aanaa MATERIALS AND METALLURGY SSID at ra.Ss Tata McGraw Hitt Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Engineering Materials and Metallurgy, 2e Copyright © 2010, by Vijay Nicole Imprints Private Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers and copyright holders. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. 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Laser Typeset at: Vijay Nicole Imprints Private Limited, Chennai - 600 042 Printed at: Jai Ganesh Offset Printers, Chennai - 600 041 RCLLCRBFRCDRRContents 1.2 Engineering Materials 1 1.2.1 Metallic Materials 2 122 _N, lic Materials 2 1.2.3 Composites 2 1.3___ History of Materials 3 1.4 Materials and Engineering 5 1.5 Branches of Metallurgy 6 Review Questions 6 2_STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS ..........s0s:s0ssssessseessee0e 7 2.1 __ Atomic Structure 7 2.1.1 __ Electronic Structure of the Atom 8 2.1.2 Atomic Bonding 9 2.1.3 ing and ties 12 2.2 Structure of Solids 13 2.2.1 Crystal Structure 13 2.2.2 Metallic Crystal Structures 14 2.3. Crystallisation of Pure Metals 21 2.3.1 Nuclei Formation 21 2.3.2 Crystal Growth 21 2.4 Grain Size 22 2.5 Crystal Defects 24 2.5.1 __ Point Defects 24 2.5.3 Planar Defects 28 2.6 Microstructure 29viii ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 3.1 Classification of Alloys 33 3.1.1 Solid Solutions 34 3.1.2 Intermediate Phases or Compounds 35 3.2 Phase Diagrams 36 3.2.1 ___ Phase Rule 37 3.2.2 Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams 39 3.3 Isomorphous System 39 § 3.3.1 Chemical Composition of Phases 41 3.3.2 Amount of Each Phase (Lever Rule) 42 3.3.3 Equilibrium Cooling 44 3.3.4 Non-equilibrium Cooling 45 3.4 Eutectic System—I Type 47 3.4.1 Cooling of Alloy 1(60Bi-40Cd)—Eutectic 49 3.4.2 Cooling of Alloy 2(80Bi-20Cd)—Hypoeutectic 50 3.4.3 Cooling of Alloy 3(20Bi-80Cd)—Hypereutectic 50 3.5 Eutectic System—II Type 50 3.5.1 Cooling of Alloy 1(98Pb-2Sn) 52 3.5.2 Cooling of '2(38Pb-62Sn)—Eutectic 53 3.5.3 Cooling of Alloy 3(60Pb-40Sn) 53 3.5.4 Cooling of Alloy 4(90Pb-10Sn) 53 3.6 Peritectic System 54 3.6.1 __ Cooling of Alloy 1(46Ag-54Pt) -55 3.6.2 Cooling of Alloy 2(60Ag-40Pt) 56 3.7 Solid State Reactions 56 3.2.1 _Entectoid Reaction 57 Solved Problems 59 Review Questions 64 4 IRON-IRON CARBIDE EQUILIBRIUM 4.1 Allotropy of Iron_67 4.2 The Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram 68Contents ix lain Cari Is__7: 4.3.1 Slow Cooling of Plain Carbon Steels 72 43.2 Critical Temperatures 76 4.3.3 Properties and Uses of Plain Carbon Steels 76 4.4 Effect of Small Quantities of Other Elements 79 Solved Problems 80 Review Questions 82 5 HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS 5.1 Heat Treatment 85 5.2 Isothermal Transformation 86 5.3. TITDiagram 89 5.3.1 Transformation Mechanisms 90 5.4 CCTDiagram 95 5.5 Heat Treatment Processes for Steels 97 5.6 Annealing 98 5.6.1 FullAnnealing 99 > 5.6.2 Spheroidising Annealing 101 5.6.3 Stress Relief Annealing 102 5.6.4 Recrystallisation Annealing 103 5.7 Normalising 104 5.7.1 Normalising versus Annealing 105 . 5.8 Hardening 106 5.8.1 Mechanism of Heat Removal During Quenching 107 5.8.2 __ Factors Affecting Hardening Process _108 5.9 Tempering 110 5.10 Austempering or Isothermal Quenching 111 5.11 Martempering or Marquenching 113 5.12 Hardenability 114 5.12.1 Jominy End Quench Test 115 5.12.2 Representation of Hardenability Data 117 5.12.3 Use of Hardenability Data_121 5.13 Surface and Selective Hardening 121‘% ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 5.14 Carburising 122 5.14.1 Methods of Carburising 122 5.14.2 Heat Treatment After Carburising 127 5.15 Carbonitriding 129 5.16 Cyaniding 130 5.17 Nitriding 132 5.18 Flame Hardening 134 5.19 Induction Hardening 137 Review Questions 139 6 _ ALLOY STEELS o.oo... senasnnnsnnsnnnsnnnsassecnanasnnasene 143 6.1 Purpose of Alloying 143 6.2 General Effects of ing Elements 144 6.3 Classification of Alloy Steels 148 6.4 Structural Grade Alloy Steels 148 6.4.1 Nickel Stecls 148 6.4.2 Chromium Steels _149 6.4.3 Nickel-Chromium Steels 150 6.4.4 Manganese Steels 151 6.4.5 Silicon Steels 151 6.4.6 Molybdenum Steels 152 6.5.4 Precipitation Hardening (PH)Stainless Steels 158 6.5.5 Duplex Stainless Steels 159 6.6 Tool and Die Steels 160 6.6.1 Water Hardening Tool Steels 161 6.6.2 Shock Resisting Tool Steels 161 6.6.3 Cold Work Tool Stecls 1626.6.4 ___ Hot Work Tool Steels 163 6.6.5 High Speed Steels _163 66.6 Mould Steels 164 6.6.7 __ Special Purpose Tool Steels _164 6.7 Special Alloy Steels 165 . 6.7.1___Free Machining Alloy Steels 165. 6.7.2 Austenitic High Manganese Steels _166 6.7.3 __ High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels _ 167 6.7.4 __ Interstitial Free(I-F) Steels 168 6.7.5 Dual Phase Steels 168 6.7.6 MaragingSteels 169° 6.8 Indian Standard Code for Designation of Steels(IS: 1762-1974) 169 6.8.1 Steels Desi on the Basis ' of Mechanical Properties _170 68.2 Steels Designated on the Basis of Chemical Properties 173 Classification of Cast Iron 181 ion. cee 7.2 Factors Influencing Structure of Cast Iron 182 7.2.1 Effect of Rate of Cooling 183 - 7.2. Effect of Chemical Composition 183 7.4__ Grey Cast Iron 186 7.6.2 Types of Malleable Cast Iron 191 7.8 _Compacted Graphite Iron _195 7.9 Alloy Cast Irons 196 7.10 Indian Standard Code for Designation of Cast Irons (IS: 4843-1968) 197 _ Review Questions 199 Copyrighted materialadi ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 8.1 Copper and Copper Alloys 201 8.2 Brasses 202 8.2.1 _a-Brasses 204 8.2.2 a-B Brasses_205 82.3 Cast Brasses 206 8.3 Bronzes ' 206 8.3.1 Tin Bronzes 207 8.3.2 Aluminium Bronzes 208 8.3.3 Silicon Bronzes 209 8.3.4 Beryllium Bronzes 209 8.4 Copper-Nickel Alloys 210 8.5 Indian Standard Code for Designation of Copper Alloys (IS: 2378-1974) 211 8.6 Aluminium Alloys 212 8.7 Wrought Alloys- 213 8.7.1 Work Hardenable Alloys 214 8.7.2 Heat Treatable Alloys 214 8.8 Cast Alloys 216 8.8.1 Aluminium-Silicon Alloys 216 8.8.2 Aluminium-Magnesium Alloys 217 8.8.3 Aluminium-Zinc Alloys 217 8.8.4 Aluminium-Copper Alloys 217 8.8.5 ComplexCastingAlloys 218 8.9 Indian Standard Code for Designation of Aluminium Alloys (IS: 5052-1993) 218 8.9.1 Alloy Designation 219 8.9.2 Temper Designation 220 8.10 Magnesium Alloys 221 8.10.1 Cast Alloys 221 8.10.2 Wrought Alloys 221 8.11 Zinc Alloys 222 8.12 Nickel Alloys 222 8.12.1 Monel s_ 223 8.12.2 Nickel-Chromium Alloys 223Contents — xiii 8.12.3 Nickel-Mi jum 223 8.12.4 Nickel Based Super Alloys 223 8.13 Titanium Alloys 224 8.14 Lead and Tin Alloys 225 8.15 Precipitation Hardening or Age Hardening 226 8.16 Bearing Alloys 230 - 8.16.1 White Bearing Metals 232 8.16.2 Bearing Bronzes_ 234 8.16.3 Aluminium-Tin Bearin; 234 8.16.4 Silver Bearings 234 Review Questions 235 9 PLASTIC DEFORMATION AND 9.1 Slip 238 911 Slip in a Perfect Lattice 239 9.1.2 Slip by Dislocation Movement _240 913 Critical R 1 Shear Si 2 9.1.4 Dislocation Sources 245 9.2 Twinning 246 i - 9.2.1 Difference between Slip and Twinning 247, 9.3 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline Metals 248 9.3.1 Preferred Orientation and Anisotropy 249 9.4 Strengthening of Metals 250 9.4.1 Strain Hardening or Cold Working 251 9.4.2 Grain Boundary Hardening 256 9.4.3 Solid Solution Strengthening 257 9.4.4 Strengthening from Fine Particles 260 9.5 Fracture 262 -9.5.1 Ductile Fracture 263 9.5.2 Brittle Fracture 266 9.5.3 Ductile-brittle Transition. 271 9.6 Fatigue Failure of Metals 273 as 9.6.1 Fatigue Stress Cycles 273 |xiv ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 9.6.2 Mechanism of Fatigue Failure 275 9.6.3 Fracture. 277 9.6.4 Factors ing Fatigue St 278 9.6.5 Methods for Improving Fatigue Properties 279 9.7 Creep of Metals 280 9.7.1 Mechanisms of Creep Deformation and Rupture 280 9.7.2 Creep Resistance Alloys 281 Review Questions 282 10_POLYMERS ......ssssssssssssesssrssssssssessssesseasssssssssosseeres 285 10.1. Polymerisation 286 10.2 Characteristics of Polymer Molecules “287 10.2.1 ' Molecular Weight 288 10.2.2 Chain Shape 288 10.2.3 Type of Mers 289 10.2.4 Chain Structure 289 10.3 Crystallinity of Polymers 291 10.4 Glass Transiti 293 10.5 Additives in Polymers 294 10.6 Classification of Polymers 295 10.7 | Therm ic Polymers 296 10.7.1 _ Commodi stic Pe rs 296 10.7.2 ineering Thermo} ic Pe rs 301 10.8 Thermoset Polymers 312 10.9 Elastomers 317 10.9.1 Types of Elastomers 318 10.10 Deformation of Polymers _320 10.10.1 Macroscopic Deformation 320 10.10.2 Deformation Mechanisms 321 10.10.3_ Viscoelasticityand Creep 323 10.11 Fracture of Polymer Materials 324 Review Questions 325Contents xv 11_CERAMICS ...,..0..c:essssessssrsssssessesssossssssrssssssssssessess BZD 11.1 Traditional Ceramics 330 11.1.1 ClayProducts 330 11.1.2 Glasses 331 11.1.3 Cements 335 11.1.4 Refractories 335 11.2. Advanced Ceramics 336 11.2.1 Oxide Ceramics 337 11.2.2 Carbides 339 11.2.3. Nitrides 341 11.2.4 Sialon (SiLALO.N,) 343 11.2.5 Borides 343 11.2.6 Some Special Applications of Advanced Ceramics 344 11.3 Def ‘ iF; fC. ics 346 11.3.1 _ Low Temperature Brittle Fracture 346 11.3.2 High Temperature Creep Rupture 351 11.3.3 Thermal Shock 352 Review Questions 354 12_COMPOSITES on ..ssssssssssssssesssssssssscsncssesssncsssssssness SOT 12.1 Definition and Classification of Composites 358 12.2 Matrix Materials 358 12.3 Reinforcements 360 12.3.1 Fibres 360 12.3.2 Whiskers and Particulates 364 12.4 Fibre Reinforced Composites 366 12.4.1 Fibre Reinforced Plastics(FRP) 367 12.4.2 Fibre Reinforced Metal Matrix ~ Composites 368 12.4.3 Fibre Reinforced Ceramic Composites 369 12.4.4 Carbon-Carbon Composites 370 12.5 Particulate Composites 370 12.5.1 Particulate Reinforced Polymers 370 12.5.2 Particulate Reinforced Metal Composites 371 12.5.3. Ceramic Matrix Particulate Composites 373xvi. ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 12.6 Laminar Composites 373 12.6.2 __Clad Metals 374 12.6.3 Sandwich Structure 374 12.7 Failure of Fibre Reinforced Composites 375 Revi tions 376 13.1.1 Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test 383 13.1.2 Types of Engineering Stress-strain Curves 385 13.2 Compression Test 388 13.3__Bend Test 389 13.4 Shear Test and Torsion Test 390 13.5 Hardness Test 391 13.5.1 Brinell Hardness Test ‘393 13.5.2 _ Vickers Hardness Test 394 Rockwell Hardness Test 391 13.5.5 __Durometer Test 400 13.6: Impact Test 402 . 13.6.1__-Charpy Test 404 . 13.6.2 IzodTest 405 . 13.6.3. Properties Obtained from the Impact Test 405 13.7 Fatigue Test 406 13.7.1 Endurance Limit 408 13.7.2 Fatigue Life 408 13.8 Creep Test 408 13.8.1 “CreepCurve 409 13.8.2 Use of Creep Data 411 Review Questions 412 Two Marks Questions and Answers : 415 References 443 Index 445Preface All devices, products or systems used in this world consist of materials. ~ An engineer adapts materials and energy appropriately to satisfy society’s needs. Since materials are closely related to the engineering profession, an engineer must have a basic knowledge of materials. Hence, a core paper on materials is prescribed in all engineering disciplines. This textbook Engineering Materials and Metallurgy is for undergraduate engineering students. It is based on the teaching notes prepared and used by me for many years. My attempt is to present the subject matter in a lucid and simple way so as to enable easy understanding of the subject even for an average engineering student. After studying this book, the student will be able to ¢ classify the main types of engineering materials used in industry. , ¢ know the structure of engineering materials and how it is telated to their properties. «select a material for a specific engineering application. ¢ understand the various treatments to enhance their Properties. The four categories of structural materials used in mechanical engineering—metals, polymers, ceramics and composites are thoroughly dealt with. This book is in 13 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the main type of engineering materials and discusses their evolution. Chapter 2 deals with structure of materials. ‘ Chapter 3 discusses the phase diagrams, an effective tool for describing the alloy system. Chapter 4 describes the iron-iron carbide phase diagram, which gives the basic knowledge on ferrous alloys. Chapter 5 narrates the isothermal transformation diagram and various heat treatments.xviii, ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Chapter 6 describes the different alloy steels and their engineering applications. Chapter 7 illustrates various types of cast iron and their applications. Chapter 8 details non-ferrous alloys with particular reference to copper, aluminium, magnesium, zinc, nickel, titanium, lead and tin alloys. Chapter 9 deals with the concepts of plastic deformation, strengthening mechanisms and fracture of metals. Chapter 10 covers the types, structure, properties and applications of polymers and discusses about the deformation and fracture of polymers. Chapter 11 deals with traditional ceramics in a brief manner and advanced ceramics in a detailed way. Chapter 12 provides an overall picture on composites. Chapter 13 illustrates the various mechanical testing of properties and their engineering importance. T am pleased to acknowledge many people who helped in this work. First of all, I bow to God, my parents and gurus. I am grateful to my teachers Dr S V Sambasivam and Prof. P Narasimman who created a passion in me for this subject. I would like to thank the help rendered by the management of my college, my colleagues and students. Special thanks are due to M/s P Padmanabhan, T Ramachandran, V Anbumalar, K Ganeshbabu, H Chelladurai and S Senthilvelan for their motivation and contribution in collecting materials for preparing the manuscript. I express my appreciation and gratitude to my publisher Mr P K Madhavan, editor Mr S Srivatsan and the editorial and typesetting team of Vijay Nicole Imprints Private Limited for their most cooperative and untiring efforts in bringing out this book. I express a very special thanks to my wife Vani and kids Prasad and Param for their constant love and support. My work will be rewarded if the teachers and students accept this book and send in their suggestions for further improvement. R Srinivasan= SS INTRODUCTION 1.1 WHAT IS MATERIAL Before reading this chapter, let us take a few minutes and observe the various objects around us like chair, table, pen, watch, calculator, note book and light fittings. We soon realise that all these objects are made up of different materials. These materials, taken from: nature, are manipulated step-by-step into innumerable products and systems which are utilised by us. Now the question arises—What are materials? They are substances composed of matter which in turn is composed of unit substances known as chemical elements. A chemical element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down further by any chemical means. Hence, elements are the basic units based on their chemical activities and physical properties. The smallest part of the element which exhibits all its properties is called an atom. Therefore atoms are the basic building blocks for any material. 1.2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS Materials are classified in different ways depending on the field of science. The physicists classify materials as solid, liquid and gaseous. In chemistry, the material is categorised into organic and inorganic. For an engineer, material means structural material that is used to produce various engineering products. The most common classification among engineering materials is whether they are metallic or non-metallic.2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 1.2.1 Metallic Materials Materials composed of one or more metal elements such as iron, copper, aluminium, nickel, titanium, lead, tin and-zinc are known as metallic. They are characterised by their high thermal and electrical conductivities. Most metals are relatively strong and ductile at room temperature. They are usually deformable and can be formed into shapes of practical use. They are opaque, i.e. light cannot pass through them and they can be polished to have high luster. 1.2.2. Non-metallic Materials Polymers Polymers commonly called plastics consists of long molecular chains containing many repeated units of ‘monomers’. Examples are polyethylene, nylon, PVC etc. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity and poor reflectors of light, generally characterised by low density, strength and stiffness. They are easily moulded into required shapes. Ceramics Ceramics are complex compounds composed of both metallic and non-metallic elements. High hardness and brittleness are some of the attributes of ceramics. They are having high temperature strength and low thermal conductivity which maké them useful for insulative applications. Few examples are alumina, silicon carbide, silicon nitride. 1.2.5 Composites Composite materials are mixtures of two or more different materials that are mechanically or metallurgically bonded together. Usually the components do not dissolve in each other and can be physically identified by an interface between the components. The composites possess properties such as strength, stiffness, high temperature performance, corrosion resistance and hardness that are not possible with the individual components. The best example is fibre glass, a composite of glass fibres embedded in a polymer matrix. The high strength of glass fibres are combined with the easily formable polymer matrix to produce a strong structural material.Introvuction 3 1.3 HISTORY OF MATERIALS Materials play an important role in the evolution of human culture and civilisation. In stone age, the primitive man used tools of stone, flint, wood and bone for his livelihood. More than 5000 years ago, he emerged out of stone age and entered into bronze age. The first crude bronze was probably the result of accidental mixtures of copper and tin ores. Then he learned the art of extracting pure tin and adding it with copper. The ancient metal smith was able to work on copper, gold and silver and make ornaments and utensils. As early as 3000 B.c., lead pipes made by Romans were installed in their baths. Primitive ferrous tools were made from meteoritic iron obtained from meteorites that had stuck the earth. The first melting of iron ore is believed to have taken place around 1100 B.c. in Asia Minor and heralded the actual start of Iron age. Egyptians used wrought iron swords, spears, ploughs etc. The origin of forced draft in the making of wrought iron was developed by Egyptians. They used bellows out of goat skin, a bamboo nozzle and an air inlet valve. The Chinese were known to have made cast iron in the 4th century B.c, Steel was produced in China and Japan about 600-800 a.v. Invention of blast furnace in the year 1323 a.d. made possible the production of large quantities of iron and steel. Further improvement occurred after the invention of Bessemer converter developed by Sir Henry Bessemer in 1855 and open hearth furnace developed by Siemen brothers in 1861. Nickel discovered in 1751 and tungsten identified in 1781 were used, as alloying elements in steel production. In early 1900’s, high speed steel was first introduced. The introduction of SG iron in 1946 was the most important event in the iron trade of those times. Danish Chemist H.C. Oersted produced the first sampJes of aluminium in 1825 using a costlier reduction process. In 1886, C.M. Hall discovered a relatively cheap method for producing aluminium by electrolysis. The progress of identification of newer metallic materials are still continuing. The earliest use of ceramics was in pottery and bricks dating back to 4000 B.c. Among the oldest of the raw materials used for making ceramics is clay. Glass blowing was introduced about 200 s.c. The synthetic aluminium oxide and silicon carbide were produced in the4 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY early 1900’s. Cemented carbides were introduced in the 1930’s to meet the challenge of higher machining speeds. Rapid development in structural ceramics began in the 1970's. The earliest polymers were made of natural organic materials like cellulose from animal and vegetable products. The earliest synthetic polymer was bakelite created in 1906. The development of modern plastic technology began in the 1920’s, as raw materials for making polymers were extracted from coal and petroleum products. Composite materials known to mankind dates back to 4000 B.c. Pharaohs, the Egyptian kings made their slaves to use clay bricks reinforced with straw to construct buildings. In 1907, an acid resistant tank made of a phenolic resin with asbestos fibres was the first application of reinforced plastics. In 1930’s epoxies were used as matrix material. At the start of 1940’s reinforced plastics were used for aircraft construction. The first metal matrix composite, a consolidated mixture of aluminium and alumina was developed in the 1920’s. Since 1960's active research is being done in strengthening the aluminium and copper matrix system. Major development in the composites began in 1970’s; these materials are called advanced composites. Table 1.1 Historical developement of materials Non-metallic materials Stone, flint, wood, bone carthenware, natural fibres Corundum Glass beads Period a Metallic materials Before 4000 B.c. Gold, copper, meteoritic iron 4000-3000 B.C. Bronze, silver, lead, tin, 3000-2000 B.c. 2000-1000 p.c. | Wrought iron, brass Cast iron, cast steel 1000-1 B.c. Glass blowing 1-1000 A.D. Zine, steel 1000-1500 av. | Blast furnace Venetian glass 1500-1600 A.D. Crystal glass 16001700 AD Brass Torn cov and Flint glass 1700-1800 a0. Nbc tewesten PorcelainINTRODUCTION 5 Period Metallic materials Non-metallic materials Steel from bessemer process, open hearth furnace, nickel steels, 1800-1900 a.. | tungsten steels, ‘Window glass, polyester, galvanised stecls; styrene, celluloid electrolytic aluminium, babbit Bakelite, synthetic 1900-1920 A.D. ‘| High speed steel aluminium oxide, silicon oxide, borosilicate glass PVC, cellulose acetate, 1920-1940 AD. Titanium sponge polyethylene, tungsten carbide, glass fibres ‘Acrylics, 1940-1950... | Spheroidal graphite iron glass, reinforced plastics ABS, silicones, Fluro’ carbons, polyurathane, tempered glass, glass ceramics Acetals, polycarbonates, 1960-1970 titanium carbide, synthetic diamond Cubic boron nitride, Compacted graphite cast | structural ceramics, metal iron matrix and ceramic matrix 1950-1960 A.D. 1970-2000 composites 1.4 MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING The most common questions asked by engineering students are, “What do we do with materials?” and “Why should we know about materials?” The answer is ‘Engineers convert materials into products using energy to meet the needs of society’. Engineers design products and systems, make them and monitor their usage. For example, a mechanical engineer involves in the design and production of an automobile. A bridge girder is designed and constructed. by a civil engineer. An aerospace engineer develops a space shuttle. A chemical engineer constructs a chemical plant. Since all these require materials, an engineer should be well informed about the materials, their internal structure and properties so that he is able to select the most appropriate ones for each application and choose the best processing method.6 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Not only that, they have to consider the service of material, cost and compatibility with the environment. Moreover, engineers are in the search for advanced materials to improve their design and create new products. High temperature resistant material for jet engine, material of high strength to weight ratio for aircraft, highly corrosion resistant material for chemical equipment are few examples for this search. Hence, some basic knowledge of materials is a must for engineers in all disciplines to enable them to do their work efficiently. 1.5 BRANCHES OF METALLURGY Metallurgy is the broad field of science and technology of metals. It is divided into three main areas—process metallurgy, physical metallurgy and mechanical metallurgy. Process metallurgy deals with science of obtaining metals from ores. It includes mining, extracting, refining, alloying and initial stage of production. Physical metallurgy is concerned primarily with the products of process metallurgy and their physical, chemical, mechanical properties. It includes metallography, heat treatment and mechanical testing. Mechanical metallurgy deals with behaviour of metals and their response to applied forces. This field covers all mechanical processes like rolling, drawing, shaping, forming that convert metals into finished products by changing their shape. REVIEW QUESTIONS Short Answer Questions 1. What do you mean by the term ‘engineering materials’? 2. How can engineering materials be classified? 3. What is the'need for an engineer to know about materials? Long Answer Questions 1. Compare the general properties of different engineering materials. 2. Distinguish the different fields of metallurgy.(+: STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS Today, there are innumerous materials available for engineering usage and the development is still on. It is very difficult for an engineer to have a detailed knowledge on the composition, properties and uses of many thousands of materials. The basic principle of concern is that the various properties of materials originate from its internal structure. So the knowledge of internal structure of materials and how its structure correlates with properties help the engineer in a big way. The internal structure of materials are studied at various levels such as atomic structure, crystal structure, substructure and microstructure. Depending on the level, the magnification and resolution of the physical aid to study the internal structure also varies. The atomic structure can be studied with the help of spectroscopic techniques. The main technique employed for determining crystal structure is the X-ray diffraction. The information about substructure can be obtained by using an electron microscope. Optical microscope with higher magnification is used in the study of microstructure. 2.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE Any atom is composed of a heavy nucleus surrounded by light electrons which revolve around the nucleus. The nucleus contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral particles). The electrons (negatively charged) are held to the nucleus by an electrostatic attraction.8 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of electrons or protons in each atom. For example, iron contains 26 electrons and 26 protons and hence its atomic number is 26. The atomic mass of an element is the mass in grams of 6,023x10” atoms (Avagadro Number) of that element. As an example, one mole of iron contains 6.02310” atoms and has a mass of 55.847g. 2.1.1 Electronic Structure of the Atom Electrons revolve in groups of orbitals called shells spaced from each other. There is a limit to the number of electrons in any shell e.g., 2 in the first shell, 8 in the second and so on. Each electron possesses particular energy and it increases in unit steps from an inner to an outer shell group. The electronic structure of an atom is defined by four quantum “numbers. The principal quantum number (n=1,2,3,4,5....) refers to the quantum shell to which the electron belongs. The number of energy levels in each quantum shell is determined by the azimuthal quantum number (/=0,1,2....... n—1). The azimuthal quantum numbers are designated by lower case letters s,p,d,f. The third quantum number, the magnetic quantum number (m=2/+1) specifies the spatial orientation of an atomic orbital. The fourth quantum number, the electron spin quantum number specifies the two allowed spin directions for an electron (m= + %) spinning on its own axis. According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers. . The notation used to denote the electronic structure of an atom combines the numerical value of principal quantum number and the lower case letter notation of azimuthal quantum number of electrons in each orbital. For example the notation for sodium which has an atomic number of 11 is 1s? 2s?2p°3s'. The chemical properties of elements are closely related to the number of electrons in the outer orbit group. These are called valence electrons. If an atom has-completely filled outer shell, there is no valence electrons, then the element is inert. For example, argon has an electronic structure 1s? 2s? 2p° 3s? 3p®. The outer shells areStructure of Materiats 9 completely filled so it is chemically stable. Where the outer shells are incomplete, there is a tendency for the elements to combine chemically to form stable outer shells. For example, aluminium has an electronic structure 1s? 2s?2p°3s?3p'. Aluminium has three valence electrons in its outer sp-levels. The chemical behaviour of aluminium is determined by the mechanism through which these electrons interact with other atoms. Based on this, the elements are divided into two classes (i) Electronegative elements that gain a few electrons to fill their outer energy levels e.g., Chlorine. i) Electropositive elements that readily give up electrons and empty the outer energy levels e.g., Sodium. 2.1.2 Atomic Bonding The atoms in a material are held together by some sort of binding force. Bonding between atoms is essentially an electronic process. During bonding, there is a-net decrease in potential energy. So the atoms in the bonded state are in a more stable energy condition than in the unbonded state. The bonds between atoms are divided into two groups (i) Primary (strong)bonds. - (a) lonic bond (b) Covalent bond (c) Metallic bond (ii) Secondary (weak)bonds Jonic bond ionic bonds are formed between highly electropositive elements and highly electronegative elements. Atoms of an electropositive element easily give up its valence electrons to the electronegative elements, filling the outer energy shell of the latter. In this process, both atoms acquire stable configuration, having acquired an electrical charge and behave as ions. The atom that gives up electrons to acquire a positive charge is a cation while the atom that receives the electron becomes negatively charged and is an anion. The oppositely charged ions attract one another and form an ionic bond.10 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY An example of ionic bond is Sodium Chloride. The sodium atom has 11 electrons (1s? 2s? 2p* 3s!) and chlorine has 17 electrons (1s* 2s? 2p*3s? 3p° ). In the ionization process, the sodium atom gives up its 3s! electron and transfers it to the half filled 3p orbital of chlorine * atom and produces a pair of Na* and CI" ions. The ions attract together to form a strong ionic bond. ‘Sodium Chlorine ‘Sodium Chlorine atom, Na atom, Cl ion, Nat ion, Cr Figure 2.1 Ionic bonding in sodium chloride Covalent bond Covalent bond is formed between two or more Similar or dissimilar atoms by mutually sharing atleast one electron among themselves to achieve stability. The shared electrons are considered to belong to both the atoms. For example, in the molecule of methane (CH,), the carbon atom has four valence electrons, whereas each of the four hydrogen atom has a single valence electron. So carbon and hydrogen share their electrons to form covalent bonds and both of them get stabilised. Figure 2.2 Covalent bonding in methane Metallic bond The metallic atoms give up all their valence electrons and become positive ion cores. These electrons form an electron cloud, move freely within the cloud and get bonded to several positive ion cores. The positively charged ion cores are held togetherStructure OF Materiats 11 by mutual attraction of the free electrons, thus producing a metallic bond. But the electrons move freely and get bonded to different atoms at different times. Positive ion cores. Valence electrons in the form of electron clouds Figure 2.3 Metallic bond Secondary (or) van der Waals bond Secondary or van der” Waals bond are obtained without electron transfer or sharing. Figure 2.4 Van der Waals bond12 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY The mechanism of secondary bonding called polarisation, is the separation of centers of positive and negative charges in an electrically neutral atom or molecule, as it is brought to its neighbours who in turn becomes polarised. So some portion of the atom is positively charged while other portions are negatively charged. The resulting electrostatic attraction between the positively charged region of one atom and the negatively charged region of another atom is the van der Waals force. 2.1.3 Bonding and Properties The properties of materials depend to a large extent on the bonding characteristics. The binding energy is the energy required to create or break a bond. The materials having a higher binding energy tend to have higher melting and boiling temperatures. Table 2.1 Binding energy of four binding mechanisms [Bond [ining emery tnt | Tonic 630-1550 Covalent 520-1260 Metallic 105-840 van der Waals <40 From Table 2.1, it is understood that covalent and ionic bonds have higher binding energy than metallic bonds. Hence, covalent and ionic bonded materials have high melting and boiling points. The strength of a bond and the directional nature of bonding decide the mechanical properties. Solids which have strong and directional bonds tend to be brittle. Covalent bonds are directional and hence covalent solids are hard and brittle, for example diamond. As metallic bonds are relatively weak and non-directional, metals are soft, ductile and malleable. Ionic bonds are strong but non-directional. So ionic solids fall in between covalent and metallic bonds and they have a very limited amount of ductility. The thermal and electrical conductivities ofa material largely depend on the free electrons. Ionic and covalent bonding result in an inert gas configuration and there are no freeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.18 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 2.2.3 Directions and Planes in an Unit Cell There is a frequent need to identify specific directions in crystal lattice. This is especially required for metals and alloys that have properties which vary with crystallographic directions. For example the elastic modulus of BCC iron is greater in the direction parallel to the body diagonal than its cubic edge. Certain planes of atoms in crystal lattice are also significant. For example, metals deform along the-plane of atoms that are most tightly packed together. So it is necessary to use some convention to specify directions and planes. For this purpose, a short hand notation was made popular by the English crystallographer Miller and hence the indices are called Miller indices. The procedure for finding Miller indices for direction is as follows: (i) A vector of convenient length is positioned such that it passes through the co-ordinate system. (ii) The length of the vector projections on each of the three axes is determined. These are measured in terms of unit cell dimensions a,b,c. (iii) These three numbers are multiplied or divided by a common factor to reduce them to small integer values. (iv) The three indices are enclosed in a square bracket [ « v w] Fig.2.7 shows some of the important crystal direCtions in a cubic cell. For sketching of negative indices the origin needs to be shifted. Certain groups of directions are said to be crystallographically equivalent when the atomic spacing along each direction is the same. For example, the following cubic directions are crystallographic equivalent directions. [100] [010] [001] [700] [010] [001] = <100 >. The angle @ between two directions [ w,, v,, w,] and [ u,, V w,] can be calculated by the equation e= Ula +¥¥a + We [ub +P +) (ud +8 +08)”Structure of Mareniats 19 Origin’ y x Note new origin Figure 2.7 Miller indices for direction in cubic unit cells The procedure for finding out Miller indices for planes is as given below: (i) Determine the intercepts of the plane in terms of the crystallographic x,y,z axes, (ii) Form the reciprocals of the intercepts. A plane parallel to the axis may be considered as infinite intercept and therefore zero index. (iii) These numbers are changed to the set of smallest integers by multiplication or division using a common factor. (iv) Finally the integers are enclosed within the parenthesis ako.20 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Fig.2.8 shows some of the crystal planes in a cubic cell. For sketching the negative indices, the origin has to be shifted. 2 z (110) (100) v y x (a) x (b) Figure 2.8 Miller indices for planes in cubic unit cells The group of parallel planes in a cubic cell constitute a family of planes. . (100) (010) (001) (100) (070) (007) = {100}. In cubic crystals, the following relationship gives the interplanar spacing as a function of Miller indices and the lattice parameters. a dh k De ( UY) +e 4+Py?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.24 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 2.5 CRYSTAL DEFECTS In an ideal crystal, a perfect order exists throughout the crystal. However, an idealized solid does not exist. The real crystals as in cast or welded objects contain large number of various defects or imperfections. Crystal defect is meant as a lattice irregularity having one or more of its dimension on the order of its atomic diameter. Variety of defects are observed in the atomic arrangement of crystals. The crystal defects affect an extremely small fraction of atoms but they are crucial in determining the mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, and ductility of the structure. Crystal defects Point defects Line defects Planar defects (i) Vacancy (i) Edge (i) Grain (ii) Interstitial dislocation boundaries . atom (il) Screw (ii) Twin (iii) Substitutional dislocation boundaries atom (iv) Frenkel defect (v) Scottky defect 2.5.1 Point Defects Point defects are localized disruptions of the crystal lattice involving ‘one or possibly several atoms. These imperfections are introduced by the movement of atoms when they gain energy by heating, during ~ processing of the material, by introduction of impurities or intentionally through alloying. Vacaneles A vacancy is produced when an atom is missing from a normal site. Vacancies are introduced into the crystal during solidification, at high temperatures, or as a consequence of radiation damage. At room temperature, very few vacancies are present, but this number increases exponentially as temperature is increased.Srrucrure or MaTeriats 25 Interstitial atom (fa foreign atom (solute) entering a crystalline solid, occupies the interstitial space between the parent matrix (solvent) and such an atom is referred to as the interstitial atom. Substitutional ator \f a foreign atom knocks out a parent atom and occupies the position of the matrix atom, such an atom is called as the substitutional atom. Frenkel defect nan ionic solid, sometimes an ion jumps from anormal lattice point to an interstitial site, leaving behind a vacancy. This results in a vacancy-interstitial pair called Frenkel defect. Schottky defect Schottky defect is a pair of vacancies in an ionically bonded material i.e. both an anion and a cation are found missing from the lattice. Sore a9e0e0 () Figure 2.10 Point defects (a) Vacancy (B) Interstitial atom (c) Substitutional atom (@) Frenkel defect (e) Schottky defect The effect of point defects on some properties are: (i) They increase the hardness and tensile strength due to distortion of the lattice.26 ENGINEERING MaTeRtats AND METALLURGY (ii) Vacancies increase the kinetics of diffusion and phase transformation. (iii) The point defects increase the electrical resistivity. 2.5.2 Line Defects Line defects in crystalline solids are defects that cause lattice distortion around a line. A part of the line of atoms will be missing from its regular site and this missing row of atoms is called as a dislocation. The two basic types of dislocation are (i) Edge dislocation (ii) Screw dislocation Dislocations are created during the solidification of the material or when the material is deformed. Edge distocation Anedge dislocation is created in the crystal due to the insertion of an extra half plane of atoms. The atoms above the edge of the extra plane are squeezed together and are in a state of compression. Just below the extra plane, the atoms are pulled apart and are in a state of tension. There is an extra energy due to the distortion in the region immediately surrounding the edge of the incomplete plane and the magnitude of this distortion decreases with distance away from the dislocation line. The edge dislocation is said to be positive, denoted by 1 with the insertion of extra plane from the top of the crystal. T indicates negative dislocation in which the insertion of an extra plane is from the bottom of the crystal. The dislocation line is characterised by a vector called the Burgers vector. The Burgers vector of a dislocation is determined as follows. Starting from a point P, make a loop around the dislocation. We go by m number of steps right, then m steps down, then m steps left and finally m steps up. But the loop does not close, we need an atomic step distance to close the loop. This displacement vector required to close the loop is Burgers vector 6 . Burgers vector is perpendicular to the. edge dislocation line.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.30 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY REVIEW QUESTIONS Short Answer Questions ene we YP bo What is the importance of structure of materials. Write the electronic structure of iron, In general, why does bonding between atoms occur? Differentiate primary and secondary bonding. What are crystalline and non-crystalline solids? Define the terms (a) Space lattice (b) Unit cell Name the important crystal structures for metals. Define the terms (a) Co-ordination number (b) Atomic packing factor. In table on crystal structures, iron is listed as having both BCC and FCC structures. Why? . Whatare Miller indices? 1. Draw the following planes and directions in a cubic system 1D,0 TO, G2D,02) (001), 1110, (101), (101) . What is crystallisation or solidification of metals? . What is the relationship between the nucleation rate and grain size of a metal? . What influence does grain size have on the mechanical properties of metals? . What is the ASTM grain size number of a material whose micrograph shows 32 grains per square inch at magnification 100X? - . If the ball of a ball point pen is 2mm in diameter and has an ASTM grain size of 10. How many grains are there in the ball? . Whatis the crystal defect and how are crystal defects classified? . Distinguish between substitutional and interstitial atoms.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Copyrighted materialnn ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS An alloy is defined as a combination of two or more elements, of which one of the element should be a metal in major proportion. The others could be metals or non-metals; for example Brass (Cu-Zn), Steel (Fe-C). Alloys find very wide applications in the industry than pure metals. Pure metals are used where specific properties such as high electrical conductivity, high ductility and corrosion resistance are required. These properties are generally at a maximum value in pure metals, but the mechanical properties such’as tensile strength, yield point and hardness are improved by alloying. 3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYS Alloys can be either a single phase or a mixture of phases. A phase is anything which is homogeneous and physically distinct. In the solid state of alloy there are three possible phases @ Pure metal @) Solid solution (iii) Intermediate phase If an alloy has a single phase, it could be either a solid solution or an intermediate phase. If the alloy is a mixture it could be composed of any combination of the above three phases.34 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 3.1.1 Solid Solutions Solid solution is an alloy in which the solute atoms are distributed in the solvent matrix and has the same structure of the solvent. The element which is present in larger amount in the alloy is called solvent and the other element is called solute. Solid solutions are of two types namely (i) Substitutional (ii) Interstitial Ina substitutional solid solution, the atoms of the solvent metal are replaced in the crystal lattice by atoms of the solute. This substitution is either ‘ordered’ or ‘disordered’. In the ordered solid solution, the substitution of either atoms in solvent is by a definite order, while this is not so in a disordered solid solution. Substitutional solid solution formation is favoured when the atomic sizes of the two metals are almost equal. Interstitial solid solutions are formed only when the atoms of the solute element are very small compared with those of the solvent, thus enabling them to fit into the interstices or spaces in the crystal lattice of the solvent. Figure 3.1 Solid solutions (a) Ordered substitutional solid solution (e.g., Au-Cu) (b) Disordered substitutional solid solution (e.g., a-Brass) (c) Interstitial solid solution(e.g., Fe-C)Attoys aND Puase Diacrams 35 Hume-Rothery’s rules of solid solubility \nthe formation of solid solution, the solubility limit of a solute in the solvent is governed by certain factors. These factors are known as Hume-Rothery’s rules of solid solubility. . Relative Size _\f the atomic sizes of solute and solvent differ by less than 15%, conditions are favourable for the formation of solid solution. If the atomic size difference exceeds 15%, solid solution formation is extremely limited. Chemical Affinity Whentwo elements have a high chemical affinity for each other, the greater is the tendency to restrict the solid solution and to form intermediate phases. This occurs when one element is electronegative and the other is electropositive. Relative Valency A metal of higher valency dissolves only a small amount of the lower valence metal, while the lower valence metal dissolves greater amount of the higher valence metal. Crystal Type \f two metals are of the same crystal lattice and all other factors are favourable, it is possible for complete solid solubility to occur over the whole composition range. 3.1.2 Intermediate Phases or Compounds Intermediate phases or chemical compounds are formed between two dissimilar elements having widely divergent electrochemical properties. The crystal structure of a compound is different from those of the parent metals and hence their properties are different. These compounds are classified into three main groups (i) Intermetallic compounds (ii) Electron contpounds (iii) Interstitial compounds Intermetalilc compounds \ntermetallic compounds obey the valence laws and are generally formed when one metal (such as Mg) has chemical properties which are strongly metallic and other metal (such as Sb, Sn, Bi) which are only weakly metallic. Since they36 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY generally have strong bonding (ionic or covalent), they have higher melting point than the parent metals. They usually have poor ductility and low electrical conductivity. Examples are Mg,Sb,, Mg,Sn, Mg,Bi,. Electron compounds nelectron compounds, the valence laws are not obeyed but there is a fixed ratio between the total number of valence electrons and total number of atoms. There are three such ratios (i) Ratio 3:2 (@.g.,) CuZn, Cu,Al, Cu,Sn, Ag,Al ii) Ratio 21:13 (e.g.,) Cu,Zn,, Cu,Al,, Cu,, Sn,, Ag,Zn, ii) Ratio 7:4 (€.g.,) CuZn,, Cu,Sn, AgCd,, Ag Al, In the compound CuZn, copper has a valence electron of | and zinc has a valence electron of 2, giving a total of 3 valence electrons and hence the ratio of 3 valence. electrons to 2 atoms is 3:2. In the compound Cu,,Sn,, copper has a valence electron of | and tin has a valence electron of 4. Therefore 31 valence electron are donated by the copper atoms and 32 by the tin atoms, making a total of 63 valence electrons. The number of atoms present is 39 therefore the ratio is 63:39 or 21:13. These compounds haye high ductility and low hardness. Interstitial compounds nterstitial compounds are formed between certain transition metals and small non-metallic atoms. When the solid solubility of an interstitially dissolved element is exceeded, a compound is precipitated from the solid solution. In this compound, the small non-metal atoms still occupy the interstitial position, but the crystal structure of the compound is different from that of the original interstitial solid solution. Compounds of this type have metallic properties and comprise hydrides, nitrides, borides and carbides of which TiH,, TIN, TiB,, TaC, W,C, WC, Mo,C, Fe,C are typical. These compounds are extremely hard. 3.2 PHASE DIAGRAMS The properties of an alloy depend on nature, amount, size, distribution and orientation of the phases. A phase is the chemically and structurallyAutoys AND PHase DiacraMs 37 homogeneous portion of the microstructure. It has the following characteristics (i) Same structure throughout (ii) Roughly the same composition and properties throughout (iii) Definite interface between the phase and surrounding. Phase diagrams are graphical representation of phases in the system at various temperatures, pressures and compositions. The phase diagrams are constructed by using equilibrium conditions. The word equilibrium here means that the investigations are carried out by slow cooling or slow heating. Depending on the number of components (elements), the phase diagrams are called as unary (one component), binary (two component) and ternary (three component) phase diagrams. 3.2.1 Phase Rule J.W. Gibbs, American physicist derived an equation which established a definite relationship in a system between the number of phases, the number of degrees of freedom and the number of components. This equation called Gibbs phase rule which is given by P+FEC+H2 Where, P-Number of phases existing in a system under consideration F — Degree of freedom i.e., the number of variable temperature, pressure or composition that could be changed independently without changing the number of phases existing in the system. C-Number of components in the system. As an example, let us consider the phase diagram for pure magnesium to understand the use of phase rule. Fig. 3.2 shows the phase diagram of magnesium, in which the lines divide the liquid, solid and vapour phases.38 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 1000 500 Temperature (°C)———> Figure 3.2 Phase diagram for pure magnesium ” Consider a point A in the phase diagram where magnesium is liquid. At this point, the number of components is one (Magnesium) and the number of phases is one (liquid). The phase rule states that F=C-P+2 =1-1+2 =2 This result tells us that, there is two degrees of freedom and thus two variables (pressure, temperature or both) could be changed and still the liquid phase is maintained. However, point B is at the boundary between the solid and liquid portion of the diagram. The number of components is still one, but the number of phases is two. From the phase rule F =C-P+2 =1-2+2 =1 So there is only one degree of freedom and only one variable could be varied to maintain this two phases.Br ALLOYS AND PHASE DisGRaMs 39 Finally, at point C, solid, liquid and vapour phases exist. The number of degrees of freedom is F =C-Pt2 “ -3+2 =0 Since the degrees of freedom is zero, none of the variables could be changed. Most of the studies on alloy systems are done at atmospheric pressure and hence pressure is not a variable. For such a case, Gibb’s mule becomes, P+F=C+1 Now the variables are only temperature and composition. 3.2.2 Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams The phase diagrams in wide use are the binary diagrams. Binary phase diagrams are constructed when only two elements are present in the alloy. The most important binary alloy systems are classified as follows (i) Components completely soluble in liquid state (a) Completely soluble in the solid state—Isomorphous system (b) Insoluble in the solid state—Eutectic system (I type) (c) Partially soluble in the solid state—Eutectic system (II type) (d) Peritectic system (ii) Transformation in solid state (a) Eutectoid reaction (&) Peritectoid reaction 3.3 ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEM In isomorphous system, the two components are completely soluble in both the liquid and solid states. In this system, only a single type of crystal structure exists for all the compositions of components and therefore it is called isomorphous systems. The examples of an isomorphous binary alloy system are Cu-Ni, Au-Ag,-Au-Cu, Au-Ni.40 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY The phase diagram is constructed by a series of cooling curves. The Fig. 3.3(a) shows the cooling curves of isomorphous binary alloy system. Pure 20% 50% 80% Pure A BB B Temperature °C ———> Temperature °° ——> Td TT Meltirig point of A 0%B 20 40 60 80 100%B 100%A Weight percentB —» O%A (b) Figure 3.3 Construction of isomorphous equilibrium phase diagram (a) Cooling curves (b) Equilibrium phase diagramALLOYS AND PHase Diacrams 41 The first curve for pure metal A contains the horizontal portion CD during which solidification takes place at a constant temperature with liberation of latent heat. When 20% weight of B is added, the horizontal portion is no longer present. But there is a transition region of temperature LS, with completely liquid mixture at L, and completely solid mixture at S,. In between L, and S, at intermediate temperatures, there is a mixture of solid and liquid. This is the case in the regions of - L,S,, L,S,. But when 100% B is reached, the transition from liquid to solid EF is again horizontal, occuring at a fixed temperature. The upper points C, L,,L,, L,, E are connected and the resultant curve is called a liquidus curve. Similarly, the lower points D, S,,S,, S,, F are connected and the resultant curve is called a solidus curve. _The area above the liquid curve is a single phase region and corresponds to the region of stability of the liquid phase. The alloy in + this region consists of a homogeneous liquid solution. The area below the solidus curve is also a single phase region and represents the region of stability of the solid phase. The alloy in this region consists of a homogeneous solid solution (a). The region in between the liquidus and solidus represent a two phasé region where liquid and solid phases coexist. The alloy, in this region consists of both liquid solution and solid solution. 3.3.1 Chemical Composition of Phases Ata given state point (a pair of temperature and composition values), the composition of each phase is determined by drawing a horizontal line passing through the state point. This line is called the tie line and it cuts across both liquidus and solidus lines. The composition of the liquid phase is given by the intersection point with the liquidus. The composition of the solid phase is given by the intersection point with the solidus. In Fig. 34, let X be the alloy composition and 7 be the temperature of interest. This is represented by the state point O. The weight percent” of B in A in this alloy composition is % W,,. A tie line (line LS) is drawn through O, and the intersection points are dropped to the base line. The weight percent of B in liquid is % W, and in solid is % W,.42 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Temperature °C —> 100% A B ‘Weight percent B—> Figure 3.4 Binary isomorphous phase diagram—Lever Rule 3.3.2 Amount of Each Phase (Lever Rule) Lever rule is used for calculating the amount phases in any two phase region of a binary phase diagram. Let us consider the same system as shown in Fig. 3.4. At temperature T and composition X, the phases are solid and liquid. The amount of liquid in weight fraction is X, and the amount of solid in weight fraction is X,. If the total amount is _ assumed to be 1, then The derivation of lever rule is obtained by a weight balance of B in the alloy as a whole, and the sum of B in the two separate phases. Let us consider 1g of alloy and make the weight balance. Grams of B in alloy = Grams of B in Liquid phase + Grams of B in solid phase Grams of alloy Grams of liquid phase Grams of solid phase (1.9)(1) (%Wo/100) = (19)(X,)(%W/100) + (19)(Xs) (% We/100) Weight fraction Weight fraction Weight fraction of Bin alloy of Bin liquid phase of Bin solid phaseAttoys AND Puase Diacrams 43 Thus W,=X, W,+ X,W, Since X, = 1 -X, Wom (1~X) W, +X, We =WHX,W, +X, Rearranging, X,W,~—X, W, = W,-W, .. Amount of solid phase X; = (Wo —-W,/W, -W,) =arm LO/arm LS Similarly Amount of liquid phase X, = (WV -Wo/Ws -W,) = arm SO/arm LS Amount of solid _ arm LO Amount of liquid arm SO «. Amount of solid X arm SO = Amount of liquid X arm LO i.e., the tie line LS acts as a lever arm and the point O as a fulcrum point as shown in Fig.3.5 and hence it is called the lever rule. L 9 s Liquid Solid Figure 3.5 Schematic illustration of the lever rule The application of lever rule is explained by an example. A binary alloy contains 50 wt%B and is at temperature 7. At this temperature the liquid solution composition is 18wt%B and solid solution composition is 66 wt%B. Using lever rule,44 ENGINEERING MareRiALs AND METALLURGY The amount of solid phase =. S02 ‘ = 0.667 (or) 66.7% ae 66-50 The amount of liquid phase tenia 0.333 (or) 33.3% 5.5.3 Equilibrium Cooling Consider the equilirium diagram of Cu-Ni. The cooling of an alloy such as 60Cu-40Ni is studied to follow the different phase changes that occur. Here, slow cooling is considered, that is equilibrium is essentially maintained at all points along the cooling path. AtT9(1330°C) EBucaroe 455 AtT,(1280°C) . L(60Cu-40Ni) ea) 4aCu-52N) AtT2(1260°C) Solid solution (a) LA (66Cu-S4Ni) Ny ‘0(54Cu-46Ni) AtT3(1240°C} O%xNi 20 40 60 60 100%Ni a zi 0% 100%Cu cu L(72Cu-26Ni) Weight percent nickel ———» : (60Cu-40Ni) (a) AtT4(1200°C) on (b) Figure 3.6 The change in structure of a 60Cu-40Ni alloy during equilibrium cooling Fe rature #38Attoys AND PHasE Diacrams 45 The cooling of the alloy from temperature T, (1300°C)to temperature T,(1200°C)is explained below. At temperature T, the alloy isa homogeneous liquid solution. Between T,and 7, no change occurs. Atthe temperature T,, the solidification begins and the first nuclei of solid solution o starts forming. Now the first solid solution contains 48Cu-52Ni. Upon further cooling, the nickel atoms diffuse from the first solid solution to the new solid solution, reducing the amount of Ni in the first solid solution. Moreover additional Ni atoms diffuse from the solidifying liquid to the new solid solution. This increases the concentration of Cu in the liquid. So at temperature T, the new solid solution has a uniform composition of 54Cu-46Ni. This process continues, until the solidus temperature 7, is reached, where the last liquid (72Cu-28Ni) is to freeze. This liquid is very rich in Cu and solidifies primarily at the grain boundaries. However, diffusion takes place and all the solid solution is of uniform composition: Just below the solidus temperature, at 7, all of the solid solution contains a uniform composition of 60Cu—40Ni throughout. 3.3.4 Non-equilibrium Cooling When cooling is too rapid, it is extremely difficult for atoms to diffuse and produce equilibrium conditions. This non-equilibrium cooling leads to unusual structures. . Referring to the same alloy (60Cu-40Ni), solidification starts at 7, forming a solid solution containing 48Cu-52Ni. On further cooling, at temperature 7, the liquid contains 66Cu-34Ni and solid solution should contain 54Cu-46Ni. Because of rapid cooling time is not enough to achieve uniformity in the solid solution through diffusion. So the first solid o, that forms has about 48Cu-52Ni but the new solid o., contains only 54Cu-46Ni, and the average composition of the solid (c,) is 49Cu-SINi. This gives a different non-equilibrium solidus, than that given by the equilibrium phase diagram. As the temperature falls the average composition of the solid solution depart still further from the equilibrium condition i.e., the composition of the solid solution follows anon-equilibrium solidus line. The solidification does not complete until the non-equilibrium solidus intersects with the original composition of 60Cu-40Ni. But the final solid contains a cored structure with a higher melting portion surrounded by a lower melting shell. This condition is referred to as ‘coring’.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Js ALLOYS AND PHase Diacrams 47 Homogenlsation Most of the cast structures are cored to certain extent. In cored structures, the last solid formed along the grain boundaries and the interdendritic spaces are very rich in the lower melting material. This structure is undesirable particularly if the alloy is to be subsequently worked since the grain boundaries act as a plane of weakness. To eliminate the cored structure, homogenisation treatment is employed. The castings are heated to temperatures below the melting temperature of the lower melting solid and kept for a particular time. This accelerates the solid state diffusion and produces a homogeneous structure in the alloy. 3.4 EUTECTIC SYSTEM—I TYPE This system is considered as a simple eutectic, in which the metals are completely soluble in the liquid state and is entirely insoluble in the solid state. The phase diagram is developed from a series of cooling curves in the same manner described earlier. The examples of this system are Bi-Cd, Pb-As, Au-Si. A binary Bi-Cd phase diagram is shown in Fig.3.8. In the diagram C and G are the melting temperatures of Bi and Cd metals respectively..On adding Cd to Bi or Bi to Cd the melting temperature is lowered following the curves CE and GE respectively. The curves CE, GE are. liquidus curves. These curves intersect at a point E known as ‘Eutectic’ point. This name comes from the Greek word ‘Eutektos’ meaning easily melted. The composition at this point melts at the lowest temperature than any other composition. This composition is known as the eutectic composition. At Eutectic temperature, the solidification ends for a wider range of composition. This is represented bys line DF. The continuous line CDEFG is the solidus line. Because, the two components are completely insoluble in the solid state, the only solid that is formed in the beginning of the solidification is the pure metal and at the end of the solidification it is a mixture of two metals. The alloys to the left of the eutectic composition are called as hypoeutectic alloys, and those to the right as hypereutectic alloys.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS 51 Hypoeutectic. Hypereutectic Figure 3.10 Eutectic phase diagram—II type(Pb-Sn) The changes in microstructure during the cooling of various alloys are discussed below. Alloy 1(98 Pb-2 Sn) ALTo ANT, Below T,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Ators AND Prase Diacrams, 55 Alloy 1( 46Ag-S4Pt) AtTo AIT, Below P ALT; Figure 3.12 (a) Peritectic phase diagram (b) and (c) Change in structure during cooling of allay 1 and alloy 2 The changes during the cooling of various alloys are discussed below. 3.6.1 Cooling of Alloy 1(46Ag-S4Pt) Alloy 1 has a peritectic composition(46Ag-5S4Pt). The alloy is in a completely homogeneous liquid state above 7, y Solidification commences at 7, with the formation of B solid solution. Solidification of B continues until the peritectic temperature is reached. At the peritectic temperature 1200°C, the peritectic reaction occurs. In the Peritectic reaction, the liquid phase reacts with the solid phase to form a new solid phase o.. The peritectic reaction is expressed by the equation. Cooling Liquid + B — # (31%Pt) (B6%Pt) Heating (54%Pt)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ALLoys AND PHase:-Diacrams 59 Table 3.1 Types of reactions in binary phase diagrams SOLVED PROBLEMS 1. Elements A and B melt at 700°C and 1000°C respectively. Draw a typical isomorphous phase diagram between the elements A and B.Determine —__ (a) The degree of freedom in a 60A—40B alloy at 1000°C,800°C and 400°C and (b) Amount of phases in the same composition at 800°C..aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ALLOYS AND PHase Diarams 63 3. In the eutectic alloy system A-B, the composition of the three conjugate phases of the eutectic are—o-10%B, L-60%B and B-95%B.Assuming equilibrium freezing of an alloy composed of equal parts of A and B(S0A-50B). Just below the eutectic temperature, Calculate (a) the percentage of primary a (b) the percentage of eutectic a 0%B = 20%B = 40%B 60%B —80%B — 100%B 100%A ‘% Weight composition of 8. ———> Solution (a) Applying lever rule, The percentage of primary a, just below eutectic temperature(7,) 60-50 60~10 =20% «100aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.110 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 5.9 TEMPERING Hardening treatment develops maximum hardness, excellent wear resistance and high strength in the steel. At the same time, it adversely affects properties such as ductility and toughness. Hence in hardened condition, steels are generally brittle. The degree of brittleness increases with increasing carbon content and severity in the cooling rate. Moreover, high residual stresses are developed due to the formation of martensite. Therefore, hardening is always followed by another treatment known as tempering. Purpose The purpose of tempering is to relieve the residual stresses and improve ductility and toughness of the hardened steel. The gain in ductility and toughness is usually attained at the loss of hardness and wear resistance. Process The process consists of heating the steel below the lower critical temperature (typically 150-630°C) followed by cooling in air or at any other desired cooling rate. Structural changes As martensite is a supersaturated solid solution, if energy is supplied by tempering, it decomposes to a two phase microstructure consisting of BCC alpha ferrite and small particles of carbide. With increasing temperature, the carbide particles coalesce and grow. Depending on the range of temperature, tempering is classified into following types. (i) Low temperature tempering or first stage tempering . At this stage, the maximum temperature to which steel is heated is restricted to about 200°C. This results in the decomposition of high carbon martensite into low carbon martensite and transition carbide (Fe, ,C) called e-Carbide. This structure is unresolvably fine and etches dark. This is known as black martensite. Due to the above change in structure there is a marginal decrease in the hardness value but toughness improves to a lesser degree. Most of the residual stresses are relieved.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.136 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Direction of feed . (@) Figure 5.32 Flame hardening methods (a) Stationary (b) Progressive (c) Spin (a) Progressive spin Depth of hardened layer depends on the following parameters: (i) Distance between the gas flames and the component surface (ii) Gas pressures and ratios ii) Rate of travel of flame head or component (iv) Type, volume and application of quench By controlling the above parameters, the depth of the layer is varied from very small to a maximum of about 5mm. Advantages (i) Large machined surfaces are hardened economically.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.140 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 3. 10. i. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. * 18. 19. 20. 21. For eutectoid steel, what is the temperature range of Pearlite transformation. from austenite? What is bainite and for eutectoid steel in what temperature range it is generally formed? What is martensite and for eutectoid steel in what temperature range it is generally formed? How does the mechanism of formation of bainite differ from the mechanism of formation of pearlite? Indicate the mechanism by which martensite is formed from austenite. How does a continuous cooling diagram differ from an isothermal - transformation diagram? _ Which types of transformation diagram (IT or CC) is more important industrially and why? Define annealing. Mention the application of stress relief annealing. What is the purpose of spheroidising annealing? On what classes of steels is it normally used? Define normalising. What is the purpose of normalising? A low carbon steel in the normalised condition is stronger than the same steel in the annealed condition. Why? What are the factors affecting the hardening process? What factors control the quenching characteristics of quenching medium? Why hardening of steel is always followed by tempering? What is austempering process and what is the microstructure produced after austempering? What is martempering process ‘and what is the purpose of this treatment? Define hardenability.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.144 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY The purpose of using alloying elements are summarised as follows. (i) To increase hardenability. (ii) To increase strength at ordinary temperature. (ii) To improve high temperature properties. (iv) To increase resistance to corrosion and oxidation. (v) To increase wear resistance. _ (vi) To improve toughness at any minimum hardness. (vii)To improve electrical and magnetic properties. 6.2 GENERAL EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS When selecting a steel for a particular job, plain carbon steels are preferable over alloy steels as alloy steels are expensive. On the other hand, an alloy steel can be used to obtain the desired properties throughout the heavy section and wherever the service conditions demand the enhanced or desired properties which are unattainable with a plain carbon steel. In some instances, use of alloy steel may intensify the problem rather than reducing them. So the designer should recognise the situations in which alloy steels are preferable. Hence, it is necessary to understand the general effects of alloying elements. The principal effects that result from the addition of alloying elements to steel are classified as follows. Solid solution formation Most of the alloying elements dissolve to some extent in ferrite and form solid solutions when added to steel. An alloying element dissolved in ferrite increases the strength and hardness of steel by solid solution strengthening, but with little or no loss to ductility. Examples are nickel, silicon, aluminium and manganese. Carbide formation Some of the alloying elements combine with carbon and form stable carbides. These carbides are extremely hard and they increase wear resistance. They also increase resistance to softening at elevated temperatures and prevent grain coarsening. Examples are niobium, titanium, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten and chromium.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.148 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY with coarse grains. Elements like vanadium, titanium, niobium and aluminium retard grain growth. These elements form fine carbides and nitrides and being insoluble at high temperature act as barriers to grain growth. Corrosion resistance Corrosion resistance of steels isimproved by the addition of elements such as chromium, aluminium and silicon. These elements form a thin dense and adherent oxide film on the surface which protects the steel from corrosion. 6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS Alloy steels are classified as follows: Based on total alloy content (i) Low alloy steels—up to and including 5%. (ii) Medium alloy steels—more than 5% but upto and including 10%. (iii) High alloy steels—more than 10%. Based on application (i) Structural grade alloy steels—used in construction and transportation industries. (ii) Stainless steels—corrosion and heat resistant applications. (iii) Tool and die steels—forming and machining tools. (iv) Special alloy steels—special applications. 6.4 STRUCTURAL GRADE ALLOY STEELS There are number of alloy steels used for structural applications. It is not possible to discuss every one of them. Alloy steels are grouped on the basis of alloying element(s) present in steel. The effect of alloying element, the general properties of alloy steels and few of their applications are discussed here. 6.4.1 Nickel Steels Nickel is one of the most important alloying element in steel: It is generally added in quantities upto 5%.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.156 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Element Effects Molybdenum | Forms stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Nickel Toughened; improves corrosion resistance. - Improves strength and hardness; Silicon improves magnetic properties and electrical conductivity. Sulphur Improves free machining properties; lowers ductility and impact strength. Fant Strong carbide former; increases Titanium | hardenability. Tungsten Improves hot hardness. Vanadium Forms stable carbides; grain refiner. 6.5 STAINLESS STEELS Stainless steels are high alloy steels that contain more than 11.5% chromium. They possess excellent corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance and a pleasing appearance. Corrosion resistance is imparted by the formation of strongly adherent chromium oxide on the surface of the steel. Due to these characteristics these steels find numerous applications in nuclear plants, power generating units, pulp and paper manufacturing plants, food processing units and petrochemical industries. Stainless steels are classified into five types. They are Ferritic stainless steels Martensitic stainless steels Austenitic stainless steels Precipitation hardening(PH) stainless steels Dur _*ainless steels ME 28aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.164 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY carbides and their presencein a hard heat resistant matrix makes these steels suitable for cutting tool applications. High speed steels contain the highest percentage (20-40%) of alloying elements than any other tool steel. Carbon and chromium in these alloys provide hardenability. Vanadium (up to 1%) is used for grain refinement. Higher vanadium content provides abrasion resistance and improves cutting efficiency with abrasive materials. Cobalt additions promote excellent red hardness. High speed steels are divided into two types depending upon the principal alloying element—tungsten base, molybdenum base. Tungsten base steels Tungsten high speed steels contain more tungsten than the other alloying elements of chromium, vanadium and cobalt. One of the most popular grade is designated as 18-4-1 high speed steel. It contains about 0.7% carbon, 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% vanadium. Molybdenum base steels Due to the high cost and scarcity, tungsten has been substituted partly by molybdenum and these are known as molybdenum high speed steels. These are relatively cheaper than tungsten high speed steels and are now widely used. The most widely used grade contains 0.85% carbon, 6% tungsten, 5% molybdenum, 4% chromium and 2% vanadium. 6.6.6 Mould Steels These steels are low in carbon content and contain Cr and Ni as the primary alloying elements. They have very low hardness in the annealed condition. A desired mould cavity is formed by forcing a master hub into this soft steel blank. After this, it is carburised to increase the surface hardness for obtaining wear resistance. They are used for low temperature die-casting dies and for moulds for injection/ compression moulding of plastics. 6.6.7 Special Purpose Tool Steels Low alloy tool steels The principal alloying element of this group is chromium. The properties—wear resistance, toughness,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.168 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Rare earth elements such as cerium and lanthanum are used in HSLA steels for shape modification of sulphide and oxide inclusions. These elements combine with oxides and sulphides to form globules with lower plasticity so that they do not deform during hot rolling. This underformable particles in the proper concentration produces steel with isotropic properties. HSLA steels offer the maximum strength with minimum carbon content while preserving weldability, machinability and formability. Because of their high strength-to-weight ratio, weight savings of 20-30% is achieved without sacrificing the strength and safety. Rolled and welded HSLA steels are used in automobiles, trains, buildings and bridges. 6.7.4 Interstitial Free(l-F) Steels Vaccum degassed steels containing very small amounts of titanium and/or niobium are known as interstitial free steels. These additions combine with interstitial dissolved atoms of carbon and nitrogen and form precipitates of TiC, TiN and NBCN. Since no carbon or nitrogen now remains in the solid solution of ferrite, the steel has very low yield stress combined with a high ductility. These have excellent formability as cold rolled annealed sheets. These steels are used to fabricate auto body parts of difficult shapes. 6.7.5 Dual Phase Steels Dual phase steels are low carbon alloys containing additions such as manganese, silicon and vanadium. The microstructure consists of fine ferrite and islands of martensite or lower bainite. A fter cold rolling the steel is heated to a temperature range varying from 730-760°C and rapid cooling to room temperature at a sufficient rate causes the austenite to transform to martensite or lower bainite. The tensile strength is proportional to the percentage volume of martensite or lower bainite in the structure. These steels have high ultimate strength, low yield stress, continuous yielding, high rate of work hardening and large uniform elongation. They are widely used to make bumpers, wheels, discs, door panels and other automotive components.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.172 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Formability (applicable to sheet only) DI D2 D3 - Drawing quality - Deep drawing quality - Extra deep drawing quality No symbol - Commercial quality Surface finish (applicable to sheet only) Fl F2 F3 F4 BS F6 FT F8 F9 F10 Fil Fi2 F13 F14 Treatment Tl T2 £3 T4 TS T6 T7 T8 T9 T1O Tu General purpose finish Full finish Exposed Unexposed Matt finish Bright finish Plating finish Unpolished finish Polished finish Polished and coloured blue Polished and coloured yellow Mirror finish Vitreous enamel finish Direct annealed finish Shot peened Hard drawn Normalised Controlled rolled Annealed Patented Solution treated Solution treated and aged Controlled cooled Bright annealed Spherodisedaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.176 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Example X 10 Crl8 Ni9 $3 High alloy steel 0.1% carbon content 18% chromium 9% nickel Pickled condition Alloy tool steels The designation is similar as low, medium and high alloy steels except that the symbol ‘T’ is included in the beginning of low and medium alloy tool steels and ‘XT’ instead of X in the case of high alloy tool steels. Example XT 75 W18 Cr4 V1 High alloy tool steel 0.75% carbon 18% tungsten 4% chromium 1% vanadium Free cutting alloy steels The steel designation is as for low, medium and high alloy steels except that the chemical symbol of the element S, Se, Te and Zr present followed by the figure indicating 100 times its content. Example X15 Cr25 Nil5 $40 Alloy free cutting steel t— 25% chromium t— 15% nickel L— 0.4% sulphur Another steel designation popularly used in Indian industries is “En” series (English number or European norms). The En Series is used to identify steels within the British standard specification BS970-1955.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cast Irons 183 7.2.1 Effect of Rate of Cooling Rate of cooling has a significant effect on the microstructure of cast iron. A high rate of cooling tends to favour the formation of cementite rather than graphite. This results in a hard, unmachinable ‘white’ structure. Slow rate of cooling favours the graphitisation and results in a ‘grey’ structure. This effect is important in castings of varying sections. The thin sections cool at a much faster rate than the thick ones. Consequently, the thinner sections are white and have higher Brinell values. The thicker sections are grey and softer. Fig. 7.1 shows the effect of rate of cooling in a step casting. Thickness of step bar(mm) 12 36 \ ‘ Brinell hardness HB Figure 7.1 Effect of rate of cooling on the structure of cast iron 7.2.2 Effect of Chemical Composition Ordinary cast irons contain upto 10% of alloying elements like carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus. The effect of these elements on cast iron are dealt here. Carbon Carbon favours graphitisation and hence increasing the carbon content produces more graphite leading to the formation of grey cast iron. But when the carbon content is low, and the coolingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cast Irons 187 Figure 7.4 Space models of flake graphite The matrix in which the graphite is embedded decides the strength of grey cast iron. If the composition and cooling rate are such that the eutectoid cementite also decomposes, then the matrix is ferritic. But if decomposition of the eutectoid cementite is prevented, the matrix is entirely pearlitic. Grey cast irons have the following composition range— 3.2-3.7% C, 2.0-3.5% Si, 0.3-0.8% Mn, 0.1-0.2% P, 0.06—-0.1% S. The mechanical properties depend on the size and distribution of graphite flakes. The reduction in size and increase in distribution improves the quality of grey cast iron. This is achieved by the addition of small amounts of material known as inoculant. Inoculating agents that are used are Al, Ti, Zr, SiC, calcium silicide or combination of these. ‘Grey cast irons have good compressive strength, excellent machinability and good bearing properties. But the weak graphite flakes interrupt the continuity of matrix and act as voids in the structure. Because of this, the grey cast irons are weak in tension and have negligible ductility. Moreover, the sharp edges of the flakes act as notches or crack initiation sites and make the material brittle in nature. On the other hand, the presence of graphite flakes favours the dissipation of vibrational energy due to internal friction and gives the material an excellent vibration damping capacity.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cast Irons 191 Figure 7.7 Malleable cast iron—Graphite rosettes in Serrite matrix 200X 7.6.2 Types of Malleable Cast Iron Depending on the microstructure, the malleable irons are classified as (i) Ferritic (ii) Pearlitic malleable cast iron. The ferritic malleable irons are further classified as (a) Black heart (b) White heart based on the appéarance of fracture. Black heart matieable _\n the black heart process, the white iron castings are packed in heat resistant boxes with sand. The sand serves as a filler and excludes air. These boxes are loaded into an annealing furnace. The treatment temperatures are varied between 850-950°C and the duration is about 50-170 hours. This prolonged annealing causes the austenite to break down into small rosettes of temper carbon. A fractured section would be black and hence the term ‘black heart’.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cast Irons 195° The spheroids interrupt the matrix to a lower extent in comparison to the flaky graphite in grey cast iron. Hence the mechanical properties such as tensile strength, ductility and toughness are superior to grey cast iron. Due to this, nodular cast iron is also called as ‘Ductile iron’. The irons that consist of graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix have high ductility and toughness and those consisting of graphite nodules in a pearlite matrix is characterized by high strength. The mechanical properties of nodular iron are—tensile strength 400-700 MPa, yield strength 270-390 MPa and percentage elongation 10-20%. The various applications of nodular iron are for agricultural implants, tractor parts, crank shafts, piston and cylinder heads, electrical fittings, switch boxes, motor frames, flywheels, pulleys, metal working rolls, furnace doors, bearings etc. 7.8 COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRON Another type of cast iron called compacted graphite iron has also begun to attract considerable attention. It was first produced commercially in 1976. Compacted graphite iron is produced when the molten iron is first desulphurised in the ladle and then treated at 1400°C with a single alloy containing appropriate amounts of Mg, Ti, Ce. These cast irons contain short and stubby graphite flakes and have rounded edges. This graphite is sometimes called vermicular (worm like) graphite. - we tt Figure 7.10 Compacted graphite cast iron—Rounded graphite flakes 100Xaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Non-Ferrous AtLoys 227 Temperature’C ———» 4 100A Alloy 1008 7 Weight%B ——> Figure 8.2 A typical equilibrium diagram showing decrease in solubility with decreasing temperature There are three steps in the precipitation hardening treatment. Step 1: Solution treatment In this step, the alloy is heated to a temperature between the soluvus and solidus temperature, (such as T in Fig. 8.2). The alloy is held at this temperature until a homogeneous solid solution is formed. This step dissolves the secondary phase and reduces any segregation present in the original alloy. Step 2: Quenching The alloy is rapidly cooled to room temperature, usually in water. The structure of the alloy after water quenching consists of a ‘supersaturated solid solution’. Step 3: Ageing Supersaturated solid solution is in a high energy state and this energy state is unstable. So the alloy seeks a lower energy state to become stable. The lowering of energy favours the diffusion of solute atoms and precipitates growth. This is known as ageing. Ageing the alloy at room temperature is called natural ageing whereas ageing at elevated temperature is called artificial ageing. The ageing temperature lies between the solutionising temperature and room temperature.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Ptastic DEFORMATION AND FRACTURE OF Metats 241 @ | i) Cais OS VOD ET (i) (a)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.264 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY The cup and cone fracture is the most common and it occurs in several stages (Fig. 9.19) (i) Ductile fracture in tension is usually preceded by a localised reduction in diameter called ‘necking’. Necking begins at the point of instability where the increase in strength due to strain hardening fails to compensate for the decrease in cross sectional area. The formation of the neck introduces a triaxial state of stress in the region. (ii) Many fine cavities form within the necked region. 1 I | (a) (b) {c) Shear. Cup Cone’ ibrous | | (d) (e) Figure 9.19 Stages in cup and cone fracture (a) Initial necking (b) Fine cavity formation (c) Coalescence of cavities to form a crack (d) Crack propagation (e) Final fractureaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.272 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY The stress required to move the dislocations increase rapidly with decreasing temperature and this stress exceeds the yield stress at some instant. At temperatures below the transition temperature, the stress to propagate a crack is equal to the yield stress. So at temperatures lower than the transition temperature, the metal is brittle. Transition temperature is a function of several factors (i) Transition temperature is sensitive to alloy composition. For example, transition temperature of stecls rises rapidly with increasing carbon content. Steels with higher carbon content is more liable to brittle fracture near room temperature. Phosphorus has an even stronger effect, in raising the transition temperature of steel. Manganese and nickel depress the transition temperature. (ii) Fine grained metals have a lower transition temperature as compared to coarse grained metals. (iii) Sharp notches in the metal provide stress concentration centres and hence increase the transition temperature. (iv) High strain rate increases the transition temperature. Effect of rate of loading Plastic flow depends on the movement of dislocations and this occurs in some finite time. If the load is applied very rapidly, it is possible for the stress to increase so quickly that it cannot be relieved by slip. A momentary increase of stress to a value above the yield stress then produces brittle fracture. Effect of triaxial state of stress The stress required to cause brittle fracture is high under normal conditions. But even at lower external stress, the internal stress increases to the value necessary to cause brittle fracture under the action of triaxial stresses. This triaxial stress condition is due to the residual stresses from prior treatment and any stress raisers like notches. All these factors need not be present at the same time to produce a brittle fracture. A triaxial state of stress that exists at a notch and a low temperature cause most of the brittle failures and these effects are accentuated at a high rate of loading.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Pouymers 293 10.4 GLASS TRANSITION Glass transition phenomenon occurs in amorphous and semicrystalline polymers. When cooled from a liquid melt, the liquid transforms to a ‘rubbery’ state and finally to a rigid solid. The temperature at which the polymer, experiences the transition is termed as ‘glass transition temperature Ty. When the polymer cools, the specific volume changes ata different rate. Fig. 10.5 shows the plot of specific volume versus temperature. The curve ACD for totally amorphous polymers is continuous but there is a slight decrease in slope at the glass transition temperature T,, In the curve ABHI for totally crystalline solid (like metal) there is a sudden decrease in the specific volume at melting temperature T.,. The curve ABEFG, for semicrystalline polymers shows an intermediate behaviour of both melting (crystalline) and glass transition (amorphous) phenomenon. Specific volume. ———> ' Crystalline solid 4 9 Tm Temperature ———> Figure 10.5 Specific volume vs temperature upon cooling from the liquid meltaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Potymers 299 Structure and Properties The presence of the large chlorine atom causes strong dipole moments. These dipole moments produce strong cohesive forces between the polymer chains. This makes the polymer stronger and brittle. PVC has good electrical properties and high solvent resistance. PVC has high flame and chemical resistance because of its high chlorine content. PVC are classified as (i) Rigid PVC (ii) Plasticised PVC Rigid PVC Rigid PVC is difficult to process and has poor toughness. The melt flow and mouldability can be improved by blending with rubbery resins. The resins form small and soft dispersions in the matrix of the rigid PVC. These dispersions absorb impact energy so that the toughness of PVC is improved. Rigid PVC has good dimensional stability, good water resistance - and good resistance to acids and bases. Applications (i)_In building construction, rigid PVC is used for low cost piping, window frames and electrical conduits. (ii) In industry, rigid PVC is used for guards, ducts, tanks and hoods that require high corrosion resistance. Plasticised PVC The plasticisers are added to PVC to induce softness and flexibility. The most commonly used plasticisers are phthalate esters. Applications (i) Plasticised PVC is used in furniture and auto upholstery fabrics, waterproof coatings for bags dnd folders and shower curtains. (ii) It is also used in electrical insulation, flexible garden hoses, gaskets, seals and insulation tapes. (iii) In industries it is used as a corrosion-resistant coatings applied on metals,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.304 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Nylon can be polymerised by the addition of ring compounds that contain both organic acid and amine group. For example, nylon 6 can be polymerised from 6 carbon ring compound (€- Caprolactam). Polymer Repeating Unit H O° | ll N—CH,~ CHy- CHy~ CH)—CH)—C Nylon 6 Other commercial polyamides. by addition polymerisation are Nylon 11, Nylon12. Nylons are also produced by condensation reaction between a diamine and organic acid. The basic reaction is 9 . 9 l I NH2R + R—-C— OH ——> R—C— NHR + HO Amine Acid Polyamide The important commercial nylons made by this type of reactions are nylon 6/6, nylon 6/10 and nylon 6/12. Polymer Repeating Unit of Nylon 6/6 H ° ° I | ll N—(CHp)s—N—C—(CHp)p—C H a In the designation 6/6, 6/10 and 6/12 the first number represents number of carbon atoms in the reacting amine and the second number represents the number of carbon atoms in the organic-acid.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Po.ymers 311 Applications . (i) Films are used for circuit board types of applications where operating temperatures are high. (ii) In resin form, they are used as adhesives. (iii) Graphite or PTFE added grades are used as self-lubricated bearings because of their tribological properties. (iv) Composite with polyimide matrix are used in space shuttle applications. Polyamide-imide (PAI Polyamide-imides are high temperature, high strength polymers. They are formed by a condensation reaction between trimetallic anhydrides and various diamines. Polymer Repeating Unit Structure and Properties These polymers have a chemical structure, which has the combination of nitrogen bond of a polyamide and the ring structure of polyimide. These polymers have high strength and high maximum operating temperature (as high as 275° C). The impact strength is comparable to that of other engineering polymers. PAIs are costly polymers. Applications (i) Valves made from PAI are used in hot water systems. (ii) Because of their strength at elevated temperatures PAIs are used in the under hood plastic parts of automobiles and high temperature electrical applications.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Potymers 317 Applications (i) Glass reinforced polyester composites are used for making automobile panels and body parts, boats and fishing poles. (ii) They are also used in pipes and tanks where good corrosiqn resistance is required. Table 10.3 Some properties of selected thermosets Impact | Densi Tensile strength, Max. use Material strength ’ | temperatur| (kg/m Izod (MPa) (im) CO) Phenolic Wood flour filled 1340-1450 | 34.5-62 11-32 150-177 Mica filled | 1650-1920 | 37.9-48.3 | 16-21 120-150 Glass filled | 1690-1950 | 34.5-124 | 16-961_ 177-288 Urea Cellul filled | 1470-1520 38-896 |u21 = | 77 Melamine Cellulose 1450-1520 | 345-62 11-21 120 filled Glass filled | 1800-2000 | 34.5-69 |.32-961 150-200 ° Epoxy - No filled 1060-1400 | 37.6-89.6 | 11-534 120-260 Glass filled | 1700-2000 | 60.1- 434-1601 | 150-200 206.8 Polyesters Glass filled 55.2-138 1700-2100 427-1174 | 150-177 10.9 ELASTOMERS The term elastomer is derived from the words ‘elastic’ and ‘mer’. Elastomers or rubbers are special type of linear amorphous polymers - which undergo large amount of elastic deformation without ruptureaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Porvmers 323 \} Figure 10.7 Stages in the deformation of a semicrystalline polymer 10.10.3 Viscoelasticity and Creep Polymer materials undergo time dependent deformation when they are under a constant load at a constant temperature. Such a deformation is termed as creep. The creep deformation of thermoplastics is due to its viscoelastic behaviour. For the viscoelastic behaviour, the applied stress results in an instantaneous elastic strain, which is followed by a viscous time dependent strain. This behaviour is primarily dependent on temperature. At temperatures below glass transition temperature, they behave like other solids. The creep rate is low due to the restrictedaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Cn Which material would you find more suitable for the following applications: © Floor tiles to resist spills, scratching and abrasion. ° Anelectrical insulator to be used at high temperatures. © A small light weight bearing with high rigidity and hardness. * Protective skin of a space shuttle orbitor made of aluminium and its surface temperature reaches 1400°C as it takes off. The answer for the above question is ceramic materials. Ceramic materials are complex chemical compounds composed of both metallic and non-metallic elements, bonded together primarily by ionic and/or covalent bonds. Alumina, for example, is a ceramic composed of metallic aluminium and non-metallic oxygen atoms. The term ceramic is derived from Greek word ‘keramikos’ which means ‘burnt stuff’ because the desired properties of ceramics are normally achieved through the high temperature heat treatment process called firing. The general properties of ceramics are (i) They are hard, wear resistant and brittle with low toughness and ductility. (ii) ‘They are good electrical and thermal insulators due to the absence of conducting electrons. (ii) They have relatively high melting temperature and good chemical stability, :aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.: 346 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 11.3 DEFORMATION AND FRACTURE OF CERAMICS Ceramics are brittle in nature. They are relatively weak in tension and strong in compression. Their compressive strengths are 5 to 10 times higher than their tensile strengths. Ceramic materials have little or no plastic deformation. For ionic bonded crystalline ceramics, the plastic deformation occurs due to the movement of dislocations as in metals. But there are only few slip systems in these materials. Moreover, during the slip in some directions, if ions of same charge are brought together they repel each other and the slip is restricted. This increases the hardness and brittleness of the material. In covalent bonded ceramics, the bonding involves exchange of electron charge between the electron pairs. When covalent crystals are stressed, the electron pair bonds are separated which lead to the brittle fracture: When non-crystalline ceramics are stressed, plastic deformation occurs due to its viscous flow that is the ions or atoms slide past one another like a liquid. 11.3.1 Low Temperature Brittle Fracture At room temperature and up to an appreciable temperature range, the ceramic materials exhibit brittle fracture, The brittle fracture process consists of two stages (i) Formation of cracks (ii) Propagation of cracks through the cross section. Crack formation Ceramic materials have micropores and their presence is inevitable. These flaws act as stress raisers and they amplify the magnitude of an applied tensile stress (Refer Griffith theory of brittle fracture). Since the tip radius is very small, the stress intensification. is quite large. When the stress at the pore reaches a critical value, a crack forms.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.352 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Gi) Porosity Increasing porosity in the ceramic:reduces the cross sectional area and increases the stress intensity level for a given load. Moreover, the pores make the grain boundary sliding easier. As a result, the creep resistance decreases. (iii) Impurities Cracks nucleate at impurity concentration locations and amorphous regions. If the glass phase is present at the grain boundaries, it permits creep by viscous flow. (iv) Temperature High temperatures reduce the strength of grain boundaries, increase the rate of diffusion and encourage the formation of glassy phase. All these lead to a higher creep rate. 11.3.3 Thermal Shock When aceramic is used at elevated temperature, because ofits inherent brittleness, it is subjected to a special engineering problem called thermal shock. Thermal shock is defined as the fracture of the material due to the temperature change. Thermal shock depends on two fundamental thermal properties: @ Gi) Thermal expansion Thermal conductivity . In the first case, if the ceramic is heated to an elevated temperature ~ and is not allowed to expand uniformly by a constraint, a failure stress (compressive) is built up. This causes fracture. Constraint Fracture dhe due of thermal expansion oan stress (6) Ta>>Tr Figure 11.5 Thermal shock resulting from constraint of uniform thermal expansionaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Copyrighted materialaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.360 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 12.3 REINFORCEMENTS Reinforcements of composites can be (i) Fibres (ii) Whiskers (ii) Particulates. They are discussed in this section. 12.3.1 Fibres Fibres are the most important class of reinforcements. Fibres are characterised by one long axis with two axes circular. The diameter of the fibres vary from 10 microns to 100 microns. Common fibre configurations aré shown in Fig. 12.1: (a) () Figure 12.1 Fibre configuration (a) Unidirectional continuous (0) Bidirectional continuous (c) Unidirectional discontinuous (a) Random discontinuousaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Composites 365 Particulates have different shapes like square, triangular and round. The dimensions of all their sides are more or less equal. But the particulates have no preferred orientation. Table 12.1 shows the properties of fibresreinforcement materials. Table 12.1 Properties of selected fibreereinforcement materials Tensile | Modulus | Melting strength of mp. (GPa) elasticit x. eg 4s 124 500 Material | Densit (kg/m Polymers Kevlar 1440 38.1 Polyethy- 970 In 1 18.0 lene Metals bs 1940 3410 Boron 2570 2030 ‘Ceramics Aluminium 3950 oxide Silicion carbide 47 21 379 2015 98.6 39 482 2700 120.1 35 B <1725 | 29.0 4s 87 Somme al (c) @ Figure 13.4 Stress-strain diagram for various materials (a) Ductile material (b) Ductile material with upper and lower yield points (c) Brittle material (d) Polymer material a—> In the case of brittle materials (Fig. 13.4(c)) like grey cast iron and ceramics, the plastic deformation preceding the fracture is less or negligible. In more brittle materials, the failure occurs at the maximum load, where the tensile strength and breaking strength are the same. In very few brittle materials yield strength, tensile strength and breaking strength are all the same. Even though the stress-strain curve for a semicrystalline polymer (Fig. 13.4(d)) resembles a ductile metal, the behaviour may be inaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.392 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Scratch hardness is measured according to Moh’s scale. It consists of 10 standard minerals and each one of them is assigned a hardness number. The softest mineral is talc whereas the hardest mineral is diamond as given in Table 13.3. The hardness of the material is _ measured by scratching its surface with these minerals. If a material is scratched by No. 6 and not by No. 5, the hardness value is between Sand 6. Moh’s scale is widely used for measuring hardness of minerals and ceramics. Table 13.3 Standard Moh’: scale of hardness Mineral Moh’s hardness 1 Corundum Diamond 10 Rebound hardness is measured by an instrument called scleroscope (from the Greek word skleros, meaning hard). In this method, an indenter is dropped onto the surface of the test material from a certain height and the height of rebound is measured. This height is expressed in terms of some arbitrary number, which indicates the hardness of the material. The higher the rebound, the larger the number and harder the material. Inindentation hardness measurement, an indenter of known material and.well defined geometry is pressed into the workpiece under certain conditions. The depth of indentation obtained is used as a hardness measuring parameter. Indentation hardness test is very widely used for metals and alloys. The three most common types are Brinell hardness, Vickers hardness and Rockwell hardness tests.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.MECHANICAL TESTING OF MaTeriAts~ 399 indenter, which is ground to an elongated pyramid shape. The indenter includes transverse angles of 130° and longitudinal angles of 172° 30’. The load applied in this test ranges from 25g to 5kg. Knoop indenter produces a rhombus-shaped indentation with a long diagonal about 7 times the short diagonal which can be measured and is related to Knoop Hardness Number (HK or KHN) as shown by the following equation. P HK=—— PC Where P- Appliedload, kg L- Length of long diagonal, mm C- Knoop indenter constant Figure 13.10 Knoop diamond pyramid indenteraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.MECHANICAL TesTING OF MATERIALS 407 Revolution Specimen Motor, counter Figure 13.14 Schematic diagram of fatigue testing machine Initially the upper surface of the specimen is subjected to tension whereas the lower surface experiences compression. When the specimen revolves, after an half revolution, the upper surface is in compression and the lower is in tension. Thus the stress at a particular point goes through a complete sinusoidal cycle from maximum tensile stress to maximum compressive stress. During rotation, the specimen is subjected to number of stress cycles and after sufficient number of cycles, the specimen fails. 103, 105 107 109 Number of cycles N———_» Figure 13.15 S-N curves for different materialsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.414 ENcINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Long Answer Questions 1, Sketch a stress-strain curve and describe the events that occur when a specimen undergoes a tensile test. 2. Discuss the properties determined from the tensile test. 3. Explain how the flexural strength of brittle materials determined by using bend test. 4. Describe how the torsion test is conducted and what are the properties determined from this test? 5. Explain the testing procedure for Brinell hardness test and give the advantages and limitations of this test. 6. Explainthe testing procedure for Vickers hardness test and mention the advantages and limitations. 7. Explain the testing procedure for Rockwell hardness test and list ‘the advantages and limitations. 8. Describe the procedure of Charpy impact testing and the properties obtained from it. 9. Explain the method of testing the materials for fatigue and how are the fatigue data presented. 10. Draw a typical creep curve and explain the various stages of creep.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Two Marks Questions AND Answers 421 What are the factors affecting the hardening process? The factors affecting the hardening process are (i) Hardening temperature (ii) Holding time (iii) Quenching medium (iv) Cooling rate (v) Size and shape of steel parts and (vi) Surface condition. Why hardening of steel is always followed by tempering? Hardening of steel enhances the properties such as hardness and wear resistance. At the same time, it affects the properties such as ductility and toughness. Hence in hardened conditions, steel is very brittle. Moreover, high residual stresses are developed. ‘So tempering treatment is done after hardening to relieve residual stresses, to improve ductility and toughness of the steel. Whether austempering and martempering are tempering process, what is.the purpose of these processes? Austempering and martempering are hardening process. The purpose of austempering is either to reduce the distortion and cracking during conventional quenching or to improve ductility, and toughness while maintaining hardness. Define hardenability. Hardenability is defined as the relative ability of steel to be hardened by quenching and it determines the depth and distribution of hardness across the cross-section. Distinguish between hardness and hardenability. Hardness is a mechanical property and for a quenched steel it is maximum at the surface and varies across the cross-section. Hardenability of a steel determines the depth and distribution of hardness across the cross-section. Define carburising. Carburising is a case hardening process, in which the carbon is diffused into the surface of steel to increase its hardness.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.426 ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. Te What are the advantages and limitations of water hardening too! steels? The advantages are their high hardness, good machinability and low cost. These steels must be quenched in water to attain high hardness and therefore considerable distortion of the tool may occur. Moreover, they cannot withstand severe conditions. What elements are included in shock resisting tool steels? Shock resisting steels ‘contain a low carbon content, ranging from 0.5-0.6%. The principal alloying elements are silicon, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten. What is meant by ‘non-deforming’ tool steels? In cold work tool steels, the chemical composition and hardening heat treatment are adjusted to minimise the distortion after heat treatment. So these steels are termed as non-deforming tool steels. What are the three types of hot work tool steels? Depending upon the principal alloying element, hot work tool steels are classified as—chromium type, tungsten type and molybdenum type. What are high speed steels and name the two types? High speed steels are the steels used to make cutting tools, employed in high cutting speeds. The two types are tungsten base and molybdenum base. Give the composition of 18-4-1 high speed steel. 18-4-1 high speed steel contains about 0.7%carbon, 18%tungsten, 4%chromium and 1%vanadium. Define HSLA steels. HSLA steels are defined as a group of steels with chemical composition specially developed to impart higher mechanical properties and in certain these steels have materially greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion than is obtainable from conventional carbon steels.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.430 93. 94, 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Name some applications of*beryllium bronzes. Beryllium bronzes are used to make gears, diaphragms, flexible bellows, bourdon tubes, bearings and non-sparking tools. What are cupronickels? What is its range of composition? Cupronickels are copper-nickel alloys containing nickel upto 30%. Indicate the properties of constantan and mention its uses. Constantan is a copper-nickel alloy containing 45% Ni. It has a very high resistivity, It is largely used as resistors and thermocouple wires. List some of the applications of silicon bronzes. Silicon bronzes are used in chemical plant construction, high strength bolts, rivets, springs and hydraulic pressure lines. What are the common alloying elements in commercial aluminium alloys? The common alloying elements in aluminium alloys are copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, zinc, nickel and iron. What is duralumin and mention its applications? Duralumin is a heat treatable aluminium-copper alloy. These alloys are mainly used in aircraft and highly stressed parts due to its good mechanical properties and shock resistance. What are the effects of adding lithium to aluminium? The addition of lithium reduces the overall weightesdi increases the stiffness. What is Y alloy and mention its applications? This is an aluminium-copper casting alloy. It contains 4%Cu, 2%Ni and 1.5%Mg. This is a heat treatable alloy and it is mainly used in high duty piston and cylinder heads of internal combustion engines.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.434 120. 121. 123. ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY What are the important uses of alumina and silicon nitride? Uses of alumina (i) Alumina is usedas a refractory material for high temperature applications. (ii) Alumina based ceramic tools are used for cutting cast irons and steels. ii) It is used as an abrasive material in grinding wheels. Uses of silicon nitride = - (i) _ Silicon nitride is used as cutting tool material. (ii) It is suitable for high temperature structural applications such as components in automotive engines and gas turbines. Give some applications of silicon carbide. (i) _ Silicon carbide is used for grinding applications. (ii) It is used as a wear resistant coating for metals. (iii) It is used as resistors and heating elements for electric furnaces. . What are the important properties of PSZ and mention its applications. The important properties of PSZ are its high strength, exceptional toughness, low thermal conductivity and low friction coefficient. Applications (i) PSZ is used as die material for hot extrusion. (ii) It is used in heat engine components such as cylinder liners and valve bushings. What are the attractive properties of sialon? The attractive properties of sialon are its high hardness, high strength and light weight. It has an excellent dimensional stability with low coefficient of thermal expansion. It has good resistance to corrosion, wear and thermal shock.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.161. 162. 163. 165. Two Marks Questions AND Answers 441 Limitation The test is coarse and accuracy achieved by this test is not comparable to either Brinell or Vickers hardness tests. What are the properties determined from impact test? The properties obtained from the impact test are impact energy, transition temperature and notch sensitivity. Why are Charpy and Izod test results not useful in design? The Charpy and Izod test results are affected by number of variables. As these variables cannot be controlled, the test results are arbitrary and difficult to use in design. What is a fatigue test S-N curve? In fatigue test, the stress level (S) and number of cycles to failure (N) are plotted as a graph. Such a plot is referred to as S-N curve. . Define endurance limit in fatigue test. Endurance limit is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied for infinite number of times without failure of the material. What is the minimum creep rate with respect to creep curve and how is it expressed? The slope of the second stage of creep curve is constant and is the minimum creep rate. It is expressed in units of percent strain in a period of time, for example 1 percent/10000 hours. It is the most important design parameter derived from the creep curve.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.446 Encineerinc MATERIALS AND METALLURGY Creep 280 Creep curve 410 Creep resistance alloys 281 Creep test 408 Critical resolved shear stress 244 Crystal structures 14 Crystallisation 21 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) 341 Cup and cone fracture 263 Cupronickels 210 Cyaniding 130 D Delamination 376 Dislocation climb 280 Dislocation glide 280 Dispersion hardening 260 Dual phase steels “168 Ductile-brittle transition 271 Ductile fracture 263 Ductility 384 Duplex stainless steels 159 Duralumin 214 Durometer test 400 E Edge dislocation 26 Elastic limit 383 Elastomers 317 Electronic structure & Endurance limit 408 Endurance strength 408 Epoxies 315 Eutectic system—I type 47 Eutectic system—lII type 50 Eutectoid reaction 57 F Fatigue 273 Fatigue failure 275 Fatigue life 408 Fatigue stress cycles 273 Fatigue test 406 Ferrite 69 Ferritic stainless steels 157 Fibre pull out 376 Fibre Reinforced Plastics(FRP) 367 Fibres 360 Flame hardening 134 ” Fracture toughness 348 Frank-Read source 245 Free machining alloy steels 165 Frenkel defect 25 Full annealing 99 G Gas carburising 125 Gibbs phase rule 37 Gilding metal 204 Glasses 331 Glass transition 293 Glass transition temperature 331 GP-I zones 228 Grain boundary hardening 256 Grain size 22 Grey castiron 186 H Hadfield steels 166 Hall-Petch equation 257 Hardenability 114 Hardening 106 High speed steels 163 High tensile brasses 206 Hinduminium-RR350 218 Hot shortness 79 Hot work tool steels 163 Hot working 255 HSLA steels 167 Hume-Rothery’s rules 35 I I-F Steels 168 Induction hardening 137 Interstitial atom 25 Tonic bond 9aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Copyrighted material| nd ENGINEERING 2... MATERIALS AND METALLURGY This textbook provides a basic understanding of the structure, properties and applications of engineering materials. Its broad topical coverage provides a thorough overview of the fundamentals. The simple approach to concepts makes it easier for students to use the book for self-study. Tet g « Simpleand lucid style of writing = Detailed coverage of topics on Metals, Polymers, Ceramics and Composites « Numerous figuresin the chapter on Heat Treatment « Chapter-end short and long answer questions «= — Short answer questions with solutions Visit us at:www.tatamegrawhill.com sgereen- a] i SBN: be: : set | | | | craw Higher Education 7072819