Number XXX April 2013

Mangrove forests, ecosystems services and climate change

Overview Mangrove ecosystems are located primarily in tropical regions, including numerous British overseas territories. Ecosystem services work by attributing a monetary value to the services nature produces, in order to assess their importance Mangrove ecosystems have numerous benefits to both local communities and the environment around them. Rising sea levels and increased storm intensity, as a result of climate change, are likely to enhance the rate mangroves are currently decreasing at.

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Mangrove forests demonstrate key benefits wetland habitats have to the surrounding area. Current trends are showing a decrease in their global presence, which may have negative consequences for the populations that inhabit them and on the wider ecosystem. It is important to take mangroves into consideration when implementing policies around coastal planning, with particular reference to the migration of mangroves with sea level rise. Activities within the mangrove system also need to be managed to prevent degradation. [1] This postnote demonstrates their importance by looking at their ecosystem services, and outlines threats which may be produced to them as a result of climate change.

mangroves in the world, representing a continual decline. [2] Mangroves usually flood twice daily, and have a symbolic relationship with coral reefs (which are also declining). Their seeds travel in ocean currents and are resistant to salt conditions. [2] They are a unique species which have adapted to various climate conditions, which limit the growth of other species. [3]

Location and decline of Mangrove forests

Mangrove forests are primarily located at tropic latitudes of the Earth (table 1 and map 1), thriving in high energy environments. [2] Their distribution is mainly limited by sea temperature. 35% of the worlds Mangroves have been destroyed over the past 20 years, and the current rate is 2% a year. [3] At the start of the current millennium (2000), there were over 150,000 square kilometres of

Mangroves within the United Kingdom Mainland Britain does not experience a tropical climate and as a result mangroves are not present. They are, however, vital ecosystems in numerous overseas territories, including Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands, all located within the Caribbean. [4] The Cayman Islands have the largest contiguous mangrove wetland remaining in the Caribbean - The Central Mangrove Wetland. [5] Despite its importance to local people (outlined further on) up to 85% of the mangrove habitat in the islands has no environmental protection. [6] As little as 1,500 acres in the central mangrove wetland is protected, with the national Trust owning about 800 acres. [7] Recently a developer was granted the right to clear 378,000 square feet of mangrove buffer zone in 2010, two thirds of which was thought to be perfectly healthy and mature. [6]

produced can then help policy makers decide what policy to adopt, however as they only take into account processes we are aware of, the value could be much higher [10].

Mangrove services
Mangroves contribute to an ecologically diverse and economically valuable habitat. They have numerous benefits to the both the surrounding environment and local population. Environmental benefits Mangroves are considered to be an extremely valuable service of Earth. Situated at the border of the land and sea they store and provide important nutrients to both ecosystems, outlined below: Soil Nutrition - An investigation in Bhitarkanika National Park, India, estimated each ha of mangroves contained nutrients worth US$232.49 more than non-mangrove areas. [11] Biodiversity -The habitat they contribute to creating hosts a variety of organisms, forming an intense, complex, highly productive ecosystem. [3] They serve as nurseries for reef fish, protecting them from predators. [7] Soil Stability The root systems of mangroves have numerous benefits when they anchor themselves into underwater sediment, which aid stability. They decrease the speed of incoming tidal water, which allows both organic and inorganic material to settle and also carbon accumulation. [3] They are a

Ecosystem Services
A struggle policy makers have is valuing an ecosystem in monetary terms as many of their services are not visible in competitive markets. It is possible to attempt to work out a value for ecosystems (US$ per ha), based on the services that they provide, such as food production and coastal defence. [8] It works by converting absolute service values into a monetary equivalent, although this value can often be incorrect and is usually exaggerated.
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The media are beginning to recognise that this may be the process needed to urge people to act on climate change. [9] These values

natural defence against storm fronts, providing they have extensive buffers. [7] Increase rainfall - The prevailing winds in the Caribbean move from East to West, and evapotranspiration from the mangroves causes more rainfall on the Western fringe of the islands. [7] Waste management - waste can accumulate in Mangroves, but they can withstand more pollution than other ecosystems, and can also filtrate this out of sediments. [12] There is evidence to suggest they can extract nutrients from human waste. [4] Human benefits Their geographical location shows they are heavily concentrated in LEDC countries. As a result of this local populations rely heavily on them in various ways. Agriculture - By increasing soil nutrients it can be used agriculture purposes, allowing for people to make an income in developing countries. [11] Mangroves also contribute to the replenishment of the freshwater lens, improving agricultural land. [7] Fisheries - Their ability to home small scale fisheries is an important service for the poorer coastal communities living nearby, by providing a source of both food and income.
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conservation of it. There is a strong link between the services they provide and the livelihoods and security of local people. [15] The total value for mangrove areas is predicted at US$3.37 million. [11] Carbon One of the more recent ecosystem services that have been identified in mangroves is their value as global carbon stocks. A study in Micronesia of carbon stocks at the varying locations of mangroves noted their relatively high abundance of carbon-rich soils compared to other tropical forests. [16] Mangroves have the highest carbon sequestion levels per hectare of any ecosystem. [7] Therefore the deforestation of Mangroves could result in increased atmospheric emissions, and a reduction in deforestation could be key in addressing mitigation of climate change Trade offs Problems can be encountered with all these services as it isnt possible for them all to coincide. Some services are likely to be traded off against each other, for example the mangroves can be used as fuelwood, or alternatively encourage fish and shrimp production and biodiversity if they are not removed. [17]

Coastal defence - Mangroves are believed to have the potential to defend against high energy storms and tsunamis, reducing the tsunami wave flow pressure. [14] This defence helps to reduce loss of lives and damage caused by hazards. [15] Fuelwood - (firewood and charcoal) Bark - can be used to produce leather. [4] Local communities value the ecosystem and have positive attitudes towards the Box 1 LEDC = Less Economically Developed Country

Climate Change
Climate change is becoming increasingly accepted, although the rate and cause is widely disputed. [18] Climate change may lead to a loss of 10-15% of global mangroves forests, although current deforestation rates are larger than this at 1-2% a year. [14] Mangrove ecosystems are at a high risk of two effects of climate change - rising sea levels and increased storm intensity. Sea Level Rise Stratigraphic records of sea level rise suggest Mangrove systems can cope with an 8/9cm per 100 year sea level rise.[18] Most predictions estimate that the mean sea level of Earth will

have risen by 5-32cm by 2050 (compared to 1990 sea level) and 9-88cm by 2100. [19] A rate over 12cm per 100 year (which many scientists are predicting) would be likely to cause the ecosystem to collapse, meaning many islands mangrove habitats face an uncertain future. [18] Sea level rise is currently rising at a faster rate than mangroves can keep up with. [1] The magnitude of this effect that sea level-rise would have on Mangrove habitats varies with location, but would have the largest effect on mangrove systems experiencing net lowering in sediment elevation. [1] Sea level rise would affect sediment trapping, particularly in deltaic and high deposition areas, causing too much sedimentation and consequently the destruction of mangrove habitats. [19] Storms An increase in hurricane strength and occurrence has the potential to destroy the ecosystem in the Cayman Islands and elsewhere. Hurricane Ivan, in 2005 devastated up to 80% of the islands red mangroves, leaving coastlines more prone to erosion and degradation. [21] Many of these have been slow to recover due to development cutting them of from the flow of nutrients. [7] Storms can also cause a rapid build-up of sediment, which can be dangerous to Mangroves, studies in Honduras found when over 50cm of new sediment is deposited the mangroves are likely to die. [4] Deforestation could have added consequences, as the removal of mangroves leaves the coastline more vulnerable to erosion, as the natural barrier they produce would be gone. [3] Other impacts of climate change on mangrove systems include; flooding risks, increased coastal erosion, saline intrusions and an increase in intensity and occurrence of storm surges. [19]

The destruction of tropical forests, such as mangroves accounts for approximately 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions. The destruction of mangrove swamps releases carbon that was once stored into the atmosphere. [3] Benefits Some scientists suggest that climate change will have limited effect on mangroves and may even benefit them. Records in the Holocene shows that mangroves in general have successfully responded to environmental changes, however the exact species concentration has changed. [20] All plants have a clear optima temperature for photosynthesis; anything lower or higher has a negative effect on the species. This temperature can adapt to seasonal temperature changes in some plants, although there is limited study as to whether this happens in Mangroves. It is generally believed that temperature rise, on its own, wouldnt have a large effect on mangrove productivity. It would alter their geographical distribution, migrating further from the equator. The lack of land in areas such as the Indian Ocean and Southern Africa, would limit the spread of mangroves, but the Pacific and Atlantic bordered land may see an expansion. The expansion in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans would result in a decrease in other wetland habitats, particularly salt marshes however. [18] Rising CO2 levels could benefit mangrove ecosystems as plants use this to survive through photosynthesis. This increase in atmospheric CO2 may improve water-use efficiency. Elevated levels of CO2 are also thought to improve the efficiency of mangroves nitrogen usage, as it stimulates growth. However this positive impact of increased CO2 is reduced over time due to the alterations of plant morphology. Some plants have shown a negative correlation between atmospheric CO2 levels and density of plant stomata (part of the plant CO2 enters for photosynthesis). [18]

A final positive is that the strengthening of the monsoon climate, another effect of climate change, has seen a positive trend of mangrove emergence in areas with little human interference. [20] This could be attributed to their ability to colonize new sediment. [4]

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Conservation
The importance of Mangroves has been noted by numerous conservation services. For example, the Cayman Islands receives a grant from the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Migratory Bird Conservation to replant red mangroves lost in Hurricane Ivan. [21] The United Nations Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (Redd) is seen by many as an important way forward for negotiating the management of mangrove land. The programme offers funds and advice to teach tropical nations the best policies to implement to reduce the decline and better protect mangroves. It is believed that this method may contribute in reversing the decline of mangroves. [22]
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Uncertainty
Its hard to assess global climate changes impact on mangrove ecosystems, due to variations and uncertainties in predictions and models. But it would be safe to assume that mangrove systems will be altered by these changes in climate, although uncertainty lies in the exact way. The changes may benefit some areas of mangroves with expansion, or produce new areas at different latitudes, some may only need to make minor adaptions. Ultimately, however it seems likely many areas of mangroves will simply disappear. [14] The uncertainty in climate change and the predictions of how Mangroves will react hinders future decisions of policy makers. Word Count - 1995

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References
16. 1. Gilman, E.L., Ellison, J., Duke, N.C. and Field, C. (2008) Threats to mangroves from climate change

and adaptation options: A review, Aquatic Botany, 89(2): 237-250 BBC (n.d.) Mangrove seed survival, website accessed 29th April 2013 <http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/habitats/Mangrove# p0039dg9> Evans, K. (2012) Qatars mangroves: why they matter to climate change, Forests news, 8th December, accessed 29th April 2013, <http://blog.cifor.org/13101/qatars-mangroveswhy-they-matter-to-climatechange/#.UWchB7VwpBo> Spalding, M., Kainuma, M. and Collins L. (2010) World Atlas of Mangroves, Earthscan Limited, London. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) (n.d.) Environmental governance in the UK Overseas Territories, website accessed 29th April 2013, <http://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/OTs%20Environm ental%20Governance%20Summary%20Leaflet_tcm9 -342021.pdf> Cayman News Service (05/12/2010) Mangrove Buffer Ripped Up, Cayman News Service, 5th December, accessed 29th April 2013, <http://www.caymannewsservice.com/headlinenews/2010/05/12/mangrove-buffer-ripped> Bonthuys, E. (2012) The importance of mangroves, cayCompass.com, 21st November, accessed 29th April 2013, <http://www.compasscayman.com/caycompass/20 12/11/21/The-importance-of-mangroves/> Hinchcliffe, S., Blowers, A. and Freeland, J. (2003) Sustainable environmental futures: opportunities and constraints, in Blowers, A. and Hinchcliffe, S. eds. Environmental Responses, Wiley, Milton Keynes: 237-279. Juniper, T. (2012), We must put a rice on nature if we are going to save it The Guardian, 10th August, viewed on 9th December 2012, <http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/au g/10/nature-economic-value-campaign> Nemec, K. and Raudsepp-Hearne, C., (2013) The use of geographic information systems to map and assess ecosystem services, Biodiversity and Conservation, 22(1): 1-15. Hussain, S. and Badola, R. (2008) Valuing mangrove ecosystem services: linking nutrient retention of mangrove forests to enhanced agroecosystem production, Wetlands Ecology and Management, 16: 441-450 Huxman, M. (2010) Mangroves offer win-win opportunity, BBC News, 9th August, accessed 29th April 2013, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8893767.stm> Lebata, M.J.H., Walton, M.E., Binas, J.B., Primavera, J.H. and Vay, L.L. (2012) Identifying mangrove areas for fisheries enhancement; population assessment in a patchy habitat, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 22(5): 652-664. Alongi, D.M. (2008) Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change, Estaurine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 76(1): 1-13. Badola, R., Barthwal, S. and Hussain, S.A. (2012) Attitudes of local communities towards conservation of mangrove forests: A case study from the east coast of India, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 96(1): 188-196. Kauffman, J., Heider, C., Cole, T., Dwire, K. and Donato, D. (2011) Ecosystem Carbon Stocks of

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Micronesian Mangrove Forests, Wetlands, Journal of the Society of Wetland Scientists, 31(2): 343-352. McNally, C.G., Uchida, E. and Gold A.J. (2011)The effect of a protected area on the tradeoffs between short-run and long-run benefits from mangrove ecosystems, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(34): 13945-13950. Hogarth, P. (2007) The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses, Oxford University Press, Oxford, viewed 29th April 2013, < http://0www.oxfordscholarship.com.lib.exeter.ac.uk/view/1 0.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568704.001.0001/acpro f-9780198568704-chapter-11> Field, C.D. (1995) Impact of expected climate change on mangroves, Developments in Hydrobiology, 106: 75-81. Limaye, R.B. and Kumaran, K.P.N. (2012) Mangrove vegetation responses to Holocene climate change along Konkan coast of south-western India, Quaternary International, 263(6): 114-128. Reef Ball Mangrove Solutions Division (n.d.) Mangrove Restoration on Grand Cayman Island, website accessed 29th April 2013 <http://www.mangrovesolutions.com/Projectsumm ary.php> Huxman, M. (2010) Mangroves offer win-win opportunity, BBC News, 9th August, accessed 29th April 2013, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8893767.stm> Table 1 and Map 1: Spalding, M., Kainuma, M. and Collins L. (2010) World Atlas of Mangroves, Earthscan Limited, London. Picture: Laman, T. (n.d.) Underwater View, National Geographic, viewed 29th April 2013, <http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/man groves/laman-photography>