120131-Perforated Sheet Metal - IPRF - CD PDF

Presented by the Industrial Perforators Association
5157 Deerhurst Cres. Boca Raton, FL 33486 www.iperf.org Phone/Fax: 1-561-447-7511
Fall 2000
IPA Regular Members - Fall 2000

ACCURATE PERFORATING COMPANY, INC. 3636 South Kedzie Avenue Chicago, IL 60632-2786 PHONE: (773) 254-3232 FAX: (733) 254-9453 email: accurateperforating@att.net WEB: www.accurateperforating.com BRANKO CORP. OF WISCONSIN 8520 - 194th Avenue/ Box 55 Bristol, WI 53104 PHONE: (262) 857-2389 FAX: (262) 857-2453 CHICAGO MIDWEST PERFORATING CO., LLC 2445 W. 24th Place Chicago, IL 60608 PHONE: (800) 791-1609 (773) 847-6757 FAX: (773) 847-6988 emaIl: iperf@aol.com WEB: www.midwestperf.com DIAMOND MANUFACTURING COMPANY 248 West Eighth Street Wyoming, PA 18644 PHONE: (800) 233-9601 (888) PERF-MTL (570) 693-0300 FAX: (570) 693-3500 email: perf@dmc.microserve.com WEB: www.diamondman.com DIAMOND MFG. CO./ MIDWEST 600 Royal Road Michigan City, IN 46360 PHONE: (800) 233-9601 (800) PERF-MTL (570) 693-0300 FAX: (570) 693-3500 email: perf@dmc.microserve.com WEB: www.diamondman.com DIAMOND MFG. CO. / SPARROWS POINT 2001 Grays Road Baltimore, MD 21222 PHONE; (800) 233-9601 (888) PERF-MTL (570) 693-0300 FAX: (570) 693-3500 email: perf@dmc.microserve.com WEB: www.diamondman.com DIAMOND PERFORATED METALS, INC. 7300 W. Sunnyview Ave. P.O. Box 5003 (93726) Visalia, CA 93291 PHONE: (800) 642-4334 FAX: (800) 241-6608 email: dpm@diamondperf.com WEB: www.diamondperf.com DUUS PERFORATING CO., INC. 242 Phelan Ave. San Jose, CA 95112 PHONE: (800) 228-DUUS (800) 245-DUUS FAX: (408) 293-5735 ERDLE PERFORATING COMPANY 100 Pixley Industrial Pkwy. Box 1568 Rochester, NY 14603 PHONE: (800) 627-4700 (716) 247-4700 FAX: (716) 247-4716 email: webmaster@erdle.com WEB: www.erdle.com ERDLE PERFORATING OF CAROLINA, INC. 10721 John Price Road, Box 7205 Charlotte, NC 28241-7205 PHONE: (800) 438-4467 (704) 588-4380 FAX: (704) 588-0488 email: webmaster@erdle.com WEB: www.erdle.com ERDLE PERFORATING CO. ,LTD. 22 Bowden Street, Box 206 Ft. Erie, Ontario, Canada L2A 5M9 PHONE: (800) 263-8177 (416) 871-8481 FAX: (416) 871-8481 email: webmaster @ erdle.com WEB: www.erdle.com FERGUSON PERFORATING & WIRE CO. 2165 Commerce Ave. New Castle, PA 16101 PHONE: (800) 341-9800 FAX: (401) 941-2950 email: sales@fergusonperf.com WEB: www.fergusonperf.com FERGUSON PERFORATING & WIRE CO. 130 Ernest Street Box 2038 Providence, RI 02905 PHONE: (800) 341-9800 (401) 941-8876 FAX: (401) 941-2950 email: sales@fergusonperf.com WEB: www.fergusonperf.com HARRINGTON & KING PERFORATING CO. 5655 Fillmore Street Chicago, IL 60644 PHONE: (800) 621-3869 (773) 626-1800 FAX: (773) 261-0966 email: info@hkperf.com WEB: www.hkperf.com
HARRINGTON & KING SOUTH, INC. 3939 Michigan Avenue Cleveland, TN 37311 PHONE: (800) 251-6026 (423) 479-8691 FAX: (423) 479-8694 email: info@hkperf.com WEB: www.hkperf.com HENDRICK MANUFACTURING COMPANY 7th Avenue & Clidco Drive Carbondale, PA 18407 PHONE: (800) 225-7373 (570) 282-1010 FAX: (570) 282-1506 email: sales@hendrickmfg.com WEB: www.hendrickmfg.com JOHNSTON & CHAPMAN CO. 2925 Carroll Ave. Chicago, IL 60612 PHONE: (773) 638-3774 FAX: (773) 638-3209 emial: jcperf@flashcom.net LAMINA DESPLEGADA, S.A. DE C.V. Nuevo Leon, Mexico Mailing Address: 5823 Northgate Suite 2032 Laredo, TX 78041-2697 PHONE: (011) 528-336-3373 FAX: (011) 528-336-3291 email: lddg@infosel.net.mx WEB: www.ladesa.com.mx LAUBECK CORPORATION 418 S. Hoffman Boulveard Ashland, PA 17921 PHONE: (800) LAU-PERF (570) 282-4344 (570) 875-2151 FAX: (570) 282-4627 email: sales@laubeck.com WEB: www.laubeck.com LAUBECK CORPORATION 166 Dundaff Street Carbondale, PA 18407 PHONE: (800) USA-PERF (570) 282-4344 FAX: (570) 282-4627 email: sales@laubeck.com WEB: www.laubeck.com McKEY PERFORATING CO., INC. 3033 S. 166th Street Box 51206 New Berlin, WI 53151 PHONE: (800) 345-7373 (262) 786-2700 FAX: (262) 786-7673 email: infomckey.com WEB: www.mckey.com
McKEY PERFORATED PRODUCTS CO., INC. 87 Volunteer Court Manchester, TN 37355 PHONE: (800) 345-7373 (262) 786-2700 FAX: (262) 786-7673 email: info@mckey.com WEB: www.mckey.com MIDWEST PERFORATING & STAMPING 2416 W. Ogden Avenue Chicago, IL 60608 PHONE: (312) 733-5822 FAX: (312) 733-2912 email: bperf@aol.com WEB: www.midwestperf.com RELIABLE PERFORATING CORP. 5895 N. Rogers Avenue Chicago, IL 60646 PHONE: (800) 572-7768 (773) 736-0601 FAX: (773) 736-6953 email: reliable@ameritech.net WEB: www.reliableperf.thomasregister.com SEMROW PERFORATING/PRAM FILTRATION CORP. 755 Seegers Road Des Plaines, IL 60016 PHONE: (800) 752-0803 (847) 827-1137 FAX: (847) 827-1141 email: pramfilt@aol.com WEB: pramfiltration.com
Designers, Specifiers And Buyers Handbook For Perforated Metals
A publication of the Industrial Perforators Association 1993
Contents A Specialized Production Resource The Wonderful Things That Holes Can Do Strength of Perforated Metal Elastic Properties of Perforated Metals (Stiffness) How Perforated Metals Are Used in Acoustical Applications Summary of Tests Conducted by the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals Pressure Loss Through Perforated Plate (Air) Pressure Loss Through Perforated Plate (Fluid) Good Reasons for Calling in Your Perforating Speci alist IPA Standard Perforations Checklist of Perforating Cost Influences Checklist for Ordering Perforated Metal Sheets & Plates Table of Gauges and Weights Selection Guide to Carbon Steel Sheets n a d Coils for Perforating Applications Selection Guide to Stainless Steel (Ref. ASTM -A240) Selection Guide to Aluminum Sheet and Pl ate (Ref. ASTM-B209) Galvanized Sheet Steel Selector The IPA Sets the Standards IPA Voluntary Standard Tolerances IPA Trade Practices Metric Conversion Table How to Cut the Cost of Steel Parts* Fraction and Decimal Equivalents Useful Information The Formability of Perforated Metals
Page 3 4 12 14 16 18 23 26 28 30 36 50 51 52 54 56 58 60 62 63 98 103 104 106 107 109
Designers, Specifiers and Buyers Handbook for Perforated Metals Page 2 of 124
A Specialized Production Resource

The member companies of the IPA constitute a highly specialized production resource for punching very large numbers of holes in a wide variety of materials with extraordinary efficiency. If you are a designer or buyer you have an interest in this capability because holes provide solutions to a great many design problems. Round holes, square holes, re ctangles, triangles, slots, decorative patterns the variety of possible shapes is limited only by the designer s imagination. Hole sizes range from a few thousandths of an inch in diameter up to more than three inches while the materials that can be perfo rated can be as thin as foil or as thick as 1 1/2 steel plate. To make holes with great accuracy and efficiency and in such enormous variety, takes a very special process. It requires a heavy investment in machinery and tools for one thing, and must be backed up by specialized technology and experience. The members of the IPA put at your disposal nearly 200 perforating presses and a bank of dies capable of perforating thousands of different hole patterns. The probability that IPA members will have intheir die banks a punch that will exactly match your requirements is better than 9 to 1. Member die banks represent an enormous resource to you as a designer. Literally thousands of patterns are available to choose from. In addition to the patterns list ed and illustrated there are hundreds of special patterns available to satisfy your unusual functional or decorative requirements. Along with all this, IPA members carry extensive stocks of standard sheet sizes and hole patterns available to you for immediate delivery. Modern high speed and electrically controlled presses can make holes as fast as 300,000 per minute and can punch with extreme accuracy, hole patterns that include pre -determined blank areas and special margins. It is this capability that p ermits designers to lay out patterns of perforations that can be perfectly accommodated by subsequent manufacturing steps such as bending and joining operations. Sheet sizes as wide as 60 are readily accommodated and coils up to 20,000 Ibs. efficiently p erforated and rewound. IPA manufacturing facilities also include many follow -up operations. They are equipped to shear to size, roll for specified flatness conditions, slit for stripping, perform welding and other joining operations, form, paint and appl y coatings after perforating.
The Wonderful Things That Holes Can Do

As consumers, we are not given to wonder much about the work that holes do for us. But, for the product designer or architect, holes in sheet metal can provide the perfect solution o ta multi-faceted design problem. Starting on page 6 of this handbook is a special color section illustrating in handsome photography the beauty and versatility, in both form and function, of perforated metal. Each application illustrates the material problems solving capabilities for industrial designers and architects usually performing several important functions simultaneously. In your microwave oven door, for example, a piece of perforated metal holds in the harmful microwaves but lets you look in side to see what s cooking. Many of perforated metals uses are relatively new. Examples include applications for sound suppression, microwave and EMI/RFI radiation containment, filtration and purification of air, water and gases. But the rapid growth in the use of perforated materials strongly suggests that just the surface has been scratched on their potential application. In the chart on the next page, we have attempted to summarize the uses for perforated materials in terms of where and how they are used, what they do and the special conditions they are called upon to meet. We grant, at the outset, that the chart is severely limited. It is presented to be suggestive and to stimulate your creative imagination.
The Uses of Perforated Materials
Function Cover Enclose Divide Decorate Ventilate Control passage of: Air Gases Liquids Light Sound Separate and size solids Filter liquids Provide display surface Guard Hide Create lighting effects Contain (Microwaves) Minimize weight Absorb sound Special Conditions Sanitary Corrosive Abrasive High temperature Low temperature Light weight Low cost
Basic Application Architectural Components: Ceilings Walls Floors Conduits Stairways Grills Dividers Acoustical surfaces Product Components: Machines, all t ypes Appliances Vehicles Aircraft Ships and boats Electrical apparatus Furniture Lighting fixtures Shelving Dryers Agricultural equipment Petro-Chemical Processing Mining Pollution controls Food processing Papermaking
Design With Endless Choices
Perforated Metal can take many shapes with uncountable choices of perforations
Whenever holes are needed, you can put them where you want in a wide choice of material specifications and finish with a part that is all one piece
Perfectly Adaptable
The Perforating process is perfectly adaptable to provide surprisingly satisfying design solutions
enhancing the look as well as the performance
Structurally Sound and Efficiently Made
Perforated components make products work bett er with holes that function several ways. Holes that ventilate while they hold in radiation
holes that make your microwave oven safe but let you see what s cooking holes that filter or select holes that freely allow the passage of sound waves, gas or liquid for whatever good reasons you may have.
Beautiful, Functional and Versatile
There are so many ways to do it better with perforated metal.
Bakers and pizza makers swear that these are the best bread trays and pizza pans around becausethe holes let the heat get to everywhere it s needed.
Keeping it Safe, Cool and Beautiful
Architects have found a thousand ways to improve your life with perforated metals.
Here, they have provided protection from UV radiation, removed noiseand kept small children safe from falling.
Improving Productivity
Production line components like these conveyor and dryer elements work better because they are perforated. But, that s just part of the story.
Perforated metal parts work moreefficiently because the perforating process is so adaptable to designer s requirements for perforations and their placement, material specifications and the shape of the finished part.
Strength of Perforated Metal

This material was developed for theIPA by O Donnell & Associates, Inc. The use of perforated materials is limited by the lack of reliable strength and stiffness properties for use in design. The following information covers the strength of materials perforated with round holes in a stan dard staggered 60 pattern as shown in Figure (1). Round holes arranged in a standard 60 triangular pattern ranging from .020 to 3/4 account for more than half of the perforating industry s production. They produce the strongest pattern and are the ost m versatile in their application. The standard 60 staggered formation is the most popular hole arrangement because of its inherent strength and the wide range of open areas it provides. In perforating this pattern, the direction of the stagger is the short dimension or width of the sheet as illustrated. The straight row of closely - spaced holes is parallel to the long dimension or length of the sheet. This is the so -called closed pattern. Under special order, the holes may be punched in the open pattern. The directional properties are then reversed from those described herein. Refer to Figure (1) for the length and width directions corresponding to the directional results given in the Tables. Equivalent Solid Material Concept The concept of equivalent solid material is widely used for design analyses of perforated materials. As applied herein, the equivalent strength of the perforated material is used in place of the strength of the solid material. By evaluating the effect of the perforationson the yield strength of the material, the equivalent yield strength of the perforated material, (S), can be obtained as a function of the yield strength of the solid or unperforated material, S. Thus, the designer is able to determine safety margins for the perforated material for any geometry of application and any loading conditions. The S/S ratios are the same for bending and stretching of the material. Having the S /S ratios for the particular penetration pattern of interest, it is therefore easy orf the designer to determine what thickness of perforated material will provide strength equal to that of the unperforated material. Perforated material has different strengths depending on the direction of loading. Values of s* /S are given for the width (strongest) and the length (weakest) directions. The values for the length direction have been calculated conservatively.
Strength of materials perforated with round holes in a standard staggered pattern:

IPA # 100 106 107 108 109 110 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131
1
Perforations .020 1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 3/32 1/10 1/8 1/8 1/8 5/32 5/32 3/16 3/16 1/4" 1/4" 1/4" 1/4" 3/8 3/8 3/8 7/16 1/2" 9/16 5/8 3/4"
Centers 1/8 7/64 1/8 5/32 3/16 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4" 7/32 1/4" 1/4" 5/16 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2" 1/2" 9/16 5/8 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 1
Holes Per sq.in. 625 -
Open Area 20% 23% 46% 36% 32% 23% 36% 40% 29% 23% 46% 36% 51% 33% 58% 40% 30% 23% 51% 40% 33% 45% 47% 51% 53% 51%
S*/S= Strength1 Width Length Direction Direction .530 .465 .500 .435 .286 .225 .375 .310 .400 .334 .500 .435 .360 .296 .333 .270 .428 .363 .500 .435 .288 .225 .375 .310 .250 .192 .400 .334 .200 .147 .333 .270 .428 .363 .500 .435 .250 .192 .333 .270 .400 .334 .300 .239 .273 .214 .250 .192 .231 .175 .250 .192
Notes:
S* = Yield strength of perforated material S* = Yield strength of unperforated material
Length Direction = parallel to straight row of closely spaced holes (see Fig. 1) Width Direction = direction of stagger
Elastic Properties of Perforated Metals (Stiffness)

This material was developed for the I.P.A. by ODonnell & Associates, Inc. There are many potential new applications where perforated materials could be used. In many of these uses, however, the strength and stiffness properties of the perforated sheet are very important. The following information covers the stiffness properties for the standard 60 tri angular penetration pattern. Since perforated materials can potentially be used in so many applications involving different geometries, materials and loading conditions, design data are given in a very general form. The ratio of the effective elastic mod ulus of the perforated material, E*, to the elastic modulus of the unperforated material, E, and the effective Poisson s Ratio, v* , are given. These values are given for all the Standard IPA numbered perforations which cover round holes arranged in the standard 60 triangular pattern ranging from .020 to 1, and account for more than half of the perforating industrys production. Equivalent Solid Material Concept The concept of equivalent solid material is widely used for design analyses of perforate d materials. As applied herein, the equivalent stiffness of the perforated material is used in place of the stiffness of the solid material. By evaluating the effect of the perforations, the equivalent effective elastic modulus of the perforated material , E*, is obtained as a function of the elastic modulus of the solid or unperforated material, E. In addition, the effective Poisson s Ratio, v*, of the perforated material is obtained. This Poisson s Ratio may be used in cases where correction for load biaxiality is important. The effective elastic constants presented herein are for plane stress conditions and apply to the -plane in loading of the thin perforated sheets of interest. The bending stiffness of such perforated sheets is somewhat greater. However, most loading conditions involve a combination of bending and stretching, and it is more convenient to use the same effective elastic constants for the combined loading conditions. The plane stress effective elastic constants given herein can be co nservatively used for all loading conditions. Using these effective elastic properties, the designer is able to determine the deflections of the perforated sheet for any geometry of application and any loading conditions using available elastic solutions. It is therefore easy for the designer to determine what additional thickness of the perforated material will provide stiffness equal to that of unperforated material
Effective Elastic Properties for IPA Standard Perforations

IPA # 100 106 107 108 109 110 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 Perforations .020 1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 3/32 1/10 1/8 1/8 1/8 5/32 5/32 3/16 3/16 1/4" 1/4" 1/4" 1/4" 3/8 3/8 3/8 7/16 1/2" 9/16 5/8 3/4" Centers 1/8 7/64 1/8 5/32 3/16 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4" 7/32 1/4" 1/4" 5/16 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2" 1/2" 9/16 5/8 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 1 Holes Per sq. in. 625 Open Area 20% 23% 46% 36% 32% 23% 36% 40% 29% 23% 46% 36% 51% 33% 58% 40% 30% 23% 51% 40% 33% 45% 47% 51% 53% 51% E*/E .565 .529 .246 .362 .395 .529 .342 .310 .436 .529 .249 .362 .205 .395 .146 .310 .436 .529 .205 .310 .395 .265 .230 .205 .178 .205
Figure 4: Effective Elastic Modulus, E*, and Poisson s Ratio, v*, vs. Percent Open Area
How Perforated Metals Are Used in Acoustical Applications

There are two principal acoustical applications for perforated metals: 1. As a facing for something else 2. In a Tuned Resonant Absorber
1. As a Facing for Something Else

PERFORATED METAL SHEET SOUND ABSORPTIVE LAYER
Here the perforated metal is used as a protective or decorative covering for some special acoustical material; that material may be designed either to absorb sound or to reflect or scatter sound in a special wa y. So, the purpose of the perforated metal in such applications is to be so "transparent" that the sound waves pass right through it, without being diminished or reflected, to encounter the acoustical treatment that lies behind. The chart below shows typi cal sound absorbing efficiencies for glass fiber materials at different frequencies. Notice that only one inch of glass fiber is quite effective absorbing sound at high frequencies above 2,000 Hz but very inefficient absorbing low frequencies. On the other hand, six inches of glass fiber is very efficient at all frequencies (about 99% of the incident noise energy is absorbed). The design problem, here, is that the absorbing material takes up space and is expensive.
2. The Tuned Resonant Absorber
In many noise control applications, the objective is to remove or reduce sounds that occur only in a narrow range of frequencies. For such situations, it is possible to design a sound absorption system that is "tuned" to those targeted frequencies in whic h perforated metal plays a critically active role. This kind of system is called a Tuned Resonant Absorber. By employing such a system, the designer can reduce the thickness of the absorbing layer and save space and cost. This is illustrated in the chart bove. a It clearly shows that if the target frequency range centered on 2,000 Hz, an absorbing layer of just 1" would remove nearly all of that sound. In a resonant sound absorber (refer to diagram), the air motion in and out of the holes in the perforated metal sheet oscillates in response to an incident sound wave. The preferred frequency of oscillation is determined by the mass of the air in the perforations and the springiness of the trapped air layer. At that frequency, the air moves violently in and out of the holes and, also, back and forth in the sound absorptive layer where the acoustic energy is converted by friction into heat and is thereby removed from the acoustical scene. It is the interaction between the thickness of the perforated sheet and th e size and number of the holes in it with the depth of the trapped air layer, that determines the target frequency and thereby the thickness of the absorbing layer required to remove the sound. As a component of a resonant sound absorbing system, perfora ted metals provide unique capabilities. A comprehensive guide to the theory and calculations for determining perforated metal specifications for both transparent covers and resonant sound absorbing systems is offered by the IPA in a book authored by Theodore J. Schultz, Ph.D., ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS available from the I.P.A.
Summary of Tests Conducted by the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories

These tests were sponsored by the IPA to validate data developed by Theodore J. Schultz, Ph.D. and presented in his book ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS published by the Industrial Perforators Association. The perforation patterns tested are shown below. The test's objectives were: a. Determine which perforated metal specifications would provi de a high degree of sound transparency. b. Demonstrate the theories regarding Tuned Resonant Absorbers set forth by Dr. Schultz.
IPA#107: 48% Open Area
Wide Range of Perforations Provide High Transparency Test 1. compared the sound absorption performance of a bare, unprotected 4" blanket of glass fiber with the same material protected by perforated metal sheets of the specifications shown above. Results showed that there was no diminishment of the glas s fiber blanket's absorption performance by the presence of any of the perforated metal sheets. Each of the perforated -protected tests followed very closely the performance of the bare blanket at all frequency levels. Test 2. focused on the use of IPA pa ttern #115, the pattern with the least Open Area (23%) in conjunction with 4 different sound-absorbing materials. Again, the results demonstrated a high degree of transparency for the #115 material. The differences between the sound absorbing performance s of the various materials were small at their greatest divergences and the presence of the perforated metal had no effect on their performances.
Place Sound Absorbent Material Against the Perforated Metal for Maximum Transparency and Absorbency Tests 3, 4 and 5 employed #115 test samples mounted over a frame having a rigid back into which glass fiber blankets of varying thicknesses were placed. In some tests the sound -absorbing blanket was placed against the perforated sheet with or without airspace e bhind it. In others the blanket was placed against the back leaving an airspace between the face of the blanket and the perforated sheet.
The tests clearly demonstrated: 1. As a general rule, the thicker the absorbing blanket, the greater the sound absor bency. But, the thickness of the absorbing blanket showed its greatest effect below 500 Hz with the effect increasing towards the lower frequencies. Placement of the absorbent blanket against the perforated metal with an airspace behind it does not diminish sound absorbency. On the other hand, the airspace behind does not contribute to sound absorbency. Placement of the sound absorbent blanket away from the perforated metal -leaving an airspace between noticeably reduced sound absorbency. To achieve maxim um transparency of the perforated metal sheet and the greatest sound absorbing efficiency requires that the absorbent material be placed against the perforated sheet.
2.
3.
Test 6 demonstrated that when a polyethylene film was placed as a protective cover betwe en the absorbent blanket and the perforated sheet, there was a substantial loss in absorbency at frequencies above 500 Hz and the loss increased as frequencies went up. Below 500 Hz, the absorbency loss was negligible. Loss also increased with the thickness of the polyethylene film.
Dr. Schultz's Calculations Relating to Tuned Resonant Absorbers were Clearly Demonstrated (Refer to explanations of Tuned Resonant Absorber on page 17.) Riverbank's test device comprised the basic elements of a tuned Res onant Absorber with the notable exception that the perforated metal sheet was backed by a layer of aluminum honeycomb with 1" cells.
For the tests, glass fiber was pressed into the cells to varying thicknesses from 1 to 4". This assembly was placed t a the top of a box which was 4" deep from the underside of the perforated sheet to the bottom of the box.
Dr. Schultz explained the need for this design: "When the airspace is continuous, the behavior of the absorber changes greatly at different angle s of incidence of the sound. As the sound direction changes from perpendicular to the surface of the absorber (angle of incidence = 0) to the grazing incidence of 90, the resonance frequency changes drastically, rising away from the intended frequency to as much as three octaves higher." "By contrast, with the partitioned backstructure, not only does the resonance frequency remain the same as the angle of incidence increases, but the bandwidth of high sound absorption actually becomes broader." The chart on page 22 illustrates a test which used an aluminumsheet.080" thick perforated with 1/8 (.125") holes on 2 1/4" straight row centers providing an unusually small percentage of open area, .2437%. The target frequency was a low 125 Hz. Clearly the Tuned Resonant Absorber performed as expected with a Sound -Absorbing Coefficient of 1.0, very close to 100% efficiency.
Calculating the Resonance Frequency of a Tuned Resonant Absorber (TRA) To determine the resonance frequency of the TRA used in the test scussed di above, Dr. Schultz's nomogram for doing so is shown on the next page. The elements of the TRA are as follows: t e= h= P= thickness of the sheet =.080" the effective throat length of the holes in the sheet, (e = t + .8d) = .080 + .125 x .8) .l8" = distance from the perforated sheet to the back of TRA = 4" Percentage of open area = .2437%
Using a ruler, connect the point .18 on the "e" scale with the point .2437 on the P scale. Now place your ruler on the point where this line crosses the M ne li and draw a line to the 4" position on the "h" scale. Where this line crosses the "f" scale, you'll find the target frequency that should be most highly attenuated by this Tuned Resonant Absorber. The target frequency for this TRA has been determinedotbe 125 Hz. You can use this nomograph to solve for any missing component of a TRA you are designing. Clean copies of this nomogram are found in the Appendix of Dr. Schultz's book, ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS, available from the I.P.A. or ask your I.P.A. perforator to secure one for you. It can be reproduced on any copying machine.
Nomogram 1
Nomogram for Calculating the Resonance Frequency of a Tuned Resonant Sound Absorber.
Riverbank Test for Target Frequency of 125 Hz absorption through .080 aluminum with 1/8 Holes .2437 Open Area
Sound Absorption Coefficients
Third Octave Center Frequencies (Hz)
E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals

Perforated metal is being used to enclose electrical devices to attenuate the EMI/RFI radiation they emit and to ventilate them at the same time. Many questions have been asked about which perforated pattern should be used to satisfy both of these design requirements and the shielding effectiveness of various perforated patterns and materials. To answer these questions, the l.P.A. contracted with Intertek Testing Services, testing laboratories in Boxborough, MA to evaluate the shielding effectiveness of 16 perforation and material combinations at 9 frequency levels. The results of these tests with descriptions of the test samples nd a the frequencies tested are shown in the charts that follow. Results have been expressed in dB of Shielding Attenuation and in % of Attenuation. Details of the tests are available from the l.P.A. The test results show that a Shielding Effectiveness of 0 4 dB provides 99.000% attenuation of the electro -magnetic (EMI/RFI) radiation while a Shielding Effectiveness of 92 dB, the highest Shielding Effectiveness found in the tests, provides 99.997% attenuation. A Shielding Effectiveness of 40 dB is the targeted minimum in most applications. Very effective shielding was provided by most samples up to frequencies of 7 GHz. Above that frequency, some of the samples dropped below 99.000% effective, but most samples stayed comfortably above 95% effective even at the highest frequency level of 10 GHz. The obvious conclusion to be reached is that there are many perforated patterns that designers can choose from to meet their design requirements. The largest single source of leakage is along contact surfaces between two parts. If a tightly sealed electrical connection is not made, the leakage through the interface can be greater than through the structure.
E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals (continued)
Shielding Effectiveness - Attenuation in dB Hole Dia. .040 .062 .062 .072 .075 .078 .079 .100 .125 .125 .125 .125 .156 .156 .187 .187 60 Center Spacing .055 .093 .125 .100 .125 .109 .115 .187 .187 .187 .187 .187 .187 .250 .250 .250 % Open Area 48.00 40.00 23.00 47.00 32.70 46.10 42.80 25.90 40.30 40.30 40.30 40.30 63.00 35.40 51.00 51.00 Thick .022 .027 .025 .038 .049 .027 .036 .040 .030 .030 .060 .125 .057 .057 .027 .057 Mat l Alum. C.R. Steell Alum. C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel Alum. Stainless Alum. Alum. Alum. C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel Sample Size 8 x 8 24 x 24 8 x 8 8 x 8 8 x 8 24 x 24 8 x 8 8 x 8 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 30MHz 70 61 92 64 72 66 60 66 58 62 71 85 57 59 52 55 100MH 300MH 1GHz z z 70 67 84 70 70 75 64 70 62 63 72 84 58 64 52 56 80 66 90 90 90 72 88 77 57 61 69 84 59 61 49 55 56 56 68 62 72 63 66 69 49 51 58 73 48 53 37 46 2GHz 55 45 65 55 68 55 60 62 40 44 49 68 40 43 31 36 4GHz 48 48 60 52 63 54 56 62 37 38 48 84 35 43 24 33 6GHz 57 46 67 40 68 45 62 67 34 34 39 73 31 41 21 30 8GHz 35 44 35 33 43 41 33 41 31 31 35 63 29 36 19 27 10GHz 48 33 45 37 48 39 40 48 26 28 34 51 26 31 18 24
E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals (continued)
Shielding Effectiveness - % Attenuation Hole Dia. .040 .062 .062 .072 .075 .078 .079 .100 .125 .125 .125 .125 .156 .156 .187 .187 60 Center Spacing .055 .093 .125 .100 .125 .109 .115 .187 .187 .187 .187 .187 .187 .250 .250 .250 % Open Area 48.00 40.00 23.00 47.00 32.70 46.10 42.80 25.90 40.30 40.30 40.30 40.30 63.00 35.40 51.00 51.00 Thick .022 .027 .025 .038 .049 .027 .036 .040 .030 .030 .060 .125 .057 .057 .027 .057 Mat l Alum. C.R. Steel Alum. C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel Alum. Stainless Alum. Alum. Alum. C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel C.R. Steel Sample Size 8 x 8 24 x 24 8 x 8 8 x 8 8 x 8 24 x 24 8 x 8 8 x 8 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 24 x 24 30MHz 99.97 99.91 100.00 99.94 99.98 99.95 99.90 99.95 99.87 99.92 99.97 99.99 99.86 99.89 99.75 99.82 100MH 300MH 1GHz z z 99.97 99.96 99.99 99.97 99.97 99.98 99.94 99.97 99.92 99.93 99.98 99.99 99.87 99.94 99.75 99.84 99.99 99.95 99.97 99.97 99.97 99.98 100.00 99.99 99.86 99.91 99.86 99.99 99.89 99.91 99.65 99.82 99.84 99.84 99.96 99.92 99.98 99.93 99.95 99.92 99.65 99.72 99.87 99.98 99.60 99.78 98.59 99.50 2GHz 99.82 99.44 99.94 99.82 99.96 99.82 99.90 99.92 99.00 99.37 99.65 99.96 99.00 99.29 97.18 99.42 4GHz 99.60 99.60 99.90 99.75 99.93 99.80 99.84 99.92 98.59 98.74 99.60 99.99 98.22 99.29 93.69 97.76 6GHz 99.86 99.50 99.96 99.00 99.96 99.44 99.92 99.96 98.01 98.01 98.88 99.98 97.16 99.11 91.09 96.84 8GHz 98.22 99.37 98.22 97.76 99.29 99.11 97.76 99.11 97.18 97.18 98.22 99.93 96.45 98.42 88.78 95.53 10GHz 99.60 97.76 99.44 98.59 99.60 98.88 99.00 99.60 94.99 96.02 98.01 99.72 94.99 97.18 88.78 93.69
Pressure Loss Through Perforated Plate (Air)

In many applications of perforated plate, the estimated energy loss or pressure los s through perforated plates is one of the design considerations. The following pressure loss information was developed from a laboratory air flow system. The laboratory system maintained a non -swirling flow impacting perpendicularly on the sample. Vario us perforated thin gage plates were inserted into a uniform velocity air flow stream. Pressure loss for ambient air flow was then measured at a series of velocities and reported as inches of water column loss for each flow. This data, therefore, presentsthe best flow condition value of loss. Pressure loss can be estimated beyond the range of the data on the basis of the ratio of the anticipated velocity to the highest tabulated velocity. This ratio squared multiplied by the tabulated pressure loss can be used to approximate the higher velocity loss. Pressure loss can be estimated from the tables for a different gas density by using the ratio of the anticipated gas density to the tabulated density as a multiplier of the noted loss. In applying this data, consideration must be given to the actual anticipated characteristics of the flow impacting on the perforated plate. Distorted flow patterns with high velocity zones will increase the loss of the plate, as will directional flow not perpendicular to pla te surface.
Pressure Loss Through Perforated Plate (Fluid)

In many applications of perforated plate, the estimated energy loss or pressure loss through perforated plates is one of the design considerations. The following pressure loss informat ion was developed from a laboratory liquid flow system. The laboratory system maintained a non -swirling flow impacting perpendicularly on the sample. Various perforated thin gage plates were inserted into a uniform velocity liquid flow stream. Pressure s los for ambient liquid flow was then measured at a series of velocities and reported as inches of mercury loss for each flow. This data therefore presents the best flow condition value of loss. Pressure loss can be estimated beyond the range of the data on the basis of the ratio of the anticipated velocity to the highest tabulated velocity. This ratio squared multiplied by the tabulated pressure loss can be used to approximate the higher velocity loss. Pressure loss can be estimated from the tables for a dif ferent liquid density by using the ratio of the anticipated liquid density to the tabulated density as a multiplier of the noted loss. In applying this data, consideration must be given to the actual anticipated characteristics of the flow impacting on the perforated plate. Distorted flow patterns with high velocity zones will increase the loss of the plate, as will directional flow not perpendicular to plate surface.
BOYLE ENGINEERING ABORATORIES FEBRUARY 1985
Good Reasons for Calling in Your Perforating Specialist
Apart like the one illustrated calls for punching an array of holes along with several other turret press operations. It s a temptation to do them all in -house because it seems to make sense. But you are likely to have probl ems and run up costs, instead. First, to punch that array of holes requires special cluster tooling that not only is expensive but takes time to make. More than that, the tooling you make will be limited in its use to a specific material and a narrow ran ge of thicknesses because of clearance requirements between the male and female tool components. If the type and thickness of the material for the part changes, new tooling will be needed. Second, punching all of those holes with a cluster tool, just as the name implies, permits punching just a small cluster of holes with each stroke of the press. The machine time required will make those holes very expensive, indeed. Third, maintaining accuracy in the placement of the holes and uniformity in their sp acing will prove difficult because of the distortion in the work piece that occurs with every press stroke. Fourth, when the part comes out of the punching process, it will be distorted and need flattening. Without a roller leveler, you will need to sendthe part out to be put back in shape. This means even more time and money and, at this point, your Quality Control people may be beginning to hyperventilate along with your cost controller. Better let your perforating specialist put those holes in for you.. . or, better yet, make the part completely. Here are some good reasons why.
Your perforating specialist s entire production process is dedicated to perforating metal and its related operations. His is a highly specialized production resource that equires r a heavy capital investment in extremely fast and accurate perforating presses surrounded by state -of-the-art peripheral equipment all controlled by well -trained, experienced people. His modern, high -speed, electronically controlled presses can mak e holes as fast as 300,000 per minute, all with extreme accuracy. It s no trick for him to produce patterns that include predetermined blank areas and special margins. The tolerances he can hold are extraordinary. These capabilities permit designers to lay out patterns of perforations that can be perfectly matched to subsequent manufacturing operations such as bending and joining. All of this he can do in nearly every type of material in thicknesses from foil to 1 1/2 plate. Sheet sizes as wide as 60 are readily accommodated and coils up to 20,000 Ibs. Efficiently perforated and rewound. Because he is a specialist, he has accumulated extensive banks of tooling capable of perforating round holes, square holes, rectangles, triangles, slots and a wide variety of odd-shaped holes in hundreds of patterns. Hole sizes can be as small as 1/64 to over 3. The probability that he will have the tooling to match your requirements is better than 9 to 1 . . . and all of these tools are yours to choose from. He has the necessary follow -up operations, too, of which roller leveling is one, that remove the distortions, burrs and oil that the perforating process leaves behind. And, most perforators can do the secondary operations that will finish your part such asending, b welding, painting and plating. Compare your costs; these are some you need to consider: The cost of tooling The time it takes to make tools he set-up changes on your turret press The production cycle of your press Machining time Roller-leveling, de-burring and degreasing Quality considerations When you consider them all, your decision should be an easy one. You can use your perforating specialist exactly as you would use any other manufacturing department under your own roof. And he ll produce our y work faster, at lower cost and to tolerances and other standards of quality that you ll be surprised to discover go well beyond acceptable.
When Choosing Between Perforated Metal, Expanded Metal or Wire Cloth, There Is More than Price to Consider There are many applications where the product designer or architect needs to provide a component that has a perforated or otherwise open area to allow the passage of air or liquids or sound . . . or perhaps even solids as is the case in some food processi ng machinery. The choice of material for these situations usually comes down to one of three: perforated metal, expanded metal or wire cloth. A basic criterion for selection is price, of course. But, there are other more important criteria to be considere d. The intended function of the material is most important. There are some functions that only perforated metal can do. Exhibit 1 compares the functional capabilities of the three materials. Some of the functional capabilities are what you would expect to find in such a list. Ventilation, filtering, sorting and the support for sound -absorbing material used in walls and ceilings to reduce noise are all familiar applications of these materials. But, you may be surprised at some of the less obvious capabili ties of perforated metal. It s capabilities in sound managing systems go beyond being transparent to sound to allow it to pass through to absorbing materials. Perforated materials also can play an active role in systems that eliminate specific sound frequencies such as those placed in jet engine nacelles and in enclosures that surround large air conditioning or compressor units. Perforated metal is also widely used to contain various kinds of radiation and still provide ventilation or visibility; your mic rowave oven is a good example. Some of the functions listed in the chart can only be performed -and others might be better performed -by perforated metal. Important among its virtues is its great variability. Many hole shapes, sizes and patterns are availab le to offer designers and architects more choices and superior solutions to their design problems. But, there are many situations in which all three materials will perform equally as well. Is it then simply a matter of price?
Comparison of Functional Capabilities
Exhibit 1 Perforated Metal ACOUSTICAL CAPABILITIES: Transparent to sound Absorbs specific sound frequencies RADIATION CONTAINMENT: EMI/RFI Microwaves VENTILATION : Allows Airflow FILTRATION I SORTING Control of flow rate Control of particle size contained AESTHETICS: Control of design Control of lighting Control of ventilation Control of sound FABRICATING/STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS Open area is part of a basic structural component and derives its strength and physical properties from it. Open area is separate and attached to the structural component and has its own strength and physical properties. Y N N Expanded Metal Wire Cloth
Y Y
Y N
Y N
Y Y
N N
N N
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y Y Y
N N N N
N N N N
Material costs do not tell the whole story
Exhibit 2
There are fabricating considerations that can be more important to the ultimate costs of the choice. Consider Exhibit 2, for example. This stainlesssteel part was finished in two operations: Three panels of perforations were made with a single pass through the perforator s press and then the part was formed in a press brake. The part is all in one piece. Using expanded metal or wire cloth to provi de the open area would require at least five operations: a punch press operation to open the windows, a bending operation to form the structure and finally three welding operations to fasten the open material to the structure. Instead of one piece, ere th are four work pieces involved. And certainly the welding operations will not provide the finished result you see in the perforated piece. The costs of these fabricating operations, both in dollars and in product quality, must be considered to make aalid v comparison of the material choices.
IPA Standard Perforations

The enormous number of perforating patterns possible with round holes, squares, slots and other special perforations make it impractical to list every combination. T he following IPA numbered perforations listed and illustrated here are common to all members and considered Standard. The die banks of IPA members hold tooling for literally thousands of additional patterns so, if your requirements cannot be met with a andard St perforation, consult with your IPA members supplier.
Round Holes: IPA Numbers 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 Holes per sq. in. 625 576 400 324 335 334 74 97 74 47 33 19 47 33 24 19 24 19 19 12 12 8 6 5 5 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 Open Area 20% 24% 23% 26% 30% 37% 23% 46% 36% 32% 23% 12% 36% 40% 29% 23% 46% 36% 51% 33% 58% 40% 30% 23% 51% 40% 33% 45% 47% 51% 53% 51%
Perforations .020 .023 .027 .032 .040 .045 1/16 5/64 5/64 3/32 3/32 3/32 1/16 1/8 1/8 1/8 5/32 5/32 3/16 3/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 7/16 9/16 5/8 3/4
Centers .043 .0415 .050 .055 .066 .066 1/8 7/64 1/8 5/32 3/16 5/32 3/16 7/32 7/32 5/16 5/16 3/8 7/16 9/16 5/8 5/8 11/16 13/16 1
Line Staggered Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered Staggered
Squares: IPA Numbers 200 201 202 103 204 205 206 Holes per sq. in. 20 9 5 3 1 .8 .7 Open Area 64% 44% 56% 53% 56% 64% 53%
Perforations 2/10 3/8 1 1
Centers 3/8 11/16 1 1 1 3/8
Line Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight
Slots: IPA Numbers 207 208 Holes per sq. in. Open Area 41% 43%
Perforations x 1/8 x 1
Bars 1/8 1/8
Line Side Staggered Side Staggered
Round Holes
No. 100, .020 diam. 20% O.A.
No.101, .023 diam. 23% O.A.
No. 102, .027 diam. 23% O.A.
No. 103, .032 diam. 26% O.A.
No. 104, .040 diam. 30% O.A.
No. 105, .045 diam. 37% O.A.
No. 106, 1/16 diam. 23% O.A.
No. 107, 5/64 diam. 12% O.A.
Round Holes Continued
No.108, 3/32 diam 36% O.A.
No. 109, 3/32 diam 32% O.A.
No. 110, 3/32 diam. 23% O.A.
No. 111, 3/32 diam 12% O.A.
No. 112, 1/10 diam. 36% O.A.
No. 113, 1/8 diam. 40% O.A.
No. 114, 1/8 diam. 29% O.A.
No. 115, 1/8 diam. 23% O.A.
No. 116, 3/32 diam. 46% O.A.
No.117, 3/32 diam. 36% O.A.
No. 116, 3/16 diam. 51% O.A.
No. 119, 3/16 diam. 33% O.A.
No. 120,. diam. 58% O.A.
No. 121, diam. 40% O.A.
No. 122, diam. 30% O.A.
No. 123, diam. 23 O.A.
No. 124, 3/8 diam. 51% O.A.
No. 125, 3/8 diam. 40% O.A.
No. 126, 3/8 diam. 33% O.A.
No. 127, 7/16 diam. 45% O.A.
No. 128, diam. 47% O.A.
No. 129, 7/16 diam. 51% O.A.
No. 130, 4/5 diam. 53% O.A.
No. 131, diam. 51% O.A.
Square Holes
No. 200, 2/19 opening 64% O.A.
No. 201, opening 44% O.A.
No. 202, 3/8 opening 56% O.A.
No. 203, opening. 53% O.A.
Square Holes Continued
No. 204, opening 56% O.A.
No. 205, 1 opening 64% O.A.
No. 206, 1 opening 53% O.A.
Slotted Holes
No 207, 1/8 x opening 41% O.A.
No. 208, 1/8 x 1 opening 43% O.A.
Other Popular Holes, Non-Standard Though they are not standards, a broad assortment of hole shapes and patterns are offered by IPA members to meet special requirements. When non -standard hole shapes and patterns are needed, you should consu lt with your IPA member supplier. Always bear in mind that IPA members are equipped with tool design and tool -making facilities to produce whatever practical hole shapes, sizes and patterns your application requires. New tools are being added to IPA member die banks every day. Illustrated here are some of the most commonly used non -standard hole shapes. A list of IPA Standard Round and Standard hole patterns and popular non -standard patterns are available from many member companies begins on page 36.
Indented Holes
Collared Holes
Louvered Holes
Hexagonal Holes
Round Cane
Octagonal Cane
Grecian
Hexagonal Perforations Staggered Centers Perforation Size Decimal Equivalent .2812 .3437 .4062 .4375 .4375 .4687 .5000 .5625 .5625 .6250 .6875 .8125 .8125 .9375 .9375 1.0000 1.1250 1.3125 1.3750 1.5000 1.6250 1.8750 1.9375 Staggered Centers 60 Decimal Inches Equivalent 13/32 15/32 35/64 19/32 5/8 11/16 13/16 13/16 7/8 1 1 1/16 1 3/16 1 5/16 1 1 13/32 1 9/16 1 1 7/8 2 2 2 5/16 .4062 .4687 .5469 .5937 .7500 .8250 .6875 .7500 .8125 .8125 .8750 1.0000 1.0625 1.1875 1.3125 1.2500 1.4062 1.5625 1.7500 1.8750 2.0000 2.2500 2.3125
Hexagonal Perforations Single Punch (Staggered or straight pattern with any center distance for which bar width equals or exceeds material thickness.) Perforation Size Max. Material Decimal Inches Equivalent Thickness 1 2 2 1/16 2 1/8 2 3/16 2 2 5/16 2 3/8 2 2 2 7/8 3 3 1/8 3 1/4 3 3/8 3 3 5/16 3 9/16 3 3 7/8 4 3/8 1.7500 2.0000 2.0625 2.1250 2.1875 2.2500 2.3125 2.3750 2.5000 2.7500 2.8750 3.0000 3.1250 3.2500 3.3750 3.5000 3.3125 3.5625 3.7500 3.8750 4.3750 3/8 5/8 5/8 5/8 3/8 5/8 5/8
Inches 9/32 11/32 13/32 7/16 7/16 15/32 9/16 9/16 5/8 11/16 13/16 13/16 15/16 15/16 1 1 1/8 1 5/16 1 3/8 1 1 5/8 1 7/8 1 15/16
Bar Width .1250 .1250 .1406 .1562 .3125 .1562 .1875 .1875 .2500 .1875 .1875 .1875 .2500 .2500 .3750 .2500 .2612 .2500 .3750 .3750 .3750 .3750 .3750
Approx. % Open Area 47.91 53.77 55.17 54.30 33.40 56.23 52.88 56.25 48.00 59.16 51.73 56.01 58.47 62.31 51.02 64.00 64.00 70.56 61.73 64.00 66.01 69.43 70.19
Max. Material Thickness 8 ga. 10 ga. 10 ga. 3/16 5/16 8 ga. 3/16 3/8 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 3/8 3/8
Formulas for Determining Percentage of Open Areas Staggered Round Holes Straight Round Holes Squared Holes (Straight or Staggered)
D2 x 90.69 C2
=%
D2 x 78.54 C2
=%
S2 x 100 C2
=%
*Square End Slot
45 Staggered Centers Pattern (Special)
Hexagon
LxW C2
x 100
=%
157.08 D 2 S2
=%
100 x D2 C2
=%
To Find the Holes Per Square Inch: H.P.S.I. = % Open Area 78.54 x D2
Checklist of Perforating Cost Influences

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Material type Remember the least expensive material may not be the lowest cost; a higher strength alloy may allow reducing thickness. Keep hardness below80 Rb. Material thickness Thinner materials perforate easier and faster. Hole shape and pattern Round holes are the most economical, 60 staggered round hole pattern strongest and most versatile. Hole size Do not go below 1-to-1 ratio with sheet thickness. Stay at 2 -to-1 or larger if possible. Bar size Do not go thinner than 1 -to-1 ratio with sheet t hickness. Center distance It controls feed rate and thereby the production rate. if possible, choose a pattern with longer center distance. Open areas Extreme open area proportions tend to increase distortion; if possible, stay under 70%. Margins Keep side margins to a minimum to reduce distortion. Use standard Unfinished End Margins if you can. Blank areas Consider the die pattern when locating them. Consult with your IPA metal supplier.
10. Stick to standards specify standard hole patterns, material s dimensions and tolerances whenever possible. Before specifying a Special, consult with your IPA member supplier; he can work wonders with existing tooling. 11. Accept normal commercial burrs unless otherwise specified.
Checklist for Ordering Perforated Metal Sheets & Plates

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Quantity State the number of Perforated Pieces required. Thickness Specify in gage numbers or in decimal inches. Metal State kind of metal required. Width & Length Unless otherwise specified, the length will be the long dimen sion of sheet. Perforation Size specify the size of perforation in inches. Perforation Shape See the various types shown on Pages 36 -47. Arrangement of Perforations Specify Staggered or Straight Line or other patterns. Normally the straight row of a staggered pattern will run the long way of the sheet. Spacing of Perforations This can be specified as the distance between hole centers, the percent of Open Area or, in the case of small holes, as the number of holes per square inch. Margins If margins are not important, specify minimum or no margins.
10. Other information For slotted perforations -specify whether the long dimension of the slot is parallel to the long or short dimension of the sheet or plate. Note: if ordering Perforated Screen Pla tes for Vibrating or Revolving Screening Equipment, ask your perforator for IPA bulletin #512.
Table of Gauges and Weights

Weights and Gauges have been computed subject to standard commercial tolerances. Steel USS Gauge Rev. lbs. Per Decimal sq. ft. .0100 .0110 .0120 .0135 .0149 .0164 .0179 .0209 .0239 .0269 .0299 .0329 .0359 .0418 .0478 .0538 .0598 .0673 .0747 .0897 .1046 .1196 .1345 .1494 .1644 .1793 Galv. Steel USS Gauge Decimal lbs. Per Thick. sq. ft. .0130 .0140 .0157 .0172 .0187 .0202 .0217 .0247 .0276 .0306 .0336 .0366 .0396 .0456 .0516 .0575 .0635 .0710 .0785 .0934 .1084 .1233 .1382 .1532 .1681 . .563 .594 .656 .719 .781 .844 .906 1.031 1.156 1.281 1.406 1.531 1.656 1.906 2.156 2.406 2.656 2.969 3.281 3.906 4.531 5.156 5.781 6.406 7.031 Long Terne USS Gauge Decimal lbs. Per Thick. sq. ft. Stainless USS Gauge lbs. Per sq. ft. Decimal Chrome Chrome Thick. Alloy Nickel .0100 .0109 .0125 .0140 .0156 .0171 .0187 .0218 .0250 .0281 .0312 .0343 .0375 .0437 .0500 .0562 .0625 .0703 .0781 .0937 .1093 .1250 .1406 .1562 .1718 .1875 .418 .450 .515 .579 .643 .708 .772 .901 1.030 1.158 1.287 1.416 1.545 1.802 2.060 2.317 2.575 2.896 3.218 3.862 4.506 5.150 5.793 6.437 7.081 7.590 .427 .459 .525 .591 .656 .721 .787 .918 1.050 1.181 1.312 1.443 1.575 1.837 2.100 2.362 2.625 2.953 3.281 3.937 4.593 5.250 5.906 6.562 7.218 7.752 Monel USS Gauge Decimal lbs. Per Thick. sq. ft.
Gauge 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
.500 .563 .625 .688 .750 .875 1.000 1.125 1.250 1.375 1.500 1.750 2.000 2.250 2.500 2.812 3.125 3.750 4.375 5.000 5.625 6.250 6.875 7.500
.012 .014 .015 .017 .018 .021 .024 .027 .030 .033 .036 .042 .048 .054 .060 .068 .075 .090 .105 .120 .134 . .
.518 .581 .643 .706 .768 .893 1.018 1.143 1.268 1.393 1.518 1.768 2.018 2.268 2.518 2.831 3.143 3.768 4.393 5.018 5.643
.0187 .0218 .0250 .0281 .0312 .0343 .0375 .0437 .0500 .0562 .0625 .0703 .0781 .0937 .1093 .1250 .1406 .1562 .1718 .1875
827. .965 1.148 1.286 1.424 1.562 1.700 1.975 2.297 2.572 2.848 3.216 3.583 4.272 5.007 5.742 6.431 7.166 7.855 8.590
Table of Gauges and Weights (continued) Brass B&S Gauge.

Gauge Decimal lbs. Per sq. ft.
Copper B.W. Gauge

Decimal Thick. lbs. Per sq. ft.
Aluminum B&S Gauge

Decimal Thick. lbs. Per sq. ft.
Zinc Zinc Gauge

Decimal Thick. lbs. Per sq. ft. Decimal Thick.
Monel USS Gauge

lbs. Per sq. ft. Old Symbol
32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
.0080 .0089 .0100 .0113 .0126 .0142 .0159 .0179 .0201 .0226 .0254 .0285 .0320 .0359 .0403 .0453 .0508 .0571 .0641 .0720 .0808 .0907 .10195 .1144 .1285 .1443 .1620 .1819
.353 .392 .441 .498 .555 .626 .700 .789 .886 .996 1.115 1.256 1.410 1.582 1.776 1.996 2.238 2.516 2.825 3.173 3.560 3.997 4.490 5.041 5.662 6.358 7.138 8.015
.009 .010 .012 .013 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 .025 .028 .032 .035 .042 .049 .058 .065 .072 .083 .095 .109 .120 .134 .148 .165 .180 .203 .220
.418 .464 .557 .603 .650 .742 .835 .928 1.022 1.162 1.302 1.484 1.627 1.952 2.280 2.695 3.020 3.338 3.860 4.410 5.065 5.575 6.225 6.875 7.660 8.360 9.420 10.220
.008 .009 .010 .011 .012 .014 .016 .018 .020 .022 .025 .028 .032 .036 .040 .045 .050 .056 .063 .071 .080 .090 .100 .112 ..125 .140 .160 .190
.115 .130 .144 .158 .173 .202 .230 .259 .286 .331 .360 .403 .461 .518 .576 .648 .734 .821 .992 1.040 1.170 1.310 1.470 1.640 1.760 1.980 2.254 2.685 .125 .100 .090 .080 .070 .060 .055 .050 .045 .040 .036 .032 .023 .024 .020 .018 .016 .014 .012 .010 4.70 3.75 3.37 3.00 2.62 2.25 2.06 1.87 1.68 1.50 1.35 1.20 1.05 .90 .75 .67 .60 .52 .45 .37
.0061 .0066 .0072 .0077 .0083 .0088 .0094 .0099 .0105 .0110 .0118 .0123 .0130 .0141 .0149 .0153 .0163 .0171 .0185 .0193 .0198 .0207 .0215 .0229 .0231 .0237 .0251 .0259 .0264 .0273
55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 107 112 118 128 135 139 148 155 168 175 180 188 195 208 210 215 228 235 240 248
ICL IC
IXL 1X DC 2XL 2X 3XL 3X DX 4XL 4X 5XL D2X 5X 6XL 6X D3X 7XL
Selection Guide to Carbon Steel Sheets and Coils for Perforating Applications
APPROXIMATE RELATIVE COST (10 ga. H.R. Steel = 100) SHEET COI S LS
TYPE
DESCRIPTION SHEETS
RECOMMENDED SIZE COILS

1
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES CAR BON CON TEN T
T HOT ROLLED STEELS (see pages 54 to 56) COMMERCIAL QUALITY (SAE or AISI #1008; ASTM #A569 DRAWING QUALITY (SAE or AISI #1006; ASTM #A621 HIGH-STRENGTH, LOW ALLOY* (USS Cor-Ten or equivalent; ASTM #A375) ABRASION RESISTING* (C .35-.50; Mn 1.502.00; P .050 max.; S .055 max.; Si .15-.35) A low cost sheet steel with moderate drawing and forming qualities for use where finish is unimportant. For best perforating results specify PICKLED AND OILED for removal of oxides. This quality is intended for use where formin g requirements are too severe for Commercial Quality. Pickling and oiling to remove oxides is recommended. In-stock availability is not as great as Commercial Quality. Good formability because of low carbon content in combination with relatively high YIELD and TENSILE properties permit these steels to be used in lighter gauges to reduce weight in applications where strength is important. Readily weldable. High manganese content in combination with intermediate carbon greatly enhances resistance to abrasion; can improve part life 2 to 10 times. Moderate formability. 7 to 16 ga.
Tensile, PSI
Yield, PSI
% Elong. 2
Hardnes s Rb.
Up to 60
Up to 144
7 to 16 ga.
Up to 60
.10 max.
45,000 to 60,000
30,000 to 40,000
28 to 38
55 to 70
7 to 16 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 144
7 to 16 ga.
Up to 60
.10 max.
45,000 to 60,000
30,000 to 40,000
28 to 38
55 to 70
100 Pickled and Oiled 104 103
95 99
98
7 to 16 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 144
7 to 14 ga.
Up to 60
.12 max.
70,000 min.
50,000 min.
22 min.
80 to 90
132
126
7 to 16 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 144
.35 .50
100,000 to 120,000
55,000 to 70,000
10 to 20
210 to 225 (Bhn.)
118
N.A.
Selection Guide to Carbon Steel Sheets and Coils for Perforating Applications (continued)
COLD ROLLED STEELS (see pages 57 to 59) COMMERCIAL QUALITY (SAE or AISI #1008; ASTM #A366) Cold Rolled Steels have improved surface finishes and tighter size tolerances than Hot Rolled Steels. They are available in two classes: Class 1 is intended for exposed applications; Class 2 is for unexposed use. Three finishes can be specified:Matte is the standard finish. It is uniformly dull and suitable for painting.Commercial Bright finish is a relatively bright, intermediate finish. Luster finish is smooth and bright and most suitable for plating. Because perforati ng will alter surface appearance, surface preparation will alter surface appearance, surface preparation after perforating may be required before the application of the final finish. Recommended for use where forming requirements are too severe for Commercial Quality. Can be supplied (Class 1) free of fluting or stretcher straining when intended for use in a reasonably short time. Available in mill quantities. This steel has special retarded aging characteristics and is recommended for use when the material must be free of surface disturbances without roller leveling immediately before using, and must be essentially free from significant changes in mechanicalproperties over an extended period of time. Available in mill order quantities. 7 to 28 ga. Up to 60 Up to 18 ft. 11 ga. To 28 ga. Up to 60 .10 max. 40,000 to 50,000 25,000 to 35,000 30 to 40 45 to 60 119 (16 ga.) 113
DRAWING QUALITY (ASTM #A619)
7 to 28 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 18 ft.
11 ga. To 28 ga.
Up to 60
.10 max.
40,000 to 50,000
20,000 to 30,000
38 to 40
40 to 50
125 (16 ga.)
120
DRAWING QUALITY, SPECIAL KILLED (ASTM #A620)
7 to 28 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 18 ft.
11 ga. To 18 ga.
Up to 60
.10 max.
40,000 to 50,000
20,000 to 30,000
38 to 40
40 to 50
127 (16 ga.)
122
CORROSION RESISTAN T STEELS (see pages 61 to 68) GALVANIZED (ASTM #525) A versatile, low-cost, corrosion resistant steel with a zinc coating applied by a continuous hot -dip process. Available in Commercial, Drawing and other Qualities (refer to pages 61 to 64) Galvanized sheet with a coating of mill -bonderized phosphate for immediate painting without flaking or peeling. Heat treated galvanized sheet, dull gray with out spangles with a rough texture well suited to painting. Can withstand temperatures to 750 without flaking. Less ductile than regular galvanized coating. A thin zinc coating is applied to cold rolled steel by electro-plating so as not to appreciatively affect the weight-thickness relationship. Smoot, without spangles it is recommended a s an undercoat for painted finishes. Available in Commercial and Drawing Quantities. Sheet steel coated both sides with aluminum combines the properties of both metals. Type 1 is provide in two weights Regular and Light (see page 68) and is available in Commercial and Drawing Qualities. If the heavier Type 2 Aluminized coating is desired co nsult with your I.P.A. supplier or the steel manufacturer. 10 to 20 ga. Up to 60 Up to 18 ft. 12 to 28 ga. Up to 60 .10 max. 45, 000 to 55,000 35,000 to 45,000 25 to 35 50 to 65 147 (20 ga.) 145
MILL-BONDERIZED GALVANIZED GALVANEALED (Coating Designation A60) (ASTM-A653) ELECTROGALVANIZED (ASTM #A591)
16 to 26 ga. 14 to 26 ga.
Up to 60 Up to 48
Up to 18 ft. Up to 18 ft.
16 to 26 ga. 14 to 26 ga.
Up to 60 Up to 48
.10 max. .10 max.
45, 000 to 55,000 40, 000 to 55,000
35,000 to 45,000 32,000 to 42,000
25 to 35
50 to 65
149 (20 ga.) 150 (20 ga.)
N.A.
25 to 35
50 to 65
147
14 to 26 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 18 ft.
14 to 26 ga.
Up to 60
.10 max.
40, 000 to 50,000
25,000 to 35,000
30 to 40
45 to 60
146 (20 ga.)
144
ALUMINIZED, TYPE 1 (ASTM #463)
14 to 26 ga.
Up to 60
Up to 18 ft.
14 to 26 ga.
Up to 60
.10 max.
50, 000 to 60,000
35,000 to 45,000
18 to 28
60 to 70
162 (20 ga.)
157
Selection Guide to Stainless Steel (Ref. ASTM-A240)

TYPE DESCRIPTION TYPICAL COMPOSITION % FORM TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Annealed at Room Temperature Yield Elongation Tensile (0.2% Offset) (% in 2') Weldability Hardness Relative Cost
Austenitic (Hardenable by cold working only) 304 (S30400) Low-carbon modification of type 302 for restriction of carbide precipitation during welding. Chemical and food processing equipment; brewing equipment; cryogenic vessels; gutters; downspouts: flashings. Extra-low-carbon modification of type 304 for further re striction of carbide precipitation during welding. Coal hopper linings; tanks forliquid fertilizer and tomat paste. Higher corrosion resistance than types 302 and 30 4; high creep strength. Chemical and pulp handling equipment; photographic equipment; brandy vats@ fertilizer parts; ketchup cooking kettles; yeast tubs. Extra-low-carbon modification of type 316 Welded construction where intergranular carbide precipitation must be avoided. Type 316 application requiring extensive welding. Stabilized for weldments subject to severe corrosive conditions, and for service from 800 to 1600 F. Aircraft exhaust manifolds; boiler shells; process equipment; expansion joints; cabin heaters; fire walls; flexible couplings, pressure vessels. 18-20 Cr. 8-10.50 Ni 0.08 C. 2.0 Mn, 1.0 Si 0.045 P, 0.030 S sheets plates 84,000 82,000 42,000 35,000 55 60 80 Rb 149 Bhn A 100 100
304L (S30403)
18-20 Cr, 8-12 Ni. 0.03 C, 2.0 Mn, 1 0 Si 0.045 P, 0.030 S
sheets plates
81,000 79,000
39,000 33,000
55 60
79 Rb 143 Bhn
111 109
316 (S31600)
16-18 Cr, 10-14 Ni, 0.08 C, 2.0 Mn, 1.0 Si 0.045 P, 0.030 S, 2 03.0 Mo 16-18 Cr, 10-14 Ni, 0.03 C, 2.0 Mn, 1.0 Si 0.045 P, 0.030 S, 2,03.0 Mo 17-19 Cr, 9-12 Ni, 0.08 C. 2.0 Mn, 1.0 Si, 0.045 @. 0.030 S (Ti, 5 X C min)
sheets plates
84,000 82,000
42,000 36,000
50 55
79 Rb 149 Bhn
148 140
316L (S31603)
sheets plates
81,000 81,000
42,000 34,000
50 55
79 Rb 149 Bhn
159 149
316L (S31603)
sheets plates
90,000 85,000
35,000 30,000
45 55
80 Rb 160 Bhn
130 128
Martensitic (Hardenable by heat treatment) 410 (S41 000) General-purpose heat treatable type. Machine parts; pump shafts; bolts; bushings; coal chutes; cutlery; finish ing tackle; hardware; jet engine parts; mining machinery; rifle barrels; screws; valves. 11.5-13.5 Cr, 0.15 C, 1.0 Mn, 1.0 Si. 0.040 P, 0.030 S sheets plates 70,000 70,000 45,000 35,000 25 30 80 Rb 150 Bhn C 90 81
Ferritic (Non-hardenable) 430 (S43000) General-purpose nonhardenable chromium type. Dec orative trim; nitric acid tanks; annealing baskets; com bustion chambers; dishwashers; heaters: mufflers; range 16-18 Cr, 0.12 C, 1.0 Mn, 1.0 Si, 0.040 P, 0.030 S sheets plates 75,000 75,000 50,000 40,000 25 30 80 Rb 160 Bhn C 87 84
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Selection Guide to Aluminum Sheet and Plate (Ref. ASTM -B209)

ALLOY & TEMPER TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIE Tensile, PSI Yield, PSI % Elong. in 2 DENSITY lbs./cu. in. SHEETS COMPARATIVE COST (APPROXIMATE) 1100 = 100 COILS
DESCRIPTION
Non-Heat-treatable Alloys 1100 0 H14 Pure aluminum (.99% min.) is highly resistant to attack by chemicals and rural, industrial and marine atmo spheres. Easily worked and ductile enough for deep draws. For general use in applications where the essen tial qualities of aluminum will be beneficial. The most widely used general purp ose alloy. Stronger than 1100 but still readily formable. Excellent resistance to chemicals and weathering. Recommended for general use where the extra strength is required. Very similar to 3003 in physical properties and corrosion resistance though slightly lighter. Recommended for anodized applications for best match with extruded aluminum components. A versatile alloy for applications requiring greater strength. Readily formed, very good corrosion resis tance. Recommended for applications requiring high strength and formability. Recommended for welded assemblies requiring both welding efficiency and high joint strength. Good cor rosion resistance, Typical applications include pressure vessels, marine super-structures and transportation equipment. 13,000 18,000 5,000 17,000 35 9 .098 .098 110 110 100 100
3003 0 H14
16,000 22,000
6,000 21,000
30 8
.099 .099
110 110
100 100
5050 H34
28,000
24,000
.097
110
101
5052 0 H32 H34
28,000 33,000 38,000
13,000 28,000 31,000
25 12 10
.097 .097 .097
115 116 116
105 105 105
5086 H32 H34
42,000 47,000
30,000 37,000
12 10
.090 .096
144 139
Selection Guide to Aluminum Sheet and Plate (Ref. ASTM -B209) (continued)
Heat-treatable Alloys 2024 0 T3 Alclad 2024 0 T3 6061 0 T4 T6 These are high strength, heat -treatable alloys with nearly twice the strength of 5052 and fair corrosion resistance. Alclad 2024 provides improved corrosion resistance. 27,000 70,000 26,000 65,000 18,000 32,000 45,000 11,000 50,000 11,000 45,000 8,000 21,000 40,000 20 18 20 18 25 22 12 .100 .100 .100 .100 .098 .098 .098 149 159 160 170 120 140 142 117 153 129 165 105 132 133
This high-strenght, heat -treatable alloy provides good formability and weldability and good corrosion resistance. Suitable for a wide variety of structural and architectural applications. This alloy is intended for aircraft applications requiring the highest strength. Alclad 7075 provides improved corrosion resistance.
7075 T6 Alclad 7075 0 T6
76,000
68,000
11
.101
154
32,000
14,000
17
.101
180
For other aluminum alloys, tempers and sizes, consult your IPA member supplier for availability. All of the above materials are furnished with mill finish unl ess otherwise specified. Aluminum is available in a variety of finishes including mechanical surface treatments produced by grinding, polishing, burnishing and sand blasting; chemical surface treatments produced by caustic etching, bonderizing, anodizing, phosphatizing and chemical polishing; and, electrolytic oxide treatment, electroplating, painting, embossing and texturing.
Galvanized Sheet Steel Selector

Source: The AISI Committee of Galvanized Sheet Producers.
Trade Name Zincgrip Zincgrip A Zincgrip A Paintgrip Zincgrip Paintgrip Zincgrip DC Cold Rolled Paintgrip Bethcon Bethcon Jetcoat Bethcon Galvannealed Bethzin Belhzin Gripcoat Bethzin Palntfast Premier Satincoat Reeves-Titekote Softforrn Ti-Co Paint-Tite Jai-Zinc Jal-Zinc Galvanneated Kaiser Galvanized Kaiser Galvannealed Green Dot Galvanized Electro Zincbond Electro Paintlok Electro Flashcote Brite-Zinc Galva-Brite Galvanite Electro Galvanized Stelcoat Colourbond USS Galvanized USS Galvannealed Redi-Kote Paintbond Weirkole Weirkole Type JP Steel Producer Armco Armco Armco Armco Armco Armco Bethlehem Bethlehem Bethlehem Bethlehem Bethlehem Bethlehem Dofasco Dofasco Empire-Detroit Granite City Inland Irland J&L J&L Kaiser Kaiser Republic Republic Republic Republic Sharon Sharon Sharon Sharon Stelco Stelco USS USS USS USS Midwest Weirton Midwest Weirton Weirton Weirton Weirton Wheeling-Pittsburgh Wheeling-Pittsburgh Wheeling-Pittsburgh Wheeling-Pittsburgh Youngstown X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X #1 X X X X Hot Dipped Galvanized #2 #3 #4 Electrolytic Zinc Coated #5 #6 #7
X X X
X X X
Weirzin Weirzin Bonderized Weirzin Paintrite Sof-Tite Lifekole #2 Lifekote #1 Lifekote #3 Tufkote
Galvanized Sheet Steel Selector (continued)
No. 1 is Hot Dipped Galvanized steel produced continuously which includes regular spangled and minimized spangled in a wide range of coaling designations. No. 2 is Hot Dipped Galvanized produced continuously, heat treated or wiped to produce a fully alloyed zinc -iron coating in a wide range of coating designations intended for painting. Where heat treatment after coating is utilized, it may be described as "Galvannealed." Weldability n ad formability are improved in the lighter coating designations. No. 3 is Hot Dipped Galvanized as 1, surface treated for painting, such as by phosphatizing. No. 4 is Hot Dipped Galvanized produced continuously which includes regular spangled and minimiz ed spangled in a wide range of coating designations -with a specified coating weight on one surface and a significantly lighter coating weight on the other surface, normally referred to as Differentially Coated. No. 5 is Electrolytic Zinc Coated by continu ous electroplating with zinc -0.1 oz. to 0.2 oz. per sq. ft. total on both sides. No. 6 is Electrolytic Zinc Coated as 5, surface treated for painting, such as by phosphatizing. No. 7 is Electrolytic Flash Zinc Coated by continuous electroplating on both sides, and surface treated for painting, such as by phosphalizing. Nos. 1, 3, & 4 can be produced in all ASTM and AISI Regular Coating Designations -G-235, G-210, G-185, G-165, G-140, G-115, G-90, G-60, No. 2 can be produced in all ASTM and AISI Alloyed C oating Designations-A-60, A-40, A-01.
The IPA Sets the Standards

The members of the IPA have established the basic product and manufacturing standards for the industry as set forth in this Handbook. In addition, they have had a member on the Internat ional Standards Organization committee which has developed the standards for round and square hole sizes and patterns which have been provided here. It has also been a consistent aim of the IPA to develop sound business practices among its members and the highest standards for manufacturing efficiency and quality control. With the publication of this Handbook, the members of the IPA have tried to provide you with a book of answers. But equally important, they hope they have contributed to your creative ca pacities. We have endeavored to demonstrate the versatility of perforated metals by showing you how and where they have been successfully applied. Further, we explain our manufacturing process so that you can make the most of it in your designs. We want you to understand the economic implications of perforated metals and all of the design considerations related to material dimensions, hole shapes, and patterns. The Handbook illustrates and lists the standard round and square hole sizes and patterns along with an extensive variety of other hole configurations and patterns for which dies are available among IPA members. You will also find throughout the Handbook a host of useful reference tables pertinent to your designing activities with perforated materi als. It is expected that this will be a living reference book that will be constantly improved through your suggestions and contributions.
IPA Voluntary Standard Tolerances

THESE THREE QUALITIES ARE AVAILABLE: 1. Commercial Quality 2. Superior Quality IPA 3. Special Quality* ___________
*To Be Set By Mutual Agreement Between Customer and IPA Member
IPA VOLUNTARY STANDARD TOLERANCES TABLE OF CONTENTS Description Page
IPA Length & Width Tolerances Carbon Steel 64 Stainless Steel 65 Aluminum 66 Resheared 67 IPA Resquared Tolerances 67 Tolerances on Openings 68 Tolerances on Bars .. .. 69 Flatness Tolerances 70 -76 Camber Tolerances 77 & 78 Thickness Tolerances 78 -87 Hole Patterns .. 88 -90 Margins 91 Blank Areas 92 Breakout of Holes 93 Missing Holes 94 Minimum Hole Size & Bar Width ... 94 Weld Repairs .. 94 Surface Finish . 95 & 96 Cleanliness .. 95 Order Quantity Variation . .. 95 & 96 Revolving Screens .. .. 96 Crowned Screens . 96 Vibrating Screens . 97
CARBON STEEL - Not Resquared COMMERCIAL QUALITY - Hot rolled mill edge sheets produced from coils and cut lengths including pickled. Sheet Thickness 30GA-7GA Inches Width 12-14 15-17 18-19 20-21 22-24 25-26 27-30 31-50 51-78 Width Tolerances -0 +9/16 -0 +5/8 -0 +11/16 -0 +3/4 -0 +13/16" -0 +1 -1/16 -0 +1 -3/16 -0 +1 -3/8" -0 +1 -3/4 Inches Length Up To 601 Over 60-120 Over 120 Length Tolerances 1 -0 +1 -1/2 -0 +2"
SUPERIOR QUALITY - Hot rolled (mill cut edge), cold rolled and hot dipped galvanized sheets, coils and mill cut lengths including pickled sheets. Sheet Thickness 30GA-7GA Inches Width To 30" Over 30-48 Over 48"-60" Width Tolerance -0 +1/4 -0 +5/16" -0 +3/8" Inches Length To 60" Over 60-120 Over 120 Length Tolerance -0+1 -0+1-1/2 -0 +2
COMMERCIAL QUALITY - Mill Edges and Mill Sheared Plates. Thickness Range 3/16" to 3/8" Specified Lgth. or Width Inches To 24 Over 241-36 Over 36-48" Over 48-60" Over 60 -84 Over 84 -120 Over 120 Lgth. or Width Tolerance -0 +7/16 -0+5/8 -0 +3/4" -0 +7/8 -0 +1 -1/8 -0 +1 -1/4 -0 +1 1/2 Over 3/8" to 5/8" Lgth. or Width Tolerance -0 +1/2 -0 +11/16 -0 +13/16" -0 +15/16" -0 +1 -3/16 -0 +1 -5/16 -0 +1 -9/16 Over 5/8" to 1" Lgth. or Width Tolerance -0 +9/16 -0 +3/4 -0 +7/8" -0+1 -0 +1 -1/4 -0 +1 -3/8" -0 +1 -5/8"
STAINLESS STEEL - Not Resquared
COMMERCIAL QUALITY- Hot rolled and cold rolled sheets and cold rolled sheets produced from coils.
Width Tolerance Thickness 30GA-16GA Over 16GA-7GA Up To 60" Wide +3/8" -0" +1/2" -0"
Length Tolerance Thickness 30GA-7GA Length 0"-120" Over 120" Tolerance +2" +2-1/4"
COMMERCIAL QUALITY - Sheared Mill and Universal Mill Plates. Thickness Over 3/8"-1/2" Width Tolerances -1/4"+5/8" -1/4+13/16" Length Tolerances -1/4"+2-1/4"
3/16"-3/8" Width 0"-60" Over 60"-84" Length 0"-144" -1/4"+1/2" -1/4+11/16" -1/4"+2-1/4"
Over 1/2"-1" -1/4"+3/4" -1/4+15/16 -1/4"+2-1/4"
ALUMINUM - Not Resheared
COMMERCIAL QUALITY - Length and width tolerances for aluminum flat sheets and sheets from coil. Width Tolerance Thickness .006" to .060" Over .060" to .1875" Up To 60' Wide +3/8"-1/8" +1/2" -1/8"
Length Tolerance Thickness .006" to .1 875" Length 0"-120" Over 120" Tolerance +2" +2-1/4"
COMMERCIAL QUALITY - Plate. Thickness .376"-.500" Width Tolerances -1/4"+5/8" 1/4"+13/16" Length Tolerances -1/4"+2-1/4"
.1876"-.375" Width 0"-60" Over 60"-72" Length -1/4"+1/2" -1/4"+11/16" -1/4"+2-1/4"
.501"-1" -1/4"+3/4" -1/4"+15/16" -1/4"+2-1/4"
IPA standard overall length and width tolerance s of resheared sheets and plates, of all metals, and plastics sheared after perforating. Tolerances Commercial Superior Quality Quality 1/8" 1/4" 5/16" 3/8" 1/2" 1/16" 1/8" 5/32" 3/16" 1/4" Special Quality*
Thickness 30GA-10GA 8GA-1/4" 5/16"- 1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 11/16"-1"
*If other special resheared tolerances are required, check with your IPA member supplier.
When steel plates or aluminum sheets and plates are purchased from the mill or service center as a sheared product, the above tolerances may not be achievable.
SQUARENESS OF SHEETS AND PLATES Definition: "Out of square is the greatest deviation of an end edge from a straight line at right angle to a side and touching one corner. It is also obtained by meas uring the difference between the diagonals of the sheet. The out of square deviation is one -half of that difference. See example below:
84.750 84.500 .250 / 2 = .125 Out of Square
TOLERANCE OF RESQUARED SHEETS AND PLATE Up to 72" Up to 120" Over 120" Diff . of Diff. of * Max. Tol. Diagonal Max. Tol. Diagonal out of Sq. Measure. out of Sq. Measure. 1/32" 1/16" 1/16" 1 /B" 1/16" 1 /8" 1/8" 1/4" 3/32" 3/16" 3/16" 3/8" 3/16" 3/8" 3/8" 314" 1/4" 1/2" 1/2" 1" 3/8" 3/4" 3/4" 1-1/2" 3/4" 1-1 /2" 1-1/2" 3"
Thickness Range 30-20GA Shts. 19-16GA Shts. 15-12GA Shts. 1 1 -7GA Shts. 3/16"-318" Plate 3/8"-5/B" Plate 5/8"-1" Plate
*Check with your member IPA supplier.
OPENINGS TOLERANCES Table 2: Tolerances on Opening of USA Standard Specifications for Industrial Perf orated Plate and Sheets. Perforated Opening USA Industial Standard Inch
5 4-1/4 4 3-1/2 3 2-1/2 2-1/8 2 1-3/4 1-1/2 1-1/4 1-1/16 1 7/8 3/4 5/8 17/32 1/2 7/16 3/8 5/16 17/64 1/4 7/32 3/16 5/32 0.127 (1/8) 7/64 3/32 0.078 0.066 0.055 0.045 0.039 0.032 0.027 0.023 0.020
Standard (metric) MM
125.0 106.0 100.0 90.0 75.0 63.0 53.0 50.0 45.0 37.5 31.5 26.5 25.0 22.4 19.0 16.0 13.2 12.5 11.2 9.5 8.0 6.7 6.3 5.6 4.75 4.00 3.35 * 2.80 2.36 2.00 1.70 1.40 1.18 1.00 .830 .710 .600 .500
Additional Sizes Inch

4-1/2 3-3/4 3-1/4 2-3/4 2-1/4 1-7/8 1-5/8 1-3/8 1-3/16 1-1/8 15/16 13/16 11/16 9/16 15/32 * -
Tolerance on Openings USA Standard Industrial (metric) Standard Inch MM

2.5 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.46 0.38 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 * 0.150 0.135 0.125 0.110 0.100 0.085 0.070 60 p.m 50 p.m 45 p.m 40 p.m 0.100 0.090 0.085 0.080 0.075 0.070 0.065 0.060 0.055 0.050 0.045 0.043 0.040 0.038 0.035 0.033 0.030 0.028 0.025 0.024 0.023 0.021 0.020 0.019 0.018 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 * 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
*Round holes only.
Table 3: Tolerances on Bars of USA Standard Specifications for Industrial Perforated Plate and Sheets. Perforated Opening USA Industrial Standard Inch
5 4-1/4 4 3-1/2 3 2-1/2 2-1/8 2 1-3/4 1-1/2 1-1/4 1-1/16 1 7/8 3/4 5/8 17/32 1/2 7/16 3/8 5/16 17.64 1/4 7/32 3/16 5/32 0.127 (1/8) 7/64 3/32 0.078 0.066 0.055 0.045 0.039 0.032 0.027 0.023 0.020
Standard (metric) MM
125.0 106.0 100.0 90.0 75.0 63.0 53.0 50.0 45.0 37.5 31.5 26.5 25.0 22.4 19.0 16.0 13.2 12.5 11.2 9.5 8.0 6.7 6.3 5.6 4.75 4.00 3.35 * 2.80 2.36 2.00 1.70 1.40 1.18 1.00 0.830 0.710 0.600 .500
*Round holes only.
Additional Sizes Inch

4-1/2 3-3/4 3-1/4 2-3/4 2-1/4 1-7/8 1-5/8 1-3/8 1-3/16 1-1/8 15/16 13/16 11.16 9.16 15/32 *
Tolerance on Avg. Bars USA Standard Industrial (metric) Standard MM Inch

3.2 2.9 2.7 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.36 0.32 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.23 0.22 0.20 * 0.18 0.16 0.150 0.135 0.125 0.110 0.090 80 P.M 70 p.m. 65 p.m 60 p.m 0.125 0.122 0.113 0.107 0.102 0.097 0.089 0.081 0.076 0.069 0.063 0.059 0.056 0.054 0.051 0.047 0.043 0.040 0.037 0.035 0.034 0.032 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.026 0.024 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.017 0.016 0.014 0.013 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.009 0.009 0.008 * 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002
FLATNESS TOLERANCE The maximum deviation from a horizontal flat surface -the material is to be placed on a perfectly flat table. A ruler which does not flatten the material will give the degree of flatness. The measurem ent being from the highest point (or points) of the sheet or plate to the table surface minus the material thickness. Note: If not otherwise specified, commercial quality is supplied. Flatness tolerances listed are of roller leveled sheets or plates with on or minimum margins. For material 10 or less in length, variation should not exceed amount shown in table. For material longer than 10 , the variation in flatness for any 10 feet of length should not exceed the amount shown. Where the longer dimension is under 36 the variation in flatness along the length and across the width should not exceed 1/4 in each direction. When the longer dimension is from 36 to 72 the flatness variation should not exceed 75% of the amount shown for the specified width, butin no case less than 1/4. Margins will usually increase the maximum deviation, please consult your IPA member supplier. Three levels of quality are available. Commercial Quality Superior Quality Special Quality H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" To 36" Width Tolerance Sup. 5/16" 7/16" 1/2" 1/2" 15/32" 7/16" 11/32"
Comm. 3/8" 1/2" 5/8" 5/8" 9/16" 1/2" 7/16"
Spec.
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4" 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 1-5/16" 1-1/4" 1-1/4" 1-1/8" 1-5/32" 1-1/8" 1-1/8" 1"
Stainless Steel and Other Heat Resistant Alloys Sheet & Plate 30-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1 /4" 5/16"-3/8" 1/2" 5/8" 3/4" 3/4" 11/16" Aluminum & Copper .012"-.032" .033"-.063" .064"-.125" .126"-.500" .501"-.750" 5/16" 7/16" 9/16" 5/8" 11/16" 1/4" 11/32" 15/32" 9/16" 5/8" 7/16" 1/2" 5/8" 5/8" 9/16"
FLATNESS TOLERANCE, continued
H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" Over 36"-48" Width Tolerance Comm. Sup. Spec. 1/2" 7/16" 5/8" 1/2" 3/4* 5/8" 7/8" 23/32" 3/4" 5/8" 5/8" 1/2" 9/16" 15/32"
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4" 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 1-5/8" 1-7/16" 1-3/8" 1-1/4" 1-7/16" 1-1/4" 1-7/32" 1-1/8"
Stainless Steel and Other Heat Resistant Alloys Shee t & Plate 30-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1 /4" 5/16"-3/8" 5/8" 3/4" 7/8" 1" 13/16" 1/2" 5/8" 23/32" 13/16" 21/32"
Aluminum & Copper .012"-.032" .033"-.063" .064"-.125" .126" -.500" .501" -.750" 7/16" 9/16" 11/16" 3/4" 13/16" 11/32" 15/32" 9/16" 11/16" 3/4"
H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/B" 7/16"-1 /2" 9/16"-3/4" Over 48"-60" Width Tolerance Sup. 1/2" 5/8" 13/16" 27/32" 23/32" 9/16" 1/2"
Comm. 5/8" 3/4" 1" 1-1/16" 7/8" 11/16" 5/8"
Spec.
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4' 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 1-7/8" 1-5/8" 1-7/16" 1-5/16' 1-5/8" 1-7/16" 1-1/4" 1-5/32"
Stainless Steel and Other Heat Resistant Alloys Sheet & Plate 30-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 3/4" 1" 1-1/8" 1-3/16" 7/8" 5/8' 13/16" 15/16" 31/32" 23/32"
Aluminum & Copper .012"-.032" .033"-.063" .064"-.125" .126"-.500" .501"-.750" 9/16" 11/16" 15/16" 13/16" 3/4" 15/32" 9/16" 3/4" 3/4" 11/16"
H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 7/16"-l /2" 9/16"-3/4" Over 60"-72" Width Tolerance Sup. 5/8" 13/16" 1" 1-1/8" 27/32" 5/8" 9/16"
Comm. 3/4" 1" 1-1/4" 1-3/8" 1-1/16" 3/4" 11/16"
Spec.
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4' 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-l /2" 9/16"-3/4" 2-3/8" 1-7/8" 1-7/16" 1-3/8" 2" 1-5/8" 1-1/4" 1-7/32"
Stainless Steel and Other Heat Resistant Alloys Sheet & Plate 30-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/2" 1-1/2" 1" 13/16" 1" 1-1/4" 1-1/4" 13/16"
Aluminum & Copper .012"-.032" .033" -.063" .064"-.125" .126"-.500" .501"-.750" 11/16" 7/8" 1-1/8" 7/8" 15/16" 9/16" 23/32" 15/16" 13/16" 7/8"
H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" Over 72-84' Width Tolerance Sup.
Comm.
Spec.
1-1/2" 1-1/4" 7/8" 3/4"
1-1/4" 1" 23/32" 5/8"
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4" 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 2-1/2' 2-1/4" 1-5/8" 1-1/2" 2-1/8" 1-15/16" 1-7/16" 1-5/16"
Stainless Steel and Other Heat Resistant Alloys Sheet & Plate 30-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8"
1-3/4" 1-3/8"
1-7/16" 1 -1/8"
Aluminum & Copper .012"-.032" .033"-.063" .064"-.125" .126"-.500" .501"-.750"
1" 1-1/16"
7/8" 1"
H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" Over 72 84 Width Tolerance Comm, Sup.
Spec.
1-5/8" 1-1/2" 1-1/8" 1"
1-3/8" 1-1/4" 7/8" 3/4"
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4" 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 2-5/8" 2-1/2" 2-1/8" 2" 2-3/8" 2-1/4" 1-7/8" 1-3/4"
Stainless Steel and Other Heat Resistant Alloys Sheet & Plate 30-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8"
2" 1-5/8"
1-3/4" 1-3/8"
Aluminum & Copper .012"-.032" .033"-.063" .064"-.125" .126"-.500" .501"-.750"
1-1/8" 1-1 /4"
1" 1-1/2"
H.R. & C.R. Steel Sheet, Plate & Hot Dipped Galvanized Sheets Thickness Range 28-20GA 19-16GA 15-12GA 11 GA-1/4" 5/16"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" Over 120" Wide Tolerance Comm. Sup.
Spec.
2-1/8" 2" 1-7/8" 1-1/2"
1-7/8" 1-5/8" 1-1/4" 1-1/8"
Heat Treated Steel Plate (Hardness Range 185-360 Brinell) To 1/4' 1/4"-3/8" 7/16"-1/2" 9/16"-3/4" 3-1/8" 3" 2-7/8" 2-1/2" 2-7/8" 2-5/8" 2-1/4" 2-1/8"
If your requirement is within one of the following categories, it is recommended that you discuss your flatness requirements with your IPA member supplier. 1. 2. Perforated sheets with other than safe or no margi ns. Stresses imposed during the perforating process may cause a deviation in the flatness of the edges. The wavy edge may occur in perforated sheets and coils with wide or unequal wide unperforated blank edges on the long sides or when making special perfo rations, such as countersunk or ringed perforations, especially when using soft materials such as aluminum or copper. Blank areas required within perforated area. Perforated sheets with a very large percentage of open area. When hole diameter and/or bar be tween holes is less than material thickness. Special alloys.
3. 4. 5. 6.
CAMBER Camber is the greatest deviation of a side edge from a straight line. The measurement is taken over the entire length of the concave side with a straight line. On perforated sheets with different side margins it is possible to produce a camber effect. This effect is the deflection (d) between one of the longitudinal edges and a straight line supported by the ends of the sheet. The magnitude of the deflection (d) depends on the lengt h, width, thickness, open area, type of material and relation of e-2 to e-l.
If sheets are cut after perforation, the camber refers only to the perforated pattern. (See sketch below F & G.)
Designers are requested to avoid different margins whenever possible.
Max. Camber All Metals After Perforating Coils and Cut Length Ft. To 4 Feet Inclusive Over 4-6 Ft. Inclusive Over 6-8Ft. Inclusive Commercial Quality 1/8 3/16 1/2" Superior Quality 4 = .062 5 = .098 6 = .140 Special Quality
Camber measurement is taken by placing an 8 ft. straight edge on the concave side and measuring the greatest distance between the sheet edge and the straight edge. Due to the nature of the perforating process, camber can be as great as 2 in 20 t.fwhen processing coil to coil. For sheets with wider than standard or unequal side margins, camber must be discussed with the IPA member supplier. Camber doesn t vary in direct proportion to length. Camber is always expressed in 8 ft. L2 x C1 82 L2 C1 C2 = C2
= Any Given Length = Camber in 8 Ft. = Camber in any Given Length
Example: L2 = 6 Ft. (Given Length); C1 = .250 (1/4) 62 x .250 82 or (64) = 36 x .25 82 or (64) = 9 64 = .140
Sheet Thickness Tolerances Steel Hot Rolled - Hot Rolled Pickled & Oiled Lbs. Max. Min. Mean Per of of Gage of Sq. Ft. Gage Gage Gage 7 0.1793 0.1713 0.1873 7.500 8 0.1644 0.1564 0.1724 6.875 9 0.1495 0.1415 0.1575 6.250 10 0.1345 0.1265 0.1425 5.625 11 0.1196 0.1116 0.1276 5.000 12 0.1046 0.0966 0.1126 4.375 13 0.0897 0.0827 0.0967 3.750 14 0.0747 0.0677 0.0817 3.125 15 0.0673 0.0613 0.0733 2.813 16 0.0598 0.0538 0.0658 2.500 17 0.0538 0.0478 0.0598 2.250 18 0.0478 0.0428 0.0528 2.000
Sheet Thickness Tolerances Cold Rolled Steel Electro Galvanized - Long Terne Mean Min. Max. of of of Gage Gage Gage 0.1793 0.1713 0.1873 0.1644 0.1564 0.1724 0.1495 0.1415 0.1575 0.1345 0.1285 0.1405 0.1196 0.1136 0.1256 0.1046 0.0986 0.1106 0.0897 0.0847 0.0947 0.0747 0.0697 0.0797 0.0673 0.0623 0.0723 0.0598 0.0548 0.0648 0.0538 0.0498 0.0578 0.0478 0.0438 0.0518 0.0418 0.0378 0.0458 0.0359 0.0329 0.0389 0.0329 0.0299 0.0359 0.0299 0.0269 0.0329 0.0269 0.0239 0.0299 0.0239 0.0209 0.0269 0.0209 0.0179 0.0239 0.0179 0.0159 0.0199 0.0164 0.0144 0.0184 0.0149 0.0129 0.0169
Gage 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Lbs. Per Sq. Ft. 7.500 6.875 6.250 5.625 5.000 4.375 3.750 3.125 2.813 2.500 2.250 2.000 1.750 1.500 1.375 1.250 1.125 1.000 0.875 0.750 0.688 0.625
THICKNESS TOLERANCES PLATE Permissible Variation in Thickness for Rectangular Carbon, High -Strength Low Alloy, and Alloy-Steel Plates, When Ordered to Thickness. Note 1 Permissible variation under spec ified thickness, 0.01 inch. Note 2 Thickness to be measured at 3/8 to 3/4 inch from the longitudinal edge. Note 3 For thickness measured at any location other than that specified in Note 2, the permissible maximum over tolerance shall be increased by75%, rounded to the nearest 0.01 inch.
Tolerance Over Specified Thickness for Width in Inches Specified Wt. Per Thickness Sq. Ft. To 84" 84" To 96" To Inches In Lbs Excl. 96" Excl. 108" Excl. 3/16" 1/4" 5/16" 3/8" 7/16" 1/2" 9/16" 5/8" 3/4" 7/8" 1" 7.66 10.21 12.76 15.32 17.87 20.42 22.97 25.53 30.63 35.74 40.84 .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .06" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .04" .06" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .03" .04" .04" .07"
Source: ASTM A6, Table 1.
Sheet Thickness Tolerances Stainless Steel Mean of Gage 0.1874 0.165 0.15 0.135 0.12 0.1054 0.09 0.0751 0.0673 0.0595 0.0538 0.048 0.042 0.0355 0.0324 0.0293 0.0264 0.0235 0.0209 0.0178 0.0165 0.0151 0.0138 0.0125 Min. of Gage 0.1735 0.151 0.136 0.129 0.115 0.1004 0.086 0.0711 0.0643 0.0565 0.0508 0.045 0.039 0.0335 0.0304 0.0273 0.0249 0.022 0.0194 0.0163 0.015 0.0136 0.0123 0.011 Max. of Gage 0.2015 0.179 0.164 0.141 0.125 0.1104 0.094 0.0791 0.0703 0.0625 0.0568 0.051 0.045 0.0375 0.0344 0.0313 0.0279 0.025 0.0224 0.0193 0.018 0.0166 0.0153 0.014 Lbs. Per Square Foot All 300 Series 7.871 6.93 6.3 5.67 5.04 4.427 3.78 3.154 2.826 2.499 2.259 2.016 1.764 1.491 1.36 1.231 1.1088 0.987 0.8778 0.748 0.693 0.634 0.5796 0.525 All 400 Series 7.7 6.78 6.165 5.562 4.944 4.342 3.708 3.094 2.766 2.451 2.211 1.978 1.726 1.463 1.33 1.207 1.085 0.968 0.8589 0.7315 0.6781 0.6206 0.5671 0.5137
Gage 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Stainless Steel Plate Thickness Thickness Tolerance Over Variation * In Inches Est. Widths Widths Thickness Wt. Over 84" TO To In Inches Sq. Ft. 84" lncl. 120"lncl. In Lbs. 3/16" 8.58 .045" 1/4" 11.16 .045" 5/16" 13.75 .045" 3/8" 16.49 .055" .060" 1/2" 21.66 .055" .060" 5/8" 26.83 .055" .060" 3/4" 32.12 .060" .065" 7/8" 37.29 .060" .065" 1" 42.66 .060" .075" Widths Widths Over 120" Over To 144' lncl. 144" lncl.
.075" .075" .075" .085" .085" .095"
.090" .090" .090" .100" .100" .115"
*Thickness is measured along the longitudinal edges of the plate at least 3/8, but not more than 3 in from the edge. No plate shall vary more than .0l under the thickness ordered. Source: ASTM A480 Table Al .17.
Sheet Thickness Tolerances Hot Dipped Galvanized - Aluminized Steel Max. Min. Mean of of of Gage Gage Gage 0.1681 0.1591 0.1771 0.1532 0.1442 0.1622 0.1382 0.1292 0.1472 0.1233 0.1143 0.1323 0.1084 0.0994 0.1174 0.0934 0.0854 0.1014 0.0785 0.0705 0.0865 0.071 0.065 0.077 0.0635 0.0575 0.0695 0.0575 0.0525 0.0625 0.0516 0.0466 0.0566 0.0456 0.0406 0.0506 0.0396 0.0356 0.0436 0.0366 0.0326 0.0406 0.0336 0.0296 0.0376 0.0306 0.0266 0.0346 0.0276 0.0236 0.0316 0.0247 0.0207 0.0287 0.0217 0.0187 0.0247 0.0202 0.0172 0.0232 0.0187 0.0157 0.0217 0.0172 0.0142 0.0202 0.0157 0.0127 0.0187
Gage 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Lbs. Per Sq. Ft. 7.031 6.406 5.781 5.156 4.531 3.906 3.281 2.969 2.656 2.406 2.156 1.906 1.656 1.531 1.406 1.281 1.156 1.031 0.906 0.844 0.781 0.719 0.656
Sheet Thickness Tolerances Electrolitic Tin Plate Min. of Gage 0.0055 0.0059 0.0065 0.0069 0.0075 0.0079 0.0085 0.0089 0.0094 0.0099 0.0106 0.0111 0.0117 0.0127 0.0134 0.0143 0.015 0.0162 0.0168 0.0184 0.0201 0.0206 0.0228 0.0234 0.025 0.0267 0.0272
Lb. Per Base Box 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 107 112 118 128 135 148 155 175 180 195 210 215 235 240 255 270 275
Mean of Gage 0.0061 0.0066 0.0072 0.0077 0.0083 0.0088 0.0094 0.0099 0.0105 0.011 0.0118 0.0123 0.013 0.0141 0.0149 0.0163 0.017 0.0192 0.0198 0.0214 0.0231 0.0236 0.0258 0.0264 0.028 0.0297 0.0302
Max. of Gage 0.0067 0.0073 0.0079 0.0085 0.0091 0.0097 0.0103 0.0109 0.0116 0.0121 0.013 0.0135 0.0143 0.0155 0.0164 0.0183 0.019 0.0222 0.0228 0.0244 0.0261 0.0266 0.0288 0.0294 0.031 0.0327 0.0332
Lb. Per Sq. Ft. 0.253 0.276 0.298 0.321 0.344 0.367 0.39 0.413 0.436 0.459 0.491 0.514 0.542 0.588 0.62 0.68 0.712 0.804 0.827 0.895 0.964 0.987 1.079 1.102 1.171 1.24 1.263
Aluminum Sheet Thickness Tolerances 36-48 Wide Alloys 1100, 3003, 3005, 3105, 5005, 5457 Aluminum Mean Of Gage 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.025 0.032 0.04 0.05 0.063 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.125 0.16 0.19 0.249 Min. of Gage 0.01 0.014 0.018 0.023 0.0295 0.0365 0.0485 0.0595 0.0755 0.0855 0.0945 0.1195 0.151 0.181 0.235 Max. Of Gage 0.014 0.018 0.022 0.027 0.0345 0.0435 0.0535 0.0665 0.0845 0.0945 0.1055 0.1305 0.169 0.199 0.263 1100 & 3105 0.169 0.226 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.27 2.69 3.52 3003 & 3005 0.228 0.285 0.356 0.456 0.57 0.713 0.898 1.14 1.28 1.43 1.78 2.28 2.71 Lbs. Per Square Foot 5005 & 5457 0.169 0.226 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.27 2.69 3.52 5052 & 5252 0.279 0.349 0.447 0.559 0.698 0.88 1.12 1.26 1.4 1.75 2.23 2.65 3.49 5086 & 5083 0.165 0.221 0.276 0.346 0.443 0.552 0.692 0.871 1.110 1.240 1.380 1.720 2.220 2.640 3.450
2024 0.232 0.288 0.36 0.461 0.576 0.72 0.907 1.15 1.3 1.45 1.8 2.3 2.74 -
6061 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.25 2.69 -
Tolerances (In Plus and Minus) Aluminum Plate Thickness Alloys 1100, 3003, 3005, 3105, 5005, 5457 Approx. Wt. Per Sq. Ft. 3.456 4.31 5.184 6.912 8.64 10.37 12.6 14.11
Thickness Inches .250" .313" .375" .500" .625" .750" .875" 1.000"
Thru 39.37 0.012 0.012 0.017 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039
Over 39.37 Over 59.06 Thru 59.06 Thru 78.74 0.014 0.015 0.014 0.015 0.017 0.02 0.023 0.027 0.023 0.027 0.031 0.037 0.031 0.037 0.039 0.047
Aluminum Sheet Thickness Tolerances 36-48 Wide Alloys 5052, 5083, 5086, 5252, 6061 Aluminum Mean of Gage 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.025 0.032 0.04 0.05 0.063 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.125 0.16 0.19 0.249 Min. of Gage 0.0095 0.0135 0.0175 0.0225 0.0285 0.036 0.0445 0.0585 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.118 0.15 0.18 0.234 Max. Of Gage 0.0145 0.0185 0.0225 0.0275 0.0355 0.044 0.0545 0.0675 0.086 0.096 0.107 0.132 0.17 0.2 0.264 1100 & 3105 0.169 0.226 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.27 2.69 3.52 3003 & 3005 0.228 0.285 0.356 0.456 0.57 0.713 0.898 1.14 1.28 1.43 1.78 2.28 2.71 5005 54&5 7 0.169 0.226 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.27 2.69 3.52 Lbs. Per Square Foot 5052 & 5252 0.279 0.349 0.447 0.559 0.698 0.88 1.12 1.26 1.4 1.75 2.23 2.65 3.49 5086 & 5083 0.165 0.221 0.276 0.346 0.443 0.552 0.692 0.871 1.11 1.24 1.38 1.72 2.22 2.64 3.45
2024 0.232 0.288 0.36 0.461 0.576 0.72 0.907 1.15 1.3 1.45 1.8 2.3 2.74 -
6061 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.25 2.69 -
Tolerances (In Plus and Minus) Aluminum Plate Thickness Alloys 5052, 5083, 5086, 5252, 6061 Approx . Thickness Wt. Per Inches Sq. Ft. .250" 3.456 .313" 4.31 .375" 5.184 .500" 6.912 .625" 8.64 .750" 10.37 .875" 12.6 1.000" 14.11 Over 59.06 Thru 78.74 0.019 0.019 0.022 0.028 0.028 0.037 0.037 0.047
Thru 39.37 0.012 0.012 0.017 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039
Over 39.37 Thru 59.06 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039
Aluminum Plate Thickness Tolerances (In Plus and Minus) Alloys 2024, 7075 Aluminum Min. Max. of of Gage Gage 0.0095 0.0145 0.0135 0.0185 0.0175 0.0225 0.0225 0.0275 0.03 0.0345 0.038 0.042 0.047 0.053 0.06 0.066 0.0765 0.0835 0.0885 0.0935 0.0965 0.1035 0.1215 0.1285 0.153 0.167 0.183 0.197 0.234 0.264 Lbs. Per Square Foot 5005 5052 & & 5457 5252 2024 0.169 0.226 0.232 0.282 0.279 0.288 0.353 0.349 0.36 0.452 0.447 0.461 0.564 0.559 0.576 0.706 0.698 0.72 0.889 0.88 0.907 1.13 1.12 1.15 1.27 1.26 1.3 1.41 1.4 1.45 1.76 1.75 1.8 2.27 2.23 2.3 2.69 2.65 2.74 3.52 3.49 -
Mean of Gage 0.012 0.016 0.02 0.025 0.032 0.04 0.05 0.063 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.125 0.16 0.19 0.249
1100 & 3105 0.169 0.226 0.282 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.27 2.69 3.52
3003 & 3005 0.228 0.285 0.356 0.456 0.57 0.713 0.898 1.14 1.28 1.43 1.78 2.28 2.71 -
6061 .2B2 0.353 0.452 0.564 0.706 0.889 1.13 1.27 1.41 1.76 2.25 2.69 -
7075 0.175 0.232 0.291 0.364 0.466 0.582 0.727 0.916 1.16 1.31 1.45 1.82 2.32 2.77 3.62
Tolerances (In Plus and Minus) Aluminum Plate Thickness Alloys 2024,7075 Over 39.37 Thru 47.24 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039 Over 47.24 Thru 55.12 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039 Over 55.12 Thru 59.06 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039 Over 59.06 Thru 70.87 0.019 0.019 0.022 0.028 0.028 0.037 0.037 0.047 Over 70.87 Thru 78.74 0.019 0.019 0.022 0.028 0.028 0.037 0.037 0.047
Thickn Approx. ess Wt. Per Inches Sq. Ft. .250" .313" .375" .500" .625" .750" .875" 1.000" 3.456 4.31 5.184 6.912 8.64 10.37 12.6 14.11
Thru 39.37 0.012 0.012 0.017 0.023 0.023 0.031 0.031 0.039
International Thickness Tolerance of Perforated Plates and Sheets Table 4: Tolerance on Thickness of USA Standard Specifications For Industrial Perforated Plate and Sheets. Gage Steel USA Industrial Standard in. 1 7/8 3/4 5/8 1/2 3/8 5/16 1/4 3/16 No. 8 USS gage 10 11 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 0.1644 0.1345 0.1196 0.1046 0.0747 0.0598 0.0478 0.0359 0.0299 0.0239 0.0179 0.0149 0.0120 USA Industrial Decimal Equivalent in. Tolerance on Gage USA Industrial Standard in. +0.04 -0.01 +0.035 -0.01 +0.033 -0.01 +0.031 -0.01 +0.03 -0.01 +0.026 -0.01 +0.025 -0.01 +0.021 -0.01 +0.02 -0.01 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.007 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002
Standard (metric) mm 25.40 22.40 19.00 16.00 12.50 9.50 8.00 6.30 4.75 4.25 3.35 3.00 2.65 1.90 1.52 1.21 0.91 0.76 0.61 0.45 0.38 0.30
Standard (metric) mm +1.00 -0.25 -0.25 +0.89 +0.84 -0.25 +0.79 -0.25 +0.76 -0.25 +0.66 -0.25 +0.64 -0.25 +0.53 -0.25 +0.51 -0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.05
HOLE PATTERNS Round Holes Round holes ranging from under .020 to over 6 account for 80% of the production of the perforating industry. This shape is the most versatile in its application and provides a wide range of open areas as well as a handsome appearance. Round holes are produced with greater efficiency and less expense than any other hole shape. The dies and punches that make round holes are the most cost efficient to build and maintain. The 60 Staggered Round Hole Pattern The 60 staggered formation is the most popular hole arrangement because of its inherent strength and the wide range of open areas i t provides. The diagram below illustrates the essential die design and perforating practices for producing l/4 round holes on 3/8 centers in a 60 staggered formation. The basic perforating die layout includes two rows of punches, arranged as the illustr ation shows, in an open staggered pattern. The actual punches in the die are indicated by the solid black holes. The feed of the press is from right to left.
The Step and a Half Punching Process Notice first that the arrangement of the punches is mor e open than the hole pattern produced in the perforating process. The finished hole pattern is produced by feeding the sheet through the press in increments equal to the required center distance. The wide spacing of the punches is necessary to give suffici ent strength to the die and to provide adequate punching force to each punch. Notice that the pattern at the beginning and at the end of the sheet is not complete. This is the result of the open spacing of the punches and is explained later under the headi ng, End Margins. The fact that the arrangement of the punches in the die and the holes in the perforated pattern are different indicates that two different staggered hole patterns can be produced from the same die.
The Closed Hole Pattern: To produce a hole pattern on 3/8 centers as illustrated, the material is fed through the press in increments equal to the center distance of 3/8. This results in the closed pattern for this particular die. The Open Pattern: The open pattern from the same die arran gement results when the feed is increased to produce a hole pattern with the actual center distance of the punch arrangement. A straight line hole pattern is also possible from this die if one of the rows of punches is removed or idled. The 45 Staggered Round Hole Pattern This pattern is a standard IPA option. Although it is stronger than straight row patterns it is not as strong, nor is it as versatile in providing compact hole spacing and high open areas as the 60 pattern.
The Straight Line Pattern The straight line patterns can be produced by an open punch arrangement with a stepped punching procedure or with a closed punch arrangement; both methods are illustrated below. The stepped procedure produces an unfinished end pattern while the close d punch arrangement produces a finished end pattern. A straight line pattern of holes is weaker than a staggered arrangement and has a tendency to stretch the material to a greater degree.
Open Punch Arrangement
Closed Punch Arrangement Designers, Specifiers and Buyers Handbook for Perforated Metals Page 89 of 124
Square Holes Square holes are principally used for grills and machine guards offering a maximum of open area to permit good visibility and through-put while providing the necessary protection or decorative cover. Available in both straight line and staggered patterns , the straight line pattern is standard for square holes. Both variations are weaker than he round hole patterns. The sharp corners on square hole tooling makes it more subject to wear and vulnerable to the stresses of the punching process, increasing tool ing costs and reducing production rates. Square hole patterns are generally more expensive than the equivalent round hole pattern.
Square Perforations Staggered
Square Perforations Straight Lines
Slots Slots in the Side Staggered, End Staggered and Straight Line arrangements illustrated below are also IPA standards. They are particularly well suited to sorting and grading of solid objects. Typical applications include the sizing of ball bearings or the separation of fingerlings at fish hatcheries . In both applications a single dimension of the object determines the size. The elongated slot increases the through -put in such applications.
Slots Side Stagger
Slots End Stagger
Slots Straight Lines
Flow of Material If the sieving process r equires a specified arrangement of holes the direction of flow must be clearly stated.
MARGINS A. End Margins: The stepped perforating procedure (see page 88) results in an unfinished pattern at the beginning and at the end of the workpiece. This unf inished pattern is the standard IPA end pattern. The finished end pattern required special tooling or at best idling of the last row of punches to complete the pattern, thus slowing the perforating process and increasing costs. The finished end pattern non is standard and must be specified if desired. Some special dies may also be made with the finished end pattern. Note: Cost savings may be attained by specifying minimum or no end margins. IPA members with roll fed perforating presses may require +2 -l/4 blank margins on one end of 16ga thru 1 thicknesses when producing certain hole patterns through these particular machines. B. Side Margins: Margins along the sides of the perforated sheet introduce stresses into the sheet and cause distortion. The wid er the side margin the greater the distortion, so they should be kept to a minimum width. Excessive or uneven margins can actually cause buckling or a degree of distortion that cannot be completely corrected by roller leveling. Additionally, when holes are small and the percentage of open area is high, distortion can become exaggerated. The minimum side margin is determined by the die layout and the width of the material. Consult with your IPA member supplier.
Approximate side margins of perforated met al in sheet, plate or coil form as produced thru presses and limited by the die layout.
Thickness
Approximate Minimum Unperforated Side Margins Sale Edge 1/5 1
30GA-20GA Over 20GA-14GA Over 14GA-8GA Over 8GA-3/8 Over 3?8-5/8 Over 5/8-1
BLANK AREAS According to the application user should give the dimensions as per figure A or B. Figure A - Standard Design
Each single value X is subject to the permitted tolerance of pitch. Tolerance must be arranged between user and supplier. Figure B - Special design to avoid cumulative errors entails more work - Higher Costs!
Requirements of the client must correspond to the capabilities of the manufacturer. Tolerance of each value = Tolerance on Pitch + Tolerance of FeedingSystem (repeatability on interrupted work).
BREAKOUT OF HOLES
When perforating, the resulting hole in the metal shows a slight unevenness on its inside perimeter, as well as a slight taper from the punch entry side to the breakout side of the hole.
Cross Section of Hole The general result of the breakout in the hole indicates approximately a l/3 penetration or shear and a 2/3 breakout. The taper in the hole depends on the type and thickness of the metal and the size of the hole.
HOLE BURRS AND SHEARING BURRS The normal view of drawings (upper side) is the punch entry side. The burr -side is the underside. Burr -side must be stated explicitly for asymmetrical plates and sheets which require additional work after perforating. Shearing burrs normally are placed on the same side as hole burrs. Due to rational manufacturing, shearing burrs may also be placed on the opposite side if not otherwise specified. In the flattening process, burrs may be pushed back into the holes, reducing the open area slight ly. The burr height should be determined by measuring with a micrometer the thickness of the sheet close to the perforated holes (bridge, if possible, or unperforated edge), and repeating the same measurement on the perimeter of the hole. The burr height will result from the difference between these two measurements. These measurements must be taken reasonably close to each other so that they are not influenced by the sheet thickness tolerances. Acceptable burr heights at normal perforating & shearing onditions. c
Thickness of Sheet Up-24 GA Over 24GA-16GA Over 16GA-1/8 Over 1/8-1/4 Over -7/16 Over 7/16
Commercial Burr Height (Max.) .005 .006 .008 .012 .022 .028
Superior .003 .005 .006 .008 .018 .020
MISSING HOLES During the perforating process punches may break, resulting in imperfect or missing holes in the metal. The riskof imperfect or missing holes is greatest with critical perforating; i.e., small holes, stainless steel, large open area and as the holes approach the minimum hole size and bar width. The number and/or percentage of missing or imperfect holes per square foot of material have a direct relationship to the spoilage factor and resultant cost of the perforated items. This requirement must be discusse d with the perforator in order to establish the price of the perforated product prior to the placement of the order. The Minimum Hole Size The smallest hole that is possible to perforate varies with the material type and thickness. A rule of thumb for rbon ca steel and aluminum is that the hole diameter should not be less than the thickness of the material. The closer the - 1 to- 1 relationship between hole diameter and material thickness is approached, the higher the probability for tool failure, and the greater the precautions necessary to protect against it. These factors all increase the cost of production. For stainless steel and other higher strength materials, it is best to drop at least one thickness gage thinner than hole diameter. The Minimum Bar Width The same 1 -to-l relationship to thickness is the limit for bar width as well as hole diameter; keep the bar width greater than the thickness of the material to avoid problems. As the -to-l l relationship is approached, the increasing number of punches required sharply escalates the press tonnage needed to perforate the pattern.
WELD REPAIRS Weld repairs may be necessary. If perfect plates are necessary, consult your IPA supplier.
HEAT TREATED PLATE HARDNESS TOLERANCE: FULL THROUGH HARDNESS Commercial Quality 20 Brinell total Superior Quality 15 Brinell total Custom Quality To be determined mutually between customer and perforated supplier.
SURFACE FINISH Slight surface damage resulting from the perforating process can not be preve nted. Hot rolled steel is the product reduced from slab to required thickness at elevated temperatures. This produces a scale or oxide on the metal surface. Cold rolled steel is the product that has been substantially cold reduced at room temperature. It is characterized by an improved clean surface, greater uniformity in thickness, and improved mechanical properties compared to hot rolled steel. Pickled steel is the product from which the scale or oxide has been removed from the surface by a dilute acid olution. s Polished sheets - even though we will take extreme care in the handling of the material, we will not be responsible for the surface finish after processing. If the polished sheets have to be roller leveled, surface protection must be removed beforehand and paper inter -leaved afterwards. Spot grinding of material will not exceed .0l under the specified thickness to remove surface imperfections.
CLEANLINESS PERMISSIBLE LUBRICATION
The perforating process requires the use of lubricants. The na tural condition of perforated material may vary from a light to a heavy concentration of oils and are furnished that way as a commercial product. Normal surface condition leaving the perforating equipment: Perforated sheets or plate may have an oily film. There may be some accumulation and/or seepage of the lubricant. A. Wiped Sheets - Wiped perforated sheets or plates are produced by rotary brushing or wiping after leaving the machinery, or by applying absorbent products. A light film will remain with so me traces of absorbent particles. B. Degreased Sheets - If buyer specifies total removal of lubricants, seller is not liable for any surface corrosion resulting from the absence of lubricants. The above cleanliness requirements are additional cost factor s and must be discussed with the perforator prior to placement of order if they are so required.
OVER-RUNS AND UNDER-RUNS When perforated material is ordered in pounds or footage, as in the case of material produced from coil (unless otherwise agreed u pon) the quantity ordered will be subject to the following: Permissible Mill Quantity Variation of Sheets Produced from Coil 80,000# and Over - 5% Over or 5% Under 40.000# Thru 79.999# - 10% Over or 5% Under 20,600# Thru 39,999# - 15% Over or 10% Under 10,000# Thru 19,999# - 25% Over or 15% Under 0# Thru 9,999# - 25% Over or 25% Under If an exact quantity is required the quote and the purchase order must contain an explicit statement that the order is for an exact quantity, and that mill and industry sta ndards for variation do not apply.
Possible Quantity Variation of Sheets as Produced From Sheets or Plate
Small Quantities: 1 l0 Sheets or Plates (<10 SHOULD BE EXACT, NO VARIATION) 1 20 Sheets or Plates- (1 to 2 Sheet Variation) 2150 Sheets or Plates - (2 to 5 Sheet Variation) 51 l00 Sheets or Plates- (5 to 10 Sheet Variation) >100 Sheets or Plates - (10% Variation) Revolving Screens
Crowned Screens If a screen plate is to be crowned state the amount of the crown measured at the cen terline. Unless otherwise specified, the standard crowns for screens 3/l 6 thick and heavier will be furnished as follows: For 3 or 4 wide vibrating screens l/2 crown For 5 wide vibrating screens 3/4 crown For 6 wide vibrating screens and wider 1 crown Width: The width is the dimension at right angles to the flow of material. Specify the overall width. If hook flanges are required, specify: width (measured outside the hook flanges). Tolerance of the screen width- Plus 0 minus l/4 Length: The length is the dimension of the Perforated Screen Plate that is parallel to the flow of material being screened. Specify the overall length. Tolerance of the screen length- Plus 0 minus 1/4
Standard Plate for Vibrating Screens
IPA Trade Practices

Although each IPA member establishes their own terms and conditions, the following trade practices and terms of sale prevail generally throughout the industry. 1. Description of Goods Sold. Perforated materials provided under this con tract shall be in accordance with Seller s quoted specifications and/or drawings (specifications). The industry Perforating Standards and Practices provided for in Designers, Specifiers and Buyers Handbook for Perforated Metals 1978 shall prevail unle ss specifically excluded or modified. No changes may be made in the specifications after the acceptance date unless agreed to by Seller in writing. In the event any such changes are made, Seller may revise its price and delivery schedule accordingly. 2. Units of Weights and Measure. Any reference to units of weight or measure for perforated material shall apply after perforating. 3. Pre-Production Samples. Prices stated shall not apply to any pre -production samples. 4. Inspection Procedures. Seller s prices are based on normal inspection and testing procedures as determined and performed by Seller. 5. Packing. Seller will pack all shipments in accordance with normal industry standards. Upon request, Seller will provide special packaging, but rese rves the right to change its price and delivery schedules if such packaging requires additional risk, expense or time. 6. Sales, Use and Other Taxes. Buyer shall pay or reimburse Seller for any sales, use, excise, occupational, or other tax arising direc tly or indirectly from this sale transaction or the performance thereof, or from the use by any person of the perforated material sold, which Seller may be required to pay or collect, and any legal fees or other expenses incurred by Seller in connection therewith. Such taxes are not included in the quoted price. 7. Over-runs and Under-runs. Where mill quantity is involved, the permissible mill quantity variation applies. In the case of coil, unless otherwise agreed upon, the quantity expressed in pounds r o footage will be subject to published mill variations. Where an exact quantity must be delivered, this agreement must contain an explicit statement that the order is for an exact quantity and that mill and industry standards for variation do not apply. 8. Transportation. All prices and deliveries are F.O.B. Shipping Point and risk of loss shall pass to Buyer upon delivery to the carrier. Buyer shall specify type of carrier and routing. In the absence of such specifications, Seller will use its best judgment in selecting a carrier and shipping the goods, but shall not be liable for any delays or charges resulting from its selection.
9. Escalator. The purchase price specified shall be adjusted to include any net increases in Seller s material and labor costs occurring between the date of acceptance of this contract and the date of shipment. Seller shall maintain records of the material and labor costs for manufacturing the perforated materials and shall compute such costs upon the date of acceptance of this contract and the date of shipment in order to arrive at such adjustment to the purchase price. 10. Payment Terms. Terms for payment and discount are specified in the sale documents. Any discount allowed applies only to the invoiced value of the perfo rated material and not to any part of the transportation charges, taxes and/or other charges. 11. Quotations-Acceptances. Quotations are valid for thirty days only from date of issuance and acceptance must be received by Seller in writing at its main office. No other acceptance, oral or written, will be binding on Seller. Acceptance of this quotation is expressly limited to the Terms and Conditions of this quotation and the rights of the parties shall be governed exclusively by the Terms and Conditions he reof. If the quotation is accepted and Buyer s order form is used for the purpose, it is expressly understood and agreed that the Terms and conditions herein shall prevail insofar as the same may in any way conflict with the provisions set forth in such rder o forms of the Buyer, and the issuance of such order form by Buyer shall be deemed to be Buyer s assent to the foregoing. 12. Quotations on Buyer s Specifications. If quotation, or any part thereof, is made pursuant to drawings or blueprints furnish ed by the Buyer, Seller reserves the right to recheck quotation before accepting order at the quoted prices and to adjust prices in the case of any error. 13. Buyer s Credit on Default. If, in the judgment of Seller, the financial condition of Buyer at any time does not justify initiation or continuance of production or shipment on the terms specified, Seller may require full or partial payment in advance. 14. Delays. Seller shall not be liable for loss or damage due to delay in manufacture or delivery resulting from any cause beyond Seller s reasonable control, including, but not limited to, compliance with any regulations, orders or instructions of any Federal, State or Municipal Government or any department or agency thereof, acts of God, acts or om issions of the Buyer, acts of civil or military authority, fires, strikes, factory shutdowns or alterations, embargoes, war, riot, delays in transportation or inability due to causes beyond the Seller s reasonable control to obtain necessary labor, manufacturing facilities or materials from the Seller s usual sources and any delays resulting from any such cause extends the delivery date accordingly. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE SELLER BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES FOR ANY DELAY FOR ANY CAUSE. 15. Errors in Weight or Number Delivered. Seller shall have no liability for errors in weight or quantity delivered unless claim is made by Buyer within ten (10) days after receipt of shipment. If such timely claim is made by Buyer, Seller may either ship the quantity necessary to make good the deficiency or, at Seller s option, credit Buyer with the invoice price of the deficiency. This shall be Buyer s exclusive remedy for such errors.
16. Patent infringement. Buyer shall save the Seller harmless fro m all loss, damage or liability, including attorneys fees, arising out of the manufacture by Seller for the Buyer of any patented device or a part thereof or on account of the use of such articles by Buyer, the patents for which Seller does not own or con trol. 17. Government Price Controls. Seller reserves the right to cancel orders in the event selling prices are established by government regulations which are lower than prices quoted. 16. Government Production Standards. Seller hereby certifies thatthe perforated material was produced in compliance with all applicable requirements of Sections 6,7 and 12 of the Fair Labor Standards Act, as amended, and all regulations and orders of the U.S. Department of Labor issued under Section 14 thereof. 19. Correction or Errors. Seller reserves the right to correct all typographical or clerical errors which may be present in the prices or specifications. 20. Warranty Matters. (a) Consumer Products. Since the Seller is supplying perforated material for incorpo ration into another product by Buyer which may or may not be considered a Consumer Product as defined in the Magnuson -Moss Warranty Act, it is agreed that SELLER MAKES NO WARRANTY OF ANY NATURE WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, WITH RESPECT TO MATERIAL WHI CH MAY BECOME INCORPORATED INTO A CONSUMER PRODUCT. THERE ARE NO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR USE WITH RESPECTTO SUCH GOODS (b) Commercial Products. Seller warrants only to Buyer the perfo rated material sold againstdefects in material and workmanship for a period of thirty (30) days after Buyers receipt of shipment. THE OBLIGATION OF SELLER UNDER THIS WARRANTY SHALL BE LIMITED TO REPAIRING OR REWORKING F.O.B. SELLER S PLANT, OR ALLOWING CREDIT AT SELLER S OPTION , ANY PERFORATED MATERIAL WHICH MAY PROVE TO BE THUS DEFECTIVE. PROVIDED THAT BUYER GIVES SELLER PROMPT NOTICE OF THE DEFECT OR DEFECTS DURING THE WARRANTY PERIOD AND INSPECTION, IF REQUIRED BY SELLER, CONFIRMS THE DEFECT OR DEFECTS. IT IS EXPRESSLY AGREED THAT THIS REMEDY OF REWORKING, REPLACEMENT, OR CREDIT,AT SELLER S OPTION, IS THE EXCLUSIVE REMEDY UNDER THIS WARRANTY Goods returned without prior notification to Seller will not be accepted and will be returned to Buyer F.O.B. Seller s Plant. Expenses incurred by Buyer in repairing or replacing any defective product will not be allowed except by written permission of Seller. THIS SALE IS MADEONTHE EXPRESS UNDERSTANDINGTHAT THERE ARE NO EXPRESS WARRANTIES OTHER THAN THOSE CONTAINED IN THIS AGREEMENT, A ND THAT THERE ARE NO IMPLIED WARRANTIES THAT THE GOODS SHALL BE MERCHANTABLE OR FIT FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE SELLER SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR FOR LOSS, DAMAGE OR EXPENSE DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY ARISING F ROM THE GOODS SOLD OR THE .USE THEREOF OR FROM ANY OTHER CAUSE WHETHER BASED ON BREACH OF THIS CONTRACT BY SELLER. OR WARRANTY (EXPRESS OR IMPLIED) OR TORT OR CONTRACT.
21. Products Liability Indemnity. Buyer agrees at its own expense to defend and hold Seller harmless in the event any suits are instituted or claims are made against Seller, whether groundless or not, asserting any damages or liability relating to any product of Buyer which incorporates or utilizes perforated material sold to Buyer. Buyer s indemnification shall include, but not be limited to, all Seller s costs, damages, expenses, attorneys' fees and liabilities associated with any such suit or claim. 22. Tooling. All tooling used by the Seller in the processing of the perforated mate rial shall remain the property of Seller. Invoices for tooling charges may be rendered prior to commencing the processing of the perforated material. 23. Scrap. Scrap material resulting from the processing of the perforated material shall be the property of the seller. 24. Customer s Material. Despite the best precautions taken by the Seller, material may be spoiled in processing due to operator s oversight, failure of tool or equipment, or inherent characteristics of the material beyond the processor s control. Where a customer chooses to supply the raw material, he assumes responsibility for any spoilage that takes place in the course of processing or during transportation to the Seller s plant and while it is awaiting processing. The charge for perforating services covers only the labor involved and doesn t include replacement of material. For these reasons, the Seller will provide credit for perforating services only and the replacement of the material is the Buyer s obligation. Material furnished by the buyer shall be shipped to the Seller freight prepaid and all risk of loss or damage to the material shall remain with the Buyer. Buyer hereby indemnifies and holds Seller harmless against any and all claims for loss, liability, injury or damagearising out of or in connection with the perforated material and/or workmanship applied to or used in connection with the Buyers material. In the event Buyer - supplied material is defective, Seller reserves the right to change its price and delivery sche dules if such defects cause additional risk, expense or time in repairing the goods.
25. Use of Lubricants. The perforating process requires the use of lubricants. The natural condition of perforated material may vary from a light to heavy concentration of oils. Quoted prices do not include degreasing, and if Buyer specifies that the material must be degreased, there will be an additional charge for degreasing. If Buyer specifies total removal of lubricants, Seller is not liable for any surface corrosionresulting from the absence of lubricants. 26. Cancellation, Changes or Alterations. Orders placed cannot be cancelled or altered nor can referred deliveries of goods completed or in process be extended beyond original specified delivery dates, except wi th Seller s express written consent and upon terms which will indemnify Seller against loss. 27. Limitation on Waiver of Breach. The waiver by Seller of any breach of this contract shall be limited to the particular instance and shall not operate or be deemed to waive any future breach of the same provision or any other provision on the same or any other occasion, nor operate as a waiver of Seller s right to enforce any rights by such remedies as may be appropriate. 28. Seller s Remedies Cumulative. The rights and remedies of Seller under this contract shall be cumulative and the exercise of any one of them shall not be exclusive of any other right or remedy provided by this contract or allowed by law. 29. Assignment of Contract. This contract may not be assigned by Buyer without the prior written consent of Seller. Any assignment without such prior consent shall be void. 30. Entire Agreement. This contract contains the entire agreement between the parties and is not subject to modifications except by written agreement signed by both parties. 31. Law Governing Contract. This contract shall be governed by the internal laws of the State in which Seller s mail office is located.
Metric Conversion Table
Millimeters
x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x =
0.03937 25.4 3.2809 0.3048 0.621377 1.6093 0.155 6.4515 10.7641 0.0929 247.1098 0.004047 2.471 0.4047 0.061025 16.3872 35.314 0.02832 1.308 0.765 61.023 0.01639 0.26418 3.7854 15.4324 0.0648 0.03527 28.35 2.2046 0.4536 14.2231 0.0703 0.06243 16.0189 1.1023 0.9072 0.3405 0.746
= x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x = x
Inches Inches Feet Feet Miles Miles Square inches Square inches Square feet Square feet Acres Acres Acres Acres Cubic inches Cubic inches Cubic feet Cubic feet Cubic yards Cubic yards Cubic inches Cubic inches U.S. gallons U.S. gallons Grains Grains Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Avoirdupois Pounds Pounds Lbs. per sq. inch Lbs. per sq. inch Lbs. per cubic foot Lbs. per cubic foot Tons (2,000 lbs.) Tons (2,000 lbs.) Horsepower Horsepower
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Kilogram per cubic meter Metric Tons (1,000 kilograms) Kilowatts
How to Cut the Cost of Steel Parts*

If flat-rolled steel is the basic material fo r your product, here are some suggestions from Armco Steel that may help you reduce manufacturing costs: Coil vs. cut-to-length. Material cost per pound is lower for coil, and coils are easier, faster, and safer to handle than cut lengths. Total scrap ten ds to be less with coils. Preproduction processing. Slitting and cutting to length are often done more economically by a nearby metal service center than by a mill supplier. Also, a service center can reduce your cost of possession, as well as reduce scra p handling. Don t overlook coated stock. Review blanket specs. Check the need for and the effect of blanket specifications, tolerances, and special ordering requirements in material cost and availability. Remember: Special ordering or design require ments are paid for many times; a design or tooling change is paid for only once. Try a lower-cost grade. Experiment with a less expensive grade of steel for a given part to determine whether breakage is within acceptable limits and whether the surface is satisfactory. If, on the other hand, excessive breakage is pushing costs out of line, consider upgrading your specifications to a better drawing -quality steel. Order to minimum thickness. When design code or industry custom dictates the use of a particula r gage, make sure that you are buying these items at their minimum thickness for the required gage. All steel ordered to minimum thickness from a steel mill is priced by theoretical weight, not actual weight. Actual weight is about 2.5% greater than minimum weight at equal thickness and size.
*Source: American Machinist, May 1976.
Try higher-strength steel. In general, changing from a commercial -quality material to a high-strength material can yield weight reductions on the order of 20 -30%. Check extra costs. Examine decimal thickness and width of steel to be sure you are not paying for unnecessary size-extras. By a slight part redesign, one cabinet manufacturer reduced the required width of a blank to below 60 in., thereby saving $6 a ton . Reducing trim. Check your shearing and blanking practices to obtain the most efficient use of steel by reducing the amount of side trim in slitting coil stock, and, in blanking operations, by nesting blanks or reducing edge trim. Combining parts on a blank. Inventory and handling costs can be reduced by combining several individual parts in one piece. In switching from cut lengths to coils, a manufacturer of steel building products noted a near duplication in part thickness and width for two parts. Two26-in. wide parts called for 0.034 -in. and 0.036-in. material. Combining them reduced congestion in inventory and increased the order quantities for a material -cost saving of over $100.000/yr. Performance specs. Rewrite specifications so that they are perf ormance oriented rather than defect oriented. For example, a spec that reads unexposed part with 90 -deg. maximum bend communicates much more to a steel mill than must be free from all injurious defects, even though both phrases may be describing theme sa need. Reduce number of welds. Fabricating costs can be cut and productivity boosted by using the minimum number of spotwelds, in accordance with American Welding Society standard practice. Sheet vs. strip. If you are buying strip to get the mill -rolled edge, consider an edge -coining operation during fabrication to eliminate the extra cost. Evaluate current designs. Check your designs and make sure that you would order the same material grade if a given part were to be designed today. For example, if a part that was originally designed as an exposed part is now considered to be unexposed, a good surface may no longer be needed. Materials availability. Evaluate all purchased materials for potential alternatives in case of short supply. Giving the purchasing department the freedom to compromise on such things as thickness and size or relaxing the need for a noncritical specification can improve supply possibilities, and often it may reduce materials costs.
Fraction and Decimal Equivalents
1/64 1/32 3/64 1/16 5/64 3/32 7/64 1/8 9/64 5/32 11/64 3/16 13/64 7/32 15/64 1/4 17/64 9/32 19/64 5/16 21/64 11/32 23/64 3/8 25/64 13/32 27/64 7/16 29/64 15/32 31/64 1/2
0.015625 0.031250 0.046875 0.062500 0.078125 0.093750 0.109375 0.125000 0.140625 0.156250 0.171875 0.187500 0.203125 0.218750 0.234375 0.250000 0.265625 0.281250 0.296875 0.312500 0.328125 0.343750 0.359375 0.375000 0.390625 0.406250 0.421875 0.437500 0.453125 0.468750 0.484375 0.500000
33/64 17/32 35/64 9/16 37/64 19/32 39/64 5/8 41/64 21/32 43/64 11/16 45/64 23/32 47/64 3/4 49/64 25/32 51/64 13/16 53/64 27/32 55/64 7/8 57/64 29/32 59/64 15/16 61/64 31/32 63/64 1
0.515625 0.531250 0.546875 0.562500 0.578125 0.593750 0.609375 0.625000 0.640625 0.656250 0.671875 0.687500 0.703125 0.718750 0.734375 0.750000 0.765625 0.781250 0.796875 0.812500 0.828125 0.843750 0.859375 0.875000 0.890625 0.906250 0.921875 0.937500 0.953125 0.968750 0.984375 1.000000
Useful Information
Circumference of a circle = diameter x 3.1416. Diameter of a circle = circumference x .31931.
2 Area of a circle = diameter x .7854.
Doubling the diameter of a circle increases its area four times. Area of a triangle = base x 1/2 of perpendicular height Area of ellipse = product of both diameters x .7854. Area of a parallelogram = base x altitude. Side of inscribed square = diameter x .7071 or circumference divided by 4.4428. Side of a square of equal area to a circle = diameter x .8862 A side of a square x 1.4142 = diameter of its circumscribing circle. A side of a square x 4.443 = circumference of its circumscribing circle. A side of a square x 1.128 = diameter of an equal circle. A side of a square x 3.547 = circumference of an equal circle. Cubic inches in a ball= cube diameter x .5236. Cubic contents of a cone = area of base x 1/3 the altitude. Surface of frustrum of cone or pyramid = sum of circumference of both ends x 1/2 slant height + area of both ends. Contents of frustrum of cone or pyramid = multiply areaof two ends and get square root; add the two areas and multiply by 1/3 altitude. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times. A gallon of water (U.S. Standard) weighs 8 1/3 Ibs. And contains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water contains 7 1/2 gallons, 1728 cubic inches and weighs 62 1/2 Ibs. Pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water = height of the column in feet x .434.
2 The capacity of a cylindrical tank in U.S. gallons = diameter (inches) x length (inches) x .0034.
The Formability of Perforated Metals

A Study Sponsored by the Industrial Perforators Association and conducted by the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Ohio State University using methods, tooling and a testing machine of their design generally defined as the OSU Formability Test
The OSU Formability Test The forming processes are among the most frequently used in the fabrication of perforated metals. formability is the term used to evaluate the capability of a material to withstand the stretch/draw stresses of forming before splitting occurs. Ohio State University's Materials Science and Engineering Department has had a long -standing interest in testing for formability ecause the standard me chanical tests for evaluating strength in metal materials, such as the tensile tests, had not correlated well with what actually occurs in forming operations. In pursuit of this interest, they developed a machine and method for testing Formability, (the LD H test) but the machine was not only very expensive, (upwards of $200,000) but lacked the ability to give consistently accurate results. Dissatisfied, they set out, again, to design an inexpensive formability testing machine and a more accurate formability test. Following the lead of a study conducted by General Motors Corporation that found that 80% of the failures occurring in automotive stampings were the result of splitting under plain/strain conditions, this is where they focused their formability tes ting design. After several years working in conjunction with Interlaken Technology Corporation, they succeeded in designing and refining both machine and tooling for measuring Formability to yield testing results that had on tenth the variation found in th e old LDH tests, and a testing machine design that old for $20,000 complete with tooling and power supply, affordable for any small shop.
Formability Test
The OSU/lnterlaken testing machine, shown here in three steps of the tests: 1. The punchi ng tool with 1 radius, is withdrawn and the test sample is in place above it. 2. The test sample is clamped in position. 3. The punch is advanced, (pushed in) at a rate of 1 mm per second until failure occurs. At this point the Punch Height is measured. Each test sample specification was evaluated three times and the Maximum Punch Heights recorded for each were averaged and shown in the table of Test Results on pages 123 and 124 of this report.
Our Goals Determine how cold rolled perforated steel react s to drawing operations and develop the following relationships: 1. Effect of open area on Formability. 2. Effect of hole size on Formability. 3. Differences between commercial quality and drawing quality cold rolled steel in their Formability. 4. Differences in Forma bility according to the orientation of the work piece with respect to the punching tool, i.e. when applying drawing forces perpendicular to a straight row of holes or parallel to a straight row of holes.
Procedure Each sample was first cleaned with ace tone followed by methanol and dried. Then the sample was lubricated with Parco 404 Prelube in the region of punch contact. The sample was placed in the OSU Formability tooling and clamped. The punch was then advanced at a rate of 1mm per second until failu re occurred. For each test the measure of formability was the punch height at which a maximum load was obtained from the recorded load versus punch displacement data. Three tests were performed on each of the 94 test conditions requested and the Punch Heig hts recorded for each were averaged. The Average Punch Height was the recorded Test Result.
Test Results A Table of Formability Test Results for all perforated test pieces included in the study is available on the back page of this report. There were 76 configurations of test pieces with varying perforation hole sizes and patterns from which 100 test results were obtained including those with A and B Orientation. These test piece configurations are numbered and described in the columns reading from left to right. Notice that the first eight configurations had no perforations. There were four gage sizes of cold rolled steel sheet included in both Commercial Quality and Draw Quality. The hole sizes are provided in decimals, the Open Area for each perforated pattern in percent. The thickness of the sheets were measured and it is interesting to note that for the same gage, the thickness of the Draw Quality Steel was slightly different than the Commercial Quality Steel. The Test Results, expressed as AveragePunch Height, (the average of the three tests conducted for each test specification), are shown according to Orientation: B Orientation having the straight row of holes running parallel with the orientation of the punch and A Orientation were the straight row of holes are perpendicular to the orientation of the punch. The charts and their explanations that follow illustrate the effects of each of the variables referred to OUR GOALS, above.
The effect of percent open area This can be seen in the firstfour plots (Charts l -4). There is a chart for each of four thicknesses of Commercial Quality steel: 22 GA, 20 GA, 18 GA and 16 GA. There is a plotted curve for three different hole sizes in perforated patterns with open areas ranging from zero to forty per cent. The results show an initial sharp drop in formability from the zero percent open area (plain stock) with the introduction of holes. After this there is a more moderate decline in formability with increasing open area.
Chart 1: Effect of Open Area and Hole Size on Formability Commercial Quality, 22 Gage Steel, B Orientation
Chart 2: Effect of Open Area and Hole Size on Formability Commercial Quality, 20 Gage Steel, B Orientation
Chart 3: Effect of Open Area and Hole Size on Formab ility Commercial Quality, 18 Gage, B Orientation
Chart 4: Effect of Open Area and Hole Size on Formability Commercial Quality, 16 Gage, B Orientation
The effect of hole size and sheet thickness In Charts 1 through 4, it can be seen that incr easing the hole size has very little effect in the 10 to 20 percent open area range. Looking at Chart 5, in the 30 to 40 percent range increasing the hole size could slightly increase the formability for the same percent open area. For a particular hole zesi and percent open area, the formability actually decreases slightly with increasing thickness. This can be seen in figure 6.
Chart 5: Effect of Hole Size on Formability Commercial Quality,20 Gage Steel, B Orientation
Chart 6: Effect of Perforated Sheet Thickness on Formability Commercial Quality, Hole Size = 0.1875, B Orientation
The effect of draw quality versus commercial quality steel A comparison of the formability of draw quality versus o c mmercial quality steel is shown in Chart 7. Generally draw quality has higher formability. Chart 7 compares four thicknesses of steel with a perforated pattern with a hole size of .01875 and 17.01% Open Area.
The effect of orientation The effect of orientation changes the formability by about 30%. A perforated pattern that has the straight row of holes parallel to the punch (B orientation) has less Formability than having the straight row of holes perpendicular to the punch (A orientation).
Chart 7: Formability Difference in Commercial Quality and Draw Quality Steel 3/16 x 0.4325, Hole Size =0.1875, Percent Open Area = 17.01 %
Chart 8: Difference in Formability Found in A Orientation and B Orientation Sorted by 22, 20, 18 and 16 Gage Steel and by % Open Area
Test Piece
Perf Description
Gage
Hole Size (in) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875
Open Area % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10.08 10.08 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 40.31 40.31 10.08 10.08 10.08 13.44 13.44 13.44 13.44 13.44 13.44 40.31 40.31 40.31 12.75 12.75 12.75 12.75 17.01 17.01 17.01 17.01 17.01 17.01
Meas'd Thick. (in) 0.027 0.032 0.045 0.056 0.03 0.033 0.044 0.054 0.027 0.032 0.027 0.033 0.03 0.034 0.027 0.033 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.027 0.033 0.046 0.03 0.032 0.045 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.056 0.027 0.033 0.046 0.056 0.03 0.033
Quality
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/16x3/16 1/1 6 x 3/16 1/16 x 0.1615 1/16 x 0.1615 11/16 x 0.1615 1/16 x 0.1615 1/1 6 x 3/32 1/1 6 x 3/32 1/1 6 x 3/8 1/8 x 3/8 1/8 x 3/8 1/8 x 0.324 1/8 x 0.324 1/8 x 0.324 1/8 x 0.324 1/8 x 0.324 1/8 x 0.324 1/8 x 3/16 1/8 x 3/16 1/8 x 3/16 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 0.4325 3/16 x 0.4325 3/16 x 0.4325 3/16 x 0.4325 3/16 x 0.4325 3/16 x 0.4325
22 20 18 16 22 20 18 16 22 20 22 20 22 20 22 20 22 20 18 22 20 18 22 20 18 22 20 18 22 20 18 16 22 20 18 16 22 20
Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Draw Draw Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Draw Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Draw Draw
Ave. Pch. Hgt. Orientation B A (mm) (mm) 34.7 35.7 37.4 38.5 37.5 38 38.5 39.7 22.9 23.1 23.3 23.5 25.2 23.9 13.3 14.4 24.5 24.3 23 23 23.4 23.5 25.3 24.5 24.1 17.1 16.9 14.1 24.7 24.2 23.9 22 23.6 23.7 22.7 23.3 25.5 24.2 32.1 32.9 32.2 32 30.1 31.1 31.8 31.7 31.9
Test Piece
Perf. Description
Gage
Hole Size (in) 0.1875 0.1875 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 10.18751 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.1875 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.125 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.0625 0.125 0.125 0.125
Open Area % 17.01 17.01 13.44 13.44 13.44 40.31 40.31 40.31 29.61 29.61 29.61 40.31 40.31 40.31 40.31 32.65 32.65 32.65 32.65 32.65 32.65 32.65 32.65 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 29.61 22.67 22.67 22.67 22.67 22.67
Meas'd Thick. (in) 0.045 0.054 0.033 0.044 0.056 0.033 0.046 0.056 0.033 0.045 0.056 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.056 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.056 0.03 0.033 0.044 0.053 0.027 0.033 0.045 0.03 0.33 0.045 0.026 0.033 0.03 0.033 0.027 0.033 0.027 0.033 0.045
Ouality
Ave. Pch. Hgt. Orientation B A (mm) (mm) 24.6 24.2 23.9 23.1 22.9 21.4 18.3 17.3 22.8 21.4 18.5 18.7 18.4 15.1 13.6 22.1 21.3 18.7 17.8 22.8 21.3 21.6 20.4 20.9 21.9 19.8 23.1 21.9 21.5 19.1 18.2 20.5 19.2 21.5 20.3 23.1 22.6 21.2 29.8 20.5 31.6 27.6 26.5 29.7 30.6 32.8 28.7 27.8 29.8 30.2 30 31.9 30.3
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76
3/16 x 0.4325 3/16 x 0.4325 1/4 x 1.3 1/4 x 1.3 1/4 x 1.3 1/4 x 3/8 1/4 x 3/8 1/4 x 3/8 1/4 x 7/16 1/4 x 7/16 1/4 x 7/16 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 1/8 x 7/32 1/8 x 7/32 1/8 x 7/32 1/8 x 7/32 1/8 x 7/32 1/8 x 7/32 1/16 x 0.109 1/16 x 0.109 1/16 x 0.109 1/16 x 0.109 1/16 x 1/8 1/1 6 x 1/8 1/8 x 0.250 1/8 x 0.250 1/8 x 0.250
18 16 20 18 16 20 18 16 20 18 16 22 20 18 16 22 20 18 16 22 20 18 16 22 20 18 22 20 18 22 20 22 20 22 20 22 20 18
Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Draw Draw Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Commercial Draw Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Draw Draw Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial
The Formability of Perforated Metals, Part II: Stainless Steel and Aluminum
_______________________________________
A follow-up study sponsored by The Industrial Perforators Association and conducted by Robert H. Wagoner, Department of Materials Science and Engineering at the Ohio State University
A publication of the Industrial Perforators Association
THE OSU FORMABILITY TEST
Forming processes are among the most frequently used in the fabrication of perforated metals. Formability is the term used to evaluate the capacity of a material to withstand the stretch/draw stresses of forming before splitting occurs. We have had a long-standing interest in testing formability because the standard mechanical tests to evaluating strength in materials, such as the tensile tests, had not correlated well with what actually occurs in forming operations. Standard formability tests, such as the Limiting Dome Height test (LDH) showed good correlation to press performance, but required high capital investment (upward of $200,000) and lacked the ability to provide consistent from one location or machine to another. Ohio State University and Interlaken Technology Corporation, with sponsorship by the Edison Materials Technology Center (EMTEC) designed a reproducible, accurate formability test and an inexpensive formability testing machine. Following a study conducted by General Motors Corp. that found that 80% of splitting failures occur near the plane strain condition, the OSU Formability Test reliably reproduces this strain state. After several years work, the team succeeded in designing and refining both the mach ine and tooling for measuring formability to yield testing results that had one tenth the variation found in the old LDH tests, with time to peform reduced by a factor of 5 to 10, and a machine capital cost of approximately $50,000. The formability test machine has now been commercialized and more than 10 of them are in use in industry during the first years of availability. These improvements make formability testing a practical reality for all sizes of forming companies.
Goals Measure the formability of perforated sheets of stainless steel and aluminum and to develop the following relationships: 1. Effect of % open area on formability. 2. Effect of thickness and hole size on formability. 3. Differences in the formability of materials- aluminum alloys 3003, 5052 and 6061 and the stainless steel types 304L, 316L and 409.
Procedure Each sample was cleaned with acetone followed by methanol and drying. The sample was lubricated with oil in the region of punch contact. The sample was placed in the OSU formability tooling and clamped. The punch was then advanced at a rate of 1 mm/sec until failure occurred. For each test the measure of formability was the punch height at which the material sustained a maximum load was obtained from the recorded load versus displacement data. Three tests were performed on each of the 90 test conditions requested and the punch heights recorded for each were averaged. Test Results Table 1 summarizes the materials and perforation spacing tested. For each hole diameter, different hole spacing giving rise to different percent open areas which have been summarized. Table 2 summarizes formability measurements for the 90 tests performed. The results are grouped by the pattern and size of holes, then ordered by material and gauge. The mode of failure (either single failure,.S, or multiple failure, M) and the places where failure was observed (near die, D, near punch, P, or center, C). A blank in these columns means that the failure was not uniquely located. The effect of each of the variables on how they affect formability has been considered and explained with the help of plots and charts in the following sections. Effect of percent open area The % open area was plotted against the punch height at maximum load. Charts 1 -6 show this variation for each of the materials. Each plot contains a series of curves for various hole sizes and thickness, as noted in the legend of the plot. The hole size is given in mm and the thickness is given as the gauge number. The results show that there is a drop in formability as the % open area increases. However for aluminum 3003, the trends were not very clear. The reason for this could be that the punch height at which these were failing was too small and the specimen failed in a very short time. Hence the scatter in the values is expected to be high and the test may not be sufficiently accurate to deduce a trend.
Chart 1: Effect of Open Area on Formability 3003 Aluminum
Chart 4: Effect of Open Area on Formability 304 L Stainless Steel
Chart 5: Effect of Open Area on Formability 316 L Stainless Steel
Chart 6: Effect of Open Area on Formability 409 Stainless Steel
Effect of thickness and hole size The plot average of punch heights (averaged over all choices of % open area) versus thickness are shown in Charts 7-12. Each of these has graphs for the 2 choices of hole size: 4.71 mm and 1.55 mm. These charts do not show any consistent trend of formability with thickness. However it can be seen that the formability of the sheets with 1.55 mm holes is consistently less than that of the specimens with 4.72 mm holes.
Chart 7: Effect of Thickness and Hole Size on Formability 3003 Aluminum
Chart 10: Effect of Thickness and Hole Size on Formability 304 L Stainless Steel
Chart 11: Effect of Thickness and Hole Size on Formability 316 L Stainless Steel
Chart 12: Effect of Thickness and Hole Size on Formability 409 Stainless Steel
Material Comparison The 6 materials were compared by taking the average formability of all the tests with that material. This average punch height has been compared by means of chart 13.
It clearly shows that the perforated aluminum sheets have a lower formability than steel sheets. Aluminum 3003 has the least formability whereas Stainless Steel 304L has the highest formability.
Chart 13: Relative Formability of Materials Tested
Table 1: Summary of Materials and Perforation Patterns Tested Material AL 3003 Thickness (ga) 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 Measured Thickness (mm) 0.65 1.00 1.25 0,65 1.00 1.25 0.65 1.00 1.25 0.79 1.27 1.59 0.79 1.27 1.59 0.79 1.27 1.59 Hole Dia. (mm) 1.55, 4.72 1.55, 4.72 4.72 1.55, 4.72 1.55, 4.72 4.72 1.55, 4.72 1.55, 4.72 4.72 1.55, 4.72 1.55, 4.72 4.72 1.55, 4.72 1.55, 4.72 4.72 1.55, 4.72 1.55, 4.72 4.72
AL 5052
AL 6061
STN 304L
STN 316L
STN 409
Table of Formability Test Results
No.
Pattern
Material
GA
Hole Dia (mm)

1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55
No. of Holes
2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 2632 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 1173 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600 4600
Hole Area (sq. mm)

4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 4967 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 2214 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681 8681
Open Area %
21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 21.79 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 9.71 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07 38.07
Av. Ht. Failure Site (mm)

6.9 10.6 10.6 11.9 14.5 14.5 19.8 19.3 27.7 22.3 22.9 26.6 8.1 10.6 10.3 13.1 16.8 18.7 22.4 21.7 30.2 23.1 33.1 24.3 7.4 6.8 10.4 10.6 8.8 9.5 16.1 14.9 20.4 13.7 8.1 10.0 C,D C,P C,D C C C C C C C C C P,D D C,P C C C C C C C D P P C C C,P C,P C
Mode of Failure
S S S S S M S,M S,M S S S,M S S S M M M S M S,M S,M S,M S,M S S,M S S S,M S S S S S S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 1/8 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/16 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32 1/16 x 3/32
ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 STN 409 STN 409 STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 316 L STN 316 L ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 STN 409 STN 409 STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 316 L STN 316 L ALUM 3003 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 STN 409 STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 316 L STN 316 L ALUM 3003 STN 409
22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 22 18 18 22 22 22 18 22 18 22 22 18 22 18 18 18
Table of Formability Test Results, continued
No.
Pattern
Material
GA
Hole Dia (mm)

4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72
No. of Holes
175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 175 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426 426
Hole Area (sq. mm)

3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 3062 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455 7455
Open Area %
13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 13.43 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70 32.70

11.4 7.6 9.7 9.8 13.2 12.7 18.9 19.3 18.4 25.2 23.4 24.3 33.2 24.8 30.3 26.3 31.7 20.7 7.4 8.8 8.3 9.2 12.3 10.6 15.3 17.5 14.7 19.9 18.4 19.0 29.9 22.7 27.1 25.9 27.3 17.1 C C D D P C C,D C C C C C C C C C C C D P D P,D P,D C C C C C P C C C C C C
Mode of Failure
M M S S S,M S S,M S,M S,M S S S S S,M S,M S,M S M S S S S S M M S M S S S S S S S S
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 1/2 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16 3/16 x 5/16
ALUM 5052 ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 STN 409 STN 409 STN 409 STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 316 L STN 316 L STN 316 L ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 STN 409 STN 409 STN 409 STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 316 L STN 316 L STN 316 L
22 22 18 16 18 18 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 18 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 16
Table of Formability Test Results, continued
No.
Pattern
Material
GA
Hole Dia (mm)

4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72 4.72
No. of Holes
503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503
Hole Area (sq. mm)

8802 8802 503 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802 8802
Open Area %
38.61 38.61 8802 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61 38.61

6.2 9.7 38.61 10.1 11.3 10.7 15.6 15.5 14.1 19.9 19.9 17.5 29.9 23.5 25.3 26.5 27.3 16.1 C P,D 8.4 C,D C P C C C C C C C C C C C
Mode of Failure
M S D,S S S S S,M S S S S S S S S S S
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32 3/16 x 9/32
ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 3003 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 5052 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 ALUM 6061 STN 409 STN 409 STN 409 STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 304 L STN 316 L STN 316 L STN 316 L
22 18 16 22 18 16 22 18 18 22 22 16 22 18 16 22 18 16
ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS:
Principles and Applications

by Theodore J. Schultz, Ph.D.
ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS
Table of Contents PART ONE: THE PRINCIPLES

I. Introduction A. How Perforated Metals are Used in Acoustical Applications 1. As a Facing for Something Else 2. In Tuned Resonators 3. As Airflow Diffusers B. Noise Control with Sound Absorptive Treatments Using Perforated Metals Matching the Sound Absorption to the Frequencies Where the Noise Problem Lies A. Frequency Analysis B. Sound Level meter C. Frequency Spectrum D. Frequency Spectra for Some Household Equipment The Transparency Approach A. Perforated Metal Sheet with High Transparency for Use in Broad-band Sound Absorptive Treatments B. Why Perforated Metals Are Often the Best Choice C. Sound Transparency of Perforated Metal The Tuned Resonator Absorber Approach A. Perforated Metal Sheet with Properties Chosen to Target a Limited Range of Frequencies for Optimum Sound Absorption B. Calculating the Dimensions of the Tuned Absorber to Give the Desired Resonance Frequency C. Design Refinements 1 2 2 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11 11 13 14 21 21
II.
III.
IV.
23 29
This booklet was published by the Industrial Perforators Association, Inc. Market Development Committee, J. Lee Plank, Jr. Chairman. Editorial Consultant Charles Turpin & Co., Inc.
Industrial Perforators Association, Inc. 1986 All Rights Reserved
Table of Contents, Continued PART TWO: THE APPLICATIONS

I. II. Introduction The Transparency Approach A. Sound Attenuation at High Frequencies B. Access to the Sound Treatment C. How to Use the Access Factor D. A Case History Illustrating the Transparency Approach E. Special Considerations: Non-Circular Perforations and Self-Resistance of the Perforated Metal III. Resonant Sound Absorbers A. Sound Absorption at the Resonance Frequency 1. Flow Resistance, Flow Resistivity, and Resistance Ratio 2. Absorptive Layer Near a Hard Wall 3. Resonance Frequencies Achievable with Commonly Produced Perforated Metal Sheets B. The Absorption Bandwidth C. Combined Effects of Flow Resistance, Filling, and Absorber Dimensions 1. The Proper Choice for R 2. Further Illustrative Examples 3. Self-Flow-Resistance of Fine Perforated Metal Screens IV. Practical Large-Scale Applications or Sound-Absorptive Treatments Using Perforated Metals A. Barrier Screens for Tokyo Roadways B. Absorptive Barriers and Ceiling Treatments in the Vienna Subway System C. Acoustical Effects of the Sound Absorptive Treatment in the Vienna Subway D. Sound Attenuation and Access Factors for these Treatments Appendix A: Thickness of Sound Absorptive Treatments and Sound Absorption at Low Frequencies Appendix B: Background for the Transparency Index and the Attenuation of Perforated Metal at High Frequencies Appendix C: The Access Factor and Access of the Sound Wave to the Sound Absorptive Treatment Lying Behind the Perforated Metal Appendix D: Work Sheets (Figures 17, 21, 22, and 23) 31 31 32 33 34 48 40 41 41 42 45 46
47 48 51 51 56 59 59 60 62 63 65 67
71
72
ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS: PART ONE: THE PRINCIPLES
I.
Introduction
Of all the markets for perforated metals, acoustical applications have seen the most dramatic growth in the last few decades. There is every reason to expect a further surge of growth in this area in the near future, to match that of the general economy. Much of the new growth in the acoustical market will come from original equipment manufacturers (OEM) and from architectural firms. OEM s will find that they must reduce the noise of their products to meet consumer demands, and the architects (including highway, airpor t, and rapid transit designers) are already designing noise control into their projects; these applications will proliferate as commercial building and government construction pick up. In order to take full advantage of this potential market development, it is important to ensure that the designers of noise control applications give full consideration to the use of perforated materials, and to present a convincing argument that perforated materials are often the best alternative in noise control programs. The best way of doing this is to present up-to-date, factual information on the acoustical applications of perforated materials and to illustrate these uses with enough practical examples to help specifiers gain a sense of confidence in recommending the rig ht material for the right application, without feeling intimidated by the technical aspects of the design. It is the purpose of this booklet to provide the necessary technical information in an easy -to-use style, and to provide helpful hints in the choice of perforated metals, so that professionals can recommend these materials to their clients with pride and confidence.
Page 1 of 76
A. How Perforated Metals Are Used in Acoustical Applications

There are three principal acoustical applications for perforated metals:
1. As a Facing for Something Else:

Here the perforated metal is used as a protective or decorative covering for some special acoustical material; that material may be designed either to absorb sound or to reflect or scatter sound in a special way. It is this spe cial material that does the actual acoustical work, so the purpose of the perforated metal in such applications is to "disappear" acoustically: that is, it must be so trans parent that the sound waves can pass right through it to encounter the acoustical treatment that lies behind. Our design goal in this case is to choose the perforated metal for greatest sound transparency, for sounds of all frequencies.
2. In Tuned Resonant Sound Absorbers:

Sometimes, however, we may wish to absorb sound very selectively, only in a certain band of frequencies but not at frequencies lying above and below that band. For this purpose we design a so-called Resonant Sound Absorber. Here, the perforated metal, instead of disappearing, takes an active part in tuning the aborber, that is, in determining which frequencies of sound are absorbed.
Figure 1. As an example of the first application, the curved surfaces above the stage of the Orpheum Theatre, Vancouver, B.C., are made of finely perforated metal sheet, not of plaster as they appear. The perforations allow the sound to pass through and to reflect back into the hall at desired locations, from specially designed surfaces behind the perforated metal.
3. As Airflow Diffusers:
In the acoustical treatment of certain specialized aerodynamic test facilities, such as wind tunnels, perforated metals are often used to break up the turbulence in airflows. This last application is both highly specialized and highly technical. Moreover, it does not represent a significant portion of the market; therefore, the rest of this book will be concerned entirely with the first two applications. The main text of this book is intended for readers with no special technical background. It is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the principles of noise control treatments using perforated metals; the second part deals with typical applications. Reader s who want more technical detail will find it in the Appendices. Appendix D also includes worksheets that may be photocopied, filled out and included in the job files for individual projects.
Page 2 of 76
B. Noise Control With Sound Absorptive Treatments Using Perforated Metals

Noise control measures are often applied in order to quiet noisy equipment. We treat various household and office appliances to make them acceptable to the user because excessive noise is annoying; we treat heavy industrial equipment so that it wi ll comply with current OSHA regulations that limit the noise exposure of workers so as to protect them from hearing damage. In 1970, the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) set limits on the levels of noise to which workers may be exposed in their work environments. This regulation requires that industries monitor the noise in all worker locations, and, where this noise exceeds the permissible limits, it must be abated by any feasible noise control measures, or by administrative methods such as limiting the employees' exposure time. If such noise control procedures turn out not to be feasible, then hearing protection must be provided for the workers. One effective and commonly used approach is to CONTAIN the noise by providing an enclosure around the noisy equipment. This approach can work very well, so long as we attend to one very important matter: we must provide sound-absorptive treatment inside the enclosure, to soak up as much sound as possible. This step is necessary because the first thing tha t happens when we enclose a noise source is that the noise, which can no longer escape, builds up inside the enclosure to levels that are higher than they were without the enclosure. Providing the sound absorptive treatment inside the enclosure prevents this undesirable noise build -up and allows the enclosure to get on with its job of attenuating the noise to acceptable levels outside the enclosure. In some cases, the "user" is actually inside the enclosure with the noise source, as in a road traffic tunnel . The application of soundabsorptive materials on the walls and ceiling of the tunnel prevents a serious build-up of tire and motor noise, which otherwise could distress and confuse the drivers. In all such sound absorptive treatments we must take care to match the acoustical performance of the treatment to the frequency range in which the equipment generates the greatest amount of noise. And this is where treatments using perforated metal come in!
Page 3 of 76
II.
Matching the Sound Absorption to the Frequencies Where the Noise Problem Lies
Before beginning to design noise control measures using perforated materials, you must decide what kind of noise problem you have. As suggested under applications 1 and 2, above, perforated metals can be used in two completely diffe rent ways in acoustical applications. In the first application, we want the sheet to be as transparent as possible to sound of all frequencies. This would be the choice if we want to absorb noise that contains energy in a broad range of frequencies, or if we want the sound of an orchestra in a concert hall to pass freely through a false, decorative, perforated surface in order to reach specially designed acoustical treatment behind the sheet.
Figure 2. In refurbishing the Rotunda at the Rotunda at the University of Virginia, there was a conflict between the architect's wish to preserve the original appearance of Thomas Jefferson's handsome plaster dome and the need for acoustical treatment to quiet the room. The original plaster was replaced with curved, finely perforated sheet metal behind which sound-absorbing blankets were hidden, with a resulting appearance indistinguishable from that of plaster.
If on the other hand, we wish to absorb sound in a relatively narrow band of frequencies, we use the perforated sheet as an integral part of a tuned Resonant Sound Absorber. A common application for this kind of treatment is in the inlet of a jet engine. The design procedures for these two applications are quite different. They are described in Sections III and IV.
Figure 3 Inlet and exhaust ducts of jet engine, lined with sound absorptive treatment that is faced with perforated metal.
Page 4 of 76
However, before choosing which of the two applications is appropriate, we first have to determine whether our problem concerns broad-band or narrow-band noise: that is, whether we will require the "TRANSPARENCY" or the "TUNED RESONANCE" approach.
A. Frequency Analysis
Frequency in cycles per second
For this purpose, we need some kind of frequency analysis, whether measured or estimated, to tell us how the energy of the noise is distributed among the various frequencies. We can use the analogy of the piano keyboard, here, to represent the range of frequencies of interest: the high pitches lie toward the right, the low pitches o t the left.
493.88 523.25
Figure 4. Piano keyboard and musical staff, showing the relations to the frequency spectrum.
Figure 5. Making a sound spectrum, with the sound energy concentrated around 250 Hz ("middle C").
Figure 6. Making a "broad-band" noise with wide, flat spectrum.
130.81
146.83
164.81
174.61
196.00
220.00
246.94
261.63
293.66
329.63
349.23
392.00
440.00
If we play a single key (or three or four adjacent keys near middle-C, the sound energy will be concentrated around the frequency 250Hz (cycles per second).
If we use forearms and elbows to play as many adjacent keys as we can, the resulting "noise" will be distributed over a broad band of frequencies.
A suitable frequency analysis would distinguish clearly between these two conditions, and would guide us to the appropriate choice of design procedure, when we seek to attenuate the noise using perforated metals in an accoustical treatment.
Page 5 of 76
B. Sound Level Meter

Such an analysis is made by means of a Sound Level Meter. This is a piece of hand -held equipment containing:
a microphone (to convert the sound wave into an
electrical signal);
an amplifier (to increase the strength of the signal); a set of filters (to select different ranges of frequencies
for measurement); and

a meter (or digital read-out device) to indicate the
sound pressure level being measured. If all the filters are switched out, the meter reads the total energy of the noise at all frequencies. If only one of the filters is switched in, the meter responds only to the energy in the band of frequencies passed by the filter.
Figure 7. We can analyze sounds, showing how the energy is distributed over different frequency bands, by means of a Sound Level Meter (SLM).
Page 6 of 76
C. Frequency Spectrum
Returning to our piano example above, where only a few adjacent notes around middle-C were played, if we measure the sound level with the filters successively switched from low to high, we would get a strong meter reading only with the filter for the frequency band centered around 250 Hz; all the other readings would be much lower (corresponding to the ambient room noise). This would tell us that, if we wish to attenuate this noise, we should use a Tuned Resonant Absorber.
SPL (decibels)
Piano notes
Ambient Noise
Ambient Noise
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 8. The SLM readings are plotted at the standard octave-band frequencies, in order to exhibit the narrow spectrum from four adjacent piano notes, as in Fig. 5.
Page 7 of 76
For the "all-elbows" piano noise, we would get high meter readings with nearly all the filters, indicating that sound energy of comparable levels in a broad range of frequencies is present. Here, our acoustical treatment would aim for maximum transparency from the perforated sheet.
SPL (decibels)
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Figure 9. Plot of the SLM readings for the "all-elbows" broadband noise of Fig. 6.
Page 8 of 76
D. Frequency Spectra for Some Household Equipment

The following figure shows how the noise energy is distributed over different frequencies for three typical household appliances. The noise of the stove hood is strongest at low frequencies (125 and 250 Hz), while that of the electric drill is most intense at high frequencies (2000 and 4000 Hz). The dehumidifier noise is distributed about equally over the entire frequency range. It would require different configurations of sound absorptive treatment to deal with these three noise spectrums.
Stove Hood
Sound Pressure Level dB re 0.0002 u bar
Electric Drill
Dehumidifier
Noise Produced by Different Appliances At Different Frequencies
Octave Band Center Frequency (Hz)

Figure 10. Octave-band Sound Pressure Levels for three household appliances.
Page 9 of 76
Thus, whenever you are called upon to recommend a sound absorptive treatment using perforated materials, your first step must be to determine the frequency distribution of the offending noise. If it is a broad-band noise, you will take the"transparency" app roach; if it is a narrow-band noise, you must design a Resonant Absorber tuned to the frequency (or frequencies) where most of the sound energy lies. These two design approaches are given in detail in sections III and IV, along with illustrative examples. Take care, when you measure the noise spectrum, that you account for the full range of operating conditions of the equipment and/or the work materials. A change of operating speed or work material can significantly affect the noise energy distribution. Also, you should allow for a possible change in the dominant noise frequency as the equipment ages and wears.
Page 10 of 76
III.
The "Transparency" Approach
A. Perforated Metal Sheet With High Transparency, for Use in Broad-band Sound Absorptive Treatments
Perforated Metal Sheet Sound Absorptive Layer Figure 11. Sketch of perforated sheet over sound absorptive layer.
In this application, perforated metal sheet is used as a sound transparent protective covering or sound Absorptive als that actually do the work of absorbing the sound. In this case, because the perforated metal is chosen to be completely transparent to sound, it does not alter the intrinsic performance of the absorptive material in any way. The following figure shows typical sound absorption efficiency for glass fiber materials at different frequencies.
Six Inches Thick
Sound Absorptive Coefficient (%)
One Inch Thick
Sound Absorption Efficiency for Glass Fiber Material at Different Frequencies
Octave Band Center Frequency (Hz)
Figure 12. Sound absorption coefficients vs frequency, for glass fiber materials of different thickness.
A layer only one inch thick is quite effective at high frequencies but very poor at low frequencies. It would be a suitable match for quieting noises having frequency spectrums like that of the electric drill that are rich in high frequencies. (The match does not have to be perfect; it is sufficient to follow general trends). On the other hand, a six inch layer is extremely efficient at all frequencies (about 99% of the incident noise energy is absorbed). The problem is that it takes up a lot of space and is expensive.
Page 11 of 76
If it were not for these drawbacks, ALL sound absorption treatments would utilize thick blankets, with no further worry about targeting specific frequency ranges. Unfortunately, it is not cost effective to provide thick absorbing layers when only a limited frequency range requires treatment. The Tuned Resonant Absorbers, described below, can achieve comparable sound absorp tion efficiency in a limited frequency range, with lower cost and reduced space requirements. Material thicknesses, intermediate between the 1" and 6" treatments shown in the figure, exhibit sound absorptive efficiencies intermediate between those two curves, which can be roughly matched to the noise spectrum for which noise control is desired. A general discussion of the relation between the thickness of the glass fiber blanket and the effectiveness of absorption at low frequencies is presented at the endof this booklet in Appendix A. The next step is the selection of a suitable protective covering.
Page 12 of 76
B. Why Perforated Metals Are Often The Best Choice

You probably already know that perforated metal sheet is often used as a facing for acoustical treatments, but if more people also realized that for many applications perforated metal is the best available facing material, there would be many more such applications. A great disadvantage of other commonly used sound absorptive treatments is that they cannot be cleaned or repainted without seriously degrading their sound absorptive properties. Perforated metals are unique as components of acoustically absorptive treatments because they can be cleaned or refinished without harming the absorptive properties for which they were designed, subject only to the proper choice of perforation size and spacing, described later.
Figure 13. Although it is not conspicuous, the ceiling of this classroom is made of perforated metal with glass fiber blanket in the space behind.
Other important advantages of perforated metals in such applications are:

inherent structural strength, compared with woven or
felted facing materia ls; they can stand alone, if necessary;

ability to be formed into complex curved shapes for
architectural (visual) purposes;

resistance to abuse and damage
Finally, the chief architectural advantage of perforated metal is that it is basically uninteresting . It can be made to look like something else: for example, plain plaster. Unfortunately, its neutral appearance creates difficulties for us when we try to illustrate this advantage in this booklet; photographs don't show up what is really going on!
Page 13 of 76
C. Sound Transparency of Perforated Metal

Once a sound absorptive material is chosen to match the noise control task at hand, we must select the proper kind of perforated metal to serve as a protective covering. We must decide which perforation pattern, AMONG THOSE PATTERNS THAT ARE READILY AND CURRENTLY AVAILABLE, provides the greatest transparency. Most people assume that the greater the percent open area of the sheet, the more easily sound can go through it. In a general way, this assumption is correct but not always. For example, we could make a sheet with 10% open area in two ways: either by making a single large hole at the center or by very fine perforations overall. In the first case, instead of a transparent facing material, we would have a small completely open area at the center of the sheet (10% of the total area); but the rest of the sheet would be completely opaque to sound, reflecting ALL of it. In the second case, the entire sheet is almost completely transparent to sound, because the tiny solid areas between the holes are too small to intercept the sound waves. For high transparency, the most important consideration is to have many small perforations, closely spaced. It is better to minimize the bar size (the size of the solid portions between the perforations) and (to a lesser extent) to minimize the sheet thickness, rather than to concentrate on percent open area. In order to help the designer choose a suitably transparent sheet for such applications, we have introduced a parameter called the Transparency Index (TI) given by the following formula: TI = nd 2/ta2 = 0.04 P/ ta2 where: n = number of perforations per sq in; d = perforation diameter (in); t = sheet thickness (in); a = shortest distance between holes (in); a = b d, where b = on-center hole spacing (in); P = percent (not fractional) open area of sheet.
Figure 14. Two samples of perforated metal with the same percentage of open area.
Page 14 of 76
The formula is valid for either straight or staggered perforations. An approximation for the value of a, when you do not know the value of b, is: a = d[(const./P 1/2) 1] The value of the constant is 9.5 for staggered and 8.9 for straight perforations. We can predict from the value of TI the amount by which sound waves at the very high frequency of 10 kHz are attenuated in passing through the sheet, according to the curve in Figure I5, and from this we can develop a curve for the attenuation at lower frequencies. (See Part Two, Section II).
Attenuation at 10 KHz (dB)
Attenuation = -22.56 log log TI + 0.008vTI + 13.79 (at 10 KHz)
TI
Figure 15. Curve of Sound Attenuation at 10,000 Hz vs TI.
Page 15 of 76
A value of TI upwards of 10,000 should be the goal in choosing a perforated sheet intended for an acoustically transparent facing material. This would lead to an attenuation no greater than one decibel (dB) at a frequency of 10 kHz, and at lower frequencies, the attenuation decreases rapidly: in other words the she et is essentially acoustically transparent over the entire frequency range of importance. However, it is not essential to insist on very high Transparency Index. For relatively high values of TI, the transparency is not spoiled very rapidly with decreasing values of TI: with TI as low as 5000, the attenuation is only 1.5 dB, and with TI = 2000, the loss is only 2.5 dB. Therefore, there is no harm in shopping around among the readily available perforated materials to find one whose TI lies between, say 2000 and 20,000. Any value within this range will yield acceptably high sound transparency for most sound absorption applications. NOTE: The value of TI increases as the hole size and the number of holes per sq in increases and as the thickness of the sheet and the distance between holes decreases. For values of TI less than 2000, the sound transparency diminishes rapidly, and the perforated metal blocks the passage of sound. One can also see from the formula that TI generally increases with increasing percent open area P, but NOT if this is achieved with larger holes and an increase of the distance (a) between holes.
Page 16 of 76
Example 1. A perforated sheet of 26 gauge steel with 0.023-in. holes on 0.054-in. staggered centers leads to the following parameters:
This is what the industry refers to as a standard 60 staggered pattern
b d t
= 0.054" = 0.023" = 0.0184"
b = 0.054" d = 0.023" t = 0.0184"
A = Sheet area per hole = b2cos 30 0 = (0.054)2 x 0.87 = 2.525 x 10-3 sq in; Then n = 1/A = 396 holes/sq in; a P = b d = 0.054 0.023 = 0.03"; = [( d2/4)/A] x 100 = [( x (0.023)2/ (4 x 2.525 x 10-3)] x 100 = 16.45%.
We calculate the Transparency Index by two methods; first by: TI = nd2/ta2 = [396 x (0.023)2/0.0184 x (0.03)2 = 12,650; or alternatively by: TI = 0.04P/ ta2 = [0.04 x 16.45/ x 0.0184 x (0.03)2 = 12,648. The two values of TI agree very well. The sound attenuation at 10 kHz is only 0.9 dB.
Page 17 of 76
Example 2 We have 16 gauge steel sheet, with 0.066" holes on 0.125" staggered centers. Then: b d t = 0.125" = 0.066" = 0.0625"
A = (0.125)3 x 0.87 = 13.6 x 10-3 sq in n a P = 1/A = 73.6 holes/sq in = b d = 0.125 0.066 = 0.059" = [ (0.066)2/4 x 13.6 x 10-3] x 100 = 26.16%
TI = [73.6 x (0.066)2/0.0625 x (0.059)2] = 1474; or: TI = [0.04 x 25.16/ x (0.0625) x (0.059)2] = 1472. Again, the agreement between the two values of TI is very good. But notice that the 10-kHz-attenuation has increased to 2.9 dB, much more than the attenuation of Example 1, despite the fact that the open area for this example is 53% greater than in the earlier case!
Page 18 of 76
Example 3 Again, we have 16 gauge steel, but with 7/64" holes on 3/16 " staggered centers. b d t = 0.1875" = 0.109" = 0.0625"
A = (0.1875)2 x 0.87 = 30.6 x 10-3 sq in n a P = 1/A = 32.7 holes/sq in = b d = 0.0785" = [ (0.109)2/4 x 30.6 x 10-3] x 100 = 30.49%
Then: TI = [32.7 x (0.109)2/(0.0625) x (0.0785)2] = 1009; or: TI = [0.04 x 30.49/ x (0.0625) x (0.0785)2 = 1008. Here, even with a percent open area greater than 30%, the 10kHz-attenuation has increased to 3.3 dB.
Page 19 of 76
You may wonder, then, why it would not ALWAYS be best to choose the most transparent possible material. We have illustrated by the preceding examples that, generally speaking, perforated sheets with small holes close together give the greatest transparency; but for practical reasons, very tiny holes should be avoided because they may get clogged with dust or filled with paint when the sheet is repainted. Perhaps more important, very finely perforated sheets tend to be fragile and are much more expensive to manufacture. Therefore, it is sometimes best to choose the gage of the metal first, based on cost, availability or other reasons; then choose the possible hole size, and jockey the other parameters to achieve the desired transparency. IMPORTANT NOTICE TO USERS AND SPECIFIERS OF PERFORATED METALS At this point, large-scale users of perforated metals are probably reaching for their hand-held calculators to find out the values of TI for their most popular products. DON'T BOTHER! Instead, look at Table 1 on page 37, where the calculations are already done for some commonly produced perforated sheets. NEXT, DON'T PANIC! You will immediately notice that many popular products have values of TI that are nowhere near the 10,000 recommended above for perfect acoustic transparency. No matter. Most acoustical problems are concerned with frequencies in the mid-range of 1000 4000 Hz. And a glance ahead at Figure 21 (Page 32) will assure you that practically any common perforated metal is nearly totally transparent to sound at those frequencies and below. So why the emphasis on performance at 10,000 Hz in the Transparency Index? The answer is that a useful distinction in the transparency of perforated metals is possible only at very high frequencies. For example, if we decided to rate our Transparency Index at 1000 Hz, say, this would be no good at all, because all the samples would get the same (nearly perfect) rating. We concentrate here on the 10,000 Hz frequency so that people who are interested in making distinctions in transparency can do so meaningfully. In all cases, it is important to match the perforated product to the specific needs of the problem at hand.
Page 20 of 76
IV.
The Tuned Resonant Absorber Approach
A. Perforated Metal Sheet With Properties Chosen to Target a Limited Range of Frequencies for Optimum Sound Absorption
In the transparency application discussed above, th e function of the perforated metal was to act as a protective covering for something else: it must get out of the way and let some other material do its acoustic job. Now we consider an application where the perforated metal takes an active part in determi ning the acoustical properties of the treatment. In many noise control applications, the problem is to reduce noise that occurs only in a limited range of frequencies. For example, an enclosure around a power transformer must be especially effective at a frequency of 120 Hz (which is the most prominent noise component of the 60-cycle line frequency). Or, the absorptive lining for the compressor inlet or the exhaust in a jet engine should be most efficient in absorbing sound at the blade passage frequency of the rotor, about 2000 Hz. One of the great advantages of perforated metal is that it can be used as an element in a "tuned resonant sound absorber" to provide remarkably high sound absorption in the targeted frequency range without requiring a large amount of spacer absorptive material. Naturally, it sacrifices frequencies outside this range. high absorption efficiency at
In this application, the perforated metal is used in combination with a trapped layer of air, in order to modify the acoustical performance of the absorptive material. This is done by setting up an acoustical resonance condition, which concentrates the sound absorption into a particular frequency range of special interest. It works as follows:
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Perforated Metal Sheet Sound Absorptive Layer Air Layer Trapped Behind the Facing Solid Backing (Wall or Ceiling)
All resonant devices have a preferred frequ ency of operation. For example, a ball suspended on a rubber band oscillates at only one frequency, when disturbed: that frequency is determined only by the mass of the ball and the springiness of the rubber band. In a resonant sound absorber, the oscillation involves the motion of air particles, in and out of the holes in the metal sheet, in response to an incident sound wave. The preferred frequency of this oscillation is determined by the mass of the air in the perforations and the springiness of the trapped air layer. At that resonance frequency, the air moves violently in and out of the holes, which pumps the air particles back and forth vigorously within the adjacent sound absorptive layer. There, the acoustic energy (carried by the back-and-forth motion of the air particles) is converted by friction into heat and is thereby removed from the acoustical scene. The practical advantage of the tuned resonant sound absorber is this: we have seen (page 11) that it requires a six -inch layer of sound absorptive blanket if we wish to attenuate sound effectively at low frequencies. Yet, as we have noted above, the treatment of a power transformer requires maximum absorption around 120 Hz. The one-inch layer of glass fiber (shown in the earlier figure on page 11) is only about 5% efficient at that frequency. But the use of perforated metal to make a resonant sound absorber especially tuned to 120 Hz can achieve efficient sound absorption at that frequency without requiring so much space and with only a thin laye r of absorptive material. The first clue, to help us decide whether the resonant absorber will be the best approach, is found by listening to the noise. If there is a clearly perceptible pure tone or a prominent frequency (a squeal, hum or whine, as opposed to a whoosh or roar, like a waterfall), this is a good indication that the disturbing noise is concentrated in a limited frequency range, and a tuned resonant sound absorber is called for. The problem now is to pinpoint that frequency fR where the maximum sound absorption is desired. Here one can sometimes rely on information about the noisy device in question. the manufacturer's
Figure 16. Section through a tuned resonant sound absorber.
Alternatively, one would make a frequency analysis of the noise, using a Sound Level Meter with a set of frequency filters,as described above (page 6).
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B. Calculating The Dimensions Of The Tuned Absorber To Give The Desired Resonance Frequency
Having determined the desired frequency f R of maximum absorption for the tuned absorber, the next step is to calculate the required dimensions for the various elements, in order to make the absorber resonate at the desired frequency. For this purpose, we use the nomogram on p. 24, where: fR = resonance frequency (Hz); h = distance between the perforated sheet and the solid wall, in inches (see sketch, p. 22); e = effective "throat length" of the holes; it is given by: e = t + 0.8d, where t is the sheet thickness and d is the hole diameter, in inches; P = percent (not fractional) open area of the sheet. For round holes, staggered: P = 0.9 (d/b)2 x 100%; For round holes, straight: P = 0.8 (d/b)2 x 100%, where b is the on-center spacing of the holes and d is the hole diameter, both in inches. [See below, p. 30, for an Important Note qualifying this design procedure.]
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Figure 17. Nomogram for calculating the resonance frequency, with the graphical constructions for Examples 4, 5 and 6. A "clean" version of this Nomogram is included at the back of this booklet, to be copied and used as a worksheet for future design problems.
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Example 4: Determining the Resonance Frequency for an Absorber of Specified Dimensions. Suppose that we have a sheet of 16 gauge sheet metal, perforated with 1/8-in holes, staggered at 3/8-in on-center (about 8 holes/sq in), which is used a s a facing for a glass wool blanket 3/4-in thick, against a solid wall. Determine the resonance frequency. For this example: b = 0.375"; d = 0.125"; t = 0.0625"; h = 0.75"; e = 0.0625 + 0.8 x 0.125 = 0.1625; p = 0.9 (0.125"/0.375")2 x 100 = 10% We begin by locating the points on the nomogram corresponding to e = 0.16" and P = 10% and connecting these points with a straight line. Mark the point where this line crosses the unnumbered "m"-scale. Now connect that point with the point on the "h"-scale corresponding to the absorber depth, h = 0.75". Read the resonance frequency where this line crosses the f R-scale: 2000 Hz. This would be a suitable structure for the jet engine duct lining mentioned above.
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Example 5: To Design a Tuned Resonant Absorber to Resonate at a Specified Frequency. Suppose that we want a structure with a resonance frequency of 120 Hz, to be used as an absorptive enclosure for a large power transformer. The available space behind the perforated metal sheet is 4" and the most readily available sheet stock is 0.125" thick, with staggered pattern. Determine the required hole size and spacing, and the percent open area. We are given: fR = 120 Hz; h = 4"; t = 0.125". What we must do, given the values for fR, t and h, is to choose a combination of d and P that will satisfy the nomogram, as follows: Connect the points corresponding to h = 4" and fR = 120 Hz with a straight line, continuing it across to intersect the "m" -scale. Now, as a first guess, let us try perforations " in diameter. With t = 0.125" and d = 0.250" we have: e = 0.125 + 0.8 x .250 = 0.325" So we now connect the point corresponding to e = 0.325" to the point found above on the "m"-scale, and continue it to intersect the P-scale at 0.4%. The plate area per hole is: A = [( x d2 x 100)/(4 x P) = ( x (0.25)2 x 100)/(4 x 0.4) . = 12.27 sq in/hole; and n = 1/A = 0.081 holes/sq in Finally, the spacing of the (staggered) holes is (See sketch in Example #1, p.17): b = (A/cos 30) 1/2 = (12.27/0.87)1/2 = 3.76"
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The reader may be surprised that we end up, this application, with a perforated sheet having " holes at a spacing as great as 3.8" on center, and with only 0.08 holes/sq in. But it is important to realize that, in this case, we are NOT trying to achieve the maximum exposure of the sound absorptive blanket, as we did in the "transparency approach". In fact, that approach would be effective in this application only if we could afford a six-inch blanket of glass fiber, in order to get high absorption efficiency at the low frequency of 120 Hz due to its thickness alone . Instead, we are aiming at a combination of perforation pattern and absorber depth (h) that will encourage maximum air particle motion through the absorptive material at the frequency of interest, by deliberately creating a resonance at that frequency. (See the further discussion of the significance of material thickness for low frequency absorption, in Appendix A). Alternative combinations of plate thickness, hole size and percent open area that would achieve the same resonance frequency are illustrated in two further examples.
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Example 6: Suppose we have the same transformer problem, but have only 3" of available depth and a sheet thickness of ": fR = 120 Hz; h = 3"; t = 0.250" Try d = 0.500"; then: e = 0.250 + 0.8 x 0.500 = 0.65" and we find; P = 0.61% A = 31968 sq in/hole, and n = l/A = 0.03 holes/sq in. The hole spacing is; b = (32.19/cos 30)1/2 = 6.1". Example 7: If we repeat Example 6 with 1" holes, we have: e = 0.250 = 0.8 x 1 = 1.05" from which we find: P = 1.0%; a = 78.54 sq in/hole; n = 0.013 holes/sq in; and b = 9.5". All these variations of perforation pattern in Examples 5, 6 and 7 lead to the same resonance frequency of 120 Hz, to match the dominant frequency of the transformer noise.
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C. Design Refinements
Is there any way to decide which of these three treatments (or, perhaps, some other variant) will yield the maximum amount of absorption at that frequency? And is there any especially effective way of disposing the various elements of the resonant absorber to maximize the absorption? Once the choice of resonance frequency is made, the actual absorption characteristics can be changed according to the choice of the absorptive material in the cavity and also where the material is located in the cavity, as shown in the sketch of Figure 18. In each case, a is the perforated sheet, b is the sound absorptive material and c is a rigid backing, such as a wall. The sound absorptive behavior for these three conditions is shown in Figure 19. The curve with the open circles represents Condition I; that with the filled circles, Condition II; and that with the x's, Condition III.
Figure 18. Tuned resonant sound absorbers, showing three possible ways to mount the absorptive material in the airspace.
Sound Absorption Coefficient
Frequency in Hz
Figure 19. Curves showing sound absorption vs frequency for the three mountings.
Obviously, the most effective arrangement is that with the fibrous material located near the perforated sheet. The worst condition is with the absorptive material close to the wall.
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Important Note:
It also makes a very important difference whether the airspace behind the sheet is continuous or divided into small cells by means of partitions: When the airspace is continuous, the behavior of the absorber changes greatly at different angles of incidence of the so und. As the sound direction changes from perpendicular to the surface of the absorber (angle of incidence = 0) to grazing incidence (90), the resonance frequency changes drastically, rising away from the intended frequency to as much as three octaves higher. In addition, the bandwidth of frequencies within which the high values of sound absorption occur gets smaller and smaller as the angle of incidence tends toward grazing.
Figure 20. Sketch showing partitioned and non-partitioned airspace behind perforated metal facing.
By contrast, with the partitioned back structure, not only does the resonance frequency remain the same as the angle of incidence increases, but the bandwidth for high sound absorption actually becomes broader toward grazing incidence. Finally, there is the effect of the density of the fibrous material used to fill the airspace. If it is too loose, the sound passes right through the material without being absorbed. But if it is too dense, the sound is reflected and cannot penetrate the material to be absorbed. More detailed guidance concerning the trade-offs between perforation patterns and depth of airspaces, as well as on the choice of sound absorptive cavity filling, will be presented in PART TWO, below.
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ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS: PART TWO: THE APPLICATIONS
I.
Introduction
In Part One we were introduced to the principles by which perforated metals are able to serve particularly well in acoustical applications, particularly in noise control treatments. In Part Two, we show how to use those concepts in a quantitative way, either to analyze an existing application or to design a new treatment in order to meet certain specified requirements.
II.
The Transparency Approach

We begin with a closer look at the "Transparency Approach" in the use of perforated metals. We learned in Part One how to define a Transparency Index as an indicator of how easily sound can pass through a particular sample of perforated metal at high frequencies (see page 14). We now look at what this means in practice.
Subway station in Vienna; note the perforated metal facing for the sound absorptive ceiling treatment.
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A. Sound Attenuation At High Frequencies

The following figure presents laboratory measured data that indicate how high-frequency sounds are attenuated, in passing through samples of perforated metal having different values for the Transparency Index (TI). The horizontal scale gives the frequency in Hz (cycles per second); the vertical scale gives the attenuation in decibels (abbreviated: dB). It is evident that at frequencies below about 1000 Hz there is little attenuation: the sound passes right through most sheets with no loss whatever.
TI= 12,000 6500 3000
1500
650 A(f) = Attenuation (dB)
150
65
15
ONE THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES IN HZ (cps)
Figure 21. Sound attenuation vs frequency for samples of perforated metal having different TI.
But as the frequency increases, there is more and more attenuation. ...meaning that the sound is reflected from the sheet and fails to get through to reach the acoustical treatment that lies behind. This condition is more severe, the lower the value of TI. For a sheet with TI = 1500, the attenuation of sound at 16,000 Hz is as much as 4.75 dB; for TI = 12,000, the loss is only 1.5 dB at the same frequencies.
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Sometimes the acoustical treatment that lies behindthe sheet is a hard, sound-diffusing surface, intended to break up the sound waves and reflect them back to the room, as in a concert hall. Then this attenuation must be counted twice: once on the way in and once on the way back.
B. Access To The Sound Treatment

On the other hand, if the acoustical treatment is in - tended to absorb the incident sound, then we must determine how much the perforated metal degrades the intrinsic absorptive properties of the material installed behind it, by preventing the soundfrom getting access to the absorptive material. For this purpose, we introduce the Access Factor (AF), illustrated in the following figure for the same samples of perforated metal that we saw above, in Figure 21.
TI = 12,000
6500
AF= Access Facto r= 10-(A/10)
3000
1500
650 150
65 15
ONE THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES IN HZ (cps)
Figure 22. Curves showing the Access Factor vs frequency for the same samples of perforated metal as in Fig. 21.
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In general, the Access Factor (AF) at any frequency is related to the Attenuation (A) at that frequency by the following formula: AF = 10-(A/10)
C. How To Use T he Access Factor

In order to explain how to use the Access Factor, let us recall the definition of sound absorption coefficient, used to characterize the sound absorption efficiency of an acoustic treatment. We saw in Figure 12 that a 1-inch blanket of glass fiber material absorbs about 20% of the incident sound energy at a frequency of 250 Hz, about 65% at 500 Hz, about 87% at 2000 Hz and about 99% at 4000 Hz. On the other hand, a 6-inch layer absorbs about 99% of the incident energy at all frequencies. All of these numbers assume no covering over the sound absorptive material. But when we cover the material with perforated metal, we must expect some degradation of the sound absorptive efficiency. The amount will depend on the frequency, of course, but also on the choice of the perforated metal. The Access Factor is a measure of this degradation: it describes how much "access" the sound wave has to the underlying acoustical treatment. If the Access Factor is 1.0, there is complete access and 100% of the sound energy can get through. But if the Access Factor is 0.50, then only half the sound energy can pass through; the other half is reflected from the surface of the sheet and never reaches the acoustic treatment at all. Therefore, in order to find the effective sound absorption efficiency of an acoustical material covered with perforated metal sheet, we simply multiply the sound absorption coefficient of the basic material at each frequency by the corresponding Access Factor for the metal sheet. For example, suppose that we cover the 1-inch glass fiber material mentioned above, having a coefficient of 0.99 at 4000 Hz, with a perforated metal sheet having TI = 1500, corresponding to an Access Factor at 4000 Hz of 0.82. Then the effective sound absorption coefficient of the combination is 0.99 x 0.82 = 0.81. The perforated covering has degraded the absorptive performance of the original material at 4000 Hz by 19 percentage points. Of course, perforated sheet with a TI of only 1500 is a poor choice for this application in the first place. The whole point of the acoustical design in the "transparency approach" is to find a sheet with as high a value of TI as possible, consistent with the other requirements of the project. It is clear from the figures given above that if we choose a sheet with acceptable transparency at 10,000 Hz (that is, small A and high AF), then everything is much better at the lower frequencies.
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The following nomogram allows you to go directly from the calculated value of TI to either the Sound Attenuation or the Access Factor, both at 10,000 Hz.
Access Factor = 10 (at 10 kHz)
A/10
Attenuation = -22.56 log log TI + 0.008vTI + 13.79 (at 10kHz)

A= Attenuation at 10 KHz (dB)
TI
Example #8
Figure 23. Nomogram for calculating the Attenuation and the Access Factor (10 kHz)
The procedure is as follows: Enter the lower horizontal scale with the value of TI for your perforated sheet and move directly upward to intersect the lower of the two curves. Move to the left from this intersection point until you strike the vertical scale, where you can read the attenuation at 10,000 Hz in decibels. Alternatively, if you want the Access Factor, you can move to the right or left from the first intersection point to intersect the upper slanting line, then move upward from the second intersection point to strike the upper horizontal scale, where you can read the Access Factor at 10,000 Hz for the perforated sheet. (See Example 8, next page.)
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The mathematical formulas corresponding to the curves in this nomogram are, respectively: A(10KHz) = 22.56 log log (TI) + 0.008 TI + 13.79 dB and AF = 10-(A/10). The first formula is valid for val ues of TI up to 50,000, but only for a frequency of 10,000 Hz; the second formula is generally valid for any frequency for which the value of A is known. Example 8: Suppose you have a perforated metal sheet with TI = 4000, used as a covering for a sound absorptive glass fiber blanket. What is the effect of the covering? Enter the lower horizontal scale of Fig. 23 at TI = 4000, move upward to strike the lower curve, then move left to find an attenuation at 10,000Hz of 1.8 dB. Next, move to the right from the first intersection point to intersect the upper slant line, then upward from this point to the horizontal scale to find an Access Factor of 0.66. With this sheet covering an absorptive material, you will realize only 66% of the intrinsic absorption perf ormance of the glass fiber material at 10,000 Hz. NOTE: See Appendix C for an important technical qualification to the use of the Access Factor, as prescribed above. NOTE: Full-sized, clean versions of Figs. 21, 22 and 23 are included in Appendix D at the back of this booklet, to be copied and used as worksheets. Table 1 presents calculated values of the TI, the Attenuation (A) and the Access Factor (AF) at 10,000 Hz, for a group of the most commonly manufactured perforated metals.
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Table 1: Acoustical Properties of Commonly-Manufactured Perforated Metal Products
Item 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
d (in.) 0.080 0.100 0.100 0.125 0.125 0.156 0.063 3/16 = 0.188
b (in.) 7/64 = 0.109 5/32 = 0.156 3/16 = 0.188 3/16 = 0.188 1/4 = 0.250 1/4 = 0.250 1/8 = 0.125 5/16 = 0.313 TI = nd 2/ta2;
t (in.) 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.078 0.037 0.060
n (holes/in.2) 97 47 33 33 18 18 74 12
P (%) 48.5 37.2 25.9 40.0 22.5 36.0 22.5 32.5
a (in.) 0.029 0.056 0.088 0.063 0.125 0.094 0.062 0.125
TI 24605 4996 1420 4330 600 636 2065 445
A(10kHz) 0.55 dB 1.54 2.84 1.67 3.97 3.89 2.41 4.42
AF(10k) 0.88 0.70 0.52 0.68 0.40 0.41 0.57 0.36
a = b d;
A(10) = 22.56 log log (TI) + 0.008 TI + 13.79 (dB);
AF = 10(A/10)
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D. A Case History Illustrating The "Transparency" Approach
A typical application where widespread use is made of perforated metal is in the acoustical treatment of large "hush houses" for the run-up and testing of jet engines. In many cases these hush houses are large enough to accommodate an entire airplane for testing.
Figure 24. "Hush-house", designed to confine the noise of jet engine tune-ups.
Since the jet engines on large aircraft are among the noisiest of today's noise sources, it would be intolerable (and a great ha zard to hearing) if people had to work in buildings with these engines, unless very effective methods are introduced for controlling and abating the jet noise. Among the most effective methods is the treatment of the walls and/or ceiling with deep, sound -absorptive material (typically glass fiber blankets or board), covered with perforated metal for protection and ease of maintenance. Example 9: If we must choose a very economical wall treatment, it might consist of a 1.5-inch layer of glass fiber board, faced with a perforated metal that has been chosen for the best acoustical transparency consistent with high structural integrity and availability. For this purpose one might select a stock perforated sheet of 16 gauge steel (t = 0.0598") with 3/16" holes (d = 0.188") on 5/16" centers (b = 0.313"). These dimensions lead to n = 12 holes/ sq in, P = 32.5% and a = b d = 0.125". We calculate the Transparency Index to be: TI = nd 2/ta2 = 12 x (0.188)2/0.0598 x (0.125)2 = 445 We can already anticipate from this very low value of TI that we will get some degradation of the performance of the glass fiber board; but the sheet dimensions are in this case determined by structural requirements and availability, so we may not have a better choice. From the nomogram of Figure 23, above (p. 35, or Appendix D), we find the attenuation at 10,000 Hz to be 4.4 dB and the corresponding Access Factor to be 0.36. We can interpolate in Figure 22 (p. 33, or Appendix D), which gives the curves of Access Factor vs frequency, in order to estimate the Access Factor at octave band frequencies down to 500 Hz, as follows.
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1.0
a
.8
Table 2 gives the sound absorption coefficient at various frequencies for the basic fiber board, as well as the (estimated) Access Factors for the perforated metal, and finally the effective sound absorption coefficients for the composite structure:
eff
Table 2: Effect of perforated metal sheet with a low value of TI on the absorption coefficients for glass fiber board.
.6
.4
.2
Freq 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
0.18 0.40 0.65 0.90 0.95 0.92 0.88
AF 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.98 0.90 0.75 0.49
eff 0.18 0.40 0.65 0.88 0.86 0.69 0.43
0 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
ONE-THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES IN HZ (cps)
Comparing and eff (see sketch), it is evident that the perforated metal covering is hindering the sound absorption at high frequencies. But this may not be a serious drawback, if there is not much high-frequency energy in the spectrum to be controlled in the first place. Other acoustical applications that use large quantities of perforated metals as facings for sound absorptive treatments include subway tunnels and stations, and street and highway tunnels. Since all of these treatments are trying to cope with noises having broadband spectrums, the acoustical design approach should be the same in all cases: na mely, the Transparency Approach. (See Section IV below).
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E. Special Considerations: Non-Circular Perforations and "Self-Resistance" Of The Perforated Metal

All of the discussion above has dealt with perforated metal sheet having circular holes, in either str aight or staggered patterns. If, instead, the holes are square, we can use the same calculations to a good approximation if we assume an effective hole diameter d' that is equal to (4/ )1/2 L = 1.13 L, where L is the length of the side of the square perforation. Use the calculation for the straight pattern. Another somewhat more complicated difficulty arises when, in an attempt to achieve a high value for the Transparency Index, we end up with very small holes. Then, not only is there a risk that the holes will be clogged upon being repainted, but there may even be unwanted energy loss as the air pumps in and out of the tiny holes... just as if it were lost by friction within a sound absorptive blanket. This condition would cause no harm if our purpose is to use the perforated metal as a facing for an absorptive blanket: it would only add a bit more to the total sound absorption. But if our goal is to provide a transparent room surface so that sound can pass freely through and back, then we do not want any sound absorbed inadvertently, along the way. We must, therefore, check our sheet dimensions to be sure that the material is sufficiently sound transparent without adding unwanted sound absorption. But the further discussion of this problem is slightly complicated; it must wait until we have considered the "Tuned Absorber" application, below. (See Section III, C.3).
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III.
Resonant Sound Absorbers

In Part One, we learned how to analyze an acoustical treatment in which perforated metal sheet is mounted over an a ir space containing sound absorptive material, in order to make a "Tuned Resonant Absorber". That is, by the use of a nomogram, we could determine the frequency of resonance where the sound absorption would be especially great; or we could choose the dimensions of the treatment to target a particular frequency range of interest. Nothing was said there about how much sound absorption would be achieved at the resonance frequency nor about how broad the targeted frequency range would be. We take up these matters here.
A. Sound Absorption At The Resonance Frequency: max

In a tuned resonant sound absorber, the sound absorption reaches a maximum value, max, at the resonance frequency, fR, falling off to lower values at higher and lower frequencies. We can control this maximum value of absorption by the choice of the sound absorptive material with which the airspace is filled. Usually, that material will be a kind of porous blanket or board, made of glass fiber or mineral fiber. The maximum value of absorption depends only on the flow resistance of that material, and not on any of the physical dimensions of the sound absorptive treatment (such as the depth of airspace, perforation diameter, percent open area, etc.).
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1. Flow Resistance, Flow Resistivity , and Resistance Ratio

The flow resistance of a piece of material tells us how easy it is for air to move through the material. The flow resistance depends upon the density of the fibrous material (lb/sq ft) and the fiber diameter: generally, the heavier the blanket and the finer the fibers, the higher the flow resistance. And, naturally, thicker layers have more flow resistance than thin ones. With experience, one can even learn to make a pretty good guess at the flow resistance of a material by seeing how hard itis to blow one's breath through the material. But for our purposes, we will rely on the measured values of flow resistance for some commonly available fibrous materials. There's good news and bad news here, however. The bad news is that the manufacturers of fibrous materials don't worry much about the flow resistance of their products, so it's not always easy to find accurate information on this parameter. The good news is that the acoustical behavior of our tuned resonant sound absorbers isn't critically dependent on the exact value of the flow resistance of the filling in the air cavity. We can miss the design goal quite a bit and it won't make much difference. But first we have to discuss how to characterize the flow resistance of a layer of material . It is usually done by means of a resistance ratio that tells how much harder (or easier) it is for the sound pressure to push air through the layer in question than to push it through the air itself. That probably sounds peculiar, because it may not hav e occurred to you that sound actually encounters some resistance in moving through the air. In fact, there is a "characteristic impedance" that relates the pressure in a sound wave to the corresponding particle velocity in the air: it is given by the produ ct of the density of the air, (gm/cc), and the propagation velocity of sound, c (cm/sec): Characteristic Impedance = c = 41 cgs rayls. We always relate the flow resistance, R, of a layer of material to the characteristic impedance of the air, c, by forming the resistance ratio R/c. If a layer of material has a flow resistance such that R/ c = 1, then a sound wave will not recognize the existence of that material when it is encountered, because it can't tell the difference between this material and ai r.
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If the value of R/c is either substantially greater or less than unity, then the sound wave will "notice" the layer, and tend to be reflected from it rather than entering and passing through it. Important distinctions: Every fibrous material has a property of its own called the flow resistivity , which gives the flow resistance per inch of thickness. (We are talking now about the material, itself, not a particular blanket of that material.) Thus, if a certain type of glass fiber has a flow resistivit y = 60 cgs rayls/inch, then a 2" blanket of the material will have a flow resistance of R = 2 x 60 = 120 cgs rayls. And for this blanket the value of R/c = 120/41 = 2.93. Remember: the flow resistance is a property of the material, while the flow resi stance R is a property of a blanket of the material with a particular thickness. The resistance ratio R/ c relates the flow resistance of a given blanket to the characteristic impedance of the air. Now, at last, we are in a position to consider the maximu m amount of sound absorption achieved at the resonance frequency of our tuned absorber. As we mentioned above, it depends only on the value of R/c for the filling in the airspace: max = 1 + (R/c + c/R)
Table 3 gives values for max (at the resonance frequency) corresponding to different values for R/c of the cavity filling:
Table 3: Maximum attainable sound absorption (at the resonance frequency), as a function of the flow resistance ratio of the filling material.
R/c 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
max 0.33 0.56 0.89 0.97 1.00 0.96 0.89 0.75 0.64 0.56
As we said above, the maximum absorption coefficient at resonance in a tuned absorber is not very sensitive to the filling
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material: any value of R/c from 0.5 to 2.0 will yield a value of max of 0.89 or greater. As a practical matter, Table 4 presents, for a number of currently manufactured Owens-Corning Fiberglas products, the value of (cgs rayls/in.), the value of R (cgs rayls for a 1/2" layer) and the value of max at resonance for a tuned resonator filled with such a layer:
Table 4: Acoustical properties of typical OCF Fiberglas blankets and boards.
OCF 700 701 702 703 704 705 PF 105 TIF
20 26 38 60 44 77 250 18
R/c (1/2) 0.24 0.32 0.46 0.73 0.54 0.94 3.05 0.22
max 0.63 0.73 0.87 0.98 0.91 1.00 0.74 0.59
Sound absorptive treatment, covered with decorative perforated and drawn metal sheet, provides calm acoustical environment in the elegant dining room of the Scandinavia Hotel in Oslo
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2. Absorptive Layer Near A Hard Wall.

We come now to a complication that we have already encountered (without an explanation) near the end of Part One: namely, it makes a difference where, within the air cavity, the sound absorptive material is placed (See Figures 18 and 19). We realize that in order for the absorptive layer to work well, turning the sound energy into heat by the friction of the vibrating air particles within the fine pores of the material, there must be freedom for the air particles to move. If anything impedes this motion, then the energy conversion is less efficient and less sound energy is absorbed. And that is just what happens at locations near a hard wall: the wall itself, being rigid, cannot move with the sound wave, and this means that the nearby air particles also cannot move. Thus, any sound absorptive material placed against a hard wall s i virtually useless, because there can be no air motion within the material to dissipate the sound energy. Nevertheless, it is common practice to mount sound absorptive layers directly against a wall, because it is very convenient to do so. We must, however, realize that, in such cases, only the outer one third of the thickness of the layer is effective in absorbing sound. The rest of the material is simply acting as a convenient support! Therefore, the values of R/c for the 1/2" layer of material given in Table 4, and the corresponding values of max, assume that this 1/2" layer is mounted near the perforated metal screen with, say, an inch of empty airspace behind it. so that the entite 1/2" layer is effective. If the layer were mounted directly against a hard wall, the tabulated values of R/c would have to be multiplied by 1/3, and the corresponding values of maximum absorption recalculated.
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3. Resonance Frequencies Achievable With Commonly Produced Perforated Metal Sheets

Earlier in this booklet (in Tab le 1, p.37), we considered the acoustical performance of commonly produced perforated metal products in terms of the Transparency Index, and the corresponding Sound Attenuation and Access Factor at 10,000 Hz. Some were pretty good, some pretty bad. We now consider four of these same materials in terms of the resonance frequencies that they would produce if mounted in front of a one-inch airspace (the item numbers here are the same as in Table 1): Item 1 4 5 6 FR(Hz) 5000 3800 3000 3000
So here's an odd situation! Using common perforated sheet, these "resonant absorbers" all resonate at such high frequencies that the resonance phenomenon adds nothing extra to the natural sound absorption of, say, a 1/2" layer of glass fiber with no covering at all! Moreover, no reasonable depth of airspace behind these sheets would decrease the resonance frequency below 1000 Hz; for example, samples #5 and #6 would require a 7 -inch airspace to make fR = 1000 Hz. Tuned resonant sound absorbers evidently require somewhat out-of-the-way perforation patterns, as we saw in Examples 5, 6 and 7, pages 26-28.
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B. The Absorption Bandwidth

Not only are we interested in the maximum value of sound absorption that occurs at the resonance frequency of a tuned absorber, but we want to know whether the resonance peak is broad or narrow. In fact, in designing a tuned resonant sound absorber, we want to achieve the required bandwidth. As a practical matter, we can characterize the absorption bandwidth of a resonant sound absorber by determining the two frequencies, f2 and f1 (above and below the resonance frequency, respectively) at which the absorption has dropped to half its value at resonance. For frequencies below f1 and above f2, the absorption of the tuned absorber is relatively insignificant. The difference between f2 and f1 is called the "Half -Power Bandwidth" because at all frequencies within this band the sound absorption exceeds half the (maximum) value at resonance: fH = f2 -f1; = 2 [1 + (R/c)] (h/c) fR2; and f1,2 = fR (fH/2) These quantities are shown in Fig. 25. max = 1 1 + (fR/fH)2 (f/fR fR/f)2
max=0.89 Absorption Coefficient,
max/2=0.45
f/fR
Figure 25. Bell curve of absorption definingmax, f1, f2 and fH.
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Once the resonance frequency fR is chosen, the breadth of the absorption curve depends only on (1) the depth of the airspace behind the perforated metal and (2) the flow resistance of the filling material. Assuming that the latter is chosen so as to maximize the maximum absorption at resonance, or to suit some other criterion, then the airspace depth alone governs the resonance bandwidth. If fH is small, the absorption band is narrow, and we target a very limited range of frequencies. To absorb a wider band of frequencies effectively requires greater depth for the airspace.
C. Combined Effects of Flow Resistance, Filling, and Absorber Dimensions

Figure 26 will help us understand the respective roles of the filling material and the absorber dimensions in determining how the absorber behaves. R/c = 1 =2
Absorption Coefficient, a
F/fr R/c =1
Relative Frequency
F/fr
Figure 26. Frequency dependence of the absorption coefficient of perforated sheet in front of an air cushion filled with absorptive material: various values for R/c and (see text).
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The lower part of the figure shows frequency plots of the sound absorption coefficient for several tuned resonant absorbers, all of which are filled with an absorptive material having R/ c = 1, but with different values for the construction parameter . For the frequency, we use the ratio, f/fR, of actual frequency to the resonance frequency, on a logarithmic scale. On such a scale, the absorption plots show up as bell-shaped curves, symmetrical about the resonance frequency f/fR = 1. The parameter , here, is related to the depth of the absorber and to the "half power bandwidth" fH (introduced above) by the following two equations: = c/2 fRh; The greater the depth of the airspace h, or the higher the resonance frequency fR, the smaller the value of . fH = (fR/) [1 + (R/c)]. The smaller the value of , or the higher the resonance frequency, or the greater the flow resistance of the filling, the wider the frequency band over which high sound absorption will occur . In the lower part of Figure 26, the choice of R/c = 1 causes the sound absorption at resonance (f/fR = 1) to be 100% in all cases. But smaller values for lead to absorption curves that are broader; and high values for lead to narrower curves. In the upper part of the figure, the value of is 2 for all the curves, but different values for R/c are chosen. Again, for R/c = 1 the absorption at resonance is 100%. But for R/c = 0.5 and 2.0 the absorption at resonance is nearly as great (max = 0.89). Also, note that values of R/c greater than unity lead to broader absorption curves, while values less than unity give narrower curves.
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We have seen that the bandwidth of high absorption is proportional to the airspace depth, h. If only a restricted depth is available, and we wish to achie ve reasonably high absorption over a wider band, we must design a number of tuned resonant absorbers having different resonance frequencies to cover the whole required frequency range: f 2 f 1 = n f H in such a way that, for every frequency, a reaches near to max on at least one partial surface area. However, further analysis shows that the necessary construction volume remains the same: what we save in depth of air cushion must be made up in additional area of absorptive surface. In each case, the choice depends on the available space. Certainly, it is more expensive to enlarge the treated area than to increase the depth of the treatment, so h should be chosen as great as the available space will allow.
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1. The Proper Choice for R

The choice of flow resistance for the filling material is not quite so straightforward as it seemed when we were considering only the sound absorption at the resonance frequency. Certainly, it would not be favorable to choose R smaller than c, because then we would decrease both the maximum absorption at resonance and the width of the absorption curve (Fig. 26). But if R is greater than pc, then again the maximum absorption at resonance decreases, but we get a broader curve, which may be desirable. If we try to optimize both the maximum absorption at resonance and the half power bandwidth, by forming their product: max fH = 2 [4(R/c)/(1 + R/c)](h/c)fR2 we see that it would still be good to choose a large value for R. However, even a choice of infinitely high R would yield a result for the product that is only twice that for the matching case, R/c = 1. And if we make R too great, we invalidate our whole theory of resonating absorbers: a too -strongly damped resonator is no resonator at all! We conclude, then, that a choice of R/c around 2 to 3 will give the best compromise between a high maximum sound absorption at resonance and a broad half power bandwidth.
2. Further Illustrative Examples

In Part One, we presented several examples (#4 - #7) in which we calculated the resonance frequency for different combinations of perforated metal sheet and airspace (pp. 23 -28). We return to those treatments now to determine the half-power bandwidths and to see the effect of different choices of filling material.
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Example 10: Example #4 in Part One concerned a sheet of 16 gauge sheet metal, perforated with 1/8" holes, staggered on 3/8" centers, as a facing for a 3/4" glass fiber blanket against a solid wall. We found that the resonance frequency is 2000 Hz. We now assume that the glass fiber m aterial has a flow resistivity, = 55 cgs rayls/in; accordingly, R = 3/4" x 55 = 41 cgs rayls, and R/c = 1. We first calculate the maximum sound absorption coefficient reached at the resonance frequency: max = 1/[1/2 + (1/4)(R/c + c/R)] = 1/[1/2 + (1/4)(1 + 1) = 1.0. Next we calculate the half-power bandwidth: f H = 2 [1 + (R/c)](h/c)fR2 = 2 [1 + 1](0.75/13560)(2000)2 = 2794 Hz.
The lower and upper frequency bounds for the half-power bandwidth are: f1 f2 = fr -(fH/2) = 2000 - 1397 = 603Hz = fR + (fH/2) = 2000 + 1397 = 3397 Hz
The value of the absorption coefficient at frequencies f 1 and f2 is 0.50 (open triangles). The entire frequency plot of absorption for this example is given on Figure 27.
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One-third Octave Band Center Frequencies in Hz (cps)
Figure 27. Frequency dependence of the absorption coefficients for the tuned resonant absorbers of Examples 10-13.
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Example 11: The next example (Example 5, p. 26) involved a resonator tuned to fR = 120 Hz; the available air depth was 4", the thickness of the sheet was ? ", and it turned out that a hole diameter of ", a percent open area of 0.4%, with only 0.081 holes per sq in satisfied the nomogram. This time let us assume a value of R/ c = 2 for the filling; then the maximum absorption at resonance is (as we already know from the table on page 43): rnax = 0.89. The half-power bandwidth is: f H Then f1 f2 = 120 40 = 80 Hz = 120 + 40 = 160 Hz = 2 [1 + 2] (4/13560)(120)2 = 80 Hz.
and at these two frequencies, the absorption coefficient is 0.89/2 = 0.44. The entire frequency plot for this example is also given on Figure 27.
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Example 12: The next example (#6, page 28) was the same as the previous example except that the airspace was limited to 3. In order to comp ensate for this reduced airspace, we choose a higher value of the flow resistance of the filler: R/ c = 3. Then (again from Table 3 on page 43) max = 0.75, and: f H = 2 [1 + 3](3/13560)(120)2 = 80 Hz.
Because of our compensation with the higher flow resistance, the half-power bandwidth remains the same. But in this case, the sound absorption coefficients at f1 = 80 and f2 = 160 Hz are only 0.75/2 = 0.38 (filled squares in Figure 27). Example 13: The final example (#7, page 28) achieved the same resona nce frequency of 120 Hz with 1 holes, a percent open area of 1.0%, with a hole spacing of 9.5 and 0.013 holes/inch. This time, let us assume R/ c = 1, so again the absorption coefficient at resonance is 1.0. The half-power bandwidth now is: f H = 2 [1 + 1](3/13560)(120)2 = 40 Hz,
which leads to values for f1 and f2 of 100 and 140 Hz, respectively; at these frequencies the value of is 0.5 (open squares in Figure 27).
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3. "Self-Flow-Resistance" of Fine Perforated Metal Screens

We mentioned above, that, although it is desirable, from the point of view of trying to achieve high transparency from perforated sheet, to aim for tiny perforations closely spaced, there is a danger in over-doing it. First, if the sheet is painted, the fine holes may get clogged a nd this would spoil the transparency altogether. Second, if the holes are fine enough, they will act like the fine pores in a glass fiber absorptive blanket, and may introduce unwanted sound absorption. This would be particularly undesirable if all we want from the perforated metal is acoustical transparency. Therefore, it is a good idea, once you have finished your design for acoustical transparency, to follow through with a calculation of the self-resistance of the perforated sheet that you have chosen, and calculate the absorption coefficient of the sheet without any filling. This is explained below. Considering that there is a large range of possible perforation patterns, there are two extremes that we could consider, in calculating the self -resistance of the sheet. It depends on whether the holes are wide or narrow, compared with the length of the so- called "viscosity waves" that cause the unwanted absorption. Since the theory for coping with "in-between" situations is not developed, we must calculate both values and use the higher of the two results. In addition, there is an end correction to be taken into account, as in our calculations of resonance frequency, above. So our self-resistance is given by: Rself = Ro + 2Ro where the value for Ro is the larger of the two following formulas, depending on whether the flow resistance is dominated by (1) boundary layer effects or (2) laminar flow: R01 = 4.24(b2t/d3) f x 10-3 cgs rayls or R02 = 2.88(b2t/d3) f x 10-3 cgs rayls The value for 2R0 is given by: 2R0 = 4.19(b2/d2) f x 10-3.
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Example 14: To take a rather extreme case, let us look at the effect of the self-resistance, at a frequency of 1000 Hz, of a sheet of 0.1 metal with 0.16 holes at 0.8 on center, when used in a tuned resonant absorber. We must calculate both R01 and R02: R01 R02 = 4.24 x (0.82 x 0.1)/(0.16)3 x 1000 x 10-3 = 2.1 cgs Rayls. = 2.88 x (0.82 x 0.1)/(0.16)4 x 10-3 = 0.28 cgs Rayls.
Here, the dominant factor in the flow resistance is the boundary layer, R01. Also: 2R0 = 4.19(0.82)/(0.16)2 x 1000 x 10-3 = 3.3 cgs Rayls. The total self-resistance is: 2.1 + 3.3 = 5.4 cgs Rayls, which at first glance doesn t seem like much flow resistance. But the corresponding value for the resistance ratio R/c is 5.4/41 = 0.13; and, according to Table 3 on page 43, this already yields a maximum value of 0.41 for the sound absorption coefficient at resonance, even with no deliberately added filling material in the air cavity! Note that for many practical perforated sheets, the endcorrection term dominates the contributions from the holes, themselves, in the total flow resistance.
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Example 15: As a more typical example of commonly used perforated sheet, let us repeat the calculation for Item #7 in Table 1 at a frequency of 8000 Hz. Here the hole diameter d is 0.063", the on -center spacing b of the holes is 0.125", and the sheet thickness t is 0.037". (Of the examples in Table 1, this one will yield the greatest self-resistance). We find: R01 = 0.88 cgs Rayls; R02 = 0.11 cgs Rayls; 2R0 = 1.48 cgs Rayls. Again, R01 dominates. Then: R = 0.88 + 1.48 = 2.36; R/c = 0.58; and: max = 0.2. As, suggested above, this value is about the highest that one would expect to find in typical perforated metal sheets. If the resonator were to be filled with any reasonable absorptive material, the acoustical performance would be governed by the filling, not by the self-resistance of the sheet.
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IV.
Practical Large-Scale Application of Sound-Absorptive Treatments Using Perforated Metals

We conclude this section with some illustrative photographs showing sound absorptive treatments for the control of roadway and subway noise.
A. Barrier Screen for Tokyo Roadways

Because of the extremely crowded conditions in the large cities of Japan, the highways and elevated roadway s often pass quite near residential communities, and cause considerable annoyance to the residents because of the noise. Considerable protection can be afforded to these communities by erecting sound barriers along the roadways, which shield and absorb the sound of the motor vehicles. In Tokyo alone, there are 90 running miles of such barriers, ranging from 8 to 15 feet in height! The following photographs show some typical sights along the Tokyo roadways.
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Shown are details of the Tokyo roadway that appears on page 59. These perforated curved barriers are more acoustically efficient and present a more pleasing aesthetic appearance than the hard barriers presently being used in the United States.
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B. Absorbtive Barriers and Ceiling Treatments in the Vienna Subway System

A similar large -scale application of perforated metals occurs in the newly built sections of the subway in Vienna (Austria) The following photographs show some of these treatments.
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C. Acoustical Effects of the Sound Absorptive Treatment in the Vienna Subway

Figure 28 shows measured data from the Vienna subway in the course of successively more extensive sound absorptive treatment of the ceiling and s ide walls. Part A of the figure indicates, on the cross-section of the subway tunnel, the various areas where sound absorptive treatment was applied: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. On the ceiling over the central platform; On the lower, outer parts of the side walls; On the lower walls beneath the central platform; On the overhang of the central platform floor; On the ceiling, above the tracks; On the main side walls of the tunnel.
Part B of the figure indicates the progressive reduction of the reverberation time in the tunnel (as a function of frequency) as successively more sound absorptive treatment was added. Part C of the figure indicates the progressive reduction in the A -weighted sound level of the passing trains as successively more treatment was added.
Figure 28. Sound absorbtive treatments in the station. A. Indicates the absorptive sufaces -- j to m, as shown; n, 35 meters of sound absorptive walls in the tunnel. B. Reverberation time in the station. C. Effective sound level of the passing trains.
Exterior acoustical shielding in the Vienna subway system: a sound absorptive barrier, with perforated metal facing, runs along the tracks to shield the neighbors from the noise of the wheels and tracks and the traction motors.
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D. Sound Attenuation and Access Factors for These Treatments

It will be noticed that some of the perforated metal sheets in these treatments have quite large perforations, rather widely spaced (few perforations per inch). In view of our earlier discussion of the advantages of numerous small holes, it s i of interest to calculate the TI for these large-scale sheets and the corresponding acoustical parameters. Let us assume the 1/16 sheet has 1 holes, staggered at 1 on centers. The Percentage Open Area is 58% and the number of holes per sq. in. is 0. 73; that is: n t Then TI = 0.73; d = 1.0; b = 1.25; = 0.063; and a = b d = 0.25. = nd2/ta2 = 0.73 x (1)2/0.063 x (0.25)2 = 185. Such a low value of TI implies poor transparency at high frequencies. Figure 23 indicates an attenuation of 5.9 dB at 1 0 kHz, and a corresponding Access Factor of only 0.26 at the frequency. But the important frequencies in the noise of roadway and subway traffic are below 2000 Hz. At that frequency, according to Figures 21 and 22, the attenuation is only 0.2 dB and the A ccess Factor is up to 0.91; and, of course, the situation improves for all lower frequencies. Other properties of the perforated sheet in these applications, such as ruggedness and durability are more important than the highest acoustical transparency.
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APPENDIX A: Thickness of Sound Absorptive Treatment and Sound Absorption at Low Frequencies
Sound is a disturbance in the air characterized (among other things) by the fact that the air particles move back and forth locally, in a restricted region. The back-and-forth motion is slow at low frequencies (say, 100 cycles per second), fast at high frequencies (say, 5000 cycles per second). This disturbance propagates through the air as a wave, moving at a constant speed, independent of frequency, called the speed of sound: about 1130 ft/sec at normal temperatures, or about one mile in five seconds. The wave nature of the sound means that there is a definite relation between the air particle motion at different locations in space, along the direction of sound propagation. At positions separated by a distance equal to the wavelength of the sound, the air particles move together in synchronism, back and forth exactly in step. The wavelength, , is determined by the ratio of the speed of sound to the frequency of the sound: = c/f. For air at normal temperature, c = 1130 ft/sec; so for a frequency of 100 Hz, the wavelength is = 1130/100 = 11.3 ft and for a frequency of 5000 Hz, the wavelength is = 1130/5000 = 0.23ft. or 2.7 in. In general, low frequencies mean long wavelengths and high frequencies mean short wavelengths. In the vicinity of a solid reflecting surface (such as the wall or ceiling of a room), the sound wave is reflected back into the space from which it came, and the incident and reflected waves interfere with each other. The result is that directly at the reflecting surface the two waves add together to create a sound pressure double that of the incident wave. But since the reflecting surface is rigid, there cannot be any air particle motion near the wall; the particle velocity there is zero. Farther from the surface, however, these two waves are out of phase with one another, such that at a certain distance the pressure waves may cancel one another, leaving nea rly null pressure; but at this same location the particle velocity is greatly increased to almost twice that of the incident wave. This location of maximum particle velocity occurs at wavelength from the surface: this is 11.3/4 = 2.83 ft for a frequency of 100 Hz, or 0.68 in for 5000 Hz.
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These phenomena govern the sound absorptive behavior of the porous blankets that are often mounted against room surfaces in order to absorb some of the sound energy in the incident sound waves. The absorption takes place by a process of friction between the moving air particles and the fibers of the sound absorptive material; the sound energy in the incident wave is converted by this friction into heat, and it therefore disappears as sound energy from the acoustical scene. It follows that the most effective sound absorption will occur where the air particle motion is greatest. This behavior is quite different at low frequencies than at high frequencies because of the differences in wavelengths, and the corresponding effect on the interference pattern between the direct and reflected waves. For this reason, a thin blanket of sound absorptive material (say, inch) placed against the wall would have almost no effect on a sound wave at 100 Hz, because near the wall there is pr actically no air particle motion and therefore no friction. The maximum particle motion for this low frequency would be at a distance of wavelength (34 inches) from the surface. In order for the blanket to absorb the 100 Hz sound effectively, it would ha ve to be mounted at this distance, where it would be very effective, even with nothing but airspace between it and the wall. (It would be even more advantageous if this back space is partitioned into closed cells, as we have seen on page 30.) One way to place absorptive material far from the wall is simply to use a very thick layer. In this case, the part of the material near the wall takes little part in absorbing the sound, but is simply a means of supporting the rest of the material farther away from the wall, where it can do a very good job. Even a blanket thickness of only six inches yields very effective sound absorption at 100 Hz (see Figure 12, page 11). For much higher frequencies, however, the quarter-wavelength location is much nearer the wall, an d relatively thin blankets of fibrous material can absorb the sound very effectively (see again Figure 12). The reason for using sound absorbers with perforated metal facings is to create an acoustical resonance condition, such that even at low frequencies the location of maximum air particle velocity is made to be near the wall surface. This saves on space and on the amount of sound absorptive material required for the installation.
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APPENDIX B: Background for the Transparency Index and the Attenuation of Perforated Metal at High Frequencies
A number of years ago an experiment was conducted for the purpose of evaluating various kinds of transparent and semi transparent material to determine how readily they would transmit sound. The experiment was conducted in a so-called anechoic chamber, namely, a room whose interior surfaces are all covered with highly sound-absorptive material, in order to suppress all sound reflections as completely as possible.
Microphone 2x 2Screen (0 Position)
45 Position
loudspeaker
Anechoic Chamber, Schematic Plan View
Figure B-1. Direct Path test arrangement.
Figure B-l shows the setup. A loudspeaker out in the room radiates broad-band sound (containing all the frequencies of interest) toward a microphone located in a corner of the room. The sound at various frequencies received by the microphone in this situation is regarded as a baseline. Then, when a sample of perforated material is interposed between the loudspeaker and the microphone and the measurements are repeated, the differences, frequency by frequency, between the new measurement and the baseline measurement give an indication of the amount by which the sample attenuates the sound passing through. The measurements were made with two angles for the incident sound: perpendicular (0) and 45.
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Figure B-2 shows the result of such a measurement with a solid (i.e., acoustically opaque) plastic panel in the sample position, to illustrate that there is very little sound -spill around the sample. In other words, the measurement accurately assesses the attenuation of the test sample, since there is no contamination by sound leaking around the sample.
0 Angle of Incidence
45 Angle of Incidence
Octave Band Center Frequencies in Cycles per Second Figure B-2. Difference in sound levels, showing insertion loss of 2 x 2 plastic panel (i.e. spill )
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Figure B-3. Material G.
One sample that was tested at that time, Material G, was perforated metal sheet having No. 8 perforations, 0.066 in diameter, 1/8 on center (73 holes per sq. in.). The sample was 1/16 thick and 2 x 2 square. It is shown full-scale in Figure B-3. The direct path test was used with 0 and 45 angles of incidence for the incoming sound. The test results are shown here in Figure B -4. The attenuation at a frequency of 10,000 Hz was 2 dB for 0 incidence, and 1.5 dB for 45.
0 (Straight Through)
45 (Angle of Incidence)
Third Octave Band Center Frequency in Cycles per Second
Figure b-4. Test results, insertion loss vs. frequency, Material G.
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The results of ten such measurements are given in Figure B -5, 2 where the values of the Transmission Index (TI = nd /ta2) for the various test samples are plotted on the horizontal scale, while the corresponding values of sound attenuation for a frequency of 10,000 Hz are plotted on the vertical scale. The data point G is for the sample described above. The curve shown on Figure B-5 was empirically fitted to the measured data points; it corresponds to the following formula: A (10 kHz) = -22.56 log log TI + 0.008 TI + 13.79 dB.
E Attenuation = -22.56 loglog TI + 0.008 vTI + 13.79 (at 10 KHz)

Attenuation at 10KHz (dB)
D JV F B A G C
TI
Figure B-5.
As for the formula for the Transmission Index, itself: TI = nd 2/ta2, it was adopted in a slightly arbitrary manner. First, the four quan tities involved are those (and only those) that ought to govern the sound attenuation through the sheet. And the particular formula chosen was the simplest combination of those quantities that yielded a monotonic function for the attenuation, with no peculiar, sudden changes in slope. The slight arbitrariness of the formula is no disadvantage, since the TI, as a quantity, has no significance except as it is related to Figures 21, 22 and 23 in this booklet.
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APPENDIX C: The Access Factor, and Access of the Sound Wave to the Sound Absorptive Treatment Lying Behind the Perforated Metal
In Section II.B of Part Two, we describe the use of the Access Factor as a means of accounting for the access that the sound wave has to the acoustical treatment lying behind the perforated metal, taking into account the attenuation suffered by the sound in passing through it. If this treatment is a sound absorptive blanket, whose absorption coefficients are known for the various frequencies of interest, we assess the degradation of the sound absorptive capabi lity of that blanket, due to the perforated metal covering it, by multiplying the absorption coefficients of the blanket by the Access Factor for the perforated metal at the various frequencies. In this case, we treat the Access Factor as a quantitative measure of how much of the incident sound energy gets through to encounter the blanket. In principle, this procedure is not technically correct; the matter is much more complicated than that. If we were to carry out the correct procedure, it would require adding the mass impedance represented by the perforated metal screen to the impedance of whatever combination of materials lies behind it, and then recalculating, from the impedance of the whole ensemble, the net absorption coefficient presented to the incident sound. This is a complicated procedure, indeed, and one that (even so) does not necessarily give the right answer, since a number of questionable assumptions are involved. It is believed that, for the range of perforated materials likely to be used in these applications, and for the types of sound absorptive treatments that they will be used to cover, the use of the Access Factor, as prescribed in Section B, will give answers with acceptable accuracy.
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APPENDIX D: Work Sheets

This appendix contains cle an work sheets corresponding to figures in the main report. They are intended to be photo -copied and used for the calculations required in the design of acoustical treatments using perforated metal. The completed sheets should be kept with the job file for the project in question. The work sheets are as follows: Figure 17. Nomogram for Calculating the Resonance Frequency of a Tuned Resonant Sound Absorber. Figure 21. Sound Attenuation VS Frequency for Samples of Perforated Metal Having Different Values of Transparency Index (TI). Figure 22. Curves Showing the Access Factor VS Frequency for the Samples of Perforated Metal Having Different Values of TI. Figure 23. Nomogram for Calculating the Sound Attenuation and the Access Factor at a Frequency of 10,000 Hz (cps).
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Nomogram for Calculating the Resonance Frequency of a Tuned Resonant Sound Absorber.
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A(f) = Attenuation (dB)
One-Third Octave Band Center Frequencies in Hz (cps)
Sound Attenuation vs Frequency for Samples of Perforated Metal Having Different Values of Transparency Index (TI).
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AF = Access Factor = 10 -(A/10)
One-Third Octave Band Center Frequencies in Hz (cps)
Curves Showing the Access Factor vs Frequency for the Same Samples of Perforated Metal Having Different Values of Transparency Index.
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Access Factor (at 10 kHz) = 10 -(A/10)
Nomogram for Calculating the Sound Attentuation and the Access Factor at a Frequency of 10,000 Hz (cps).
Attenuation (at 10 kHz) = -22.56 log log TI + 0.008 TI + 13.179
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About the author:

Dr. Schultz began his career as a professional musician, studying bassoon at the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, N.Y. Later he switched to Electrical Engineering at The University of Missouri, but ended up in acoustics, in which field heholds Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees from Harvard University. For five years he worked at Douglas Aircraft Company in Santa Monica, Cal., where he was Assistant Chief of their Acoustics Division. Then he moved to the acoustics consultin g firm of Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., in Cambridge, Mass., where he was Technical Director of Architectural Acoustics and Noise Control. After 23 years there, he has gone into private practice as an acoustical consultant, interested chiefly in architectu ral and environmental acoustics, and the design of laboratory facilities and standards writing. Theodore J. Schultz Associates, Inc. Consulting in Acoustics Boston, MA 02118
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his thanks to the following people, whose contributions have greatly enriched the value of this booklet: Dr. Masaru Koyasu, of the Kobayasi Institute of Physical Research (Tokyo, Japan), for the photographs of the sound absorptive road barriers in the City of Tokyo; Dr. Judith Lang, of the Physikalisch-Technische Versuchsanstalt fur Warme und Schalltechnik am Technologischen Gewerbemuseum (Vienna, Austria), for the photographs of the sound absorptive wall and ceiling treatments in the Vienna subway system, and for the corresponding technical data in Figure 28; and Mr. Thomas R. Horrall, of Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Mr. Tomlinson Holman of The Skywalker Development Company, San Rafael, California, for con tributing new data on the sound attenuation of various perforated materials, as presented here in Appendix B. The theoretical material in PART TWO, Section III, on Resonant Sound Absorbers (pages 41-58) has been adapted from Volume 2, Wave-Theoretical Room Acoustics, of Principles and Applications of Room Acoustics, by Lothar Cremer and Helmut A. Muller, Applied Science Publishers, London, 1982, Translated by Theodore J. Schultz.
5157 Deerhurst Cres. Cir. Boca Raton, FL. 33486
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Acoustical Application Tests of Perforated Metals
To validate data developed by Theodore I. Schultz, Ph.D.* as presented in his book, ACOUSTICAL USES FOR PERFORATED METALS: Principles and Applications the IPA contracted the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories to test his findings. The following is a summary report on the tests conducted by the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories in demonstrating the two acoustical capabilities of perforated metals- allowing a maximum amount of sound to pass through it in order for it to be absorbed by a material behind it and their capability in a tuned resonant sound absorber to attenuate specific, narrow frequency range.
The objectives of the tests were: a. Determine which perforated metal specifications would provide a high degree of sound transparency. b. Demonstrate the theories regarding Tuned Resonant Absorbers set forth by Dr. Schultz.
*Dr. Schultz's many friends, clients and acoustical engineering colleagues were deeply saddened by his untimely death in August, 1989. His important contributions to the science of acoustics will be long remembered and appreciated.
The first test compares the sound absorption performance of a bare, unprotected 4" blanket of fiberglass with the same material protected by sheets of perforated metal that required the sound to pass through the perforated sheet. The three perforated sheets were of the following specifications:
IPA #107 with 48% Open Area IPA #112 with 37% Open Area IPA #115 with 23% Open Area
IPA #107 with 46% Open Area: .080 dia. holes on .109, 60 staggered centers. IPA #112 with 37% Open Area: .100 dia. holes on .156, 60 staggered centers IPA #115 with 23% Open Area: .125 dia. holes on .250, 60 staggered centers
CHART 1: ABSORPTION OF 4 FIBERGLASS BLANKET WITH OR WITHOUT PERFORATED
Chart 1 disclosed that there was virtually no diminishment of the fiberglass blanket's sound absorption performance by the presence of any of the perforated metal sheets; they were equally transparent with only minor and insignificant variations. Each of the perforated -protected tests followed very closely the performance of the bare blanket at all frequency levels.
Transparency with Sound Absorbing Materials

CHART 2: ABSORPTION O F MINERAL WOOL OR FIBERGLASS WITH IPA #115
Chart 2 illustrates the results of a second test wherein the IPA #115 perforated sheet, the one with the least Open Area, was used in conjunction with four different sound absorbing materials: 4 6 pcf Mineral Wool with a NRC of 1.05 4 Fiberglass Blanket with a NRC of 1.05 4 3 pcf Mineral Wool with a NRC of 1.10 4 Fiberglass Board with a NRC of 1.1.0
NRC stands for Noise Reduction Coefficient, a standard measure for sound absorption which is reflected in the Y Axis Scale. A material with a NRC of 1.10 is approximately 5% more efficient as a sound absorber than a material with an NRC of 1.05. The test results demonstrate, again, a high degree of transparency for the IPA #115 material. Additionally, we ca n see a rather significantly better sound absorption by Fiberglass Board in the lower frequencies and noticeably weaker performance of the 6 pcf Mineral Wool material below 1000 Hz. But, the differences are small and clearly the presence of the perforated metal had no effect on the sound absorbing performance of any of the materials.

In the tests depicted by Charts 3, 4, and 5, as the diagrams show, the perforated sheet, IPA #115, was mounted over a frame having a rigid back into which fiberglass blankets of varying thicknesses were placed either against the perforated sheet with or without airspace behind it or against the back leaving an airspace between the face of the sound absorbing blanket and the perforated sheet. In addition to the sound transparency of the #115 material shown in Charts 1 and 2, these tests clearly demonstrated these conclusions: 1. 2. 3. As a general rule, the thicker the absorbent blanket the greater the sound absorbency. But, the thickness of the fiberglass blanket has its most noticeable effect below 500 Hz with the effect increasing towards the lower frequencies. Placement of the absorbent blanket against the perforated metal with an airspace behind does not diminish sound absorbency. On the other hand, the airspace behind does not contribute to sound absorbency. Placement of the sound absorbent blanket away from the perforated metal-leaving an air space between- will noticeably reduce sound absorbency. To achieve maximum transparen cy of the perforated metal requires that the absorbent material be placed against it leaving no airspace. CHART 3: ABSORPTION OF FIBERGLASS AGAINST IPA #115 IN FRAME
CHART 4: ABSORPTION OF FIBERGLASS WITH AIRSPACE & IPA #115 IN FRAME
CHART 5: ABSORPTION OF 2 FIBERGLASS WITH AIRSPACES & IPA #115 IN FRAME
CHART 6: ABSORPTION OF 4 FIBERGLA SS WITH IPA #115 WITH OR WITHOUT POLY FILM
The tests in Chart 6 were conducted to determine the sound absorbency loss when a sheet of polyethylene film was placed as a protective cover between the absorbent blanket and the sheet of perforated metal. The chart shows that there is a substantial loss at frequencies above 500 Hz and that the loss increases as frequencies go up. Loss also, as you might expect, increases with the thickness of the poly film. At thicknesses greater than .075 mil the loss does not appear to be acceptable. In the lower frequency ranges below 500 Hz the loss of sound absorbency caused by the presence of the poly film seems to be negligible.
Frequency Range Attenuation

Dr. Schultz's Calculations Relating to Tuned Resonant Absorbers are Clearly Demonstrated. Dr. Schultz writes in his book, "One of the great advantages of perforated metal is that it can be used as an element in a "tuned resonant absorber" to provide remarkably high sound absorption in the targeted frequency range without requiring a large amount of space or absorptive material... the perforated metal is used in combination with a trapped layer of air, in order to modify the acoustical performance of the absorptive material. This is done by setting up an acoustical resonance condition, which concentrates the sound absorption into a particular frequency range of special interest." "All resonant devices have a preferred frequency (of oscillation)...In a resonant absorber, the oscillation involves the motion of air particles in and out of the holes in the metal sheet in response to an incident sound wave. The preferred frequency of this oscillation is determined by the mass of the air in the perforations and the springiness of the trapped air layer." "At that resonance frequency, the air moves violently in and out of the holes, which pumps air particles back and forth vigorously within the adjacent sound absorptive layer. There, the acoustic energy (carried by the back-andforth motion of the air particles) is converted by the friction into heat and is thereby removed from the acoustical scene." He cites as an example the power transformer which emits a well-defined sound concentrated around 120Hz. An effective barrier to this sound might require a six-inch layer of sound absorptive blanket. But, the use of perforated metal to make a resonant absorber especially tuned to 120Hz can achieve efficient sound absorption at that frequency with only a thin layer of absorptive material. "If there is a clearly perceptible pure tone or a prominent frequency, (a squeal, hum or whine, as opposed to a whoosh or roar), this is a good indication that the disturbing noise is concentrated in a limited frequency range and a tuned resonant sound absorber is called for." (Reference should be made to Dr. Shultz's book available through the I.P.A., for a fuller explanation of the Tuned Resonant Absorber Approach).

CALCULATING THE DESIGN PARAMETERS OF THE TUNED ABSORBER Having determined the desired frequency for maximum absorption, the Nomogram shown below can be used to calculate the specifications for a tuned absorber to attenuate that frequency. Use of the Nomogram is described in detail, below, in the discussion of the Riverbank tests. The Nomogram works equally well whether you are starting with a desired target frequency range or with a set of constraints relating to available spacer or perforated metal. "When the airspace is continuous, the behavior of the absorber changes greatly at different angles of incidence of the sound. As the sound direction changes from perpendicular to the surface of the absorber (angle of incidence = 0) to grazing incidence (90), the resonance frequency changes drastically, rising away from the intended frequency to as much as three octaves higher. In addition, the bandwidth of frequencies within which the higher values of sound absorption occur gets smaller and smaller as the angle of incidence tends toward grazing." "By contrast, with the partitioned backstructure, not only does the resonance frequency remain the same as the angle of incidence increases, but the bandwidth of high sound absorption actually becomes broader". Appreciation of these phenomena dictated the use of aluminum honeycomb or similar materia l in the design of the absorbing layer in the test specimens.
THE RIVERBANK TESTS The Riverbank tests used a test specimen that comprised the basic elements of a Tuned Resonant Absorber which is illustrated below. The test specimen was two-chambered to provide for comparative experiments. The elements included a sheet of perforated metal backed by a layer of aluminum honeycomb with 1" cells into which fiberglass had been pressed; the thickness of this layer varied in the tests from 1" to 4". This assembly was placed at the top of a box which was 4" deep from the underside of the perforated sheet to the bottom of the box. Important note: Dr. Schultz points out, "It makes a very important difference whether the airspace behind the (perforated) sheet is continuous or divided into small cells by means of partitions."

Using the Nomogram (Example 1) Nomogram 1 and Charts 7 and 8 illustrate a test which used an aluminum sheet .080" thick perforated with 1/8" (.125) holes on 2 1/4" straight row centers providing an open area of .2437%. The Nomogram elements for this test, therefore were: t e h P The thickness of the sheet = .080" The effective throat-length of the holes in the perforated sheet, (t + .89d) = .080 + (.125X.8) = .18 The distance from the perforated sheet to the backing = 4" The percentage of Open Area, (O.A.) = .2437%

Using the Nomogram (Example 1) To determine the target frequency which this Tuned Resonant Absorber will attenuate using the Nomograph, first calculate the "e" dimension, which is .18. Using a ruler, connect the point .18 on the "e" scale with the point .2437 on the p scale, (it will be necessary to estimate the position of this point on the Nomograph). Now place your ruler on the point where this line crosses the M line and draw a line to the 4" position on the "h" scale. Where this line crosses the "f' scale you'll find the target frequency that should be most highly attenuated by this Tuned Resonant Absorber. The target frequency in this test was determined to be 125Hz. Charts 7 and 8 reporting on the results of two tests conducted by Riverbank Labs, the first with a 1" thick absorbing layer and second with a 4" thick absorbing layer, demonstrate clearly the effectiveness of the Tuned Resonant Absorber principle and the accuracy of Dr. Schultz's methods and Nomograph for determining the components of an efficient system. Chart 7 illustrates the test results for the TRA using a 1" thick absorbing layer. The target frequency is clearly 125Hz; a "Sound Absorption Coefficient" of 1.0 is very close to 100% efficiency. Chart 8 illustrating the test using a 4" sound absorbing layer, shows a slight shift to 100 Hz as the frequency most efficiently attenuated though 125Hz is also efficiently removed, as well. It also illustrates an overall increase in sound absorbed. Both of these results can be attributed to the thicker sound absorbing layer.

Using the Nomogram (Example 1) Nomogram 1 for Use with Charts 7 and 8
Nomogram for calculating the resonance frequency of a tuned resonant sound absorber

Using the Nomogram (Example 1) Reporting on the results of two tests conducted by Riverbank Labs
CHART 7: ABSORPTION THROUGH .080 ALUMINUM WITH 1/8 HLS, .243% O.A. ON 1 FG

Using the Nomogram (Example 1) Reporting on the results of two tests conducted by Riverbank Labs
CHART 8: ABSORPTION THRO UGH .080 ALUMINUM WITH 1/8 HLS, .243% O.A. ON 4 FG

Using the Nomogram (Example 2) Use Chart 9 with Nomogram 2
Chart 9 with Nomogram 2 depict a test with different elements: A sheet of 26 gauge galvanized steel perforated with .046" diameter holes on .266" staggered centers providing a 2.7% open area mounted on a 2" thick layer of fiberglass/honeycomb. The 4 " dimension for "h " remained the same. Thus, the Nomogram elements were: t e P h 26 gauge = .0179 .0179 + (.046 X .8) = .0547 2.7% 4"
Referring to Nomogram 2, the target frequency works out to be approximately 750Hz.
Chart 9 shows that in this test the frequencies between 400Hz and 800Hz were absorbed above the 1.0 coefficient and the frequency bands for 315Hz and 1,000 Hz on either side of that range nearly reached that level. The pattern of absorption was broader not as narrowly focused, but, the Tuned Resonant Absorber effect is plainly evident.

Using the Nomogram (Example 2) Nomogram 2 for Use with Charts 9

Using the Nomogram (Example 2) Use Chart 9 with Nomogram 2
CHART 9: ABSORPTION THROUGH 26GA WITH .046 HLS, 2.7% O.A. ON 2 FG
In his book, Dr. Schultz explains in detail how a narrowing of the frequency range around the targeted frequency will result from having a shallower air space between the perforated sheet and the solid backing, (scale h on the nomogram). With a perforated sheet that provided a higher value on the "e" scale and the same Open Area on the "P" scale in combination with a 2" air space, (h scale), the same target frequency would have been maintained but a more focused range of frequencies would be attenuated. (See dotted lines on Nomogram 2).

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Presented by the Industrial Perforators Association

5157 Deerhurst Cres. Boca Raton, FL 33486 www.iperf.org Phone/Fax: 1-561-447-7511

IPA Regular Members - Fall 2000

Designers, Specifiers And Buyers Handbook For Perforated Metals

A publication of the Industrial Perforators Association 1993

Page 3 4 12 14 16 18 23 26 28 30 36 50 51 52 54 56 58 60 62 63 98 103 104 106 107 109

A Specialized Production Resource

The Wonderful Things That Holes Can Do

The Uses of Perforated Materials

Design With Endless Choices

enhancing the look as well as the performance

Structurally Sound and Efficiently Made

Beautiful, Functional and Versatile

There are so many ways to do it better with perforated metal.

Keeping it Safe, Cool and Beautiful

Strength of Perforated Metal

Strength of materials perforated with round holes in a standard staggered pattern:

Holes Per sq.in. 625 -

S* = Yield strength of perforated material S* = Yield strength of unperforated material

Elastic Properties of Perforated Metals (Stiffness)

Effective Elastic Properties for IPA Standard Perforations

How Perforated Metals Are Used in Acoustical Applications

1. As a Facing for Something Else

2. The Tuned Resonant Absorber

Summary of Tests Conducted by the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories

IPA#107: 48% Open Area

IPA#112: 37% Open Area

IPA#115: 23% Open Area

Sound Absorption Coefficients

Third Octave Center Frequencies (Hz)

E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals

E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals (continued)

E.M.I Shielding Effectiveness of Perforated Metals (continued)

Pressure Loss Through Perforated Plate (Air)

Pressure Loss Through Perforated Plate (Fluid)

BOYLE ENGINEERING ABORATORIES FEBRUARY 1985

Good Reasons for Calling in Your Perforating Specialist

Comparison of Functional Capabilities

Material costs do not tell the whole story

IPA Standard Perforations

Perforations 2/10 3/8 1 1

Centers 3/8 11/16 1 1 1 3/8

Line Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight Straight

Bars 1/8 1/8

Line Side Staggered Side Staggered

No. 100, .020 diam. 20% O.A.

No.101, .023 diam. 23% O.A.

No. 102, .027 diam. 23% O.A.

No. 103, .032 diam. 26% O.A.

No. 104, .040 diam. 30% O.A.

No. 105, .045 diam. 37% O.A.

No. 106, 1/16 diam. 23% O.A.

No. 107, 5/64 diam. 12% O.A.

Round Holes Continued

No.108, 3/32 diam 36% O.A.

No. 109, 3/32 diam 32% O.A.

No. 110, 3/32 diam. 23% O.A.

No. 111, 3/32 diam 12% O.A.

No. 112, 1/10 diam. 36% O.A.

No. 113, 1/8 diam. 40% O.A.

No. 114, 1/8 diam. 29% O.A.

No. 115, 1/8 diam. 23% O.A.

Round Holes Continued