Asexual Reproduction

MITOSIS is used to produce a NEW organism from part of ONE other organism.
DNA in new organism is IDENTICAL to DNA parent (clone)

Asexual Reproduction

Types:
1. 2. 3.

Parent breaks into several pieces, which become new organisms.

Fragmentation Budding

Offspring develop as a growth (bud) on the body of the parent.

Female produces eggs that develop into a new organism without being fertilized. Lost body parts are replaced. Making copies of organisms.

Parthenogenesis

4.
5.

Regeneration
Cloning

The Advantage of Being Asexual

Dont need to search for a mate. Produces a lot of offspring without using a lot of time or energy. Very successful in unchanging environments. Problem: No genetic diversity

Sexual Reproduction
New organism is produced from DNA of two cells. Offspring are GENETICALLY DIFFERENT from parents.

Sex Cells (gametes)

Sex cells used in sexual reproduction. Types:

1. Egg (female)

2. Sperm (male)

Egg

Sperm

Pollen

DNA

Chromatin - uncoiled DNA Chromosomes - tightly coiled DNA Homologous chromosome pair of identical chromosomes Chromatid of a replicated chromosome Centromere - place where chromatids attach

Whats in a daughter cell? All the same stuff thats in the parent cell. Before cells divide, DNA is copied so that when the cells split, a complete set of DNA goes to each daughter cell. DNA makes up chromatids, which make up chromosomes. Before division, each chromatid makes an identical sister, so each chromosome has a pair (2) of sister chromatids. Centromere- where each pair of chromatids is attached Two main stages of cell division: Mitosis- the division of the cell nucleus Cytokinesis- the division of the cytoplasm

sister chromatids centromere

 1.

INTERPHASE- 3 phases: Cell Growth- G1 phase

Cells increase in size, synthesize (make) new proteins and organelles (membrane bound little organs that have specific function) Chromosomes are duplicated

2.

DNA replication- S phase

3.

Preparation for cell division- G2 phase

Usually the shortest phase, organelles and molecules needed for division are synthesized

MITOSIS- four phases (PMAT) 1. Prophase A. Chromosomes become visible & attach to spindle, a fanlike microtubule structure, at a point near the centromere of each chromatid B. Centrioles (remember, animal cells only!) separate and take positions on opposite sides of nucleus C. Also, nucleolus disappears & nuclear envelope breaks down

MITOSIS- four phases (PMAT) 2. Metaphase:

Chromosomes line up across the center of the cell & microtubules connect the centromere of each chromosome to the two poles of the spindle

MITOSIS- four phases (PMAT) 3. Anaphase

Centromeres split, splitting sister chromatids into individual chromosomes that move to separate poles of the spindle

MITOSIS- four phases (PMAT) 4. Telophase

Chromosomes begin to disperse (untighten), nuclear envelope re-forms around DNA clusters, and nucleolus becomes visible in each daughter nucleus

Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm

Usually occurs at the same time as telophase

In most animal cells- cell membrane is drawn

inward until the cytoplasm is pinched into two nearly equal parts In plants, a cell plate forms midway between the divided nuclei, gradually developing into a separating membrane. The cell wall then forms in the cell plate, completing the division of cytoplasm.

Defining terms Remember- humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 that came from the mother and 23 that came from the father. Chromosomes that have corresponding parts inherited from mother and father are called homologous chromosomes. A cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes are called diploid cells (di- two, ploid- set). Most body cells are diploid cells. The term diploid may be written as 2N. Gametes (sex cells) are haploid (one set) cells because gametes (egg and sperm) get together to form a diploid zygote that holds complete set of chromosomes. The term haploid may be written as N. Meiosis has 2 phases [Meiosis I (PMAT 1) & Meiosis II, PMAT 2)] & at the end of Meiosis II, the diploid cell that entered Meiosis I has divided into four haploid cells.

Why is it necessary? Individuals inherit half of their genetic information from their mother and half of their genetic information from their father. Without meiosis, individuals would receive a double dose of DNA!

Diploid (2n): 2 copies of each chromosome

Soeach of our cells has 46. We have 23 chromosome pairs, but 1 from each parent.

They are called Homologues

WHAT IF

Our sex cells (GAMETES) had 46 chromsomes too?

Reproduction: Sperm + Egg Baby 46 + 46= 92! Baby + Husband 92 + 92.YIKES!

We have a solution!
Gametes

are haploid cells Haploid= the normal chromosome number In our case, that is 23! 23 + 23= 46! (normal baby or zygote!)

Interphase I- each chromosome is replicated

1.

Prophase I

Chromosomes pair up, each replicated chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome
Tetrad

Crossing over occurs- the exchange of genetic information with non-sister chromatids

Crossing Over 1. Homologues exchange genetic info 2. Leads to genetic diversity!

(You dont look exactly like your brother/sister!)

1.

Metaphase I

Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

1.

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes move to separate poles of the spindle

1.

Telophase I and cytokinesis

Nuclear membranes form and cells separate into two cells that are haploid

Results in two cells, called daughter cells. Diploid: complete set of chromosomes

1. Prophase II There is NO chromosome replication before Meiosis II, therefore each of the 2 cells chromosomes has 2 chromatids 2. Metaphase II
Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

3. Anaphase II
Paired chromatids separate and individual chromosomes move to separate poles of the spindle

4. Telophase II and cytokinesis

Nuclear membranes form and the two cells separate into a total of four cells that are haploid

Mitosis Results in two genetically identical diploid cells Allows a body to grow & replace cells Crossing over does not occur

Meiosis Results in four genetically different haploid cells How sexually reproducing organisms produce gametes Crossing overs occurs during Prophase 1

Mitosis

Meiosis

Mistakes in Meiosis

Nondisjunction: failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during meiosis

Trisomy
Down Syndrome.

Monosomy
Ex. Turner Syndrome