1999.
and Postmodernity, London, 1994.
Hodgson, Marshall G. S., The Venture of Islam: Conscience and
Ahmed, Leila, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a History in a World Civilization, 3 vols., Chicago, IL, 1974.
Modern Debate, New Haven, CT, 1994.
Hourani, Albert, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, Oxford, 1969.
Ali Abdallah Yusuf (tr.), The Holy Quran (with commentary),
Hourani, Albert, A History of the Arab Peoples, 2nd ed., London,
Leicester, 1979.
2000.
Al-Qaradawi, Yusuf, The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam,
Ibn Khaldun, The Muqadimmah: An Introduction to History, F.
Helbawy et.al. (tr.), Indianapolis, ID, 1985.
Rosenthal (tr.), 3 vols., New York, NY, 1958; ed. and abridged
Arberry, A. J. The Koran Interpreted, Oxford, 1990. by N. Dawood, London, 1978.
Armstrong, Karen, Muhammad: A Western Attempt to Keddie, N.R. (ed.), Scholars, Saints and Sufis: Muslim Religions
Understand Islam, London, 1991. Institutions Since 1500, Berkeley, CA, 1973.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, MAP LIST, AND INDEX
Index
Abbas, Shah (1588–1629) 92 al-Mahdi, caliph 142 Bangladesh 153
Abbasid/s 42, 36, 38, 40, 46, 52, 53, 148 al-Mamun 37, 38 Baptist 13
Abbasid Empire 11 al-Mansur 50 Barelwi, Sayyid Ahmed (1786–1831) 108
Abbud, Ibrahim (r. 1954–64) 134 al-Mawsili, Ibrahim 36 Baring, Sir Evelyn (later Viscount Cromer) 132
Abdalla, Idris bin 40 Almohads 68 Barqa 50
Abduh, Muhammad (1849–1905) 110 Almoravids 68 Basra 52, 116, 154, 155
Abdul Hamid II 88 al-Maududi,Adu al-Ala (1906–79) 194 Batu (r. 1227–55) 94
Abdullah 162 al-Muizz, caliph 50 Bayazid I (r. 1389–1402) 94
Aboukir Bay, Battle of 108 al-Mustansir, Imam-caliph (1036–94) 50, 128 Baybars 62
Abraham 30 al-Mutawakil 39 Bektashi (Sufi order) 112, 118
Abu Bakr 8, 28, 34 al-Nasser, Jamal Abd 148, 194 Belgrade 86
Abu Dhabi 158 al-Qaeda 152, 184, 185 Belo, Muhammad 75
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali 15, 58 al-Qahira 50 Ben Badis 136
Abu Jafar al-Mansur 142 al-Qadir, Abd, shaikh 60, 109, 136 Bengal 96, 101, 108, 139
Acheh 107, 152 al-Rahman, Sayyid Abd 134 Bengalis 20
Acre 50 al-Rashid, Harun 36, 142, 160 Berber/s 20, 58, 72, 136
Aden 53, 77, 79, 116, 158 al-Saud, Muhammad 160 bin Laden, Osama 157, 184, 195
Adhan (call to prayer) 14 al-Siquilli, General Jawhar 143 Biqaa valley 127
Adrianople (Edirne) 115 al-Taishi, Abdullah, Khalifa 134 Bithynia 84
Afghanistan 12, 16, 96, 128, 156, 181 al-Wahhab, Muhammad Ibn Abd 160 Birmingham,UK 167
Aghlabids 50 Amanullah (1919–29) 116, 156 Black Sea 94
ahl al-dhimma (protected community) 31 Amboyna 81 Blue Nile 70
ahl al-kitab (Peoples of the Book) 10 Amin 41 Bolshevik Revolution (1917–18) 103
Ahmad, Khan 111 Amu Darya 64 Book production 173
Ahmad, Mahdi Muhammad 110 Anatolia 64, 86, 92, 114, 118 Bosnia-Herzegovina 118
Ahmad, Muhammad 109 Anatolian 56 Bradford 167
Aisha 34 Andalusia 68, 167 Britain 20, 53, 56, 80, 81, 91, 108, 109, 114, 116,
Akbar I (1556–1605) 99 Animist 107 125, 151, 158, 160, 162
al-Adid 51 Aniza 160 British Royal Air Force 160
al-Aghlab, Ibrahim 37 Amsterdam 167 Broach 77
al-Azhar 111, 143 Antioch Brunei, sultanate of 152
Albania 118 Arab/s 52, 64, 82, 107, 122, 137, 162 Buddhism 10, 94
Alhambra 68, 176 Arab League 165 Bugeaud, Robert 136
Almohads 68 Arabia 43, 106, 148, 158, 160 Bukhara 95, 103
Almoravids 68 Arabic 20, 38, 47 Buksar, Battle of (1764) 108
al-Amin 37 Arab-Israeli conflict 162 Bulgaria 84, 91, 94, 118
al-Andalus 68, 72, 108 Arafat, Chairman Yasser 163 Buraimi Oasis 158
al-Ashari, Abul Hasan 39 Aral Sea 103 Bursa 84, 86
Alawi/s (Shiite) 127 Architecture 176, 177 Buyids 43, 44, 46
al-Azhar 38, 111 Armenia/n 36, 46, 87 Byzantine 11, 28, 56, 57, 78, 84, 86, 88, 118
al-Aziz, Abd (known as Ibn Saud) 160, 194 Asabiyya (loyalties or group solidarity) 12, 13, 21, Byzantium 24
al-Bakri, General Hasan 154 104 Cairo 62, 128, 143
al-Banna, Hasan 194 Ascalon 50 Camp David (1979) 163
al-Barmaki 37 Ashura 93 Canada 15
al-Bashir, General Umar 134 Asir, province of 13 Cape Comorin 77
al-Dawla, Nawab Siraj 108 Askeri (ruler) 87 Casablanca 6
al-Din, al-Afghani, Jamal (1838–97) 110, 132 Astrakhan 102 Caspian Sea 94, 102
al-Din, al-Ayyubi, Salah (Saladin) 50, 62, 143 Aswan 70, 148 Catherine the Great 102
al-Din Aybeg, Qutb 96 Atlantic Ocean 11, 16, 21, 82 Catholic see Christian
al-Din, Jamal 60 Atlas Mountains 16 Caucasus 46, 102, 117
al-Din, Naqshband, Baha (d. 1389) 95 Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal 114, 115, 116 Ceramics 173
al-Din, Nur 62 Attila 64 Ceyhan 147
al-Din, Safi, Shaikh (1252–1334) 92 Aurungzeb (r. 1658–1707) 96, 99 Ceylon see Sri Lanka
al-Din, Salah (Saladin) 50, 62, 143 Austria 91, 114 Chaghatay 94
Al-e-Ahmed, Jalal 93 Axum 76 Chaghatay Khanate 64
Aleppo 50, 52, 128 Aydhab 53 Chaldiran, Battle of 86
Algeria/n 50, 90, 136, 137, 166, 180, 181 Ayn Jalut, Battle of 62 Charlemagne 36
al-Ghazal, Bahr 134 Ayodhya 101 Charles X (Bourbon monarch) 136
al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid 58 Ayyubids 62, 79 Chechen-Ingushiite 104
al-Ghazi-Ghumuqi 60 Azam, Abdullah 195 Chechnya 104
Algiers 86, 109 Azerbaijan 36, 147 China 52, 64, 76, 103, 129
al-Hadi 36 Azeris 20 Chinese emperors 64
al-Hamid, Abd bin Badis (Ben Badis) 136 Baath (Renaissance) Party 127, 154 Chistis 99
al-Hasa 92, 160 Babur 96 Chistiya 96
al-Hussien, Imam 38 Baghdad 44, 52, 142, 154, 165 Christendom 56
Ali 34, 40, 42, 50, 92 Bahasa Indonesia 20 Christian/s 10, 13, 20, 30, 47, 57, 84, 86, 90, 117,
Aligarh 110 Bahrain 43, 78, 92, 158, 181 118, 127, 151, 162
Ali, house of 30, 62 Balakot, Battle of 109 Christianity 8, 10
Ali, ibn Abi Talib 38 Bali 6, 152 Churchill, Winston 109
Ali, Mehmed (1805–48) 90 Balkans 47, 86, 87, 90, 118 Cinema 188, 189
Ali, Muhammad 132, 148 Balkh 128 Circassians 62
al-Karkhi, Maruf 37 Bamba, Amadu (c. 1850–1927) 60, 141 Civil liberties 192, 193
al-Khattab, Umar ibn 38 Bambuko 72 Cochin 77
al-Kisai 36 Banda 81 Communist Party 103, 117
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INDEX
Khan, Sir Sayyed Ahmed (1817–98) 110, 111 Mamluk/s 43, 46, 47, 62 Nejd Plateau 160
Kharijis 34, 70 Mamun 41, 42 Nelson, Admiral 108
Khartoum 132, 134 Manchester 167 Nestorian Christianity 94
Khatmiya 132 Mansuriyya 50 Netherlands 167
Khomein 93 Manzikert, Battle of 45, 56 New Sect 123
Khruschev, Nikita 103 Mao Zedong 123 New York 184
Khums (religious taxes) 92 Marabouts 58, 72 Nigeria 75
Khurasan 43, 44 Maronites 125, 127 Nile 16, 53, 148
Khusraw, Nasir (1004–c. 1072) 128 Marseilles 166 Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 122
Khutba 14 Mashhad 38, 141 Nishapur 128
Khwarzim 94 McMahon, Sir Henry 117 Normans 50
Kilwa 70, 79, 80 McVeigh, Timothy 7 Norway 15
Kipchak 62 Mecca 9, 26, 34, 43, 52, 72, 74, 92, 129, 138, 139, Nuba Mountains 134
Kirghiz 156 160 Nuer 134
Kitchener, General Herbert Horatio 134 Medina 9, 26, 36, 72, 74, 114, 139, 160 Numairi, Jafar (r. 1969–85) 134
Koprulu, Ahmed (r. 1661–76) 90 Mehmet the Conqueror 86 Nurculuk 60
Koprulu, Mehmed (r. 1656–61) 90 Mesopotamia 16, 86, 148 Nursi, Said (1876–1960) 60
Koran 9, 10, 20, 26, 38, 39, 42, 110, 148, 193 Mesopotamian culture 24 Nuwas, Abu 36
Kosovo, Battle of 84 Mesopotamian cities 52 Oghuz 44
Kubrawiyya 122 Mesopotamian heritage 155 Oghuz Turks 56
Kuchuk Kaynarca, Treaty of (1774) 90 Messali Hajj 136 Oklahoma City 7
Kurdish 47, 154 Metalware 173 Oman 158
Kurds 20, 155 Mevlevis 118 Omani Albu Said dynasty 158
Kutama 50 Mihna (inquisition or test) 38 Omar, Mullah Muhammad 157
Kuwait/i 146, 155, 158, 164 Minangkabau 107 Omdurman 134
Kyrgyz 103, 122 Mindanao 153 Orthodox see Christian
Kyrgyzstan 103 Mocha 76 Oslo accords (1993) 163
Lahej 158 Mogadishu 79 Oslo negotiations 149
Lahore 96 Moldavia see Romania Oslo II negotiations 149
Lake Van 128 Mombasa 6, 70, 80 Osmanli see Ottoman
Lamtuna 72 Momens 71 Ottoman/s 45, 46, 47, 83, 84, 86, 88, 109, 112, 117,
Lamu 52 Mongol/s 58, 64, 84, 122 154, 158, 160
Latakia 127 Mongol Oirots 145 Ottoman Turks 162
Latin see Christian Mongolia 64 Oxus Valley 38
Latin kingdoms 57 Montenegro 91 Pahlavi 93
Lausanne, Treaty of 115 Morocco 20, 60, 151, 166 Pakistan 100, 101, 107, 151, 154, 156, 157
Lawrence, T. E. 114 Moros 153 Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) 127, 163
Lebanon 117, 127, 168, 181 Moses 30 Palestinians 127
Lenk, Timur 94, 95 Mount Arafat 139 Palestine 20, 50, 56, 117, 162
Lepanto, Battle of 86 Mount Lebanon 16 Palmyra 24
Libya 91, 109, 116, 151 Muadhdhin 14 Pan-Turkism 104
Lille 166 Muawiya 34 Parcham (non-Pushtun) 156
London 167 Mubarak, Shaikh 158 Paris 166
Lyons 166 Mughal India 83, 107 Patriot Act 193
Maan family 125 Muhammad 9, 26, 34, 42, 52, 58, 110, 160 Pemba 70, 76, 79, 80
Macedonia 84 Muizz, Caliph al- 143 People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) 156
Madhabs (schools of jurisprudence) 13 Multan 96 Persia 95 (also see Iran)
Madurese 20 Mumbhai (Bombay) 6 Persian/s 20, 38, 47, 122, 145
Mafia 79 Muqaddima 11 Persian Gulf 158
Maghreb 50, 72 Murabits 72 Petah Tikva 162
Mahdi (Muslim Messiah) 134 Muridiya 60 Peter the Great 90
Mahdiya 110 Murids (aspirants) 60 Peter the Hermit 56
Mahdiyya 50 Murshid 60 Petra 24
Mahmud II (r. 1807–39) 112 Musa, Ibrahim (d. 1751) 74 Philippines 153
Mahmud of Ghazna 96 Musa, Mansa (1307–32) 72 Pir (Sufi shaikh) 60, 95, 99
Mahmud of Ghazni 43 Muscat 158 Plassey, Battle of (1757) 108
Ma Hualong 123 Muslim Americans 170, 171 Podolia 90
Majid 158 Muslim Brotherhood 60, 134, 194 Poland 94
Malabar 52, 77, 80 Muslim populations 180, 181 Polo, Marco 129
Malacca 79, 80, 107 Muslim Students' Association 169 Pope Urban II 56
Malaya 139 Muslim World League 181 Portuguese 53, 79, 80, 82, 106
Malay peninsula 107 Mutazila 38 Prophet Abraham 162
Malay/s 20, 107 Muzdalifa 138 Protestant 108
Malay states 117 Myanmar (Burma) 153 Punjabis 20, 101
Malaysia 107, 152 Mysore 108 Pushtuns 20, 108, 156, 157
Mali 72, 131 Nabateans 24 Putin, Vladimir 109
Maliki/s 38, 132 Nairobi 6 Qadariyya 60, 122
Malindi 52 Najaf 38, 140, 155 Qadiri 103
Mallam (religious scholar) 74 Najiballah, General 157 Qajar dynasty (1779–1925) 92
Malta 86 Naples 86 Qaramatians 42
Maluku 152 Napoleon 90, 108 Qaraqanid dynasty 43, 44, 46
Ma Mingxin, shaikh (b. 1719) 122 Naqshbandi 95, 103, 104, 108, 111, 156 Qarawiyyin 38
Mamluk amirs 143 Naqshbandiyya 60, 122, 167 Qarluqs 43, 44
Mamluk Empire 86 Nasridas 68 Qizilbashis 92
Mamlukism 12 Nation of Islam (NOI) 168, 170 Quanzhou (Zaitun) 79
Mamluk soldiers 62 National Islamic Front (NIF) 134 Qulzum 53
Mamluk sultans 53 Nazis 162 Qumm 38
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