III. Competition Among Cultural Communities, 600-1200 o Chapter 11: Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas, 600-1500 1.

August of 682 B.C.E. Lady Wac-Chanil-Ahau of the Mayans traveled by sedan to Dos Pilas to carry out her arranged marriage to powerful nobleman 2. 693 C.E. Smoking squirrel, son of Lady-Wac-Chanil-Ahau took the throne when he was 5-years-old 3. The peoples of the Americas were in constant competition for resources 4. In other parts of the hemisphere, the native peoples had adapted to combinations of agriculture and hunting to preserve a side variety of cultural traditions, settlement patterns and political forms 5. CLASSIC-ERA CULTURE AND SOCIETY IN MESOAMERICA, 600-900: A. Mesoamericans were brought together by what they had in common in religious beliefs and practices, social structures + material culture B. They made impressive progress in astronomy and mathematics, advanced new forms of political organization and developed agricultural productivity C. Classic-period cities of 900 C.E. featured pyramids and platforms dedicated to religious functions; divided by classes; controlled by hereditary political and religious elites D. Cultural and political innovations did not rely on new technologies; instead depended on ability of influential elites to command and organize increasing numbers of soldiers and laborers E. TEOTIHUACAN *Teotihuacan a powerful city-state in central Mexico (100 B.C.E.750 C.E.); population=about 150k @ its peak in 600; was the largest city in the Americas Religion played a large role; religious architecture dominated the center of the city; the people worshiped many gods and other notas-important spirits (Sun, Moon and Quetzalcoatal, feathered serpent); practicing human sacrifice was part of the daily rituals *chinampas raised fields constructed along lake shores in Mesoamerica to increase agricultural yields; allowed year-round agriculture because of resistance to frost and subsurface irrigation Apartment-like stone buildings housed members of a single kinship group 2 popular craft groups=produced obsidian tools and pottery Elite members (the wealthy) controlled commerce, tax collection and the state bureaucracy

Ruled by alliances formed among elite, selected families or by weak kings who were figure heads of the politically powerful and wealthy families Teotihuacan created a powerful military for trading purposes (long-distance trade and to force peasant farmers to hand over their surplus production to the city) 650 C.E. fall of Teotihuacan; overwhelmed by militaristic means (nomadic warriors from the north or close rival city)? Misconduct of resource by ruling elite, which led to breakdown of public order and class conflict F. THE MAYA *Maya Mesoamerican civilization concentrated in Mexicos Yucatan Peninsula and in Guatemala and Honduras but never unified into a single empire; major contributions were in mathematics, astronomy and development of the calendar Maya farmers practiced swidden (shifting/slash and burn) agriculture 900 C.E. end of Maya classic period Most powerful cities of the classic period=governed smaller dependent cities and an extensive zone by building religious temples and by established rituals that connected the power of kings to the gods Pyramids were aligned with the movements of the sun and Venus Common motifs=genealogies of rulers, important historical events and religious allegories Altars, temples and stone monoliths were all constructed without the help of pulleys, wheels, metal tools or wheelbarrows carts; they were all built by large amounts of people using levers and stone tools Maya cosmos=divided into 3 layers linked along a vertical axis that followed the course of the sun; earthly realm, heavens/sky monster and dark underworld Rulers and other exclusive members functioned as both priests and political figures Kings were mediators with supernatural residence of other worlds Bloodletting was part of the usual rituals Maya militia fought usually to secure captives instead of trying to gain territory

2 women are known were ruling Maya kingdoms; women played central role in religious rituals @ home; were mostly shamans and healers The Maya peoples interest in time and in the universe was evident based on the complexity of their calendric system (ritual cycle calendar and solar calendar); based on astronomical observations, which are based on Maya writing and mathematics Invented concept of zer0 Maya writing=some form of hieroglyphic writing that that symbolized whole words or concepts and phonetic syllables or cues Between 800+900 C.E. most of the major Maya cosmopolitan centers were destroyed or abandoned; caused by epidemic disease? Other factor: destruction from what was formerly Teotihuacan disrupted trade 6. THE POSTCLASSIC PERIOD IN MESOAMERICA, 900-1500: A. PC period linked to classic period through similarities, such as architecture, religious belief and practice, social organization and urban planning B. Differences: Population of Mesomerica expanded during PC period; amplification of agricultural practices and to augmented warfare; governing elites (Toltec+Aztec) responded by accumulating the size of their armies and developed political organizations that enabled their control of culturally varied and large territories gained through conquest C. THE TOLTECS *Toltecs powerful postclassic empire in central Mexico (900-1168 C.E.); influenced much of Mesoamerica; Aztecs claimed ties to this earlier civilization They borrowed from the cultural legacy of Teotihuacan and established an important PC civilization Most important Toltec innovations=political and military achievements 968 C.E. the Toltecs were established; created Tula, the capital 2 kings or chieftains ruled the Toltec state together After 1k C.E. skirmish between elite groups and rival religious cults; this weakened the Toltec Aztec legend=Topiltzin (1 of 2 rulers) and a priest of the cult of Quetzalcoatl and his followers were banished to the east After the exile of Topilzin, Toltec state began to decline 1156 C.E. N invaders overcame Tula

D. THE AZTECS *Aztecs also known as Mexica, the Aztecs created a powerful empire in central Mexico (1325-1521 C.E.); they forced defeated peoples to provide goods and labor as a tax *Tenochtitlan capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco; its population was about 150k on the eve of Spanish conquest; Mexico City was constructed on its ruins 2nd capital was Tlatelolco Political organization=monoarchial system=royal succession not based on primogeniture/being the 1st child; Aztec rulers did not have absolute power; ruler selected by a council of influential aristocrats from the male line of the ruling lineage Aztec military expansion=social organization and political life; lower class and upper class *tribute system a system in which defeated peoples were forced to pay a tax in the form of goods and labor; this forced transfer of food, cloth and other goods subsidized the development of large cities; an important component of the Aztec and the Inca economies Merchant class was successful, but other people of nobility were jealous and denied them rights of nobility Religious rituals dominated life in Tenochtitlan; human sacrifice was often performed (mostly criminals, tributes and slaves) 7. NORTHERN PEOPLES: A. 900 C.E. significant cultural centers in the SW desert region and along river valleys of Ohio and Mississippi in what would be USA B. Squash+maize+beans=important role in the development of elaborate societies C. SOUTHWESTERN DESERT CULTURES 1k C.E. Hohokam, of the Salt and Gila river valleys of S Arizona, had constructed a complex irrigation system *Anasazi important culture of what is now the SW US (1000-1300 C.E.); centered on Chaco Canyon in New Mexico and Mesa Verde in Colorado, the Anasazi culture built multistory residences and worshipped in subterranean buildings called kivas 600 C.E. the sturdy economy of the Anasazi was based on squash, maize and beans led to formation of large villages+enriched cultural life in kivas Pueblo Bonito=largest town of Anasazi; exerted some kind of religious/political dominance over a large region; men did jobs

such as maintaining irrigation works, hunting and trade; women managed food prep, childcare, crafts and agricultural duties 12th century abandonment of major sites in Chaco Canyon; caused by local drought that destabilized the cultures weak agricultural economy; Anasazi still thrived for more than 100 years in 4-corners region D. MOUND BUILDERS: THE MISSISSIPIAN CULTURE Contact with Mesoamerica may have influenced Mississippian culture; squash, maize and beans are associated with the development of the metropolitan culture of the Mississippians *chiefdom form of political organization w/ rule by a hereditary leader who held power over a collection of villages and towns; less powerful than kingdoms and empires, chiefdoms were based on gift giving and commercial links Areas of major development of Mississippians are associated w/ collected effects of small increase in the expansion of trade networks, agricultural productivity and the adoption of the bow and arrow; additionally, social stratification and growth of population contributed; trade centers were where the population flourished in trade Cahokia=great urban center of Mississipians; located near East St. Louis, Illinois; population: about 20k in 1200 C.E.; controlled surrounding agricultural lands and secondary towns ruled by subchiefs; political and economic influence depended on location (Missouri, Mississippi and Illinois Rivers); received flint, copper, mica and sea shells 1250 C.E. abandonment of Cahokia; military defeat?; civil war?; climate changes +population pressures added to the fall of the center; environmental poverty from deforestation 8. ANDEAN CIVILIZATIONS, 600-1500: A. Andean region=unlikely environment for powerful and rich civilizations to develop B. East of Andes Mountain=hot+humid tropical environment of Amazon waters C. Amerindian peoples yielded consistent and dynamic agricultural technologies D. CULTURAL RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE Rewarding technologies came from a calendar for harvesting and planting and the domestication of grains and potatoes that are resilient to frost; terrace farming on hillsides to create micro

environments; using cold, dry climate to freeze dry foods; domestication of the llama=wool, meat and long-distance transportation *khipus system of knotted colored cords used by preliterate Andean peoples to transmit information *ayllu Andean lineage group or kin-based community Ayllu=model for division of labor and dispersal of goods at every level of Andean society *mita Andean labor system based on shared obligations to help kinsmen and work on behalf of the ruler and religious organizations Workers did: building and maintaining of palaces, roads, temples, bridges, and large irrigation and drainage projects; manufactured textiles and goods necessary to life (beer from maize, coca) Workers were divided by gender; military service+government+hunting=mens role; agriculture+textile production+the home=womens role Specialized resources: Coastal regions=fish+maize+cotton; Mtn valleys=quinoa+potatoes+other tubers; higher elevations=meat+wool of llamas+alpacas; Amazonian region=coca+fruits E. MOCHE *Moche Civilization of the N coast of Peru (200-700 C.E.); an important Andean civilization that built extensive irrigation networks as well as impressive urban centers dominated by brick temples Did not institute a formal empire or found integrated political structures Moche society was highly structures and theocratic (govt by god or priests); came from the need to organize the workers to build and maintain irrigation systems=class divisions Peasants dedicated their time to subsistence farming +payment of labor that was owed to elite+ayllu Craft workers: women had special role in producing textiles; potters created unique and prized vases and other vessels that symbolized rituals and myths; metalworkers=gold jewelry, heavy copper and copper alloy for military+agricultural reasons 6th century sequence of natural disasters weaken economy sabotage authority of political and religious leaders, who had powers over natural forces F. TIWANAKU AND WARI

*Tiwanaku name of capital city and empire centered on the region near Lake Titicaca in modern Bolivia (375-1000 C.E.) Used drainage projects to reclaim lakeside marshes for agriculture; allowed intensive agriculture Llamas retained long-distance relationships that transported coca, medicinal plants, corn and tropical fruits High quality construction projects: reservoir, large terraced pyramid and walled enclosures; built from finely cut stone that required little mortar; tools were made from copper alloy The elite had power over a massive, well-organized labor force in the surrounding region Military conquests and the founding of colonies helped to deliver goods from ecologically diverse zones *Wari Andean civilization culturally linked to Tiwanaku, perhaps beginning as a colony of Tiwanaku 1k C.E. Tiwanaku+Wari declined to nothingness G. THE INCA *Inca largest and most powerful Andean empire; controlled the Pacific coast of S America from Ecuador to Chile from its capital of Cuzco Built upon traditional Andean economic practices and social customs The people used state power to extend and enlarge the vertical exchange system that had allowed ayllus to use the resources of many ecological niches Cuzco=imperial capital; area of provincial cities, imperial armies, states religious cults + royal court; in the shape of a giant puma/mountain lion; palaces of past and current rulers were present in the city; many temples too, richest being Temple fot eh Sun) Sacrifices of the Inca include: animals, textiles, valuable possessions and occasionally human lives The Andes were united together by the expanded traditional exchange system, along with its strong military As the Inca expanded their territory, local rulers were left in their place; rebellion was prevented through military garrisons and hostage taking (the heirs of the local rulers were sent to live at the Inca royal court in Cuzco) Imperial bureaucracy was created by the extravagant power of the Inca ruler

The royal family claimed to have been descendants of the Sun (main Inca god) Religious and political rituals helped authorize the power of the ruler and the members of the royal family The Inca did not introduce new technology, but added to regions wealth and increased economic production Technology of Inca: metallurgy (bronze and copper), astronomy, weaving and metal work (silver and gold) 1525 death of Hayna Capac, Inca ruler, which lead to struggle for throne; a civil war rose and eventually, the weakened empire lost control over its massive territories 9. CHAPTER RESPONSES: A. How did differing environments influence the development of Mesoamerican, Andean, and northern peoples? The different environments caused the Mesoamerican, Andian and northern peoples to advance in new technologies and develop new cultural forms. The natural environment influenced the cultural development of these peoples. (see below answer for reasons) B. What technologies were developed to meet the challenges of these environments? In southern Mexico, the Maya created agricultural technologies that made up for the tropical cycle of heavy rains that alternated with long dry periods. The Moche of the coast of Peru utilized systems of trade and mutual labor duty (mita) to satisfy the challenge of a mountainous terrain along with an arid climate. In North America, the mound builders used the bountiful floodplains of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers to expand agricultural production. All across the Americas, the hunting and gathering peoples modernized their agricultural societies to produce aesthetic and religious traditions, along with operational social institutions and beneficial technologies to meet with the challenges of their local conditions. C. How were the civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Andean region similar? How did they differ? Both civilizations controlled large amounts of territory as well as a massive population that was in the millions. The capital cities of these civilizations were areas of political and cultural centers that displayed the great achievements of those civilizations (art, architecture and technology). Both civilizations were ruled by powerful hereditary elites who relied on tributes given to them by

their subject people. They were both conquest-based civilizations. Their survival was based on their military power. The civilizations in Mesoamerica (Aztec) and the Andean (Inca) region both were environmentally and ethnically diverse. However, in Mesoamerica (Aztec), elementary markets had been established to allot specialized regional production, and forced payment of goods as tribute were still important. Equal labor responsibilities and exchange relationships that were maintained in the Andes (Inca) were used to distribute goods. The civilization in Mesoamerica (specifically the Aztec) used their military to force defeated peoples to give up their food, sacrificial tributes (tribute) and textiles to them (the Aztecs), but they still left the hereditary leaders in place. Contrariwise, the Andean region (the Inca) developed a more centralized administrative structure that was maintained by a trained bureaucracy. D. How did religious belief and practice influence political life in the ancient Americas? In the ancient Americas, religion played a huge part of their political life. For example in Teotihuacan, pyramids and temples were used for human sacrifice. The Maya believed that the cosmos had three layers: the human world, the heavens and the underworld. Rules and elites were believed to have the ability to communicate with these other worlds. Women even took part of bloodletting rituals event thought they had no political power. In the Mississipian cultures, the people were ruled by chiefs; these chiefs also served as priests and also were in control of secular affairs, like long distance trade. In the Inca Empire, in the main capital of Cuzco, it was common to have feasts, rituals and sacrifices of tribute goods, textiles, animals and occasional humans take place.