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SMK COCHRANE, 55100 KUALA LUMPUR

PROJECT REPORT (962/4) STPM 2013

TITLE: NITRATE & NITRITE IN MEAT PRODUCTS

NAMES

LEE REN TING LEE WEOI JYE CHEAM ZI YANG

FORM SUBJECT SUPERVISOR

: : :

PPU_US1 / 2013 CHEMISTRY PAPER 4 MADAM KHOO POO KIEW

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DEDICATION
I wish to express my sincere appreciation to principal of SMK Cochrane, Madam Hajjah Nazifah Binti Abdul Latif, my supervisor Madam Khoo Poo Kiew for their keen and endless guidance, encouragement, critics and inspiration until the success and completion of this work.

Special thanks to Madam Maznah Binti Shaffi (Head of Laboratory) for preparing required apparatus and materials to ensure the chemistry investigation is conducted smoothly. Besides, I would like to thanks to the PIBG for sponsoring the budget into Chemistry fund which allow students to conduct the experiments in a proper environment with proper apparatus and materials.

I wish to express here, my sincere appreciation and thanks to all lecturers, teachers and staffs from chemistry department, and my fellow friends that had directly and indirectly helped me throughout this research project was carried out.

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ABSTRACT Nitrate ( ) and nitrite ( ) is well known as an additive to preserved processed meat.

However, it may bring some side effect such as colon cancer, pregnancy loss etc. if consume excessively. In this experiments, brown ring test and GL testing method ISO 2918-1975 (E) is use to analyse presence of nitrate ( ) and nitrite ( ) in processed meat Different intensity of

brown ring formed indicates concentration of nitrates in chicken meatloaf samples. The higher the intensity of colour formed, the higher the concentration of nitrate. For the level of nitrites, it is identified via comparison between mixture condition in volumetric flask (cloudy or clear) and weight of residue in . The greater the residue weight and forming a clearer solution with no scum, indicate high level of nitrite. This technique was shown to be an effective way to determine the processed meat content and level of nitrate and nitrite.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER DEDICATION ABSTRACT

TITLE

PAGE i ii ii 1 1 23 4 4 4 5 5 67 8 9 9 11 12 14 15 16 17

TABLE OF CONTENT 1 INTRODUCTION TO TITLE 1.1 BACKGROUND 1.2 LITERATURE STUDY 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1.5 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH 2 METHODOLOGY 2.1 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS 2.2 PROCEDURE 2.3 DATA COLLECTION 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1 OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS 3.2 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSIONS 4 CONCLUSION REFERENCES APPENDIXES

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO TITLE


1.1 BACKGROUND Nitrite ( ) salt is commonly used in curing of meat is a derivative of nitrate ( )

salt. Usually, they combined this ion with sodium or potassium ion to form (eg: sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, potassium nitrate or potassium nitrite). Although its use has been widely associated with certain types of cancer in laboratory animals, it is still continually being used in the food industry since 1976. Nitrite is deemed essential in cured meats because of its multiple functions. It prevents botulism, gives cured meat its special flavour and appearance, retards oxidation which otherwise causes an undesirable flavour. It is claimed that nitrite is the only substance that serves all these functions and no substitute has been found to replace it by American meat Institute, 1978.

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1.2

LITERATURE STUDY For commercial purposes, salt mixtures were found to be more effective in curing

processes if they contained saltpetre (potassium nitrate). During preparation, nitrate is reduced to nitrite which is the major active ingredient in these salt mixtures by bacteria under anaerobic conditions, using the molybdopterin-containing nitrate reductive. Dietary nitrate may be reduced to nitrite by bacteria present in the mouth and sometimes in the stomach. When added to foods such as cured meats, firstly, nitrite will contributes to the flavour; this may be due to the inhibition of development of rancid off-flavours. Secondly, it reacts with myoglobin to give mononitrosylhaemo-chrome, which gives the characteristic pink colour of cured meat. Thirdly, it inhibits the growth of food spoilage bacteria, and most importantly, Clostridium botulinum. C. botulinum thrives under anaerobic conditions and produces a neurotoxin which is one of the most lethal natural products known. Nitrite, together with cooking and the addition of salt, is a protection against food poisoning by this microorganism. The increasing incidence of various forms of cancer in the world at large, there has been concern about a possible link between nitrite and cancer. There is no conclusive evidence that nitrite is directly carcinogenic, but in high doses it has been implicated as a cocarcinogen. Among these chemical carcinogens are N-nitrosamines and their precursors, nitrite and nitrate. Various levels of carcinogenic volatile N-nitrosamines, nitrites, and nitrate are present in a wide variety of foods such as cured meat. Excessive intake of nitrate and nitrite salts may bring harmful effects to consumers health. Hemoglobin in blood carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and helps carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs. Hemoglobin in blood contains iron normally found in the Fe2+ (ferrous) state. But excessive nitrates or nitrites can alter the iron in hemoglobin to the Fe3+ (ferric) state. This forms methemoglobin, an abnormal form of hemoglobin. As methemoglobin forms, the blood loses its ability to carry oxygen to tissues (anoxia).
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Methemoglobinemia is actually an excess of methemoglobin in the blood, it can cause cyanosis (blue skin) of limbs/trunk, weakness, and rapid heart rate. This will lead the central nervous system depression occur and results in headache, dizziness, fatigue, difficulty in breathing and nausea. Nitrate and nitrite intakes may cause hypotension (low blood pressure). But ingestion of nitrates and nitrites in food and water does not commonly result in hypotension. Maternal exposure to environmental nitrates and nitrites may increase the risk of pregnancy complications such as anemia, abortion, premature labor or preeclampsia. Methemoglobinemia can also occur from other causes. Exposure to oxidizing drugs or chemicals, systemic acidosis, diarrhea, or some genetic disorders such as premature of infants can all result in methemoglobinemia. Nitrates and nitrites can preserve meat well but the risk we human take is considered serious. The meat manufacturers which is lack of responsibly may not regulate the compound well will causes health troubles to the consumers after intake their meat products. Sometimes, the consumer did not know the meat whether is secured or they are innocent in the preservations of meat products by just consume whatever there is well-packed in the fresh market or supermarket by the distributor.

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1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT Nitrate and nitrites are meat curing ingredient presence in all processed meat. If excessive usage of curing agent in chicken meat loaf may causes chronic diseases and can be lead into dead. The goal of the experiment is to identify the sample of chicken meat loaf which contains highest concentration of nitrate and nitrite in it.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS *** All the questions proposed will be answered in this report. 1) What are nitrates and nitrites? 2) What are functions of nitrates and nitrites in a meat product? 3) What is the law regarding the use of nitrites/nitrates? 4) What is the law regarding the labeling of nitrites/nitrates? 5) What must I consider if I want to remove nitrites/nitrates from my meat products? 6) Will my product be safe if nitrites/nitrates are removed? 7) How can people detect the meat products that contain illegal amount of nitrites? 8) How should people prepare a healthy meal using meat products?

1.5 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH GENERAL OBJECTIVE 1) To apply the basic chemical principles and techniques during investigation. 2) To inculcate awareness for healthy living. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES 1) To determine the presence of nitrates and nitrites in various types of processed meat. 2) To understand the purpose of nitrates and nitrites in meat. 3) To understand the laws and regulations in the usage of preservatives and additives.
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CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY

2.1 APPARATUS AND MATERIALS Various food samples were purchased from local markets and supermarkets. Its a chicken meat loaf from following brand: Ramly , Ayamas, Ayam Dindings and Gourmessa.

The lists of apparatus used in these investigations are: 1) Beakers 2) Graduated Cylinders 3) Test Tubes 4) Filter Funnels 5) Dropper Pipets 6) Bunsen Burners 7) Electronic Weight Balance 8) Volumetric Flasks 9) Thermometer 10) Scapula 11) Stirring Rods 12) Utility Clamp 13) Wire Gauze 14) Asbestos Board 15) Stopwatch 16) Washing Bottles

The lists of Materials used in these investigations are: 1) Iron (II) Sulphate Crystal 2) Sulphuric Acid 3) Sodium Tetraborate Powder 4) Powder Activated Carbon
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5) Potassium Ferrocyanide (II) Crystal 6) Zinc Acetate 7) Glacial Acetic Acid

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2.2

PROCEDURE

Before performing any investigation, all the apparatus is cleaned and dried it up. Meat sample is homogenised and kept in the freezer. Solution is prepared before the experiments started. Solution: 1. Iron (II) Sulphate Crystal is dissolved in distilled water to produce Iron (II) Sulphate solution which is green in colour. It is to ensure a fresh Iron (II) Sulphate solution is used during brown ring test for nitrate.

Here the others required solutions in GL testing method ISO 2918-1975 (E) for nitrite. 2. Borax solution is prepared by dissolving distilled water. 3. Carrez I solution is prepared by dissolving distilled water. 4. Carrez II solution is prepared by dissolving followed by zinc acetate in . of distilled water of potassium ferrocyanide (II) in of of sodium tetraborate powder in of

of glacial acetic acid and dilute it to

After the solution had been prepared, experiments are started.

Test for nitrate is performed in brown ring test. Iron (II) Sulfate solution is added to meat samples a test tube with

of

of distilled water, then slowly adding 10 drops of

concentrated sulfuric acid such that the sulfuric acid forms a brown precipitated around the meat. This indicating the presence of the nitrate ion in meat samples.

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Note that the presence of nitrite ions will interfere with this test. The overall reaction is the reduction of the nitrate ion by Iron (II) ion which is oxidized to iron (III) ion and formation of a Nitrosyl complex.

) (

After nitrate test is done, experiments are proceeding to nitrite test by using GL testing method ISO 2918-1975 (E). The test is begin when the substances needed is arranged in an order manner. Firstly, of 4 types comminuted meat samples is weighted and distributed into 4 . Thirdly, 8

test tubes labelled A, B, C and D respectively. Secondly, water is heat up to units of 4 units of units of graduated cylinders is used to measured out 8 sets of beaker is used to weight out 4 sets of

borax solution. Fourthly,

powder activated carbon. Fifthly, 4 Carrez I and II Solution beaker is filled with

graduated cylinders is used to measure out 4 sets of in one graduated cylinder. Lastly, 4 units of

and made up of

of hot water and left to boil. The experiments started with sample A of hot water measured using beaker and pour in homogenised meat and added in of borax solution followed by volumetric flask and dip inside a

of powder activated carbon. Then, it is transferred to a boiling water bath for 15 minutes.

The mixture is allowed to cool and leave it for 2 days, its then transferred to a beaker and added in followed by of Carrez I and II solution respectively, swirl after addition, lastly, volumetric flask to made up of

of borax solution and transferred to a volumetric flask.

mixture using 2 units of

After completed, the level with water is mark up and left it for 14 days. Measuring job is take place within 1 week. The mixture is then filter using filter paper and filter funnel. The residue is weighted and the volume of filtrate is recorded. Deductions made to confirming the presence of nitrite.
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2.3 DATA COLLECTION A lot of reference works such online and offline had been done during research to obtain information regarding the topic and methodology. The needed information is picked and saved into e-book (.pdf) format for further references. Books are reviewed at Google Book Store and scientific reports and books are viewed to obtain the results for comparison purpose. The references are recorded in the reference list. During experiment, al the test is recorded and enables to perform analysis to the results. It is a important steps involved later in the outcomes and discussion. All the experiments are recorded in table form as shown as below.

Nitrate test Samples A B C D Observations Deduction

Nitrite test Samples A B C D Weight of residue (g) Observations Deductions

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CHAPTER 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

After several tests, the results are recorded and tabulated as below.

Nitrate test [ 18/02/2013 ] Samples A B C D Observations Some dark brown precipitation + cloudy solution Most dark brown precipitation + clear solution Moderate dark brown precipitation + clear solution Least dark brown precipitation + cloudy solution Deduction Nitrate present in ALL 4 samples. Concentration of nitrate in the meat is arranged in ascending order D<A<C<B

Nitrate test [ 15/07/2013] Samples A B C D Observations Some dark brown precipitation + cloudy solution Most dark brown precipitation + clear solution Moderate dark brown precipitation + clear solution Least dark brown precipitation + cloudy solution Deduction Nitrate present in ALL 4 samples. Concentration of nitrate in the meat is arranged in ascending order D<A<C<B

The cloudy solution indicated the level of cleanness of meat is at minimum level. Sample A and D having a low level of cleanness compared to sample B and C.

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Nitrite test [ 18/03/2013 ]

Samples

Weight of residue (g)

Observations

Deductions

9.54

14.27

Medium area white creamy White creamy scum is the scum forms on top of the indication of process where cloudy greenish mixture spoilage of meat occurs. Sample D found out to be spoilt in a fastest rate followed by C, A while sample B do not form scum but results in milky Milky solution solution. Besides, weight of residue is decreasing from B, C, A and D. The decrease in weight of due to the Small area white creamy scum residue forms on top of the chalky decomposition of meat takes place. mixture The conclusion that can be made is concentration of nitrite Large area of white creamy in the meat is arranged in scum forms on top of the descending order B>C>A>D cloudy greenish mixture

11.98

6.43

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Nitrite test [ 29/07/2013 ]

Samples

Weight of residue (g)

Observations

Deductions

7.63

12.75

Small area white creamy scum White creamy scum and forms on top of the milky growing of white spores is the indication of process where mixture spoilage of meat occurs. Sample D found out to be spoilt in a faster rate than A. While sample C showing white spores growth and Clear mixture sample D has remained as clear mixture. Besides, weight of residue is decreasing from B, C, A and Clear mixture with white D. The decrease in weight of due to the spores growing on top of the residue decomposition of meat takes sediments layer place. The conclusion that can be made is concentration of Large area of white creamy nitrite in the meat is arranged scum forms on top of the in descending order cloudy greenish mixture B>C>A>D

10.38

5.92

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3.2 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSIONS Form nitrate test, it is identify the concentration of nitrate via observation and comparison between the samples. Samples are labelled and perform brown ring test. The higher the colour intensity of brown precipitate forms in on the meat samples indicated higher concentration of nitrate in the sample. The results is tabulated and found out that, concentration of nitrate in the meat is arranged in ascending order D < A < C < B.

For nitrite test, same technique is applied to identify concentration of nitrite in meat samples. The nitrite is a conversion of nitrate under high temperature. The samples are collected and conducted follow the procedures and left it for 2 weeks. There are different of residue weight and observations in the volumetric flask. The lower the mass of residue indicated the higher the growth of bacteria for the rate of decomposition. Besides, the condition of the mixture shows the different in level of nitrite by comparison. Scum forms on top of the mixture or spores growth on top of the sediments indicated spoilage of meat occur, the meat which spoilt at a faster rate will results dirty and cloudy solutions vice versa. The results is tabulated and found out that, concentration of nitrite in the meat is arranged in descending order B > C > A > D.

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Answer to the research questions: 1) What are nitrates and nitrites? Nitrates and nitrites are food preservatives.

2) What are functions of nitrates and nitrites in a meat product? Its used to control the growth of spores, provide cured meat flavour and colour and extend the shelf life of meat products.

3) What is the law regarding the use of nitrites/nitrates? In Malaysia, According to the Sale of Food and Drugs Ordinance and Regulations Malaysia, 1952, the permissible level of nitrite for cooked meat and raw meat are 200 and 500 ppm, respectively. Levels of residual nitrite in meat products were in the range of 14 54 ppm, processed pickled fruits and vegetables 7 81 ppm and salted dried fish 11 38 ppm. Results indicate the level of residual nitrite in most foods is below the permissible level of 200 ppm. Any other use in the food industry would be minimal since its functions are specific.

4) What is the law regarding the labelling of nitrites/nitrates? In Malaysia, Law of Malaysia under the Act 281 Food Act 1983 : Labelling not complying with standard of food, state that where a standard has been prescribed for any food, any person who prepares, packages, labels or advertises any food which does not comply with that standard, in such a manner that is likely to be mistaken for food of the prescribed standard, commits an offence and is liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or to fine or to both.

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5) What must I consider if I want to remove nitrites/nitrates from my meat products? For that firstly, consumers have a responsibility to ensure that the reformulated meat product is safe during its whole shelf life under reasonable conditions of consumer misuse. Consumers must also ensure that the new product is in compliance with the laws governing additive usage and the laws governing food labelling. Overall, the product label must not mislead the consumer to the extent that they buy meat products. Finally consumers must be provided all necessary evidence demanded by the competent authorities who are charged with ensuring compliance with the food law.

6) Will my product be safe if nitrites/nitrates are removed? Safety cannot be taken for granted unless a full validation of the new preservation system in the food is carried out. Nitrate has been traditionally used to prevent meat products from causing botulism. The removal of nitrite can be likened to the removal of a hurdle to the growth of Cl. botulinum. To maintain the safety of the food, another similar hurdle must be used to replace nitrite or otherwise the height of the remaining hurdles has to be increased to prevent Cl. botulinum from growing.

7) How can people detect the meat products that contain illegal amount of nitrites? By observations, consumers have to behave wisely by purchasing few samples and start rating on the samples based on colour of the meat, flavour of the meat and the period of meat that can be served before expiry.

8) How should people prepare a healthy meal using meat products? Always purchase fresh meat with no adding in large amount of preservatives, go for frozen meats stall instead of market packed meat. Its still the best if you can spend some times obtain the protein sources from daily fresh wet market.
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CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION

The Chemistry research had been carrying out approximately within 10 months period. The topic of nitrate and nitrite presence in meat product is finally come into the final section. Samples of meat we took for this investigation are chicken meat loaf. The results stated that the level of nitrate and nitrite is present proportionally in the nitrate and nitrite test that had been conducted as experiments twice. The results are, concentration of nitrate and nitrite in the meat loaf arranged in ascending order of samples are D < A < C < B. The brand of chicken meatloaf products as following Gourmessa < Ramly < Ayam Dindings < Ayamas. This research is important to identify harmful meat products which had link to health risk when consuming meat products contain high nitrate / nitrite levels that cannot be ruled out. When meat containing nitrites is heated (particularly at high temperatures), the result is nitrosamines, compounds that have been linked with health issues such as gastric cancer, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Additionally, the Archives of Internal Medicine published the results of a study that assessed the connection between types of meat consumption with mortality rate. Although the study leaves open many other avenues for explanation, the research offers one more suggestion against regular intake of conventional processed meat. Although, current knowledge and evidence indicated there are strong beneficial effects of consumption of proteins. In order to maximise the health benefits from eating proteins, measures have to be taken to reduce the nitrate and nitrite exposure while maintaining their commended intake of meat products of the public.

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REFERENCES 1. Nicholas J. Russell and Grahame W. Gould (Jul 2003). Food Preservatives, Second Edition. London

2. Robert Gibson Eccles. Food preservatives: their advantages and proper use; the practical versus the theoretical side of the pure food problem. London

3. M.J. Hill (Jan 1991). Nitrates and Nitrites in Food and Water. Great Britain

4. Roger Wood, Lucy Foster, Andrew Damant, Pauline Key (2004). Analytical methods for food additives. England. 5. Dr. Lo Man-Fung, Samuel (May 2008). Analysis of nitrate / nitrite and propionic acid in food. Hong Kong. 6. David H.Watson (2001). Food Chemical Safety, Volume 1: Contaminants. England. 7. Nutrition and healthy eating http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sodium-nitrate/AN02119

8. HE 5 WORST THINGS ADDED TO YOURFOOD http://www.lookcut.com/tools/food-additives/

9. Food additive http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive/

10. Curing (food preservation) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curing_%28food_preservation%29

11. The Danger of Nitrate in Meat Preservatives http://www.livestrong.com/article/477916-the-danger-of-nitrate-in-meat-preservatives/

12. What is sodium nitrate in processed meats, and is it harmful? recipes.howstuffworks.com/question233.htm

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13. What is the difference between Sodium Nitrite and Sodium Nitrate? www.edinformatics.com/interactive_molecules/nitrite_and_nitrate_molecules.htm

14. The Harmful Effect of Sodium Nitrite in Food www.livestrong.com/article/416466-the-harmful-effect-of-sodium-nitrite-in-food/

15. Chemical Reactions of Sodium Nitrite www.ehow.com/list_7389051_chemical-reactions-sodium-nitrite.html

16. FOOD SAFETY: SAFETY OF SODIUM NITRITE IN CURED MEATS medinforms.com/2-1-fitnessandnutrition/study50.php

17. Role of Nitrites and/orNitrates in Meat Color www.theingredientstore.com/foodpreservation/nitratesnitrates.htm

18. About Nitrites And Nitrates Cured Meats www.amazingribs.com/tips_and_technique/nitrites_and_nitrates.html

19. CURED MEAT CUTS www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai407e/AI407E14.htm

20. Sodium Nitrite & Cancer www.livestrong.com/article/433933-sodium-nitrite-cancer/

21. Nitrate test en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate_test 22. Law of Malaysia, Act 281 Food Act 1983 http://www.agc.gov.my/Akta/Vol.%206/Act%20281.pdf

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A P P E N D I X

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Results 1. Nitrate test 1 [ 18/02/2013 ]

From Left to Right, sample A, B, C, D

2. Nitrate test 2 [ 15/07/2013]

From Left to Right, sample A, B, C, D

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3. Nitrite test 1 [ 18/03/2013 ]

From Left to Right, sample D, B, C, A

4. Nitrite test 2 [ 29/07/2013 ]

From Left to Right, sample A, B, C, D

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Preparation 1. Meat Samples

Meat samples are kept in the freezer before experiments conducted. Each sample is labeled with their symbol.

2. Preparation of solutions

Prepared solution

Materials Needed

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Experiments 1. Nitrate Test

Meat sample in placed in test tube about 1cm height

Add in Iron (II) Sulphate solution to cover the meat

Added about 10 drops of 4M sulphuric acid slowly at the side of the test tube

Brown precipitation formed

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2. Nitrite test

The sample is homogenised

10g of comminuted sample is weighted

Adding in 100 ml hot water and 5 ml borax solution

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Adding in 0.5g powder activated carbon and heat on a boiling water bath for 15 minutes

Add in 2 ml of Carrez Solution I and II respectively into the flask after cool down. Then, prepare for adding in 5 ml borax solution.

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200 ml solution transferring is done using 2 units of 100 ml volumetric flask to 250 ml volumetric flask

The condition of mixture is recorded before filtering, weight of residue is recorded.

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Research Reports 1. Rashmi Sinha, PhD; Amanda J. Cross, PhD; Barry I. Graubard, PhD; Michael F. Leitzmann, MD, DrPH; Arthur Schatzkin, MD, DrPH. Meat Intake and MortalityA Prospective Study of Over Half a Million People. Arch Intern Med. 2009. High intakes of red or processed meat may increase the risk of mortality. Our objective was to determine the relations of red, white, and processed meat intakes to risk for total and cause-specific mortality.

2. Miranda Hitti. Study: Cured Meats, COPD May Be Linked. WebMD Health News 2007.

April 17, 2007 -- A new study suggests a possible link between chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) and cured meats such as bacon, sausage, and luncheon meats. The study shows that people who frequently eat cured meats may be more likely to develop COPD than people who rarely or never eat such meats. COPD includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. In COPD, changes occur in the lungs that make it progressively difficult to breathe over time.

3. Am J Epidemiol. Pancreatic cancer and drinking water and dietary sources of nitrate and nitrite. Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA, 2004. N-Nitroso compounds, known animal carcinogens, are formed endogenously from drinking water and dietary sources of nitrate and nitrite. The authors conducted a population-based case-control study of pancreatic cancer in Iowa to determine whether increased consumption of nitrate and nitrite from drinking water and dietary sources was associated with risk. They linked detailed water source histories to nitrate measurements for Iowa community water supplies. Dietary nitrate intake showed an inverse association

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with risk among women and no association among men. This study suggests that longterm exposure to drinking water nitrate at levels below the maximum contaminant level of nitrate nitrogen (10 mg/liter) is not associated with pancreatic cancer; however, the consumption of dietary nitrite from animal products may increase risk.

4. Knekt P, Jrvinen R, Dich J, Hakulinen T. Risk of colorectal and other gastro-intestinal cancers after exposure to nitrate, nitrite and N-nitroso compounds: a follow-up study. National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland, 1999. N-nitroso compounds are potent carcinogens detected in foodstuffs. The importance of dietary nitrosamines in relation to human cancer development is, however, uncertain. We studied the relationship between intake of nitrates, nitrites and N-

nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and risk of cancers of the gastro-intestinal tract in a adult Finnish men and women. No significant associations were observed between NDMA intake and cancers of the head and neck combined or of the stomach or between nitrate or nitrite intake and risk of cancers of the gastro-intestinal tract. Our results are in line with the idea that N-nitroso compounds can induce colorectal cancer in humans.

5. Tsugane S, Sasazuki S. Diet and the risk of gastric cancer: review of epidemiological evidence. Epidemiology and Prevention Division, Research Center for Cancer Prevention and Screening, National Cancer Center, 5-1-1 Tsukiji, Tokyo, Japan, 2007. There are geographic and ethnic differences in the incidence of gastric cancer around the world as well as with its trends for each population over time. The incidence patterns observed among immigrants change according to where they live. All of these factors serve to indicate the close association of gastric cancer with modifiable factors such as diet.

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