Water Quality Cameron Highlands

- Study on river water quality of the Upper Bertam catchment - System Analysis -
Study on river water quality of

the Upper Bertam catchment
- System Analysis -
‘The ecologist cannot remain a voice crying in the wilderness

– if he is to be heard and understood’
M.W. Holdgate (from Cry of the Kalahari)
Authors
Antony van der Ent & Chantal Termeer
Brinchang 2005 – Deventer 2006
R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

Institute of Spatial Planning and Environmental Science 1
Saxion University IJselland
Cover: The best and the worst example of water quality of the Upper Bertam
catchment; picture above: perfectly clean water at the tributaries like here near
Brinchang, picture below: waste water poured in at sg. Bertam near Brinchang.
Photography: Antony van der Ent, Chantal Termeer and Amran Nazar Khan unless
otherwise noted
In order of: R.E.A.C.H.
Status: Study on river water quality of the Upper Bertam catchment
- system analysis -
Contact: For more information about the content of this report or this study, contact
Anthony van der Ent: Reigerstraat 5, 4005 GV Tiel, The Netherlands.
tonvanderent@hotmail.com
Copyright: Nothing of the contents of this report, with the exception of title inscriptions or
small quotations for book reviews or lecture material, may be reproduced, new
recorded or multiplied by print, picture or any electronically way without
permission on paper of one of the authors of this report. For questions
concerning this matter please refer to contact person.
Date: January 2006 ©
Authors: Antony van der Ent & Chantal Termeer

Table of contents
Executive summary ___________________________________________________7

1. Introduction ______________________________________________________13
1.1 Situation ____________________________________________________________ 13
1.2 Problem description __________________________________________________ 15
1.3 Inquiry ______________________________________________________________ 15
1.3.1 Problem _________________________________________________________ 15
1.3.2 Research purpose _________________________________________________ 16
1.4 Reading guide _______________________________________________________ 17
2. Area appraisal ____________________________________________________18
2.1 Introduction _________________________________________________________ 18
2.1.1 Water on world scale _______________________________________________ 18
2.1.2 Water in Malaysia __________________________________________________ 18
2.2 Methodology & Strategy _______________________________________________ 20
2.2.1 Literature research _________________________________________________ 20
2.2.2 Fieldwork ________________________________________________________ 20
2.3 Results _____________________________________________________________ 20
2.3.1 Geography _________________________________________________________ 20
2.3.1.1 Elevation and Land use ____________________________________________ 20
2.3.1.2 Morphology _____________________________________________________ 21
2.3.2 Brief History ______________________________________________________ 24
2.3.3 Abiotic Environment ________________________________________________ 24
2.3.3.1 Geology & Soils __________________________________________________ 24
2.3.3.2 Climate_________________________________________________________ 25
2.3.3.3 Water resources _________________________________________________ 26
2.3.4 Land use_________________________________________________________ 27
2.3.4.1 Urban area______________________________________________________ 29
2.3.4.2 Forested land____________________________________________________ 30
2.3.4.3 Agriculture utilization ______________________________________________ 31
2.3.4 Natural Environment________________________________________________ 32
2.3.5 Tourism__________________________________________________________ 35
2.4 Interpretation ________________________________________________________ 37
2.4.1 Rivers ___________________________________________________________ 37
2.4.2 Pollution of rivers __________________________________________________ 37
2.4.3 Illegal tapping and too high slope degree________________________________ 37
2.4.4 Cameron Highland rivers ____________________________________________ 38
2.4.5 Water in the highlands ______________________________________________ 38
2.4.6 Reasons of water pollution in the Cameron Highlands______________________ 38
2.4.7 SWOT Analysis ___________________________________________________ 39

3. Chemical appraisal ________________________________________________41

3.1 Introduction _________________________________________________________ 41
3.2 Background of pollution _______________________________________________ 41
3.2.1 Point source and non-point sources of pollution___________________________ 42
3.2.2 Pollutants entering the river system through groundwater ___________________ 43
3.3 Pollutants ___________________________________________________________ 44
3.3.1 Pesticides ________________________________________________________ 44
3.3.2 (Heavy) metals ____________________________________________________ 45
3.3.3 General analysis and nutrients ________________________________________ 46
3.3.4 Micro-biological contamination ________________________________________ 49
3.3.5 Suspended solids __________________________________________________ 50
3.4 Methodology_________________________________________________________ 51
3.4.1 Introduction_______________________________________________________ 51
3.4.2 Parameter selection ________________________________________________ 51
3.5 Strategy_____________________________________________________________ 53
3.5.1 Sample locations __________________________________________________ 53
3.5.2 Sampling method __________________________________________________ 54
3.5.3 Sampling moment__________________________________________________ 55
3.5.4 Chemical analysis__________________________________________________ 56
3.6 Results _____________________________________________________________ 57
3.6.1 pH, EC and TDS___________________________________________________ 57
3.6.2 Pesticides ________________________________________________________ 59
3.6.3 (Heavy) metals ____________________________________________________ 60
3.6.4 Nutrients _________________________________________________________ 61
3.6.5 Micro-biological____________________________________________________ 62
3.6.6 Suspended Solids__________________________________________________ 62
3.6.7 Individual water quality of sampling points & tributaries _____________________ 63
3.7 Interpretation ________________________________________________________ 68
4. Ecological appraisal________________________________________________71
4.1 Introduction _________________________________________________________ 71
4.2 Macro invertebrate assessments: basic principles _________________________ 76
4.4 Methodology and strategy _____________________________________________ 84
4.4 Methodology and strategy _____________________________________________ 85
4.4.1 Sample stations ___________________________________________________ 85
4.4.2 Sampling moment__________________________________________________ 86
4.4.3 Sampling Method __________________________________________________ 87
4.4.4 Data enumeration __________________________________________________ 89
4.5 Results _____________________________________________________________ 92
4.5.1 Overall water quality Upper-Bertam catchment ___________________________ 92
4.5.2 Sampling stations of the main Bertam river in detail _______________________ 94
4.5.3 Sampling stations of the tributaries of the Bertam river in detail ______________ 99
4.5.4 The reference sampling station ______________________________________ 106

4.6 Interpretation _______________________________________________________ 108

4.6.1 Introduction______________________________________________________ 108
4.6.2 Habitat factor ____________________________________________________ 108
4.6.3 Index values of indicator families _____________________________________ 108
4.6.5 Water quality & biological condition graphically exhibited __________________ 110
4.6.6 Short summary of the findings of the aquatic macro invertebrate assessment __ 114
5. Legislation & policies______________________________________________116
5.1 International conventions _____________________________________________ 116
5.2 Local laws and legislation_____________________________________________ 118
6. Discussion_______________________________________________________119
6.1 Area appraisal ______________________________________________________ 119
6.2 Chemical appraisal __________________________________________________ 119
6.3 Ecological appraisal _________________________________________________ 120
6.4 Simplified error and accuracy assessment chemical parameters ____________ 120
7. Conclusions _____________________________________________________123
7.1 Area appraisal ______________________________________________________ 123
7.4 Legislation & policies ________________________________________________ 126
8. Recommendations ________________________________________________128
8.2 Area appraisal ______________________________________________________ 129
8.5 Legislation & policies ________________________________________________ 131
Glossary __________________________________________________________134
Consulted sources __________________________________________________135
Literature & Reports: _____________________________________________________ 135
Internet sources: ________________________________________________________ 137
Interviews & oral comment: ________________________________________________ 137

Appendix 1: _______________________________________________________138
Appendix 2: satellite map of Upper-Bertam catchment _____________________139
Appendix 3: Map sampling locations ___________________________________140
Appendix 4: Result chemical analysis___________________________________142
Appendix 5: Field records of chemical and Ecological sampling ____________147
Appendix 6: Occurring amphibians in the Cameron Highlands______________148
Appendix 7: fact sheet BMWP of the sampling stations ____________________149
Appendix 8: BMWP Scoring Index System ______________________________150
Appendix 9: Water quality classification with biological indices _____________151
Appendix 10: Vegetation zones on the Mountain Range of Malaysia27 ________152
Appendix 11: Facts: DDT in sg. Burong 09/04/05 _________________________153
Appendix 12: Facts: Rehabilitation project Ringlet Reservoir: facts26 _________154

Executive summary
In collaboration with R.E.A.C.H., the authors of this report; Antony van der Ent and Chantal
Termeer conducted a research project on the chemical and ecological water quality of the
rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment. This research project was their final training and end-
thesis of 2nd February 2005 - 1st July 2005 in which also an Adopt-a-river project was setup as
well as some side studies. After an initial phase of fieldwork and literature research a chemical
assessment and an aquatic macro-invertebrate assessment was carried-out. Later on in
February 2006 the researchers of this project, Antony van der Ent and Chantal Termeer
graduated on this project after defending their works for the review-committee of Saxion
University of Applied Science. This report consists in cohesion with the research project out of
three parts; an Area appraisal, a Chemical appraisal and an Ecological appraisal.
Area appraisal
Almost 90% of the water supply of Peninsular Malaysia is derived from the highlands; with the
Cameron Highlands being one of the major highland areas in Peninsular Malaysia it plays a
vital role in this function. The area of Cameron Highlands is drained by eight rivers with Sg.
Bertam, Sg. Telom, and Sg. Lemoi being the major ones and 123 tributaries. Forest cover is
essential in the function of the Upper-Bertam catchment as an important water catchment,
however despite that the Upper Bertam catchment is for 30% covered by agriculture and urban
area; with all the resulting consequences. In preventing erosion and runoff in agriculture, the
slope gradient must be less then 25° and of a capable soil type, almost 45% of the agricultural
land in the Cameron Highlands is indiscriminately used for agricultural purposes, because it
exceeds these basic concepts. The Upper-Bertam catchment serves many functions: as an
essential supply of drinking water, housing rare aquatic ecology, as a part of the rainforest
ecology, supplying an aesthetic view and serve for recreational purposes.
The Cameron Highlands are characterized on one hand by undisturbed nature with virgin and
original mountain forest streams of (ecological and chemical) outstanding quality. On the other
hand intensive agriculture and urbanisation, causing problems in this most vulnerable part of
the catchment. Pollution sources are located at the far upstream part of the catchment. Not
much attention is driven to the withdraw of agricultural activities in the area; pesticides,
fertilizers and in urban area sewage (not treated thoroughly or at places not at all) entering the
river system, causes severe water pollution. The (already scarce) drinking water supply is
therefore heavily polluted, with several chemicals i.e. pesticides, fertilizers, faecal bacteria (i.e.
E.Coli and pathogens causing diseases), organic pollution (sewage, manure & fertilizers),
suspended solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste, and is hardly available through lack of
management, (illegal) tapping and soil erosion. Of the 123 rivers in the Cameron Highlands
only 12 are classified as I & II (clean water; according to INWQS: Interim National Water
Quality Standards for Malaysia and Department of Environment classification). Besides the
water pollution the Cameron Highlands also faces a lack of water. This shortage of water
supply in the highlands is mainly due the fact that intake points for water supply are inevitably
located in the upper reaches of the water catchments where the water yield is low. This is
worsened by the fact that the same water supplies are used for (illegal) tapping water for
irrigation.

The degradation of the Upper-Bertam catchment is caused by:

• Agricultural activities; contributing pollutants as sediments, nutrients, pesticides,
pathogens (E.Coli) and organic enrichment (fertilizers & animal manure).
• Urban area; pouring in hardly or untreated sewage, which contribute pathogens
(E.Coli), organic enrichment (nutrients), and toxicants.
• Others; artificial drainage of streams for agriculture and canalization (habitat
alteration).
Degradation of water quality in Upper-Bertam catchment occurs due to:

• Ongoing and increasing water pollution by agriculture due excessive pesticides and
fertilizer usage and due urban area with poorly or untreated domestic sewage poured
in the river course. This causes severe water pollution with: E.Coli (and other
pathogens), pesticides and organic pollution (including inorganic nutrients), siltation
and erosion from land clearing, agriculture and construction.
• Lack of enforcement by responsible governmental agencies in preventing and acting
on environmental offences.
• 80% of total clean water supply is utilized by agricultural industry and only 20 % is left
for drinking water. Most of the water used in agriculture is (illegally) tapped from small
mountain streams in the forest that contain the best quality water of the Highlands.
• Most vulnerable part of the catchment lies in urbanized area with pollution sources
(agricultural & urban) located at the far upstream part of the catchment.
• Lack of proper wastewater treatment facilities and poor management of water
treatment/storage facilities.
• Over-development of urban area as well as agriculture.
• Lack of proper multidisciplinary management of river courses by JPS/DID
(= Department of Irrigation and Drainage).
• A maximum is set of 6000 hectares for agriculture (according to Structure Plan
Cameron Highlands 1998-2015); and already 5800 hectares is present of which almost
45% has a larger slope gradient than the allowed 25º; causing massive siltation.
• Huge lack of environmental awareness with most citizens as well as governmental
institutions.
Besides all these problems the Upper-Bertam still has important values and large potential as:
• A vital source of high quality drinking water;
• Aesthetic attractive view for local residents and tourists when it is not polluted;
• Excellent fish stock and ecological condition of valley river courses if water quality
improves;
• Suitable for (water) recreation if water quality and condition improves.
Chemical appraisal
Water pollution sources are classified as Point sources (with sewage and solid waste) and
Non-point (diffuse) sources (with agricultural and urban runoff). The water quality of the Upper-
Bertam river deteriorates because the huge increase of suspended solids, the high
concentrations of Nitrogen and Phosphor compounds (including COD: causing very significant
enrichment and Eutrophication), pesticides (including banned types) and the huge presence of
E.Coli-bacteria (and other pathogens) causing severe micro-biological contamination.
Sources of this water deterioration and pollution are:

• Agricultural activities; causing sedimentation, encroachment of nutrients (COD,

Nitrogen and Phosphor compounds) as well as pesticides and micro-biological
contamination due the use of chicken manure (E.Coli).
• Urban area; uncontrolled and hardly or untreated treated sewage poured in the river
causing; nutrient encroachment COD, Nitrogen and Phosphor compounds) and
biological contamination (E.Coli and other pathogens).
Overall organic pollution (mainly domestic sewage) is the biggest pollutant in the Upper-Bertam
catchment. It originates from sewage and fertilizers (animal fertilizers as chicken manure),
through point sources (hardly or non treated domestic sewage) and non-point sources as
agricultural runoff. This organic pollution also causes very severe micro-biological
contamination with bacteria and viruses, which can cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid,
hepatitis A and virus infections.
After setting-up a sample strategy using the guidelines of the Netherlands Normalisation
Institute (NEN) and European guidelines. Designing a specialist sample plan was necessary for
the situation of the Upper-Bertam rivers, with a parameter selection, selection of the sample
locations and the sampling moment. The samples were analysed by a Malaysian laboratory
(E.Coli) and a Dutch Water Board Laboratory (Waterschap Rivierenland).
Although banned, pesticides of the persistent organochlorine group (i.e. POP’s: DDT,
Heptachlor, Aldrin and Dieldrin) are still used in the Cameron Highlands. On 10th April 2005 the
presence of DDT was found (by COSMO! Newspaper & R.E.A.C.H.) before the Sungai Burong
drinking water intake (a tributary of the Upper-Bertam) and was detected in a concentration of
1920 µg/l (t-DDT)!!! (almost 20.000 times higher than allowed according to INWQS class II). In
this research residue levels of Alfa-Endosulfan, Endosulfan-sulfate and of Alfa-HCH (Lindane)
were found in the Sg. Bertam. The presence of measurable pesticide-levels in the rivers is
highly undesirable, but the presence of banned pesticides in the rivers is absolutely
unacceptable. (Heavy) metals are found in fertilizers, waste dumping and sewage. None of the
found concentrations of (heavy) metals were unacceptably high, but the attention is driven from
their origin as anthropogenic disturbance; and this should be regarded as significant.
Very severe nutrient encroachment occurs due; (hardly or untreated) sewage and agricultural
runoff (fertilizers). According to “Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria of the WHO”
Nitrogen concentrations are exceeded at almost all sampling points in ranges of 2 to 17 times
during both average water flow and high water flow; although during average water flow much
lower concentrations were found. The present phosphor concentrations and COD at most
sampling points are so high that it causes severe Eutrophication. COD is exceeded
(“Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria of the WHO”) at almost all sampling points in
ranges of 2 to 50 times during both average water flow and high water flow.
Topsoil loss and fertility depletion through runoff and erosion are solved (‘compensated’) in
agriculture by excessive surface application of manure and fertilizers.
However sewage is by far the biggest pollutant and pollution with sewage is very evident in the
rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment; causing massive algae growth, sewage fungi, a strong
smell of the water and causing health risks regarding micro-biological contamination with
E.Coli. Because of the huge lack of appropriate sewage treatment systems almost all the
sewage discharged is “raw”. The concentration of nutrients that are found are unacceptably
high and do not support aquatic live of any quality, is highly un-aesthetic (algae bloom i.e.) and

causes health risks by (blue) algae bloom and supporting a good environment for pathogenic
organisms to sustain and multiply.
In the Upper-Bertam the bacterial contamination (E.Coli.) is mainly caused due uncontrolled
pouring in of insufficient or non-treated sewage (domestic waste water) and the extensive use
of chicken manure as fertilizers in agriculture as well as dumping of organic waste (meat) in or
near the river. High levels of E.Coli (and other pathogens) are found in the rivers of the Upper-
Bertam catchment. E.Coli was present in all samples and in levels that often were too high to
count (>200 colony forming units). These high levels are unacceptably and do not meet the
clean water standards of the World Health Organization (<10 Coliforms and no faecal Coliform
for 100 ml of untreated water). Regarding this fact the rivers should be characterized as severe
contaminated (a biohazard) and requires extensive treatment for drinking water.
Besides the strong pollution with organic compounds, siltation is the most significant source of
water quality deterioration. Most important source is agriculture on steep slopes, but also land
clearing and construction are important sources. Of the total of 71.218 ha of the Cameron
Highlands only 3.292 ha is suitable for agriculture, regarding the slope gradient; less then 25°
and the suitable soil type. The use as agricultural land however exceeds 5.890 ha, which
implicates that 2.598.3 ha is indiscriminately used for agricultural purposes (almost 45%). The
sedimentation in the TNB Ringlet Reservoir (Upper-Bertam is the most important river flowing
into the reservoir) has increased 9 times in a period of 25 years. High concentrations of
Suspended Solids in the rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment cause massive siltation and
sedimentation of the TNB Ringlet Reservoir and destroys any present aquatic ecology of some
quality. Concentrations of Suspended Solids found were in the ranges of 1800-4100 mg/l (!)
during HWF.
The Sg. Bertam can be classified as of Class III (according to classification system of
Department of Environment & INWQS) at AWF and Class V during HWF. Meaning that the
water quality AWF is very low going to HWF extremely low. Some of the tributaries have
‘’reasonable water quality’’ with classes IIA/B and III). The potential for clean water in the
polluted rivers is very high, since the original mountain streams in the catchment have shown to
hold water of perfect quality. It is sole due pollution caused by anthropogenic influence that the
water quality deteriorates from that.
Ecological appraisal
After exploring fieldwork and literature study a modified system for an aquatic macro-
invertebrate assessment was set-up. Designing a detailed sample plan was necessary for the
situation of the Upper-Bertam catchment, with a selection of the sample locations, the sampling
moment, the sample analysis and the data enumeration based on biological indices.
The typical mountainous ecosystem of the Upper-Bertam catchment with fast flowing, cool and
very low-nutrient forest streams, holds a vast diversity of rare aquatic macro invertebrates. The
upper-reaches of the tributaries and of the Bertam river itself are of the original undisturbed
ecological quality, without anthropogenic influence (only tapping). These streams house the
typical indicators of fast flowing, oxygen rich, nutrient-poor aquatic habitats on rocky-bottom
that is typical for this mountainous part of the catchment. The aquatic macro invertebrate
community in these parts was compiled of mainly Stonefly-larvae, Caddisfly-larvae and Mayfly-
larvae (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera) of many different individual species.
Together with these families many other were found including Freshwater Crabs (Decapoda)
and Dragonfly-larvae (Odonata). The water quality of these waters is outstanding and perfect.
Every other part of the river system, ranges from ecological very poor to ecologically almost
dead. The aquatic macro-invertebrate community there was mainly compiled of Leeches,
Snails and Red Mosquito-larvae (Hirundinae, Gastropoda and Chironomidae). The water
quality ranged from very heavily polluted to extremely polluted. The addition of the sewage of
the town of Brinchang and later the sewage of the town of Tanah Rata is very evident. The
invasive fish species Guppy (Gambusia affinis) was extremely abundant.
Recommendations
The final objectives on the long term for the Upper-Bertam catchment in which this research
projects would like to contribute positively is realizing the potentials of the Upper-Bertam
catchment as:
• A river system with outstanding river water quality of high ecological, environmental
and aesthetic value that is safe for recreation;
• Conserving the rare and important ecosystem with river water of good quality;
• Ensuring sufficient water resources of good quality for the use as drinking water and
irrigation as well as for nature.
The most essential recommendation given in this report are:

Governmental action:
1. Action plans should be made on the short term by the Land Office to handle the in this
report proposed environmental protection actions.
2. Riparian buffer zones of at least 50 meters to the river course should be gazetted and
enforced by the Land Office.
3. The usage, sale and trade of illegal pesticides should be strictly enforced by the Police.
4. The further expansion of agriculture should be controlled strictly to minimize loss of

biodiversity and pollution.
5. The responsible governmental agencies (DOE, DOA, DID, Land Office, Police) should
enforce and take legal actions against illegal tapping and discharging of waste water.
6. An Erosion and Sediment Control Plan must be submitted together with all intended
earthworks and the Land Office should strictly enforce this
Point of practical technological action:

7. Governmental sewage treatment facilities should be built and operated for the whole
townships of Brinchang and Tanah Rata in which over 90% of the producers of
domestic waste water are connected.
Point of communicative action:

The in line of this research project designed so-called Adopt-a-river-programme; in which water
quality is tested in an interactive manner with the public and volunteers should be set-up as
one of the follow-up projects from this research project. The NGO’s W.W.F. and R.E.A.C.H. are
partners willing to carry out such a project; help in the form of support (man-power or finance)
is much needed from the land Office. A website can be hosted by the website of DOE;
supplying direct awareness, creating information on water quality and the water quality in the
people’s neighbourhood.

Preface
This research project was carried out as the final thesis and practical training of Antony van der
Ent and Chantal Termeer for their course Environmental science at Saxion University of
Applied Science Deventer, The Netherlands. This research project was set-up in collaboration
with R.E.A.C.H. and under supervision of Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer with
management officers Mr. Ricardo Cronie and Mr. Hans Hasselt. Contact with R.E.A.C.H. was
initially made after meeting Mr. Kaliyannan (a R.E.A.C.H. committee member) in July 2004.
After the initial contact, the possibility of a practical training was discussed with Mr. Ramasamy
(president R.E.A.C.H.) and the scope of the project was established. After their arrival the
researchers started with R.E.A.C.H. the first week of February 2005 and finished their project
end of June 2005. Together with other projects of this practical training, including an Adopt-a-
river-project, workshops, presentations and leading excursions the project was later on adapted
for the final thesis of the course of Antony van der Ent and Chantal Termeer.
This paper; the main report is the core of this research project. This ‘’core’’ is made to facilitate
the aim of R.E.A.C.H. in setting up an Adopt-a-river-project and creating more public
awareness on water pollution and provides background information for doing so. It is a ‘’check-
up’’ of the current state of the water pollution in the Upper-Bertam catchment. It is also intended
as background information and guidelines for the Adopt-a-river-programme.
We would like to take the opportunity at this place to thank a few of the people who contributed
to this project and helped us a great deal: Mr. Ramakrishnan Ramasamy and Sanath Kumaran
for their generous support, knowledge and their extensive help. Further more we would like to
thank all the R.E.A.C.H. (committee) members for their enthusiasm and support. We also
would like to thank Ricardo Cronie for his enthusiasm and his dedicated management. Our final
assessors Bauke de Vries and Wim de Klerk for their interest and goodwill. At last we want to
thank Hans Hasselt for his help with the arrangements that made it possible to complete our
project abroad.
Deventer/Brinchang, January 20th, 2006,
Antony van der Ent & Chantal Termeer

1. Introduction
1.1 Situation
The area of the Cameron Highlands is situated in the state of Pahang, with a terrain height
varying from 1070 till 2110 meters above sea level it is a mountainous area28 with 75% above
1000 meters16. The Cameron Highlands shares borders with the states Kelantan in the North
and Perak in the West16. The Cameron Highlands is the smallest district in the state of Pahang
(2% of coverage) and is located in the North-western corner of the state. Covering a total area
of 71.000 ha with a population of 30.000 citizens6,29. A British surveyor, William Cameron in
1885, discovered the area. During the colonial times, the British sought a relief, from the
oppressive heat and tropical climate of Malaysia, in the tea covered hills. Colonialists came to
the Cameron Highlands to enjoy the cool atmosphere with temperatures between 14°and 24°
Celsius13. The mountainous terrain is covered with Rainforests, tea plantations, vegetable-,
fruit-, and flower plantations.
Malaysia; the mainland of Malaysia on the left and East-Malaysia on the right. Distance
Kuala Lumpur- Kuching is 1800 kilometers. The Cameron Highlands are situated 350
kilometers straight North of the capital Kuala Lumpur.
The Cameron Highlands has three main townships, Ringlet, Tanah Rata and Brinchang6.
Tanah Rata is the largest township and is the centre of the Cameron Highlands. The area is
very suitable for agricultural activities, because of the climate. Nowadays the Cameron
Highlands is a region with large areas used for intensive vegetable cultivation13. More than
5890 ha are in use for agricultural purposes13. The agricultural sector enhances vegetables
(47%), tea (44%), flowers (7%) and fruit (1%). However the Cameron Highlands are still
covered with over 90% with forests5. More than 90% of Peninsular Malaysia’s water supply
comes from rivers originating in the mountains and highland forests. Cameron Highlands, in
Peninsular Malaysia’s Main Mountain Range, contains the headwaters of the Perak and
Pahang rivers.

Therefore any negative effects of water pollution in the Cameron Highlands will not only affect
the local environment and population but will also ultimately impact on the downstream lowland
areas28.
The state of Pahang, with

the Cameron Highlands on
the far left hand corner;
distance Tanah Rata –
Brinchang is 10 kilometers
5 Cameron Highlands Structure Plan 1998-2010

6 Dr. Nik & Associates, Government of Pahang, Jabatan Pengairan Dan Saliran Pahang, 2004
13 Hashim, G.M., Wan Yusoff, W.A., 2003
16 Kumaran, S, Ainuddin, A. N., 2004
28 WWF Malaysia, 2001

1.2 Problem description

Water quality can be seen as an indicator of environmental quality of an area since
deterioration in water quality can be a direct outcome of non-sustainable development. In the
last decade the rivers of the Cameron Highlands have become polluted and environmental
problems become widespread. The water quality of rivers deteriorated significantly as a result
of land clearing for agriculture, excessive usage of pesticides and fertilizers as well as domestic
sewage from urban areas poured into the rivers.
The rivers in the Cameron Highlands have become heavily siltated because of agriculture on
much too steep slopes, land clearing for urban development and road construction. Siltation
causes reduction in the drainage capacity of rivers, eventually resulting in the increased
possibility of flooding. Flooding has become a common occurrence, in fact, the worst recorded
flood in the Cameron Highlands occurred in April 2001 whereby more than 3,000 residents
were affected. Siltation and sedimentation also cause a reduced capacity for electric power
generation from the hydroelectric scheme in Cameron Highlands.
Apart from poor water quality of the rivers, the Cameron Highlands also has water shortage
problems, which have escalated over the years. Water shortage is caused by an increased
domestic water supply demand. The production has remained the same although the demand
only grows. Water shortage worsens during peak holiday seasons with the influx of tourists.
In the Cameron Highlands the agriculture is in direct conflict with tourism. By development of
their farms and logging forests agricultural industry is destroying the resources that attract the
tourists; such as scenic views and natural values.
The degradation of water quality as well as other environmental issues in the Cameron
Highlands is a major concern of the local community.
1.3 Inquiry
In this chapter the approach of this research project is described, the focus, the aims and the
goals of this research project as well as a Reading guide of this report.
1.3.1 Problem
The Cameron Highlands, a mountainous terrain in central (peninsular) Malaysia, is a tranquil
rainforest and agricultural area with a small population; mainly living in villages of Tanah Rata,
Brinchang and Ringlet. The Cameron Highlands can be characterized by undisturbed nature on
one hand and on the other intensive agricultural use because of the ideal climate for tea and
vegetable culture. Unfortunately not much attention is given to the back draw of this agricultural
use; pesticides, heavy metals and since sewage is not treated thoroughly (or at places not at
all), severe water pollution occurs. The (already scarce) drinking water supply is therefore
polluted with several chemicals (i.e. pesticides, fertilizers, faecal bacteria) and is hardly
available through lack of management. Of the 123 rivers in the Cameron Highlands only 12 are
classified as I & II (according to INWQS: Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia:
class II). Most significant problems of water pollution occur due:
• Poorly or untreated treated domestic sewage;
• Siltation from land clearing, agriculture and construction;
• Surface runoff from agriculture land.

It therefore would be important to research this topic thoroughly to answer the following
question (for details regarding the organization and the outline of this research project see the
report ‘Research Outline’):
1.3.2 Research purpose

In this research the present water quality regarding chemical parameters and biological
condition of the Upper Bertam catchment is described, pollution causes are given and
recommendations regarding sustainable river water use of the Upper-Bertam river catchment
are given. This main core will be interactively communicated by side activities with the general
public and with the goal of increasing public awareness on the importance of river water quality.
This research project is carried-out in assignment of R.E.A.C.H. Cameron Highlands in course
of the practical training 2005 of Chantal Termeer and Antony van der Ent, Saxion University
Deventer, The Netherlands.
See also the Problem Tree in the Appendices
1.3.2.1 Object of research:

The Upper-Bertam river catchment between the source on the slopes of Mount Brinchang and
the in flow before entering the Ringlet Reservoir (also see map) as well as the major side
streams which directly flow and feed the Bertam river including: sg. Ulung, sg. Batu Pipih, sg.
Jasar, sg. Ruil and sg. Burong.
1.3.2.2 Research subject:

The chemical and biological quality of the object of this research as well as topics of
communication on these findings with the general public.
1.3.2.3 Principle research question

What is the present water quality of the Bertam-river catchment, Cameron Highlands, which
factors influence this quality and how can the awareness of the importance of river water
quality on the general public be increased?
1.3.2.4 Key definitions

Present water quality: Chemical characteristics regarding several parameters named in this
report of water samples from the Sungai Bertam compared to (inter) national standards for
water quality and biological diversity and vitality according to an aquatic invertebrate
assessment.
Chemical parameters: Chemical substances holding in the water mass; in solution or as
particles. Affected in this survey are: selected metals, selected pesticides, COD, pH, EC, totP
and totN.
Biological condition: a general assessment regarding themes of diversity and species
abundance as well as the available (potential) niches and potential of the biological
environment.
Pollution causes: causes of water pollution by point- or non-point sources. .
Sustainable river water use: the use of available water resources in a way that supports the
current needs, but assures also the future needs.
Interactively communicated: by giving talks and workshops for high school students and
adults regarding topics of water quality, sustainable river water use and education on its
characteristics, the core of this research project is openly communicated.

Side activities: talks and workshops with the aim of increasing the knowledge, understanding
and awareness of the importance of river water quality in the Cameron Highlands (see above).
R.E.A.C.H. Cameron Highlands: citizen’s society of Regional Environmental Awareness
Cameron Highlands.
1.4 Reading guide

This report consists of three major parts; an Area appraisal, a Chemical appraisal and an
Ecological appraisal. Besides these parts a summary is provided in front. After the three
majors, a chapter on Legislation properties follows. A Discussion, Conclusions and
Recommendations on the previous chapters and the research outcome are given next. The
report is concluded by a glossary and attaches.
In the Chapter Area Appraisal, the area of the Cameron Highlands is reviewed, explored and
discussed in the light of this research project. First the focus lays on the geological properties
of the broad area and later on focusing in on factors influencing water quality in the Cameron
Highlands, the chapters start with an Introduction of the area. The used research techniques
are discussed in the subchapter Methodology & Strategy. The subchapter Results, consisting
of Geography, Brief history, Abiotic environmental, Land use, Natural environment and
Tourism, gives a description of relevant data (relevant to better understand and a insight view
of the problem of water pollution of the Upper-Bertam catchment). Finally the subchapter
Interpretation gives a summary with the most essential data and interpretation of data of the
Results.
The chapter Chemical Appraisal next gives after a very brief Introduction the pollution sources
and pollution compounds regarding the Upper-Bertam catchment in the subchapters; Pollution
and the subchapter Pollutants. The chemical research carried-out as part of this research
project is then described regarding the project upset and activities in the subchapters
Methodology and the subchapter Strategy. Results of this chemical research and analysis are
given in the subchapter Results followed by the subchapter Interpretation where the each
pollutant is discussed and the interpretation of the results of the chemical analysis is given.
The chapter Ecological appraisal starts with a brief introduction and a compiled part on the
basics of an aquatic macro-invertebrate assessment in the subchapter Marco-invertebrate
assessments: basic principles. An interpretation for the case of the Cameron highlands follows.
Then the (sample & analysis) follows in the subchapters Sample locations & sample strategy.
The results and the interpretation of the found data are then discussed in the subchapter
Interpretation and outcome.
The chapter Legislation and policies gives some (international) guidelines & polices and
national & local laws relevant to the subject of water pollution in the Cameron Highlands (the
Upper-Bertam catchment), environmental protection and ecology.
The chapter Discussion gives remarks necessary to understand the scope and the limitations
of this research project. This should be kept in mind reading the Conclusions afterwards.
In the Conclusions the outcome of this research project is given in relatively short readable
terms. A glossary with keywords of this report and attaches finishes the report.

2. Area appraisal
Function and place of the chapter ‘Area Appraisal’ in this report
This part of the research project was designed to supply in the need of good basic knowledge
of the research area regarding its topography, hydrology, morphology, tourism and land use. It
is intended to give start-material on the research area as well as a first encounter to the issue
of water pollution in the Cameron Highlands.
Lay-out and structure of this chapter

After an introduction of the subject in the wide scope; the basic hydrology in Malaysia and the
highlands in Peninsular Malaysia in general are described. The methodology of this part of the
research is discussed in the sub-chapter ‘Methodology and strategy’. The rest of the chapter
describes the results resulting from literature research, initial field research and interviews.
Finally an ‘interpretation’ is given in which the most essential data for the rest of the research
(Chemical and Ecological Appraisal) is given as well as a SWOT-analysis; for ‘setting-the-
scene’ regarding water pollution in the Cameron Highlands.
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter the area of the Cameron Highlands is reviewed, explored and discussed in the
light of this research project.
2.1.1 Water on world scale

Fresh water is scarce on earth; 97% of water is salt or undrinkable, and almost 3% is kept in
ice caps and glaciers or deep underground, estimation shows that only 0.003% is available for
use30 Mountain areas are considered as ‘’natural water towers’’ providing the surrounding lower
land with freshwater. The mountains serve as important water catchment areas, providing
water for the domestic, agricultural and industrial demands of the more densely populated
lowlands. The mountains intercept the circulation of air and force it upwards where it cools and
water vapour condenses into clouds, rain then forms. Forests cushion the rain before it gently
seeps into the soil16. Some of the water is stored in the soil and vegetation while the rest drains
down to the lowlands through soil, streams and rivers, where it is used for water supply.
Highland forests control soil erosion, helping to ensure that the water is clean and free from silt
and sediment. They also trap moisture from clouds and slowly release it into streams and
rivers16.
2.1.2 Water in Malaysia

Generally, land above 900 metres above sea level is referred to as ‘mountains’, and land above
300 metres as ‘highlands’ in Malaysia. Less than 5% of Peninsular Malaysia is more than 900
metres above sea level. Although small in area, these mountains are headwaters of valuable
surface water resources17. They are also the refuge of many plants and animals, making them
valuable to biological diversity. Cloud forest, or montane forest, is the term used to describe
forests that are influenced by the frequent presence of cloud or mist. They are usually found at
elevations of over 1,500 metres above sea level, and sometimes down to 1,000 metres16.
Cloud forests supply additional water to the ecosystem via 'horizontal precipitation': clouds and
fog condense to form water droplets on vegetation surfaces. This is an important source of
water and contributes to the maintenance of the base flow of a river especially during periods of
scarce rainfall16. Due to the wet humid equatorial/monsoonal climate, Malaysia has abundant
rainfall, totalling about 2000-5000mm annually, one of the highest in the world. However, the

actual amount of water available for use is reduced because of seasonal droughts,
deterioration in water quality, wastage and poor management of water resources.
On average, the Malaysian urbanite uses 526 litres per A global diagram of the water cycle
day, and wastes up to 233 litres per day. Of the 120 (above)
river basins in Malaysia, 33 were considered clean in 1998, 71 slightly polluted, and 16 polluted
according to the Malaysian Environmental Quality Report, 1998. In 1998, 43% of the 120 river
basins were polluted by Ammonia-Nitrogen from livestock wastes and domestic sewage, 34%
by SS (Suspended solids) due to earthworks and land-clearing activities, and 21% by BOD
(Biochemical oxygen demand) due to discharges from agro-based and manufacturing
industries30.

2.2 Methodology & Strategy
2.2.1 Literature research

This part of this report is intended to provide with an introduction of the research area, its
characteristics, problems and interactions with other environmental compartments. It is based
on literature research and own fieldwork. Reports of earlier studies in the area, regarding water
pollution, ecology, tourism, sustainable development and others, provided by R.E.A.C.H. and
WWF form the basis of the literature research. These reports were written by (national)
universities, TNB, DID, DOA, DOE and consulting companies. Most important step after
working through all the data is consideration of relevancies.
2.2.2 Fieldwork
In order to obtain a clear view of the research area of the Upper-Bertam catchment numerous
visits to its river and its tributaries were made. This meant walking the whole river course from
the source at Mt. Brinchang to its ending in the Ringlet reservoir as well as following the most
significant tributaries in the same way. Photos were made as well as notations on land use and
pollution sources.
2.3 Results
This chapter describes the results of the literature research and the fieldwork carried-out in
course of this research project. The results are categorized according to subject and field.
Starting with Geography (enhancing Topography and Morphology), a brief history and then the
‘’Abiotic environment with topics regarding; Geology & Soils, Climate and Water resources
follows. Land use describes the land coverage and utilization by means of the topics; Urban
area, Forested land and Agricultural utilization. The subchapter Natural environment gives the
ecology of the Cameron Highlands and specifically the research area in birds view. The
subchapter Tourism describes the interest of tourism and development in the area. The last
sub-chapter, Interpretation, is intended to provide with a guideline through this data and
summarizes them.
2.3.1 Geography
This chapter describes the Cameron Highlands
regarding abiotic properties from different scale
levels; topography and morphology.
2.3.1.1 Elevation and Land use

The area of the Cameron Highlands is situated in
Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia which has a
coverage of 35.964 km2. The Cameron Highlands
shares borders with the states Kelantan in the North
and Perak in the West, the entire district of Cameron
Highlands is located within the Main Mountain
Range16.
Above: the Peninsula of Malaysia

The Main Mountain Range is the largest of the mountain ranges of Malaysia, constituting 60%
of the total area of the highlands of Peninsular Malaysia. The general alignment of the
mountain ranges is in a North-south direction.
The major settlements in Cameron Highlands are Tanah Rata, Brinchang, Habu, Ringlet,
Lembah Bertam, Kg. Raja, Kea Farm, Kuala Terla and Tringkap.
2.3.1.2 Morphology
Cameron Highlands is located on the Main Range, Peninsular Malaysia’s largest continuous
block of highland forest, in the State of Pahang. Topographically, the entire Cameron Highlands
district is mountainous with altitude ranging from 1,000m at the river valleys on the eastern
boundary to 2,031m on the western boundary28, with 75% above 1000 asl16. The Main Range is
the largest, most prominent and continuous mountain range in Peninsular Malaysia. It has an
igneous core that was intruded into ancient fold mountain systems28. The Main Range granite
batholith forms a massive mountain range stretching in an arc from Thailand in the north to
Negeri Sembilan in the south. The elevation bands of the Main Range show that up to 45% of
the area of the highland range is between 305 m – 610 m and 28% between 610 m – 914
m28,29. Slopes occur with gradients from 10° to 35°, 66% of the coverage has a gradient of
more then 20°13. Around
75% of the coverage is
above 1000m. The soils in
Cameron Highlands tend
to be sandy and highly
erodible. The combination
of terrain, soil types and
high rainfall increases the
risk of erosion in the
highlands, especially
when the forest is cleared.
Over 80% of the Cameron
Highlands district falls
within the high erosion
risk zone1. Although the
Department of Agriculture
guidelines limit vegetable
cultivation to land of slope
up to 200 only, steeper
areas up to 400 slopes are
under agricultural use in
the Cameron Highlands11.
Left: The Cameron Highlands with Brinchang (in the middle),
Tanah Rata (down left), and the roads. Scale 1: 100.000

The Main Range stretches approximately 500 km from the border with Thailand in the North to
Negeri Sembilan, where its height decreases and merges into the Malacca coastal plain. The
Main Range is about 85 km wide at its widest section in the North (in Perak and Kelantan) and
narrows to less than 35 km wide in Negeri Sembilan. The highest mountain ridges vary from
about 800 m in the southern end to 2,184 m at Mt. Korbu, which is the highest peak of the Main
Range and the second highest peak in Peninsular Malaysia. Mt. Korbu is located 25 km NNW
of Cameron Highlands29
Terrain gradient Percentage of Elevation band Percentage

cover on total of cover on
0-10° 8.8% total
10-20° 31.4% 305-610m 45.1%
20-30° 48.7% 610-914m 27.9%
>30° 9.1% 914-1220m 16.1%
Terrain gradient in Cameron Highlands13 (left) and 1220-1524m 8%
right Terrain gradient (as elevation bands) of the 1524-1800m 2.5%
main mountain range of Peninsular Malaysia28 >1830m 0.4%
Above: The Cameron Highlands is the largest continuous mountainous

area with the Main Mountain Range with the third highest top: Mt.
Brinchang (2031m)


2.3.2 Brief History

The Cameron Highlands were initially used as highland resort for its cool climate and fresh air,
but in the Post-Independent from 1957-1973 huge change appeared when the area seemed to
be perfect for agriculture. Then the converting of virgin jungle in tea and vegetable plantations,
building routes, housing schemes and resettlement of Orang Asli started. From 1974 to 1990
rapid urbanization, logging and agricultural development took place. From 1990 till today the
Cameron Highlands are extensively promoted as a tourist attraction, and in order to realize its
potential as tourist resort many hotels, shops and roads were built. At the same time
agricultural development has also increased significantly.
2.3.3 Abiotic Environment
2.3.3.1 Geology & Soils

The landscape of Peninsular Malaysia is ancient and scarcely disturbed by tectonic changes.
The mountain ranges stand up in the Northern half of the Peninsular but headed southwards.
The Main Range was formed as a result of the collision between the oceanic Indo-Australian
and continental Eurasian tectonic plates28. The convergence forced the heavier oceanic plate
below the lighter continental plate. The descending plate upon reaching a depth of 100 km, was
melted into magma. The magma, being less dense than the surrounding mantle rocks, slowly
rose to intrude into the continental crust. At the surface, the magma cooled and crystallised.
Over time, the repetitive effects created a line of mountain peaks that forced themselves
through the crust. The Main Range was formed from this mountain building episode and its
granite bedrock is derived from such magma28. Generally, two main types of bedrock prevail
along the middle section of the Main Range. About 90% of the Main Range is underlain by
primarily acidic intrusive Granite rocks formed in the Late Triassic period.
Two photos of the Upper-Bertam at his source on the slopes of Mt. Brinchang,
The river course running through Shales (left) and with Granite boulders (right)
The Granites are over 200 million years old. The depth of bedrock varies considerably from
approximately 5m to over 25m. The Granite is classified as being mainly a medium to coarse
grained, Porphyritic, Biotite Granite. Other sub-classifications include finer grained micro-
Granite and Granite Porphyry, of which the Porphyritic Biotite Granite is the most abundant
geologically28.

The Main Range is predominantly steep and forested. In many mountain valleys, shallow beds
of peat occur, although much of the forest grows in a mat of organic soil with little root
penetration below this surface. Large areas are also covered with sandy soil mixed with peat
while others are studded with Granite boulders. Others are covered with loamy soils and beds
of clay. In some places where Granite is decaying, Quartz fragments occur in a uniform soil but
are generally absent in the upper layers. The colour of decaying Granite varies from deep red,
yellow to almost white in some places. The weathered overlying soil also varies from deep red,
light yellow and even pink. These different colours can easily be seen, especially along fresh
road cuttings or logging tracks. The fertility of the soil is generally low28.
The Cameron Highlands are forming the highest part of the main Mountain Range and have
several cloud forests. Areas were cloud-moister condensates and form very special ecotypes
are only found on the highest mountain summits. In the cloud forest zone, peat is virtually
continuous, even on steep slopes (for example, 25°). The thickness varies from about 0.3 m to
considerably more than 1 m. In the field it is almost invariable wet, with a water content of 80-
90 percent. Except in its lowest part the mineral content of the dry matter is low, less than 10
percent, and sometimes less than 1 percent. pH values in the peat are extremely low, often
between pH 3.0 and pH 3.5 in water and around pH 2.5 measured in potassium chloride
solution. Extreme nutrient deficiency may have something to do with the low stature of upper
mountain rain forest. Such soils are normally acidic (pH 4.5–5.5).
2.3.3.2 Climate
The higher elevation of the Cameron Highlands results in lower temperatures, higher relative
humidity and lower solar radiation3. Temperature is inversely related to altitude, so temperature
decrease with increasing altitude. The mean temperature drop is 0.613°C per 100 meters
elevation16. One can imagine by this fact, that the temperatures in the Cameron Highlands
significantly increased by altitudinal factors when compared with the lowland.
Average water Flow (AWF) at the Robinson Falls (left), High Water Flow (HWF) 2 hours
later during rain (right)

The average temperature at Tanah Rata is about 18°C while the mean maximum temperature
and mean minimum temperature are about 22°C and 15°C respectively. These temperatures
do not fluctuate much throughout the year. Highlands intercept moisture from the atmosphere,
resulting in large amounts and high intensities of precipitation. Highland ecosystems are high
rainfall areas, generally experiencing typical rainfall averages in excess of 2000mm per year17.
In the hill stations, rainfall coincides with the two maxima of April-May and that of October-
November. Rainfall is higher during the wettest period towards the end of the year and on the
average, two out of three days are raining in the highlands. From elevations of around 1200m
upwards, intermittent cloud formation may occur on large mountain ranges and these ‘cloud
forests’ on the highlands not only fulfil the protective role, but they also provide additional
hydrological benefits. It has been noted that during dry spells and during low rainfall periods,
the ‘stripping’ of wind-blown clouds by the montane vegetation becomes particularly important.
The highlands are generally cloudier and more humid than the lowlands. In the Cameron
Highlands rainfall is quite uniform through the year. The wettest period is from October to
November with rainfall of about 350 mm per month, while the relatively drier period occurs
between January and February with about 100 mm of rainfall per month13. Other months have
about 150-250 mm of rainfall. The rainfall regime is characterized by a large number of
intensive rainstorms, especially in the periods April-May and October-November.
2.3.3.3 Water resources

The Cameron Highlands are drained by eight rivers (only largest counted) with Sg. Bertam,
Sg.Telom, and Sg. Lemoi, being the major ones; as well as Sg. Ringlet, Sg.Habu, Sg. Burong,
Sg. Tringkap and Sg. Terla29. These rivers drain Eastwards into the Sg. Pahang9. The 3 main
rivers; Sg. Bertam, Sg. Telom and Sg. Lemoi which drain the Northern, middle and Southern
parts of the area are fed by the very constant source of clean water from montane forests, even
in dryer seasons16. The 3 rivers have a total of over 123 tributaries and play a vital role in fresh
water supply, agricultural activities (irrigation) and as source for hydroelectric generation.
The highlands are famous as water catchment areas. The highlands and specifically the
montane ecosystem form some of the most important water catchment areas in Peninsular
Malaysia. Clear drinking water supply is in abundance from the highlands and has tremendous
economic value. The montane forests in particular are “water producers”30. The supply of this
precious and perhaps most endangered and limited natural resource, both in terms of quantity
and quality is dependent on forested water catchment areas in the highlands. Most of the major
rivers in the Peninsular have its headwaters in the highlands. Almost 90% of the water supply
for Peninsular Malaysia is derived from the highlands30. The Cameron Highlands form the
headwater catchment for 2 major rivers of the lowlands; Sungai Pahang and Sungai Perak. An
estimated amount of 5.8 million litres a day is abstracted for drinking water supply at several
intake points along rivers originating from the montane forests of the Cameron Highlands30.
The main drinking water supply for the Cameron Highlands itself is the Sungai Burong intake.
The river systems are utilized for drinking water supply, irrigation purposes, waste water
disposal (sewage) and hydroelectricity. The two main hydroelectric dams in Cameron
Highlands are Sultan Yusuff dam and Habu Dam.

According to Hashim et al. 200313, the main sources of impact on river streams in the Cameron
Highlands are agricultural activities as well as construction activities. These activities are
causing accelerated sedimentation, increasing run-off peak and increased pollutant load
(pesticides and nutrients). As rivers flow down mountain slopes and through forests to the
lowlands and the sea, they widen and deepen to become larger.
On their way they reflect the state of the land they pass through and carry it with them - a river
is like a ‘’moving environmental monitor’’. It reflects everything that took place upstream in the
catchment, such as land clearing, urban development, road building, agriculture, and
associated problems of runoff, soil erosion and pollution.
The Upper-Bertam river near Habu (left) and near Brinchang (right)
2.3.4 Land use

In terms of land use, about 90% of the area in the district of Cameron Highlands is still forest
while agricultural land constitutes 8%1.
Coverage (2003) ha Percentage of

total
Forest/water bodies 61.679.83 90.9
Agriculture 5.705.17 8.0
Urban area/road 3833 1.1
total 71.218 100
Cameron Highlands Local Plan Study (Technical Report) 2004

The Upper-Bertam catchment

In pink the main river course of the Sungai Bertam and in blue the tributaries

2.3.4.1 Urban area

Tanah Rata is the largest township and is 100
the centre of the Cameron Highlands it 80 forests/water
functions as the administrative centre of bodies
Cameron Highlands besides also serving 60
agriculture
as one of the main tourism destinations. 40
Brinchang is the tourism centre and the 20
urban area
and roads
main commercial area in Cameron
Highlands. Ringlet is the main gateway to 0
coverage %
Cameron Highlands. It functions as the
third most significant commercial area in
Cameron Highlands. Housing is mainly concentrated at Brinchang (17% of total housing),
Tanah Rata (32% of total housing) and Ringlet (12% of total housing). An Orang Asli settlement
is located at Sungai Ruil (near Brinchang). Based on the Population Census by DOOAA in
1997, there were 26 Orang Asli settlements in Cameron Highlands. The number of households
was 825 and the population was 4,868 persons. The two major ethnics groups are Semai and
Temiar. The total area of the Cameron Highlands has a population of 30.000 (2003)6, 29.
Above: the town centre of Brinchang seen from the North-East.

2.3.4.2 Forested land

Over 95% of the Main Range is forest; most of the forest is under Permanent Forest Estates
(PFE) while small patches are state land forests (90.9% of the Cameron Highlands is forest, of
the total of 50.778 ha of forest 76% is protected as Permanent Forest Estate and the rest in
state-land forest.)16. Most of these forests are in relatively good condition although large
patches have been logged. From 1947 to 1977 the forest cover over the upper water
catchments of the 3 main rivers of the Cameron Highlands (Sungai Telom, Sungai Bertam and
Sungai Lemoi) has dwindled from 95% to 65%.
Above: the Forests of the Upper-Bertam catchment from Gunung Irau

2.3.4.3 Agriculture utilization

Because of the relatively low and year-round stabile temperatures, the Cameron Highlands are
very suitable for agricultural activities. The Cameron Highlands is a region with large areas that
are used for intensive vegetable cultivation. More than 5890 ha are in use for agricultural
purposes13 and supplies up to 60% of the vegetable demand in Malaysia13. Although only 8%
of the total 71.218 ha is taken in by agriculture, the Cameron Highlands still form the key-area
for agriculture in Malaysia29. The agricultural sector enhances vegetables (47%), tea (44%),
flowers (7%) and fruit (1%). The total production enhances for vegetables 90.000 metric
tons/year (RM 135 million), tea 19.600 metric tons/year (RM 50 million) and flowers (50
million/year)28. Agriculture is the most important socio-economic and land use activity (although
the second largest land use after forestry area and tourism being the second highest economic
contributor), it is concentrated around Kea farm, Tringkap, Habu, Kg Raja, Kuala Terla, Ringlet
and Lembah Bertam. The value of the total annual vegetable production in Cameron Highlands
has been estimated at RM 135 million (MARDI-TECH, 1998).
Vegetables are the most widely cultivated crop in Cameron Highlands. The most extensively
grown vegetables are cabbage, Chinese cabbage, tomato, French beans, sweet pea, leek and
lettuce, in total making up little less the 1000 ha of vegetable culture in the Cameron Highlands.
The areas planted with each crop vary considerably from year to year. Tea is the oldest crop to
be commercially planted in the highlands. At present tea occupies some 2309 ha. The tea
plantations in Cameron Highlands are owned by three companies. The tea industry in Cameron
Highlands provides employment for some 1,300 workers and produces about 5,000 tons of tea
annually. Most of the tea produced is sold within the country. All the tea plantations have been
long established28.
The cut flower industry grew substantially in the nineties. In 1998 the value had grown to
RM198.9 million (MARDI-TECH, 1998). The area under flower production has fluctuated
between 250 and 450 ha in the Cameron Highlands. Production systems combine ideas from
temperate growers with a strong influence from the vegetable growing experience and cause a
heavy use of agrochemicals.
The mountainous terrain is a major constraint to agriculture. Only about 40% of the slopes of
the area of the Cameron Highlands are below 200. The extent of areas of gentler slopes is
proportionately smaller at the higher elevations suitable for temperate vegetables and
subtropical fruits1. Of the total of 71.218 ha of the Cameron Highlands only 3.292 ha is suitable
for agriculture (because of slope gradient; less then 25° and soil type)1. The use of land for
agricultural purposes exceeds 5.890 ha which implicates that 2.598.3 ha is indiscriminately
used for agricultural purposes1. This coupled with the steep and long slopes, intensive
agriculture and soil characteristics makes this very vulnerable for soil runoff and erosion. It is
clear that soil loss, soil runoff and nutrient loss can be reduced if good quality vegetation cover
is ensured by good agricultural practice. However topsoil loss and fertility depletion through
runoff and erosion are often overcome by the farmer due excessive surface application of
manure and fertilizers12. Agriculture is thus the main source of water pollution and soil erosion
in the Cameron Highlands. Main areas for contributing to this impact are the agricultural areas
near Tanah Rata, Brinchang, Kg Raja, Ringlet, Blue Valley and Bertam Valley. Erosion
processes of agricultural areas are responsible for major impact on water quality and
environmental,- and ecological conditions of both the head rivers and their tributaries.

Most farmers in Cameron Highlands operate on Temporary Occupancy Licences (TOL) which
are renewed annually1. The short term leases are a disincentive to long term investment on the
farms. The heavy rains and excessive irrigation tend to wash off nutrients, which are carried
into the surface water systems. The recent adoption of rain shelters and the reluctance to
reduce fertilizer inputs has led to the accumulation of Phosphorus and cat-ions (Potassium,
Magnesium and Calcium), or salination of the soil. To protect the crops and to meet the
demand for high cosmetic standards, the farmers rely on large inputs of pesticides. Excessive
residues from pesticides (also of banned types) have been detected. Integrated pest
management packages and biological pesticides, are available and which are friendlier for the
environment have found only limited acceptance. Farmers are often not convinced about the
efficiency of the pesticides despite the impressive research results.
Intensive agriculture in the Upper-Bertam catchment. Clockwise: near Habu, along the
Ulung tributary, near Robinson Falls and near the Ringlet Reservoir
2.3.4 Natural Environment

The natural ecosystem of the Cameron Highlands is mainly made up by tropical forest, being
the predominant ecosystem. Biodiversity, Biological diversity and species occurrence is
characterized by altitudinal zones. In the Cameron Highlands the forest ecology is diverted in
different types according to altitudinal sequence are the Hill Dipterocarp Forest (300-750m), the
Upper Dipterocarp Forest (750-1,200m - lower parts of the Cameron Highlands), the Lower
Montane or Oak Laurel Forest (1,200-1,500m - forests in the higher regions for example
between Brinchang and Tanah Rata) and the Upper Montane or Montane Ericaceous Forest
(1,500m to the tree line - forest as on the ridge tops of the highest mountains of the area i.e.
Gunung Irau, Gunung Brinchang and Gunung Perdah)16.The highland forests are known to
contain a diverse array of plant species. The mountain flora of Peninsular Malaysia has been
estimated to include about 3000 species of vascular plants, including some 2125 species
restricted to mountains. 25% of Malaysia’s flowering plant flora is montane and 56% of the fern
flora occurs above 1,000m17. Among the orchids, which are richly represented in montane
areas, 50% of 850 species in Peninsular Malaysia are endemic to the highlands28. In addition
to the rich diversity and endemic species, the Cameron Highlands also harbours rare and
endangered species28. In the Cameron Highlands most species are of montane or highland
species and are specially adapted to the local circumstance and are not occurring at lower
altitudes17. The forests of the Cameron Highlands house over 727 plants species16. An
estimated 23.8% of montane or highland species occurring in Peninsular Malaysia is occurring
in the Cameron Highlands16. Of the mentioned 727 species over 61% is found strictly in
highlands and over 145 species are exclusively endemic to the Cameron Highlands16,17. The
fauna profile of the Cameron Highlands counts over 56 mammals, 199 birds, 14 amphibians
and 58 reptile species, endemic species of the Cameron Highlands and Malaysia are
included28,16.
The forests of the Lower and Upper montane zones are able to strip moisture from the clouds.
This takes place by condensation of the water on leafs, supplying a reliable and predictable
water supply of very clean water. These forests are called or referred to as ‘’cloud-forests’’ or
‘’mossy-forests’’17. Although the Cameron Highlands receive generous amounts of rain water,
this cloud interception of montane forests is the source of many rivers in the area. The small
forest streams originated by these montane forests are of outstanding quality and house very
sensitive aquatic species. Although small in area, these ‘’cloud-forests’’ are headwaters of
valuable surface water resources. They trap moisture from clouds and slowly release it into
streams and rivers. Cloud forests are usually found at elevations of over 1,500 metres above
sea level, and sometimes down to 1,000 metres. Cloud forests supply additional water to the
ecosystem through 'horizontal precipitation'- clouds and fog condensation to form water
droplets on vegetation surfaces. This is an important source of water and contributes to the
maintenance of the base flow of a river especially during periods of scarce rainfall16.
The Highland ecology of the Cameron Highlands is environmentally seen extremely sensitive
and fragile. It is so sensitive because the unique microclimate, the vulnerable rare flora and
fauna, the steepness of the terrain and the intensity of the rainfall17.
1 A study on pollution prevention and water quality improvement program of rivers in Cameron
Highlands, National Seminar, March 2005
6 Dr. Nik & Associates, Government of Pahang, Jabatan Pengairan Dan Saliran Pahang, 2004
9 Hashim, A. Ir, National Seminar, March 2005
11 Hashim, Alias, Ir, 2005
13 Hashim, G.M., Wan Yusoff, W.A., 2003
17 Kumaran, S

Orchids are considered as the indicators of a healthy and diverse natural environment. The forests of the
Cameron Highlands are extremely rich in Orchid species. The photos showing Orchids above are taken
within the Upper-Bertam catchment area.

2.3.5 Tourism
The Cameron Highlands is a world renowned
hill station for eco-tourism, established after
the BOH tea plantation in 1929 was set. In the
‘30s construction of the main road to Tapah
followed and recently the new road to Ipoh is
completed. Expected is that Tourism will grow
from 515.350 tourists visiting the Cameron
Highlands in 2000 to 3.467.170 in 2020
(Government of Malaysia 1996). Major tourist
destinations in the Cameron Highlands are
attractions as waterfalls, mountains, jungle
trails, extensive accommodation facilities, and
organised tours to tea plantations, the Rose
Garden, Kea Farm, Nurseries and the Sam
Poh Buddhist Temple. In addition to eco-
tourism and agro tourism products, the
Cameron Highlands also has a range of
recreational facilities including a golf course.
Agricultural development also has provided
some opportunities for agro-tourism; most of
the ‘’day-tourists’’ in the Cameron Highlands
are in fact coming for this agro-tourism; visiting
the Strawberry farms, Butterfly Garden,
Nurseries, Cactus Valley and many other
attractions. The Cameron Highlands are famous A new style hotel; the Equatorial
among backpackers and nature-enthusiasts for (above) and the old style; The Old
eco-tourism; including jungle trekking offered by Smoke House (below). Both in the
Township of Brinchang
guides. The well–known peaks for jungle trekking
include Gunung Beremban at 1841 m, Gunung
Jasar at 1696 m and Gunung Brinchang at 2032 m.
Two popular waterfalls are the Robinson Falls and the Parit Falls.
In the Cameron Highlands the agriculture sector is often in direct conflict with the tourism
industry. Agriculture, in acquiring forestland and expanding the farms, is destroying the
resources that attract the tourists. On the other hand, tourists provide revenue and publicity to
the agriculture sector and the economy.
Major tourist attractions are in:

• Nature tourism (‘’eco-tourism’’);
• Cultural-heritage tourism;
• Agricultural tourism (‘’agro-tourism’’).
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

193.955 258.805 290.982 275.106 253.701 305.995
Tourist Arrivals in the Highlands

The major tourist attractions of the Cameron Highlands. Clockwise: The BOH tea estate
and factory near Brinchang, The Sam Poh Temple also near Brinchang, a jungle trekking
route near Tanah Rata and the Brinchang 18 hole Golf course. All in the Upper-Bertam
water catchment

2.4 Interpretation
In these final paragraphs of the ‘Area Appraisal’ the interpretation and SWOT-analysis; the
most essential data of the Area Appraisal is put conclusively together and with the SWOT-
analysis it is meant to ‘set-the-scene’ regarding water pollution in the Cameron Highlands. It
thus gives start-material to go further with the Chemical and Ecological Appraisal; this data
must be known and understood to start with the next step; the investigation of the actual state
of the water pollution of the Upper-Bertam catchment.
2.4.1 Rivers
Due to the wet humid equatorial/monsoonal climate, Malaysia has abundant rainfall. In total
about 2000-5000mm annually, one of the highest amounts in the world. However, the actual
amount of water available for use is reduced because of seasonal droughts, deterioration in
water quality, wastage and poor management of water resources. On average, the Malaysian
wastes up to 233 litres per day. Of the 120 river basins in Malaysia, 33 were considered clean
in 1998, 71 slightly polluted, and 16 polluted according to the Malaysian Environmental Quality
Report, 1998.
2.4.2 Pollution of rivers

Rivers and streams serve many functions in today’s society including serving as a source of
food and water, a recreational and aesthetically pleasing resource for many people. Rivers are
also important for nature as part of the ecology. The innumerable functional and aesthetic
qualities of rivers and streams create pressures on the resource that are exacerbated by an
expanding human population. Water catchments that were once mainly forested have been
altered for the social and economic benefit of today’s society. The degradation in Cameron
Highlands rivers comes from numerous sources, including sewage from municipal source
discharges; agricultural runoff of pesticides, organic matter and sediment; hydrologic alteration
from stream canalization, dams, artificial drainage, habitat alteration from agriculture and urban
encroachment. The degradation of the Upper-Bertam catchment is caused by:
• Urban area; pouring in hardly or untreated sewage, which contribute pathogens
(E.Coli), organic enrichment (nutrients), and toxicants.
alteration).
2.4.3 Illegal tapping and too high slope degree

The upper reaches of the Bertam River basin serves as an important catchment area for water
supply. Forest cover is essential in this function, despite that fact the Upper Bertam catchment
is for 30% covered by agriculture and urban area. In preventing erosion and runoff in
agriculture the slope gradient must be less then 25° and of a capable soil type, almost 45% of
the agricultural land in the Cameron Highlands is indiscriminately used for agricultural
purposes, because it exceeds these basic concepts. Besides the water pollution; the Cameron
Highlands also face a lack of water. This shortage of water supply in the highlands is mainly
due to the fact that intake points for water supply are inevitably located in the upper reaches of
the water catchments where the water yield is low. This is worsened by the fact that the same
water supplies are used for irrigation. Perfectly clean water is therefore (illegally) tapped from
the source in the rain forest, before it reaches the valley.

2.4.4 Cameron Highland rivers

The Cameron Highlands are characterized by undisturbed nature with virgin and original
mountain forest streams of (ecological and chemical) outstanding quality and by intensive
agriculture and urbanisation which causes problems. The most vulnerable part of the
catchment lies in much urbanized area with intensive agriculture, with pollution sources
(agricultural & urban) located at the far upstream part of the catchment. Unfortunately not much
attention is given to the back draw of this agricultural use; pesticides, fertilizers and in urban
area sewage (not treated thoroughly or at places not at all) entering the river system, causing
severe water pollution. The (already scarce) drinking water supply is therefore heavily polluted
with several chemicals i.e. pesticides, fertilizers, faecal bacteria (causing diseases), organic
pollution (sewage, manure & fertilizers), Suspended solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste and
pesticides. Of the 123 rivers in the Cameron Highlands only 12 are classified as I & II
(according to INWQS: Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia).
2.4.5 Water in the highlands

Almost 90% of the water supply for Peninsular Malaysia is derived from the highlands; with the
Cameron Highlands being one of the major highland areas it plays a vital role. Almost all the
major rivers originating from the highlands are vital sources of water, not only for domestic
needs but also for agriculture and industrial requirements. In the case of the Cameron
Highlands it is the Sg. Pahang in the lowlands that is largely fed by this area. The crucial role of
the Highlands in supplying water for the lowlands has high demands on protection and
management of the highlands for these catchment functions. This is very pertinent because of
the water crisis that is faced by states in the lowlands. Of greatest concern is the existence of
water intake points that are located downstream of pollution sources in the Highlands from
which water is derived for the water supply system to the lowlands. In the worst case water
pollution in the (Cameron) Highlands deteriorates water quality at the lowlands intake points
beyond levels that can not be treated.
2.4.6 Reasons of water pollution in the Cameron Highlands

• Ongoing and increasing water pollution by agriculture, because of excessive pesticide
en fertilizer usage (according to research by Adroit Consulting Engineers in March
20051). Also urban area with poorly or untreated treated domestic sewage poured in
the river course contributes to river pollution (according to own observation during the
initial field introduction survey).
• Lack of enforcement by Land Office (MDCH), Department of Irrigation and Drainage
(DID) and Water Board (JBA), thousands offences of public laws are broken everyday,
causing pollution of illegal tapping, yet no action is taken (according to R.E.A.C.H.
2005).
• Siltation and erosion from land clearing, agriculture and construction (according to
research by Hashim et al. 200513).
• Illegal water tapping. 20% of the water that is left for public is being tapped by farmers
even though 80% of the total water supply is already utilized by agricultural industry
(according to WWF Malaysia research in 2001 presented on their internet site). Most of
the water used in agriculture is (illegally) tapped from small mountain streams in the
forest containing the best quality water of the Highlands (According to WWF Malaysia
in their 2001 report29).

2.4.7 SWOT Analysis

The SWOT-analysis is useful in ‘setting the scene’ with regard to strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats in relation to better understanding of aspects of the system of the
Upper-Bertam catchment. The idea is that this SWOT analysis helps in the overall strategic
planning processes and awareness. It is only targeted in the (water) quality and (potential)
condition, pollution and (watershed) management of the Upper-Bertam catchment and based
on the initial field survey (thus excluding chemical & biological sampling), interviews and
literature research.
Strengths
• Virgin and original mountain forest streams of (ecological and chemical) outstanding
quality and importance of the ecosystem;
• Forest streams (except from tapping) ecologically healthy;
• Steady and reliable supply of good quality drinking water.
Weaknesses
• Most vulnerable part of the catchment lies in urbanized area;
• Pollution sources (agricultural & urban) are located at the far upstream part of the
catchment;
• Heavily polluted with E.Coli (and pathogens), pesticides, suspended solids and organic
pollution (including inorganic nutrients).
Opportunities
• Vital source of high quality drinking water;
• Aesthetically attractive view when streams are not polluted with solid waste;
improves;
Threats
• Ongoing and increasing water pollution by agriculture and urban area;
• Lack of enforcement by responsible governmental agencies;
• Excessive pesticide usage and illegal pesticides by agriculture;
• Bad agricultural practices i.e. land cover, usage of pesticides and fertilizers;
• Lack of riparian buffer zones along rivers;
• Lack of proper waste water treatment facilities and poor management of water
treatment/storage facilities;
• Over-development of urban area as well as agriculture;
• Lack of proper multidisciplinary management of river courses by JPS/DID;
• Forest clearing (catchment above intake points);
• Illegal clearing of forests for cultivation/farming;
• Lack of environmental awareness;
• Large scale illegal water tapping.

(Above) The main stream of the Upper-Bertam. Clockwise: the little forest streams on the
slopes of Mt. Brinchang, the main stream just before the Brinchang Golf Course, near de
Parit Falls, near Tanah Rata High School and at near Habu.

3. Chemical appraisal
Function and place of the chapter ‘Chemical Appraisal’ in this report
This part of the research project can be regarded as the most substantial; because it supplies
with ‘hard data’ of the research area regarding water pollution. Although with methods of
‘biological analysis’ at least such hard data can be produced; chemical data of concentrations
of certain parameters is still considered (with reason) to be conclusive. More over in this
research this chemical data was also later on used to couple chemical concentrations to
biological indices.

This chapter is split in three. The first part describes pollution source and some background to
pollution of rivers and the pollutants are then discussed individually. The second part describes
the used methodology for sample selection, parameters selection, sampling strategy and
chemical analysis. The final part of this chapter gives the resulting findings of sampling and
analysis in this part of the research project; first per parameter-group and then per sampling
point or tributary. Finally this chapter ends with an ‘interpretation’’; a short resume of the
findings and their place in this research project.
3.1 Introduction
Originally the rivers and small streams of the Cameron Highlands can be categorised as fast
flowing, cool, clean, clear water with a high oxygen content and supporting sensitive aquatic
invertebrates. Urbanisation and agriculture has effects on the chemical water quality.
3.2 Background of pollution

The most common way in which pollutants enter the river system is through surface runoff i.e.
drains and channels (point source), runoff from roads, construction sites etc (non-point source).
The expansion of the urban population within the Upper-Bertam river catchment will increase
the input of organic matter to the river system. Overall organic pollutants (mainly domestic
sewage) are the largest pollutants in the Upper-Bertam river. It originates from sewage and
fertilizers (animal fertilizers as chicken manure), through point sources (hardly treated domestic
sewage) and non-point sources as agricultural runoff. In literature an average BOD contribution
of 55 g per person per day to the river system is maintaine1. Besides adding to nutrient-content
of the water (leading to extreme enrichment of the Upper-Bertam), addition of Nitrogen and
Phosphor will increase BOD & COD. This organic pollution causes very severe bio-
contamination with bacteria and viruses, which can cause diseases such as Cholera, Typhoid,
Hepatitis A and virus infections. Septic tanks are the main method of sewage treatment in the
Upper-Bertam catchment. Latrine holes and direct releases into water courses are still
practiced. Better treatment facilities such as Imhoff tank systems, oxidation ponds and
packaged treatment schemes are used in private housing estates1. No adequate
(governmental) sewage treatment plants are operational in the Cameron Highlands.
Concluding one can say that domestic sewage causes the most significant problems in water
pollution of the Cameron Highlands.

3.2.1 Point source and non-point sources of pollution

Water pollutants are classified as 'point' and 'non-point' sources7. Point sources can be
identified as all dry weather pollutants that enter the river or stream through pipes or channels.
Point source pollutants should easily be observed and pollutant concentrations can be easily
measured through in-situ and ex-situ sampling methods7. Non-point pollutant loads result from
run-off from a large area at relatively low concentrations. An example of a non-point source
include run-off from agricultural lands. Pollutants that enter the stream travel some distance
before they are thoroughly mixed throughout the flow. Water upstream of a pipe discharging
wastewater is therefore cleaner than after. The water might be extremely degraded at the
discharge site or immediately downstream. Further downstream, in the recovery zone, overall
quality might improve as pollutants are diluted with more water or are broken down. Far
downstream the stream as a whole might be relatively clean again. More impacts are caused
by sediments and silt from eroded land and nutrients such as the Nitrogen and Phosphorus
found in fertilizers, detergents, and sewage treatment plant discharges. Other leading
pollutants include pathogens such as bacteria, pesticides, and organic enrichment that lead to
low levels of dissolved oxygen.
Regarding the fate and transport of pollutants in the aquatic system of a river; the movement of
a chemical/pollutant is more a function of the transport process, with the properties of the
transported chemical being minimal. Two considerations have to be made here: first this is in
more absolute case true for persistent chemicals as pesticides and heavy metals, which half
time is long till infinite. For biodegradable compounds as BOD, COD, bacteria (Pathogens), the
high oxygen-concentration and the nature of the streams in the area (fast flowing) have a high
‘’self-cleaning’’ capacity; meaning that most of these compounds are transformed or broken
down going downstream. Regarding Nitrogen-compounds; they are broken down to Nitrate-
compounds very quickly (high oxygen levels permits nitrification), but much harder to Nitrogen
(denitrification), for Phosphate-compounds, they are transferred, taken up and released via the
sediment and clay-particles in the water (the rivers in the Cameron Highlands are characterised
by a very high turbidity especially during High Water Flow). Last; because of the relative short
distance from source to ending in the Ringlet reservoir, the time available for transformation of
chemical compounds is minimal. Therefore, when assessing the fate and the movement of a
chemical in this aquatic system, one has to consider:
• The environmental compartments; water, groundwater interaction, particulates,
sediment i.e.;
• Form and properties of chemical species; (persistent) pesticides, heavy metals or
organic compounds;
• Residence time (depending on distance of transport and water speed in the river);
• Accumulation or exportation to other compartments i.e. sediment or particulates;
• Major routes and rate of transport.

Typical point source; solid waste dumpsite near Habu (left) and agricultural runoff a non-point
or diffuse pollution source also near Habu (right)
3.2.2 Pollutants entering the river system through groundwater

Groundwater aquifers can basically be categorized into contained and uncontained aquifers.
Pollutants can either stay trapped in the sub-surface strata prior to entering the groundwater or
it may enter the groundwater system and its movement will be determined by the natural
movement of groundwater.
Once the contaminant plume reaches the water table, the movement of the pollutants, as well
as the time taken to reach the river system would depend on the characteristics of the aquifer
(in addition to the physical and chemical characteristics of the pollutants), such as:
• Speed and direction of the groundwater towards the river;
• Porosity - defines the capacity of the soil-formation to hold and transport water;
• Transmissibility of the soil;
• Amount and frequency of recharge of the pollutant.
Typical sources of some major pollutants

source Pollution parameters
Point source
Food processing BOD, solids and fats
Non-point source
urban runoff & Metals, BOD, pathogens, litter
sewage
construction Suspended Solids
agriculture Suspended Solids, Nutrients, Pesticides

3.3 Pollutants
3.3.1 Pesticides
Low levels of some pesticides (insecticides, herbicides and fungicides) damage the immune
system and these have been linked with hormone problems that may cause some cancers
(breast cancer) and damage reproductive systems. Between 1991 and 1993, Malaysia spent
an average of RM 227 million on pesticides, making it the highest user of fertilizers in ASEAN
(CAP, 1985). Of the 4.1 billion pounds of pesticides used, only 1% is estimated to kill targeted
pests leaving the remaining 99% free to contaminate the environment and human health.
Pesticides are transported to large distances in surface and river waters, either in solution form
or by attaching themselves to particulates. These pollutants are deposited in sediments, which
could be taken up by species dwelling at the bottom of the river. Although banned pesticides of
the Organochlorine group like DDT, Heptachlor, Aldrin and Dieldrin are illegal (according to the
Pesticides Act (1974), these chemicals are prohibited for usage). Great concern exists about
the long-term chronic effects of such contamination on human and environmental health.
Currently, there is no national or regional monitoring programme designed by the government
to investigate pesticide residues in the environment, apart from those intending to evaluate
possible risk to the human population. It is very important to notice that pesticides levels
fluctuated enormously; high levels will be found just after application and lower later on, a high
concentration for a moment is more then enough to kill all aquatic biology however or to get
problems drinking it. Pesticides are measured by means of a HPLC (High Pressure Liquid
Chromatography) of GC (Gas Chromatography) in µg/l.
A farmer applying pesticides on his land. Most pesticides are mixed

at the spot with a carrier-fluid. Unfortunately not much attention is
given in preventing the human-toxicological effects of these
substances by wearing protective clothing or masks.

3.3.2 (Heavy) metals

Sources of (Heavy) metals are mostly found in fertilizers, waste dumping and sewage. No
industry is present in the Cameron Highlands that produces specific metals in their waste
water.
Farmers are aware of the high erosion rates, when erosion increases the soil fertility will
decline (because nutrients are washed away). Farmers solve this by increasing the application
of fertilizers. In this way higher concentrations of Potassium (normally in natural situations very
low concentrations) and Sodium are present in rivers and groundwater. Because of the wide
utilization of organic fertilizers (chicken manure), which usually contain relatively high
concentrations heavy metals. Sewage and waste dumping has similar effects. Regarding heavy
metals and specifically regarding Sodium and Potassium one can say that these are very good
indicators of anthropogenic influence on the river system, since concentrations are very
significantly higher found in anthropogenic disturbed waters than in the natural undisturbed
environment. (Heavy) metals are measured by means of an ICP-AES (Inductive Coupled
Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrophotometer) with exception of Sodium and Potassium (with
colour-metric methods) and Mercury (with MM; mercury-monitor). (Heavy metals are measured
in µg/l.
3.3.2.1 Potassium
Present in very low concentrations in the natural undisturbed environment
3.3.2.2 Sodium
Present everywhere, and in higher concentrations than Potassium, especially near saline
conditions, concentration in the Cameron Highlands relatively low.
3.3.2.3 Heavy metals

Originating from diverse human source as agriculture (fertilizers are usually polluted with
heavy metals), sewage and sold waste dumping. Mercury was detected in fish in the
Ringlet Reservoir by an earlier research of the Malaysian government.
Laboratory analytic apparatus for measuring (heavy) metals the ICP-AES (left) and a HPLC for
pesticides (right)

3.3.3 General analysis and nutrients

In this research project not only the true nutrient fall under the name of ‘’nutrient’’ but also: pH,
EC and TDS, this for their apparent response of influence of nutrient content as major
subsistent of their values. The origin of nutrients in the water system of the Upper-Bertam is
due sewage and due agricultural runoff (fertilizers). Nutrients and then especially Phosphate
and Ammoniac-Nitrogen from fertilizers and sewage form problems due their high presence in
the Upper-Bertam.
Erosion rate in vegetable farms are typically 80-150 ton/ha/year with loss of nutrients in the
order of 40kg for N, 2kg for P and 109kg for K12, 13. Although agriculture is a major source of
nutrients (N and P as well as BOD/COD) in the rivers, the major source of nutrient
encroachment in rivers is sewage form urban area.
3.3.3.1 pH
pH is a term used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity of a substance as ranked on a scale
from 1.0 to 14.0. Acidity increases as the pH gets lower. pH affects many chemical and
biological processes in the water7. For example, different organisms flourish within different
ranges of pH. The largest varieties of aquatic animals prefer a range of 6.5-8.0. pH outside
this range reduces the diversity in the stream because it stresses the physiological systems
of most organisms and can reduce reproduction. River water that increasingly becomes
acidic supports fewer forms of aquatic life. The extreme case appears to involve
cropland/farmland, where too much fertiliser may perform the role of acid rain. pH can be
analyzed in the field or in the lab.
3.3.3.2 Conductivity and TDS

Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current. Conductivity
in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as Chloride, Nitrate,
Sulphate and Phosphate anions or Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, and Aluminium cat
ions. Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the geology of the area7.
The Upper-Bertam river runs granite bedrock and has a lower conductivity, because
granite-compound (not ionizing in water/inert). Sewage discharges in the river changes the
conductivity significantly due the presence of many ions as Sodium and Chloride.
Conductivity is useful as a general measure of stream water quality since the undisturbed
reaches of the Upper-Bertam have a very low EC (because of their rainwater origin), so
every increase in the EC is like to be due anthropogenic disturbance. EC is measured in
µS/cm.
3.3.3.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

In river water, Total Dissolved Solids or TDS consist of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium,
Chlorides, Nitrate, Phosphates, and other ions particles that will pass through a filter with
pores of around 2 microns (0.002 cm) in size7. The concentration of total dissolved solids
affects the water balance in the cells of aquatic organisms7. High concentrations of TDS
are an indicator of pollution since natural highland rivers contain very low concentrations of
TDS (because of its origin as rain water). Sources of TDS include Sewage Treatment
Plants, fertilizers, road runoff, and soil erosion. TDS is important to measure in areas
where there are discharges from sewage treatment plants or extensive agriculture such as
in the Cameron Highlands. TDS measurements can be useful as an indicator of the effects
of runoff from construction, agricultural practices, logging activities, sewage treatment plant
discharges, and other sources. Concentrations often increase sharply during rainfall,
especially in urbanized and agricultural water catchment. Total Dissolved Solids

concentration in milligrams per litre (mg/L) can also be calculated by multiplying the
conductivity result by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9, which is empirically determined7.
3.3.3.4 Phosphorus
Phosphorus occurs in water in several forms and can be quantified by the totalP7. The 2
main forms in which Phosphor occurs are in dissolved and in particulate forms.
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for organism growth. Since Phosphorus is the nutrient
in short supply in most fresh waters, even a modest increase in Phosphorus can, under the
right conditions, set off a whole chain of undesirable events in a stream including
accelerated plant growth, algae blooms, low dissolved oxygen and the death of certain fish,
invertebrates, and other aquatic animals. The main sources of Phosphorus are
anthropogenic by wastewater treatment plants (sewage) and agricultural runoff (fertilizers).
Phosphor as Phosphate is measured in mg/l by means of colour-metric methods, when
measuring totalP after destruction.
3.3.3.5 Nitrogen: Nitrate, Ammonium and totalN

Nitrates are a form of Nitrogen, which is found in several different forms in terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. These forms of Nitrogen include Ammonium (NH4+), Nitrates (NO3-),
and Nitrites (NO2-). Nitrates are essential plant nutrients, but in large amounts they can
cause significant water quality problems. Together with Phosphorus, Nitrates can
accelerate Eutrophication, causing dramatic increases in aquatic plant growth (algae-
bloom) and changes in the types of plants and animals that live in the stream. This, in turn,
affects dissolved oxygen, temperature, and other indicators. The natural level of
Ammonium or Nitrate in surface water is typically low (less than 1 mg/L); in the effluent of
wastewater treatment plants, it can range up to 30 mg/L7. Nitrates from land sources end
up in rivers more quickly than other nutrients like Phosphorus. This is because they
dissolve in water more readily than Phosphates, which have an attraction for soil particles.
As a result, Nitrates serve as a better indicator of the possibility of a source of sewage or
fertilizers during dry weather. Water that is polluted with Nitrogen-rich organic matter might
show low Nitrates. Decomposition of the organic matter lowers the dissolved oxygen level,
which in turn slows the rate at which Ammonia is oxidized to Nitrite (NO2-) and then to
Nitrate (NO3-).
Ammonium can be taken up directly by plants — usually through their roots. However,
most of the Ammonium produced by decay is converted into Nitrates. This is accomplished
in two steps:
# Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to Nitrites (NO2−);
# Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the Nitrites to Nitrates (NO3−).
Nitrate can be decomposed by other bacteria to N2 (Nitrogen gas) in anaerobic
circumstance (thus without oxygen), since the oxygen-levels in the fast flowing Upper-
Bertam are quite high, nitrate will be accumulated in the river system. A technique to
measure the total amount of Nitrogen compounds in water is through totalN, this uses the
Kjeldahl analysis.

3.3.3.6 COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) measures the same as BOD; the amount of oxygen
required for decomposing organic matter in river water, but is different in the way that not
with bacteria but oxidation finds place by chemical means. It therefore gives a higher value
than BOD, since much more compounds can be decomposed by chemical means than by
bacteria. But it is a much more reliable measurement, since it not depends on uncertain
conditions of present bacteria i.e. It is given in mg/l.
The most significant source of nutrients in the Upper-Bertam; sewage.

3.3.4 Micro-biological contamination

Water provides a medium for the transmission of a large number of diseases. Water-related
diseases are caused by pathogen organisms as bacteria or viruses. Pathogenic organisms
come from domestic sewage that is discharged directly or from organic fertilizers like chicken
manure as well as organic waste in the riverbed or in the stream.
This river water that is micro biological contaminated maybe containing microbes including
viruses, bacteria, and intestinal parasites, the protozoan Cryptosporidium and bacteria E. Coli,
Giarda, and Salmonella. Deceases caused by contact with contaminated water are: Diarrhoea,
Dysentery, Hepatitis, Cholera, Campylobacteriosis, Ascariasis, Leptospirosis, Typhoid and
paratyphoid fevers, Polio and TuberculosisB.
Since water borne pathogens are difficult to detect in the laboratory, water is instead
quantitatively and qualitatively tested for more easily measurable “indicators”, the presence of
which indicate that water is contaminated with faecal matter. The most commonly used
indicator is the micro-organism, Escherichia coli (E.coli), measured in coliform forming unit (cfu)
per 100 ml of water7. The test can be further refined to determine whether E.coli is of human or
animal origin by making counts of both faecal coliform and faecal streptococcal bacteria (the
former is predominant in human wastes and the latter in animal wastes). About 20% of coliform
bacteria in water are faecal coliforms. E.coli is abundant in human and animal faeces. The
presence of E.coli in water always indicates potentially dangerous contamination requiring
immediate attention; these rivers are more likely to be contaminated by E.coli and other
pathogens. In the Upper-Bertam the bacterial contamination (Coliforms i.e.) is mainly due the
uncontrolled pouring in of insufficient or not treated at all sewage (domestic waste water) and
the extensive use of chicken manure as fertilizers in agriculture.
Earlier research concluded that levels of Coliforms (both total and faecal) in river water of the
Cameron Highlands are unacceptably high and does not meet the World Health Organization
(WHO) clean water standards (<10 Coliforms and no faecal Coliform for 100 ml of untreated
water)B.
The most important source of micro-bacteriological contamination of the Upper-Bertam is sewage. A

domestic waste water drain near Brinchang (left). A very significant source of micro-biological
contamination is this waste water from a chicken-butchery. Blood, intestines and left-over meat are
poured in the river course here at Brinchang-town (right).

3.3.5 Suspended solids

Land erosion is a major contributor of suspended sediments and siltation in the river. Besides
the severe pollution with organic compounds, siltation (increase of turbidity of the water) is the
most significant actor causing water quality deterioration. Most important source of silt into the
river course is agriculture, mostly on extremely steep slopes. Especially the vegetable culture
(with partly bare soil) is a major contributor. During High Water Flow siltation is extremely
significant; the Upper-Bertam is turned completely brown, with concentrations of silt not rarely
exceeding several to tens of GRAMS (!!!!) per litre according to research carried out by Hashim
et al.11. When rainfall starts the water level of the Upper-Bertam river rises quickly with a rapid
increase in suspended sediment, which usually reaches its peak concentration on the rising
limb of the hydrograph. During this rainfall the water turns browns form sediment, but will be
clear several hours after the rainfall stops, since these high sediment concentrations are short
lived (average of 5-10 hours). Because of the relatively constant rainfall regime in the Cameron
Highlands the pattern of sediment yield is quite uniform distributed throughout the year11.
As stated major the cause of siltation of the river is agricultural practise; to be precise
indiscriminate agricultural practise. Of the total of 71.218 ha of the Cameron Highlands only
3.292 ha is suitable for agriculture (because of slope gradient; less then 25° and soil type), the
use as agricultural land however exceeds 5.890 ha which implicates that 2.598.3 ha is
indiscriminately used for agricultural purposes1. Couple this with the steep and long slopes,
intensive agriculture and soil characteristics and major very soil runoff and erosion appears.
Besides agriculture also land clearing and construction works can have a huge effect on the
entire river course.
The Upper-Bertam main stream at the Parrit Falls (left) and near the Brinchang Golf course
(right). During rain, just after rain, during construction works and during other moments the river
course is extremely siltated with Suspended Solid concentrations exceeding grams per liter.
Whereas Shallow concluded the sediment yield of the Bertam river in 1956 as 2.5 tons/ha/year,
Baharuddin et al concluded in 1996 a value of 13 to 27 tons/ha/year13. SHMB in 1999 gave
values of 200-250 tons/km2/year for temperate vegetable culture in the Highlands and for
construction sites 40.000-50.000 tons/km2/year. Regarding the massive expansion off
agricultural grounds and the intended construction plans; the graph below will likely only
continue to increase further.
According Wan Abdullah et al 2004 the sedimentation rate in the Ringlet Reservoir (of which
sg. Bertam is the major constraint) has increased 9 times in a period of 25 years! 13

TNB spends 150 million RM on a 2,5 year desiltation-project (removing 2,2 million m3 polluted
sediment to a forested area). The yearly inflow of sediment is 550.000 m3/year, which is flowing
in at the same time of the project, so 1,5 year after finishing the project, it has to started all over
again to remove again 2,2 million m3 of sediment26.
vegetation Soil erosion as river sediment (ton/ha/year)

Forests 0.49
Tea and orchards 9.76
Vegetables 14.65
Year of Sedimentation Above: Vegetation cover and soil erosion by Shalow

survey rate (m3/km2/year) 1956, cited from Hashim, G, M and Rahaman,
1965 202 A.H.A, MARDI
1967 52
1969 114
1970 292
1975 106
1981 595
1984 911
1986 1200
1987 1726 Left: Sedimentation at Ringlet Reservoir (from
1990 1814 TNB, cited by Wan Abdullah et al 2001)
3.4 Methodology
3.4.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the method and different phases of this research project and explains
the choice of the used methods. In water sampling for chemical and micro-biological analysis
the guidelines of the Netherlands Normalisation Institute (NEN) and European guidelines are
used. For the exact methods we refer to these guidelines (named further in this report). For the
biological assessment both Malaysian guidelines (mainly in identification of species and
species tolerance) and Dutch sampling methods are used.
3.4.2 Parameter selection

It is important to understand the relationship between human induced disturbances and their
affect on aquatic resources. River-ecology disturbances from urban and agricultural
development contribute to an overall decrease in the (biological) integrity of the Upper-Bertam
river (e.g., road building/construction activities, stream canalization, alteration of the stream’s
riparian zone and water pollution due any of these factors). It is apparent that an assessment of
water quality cannot focus on chemical indicators alone, but must instead focus on indicators
that integrate the effects of both physical and chemical stressors. Proper management of river
and stream systems must be predicated upon a comprehensive monitoring strategy that is able
to detect degradation in streams due to human disturbance. Because of the relativity limited
resources and apparatus only a few chemical/physical parameters are chosen to be carried out
in the course of this research project, instead of that the accent lies on the biological properties
i.e. the aquatic macro invertebrates’ assessment and on interactions between the two. In this
research project the following parameters are chosen to test; pH, EC and TDS using the Multi-

meter, and heavy metals, pesticides, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Total Nitrogen, Total
Phosphor and faecal bacterial (E.Coli) by a laboratory.
The riversides of the Sungai Bertam and its side streams are in use for agricultural purposes,
with the appliance of fertilizers and pesticides the resulting water parameters can be expected:
• Fertilizers: (soluble) Phosphates, (in)organic Nitrogen-compounds, heavy metals,
macro-elements like Sodium and Potassium, bacterial infection by the use of chicken
faeces;
• Pesticides: i.e. large groups of organochlorine-pesticides (POP’s) and other
(persistent) synthetic compounds.
The river Sungai Bertam runs through the towns of Brinchang and Tanah Rata along other
smaller villages (kampongs) adding (partly unprocessed) sewage. The following water
parameters can be expected:
• Sewage: organic Nitrogen and Phosphates compound increasing BOD/COD, micro-
biological infection by bacteria of the thermo-tolerant E.Coli group, pathogens like
Cholera and Dysentery and Entero-viruses;
• Solid waste material is also dumped on the riverside and into the riverbed.
3.4.3 Selection of parameters to use in this research project is based

on:
• The water quality problems and pollution sources in the case of the Cameron
Highlands;
• The costs and availability of equipment and analyses;
• The precision and accuracy of available monitoring equipment;
• The capabilities and possibilities of the researchers.
3.4.4 Samples are taken from different sampling points. The analysis
that are carried out on the samples include:
• Selected pesticides
• Thermo tolerant Coliforms (pathogens)
• Selected (heavy) metals
• General analysis: COD, pH, EC, TDS, totP, and totN,
(Above left): taking a sample for pesticide analysis, (Above right): taking a sample for general and
nutrient analysis

3.5 Strategy
This chapter describes the methods that are actually used for the selection of the sampling
stations and the collecting the samples. At the sample stations chemical as well as biological
sampling took place.
3.5.1 Sample locations

Samples are taken before addition of a side stream or possible change in water condition i.e.
related to land use on riversides or sewage effluent into the river course. The value of each
parameter after addition minus before gives the resulting contribution of the land use or stream
in the area. It takes a certain length of river course until both watercourses are mixed after a
side stream is added to the main stream. This depends on the water rates and riverbed
structure of the water streams. Samples are taken in the main watercourse after homogenising
the addition of (polluted) sources. Sampling points are specifically chosen on locations of the
river course. See map in the Appendices for the topographical location of these sampling
locations/stations.
Sample location Reason of selection

(SP 1) At source, slopes of Mt. Brinchang Clean background concentration sample
(SP 2) At Golf course Brinchang After farming, addition of sg. Burong and
sewage inflow of Brinchang town
(SP 3) Near MARDI Tanah Rata After addition of sg. Ruil and sg. Jasar, inflow
sewage of Tanah Rata town and farming
(SP 4) Just before flowing in Ringlet Reservoir After addition of sg. Ulung and sg. Batu Pipih
and extensive farming
(SP A) Sungai Burong, just before joining sg. Length, flow and farming & urban use
Bertam
(SP B) Sungai Ruil, just before joining sg. Length, high flow and farming & urban use
Bertam
(SP C) Sungai Jasar, just before joining sg. High flow and inflow Tanah Rata sewage
Bertam
(SP D) Sungai Ulung, just before joining sg. Length, high flow and farming (tea plantations
Bertam and agriculture)
(SP E) Sungai Batu Pipih, just before joining Length, flow and very intensive farming &
sg. Bertam agriculture use

3.5.2 Sampling method

Regarding water sampling for chemical analysis, the samples are taken in course of the NEN-
EN-ISO 5667-1,2,3:2004 guidelines.
Generally the samples are taken according to the summary below (except for E.Coli;
extra hygienic measures are taken):
1. Using bottles supplied by the laboratory;
2. Following the comments and guidelines of the laboratory for sampling tidily;
3. Labelling the bottle with the site number, date, and time;
4. Collecting a water sample mid-way between the surface and the bottom; disturbing as
little bottom sediment as possible. Not collecting water that has sediment from bottom
disturbance;
5. Turning the bottle underwater into the current and filling the bottle underwater
completely without air;
6. Filling in the bottle number and/or site number on the appropriate field data sheet;
7. Placing the samples in the cooler for transport to the lab. with transport to the
laboratory as soon as possible;
At each sampling point the following general visible pollution indicators are also noted:
• Water colour - colourless, transparent or has it a colour (maybe yellow or
brown)
• Foam on the surface - might be natural or due to pollution, generally
detergents or nutrients
• Water turbidity - cloudy brown due to suspended silt or organic material
• Water colour dark brown - might indicate that acids are being released into
the stream due to decaying plants
• Oily sheen on the water surface – multi-coloured reflection might indicate oil
floating in the stream, although some sheens are natural
• Water odour can be a physical indicator of water pollution; no smell or a
natural odour or strong smell of some kind
• Visible sewage - might indicate the release of human waste material
• Litter or garbage in the stream-solid waste form urban use may also in clued
(partly) empty pesticide bottles
• Fungi on the stream bottom- grey or whitish underwater growing fungi
indicate extremely polluted water, full with sewage
• Algae on rocks and gravel-indicating nutrient enrichment of the water, green
algae are better then the slimy brown ones (indicating severe nutrient
enrichment)

3.5.3 Sampling moment

In dryer periods with a few days of dry weather the river runs with relatively stable water rates.
Within these periods riverbed erosion takes place delivering bonded compounds in the riverbed
to the water stream (i.e. phosphates and pesticides). During rain or just after raining, the river is
relatively unstable with rapidly increasing water rates with surface runoff of the surrounding
land(with compounds bonded to the surface layers of i.e. agricultural land) being added to the
water stream. The water stream will then be brown of silt and have a water rate which is up to 5
times the original water rate in dryer moments.
To gain results of both possible conditions 2 moments are arbitrary chosen; a dry moment with
stable river flow (AWF) and a wet moment with high unstable river flow (HWF: High Water
Flow; defined as the moment in 3 or more raining days in the catchment).
Left: Robinson waterfall water 10.00AM (1st picture) and 14.00AM (2nd picture) same day after
rain in the catchment.

3.5.4 Chemical analysis

The chemical analyses were carried-out by the accredited laboratory of Water Board
Rivierenland. The chemical analysis are validated according to the accreditation of the Raad
voor Accreditatie (formally Sterlab.). The analysis of E.coli samples were carried-out by
ERALab Sdn. Bhd., Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.
3.5.4.1 Pesticides:
• 2 samples on total pesticides package (1 liter green glass bottle)
• (1 sampling point (point 4) on 2 runs)
3.5.4.2 Bacteriological:
• 8 samples total E.Coli (100ml sterile bottle)
• (8 sampling points (point # 2, 3, 4 and A,B,C,D,E) only 1 AWF run)
3.5.4.3 Heavy metals:

• 6 samples on standard package HM + K (100ml plastic bottle with preservatives)
• (3 sampling points (point # 1, 3, 4) on 2 runs)
3.5.4.4 General analysis:

• 8 samples (2 runs) (4 sampling points (point # 1, 2, 3, 4)
• + 5 samples (2 runs) point A, B, C, D, E) (500ml plastic bottle)
• COD;
• TDS;
• TSS;
• pH;
• EC;
• totP;
• totN.
3.5.4.5 Packaging and transport of samples:

• Samples will be packed in the field at the moment of sampling, using the following
sample material:
• 2 x 1 liter green glass bottle for pesticides;
• 6 x 100 ml plastic bottle with preservatives for HM;
• 8 x 100 ml plastic sterile bacteriological samples;
• 18 x 500 ml general analysis.
Samples are cooled in the field (icebox) and send by a private courier to laboratory in The
Netherlands the same afternoon, where it arrived within 3 days. See also: NEN-EN-ISO 5667-
1,2,3:2004 guidelines. The E.Coli samples are taken en brought to ERALab and arrived there
within 4 hours.

3.6 Results
In this chapter the results of the chemical analysis are given and briefly discussed. Full analysis
results are supplied in tables in the appendices.
3.6.1 pH, EC and TDS

3.6.1.1 Introduction
pH (acidity), EC (electrical conductivity) and TDS (total dissolved solids) were measured with
an Hanna instruments portable multi-parameter instrument in the field during sampling. The full
measurement can be found in the appendices, but a graphical presentation is given below in
the line graphs. In this graph the 4 sample points along the main river course (sg. Bertam) are
displayed.
pH Bertam river
7.6
7.4
7.2
7
6.8 pH (AWF)
6.6
6.4 pH (HWF)
6.2
6
5.8
5.6
SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
Sample points
In the graph above the acidity of the river water is displayed along the sampling points during
Average Water Flow (AWF) and High Water Flow (HWF). Naturally the river water is lightly
acidic because of its origin of rain water and because of tannine and leave acids released from
the forest floors. Any increase in the pH is thus likely due anthropogenic influence, since also
the host rock (granite) does not support buffering. Visible is the slight increase in pH going
downstream, especially the steep increase at SP1 (forest stream) to SP2 after passing through
Brinchang town. During High Water Flow (HWF) this picture remains largely the same; except
that more dilution of the main course occurs due the addition of the Sg. Batu Pipih and Sg.
Ulung rivers; with lower pH. One should also bare in mind that the pH is logarithmic; so going
from 6 to 7 is a 10 fold increase, 6 to 8 a 100 fold and so on. The difference between the lowest
and the highest found values is pH 0.72; which is thus almost a 10 fold difference!
In the graph below the electrical conductivity and the concentration of total dissolved solids
(TDS) are displayed during Average Water Flow (AWF). The undisturbed and unpolluted rivers
of the Cameron Highlands flowing through the forests display a very low EC and TDS. This is
mainly due the origin of the river water of rain water and due the inert stream bank material
(mainly granite). However especially domestic waste water (sewage i.e.) has a very high EC
and TDS, so adding of this domestic waste water will cause the EC and TDS to increase. This
process is clearly visible in this graph. Where at SP1, the undisturbed and unpolluted part of
the river a very low EC and TDS is found, however after flowing through Brinchang, both values
dramatically increase (SP 2 and 3). Although later on the town of Tanah Rata is passed (just
before SP3) with addition of its waste water, the EC and TDS slight decrease, this is very likely
due the increased flow of the main stream by addition of much cleaner streams as Sg. Ruil and
later on Sg. Batu Pipih and Sg. Ulung. Dilution of the salt concentration making up the 2 values
of EC and TDS. This last process is even more visible at the High Water Flow (HWF) in the
EC and TDS Bertam river (AWF)
70
60
50
40 EC µS/cm
30 TDS mg/l
20
10
0
SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
Sample points
other graph; whereas this dilution is more significant because of the very increased total flow;
however the salt load can increase due agricultural runoff.
EC and TDS Bertam river (HWF)
70
60
50
40 EC µS/cm
30 TDS mg/l
20
10
0
SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
Sample points

3.6.2 Pesticides
Higher concentrations of pesticides were expected in HWF because pesticides are typically
found as agricultural runoff. They are stored in the surface soil layers and released with rain
into the river.
Residue levels of Alfa-Endosulfan, Endosulfan-sulfate and of Alfa-HCH were found. At

sampling point 4 (near Habu) a concentration of 0.29 µg/l Endosulfan-sulfate and 0.069 µg/
Alfa-Endosulfan was found during HWF. During AWF slightly lower concentrations were found.
The total of Alfa-Endosulfan and Endosulfan-sulfate during AWF was 0.23 µg/l and during
HWF 0.36 µg/l at this sampling point. A residue level of Alfa-HCH was found at the same
sampling point too; with 0.0060 µg/l. Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide and acaricide.
It belongs to the class of POPs or Persistent Organic pollutant and it is a Organochlorine
Pesticide. These compounds are characterized by their high level of persistence in the
environment, and their ability to bio-accumulate in animal/human tissue. Endosulfan is
moderately persistent in soils with an average half-life of 50 days. Endosulfan is very highly
toxic to aquatic fauna. Both vertebrate (fish, amphibians), and invertebrates (mollusks, insects,
gastropods) are susceptible with LC 50’s (Lethal Concentration) in the range of 1 ppb for many
species. Transport of is most likely to occur if endosulfan is adsorbed to soil particles in surface
runoff and then flushed into the river course.
In the edition of 10th April 2005 of the COSMO!, a Malaysian newspaper. DDT was detected
just before the Sg. Burong drinking water intake (a tributary of the Upper-Bertam). The testing
was carried out in cooperation with R.E.A.C.H. The detected concentration was 1920 µg/l
(t-DDT) !! That is almost 20.000 times higher than allowed (according to INWQS).
(see appendices for fact sheet on this incident).
In our analysis α-HCH was detected at

trace concentrations (0.0060 μg/l at SP4).
This α-HCH is a breakdown product of
biodegradation of Lindane (γ-HCH). The
fact that α-HCH was detected, even though
in low concentration, proves the usage of
Lindane in the catchment. Whenever this
was recent is difficult to prove. Lindane is
very persistent in the environment; with a
half-life of approximately 400 days. Lindane
is also an organochlorine insecticide and
POP. Many other organochlorines which
over the years have been linked to major Left: especially streams through dense
health and environmental problems. agricultural land like here at Sg. Batu Pipih
Including: aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDT and have the highest risk of pesticide pollution
heptachlor which have been banned in
many countries. Lindane is also known as gamma-HCH since it is made up of at least 99% of
the gamma-isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH). Lindane is banned in most countries
around the world for its persistent and toxic character. To test the hypothesis that illegal and
toxic pesticides are still used and available in the area; samples were taken from a few dealers
of pesticides. These samples were brought for chemical analysis to ERAlab in Kuala Lumpur. It
was found that these pesticides are sold under hand, in unlabeled bottles or in bottles of legal
ordinary pesticides. 3 samples were analysed and it was found that they contained: Clorpyrifos
and Carbofuran. Two
Organophosphates used as insecticides. These two pesticides are allowed in Malaysia. When
looking at the enormous amount of pesticides bottles (and their subscript) the suspicion rises
that certainly not all of them are allowed.

Higher concentrations of (heavy) metals were expected in HWF because (heavy) metals are
typically found as agricultural runoff. They are stored in the surface soil layers and released
with rain into the river. Another source is from sewage; which will react exactly opposite since it
will be diluted with rain.
Increased concentrations of Arsenic, Cadmium, Chrome, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Zinc and
Mercury are found. Most significant differences with the undisturbed (background
concentrations SP1) were found for: Arsenic at sampling point 3 and 4 (sg. Bertam) with 13
µg/l respectively 8 µg/l at HWF. At the same sampling points during HWF also: Cadmium with
0.2 µg/l respectively 0.1 µg/l. Chrome with 23 µg/l respectively 17 µg/l, Copper with 15 µg/l
respectively 12 µg/l, Lead with 60 µg/l respectively 23 µg/l, Nickel with 7 µg/l respectively 5
µg/l and Zinc with 140 µg/l respectively 60 µg/l. Only the concentrations for Chrome and Lead
are apparently high. A 6 fold exceeding of the maximum value for Lead (according to WHO
guidelines), a 1.3 fold exceeding for Arsenic (again according to WHO guidelines).
Potassium was measured because of its values as a tracer ion for agricultural practises.
Potassium is a grow-nutrient and used in fertilizers for plant growth in agriculture. It is ideal
because it is rare in nature and because its hydrological character (is very mobile in soil &
groundwater). It is important to look at the AWF; because of its mobile character. At the
undisturbed sample location of sampling point 1 (sg. Bertam at Mt. Brinchang) no Potassium
was found; this is expected because it is a quite rare element in nature. At sampling points 3
and 4 Potassium concentrations of 2000 µg/l respectively 3000 µg/l were detected. Both
indicating agricultural practise in the local water catchment and in lesser extent urban waste
water.

3.6.4 Nutrients
Higher concentrations of nutrients were expected in HWF because of agricultural runoff. In
agricultural runoff; nutrients will be stored in the surface soil layers and released with rain into
the river. The concentration of nutrient in AWF is likely to be almost solely of domestic waste
water and will be more diluted in HWF. Nitrates are considered better indicators in AWF, since
their relatively good solubility and non-reactive behaviour. Phosphate however is tightly bonded
in the surface soil layers and to sediment and thus found in higher concentration during HWF.
COD is present in higher concentration during HWF; since the origin of both domestic water (of
the AWF) and agricultural runoff are present.
3.6.4.2 Total Nitrogen

For totalN (as Kjeldahl-Nitrogen) very low concentrations were found at the undisturbed
tributaries. High to extremely high concentrations were found at the main stream and at some
tributaries. Concentrations of 17 mg/l at sampling point 2 (sg. Bertam) and 9.6 mg/l at sampling
point A (sg. Burong) are detected during HWF. The concentrations during AWF are significantly
lower. Still also SP3 (sg. Bertam) and SP C (sg. Jasar) show high concentrations and thus
severe Eutrophication. According to “Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria of the WHO”
during both AWF and HWF. Although during AWF much lower concentration were found.
3.6.4.3 Total Phosphor

Concentrations Phosphor (as totP) were equally high (as for totN) at the same sampling points
during HWF. Also concentrations totP are significantly higher during HWF than during AWF;
especially agricultural runoff is here probably the major cause. The present phosphor
concentrations at SP2, 3, 4, A, C and are so high that it causes severe eutrophication.
3.6.4.4 COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) showed
the same trend as totalN and total P.
Sampling points 2 (sg. Bertam), 3 (sg.
Bertam) and A (sg. Burong) show particular
high BOD with 505 mg/l, 191 mg/l and 570
mg/l respectively during HWF. Again much
lower concentrations were detected during
AWF. Also the present COD at SP2, 3, 4, A,
B, C and D and are so high that it causes
severe Eutrophication. According to
“Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria
of the WHO” COD is exceeded at almost all
sampling points in ranges of 2 to 50 times Left: even during High water Flow, the
during both AWF and HWF. Although during forest streams like here at SP1 are non-
AWF much lower COD was found. turbid and have very low nutrient yields

3.6.5 Micro-biological
E.Coli samples are taken during AWF and with the sample precautions directed by the
laboratory; i.e. samples taken in sterile conditions in special containers and cooled transport to
the laboratory arriving there within 4 hours after sampling. The found values can be seen in the
table below. As can be seen, all sample points show extremely high presence of E.Coli.
Sampling point E. Coli (cfu/100ml) APHA 9222 D

SP 1 Sg. Bertam - (not measured)
SP 2 Sg. Bertam > 200
SP 3 Sg. Bertam > 200
SP 4 Sg. Bertam 86
SP A Sg. Burong 65
SP B Sg. Ruil 52
SP C Sg. Jasar > 200
SP D Sg. Ulung 14
SP E Sg. Batu Pipih 59
One would suspect successively increased values along the Sg. Bertam going top wards down,
but the addition of Sg. Ulung and Sg. Batu Pipih just before sample point SP4, caused dilution
of the E.Coli load as well as some effects of degradation of the bacteria due
transport/oxygenation between SP 3 and SP4 (over Robinson Waterfalls). E.Coli and
pathogens are typically found in domestic waste water and animal (chicken) manure as applied
in agriculture in the area.
3.6.6 Suspended Solids

Suspended Solid concentrations are extremely high during HWF and almost neglectable during
AWF. It is more sufficient to work with grams (!!!) per litre then with milligrams considering the
found concentrations TSS (total Suspended Solids). The highest were at SP 2 (sg. Bertam)
with 4.1 g/l (4100
mg/l), at SP 3 (sg.
Bertam) 1.8 g/l
(1800 mg/l) and at
SP A (sg. Burong)
3.9 g/l (3900 mg/l.
According to
“Recommended
Raw Water quality
Criteria of the
WHO” Suspended
Solids levels are
exceeded at almost
all sampling points
in ranges of 2 to 4
times only during
HWF. Above: siltation is very evident during High Water Flow with very high
turbidity like here at SP3 near MARDI, Sg. Bertam.

3.6.7 Individual water quality of sampling points & tributaries

In the summary below the most significant values are supplied of each individual sampling
points of the sg. Bertam (Sp 1, 2, 3, 4) and of the tributaries, for full details, see the attaches.
SP 1 Sg. Bertam
At this point the river just started at its source on Mt. Brinchang and it is still flowing through the
forest, with no human influence. The stream has a very low nutrient load (almost no N and P)
and a low COD. The present COD is likely to be due organic matter as decomposing plant
material etc. Due to the low N and P concentrations; water of excellent biological condition is
suspected. Because the river here has its natural flow and intact stream banks, the level
Suspended Solids is very low. The level of
Suspended Solids is therefore a very good Parameter AWF HWF
indicator of human influence, and the COD 11 39
alteration of the sub catchment; especially totN <0.5 0.6
of agriculture which is the largest cause. TotP <0.05 0.07
Potassium is also an indicator for Potassium <1000 1000
agricultural practises in the sub catchment; TSS 6.4 67
and again at this sampling point it is very
low. When compared with the Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia this river
is classified as of class IIA/B during AWF and class IIA/B during HWF.
SP 2 Sg. Bertam
At this sampling point the river has left the forest and has flown through the town of Brinchang;
where sewage and drains have polluted it with nutrients. The ratio between N and P (and the
high concentration of them) is typical for domestic waste water (sewage). Together with a
(extremely) high COD this indicates severe pollution with nutrients; caused by domestic waste
water and in minor extent due agricultural
runoff. The concentration of organic Parameter (mg/l) AWF HWF
pollutions (nutrients) is so high that very COD 10 505
severe Eutrophication (biological totN 1.8 17
degradation) is suspected. Sewage (and in TotP 0.27 14
lesser extent animal manure) also causes TSS 13 4100
very severe microbiological contamination E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) >200 -
here; with a Colony Forming Unit of E.Coli
higher then could be counted (!!!). The level Suspended Solids is extremely significant during
HWF with 4100 mg/l or 4.1 g/l (!!!). The causes must be sought in agricultural practises on
much too steep slopes and with bare soil in the sub catchment. When compared with the
Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia this river is classified as of class III
during AWF and class V during HWF.

SP 3 Sg. Bertam
At this sampling point the river has flown through the towns of Brinchang and Tanah Rata;
where sewage has polluted it with nutrients on large scale. Again the ratio between N and P
(and the very high concentration of them) is typical for domestic waste water (sewage).
Together with a very high COD this indicates severe pollution with nutrients; caused by
domestic waste water and in minor extent due agricultural runoff. The concentration of organic
pollutions (nutrients) is so high that very severe Eutrophication (biological degradation) is
suspected. Sewage (and in lesser extent animal manure) also causes very severe
microbiological contamination here; with a Colony Forming Unit of E.Coli higher then could be
counted (!!!). The level Suspended Solids is very significant during HWF with 1800 mg/l or 1.8
g/l (!!!). The causes must be sought in agricultural practises on much too steep slopes and with
bare soil in the sub catchment.
Also increased values for heavy metals were found. Especially concentrations of Mercury, Lead
and Chrome are prevalent. When compared with the Interim National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia this river is classified as of class III during AWF and class V during HWF.
SP 4 Sg. Bertam
At this sampling point 4 the river has the
whole pollution load of the catchment in Parameter AWF HWF
itself. It has flown through the towns of COD 12 191
Brinchang and Tanah Rata (adding totN 2.0 5.7
domestic waste water; sewage). It was fed TotP 0.23 2.6
by the rivers of sg. Sg. Burong, Sg. Ruil, E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) >200 -
Sg. Jasar, Sg.Ulung and Sg. Batu Pipih. Potassium 2000 3000
Especially the rivers Sg.Ulung and Sg. TSS 11 1800
Batu Pipih run through areas with intensive
As <2 13
agriculture adding both pesticides,
fertilizers and micro biological Cd <0.05 0.2
contamination. Also here is the ratio Cr <2 23
between N and P (and the high Cu 2 15
concentration of them) typical for domestic Pb 1 60
waste water (sewage). Again together with Ni <2 7
a high COD this indicates severe pollution Zn <9 140
with nutrients; caused by domestic Hg <0.03 0.2
wastewater and by agricultural runoff. The
concentration of organic pollutions (nutrients) is so high that severe Eutrophication (biological
degradation) is suspected. Sewage (and in lesser extent animal manure) also causes very
severe microbiological contamination here; with a CFU value for E.Coli of 86 the river at SP 4
can be considered very contaminated. The level Suspended Solids is extremely significant
during HWF with 930 mg/l but also very high during AWF (which is worse) with 130 mg/l. The
causes must be sought in agricultural practises on much too steep slopes and with bare soil in
the sub catchments of Sg. Ullung, Sg. Batu Pipih and also along the main course for instance
near Habu. Two pesticides were detected: Endosulfan and Alfa-HCH. For Endosulfan the
concentration is relatively high and indicates the recent use of this highly toxic pesticide. It is
suspected that concentrations of Endosulfan with diminish 90% in 30-40 weeks in soil. The
presence of these concentration (highly diluted) in the main river course leads to the suspicion
that it is still used at the present. Alfa-HCH is the breakdown product of Lindane, it was found
in trace concentration at this sampling point. Again here it is difficult to state whether or not this
concentration is due a historic application. But also regarding the recent detection of high

concentrations at Sg. Burong which feeds this main river course it is likely that this pesticide is
still applied in the catchment. When compared with the Interim National Water Quality
Standards for Malaysia this river is classified as of class III during AWF and class V during
HWF.
SP A Sg. Burong
This stream forms the most important drinking water intake of JBA in the catchment. After its
origin on the slopes of Mt. Brinchang and the drinking water intake, a Strawberry farm and an
apartment complex follows; adding both domestic waste water (sewage), fertilizers and
pesticides.
It runs through the outer skirts of Brinchang
town before joining with the main course of Parameter AWF HWF
the Upper-Bertam at the Brinchang Golf COD 14 53
Course. Again high concentrations N and P totN 0.8 2.2
are found. Although the COD here is lower TotP 0.28 1.3
when compared to other sampling points, E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) 86 -
together with the concentrations N and P it Potassium 2000 3000
still indicates severe pollution with TSS 130 930
nutrients. Also here caused by domestic
Alfa-HCH <0.0020 0.0060
waste water and agricultural runoff.
Eutrophication (biological degradation) is Alfa-Endosulfan 0.071 0.069
suspected regarding the levels of N, P and Endosulfan-sulfate 0.016 0.29
COD. Sewage (and in lesser extent animal Total Alfa- 0.23 0.36
manure) also causes severe Endosulfan +
microbiological contamination here; with a Endosulfan-sulfate
CFU value for E.Coli of 65 the river at this As 3.0 8.0
sampling point can be considered as Cd 0.05 0.1
severely contaminated. The level Cr 3 17
Suspended Solids is also here extremely Cu 5 12
significant during HWF with 3900 mg/l or Pb 5 23
3.9 g/l (!!!). The causes must be sought in
Ni <2 5
agricultural practises on much too steep
Zn 18 60
slopes.
When compared with the Interim National Hg <0.03 0.05
Water Quality Standards for Malaysia this river is classified as of class IIA/B during AWF and
class V during HWF.

SP B Sg. Ruil
This tributary originates from Mt. Jasar and
Mt. Perdah and runs through the Orang Parameter AWF HWF
Asli village adding domestic waste water COD 11 75
(sewage). It joins the main course of the totN 0.8 9.6
Upper-Bert5am near the Old Smoke House TotP 0.11 8.7
hotel. Relatively low concentrations N and E.ColiParameter
(CFU/100 ml) 65 AWF -HWF
P and COD are found. These values are COD TSS 11
13 17
3900
significantly lower when compared to other totN 0.9 1.6
sampling points. This stream is therefore
TotP 0.07 0.32
mildly polluted with nutrient and it is
suspected that almost no Eutrophication E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) 52 -
(biological degradation) occurs. Sewage TSS <2 51
(and in lesser extent animal manure) also causes severe microbiological contamination here;
with a CFU value for E.Coli of 52 the river at this sampling point can be considered as severely
contaminated. Levels Suspended Solids are also very low; especially when compared to other
sampling points. This is presumably because of the relatively undisturbed sub catchment.
When compared with the Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia this river is
classified as of class IIA/B during AWF and class IV during HWF.
SP C Sg. Jasar
This tributary originates at Mt. Jasar and runs through agricultural land (adding fertilizers and
pesticides) before entering the Tanah Rata town were domestic waste water (sewage) is added
from the houses, stores and a Sewage Treatment Plant before joining the main course of the
Upper-Bertam near the Tanah Rata High School. The concentrations N and P are extremely
high and their ratio is typical for domestic Parameter AWF HWF
waste water (sewage) together with the COD 33 96
high COD. The concentration of organic totN 4.6 2.7
pollutions (nutrients especially the values
TotP 0.54 1
for N and P) are so extremely high that
very severe Eutrophication (biological E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) >200 -
degradation) is suspected to the border of TSS 12 870
‘’biologically dead’’ water. Sewage causes very severe microbiological contamination here; with
a Colony Forming Unit of E.Coli higher then could be counted (!!!). this stream can be
considered as dangerously contaminated. The found concentrations (together with the
abundance of sewage fungi and presence E.Coli) indicates that the Sewage Treatment Plant is
not working properly and that it is producing almost raw water. The level Suspended Solids is
significant during HWF with 870 mg/l gain agriculture in the sub catchment just above Tanah
Rata is most likely the cause. When compared with the Interim National Water Quality
Standards for Malaysia this river is classified as of class IV during AWF and class V during
HWF.

SP D Sg. Ulung
This tributary originates just above the BOH tea-estate, runs through the tea plantation (adding
fertilizers and pesticides and sewage from the houses at the tea-estate). After the tea
plantation Sg Ulung flows through intensive vegetable culture (adding fertilizers, pesticides and
E.Coli) before joining the main course of Parameter AWF HWF
the Upper-Bertam near Habu. The
COD <10 34
concentrations N and P are high, but the
COD is moderately low (at least compared totN 0.6 1.5
to the other sampling points). The high TotP 0.16 0.55
concentrations N and (especially) P E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) 14 -
indicates fertilizers runoff and in lesser TSS 4.8 150
extent domestic waste water (sewage).
These concentrations are suspected to cause Eutrophication (biological degradation) at this
river. Sewage (and in lesser extent animal manure) also causes microbiological contamination
here; with a CFU value for E.Coli of 14 (the lowest measured) the river at this sampling point
can be considered as mildly contaminated. The concentration Suspended Solids is significant
during HWF with 150 mg/l. Intensive agricultural practises in the sub catchment is likely to be
the cause. When compared with the Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia this
river is classified as of class III during AWF and class IV during HWF.
SP E Sg. Batu Pipih

This tributary drains a huge very intensive agricultural area with vegetable and flower culture,
adding fertilizers, pesticides and E.Coli. Also some housing exists along the course (houses of
farmers). It joins the main stream of the Upper-Bertam just before flowing into the Ringlet
reservoir near Habu. The concentration N is very low and that of P is moderately low, the COD
is very low. The increase concentration of
P is suspected to cause mild Parameter AWF HWF
Eutrophication (biological degradation). COD <10 <10
Fresh water systems are very sensitive to totN <0.5 0.6
phosphor, concentrations above 0.05 mg/g TotP 0.11 0.13
are suspected to undergo Eutrophication E.Coli (CFU/100 ml) 59 -
and biological degradation. Sewage (and in TSS 18 67
lesser extent animal manure) also causes
severe microbiological contamination here; with a CFU value for E.Coli of 59 the river at this
sampling point can be considered as severely contaminated. The concentration Suspended
Solids is significant, but compared to other sampling points relatively low, withy 67 mg/l during
HWF. Again agricultural practises in the sub catchment is likely to be the cause. When
compared with the Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia this river is classified
as of class IIA/B during AWF and class III during HWF.

3.7 Interpretation
Regarding the chemical analysis the results are only indicative, not enough samples (and over
a sufficient time-lapse) are taken and analysed to give definitive answers, but the sampling and
analysis give an accurate picture of the state of the rivers of the Upper Bertam river catchment
at this moment of time. They are meant to give a total picture in bird’s perspective of the
present condition of the rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment based on the analysis,
assessments and literature research.
Descriptions of the river water quality trends are based on the river classification system
developed by the DOE (INWQS: Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia). The
classification system places rivers under specific categories ranging from Class I describing
rivers in their pristine conditions, to Class V for rivers which are heavily polluted.
Water classes according to “Interim national water quality standards for Malaysia” (INWQS).
The rivers that were tested in this research complied with the classes (of pollution) set by the
Department of Environment in Malaysia. In the tables below the classification of rivers of the
Upper Bertam catchment are given according to the Interim National Water Quality Standards
for Malaysia.
During SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
AWF IIA/B III III III
HWF IIB/III V V V
Sp 1: The source of Sg. Bertam is class IIA/B. This is mainly because of the low pH and a
higher COD. A pH lower than 6.5 is typical for forest streams.
Sp 2: At the river course the Sg Bertam is a class III river, during average flow. The main
reason of this is the high amount of Phosphorus in the water. During high water flow the Sg.
Bertam is a class V river. This is caused by the large amount of COD and TSS.
Sp 3: Just before the Robinson fall the Sg. Bertam is a class III river, during average flow. This
is mainly caused by the large amount of Phosphorus. Also at this point the river turns into class
V during high water flow. The cause of this is mainly the large amount of COD and TSS.
Sp 4: The Sg. Bertam is before flowing in the Ringlet Reservoir a class III river, during average
flow. This is mainly because of the high amounts of Phosphorus that are present. During high
water flow the river turns into a class V river. This is mainly due the increase of the amount of
Total Suspended Solids.
During SP A SP B SP C SP D SP E
AWF IIA/B IIA/B IV IIA/B IIA/B
HWF V IV V IV III

Sp A: The Sg. Burong is during average flow a class IIA/B river and this is mainly due the
amount of COD and Total Phosphorus. During high water flow the river turns into class V and
this is caused by the large amount of TSS and a high COD.
Sp B: During average water flow Sg. Ruil is a class IIA/B river. This is because of the low pH,
but is typically for forest streams and the COD that is slightly higher. During high water flow this
river is a class IV. This is mainly due the high amounts of Phosphorus.
Sp C: Sg. Jasar is a class IV river during AWF and this is mainly caused by the high
Phosphorus content in the water. During HWF the river is of class V and this is mainly due the
large amount of TSS in the river.
Sp D: The Ulung river is of class IIA/B during AWF and class IV during HWF. The main cause
of this is the Phosphorus content.
Sp E: Sg. Batu Pipih is a IIA/B class river during AWF and this is because of the amount of
Phosphorus that is present. During HWF the river turns into a class III river and this is caused
by the amount of TSS.
Compared with the “Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria of the WHO” the following
exceedings for Nitrogen, Suspended Solids and COD were found:
Nitrogen mg/l Acceptable AWF Exceeding HWF Exceeding

value
SP 2 1.0 1.8 1.8 x 17 17 x
SP 3 1.0 2.0 2.0 x 5.7 5.7 x
SP 4 1.0 0.8 - 2.2 2.2 x
SP A 1.0 0.8 - 9.7 9.7 x
SP B 1.0 0.9 - 1.6 1.6 x
SP C 1.0 4.6 4.6 x 2.7 2.7 x
SP D 1.0 0.6 - 1.5 1.5 x
Total Suspended Acceptable AWF Exceeding HWF Exceeding

Solids mg/l value
SP 2 1000 13 - 4100 4.1 x
SP 3 1000 11 - 1800 1.8 x
SP A 1000 13 - 3900 3.9 x

Chemical Oxygen Acceptable AWF Exceeding HWF Exceeding

Demand mg/l value
SP 1 10 11 1.1 x 39 3.9 x
SP 2 10 10 - 505 50.5 x
SP 3 10 12 1.2 x 191 19.1 x
SP 4 10 14 1.4 x 53 5.3 x
SP A 10 11 1.1 x 570 57.0 x
SP B 10 11 1.1 x 17 1.7 x
SP C 10 33 3.3 x 96 9.6 x
SP D 10 < 10 - 34 3.4 x
Regarding biological contamination with E.Coli (as Faecal Coliforms); according to the National
Drinking Water Standards(Malaysia) the CFU should be 0 in 100ml. According to the “Water
intended for Human consumption water standards of the EU” CFU of E.Coli should be 0 in
250ml.

4. Ecological appraisal
Function and place of the chapter ‘Ecological Appraisal’ in this report
However made up of less ‘hard data’ as with ‘Chemical Appraisal this part of the research
project has convincing data with methods used and trusted by many Water Board around
Europe and America. These aquatic macro invertebrate assessments are nowadays being
used as the instrument of choice for assessing water quality; even more than chemical
analysis. This is because instead of providing with the concentration of a specific parameter;
macro invertebrate assessment are able to give a ‘global’ state of the water quality; no matter
of the exact parameter tested. More over it also gives a ‘state of the water quality in a certain
time period’; long after a chemical parameter could be tested.

Again this chapter is split into three intrinsic parts. At first the ecology of the Cameron
Highlands and the place of aquatic macro invertebrates in the river system are described. Then
the concept of aquatic macro invertebrate assessments is thoroughly described. Because this
is the first time this method is used here; and because this method is widely ‘unknown’ it is
discussed with relative great detail with the whole general methodology and techniques of such
an assessment described thoroughly. Before the exact methodology adapted and designed for
this research project is discussed; the aquatic ecosystem of the Upper-Bertam catchment;
Cameron Highlands is discussed. The second part of this chapter discussed and describes the
methodology of sampling, sample stations and the methods of sampling and the data
enumeration. The last part gives the conclusive findings of the assessment in general (in a
table), per sampling station or tributary of the main stream, and the interpretation of these
finding. Perhaps this last sub-chapter is the most important of the entire research projects and
this report; because it couples both chemical and biological data to each other; and in that way
validating both.
4.1 Introduction
Biodiversity is the sum of all species occurring in the area, the tropics have the most diverse
ecosystems and contain the highest variety in the Malaysian region with 55.000 flowering
plants (25% of the world’s diversity)2. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats, biotic
communities and ecological processes; regarding diversity of ecosystem. The Cameron
Highlands has a very high score, because of the altitudinal zones with different forest types7
that are present. Regarding the ecology of rivers in the Cameron Highlands; one can
distinguish; aquatic ecology with underwater living organism like fish and insects, and riparian
ecology with organisms living in the river or river at the river banks; like plants and (water)
birds. About 200 species of freshwater fish are occurring in Peninsular Malaysia, but head
water catchments like the Upper-Bertam in the Cameron Highlands has a lower diversity in fish
species than in the low lands2. This is because of the higher altitude of the area. Altitudinal
factors are crucial in the occurrence2 of fish. Also a typical trend in the longitudinal distribution
of fish species in this region is of influence on fish occurrence in the Upper-Bertam catchment2.
Habitat and species occurrence can change due human influence as pollution or civil-technical
structures as dams.

In general, the river-ecosystem is made up of two major components, namely, the biotic
element and abiotic element. The abiotic component consists of medium materials (water, air
and soil), bottom materials (rocks, pebbles, sand, gravel and mud) and materials for
metabolism (sunlight, minerals and organic materials). The biotic component consists of plants
that produce organic substances through photosynthesis, aquatic fauna such as insects and
fishes that feed on the plants; and the micro-organisms that decompose the remains of the
dead organisms. All these
components form the
ecological, biological, chemical
and physical features of a
river. All these features are
inter-related and inter-
dependent. The combination of
these features enables the
river to adapt to changes as
well as providing a good
environment for diverse flora
and fauna to thrive. Rivers are
well known for their resistance
to change and can, for
example, self-cleanse over
time or with distance
downstream if the pollution input
is not too high. However, very
extensive, concentrated and/or
continuous inputs of pollutants
overcome even this innate
ability. Most river parts of the
Upper-Bertam catchment are so
called riffles; shallow, turbulent,
but swiftly flowing stretches of
water that flow over partially or
totally submerged rocks7.
Besides the river course is the
riparian zone; the area of natural
vegetation extending outward
from the edge of the stream
bank. This riparian zone is a
buffer to pollutants entering the (Above) Mt. Irau in the back and Mt. Brinchang in front,
river from (urban & agricultural) The Sungai Bertram’s headwaters are between the two
runoff, it controls erosion (and mountains. Sungai Burong originates at the slopes on the
thus prevents siltation of the foreground.
river), and provides river
following habitat7. An ‘’alive’’ system generally has a wide riparian zone. Reductions and
impairment of riparian zones occurs when urbanisation or agriculture is developed directly
along the river. This not only increases the pollutant load and siltation, but also reduces this
natural buffer for these pollutants.

Indiscriminate development and environmental mismanagement resulting in water pollution and

water shortage through various human activities have brought many changes in the biotic and
abiotic elements of the Upper-Bertam catchment. This has not only resulted in disruption of the
supply of fresh clean water, but also caused damage to the natural ecosystem. The massive
clearing of forest, urban development and agricultural employment of the land in the Upper-
Bertam catchment disrupts the water-retaining and filtering capability of the vegetation and soil.
This resulting from substantial increase in (urban and agricultural) surface runoff, with the
associated problems of sedimentation, pollution, flooding, land erosion and landslides.
(Left: original undisturbed and clean river in the Upper-Bertam catchment (near Chefoo,
Right ‘’habitat alteration’’ in practice, canalization of the riverbed near Brinchang.
It is increasingly apparent that a water quality assessment cannot focus on chemical indicators
alone, but must instead focus on indicators that integrate the effects of physical and chemical
stressors, so an assessment of the ‘’aliveness’’’ of a river by for example looking at aquatic
macro invertebrates. This multi-disciplinary approach results in a more detailed image of the
water quality of the Sg. Bertam.
For the measuring of the “aliveness” river bio-indicators are used, such as ichthyofauna,
phytoplankton, zooplankton and in the case of this research project aquatic macro
invertebrates to determine the level of “aliveness” or the ecological health of the river. The
current chemical classification of the DOE, which was also used in the Chemical Appraisal in
this report is more geared towards measuring the degree of human disturbance, but only
focused on single-component parameters.
So water quality can be described in terms of physical, chemical and biological characteristics,
regarding the last; the biological or biotic element of water quality. Ecologists/biologists have
been studying the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on aquatic ecosystems and organisms
for decades, but only relatively recently this has been translated into suitable methods for
actually ‘’measuring’’ (chemical & physical) water quality by looking at the ‘’aliveness’’ of the
river. Anthropogenic disturbance resulting in pollution, siltation or habitat alteration can produce
diverse biological effects ranging from the severe (such as a total fish kill) to the subtle (for
example changes in enzyme levels or sub-cellular components of organisms)7.
Changes like these indicate that the aquatic ecosystem and its associated organisms are
under stress and that the ecosystem has been disturbed. As a result there could be possible
implications for the intended uses of the water such as supply of clean fresh water for drinking
and even possible risks to human health. The responses of biological communities, or of
individual organisms (species), can be measured in a variety of ways to indicate these
disturbing effects on the aquatic ecosystem. The co-existence and abundance of certain
species at particular sample locations/stations can indicate, for example, whether that habitat
has been adversely altered; by for instance canalization of the riverbed. The reaction of
individual organisms (species), by presence or absence and by abundance at particular sample
locations/stations can also indicate the presence of contaminants of which organic pollution
(sewage) is the major constraint. Organic enrichment of the aquatic ecosystem is very accurate
to measure, because aquatic organisms are very sensitive for the trophic level of the system
and saprobic increase of it.
Aquatic macro invertebrates are well known indicators of water quality. Some families such as
that of the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (so-called EPT-taxa) are especially
sensitive to pollutants and are commonly used as indicators of water qualityE.
The usage of these aquatic macro invertebrates as biological indicator to assess water quality
is possible, because they are able to reflect water quality by changes of their assemblages
caused by changes in water quality and
habitat. These assemblages or organization
structure of occurring aquatic macro
(Above) nymph of Dragonfly (Odonata-

family) and right the adult.
invertebrates can be calculated to scores and assignment of grades for water quality. There are
numerous advantages to use aquatic macro invertebrates in a water quality assessment. While
most water quality assessments and standards focus on chemical data, but these measures
only reflect the conditions at the moment the sample is taken. Aquatic macro-invertebrates,
however, possess a life cycle of at least one year or more, do not move great distances and
are more or less confined to the area of stream that is being sampled. Therefore, their diversity
and abundance will exhibit the long-range effects of pollution to the aquatic ecosystem. The
aquatic macro invertebrate community of a stream lives with the stresses and changes that
occur in the aquatic ecosystem.
Aquatic macro invertebrate assessments have been an instrument of choice in assessing and
monitoring the impacts of anthropogenic stress in aquatic systems for a long time. Aquatic
macro invertebrates include insect larvae, Snails, Aquatic worms and Leeches. They are also
called benthic macro invertebrates or benthos. Aquatic Macro invertebrates are organisms that
are large (macro) enough to be seen with the naked eye and have a lack of backbone
(invertebrate). Aquatic invertebrates are found in all types of surface waters, including large
rivers & small streams and lakes. They are most commonly found living on submerged
substrates such as aquatic vegetation, woody debris, or rocks and cobbles, but are also found
living freely in the water column. Not every aquatic macro invertebrate can live in every type of
water quality: some species need extremely clean water (water with the quality of drinking
water) others can live perfectly well in polluted water with lots of sewage. Aquatic macro
invertebrates are good indicators of stream quality because:
• They are affected by the physical, chemical, and biological conditions of the stream;
• They can not escape from pollution and show the effects of short- and long term
pollution events;
• They may show the cumulative impacts of pollution;
• They may show the impacts from habitat loss not detected by traditional water quality
assessments;
• They are a critical part of the stream's food web;
• Some are very intolerant of pollution;
• They are relatively easy to sample and identify.
Aquatic macro invertebrates are a very diverse group of organisms, displaying a wide range of
sizes, habitat requirements, life histories, and sensitivities to water quality impairment. Some
are sensitive to changes in substrate composition and others are sensitive to fluctuations in
dissolved oxygen. Some require cold water temperatures, while others can tolerate a wide
range of temperatures. This wide range of living requirements makes aquatic macro
invertebrates excellent indicators of anthropogenic stress (pollution and habitat alteration) on
aquatic systemsE.
Because aquatic macro invertebrates are stationary (and thus cannot escape from pollution)
and are sensitive to different degrees of pollution, changes in their abundance and diversity
indicates the impact pollution or habitat alteration is having on the river. Characteristics of
aquatic macro invertebrates which makes them especially useful for assessing water quality
include: 1) long life cycles which may reflect conditions for an extended period of time; 2) low
motility; various ranges of tolerance to varying environmental conditions; and 4) occupancy of
central positions in aquatic food chains.
Aquatic ecosystems support an extraordinary diversity species of fauna. As compared to the

fish fauna, the aquatic macro invertebrate species diversity in Malaysia, particularly in the
highlands as that of the Upper-Bertram catchment, is hardly known. This lack of knowledge is
caused by their great diversity, their abundance and the difficulties identifying then. When their
habitats deteriorates it is very well possible that species of aquatic macro invertebrates are lost;
some without ever being discovered and made known to science.
The presence of aquatic macro invertebrates in the river and their ‘’aliveness’’ is an
environmental impact that a wide segment of society can relate to.

4.2 Macro invertebrate assessments: basic principles

Biological monitoring, the study of biological organisms and their responses, is used to
determine environmental conditions. One type of biological monitoring, aquatic macro
invertebrate assessment, is described in this chapter.
The aquatic macro invertebrate assessment involves collecting, processing, and analyzing
aquatic organisms to determine the health of the biological community in a stream.
Aquatic macro invertebrates are an important part of the community of life found in and around
a river. Aquatic macro-invertebrates are a link in the aquatic food chain. In most rivers, the
energy stored by plants is available to animal life either in the form of leaves that fall in the
water or in the form of algae that grows on the stream bottom. The algae and leaves are eaten
by aquatic macro invertebrates. Aquatic macro invertebrates are a source of energy for larger
animals such as fish, which in turn, are a source of energy for amphibians, birds, water snakes,
and even human beings. Quite frequently, aquatic macro invertebrates are used as biological
indicators in the assessment of water quality. Biotic indices are able to reflect water quality at
respective sampling locations/ stations though calculation of scores and assignment of grades.
High scores and grades are indications of low pollution levels and vice versa.
The basic principle behind the study of aquatic macro invertebrates is that some are more
sensitive to pollution than others. Most aquatic macro invertebrates cannot survive in polluted
water. Others can survive or even thrive in polluted water. In a non-polluted stream, the aquatic
macro invertebrate community will include a variety of pollution-sensitive aquatic macro
invertebrates. In a polluted stream, there may be only a few types of non-sensitive and tolerant
aquatic macro invertebrates present. Therefore, if a stream site is inhabited by organisms that
can tolerate pollution and the more pollution sensitive organisms are missing, a pollution
problem is likely. For example, Stonefly larvae are aquatic insects that are very sensitive to
most pollutants and cannot survive if the dissolved oxygen of stream falls below a certain level.
Habitat can be defined as the space occupied by living organisms. In a river, habitat for aquatic
macro invertebrates includes the rocks and sediments of the river bottom, the plants in and
around the river, leaf litter and other decomposing organic material that falls into the river,
submerged logs, sticks, and woody debris. Aquatic macro invertebrates need shelter and food.
These habitats provide and tend to congregate in areas that provide the best shelter, highest
amount of food and the maximum of dissolved oxygen. Most of the rivers of the Upper-Bertam
catchment are so-called rocky-bottom streams; with bottoms made up of gravel, cobbles, and
boulders in any combination and they consist mostly of riffle areas. Riffle areas are fairly well
oxygenated and are therefore prime habitats for benthic aquatic macro invertebrates7. The
main river course of the Upper-Bertam (especially between Brinchang and Tanah Rata) has a
muddy and sandy bottom and lacks of riffles. It is much slower moving, because of the relative
low-gradient. In this transect the aquatic macro invertebrates are found between overhanging
plants, roots, logs, submerged vegetation and stream substrate, where organic particles are
trapped. In clean rivers, food sources are usually from within the natural stream system,
including leaf litter from trees in the riparian corridor of the river. In more organically-polluted
rivers, food might be supplied by other than natural sources, such as nutrients input as
fertilizers through agricultural runoff, but mainly organic matter from sewage discharge.
Increased nutrients will also stimulate plant and algal growth within the river, offering yet
another food source for aquatic macro invertebrates in polluted streams.

Pollution of water causes a decrease of aquatic macro invertebrate diversity, which is an

"indicator" of a healthy aquatic ecosystem. When an organic effluent is discharged into a
stream, the numbers of species decline, with an increase in the population of the tolerant or
insensitive organisms that can handle the stress. Each aquatic organism has particular
requirements with respect to the physical, chemical and biological condition of its habitat.
Changes in these conditions can result in reduction in species numbers, a change in species
dominance or total loss of sensitive species by death or migration. The presence or absence of
certain species in relation to particular water quality characteristics has been exploited in the
development of ecological methods based on “indicator species”. These methods are
frequently referred to as biotic indices and require a good knowledge of the organisms in the
specific environments to which the methods are applied. Information on the physical and
chemical status of the aquatic habitats, in which these methods are used, is also essential in
order to determine whether certain species could survive there, even under undisturbed
conditions (this is assured in this research project by taking a ‘’zero-sample’’ for comparison
with the undisturbed situation). The fluctuations in diversity and numerical abundance of
species have also been developed into a variety of community structure indices. These
methods often require a less detailed knowledge of the species in a particular habitat and have,
as a result, been rather widely applied without adequate investigation into their biological
relevance. They are, nevertheless, very useful while a (possibly) more sensitive method is
being developed or tested. Aquatic macro invertebrates are particularly suitable for both
approaches.
Aquatic macro invertebrates provide information about the quality of a stream over long periods
of time. It may be difficult to identify stream pollution with water analysis, which can only
provide information for the time of sampling. Even the presence of fish may not provide
information about pollution problems, because fishes are mobile and can move away to avoid
polluted water and return when the condition improves. However, most aquatic macro
invertebrates cannot escape and move to avoid pollution. An aquatic macro invertebrate
sample provides information about pollution that is not present at the time of sampling. Aquatic
macro invertebrates assessments are most carried out to establish the degradation of water
quality due to organic pollution arising from sewage discharges. It is thereby helpful that
aquatic macro invertebrates are relatively easy to collect. Useful data is easy to collect without
expensive equipment.
The information provided by aquatic macro invertebrate assessments can be used for many
purposes:
• To identify the impact of pollution and of pollution control activities. Because aquatic
macro invertebrates are stationary and are sensitive to different degrees of pollution,
changes in their abundance and variety vividly illustrate the impact pollution is having
on the river. Similarly, when a pollution control activity takes place an aquatic macro
invertebrate assessment may show that the sensitive aquatic macro invertebrates have
returned.
• To determine the severity of the pollution problem and to rank stream sites. To use
biological data properly, water resource analysts generally compare the results from
the stream sites under study to those of sites in ideal or nearly ideal condition (called a
reference condition). Individual stream sites can then be ranked from best to worst,
and priorities can be set for their improvement.

• To identify water quality trends. In any given site, biological data can be used to
identify water quality trends (increasing or decreasing) over several years.
Positive points of an aquatic macro invertebrate assessment:

• Diversity of some form and habits;
• Many sedimentary species can indicate effects at the sampling location;
• Whole communities can respond top change;
• Long-lived species can indicate integrated pollution effects over time;
• Qualitative sampling easy;
• Simple sampling equipment;
• Good taxonomic keys.
Negative points of an aquatic macro invertebrate assessment:

• Quantitative sampling difficult;
• Substrate important when sampling;
• Species my drift in moving waters;
• Knowledge of life cycles necessary for interpretation of absence of species;
• Some groups difficult to identify.
The pollution tolerances of the various aquatic macro invertebrates are based upon the aquatic
macro invertebrates' tolerance to dissolved oxygen concentrations in water. Organisms are
separated into 3 categories of pollution tolerance: Sensitive or intolerant (class I),
Facultative or somewhat sensitive (class II) and Tolerant (class III) to pollution.
In a river with good water quality aquatic macro invertebrates sensitive and tolerant macro
invertebrates are found. No particular group or types of organisms will dominate the aquatic
macro invertebrate population of the stream. With increased organic pollution (from nutrients
found in fertilizers, sewage, and other sources) dissolved oxygen levels within the stream are
expected to fluctuate more extremely and less pollution sensitive organisms will be found.
Aquatic macro invertebrates that can tolerate lower oxygen levels will become more prevalent.
As organic pollution continues to increase, some pollution tolerant aquatic macro invertebrates
will become dominant and will be able to support large populations within the stream, while
pollution sensitive or semi-sensitive organisms will be unable to survive. Tolerant organisms
grow and develop in a wide range of environmental conditions and are often found in water with
a poor quality. They are generally insensitive to a variety of environmental stresses and may
increase in density in an organically polluted stream. The growth and development of
Intolerant species however depends on a narrow range of environmental conditions. They are
rarely found in areas with amounts of organic matter. Intolerant organisms cannot adapt to
adverse situations and if the environmental quality is degraded, they are replaced by less
sensitive organisms. Facultative (or somewhat sensitive) organisms are able to survive over
a wide range of environmental conditions. Although they may survive moderate organic
enrichment, they cannot tolerate severe environmental stress.

Summarizing:
• In a healthy stream, the aquatic macro invertebrate community will include a variety of
pollution-sensitive aquatic macro invertebrates (high diversity). In a polluted river there
may be only a few types of Tolerant (class III) aquatic macro invertebrates present
(but usually in high numbers: high abundance);
• Aquatic macro invertebrate assessments provide information about the quality of a
stream over long periods of time. It may be difficult to identify stream pollution with
water analysis, which can only provide information for the time of sampling. Even the
presence of fish may not provide information about a pollution problem because fishes
are mobile can move away to avoid polluted water and then return when conditions
improve. However, most stream-bottom aquatic macro invertebrates cannot escape
and move to avoid pollution. An aquatic macro invertebrate assessment may thus
provide information about pollution that is not present at the time of sample collection;
Aquatic macro invertebrates can be dived in 3 groups:
Class I Organisms Intolerant or sensitive: The aquatic macro invertebrates of this group will
immediately suffer, stress, die and disappear due to commencing of lowering water quality in
slightly polluted water. This group includes pollution- sensitive organisms such as Mayflies,
Stoneflies, and non net-spinning Caddisflies, which are typically found in good-quality water.
Class II Organisms Facultative or somewhat sensitive: The aquatic macro invertebrates of

this group will present in low number individuals because of intermediate water quality in mild
polluted water and have the capability to live under varying conditions. This group includes
somewhat pollution-tolerant organisms such as net-spinning Caddisflies, Crayfish, Sowbugs,
and Clams, found in fair-quality water.
Class III Organisms Not sensitive/Tolerant: The aquatic macro invertebrates of this group
will survive, dominant and high in number of individuals in very low water quality and severe
polluted water. This group includes pollution-tolerant organisms such as worms, leeches, and
midges, found in poor-quality water.

Diversity
Species
abundance
Non-Polluted
Non-Polluted Polluted Non-Polluted
Figure above; relationship between diversity and abundance. On the vertical axis ‘number’
and on the horizontal axis ‘pollution (= organic/inorganic nutrient content). With good water
quality; one will find a high diversity but low abundance of occurring species; those two are
inverse related to each other. When water quality deteriorates; diversity lowers (fewer
species are found) but many individuals are occurring of each species. When water quality
deteriorates even more; even the species abundance lowers (but relative diversity increases;
since there are ‘less of each species’). Then measures are taken and water quality improves;
higher diversity, with lower abundance. One has to note however that in very clean water the
diversity is extremely high, but abundance is extremely low…ending in a stable climax stage
with the straight horizontal line on the right of the graph. One should read this graph thus as
a ‘pollution-event’: left starting a pollution source contaminating the river, becoming more
severe to the right, then remediation actions are taken, and the water quality improves further
going to the right. Regarding the life cycle of aquatic macro invertebrates; this ‘whole
scheme’ can take years to complete (from right to left) or when no actions were taken will
stay for a very long time in the middle ‘pollution-zone’.

Basic tolerance classes of aquatic macro invertebrates

Simplified table of the tolerance classes of aquatic macro invertebrates
CLASS INDEX GROUP

I Sensitive Stonefly-larvae,
Mayfly-larvae, Caddis
flies
II Facultative Dragonfly-larvae,
Damselfly-larvae
III Intolerant Snails, leeches,
Midgefly-larvae
Detailed table based on the BMWP index tables
Class Group Index Orde LAT Orde EN

I Very Ephemeroptera Mayflies
sensitive or Trichoptera Caddisflies
intolerant Plecoptera Stoneflies
II Facultative Coleoptera Water beetles
Odonata Dragonflies &
Damselflies
Megaloptera Dobsonflies &
Alderflies
Hemiptera Water Strider, Water
Boatsman &
Collembola Backswimmer
Polydesmida Freshwater Springtails
Decapoda Millipede
Cladoceran Crayfish
Isopoda Seed Shrimp
Amphipoda Aquatic Sowbugs
Mollusca Scuds
Snails
III Insensitive Neuroptera Spongillaflies

or intolorant Acariformes Water mites
Lepidoptera Moth larvae
Diptera True Flies
Phyllum-Platyhelminthes Flatt worms
Phyllum-Annelida Leeches & Aquatic
earth worms
Phyllum-Nermertea Proboscis worms

4.3 The Cameron Highlands

The macro invertebrate community of the fast flowing rivers of the Cameron Highlands consists
mainly of insects in undistributed river parts and of Snails and Leeches in the polluted parts.
Then assemblages of taxa are considered as that typical of the aquatic macro invertebrate
fauna in tropical rivers. These are Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Hemiptera,
Coleoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. All the upper parts of the rivers (still in the forests) have
excellent water quality with mainly aquatic macro invertebrates of the group of aquatic insects
namely Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera , this group is also called the sensitive
EPT group. Especially these fast running small forest streams contain a very diverse macro
invertebrate fauna of Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera and species of the
Odonata family. Most of them are the larvae/nymphs of forest insects. Lower on the slopes,
where the river becomes deeper and slower running (and where organic pollution of sewage
decreases the dissolved oxygen level) these species are replaced by others from of the
Gastropoda and Hirundinae groups.
For the Cameron Highlands generally no Fish species Status
native fish species are found above 1000m.
Anabas testudineus -
Earlier studies indicate an almost absence of
Oreochromis mossambicus Exotic
fish occurrence above 1300m (because of
Clarias gariepinus Exotic
altitudinal influences)2. The Common Carp
Aristichthys nobilis Exotic
and the Guppy are two introduced fish
Ctenopharyngodon idellus Exotic
species very common in the Upper-Bertam
Cyprinus carpio Exotic
river however26. These introduced fish
Parachela cf. -
species are very insensitive for water
oxygastroides
pollution and can live in very polluted water.
Poropuntius cf. deauratus -
Residents however tell of fish occurrences at
Gambusia affinis Exotic
the Parrit Falls and Robinson Falls stretch in
the past (over 20 years ago) besides Gambusia affinis almost Fish occurrence at Ringlet
no fish is occurring here at the present. This altitudinal zones Reservoir (above)26
also affects the occurrence of aquatic macro invertebrates in
that less species occur and a less diversity of species in the rivers of the Cameron Highlands
are found, than in the lowlands. Besides that fact species of the EPT taxa (Stoneflies) are
naturally more abundant than in the lowlands, because the fast flowing and cool rivers of the
region.
Only three common Malaysian fishes are

found on the somewhat lower regions of
the Cameron Highlands. The mountain and
hill rivers of the Cameron Highlands are
ideal for Salmo trutta, but they require very
clean and oxygen rich water. A population
of Salmo trutta occurred at the BOH Tea
Estate, where it occurred abundantly after
it was introducedV.
The very common pollutant-

indicator Gambusia affinis (left)

(Above) occurring aquatic macro invertebrates of unpolluted waters found during this
research project in the Upper-Bertam catchement. (First row) a member of the taxon,
Odonata, Plecoptera, (second row) Ephemeroptera, Diptera, Trichoptera, (last row)
Plecoptera and Coleoptera.

4.4 Methodology and strategy
4.4.1 Sample stations

Sampling transects are chosen in the Sungai Bertam river catchment; regarding the land use
around the stream; i.e. virgin forest, urban and agricultural area, in the main stream (sg.
Bertam) as well as several adjoining side streams. For the aquatic macro invertebrate
assessment the same sample locations/stations were chosen as for the Chemical Appraisal,
also with same caudation (SP 1 to SP 4 + A, B, C, D, E). By choosing the same station a
comparison could be made of chemical parameters with biological indices. See map in the
Appendices for a topographical situation of these sampling stations.
The 9 + 1 sampling locations/stations:
Sungai Bertam
Sample location Habitat description
(SP 1) At source, slopes of Mt. Brinchang Sample location: covered by canopy, water:
fast flowing and clear, Sediment: stony and
sandy
Sungai Bertam
(SP 2) At Golf course Brinchang Sample location: fast flowing, with boulders
and rocks in the stream. Sediment sandy with
no natural watersheds.
Sungai Bertam
(SP 3) Tanah Rata, near the small bridge at Sample location: wide stream with at this part
the start of jungle trail 9 starts. natural watersheds and sandy sediment.
Sungai Bertam
(SP 4) Just before flowing in Ringlet Reservoir Sample location: Stream is very wide and fast
flowing. Sediment is sandy and stony. Natural
watersheds are present.
Sungai Burong
(SP A) Sungai Burong, just before joining sg. Sample location: fast flowing. Sediment is
Bertam stony and sandy.
Sungai Ruil
(SP B) Sungai Ruil, just before joining sg. Sample location: water: fast flowing and clear,
Bertam Sediment: stony and sandy.

Sungai Jasar
(SP C) Sungai Jasar, just before joining sg. Sample location: small and channelled stream
Bertam
Sungai Ulung
(SP D) Sungai Ulung, just before joining sg. Sample location: small stream and is fast
Bertam flowing. Sediment: stony and sandy. Some
parts are channelled, because of the water
cress farms.
Sungai Batu-Pipih
(SP E) Sungai Batu Pipih, just before joining Sample location: wide stream with a moderate
sg. Bertam water flow. Sediment: stony and sandy.
Besides these sampling stations an undisturbed location (near MARDI,

Tanah Rata) was chosen as a reference site (or ‘’zero-sample’’). A sample
run was carried out here to establish the aquatic macro invertebrate
potential of the Upper-Bertam catchment in undisturbed condition and to
eliminate the ‘’Habitat factor’’ largely (see therefore 4.5 Results).
4.4.2 Sampling moment

In dryer periods with a few days of dry weather the river runs with relatively stable water rates,
during rain or just after raining, the river is relatively unstable with rapidly increasing water
rates, the water stream will then be brown of silt and have a water rate, which can be up to 10
times the original water rate in dryer moments. The period of time when it this has a high flow is
called HWF or High Water Flow, the period with a stable ‘normal’ flow; AWF or Average Water
Flow. The aquatic macro invertebrate assessments of this research are carried out during the
normal or AWF; this is important because after a period of heavy rain most invertebrates living
in the water will be disturbed or ‘’washed away’’. It takes a little time for them to recover to the
average circumstance; and this is when the assessment should be carried out in order to get a
clear and honest picture. These flood and drought events can have strong effects on macro
invertebrate community structure; therefore streams were sampled under stable, base flow
(AWF) conditions. Sampling was delayed in streams following high flow events until stable
conditions returned. It is important to remember that aquatic macro invertebrate populations
can fluctuate seasonally and that these natural fluctuations can affect the results.

4.4.3 Sampling Method

Most rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment (especially the smaller ones in the forest) are
generally fast flowing, not much aquatic plants and bottoms made up of gravel, cobbles, and
boulders in any combination and usually have definite riffle areas. Riffle areas are fairly well
oxygenated and are therefore prime habitats for aquatic macro invertebrates. The wider
streams, for instance, near the town of Tanah Rata and the Parit Falls have silty & sandy
bottoms and are slower moving with a low-gradient (i.e., streams that flow along relatively flat
terrain). In these parts of the river course aquatic macro invertebrates generally attach
themselves to overhanging plants, roots, logs, submerged vegetation and stream substrate
where organic particles are trapped. It is important to collect a representative sample of the
river. A qualitative multi-habitat (QMH) sample was collected at each site to characterize the
overall macro invertebrate diversity of the sample. The goal is to sample the most productive
habitats available and look for the widest variety of organisms. A D-frame dip net was the only
equipment required for this sampling method. Transects of 35 times the river width, riverside
and bottom are sampled with this invertebrate-net; sampling each of the major habitat types
present within the reach in equal proportion. Determination of major habitat types was made
prior to sampling by qualitatively evaluating the sample reach. During this evaluation only five
habitats were considered: 1) riffles or shallow, fast flowing runs, 2) undercut banks and
overhanging vegetation, 3) submerged or emergent aquatic macrophytes, 4) snags and woody
debris, and 5) leaf packs. The sample is collected in a qualitative manner. This means that a
thoroughly search at each station and the collecting of as many different organisms as possible
took place. Each sampling effort consisted of placing the dip net on the substrate and
disturbing the area directly upstream of the net opening equal to the square of the net width.
When flow in the sample reach was negligible, the net was swept repeatedly in the upstream
direction or water was flushed through the net by hand. These techniques were used to ensure
that as many invertebrates as possible were collected for each area sampled. Following is a
description of each habitat and how it was sampled:
• Riffles - This category is intended to cover rocky substrates with fast flowing
water. Riffles were sampled by placing the dip net firmly and squarely on the
substrate downstream of the area to be sampled. If the water was shallow
enough, the area directly in front of the net was disturbed with the hands,
taking care to wash large rocks off directly into the net. Picking up any large
rocks in the sampling area; mostly Stonefly- and Mayfly larvae hide under
rocks in fast flowing streams, these were sampled by washed them of the
stone surface and under stones by placing the net in the current and wash by
hand.
• Aquatic Macrophytes - Any vegetation found at or below the water surface was
included in this category. Emergent vegetation was included because all
emergent plants have stems that extend below the water surface, serving as
suitable substrate for aquatic macro invertebrates. The emergent portion of
these plants was not sampled. Submerged plants were sampled with an
upward sweep of the net. If the net became filled with weeds, they were hand
washed vigorously or jostled in the net for a few moments and then discarded.
Emergent plants were sampled with horizontal and vertical sweeps of the net
until it was felt that the area being swept had been adequately sampled.
• Undercut Banks - This category is meant to cover shaded, in-bank or near-

bank habitats, away from the main channel that typically are buffered from
high water velocities. Undercut banks often appeared to extend further under
the bank than they actually did. For this reason, undercut banks were
thoroughly prodded to determine if there was enough habitat to warrant
sampling. Sampling consisted of upward thrusts of the net, beating the
undercut portion of the bank or overhanging vegetation so as to dislodge any
clinging organisms.
Sampling in action at the main Upper-Bertam river stretch near Tanah Rata (left) and at Cheffoo,
near Brichang.
The size of the sample is very important for the reliability of an aquatic macro invertebrate
assessment and depends on the ecological method and the statistical techniques applied to the
data. Qualitative multi-habitat (QMH) sampling requires that several samples (sample units) are
taken in different habitats from the sample area and pooled to create the representative
sample. Qualitative collections are also made by examining rocks, wood debris, leaf debris and
other microhabitats in the river. This is the most effective sampling method in rivers which
contain a diversity of microhabitats. All debris collected by the sampling efforts was put in a
sieve bucket. At the end of the session a half-full 5.5 l mineral water bottle with material and the
organisms was filled for transport to the workplace. At the workplace the invertebrate holding
mass of debris was washed, sieved and selected. The aquatic macro invertebrates are
selected to taxonomic group. The sampling, transport and selecting/preserving of invertebrates
took place at the same day over several sampling runs.
Due to the large volume of sample material, the samples are divided using a griddled screen
tray. The sample material was spread evenly across this grid and organisms were picked from
randomly selected grid squares. Following this, any large and/or rare organisms were removed
from the remaining sample material on the grid. The sample material was placed in plastic pans
and sorted from debris by hand. All organisms were identified to the family level if possible,
using various taxonomic keys.
Physicochemical conditions at each station were also measured at each sampling

station/location. These parameters included pH, EC, TDS, totN and totP.
A worksheet was also filled in for each sampling point/station; see appendices.

4.4.4 Data enumeration

Metrics are used to analyze and for the interpretation of biological data by condensing lists of
organisms into relevant biological information. In order to be useful, metrics must be proven to
respond in predictable ways to various types and intensities of stream impacts. Community
structure methods are based on the numerical abundance of each species rather than relying
on particular indicator species. These community structure indices can be used to compare
sites with similar natural physical and chemical features. Species diversity indices have been
used to analyze community structure of aquatic macro invertebrates. Although knowledge of
taxonomy is required to sort and count samples of organisms, the indices can be useful to non-
specialists as an indicator of whether environmental conditions are changing.
In this research a multimetric approach is chosen that combines several metrics. A great
number of metrics can be used to calculate water quality using aquatic macro invertebrates. In
this research we used 7 basic metrics (1) Total Number of Taxa and organism Density Per
Sample (total abundance, (2) Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant Groups, (3)
Number of EPT taxa (EPT richness) and Percent Abundance of EPT, (4)
EPT/Chironimidae, (5) BMWP indice, (6) ASPT indice and the (7) Lincoln Quality Index).
These metrics have been selected as most suitable due their level of identification of
taxonomical level and suitability for species occurrence in the Cameron Highlands. The used
metrics are so-called Taxa Richness and Composition Metrics as well as Population Attributes
Metrics. The family of the Chirononimadae species track ecological conditions (e.g. organic
pollution) closely and their distributions have long been used to assess water quality; that is
why they are enclosed in the EPT/Chironimadae index. This family is widely used as bio-
indicators of water quality. The group of aquatic insects namely Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera
and Trichoptera are referred to as the sensitive EPT group; this group is very sensitive to
pollution. This group is used in the indices EPT taxa richness, Percentage abundance of EPT
and in the BMWP (and related ASPT and Lincoln) indices.
The term taxa (plural for taxon), used below, refers to the specific taxonomic groupings to
which organisms have been identified. Unlike biological families, they can be at any level of
organisation. For these aquatic macro invertebrate assessments, organisms are identified to
the taxon of the family.
1) Total Number of Taxa and organism Density Per Sample (total abundance)
The total number of individuals and the total number of taxa found in the sample. It is a count of
the number of taxa (e.g. families) found in the sample. A high diversity or variety is good.
2) Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant Groups

The percent of the sample that is comprised of individuals in each of the selected major groups
in this research project: EPT-taxa (Stonefly,- Mayfly,- and Caddisfly-larvae), Decapoda (fresh
water Crabs), Gastropoda (Snails), Chironimidae (Mosquito larvae) and Hirundinae (Leeches).
3) Number of EPT taxa (EPT richness) and Percent abundance of EPT

This measure compares the number of organisms in the EPT orders to the total number of
organisms in the sample. (The number of organisms in the EPT orders is divided by the total
number of organisms in the sample to calculate a percent abundance.) A high percent
abundance of EPT orders is good. This measure is also a count of the number of taxa in each
of three generally pollution-sensitive orders: Ephemeroptera (Mayflies), Plecoptera (Stoneflies),
and Trichoptera (Caddisflies). A high diversity or variety is good.

4) EPT/Chironomidae
This is a measure of the ratio of the abundance of the intolerant EPT orders to very tolerant
Diptera family Chironomidae. The number (abundance) of individuals from the orders
Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Plecoptera (EPT) divided by the by the number of
Chironomidae individuals.
The Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP), the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT)
Indices and the Lincoln Quality Index are biotic indices established to determine pollution
effects in rivers particularly from organic pollutants based on aquatic macro invertebrate
populations. In BMWP, indicator organisms are assigned scores based on tolerance to
pollution (pollution intolerant families have high scores). Scores are accumulated to indicate
levels of pollution in a water body. ASPT is derived from BMWP and is able to distinguish sites
with similar scores but different physics-chemical characteristics. These measures; BMWP
score taxa present and the average pollution sensitivity of the macro invertebrate community as
described by the Average Score per Taxon (ASPT), which is derived from the community biotic
score divided by the number of taxa represented. In general, the higher the number of taxa
present, the better the biological quality of the reach, especially where the ASPT values are
high (greater than 5.5) For the BMWP scores for each family identified are totalled, which is the
BMWP score. This figure is then divided by the number of taxa, (each specific organism is a
taxon), to give the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT). The ASPT is independent of sample size
and perhaps less influenced by season than the BMWP score. It provides an additional more
consistent index.
5) BMWP indice
Indicator organisms are assigned scores based on tolerance to pollution (pollution intolerant
families have high scores). Scores are accumulated to indicate levels of pollution in a water
body. The BMWP Biotic Index is calculated by summation of scores assigned to each family
found to be present. The Biological Monitoring Working Party score (BMWP) has been
standardised by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It can be used to
reflect the impact of organic pollution, such as results from sewage discharge.
Each group or family is allocated a score between 1 and 10, according to their sensitivity to
environmental disturbance. The most sensitive organisms, such as Stoneflies, score 10 and the
least sensitive, such as Oligochaete worms, score 1. This method of data collation separates
invertebrate groups or taxa on the basis of their relative sensitivity to pollution with the more
pollution sensitive taxa being allocated higher scores and the more pollution tolerant taxa lower
scores. The overall community is described by the sum of the individual taxon scores. In
general, higher total biotic scores describe better quality invertebrate communities reflecting the
better end of the water quality spectrum.
The scores for each family represented in the sample are then summed to give the BMWP
score. Dividing the BMWP score by the total number of groups present to give a mean value –
the ASPT (Average Score Per Taxon). A BMWP score higher as 66 (adopted value), together
with an ASPT value higher as 4, generally indicates good water quality. For the situation of the
Cameron Highlands the BMWP score is adopted to this situation. By altitudinal zones it is
expect and found that less species occur and less diversity of species in the rivers of the
Cameron Highlands, than in the lowlands. Besides that fact species of the EPT taxa
(Stoneflies) are naturally more abundant than in the lowlands, because the fast flowing and
cool rivers of the region. By surveying the diversity of occurring taxa in the Cameron Highlands
in streams that are proven non-pollutant (as part of the total sampling and identification) a
theoretical maximum BMWP score was calculated at a score of 66. The reference sample was
taken in a proven non-pollutant stream and was compliant with this adopted scoring.
Procedure BMWP
• Sorting the aquatic macro invertebrates present into the groups listed in the BMWP
table;
• Ticking off the groups present on a sample record sheet. Even if more than one
species occurs for a particular group that particular group is only recorded once;
• Adding the scores for all groups ticked on the record sheet to give the BMWP score;
• Add up the total number of groups occurring in the sample;
• Divide the BMWP score by the total number of groups present to give the ASPT.
6) ASPT indice
ASPT indice or Average score per taxon (ASPT) is calculated by dividing the score of the
BMWP by the number of scoring taxa. It is thus derived from the BMWP but able to distinguish
sites with similar scores but different physical-chemical characteristics. It is used in order to
reduce the effects of sample size, sampling effort and sampling efficiency on the results. The
number of taxa present is indicative of the diversity of the community, therefore the ASPT
avoids problems arising when poor habitat restricts the diversity of families. For the ASPT the
original scoring was maintained and proven adequate (by comparing chemical pollution grade
and scoring results of analysis).
For instance; ASPT Biotic Score = BMWP Score/Total family = 31/5 = 6.2
7) Lincoln Quality Index

The Lincoln Quality Index combines BMWP and ASPT biotic indices using an Overall Quality
Rating method to assign categories of quality to water bodies Lincoln Quality Index (LQI), the
equivalent of the Overall Quality Ratings (OQR). The LQI proved to be accurate in this project
by comparing chemical pollution grades and calculated scores.
It is calculated as:
LQI = (X + Y)/2
Where:
X = Rating based on BMWP Biotic Index
Y = Rating based on ASPT Biotic Index
For instance when using the sample example the following is found:
BMWP Score = 31 => X = 3
ASPT Value = 6.2 => Y = 7
OQR = (3+7) / 2 = 5

Water quality classification based on

BMWP index (adopted for Cameron Highlands) and ASPT index:
Biotic Index Range of Scores Water Quality
BMWP (Armitage et. al., 1983, but adopted > 66 Very good
for the situation of the Cameron 49 - 65 Good
Highlands i.e. altitudinal zones of species 33 – 49 Moderately good
occurrence)) 17 – 33 Bad
0 - 16 Very bad
ASPT (Average Score Per Taxon; original 0 Very polluted
scoring) – 2.9 Polluted
– 4.9 Moderately polluted
5.0 – 5.9 Moderately clean
6.0 – 7.9 Clean
8.0 – 10.0 Very clean
Adopted BMWP values for the Cameron Highlands by a survey of species diversity and
occurrence at proven non-pollutant sites. For ASPT the original values as given above were
used.
4.5 Results
Water pollution by anthropogenic pollutants is mainly due agriculture (fertilizers & pesticides),
and by urban pollution (organic pollution: sewage). These pollutants reduce the species
occurrence dramatically or reduce the diversity in occurring species (by selection of more
tolerant species). The degree of reduction of species occurrence or diversity depends largely
on the pollution and the chemical properties of pollutants. Both processes are very evident in
the Cameron Highlands. The fast running small forest streams contain a diverse aquatic macro
invertebrate fauna of Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera, Decapoda and
species of the Odonata family. Most of them are the larvae/nymphs of forest insects except for
the Decapoda (Fresh Water Crabs). Especially evident are the Stoneflies (Plecoptera) they
prefer cool, oxygen-rich streams and are generally very intolerant of stream pollution. They are
the perfect indicator of clean, unpolluted streams in the Cameron Highlands. Lower on the
slopes, where the river becomes deeper and slower running (and where organic pollution of
sewage decreases the dissolved oxygen level) these species are replaced by others mainly
from the Gastropoda, Chironimidae and Hirundinae families.
4.5.1 Overall water quality Upper-Bertam catchment

The macro invertebrate community of the fast flowing rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment
consists mainly of insects. All the upper parts of the rivers (still in the forest) surveyed
demonstrated excellent water quality. Then assemblages of taxa encountered at the sampling
locations/stations are considered as that typical of the aquatic macro invertebrate fauna in
tropical rivers. These are Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Decapoda, Coleoptera
(Elmidae), Trichoptera and Diptera (Tipulidae). The main river course of the Upper-Bertam was
dominated with Gastropoda, Chironimidae and Hirundinae. The cleaner tributaries, the ‘’source
of the main river course (SP1)’’ and the ‘’zero-sample’’ shows an extraordinary diversity in
species; mainly EPT-taxa, but also Decapoda (Fresh water Crabs), Elmidae (Riffle Beetle
larvae) and Tipulidae (Cranefly larvae). All these macro invertebrates are indicating a high
potential for the rivers within the Upper-Bertam catchment. Not only to hold water of excellent
quality, but also a superb diversity of sensitive aquatic macro invertebrates. All the samples
together fell into 11 taxa totally: Coleoptera, Diptera, Empheroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera,
Trichoptera, Gastropoda, Trichoptera, Hirundinae, Oligochaeta and Decapoda.
Left: cases of
different members of
the Trichoptera
taxon, found in
moderate to clean
waters of the Upper-
Bertam catchment
In this research 10 sampling points/stations were chosen. After the sampling, identifying the
species in the sample and carrying out the data enumeration, the following outcome was found:
Overall water quality reference of the sampling stations
Sample location Quick water quality reference

(SP 1) At source, slopes of Mt. Brinchang Excellent water quality, EPT-taxa abundant
(SP2) At Golf course Brinchang Poor water quality, low diversity;
Chironimidae and Hirundinae abundant
(SP 3) Near MARDI Tanah Rata Severe water pollution very low diversity;
Gastropoda and Hirundinae very abundant
(Sp 4) Just before flowing in Ringlet Reservoir Severe water pollution, very low diversity,
Chironimidae, Hirundinae and Gastropoda
abundant
(SP A) Sungai Burong, just before joining sg. Good water quality, relatively diverse with
Bertam EPT-taxa
(SP B) Sungai Ruil, just before joining sg. Good water quality, relatively diverse with
Bertam EPT-taxa
(SP C) Sungai Jasar, just before joining sg. Very severe water pollution, almost
Bertam ‘’biological dead’’ with only some
Chironimidae and Hirundinae
(SP D) Sungai Ulung, just before joining sg. Severe water pollution, low diversity;
Bertam Chironimidae and Hirundinae abundant
(SP E) Sungai Batu Pipih, just before joining Severe water pollution, low diversity;
sg. Bertam Chironimidae and Hirundinae abundant
Zero-sample/reference sample Excellent water quality, EPT-taxa abundant

4.5.2 Sampling stations of the main Bertam river in detail

Per sampling station the following more detailed information was found:
Sungai Bertam SP 1
1) Total Number of Taxa and organism Density Per
Sample (total abundance)
The total number of taxa and thus the diversity of this
sampling point/station is with 11 different taxa high. The
abundance and thus the total amount of organisms in the
sample however was average and equally distributed
among the taxa with 57 individuals. This figure; high
diversity equally distributed among the taxa is typical for
undisturbed and non-polluted rivers with excellent water
quality and high oxygen concentrations.

In the figure below the most significant occurring aquatic
macro invertebrate families are shown. For all sampling
stations of the Upper-Bertam catchment the groups: EPT-taxa, Decapoda, Gastropoda,
Chironimidae and Hirundinae were the most suitable to use for this purpose. In green the
organisms from class I (Sensitive of Intolerant class) and in red the organisms of class III
(tolerant or insensitive class). As can be seen clearly the green or the organisms of class I
dominate in the pie-chart; with predominantly EPT-taxa. This indicates excellent water quality
with very low organic matter and high oxygen yields.
Sample point 1
3) Number of EPT taxa (EPT
richness) and Percent
0% EPT-taxa 32% abundance of EPT
32% Decapoda 68% The diversity of EPT taxa at this
Gastropada 0%
Chironimidae 0%
sampling point/station was 4 taxa,
Hirundinae 0% which resembles a high diversity
68% and thus indicates low nutrient
concentrations and low organic
matter yields. The percentage
indication of EPT percentile
abundances is very high, with 27 % indicating the same as the above: excellent water quality,
low organic matter concentrations and high oxygen concentrations.
4) EPT/Chironimidae
The ratio of EPT taxa and Chironimidae at this sampling point/location was 13, which indicates
excellent water quality.

5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 61 for this sampling point/station, which is very high and thus indicates
clean water of excellent quality.
Left: Typical sample of the main Upper-

Bertam river in forested area; many
individuals of the EPT-taxa
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 5.5 for this sampling point/station, which moderately high and thus
indicates clean water of good quality. The fact that this sampling station is much shaded
influences the species diversity (less grazers and more carnivores like Plecoptera), despite its
excellent water quality, the scoring is lower than one would expect by this ‘’habitat factor’’.
Left: Decapoda or Fresh Water Crabs and left members of the Odonata family;
occurring at this sampling location

The LQI is 6.5 for this sampling point/station, which indicates clean water of excellent quality. It
was given the A++ index notation for clean and non-polluted waters.

Sungai Bertam SP 2
sampling point/station is with 6 different taxa low. The
abundance in the sample was high with 270 individuals.
This figure; low diversity and high abundance is typical for
severe water pollution, with high concentrations organic
matter and low oxygen concentrations.

macro invertebrate families are shown. As can be seen
clearly the red or the organisms of class III dominate in the
pie-chart with especially Gastropda in this case. This
indicates severe water pollution with organic matter and low oxygen yields.
Sample point 2 3) Number of EPT taxa (EPT

EPT-taxa 0% abundance of EPT
4%
0% 11% Decapoda 0% No EPT taxa were found at this
Gastropada 11% sampling point/station this
Chironimidae indicates severe nutrient
85%
Hirundinae 4% enrichment and water pollution with
85% (organic) matter. The percentage
abundances is very low, with 0%
(absent) indicating the same as the above: severe water pollution with organic matter and low
oxygen concentrations.
4) EPT/Chironimidae
The ratio of EPT taxa and Chironimidae at this sampling point/location was 0 (because of
absence EPT taxa), which indicates very severe nutrient enrichment and water pollution.
Left: Chironimidae, Gastropoda and sewage

fungi dominating the sample taken from this
location
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 22 for this sampling
point/station, which indicates severe polluted water
of poor water quality.

6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 3.6 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe polluted water

The LQI is 3 for this sampling point/station, which indicates moderately polluted water of poor
water quality. It was given the E index notation for badly polluted water.
Sungai Bertam SP 3
sampling point/station is with 5 different taxa very low. The
abundance in the sample was very high with 359
individuals. This figure; low diversity and high abundance is
typical for severe water pollution, with high concentrations
organic matter and low oxygen concentrations.
2) Percent abundance of the Major Abundant Groups

pie-chart, with in this a very high abundance of
Chironimidae, Gastropoda and Hirundinae. This indicates very severe water pollution with
organic matter and low oxygen yields.
Sample point 3 3) Number of EPT taxa (EPT

EPT-taxa 0% abundance of EPT
11% 0%
29% Decapoda 0% No EPT taxa were found at this
Gastropada 29% sampling point/station this
Chironimidae indicates severe nutrient
60%
Hirundinae 11% enrichment and water pollution with
60%
(organic) matter. The percentage
abundances is very low, with 0%
(absent) indicating the same as the above: severe water pollution with organic matter and low
4) EPT/Chironimidae
absence EPT taxa), which indicates very severe nutrient enrichment and water pollution.
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 14 for this sampling point/station, which indicates very severe polluted
water of poor water quality.

6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 2.8 or this sampling point/station, which indicates very severe polluted
water of poor water quality.

The LQI is 2 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe polluted water of poor water
quality. It was given the G index notation for badly polluted water.
Left: Typical sample of the main

Upper-Bertam river between the
towns of Brinchang and Tanah
Rata; full with Gastropoda and
Hirundinae
Sungai Bertam SP4

sampling point/station is with 4 different taxa very low. The
abundance of the sample was very high with 106
individuals. This figure; very low diversity and high
abundance is typical for severe water pollution, with high
concentrations organic matter and low oxygen
concentrations.

pie-chart. This indicates severe water pollution with organic matter and low oxygen yields.
Sample point 4
0%
22% 0% richness)
EPT-taxa 0% and Percent
Decapoda 0% abundance of EPT
Gastropada 50% No EPT taxa were found at this
50% Chironimidae
28%
sampling point/station this
28% Hirundinae 22% indicates severe nutrient
enrichment and water pollution with
(organic) matter. The percentage
indication of EPT percentile abundances is very low, with 0% (absent) indicating the same as
the above: severe water pollution with organic matter and low oxygen concentrations.

4) EPT/Chironimidae
absence EPT taxa), which indicates severe nutrient enrichment and water pollution.
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 9 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe polluted water
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 2.3 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe polluted water

The LQI is 1 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe polluted water of poor water
quality. It was given the I index notation for very polluted water.
4.5.3 Sampling stations of the tributaries of the Bertam river in detail
Sungai Burong SP A
1) Total Number of Taxa and organism
Density Per Sample (total abundance)
The total number of taxa and thus the
diversity of this sampling point/station is
with 7 different taxa not very high. The
abundance in the sample was evenly
distributed among the taxa with 55
individuals. This figure; not very high
diversity and abundance evenly among the
taxa are typical for water of moderate
quality, with relatively moderate
concentrations of organic matter and but
general high oxygen concentrations.

In the figure below the most significant occurring aquatic macro invertebrate families are
shown. As can be seen clearly the green or the organisms of class I dominate in the pie-chart.
This indicates water of relatively good quality, low pollution with organic matter and high
oxygen yields.

Sample point A 3) Number of EPT taxa (EPT

EPT-taxa 8%
abundance of EPT
8% 0%
Decapoda 0%
The diversity of EPT taxa at this
30%
Gastropada 38%
sampling point/station was 2
Chironimidae
taxa, which resembles a
38% 24%
Hirundinae 30%
moderate low diversity and
24% indicates relatively low nutrient
levels and water of moderate
pollution. The percentage
abundances is however quite high, with 16% indicating the same as the above: water of
moderate polluted quality with relatively low organic matter concentrations and but still high
4) EPT/Chironimidae
The ratio of EPT taxa and Chironimidae at this sampling point/location was 0.64, which is
moderate low and indicates relatively low nutrient concentrations and water of moderately
polluted quality.
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 32 for this sampling point/station, which indicates relatively non-
polluted water of moderate water quality.
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 4.6 for this sampling point/station, which indicates relatively non-polluted
water of moderate water quality.

The LQI is 4 for this sampling point/station, which indicates relatively non-polluted water of
good water quality. It was given the C index notation for good quality water.
Sungai Ruil SP B
with 10 different taxa relatively high. The
abundance in the sample was a bit too high
with 391 individuals. This figure; relatively
high diversity and bit too high abundance is
typical for mildly water pollution, with
increased concentrations organic matter,
but high oxygen concentrations, and thus of
good tot moderate quality.

Sample point B 2) Percent Abundance of the

Major Abundant Groups
In the figure below the most
5% 9% EPT-taxa 45% significant occurring aquatic
macro invertebrate families are
Decapoda 0%
45% Gastropada 41%
Chironimidae 5% shown. As can be seen clearly
Hirundinae 9% the red or the organisms of class
41%
0%
III dominates a bit over the green
in the pie-chart. This indicates
mild water pollution with organic
matter and low oxygen yields.
The diversity of EPT taxa at this sampling point/station was 5 taxa, which resembles a relatively
high diversity and indicates low nutrient concentrations and mild water pollution with (organic)
matter. The percentage indication of EPT percentile abundances is high, with 45 % indicating
the same as the above: mild water pollution with mild increased concentrations of organic
matter, but high oxygen concentrations.
4) EPT/Chironimidae
The ratio of EPT taxa and Chironimidae at this sampling point/location was 13.5, which is very
high and indicates water of good quality with low nutrient concentrations & high oxygen
concentrations.
(Above left) especially members of the

Trichoptera and Odonata taxa were
very abundant at this sampling point
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 46 for this sampling point/station, which indicates mild polluted water of
moderate to good water quality.
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 4.6 for this sampling point/station, which indicates (mild) polluted water
of average water quality.

The LQI is 4.5 for this sampling point/station, which indicates polluted water of average water
quality. It was given the B index notation for mildly polluted water.

Sungai Jasar SP C
with only 1 taxon extremely low. The
abundance in the sample was also low with
314 individuals (all Chironimidae). This
figure; extremely low diversity and low
occurrence of the same species indicates
‘’biological dead’’ water and very severe
water pollution, with very high
concentrations organic matter and very low oxygen concentrations. The occurrence of massive
layers of ‘sewage fungi’ also indicates the source: sewage discharge.
2) Percent Abundance of the

Sample point C
In the figure on the right the most
0%
EPT-taxa 0%
significant occurring aquatic
Decapoda 0%
Gastropada 0% shown. As can be seen clearly
Chironimidae
100%
the red or the organisms of class
Hirundinae 0% III dominates the pie-chart in
100%
total This indicates very severe
water pollution with very high
organic matter concentrations
and very low oxygen yields.

EPT taxa were totally absent and thus indicating very severe nutrient enrichment and water
pollution with (organic) matter. The percentage indication of EPT percentile abundances is of
course very low, with 0% (again absent) indicating the same as the above: very severe water
pollution with organic matter and very low oxygen concentrations.
4) EPT/Chironimidae
absence EPT taxa), which indicates very severe nutrient enrichment and very severe water
pollution.
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 2 for this sampling point/station, which indicates very severe polluted
water of very bad water quality.
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 2 for this sampling point/station, which indicates very severe polluted
water of very bad water quality.


The LQI is 1 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe very severe polluted water
of very bad water quality. It was given the I index notation for very polluted water.
(Above) general sample overview, totally dominant with Chironimidae and with
sewage fungi, left in situ
Sungai Ulung SP D
sampling point/station is with 5 different taxa average, but
low. The abundance in the sample was a much too high
with 513 individuals. This figure; average diversity and to
high abundance is typical for severe water pollution, with
increased concentrations of organic matter and low oxygen
concentrations.

macro invertebrate families are shown. For all sampling
stations of the Upper-Bertam catchment the groups: EPT-
taxa, Decapoda, Gastropoda, Chironimidae and Hirundinae were the most suitable to use for
this purpose. In green the organisms from class I (sensitive of intolerant class) and in red the
organisms of class III (tolerant or insensitive class). As can be seen clearly the red or the
organisms of class III dominates a bit over the green in the pie-chart. This indicates mild water
pollution with organic matter and low oxygen yields.

Sample point D
abundance of EPT
EPT-taxa 0%
0% 5% No EPT taxa were found at this
4% Decapoda 0%
Gastropada 5%
indicates severe nutrient
enrichment and water pollution
Chironimidae
91%
Hirundinae 4%
with (organic) matter. The
91%
percentage indication of EPT
percentile abundances 0%
because absent indicating the
same as the above: severe water pollution with increased concentrations of organic matter and
low oxygen concentrations.
4) EPT/Chironimidae
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 21 for this sampling point/station, which indicates polluted water of bad
water quality.
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 4.2 for this sampling point/station, which indicates polluted water of bad
water quality.

The LQI is 3 for this sampling point/station, which indicates polluted water of average water
quality. It was given the E index notation for moderate polluted water.
Sungai Batu Pipih SP E

sampling point/station is with 5 different taxa average,
but low. The abundance in the sample however was a
bit too high with 26 individuals. This figure; average
diversity and to high abundance is typical for mildly
water pollution, with increased concentrations organic
matter and low oxygen concentrations.
2) Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant

Groups
In the figure below the most significant occurring
aquatic macro invertebrate families are shown. As can
be seen clearly the red or the organisms of class III
dominates a bit over the green in the pie-chart.

This indicates mild water pollution with organic matter and low oxygen yields.
Sample point E 3) Number of EPT taxa (EPT

abundance of EPT
0% 9% EPT-taxa 0%
No EPT taxa were found at this
36% Decapoda 0%
Gastropada 9% indicates severe nutrient
Chironimidae
55%
enrichment and water pollution
55% Hirundinae 36% with (organic) matter. The
percentage indication of EPT
percentile abundances is again
0% because absent indicating the same as the above: severe water pollution with increased
concentrations of organic matter and low oxygen concentrations.
4) EPT/Chironimidae
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 14 for this sampling point/station, which indicates severe polluted water
of very bad water quality.
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 2.8 for this sampling point/station, which indicates very severe polluted
water of bad water quality.

The LQI is 2 for this sampling point/station, which indicates polluted water of bad water quality.
It was given the G index notation for polluted water.

4.5.4 The reference sampling station

The reference sample or zero sample was taken to deal with the ‘’habitat factor. By taking a
sample at a sampling point that is example for the entire sample area, but is undisturbed (not
polluted), the habitat factor can
largely be excluded and
comparison of the undisturbed
location and thus the potential of
the disturbed sampling locations
can be made. For this purpose the
largest clean stream of the Upper-
Bertam; near MARDI, Tanah Rata
was sampled. This sample
location was chosen because of
its similarity with most of the other
sampling locations regarding to
width, depth, velocity and flow and
bottom substrate. It lies in the
centre of the research area of the
Upper-Bertam catchment. This reference sample is also used to test the adapted BMWP
scoring for the Cameron Highlands, which was adopted in this research project to deal with
altitudinal zones and species occurrence. It was found to be compliant with this scoring system.
1) Total Number of Taxa and organism Density Per Sample (total abundance)
The diversity of this sampling point/station is with 11 different taxa extremely high. The
abundance s in the sample was average and equally distributed among the taxa with 120
individuals. This figure; high diversity equally distributed among the taxa is typical for
undisturbed and non-polluted rivers with excellent water quality and high oxygen
concentrations.
2) Percent Abundance of the

Sample point Reference
In the figure right the most
3%
EPT-taxa 46%
significant occurring aquatic
Decapoda 0%
46% Gastropada 0%
shown. As can be seen clearly
Chironimidae
51%
the green or the organisms of
51%
0%
Hirundinae 3% class I dominate in the pie-chart;
0% with predominantly EPT-taxa.
This indicates excellent water
quality with very low organic
matter and high oxygen yields.

The diversity of EPT taxa at this sampling point/station was 9 taxa, which resembles a very
high diversity and thus indicates very low nutrient concentrations and low organic matter yields.
The percentage indication of EPT percentile abundances is very high, with 53% indicating the
same as the above: excellent water quality, low organic matter concentrations and high oxygen
concentrations.

4) EPT/Chironimidae
The ratio of EPT taxa and Chironimidae at this sampling point/location was 2.1, which indicates
excellent water quality.
5) BMWP indice
The score for BMWP is 67 for this sampling point/station, which very high and thus indicates
6) ASPT indice
The score for ASPT is 6.0 for this sampling point/station, which very high and thus indicates

The LQI is 7 for this sampling point/station, which indicates clean water of excellent quality. It
was given the A++ index notation for clean and non-polluted waters.
(Above) the main ‘’quality’’ of this sampling point is the occurrence of very diverse taxa and
their abundance is more or less spread evenly among the taxa; ecological niches are thus
filled and the community reflects a ‘’healthy’’ environment. From left to right; Odonata,
Coleoptera, Plecoptera and again Odonata.

4.6 Interpretation
4.6.1 Introduction
The pollution tolerances of the various aquatic macro invertebrates are based upon the aquatic
macro invertebrates' tolerance to dissolved oxygen concentrations in water. Organisms are
separated into 3 categories of pollution tolerance: Sensitive (Class I), Facultative or
somewhat sensitive (Class II) and Tolerant or insensitive (Class III) to pollution.
It is expected that in a river with good water quality, aquatic macro invertebrates that are
sensitive and tolerant for pollution will be found. No particular group or types of organisms will
dominate the aquatic macro invertebrate population of the river. With increased organic
pollution (from nutrients found in fertilizers, sewage, and other sources) the dissolved oxygen
levels are expected to fluctuate more extremely in the stream. Aquatic macro invertebrates that
can tolerate lower oxygen levels will become more prevalent and the sensitive organisms will
disappear. As organic pollution continues to increase, some pollution tolerant macro
invertebrates will become dominant and will be able to support large populations within the
stream. The increase of organic pollution causes death to the sensitive and facultive
organisms. A shift in macro invertebrates' food sources is expected with changes in amount of
organic pollution in a stream. In clean streams, food sources are usually from within the natural
stream system, including leaf litter from trees in the riparian corridor of the stream. In more
organically-polluted streams, food might be supplied by other than natural sources, such as
nutrients input as sewage discharge on the river. Increased nutrients will also stimulate plant
and algal growth within a stream, offering yet another food source for macro invertebrates in
polluted streams. A reduced number of taxa and abundance is observed when organic
pollutant level increases.
4.6.2 Habitat factor

While biotic indices as the BMWP and the ASPT will reflect conditions of stress on the aquatic
community, it will also reflect the diversity or lack of diversity of the habitat of various sampling
locations/stations. For example, the riffle communities of a stream are generally more diverse
in invertebrate forms than still standing water in ponds. Samples taken in a pond will be
naturally less diverse and possess other "pond-like" biota than samples collected in the riffle of
a stream. Also, the type of substrate of the stream will affect the index. For instance those
sampling locations/points that possess bedrock as a substrate tend to be less diverse in
invertebrate forms than those containing gravel and boulders.
4.6.3 Index values of indicator families

One of the inherent dangers of the "indicator organism" concept or classification, which the
BMWP and ASPT utilizes, is that the occurrence of a Class III organism exhibits pollution. This
is not true. Even clean aquatic communities will have air-breathing Snails (Gastropoda) and
Leeches (Hirundinae). The indices are therefore based on presence and not on absence. This
means that the presence of Stonefly larvae much more says then the absence of this specie. If
only Class III forms can be found, severe degradation of water quality is evident. The indices
are based on diversity and abundance which is mostly found in a reverse principle; in polluted
locations/stations usually a high abundance of only a few species (low diversity) is found.
So the clean fast-flowing upstream rivers support high varieties of organisms (high diversity)
while the polluted downstream stretches support fewer species (low diversity) but in higher
densities (high abundance). The presence of sensitive taxa like the EPT-taxa in the fast-flowing
small forest streams is indicative that the habitat is unpolluted; while the presence of
Chironimidae in high densities is indicative for pollution.
A few examples of reaction of the aquatic macro invertebrate community on water pollution
effects are:
Nutrient enrichment
• Increased ratio of Aquatic Worms (oligochaetes) to aquatic insects.
• Increased ratio of Midges (chironomids) to other aquatic insects.
• Increase of herbivorous Mayflies (ephemeropterans) and Midges.
Low dissolved oxygen
• Increased ratio of Aquatic Worms to aquatic insects.
• Increased ratio of Midges to other aquatic insects.
Sedimentation
• Decrease in Mayflies and Midges.
4.6.4 A few examples of specific families reacting on water pollution:

• Stoneflies (Plecoptera) prefer cool, oxygen-rich streams and are generally intolerant or
very sensitive water pollution.
• Leeches (Hirundinae) and Snails (Gastropoda) live generally in nutrient rich water with
plants growing on the riverbanks
Besides this individual reactions on water deterioration, the use of biological indices as BMWP
and ASPT are easier to use and provide a qualitative calculation and enumeration in pollution
classes.
Above: very high abundance (few thousand per square meter of sampling) but very
low diversity (only Gastropda and Hirundinae). Not only this figure; low diversity &
high abundance of species indicates severe water pollution also the classification
of both groups in the intolerant or insensitive class III supports this.

4.6.5 Water quality & biological condition graphically exhibited

In the line graphs below three biological indices (BMWP, ASPT and Lincoln Index) are
displayed of the 4 sampling sites of the main river course of the Sg. Bertam. At sampling site
SP 1 very high scores; indicating good water quality were found. The river is still in the forest
and undisturbed by human influence and thus unpolluted at this point. At sampling site SP 2
the main river course has flown through the town of Brinchang, were sewage is added to the
river as well as influences from agricultural runoff; resulting in lower scores for the three
indices. At sampling site SP 3 (after addition of sewage of the town of Tanah Rata) and SP 4
(after addition of runoff of intensive agricultural area) the score decreases and so does the
associated water quality. Going from upstream (Sp 1) to down stream (via SP 2 to SP 3) and
ending at SP 4 the water quality strongly deteriorates. Notice that the individual indices follow
the same trend; with the Lincoln index giving scores between BMWP and ASPT. Note also the
comparative differences in the biological indices.
Biological scores Sg. Bertam
7
6
5
BMWP (1:10)
4
ASPT
3
Lincoln index
2
1
0
SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
Sample points
A lower family and species diversity causes a lower BMWP score at SP 2, SP 3 and SP 4.
Because of the higher abundance of the individual families however the scores for ASPT are
higher. This indicates biological degradation as a result of bad water quality. In these cases a
high abundance of tolerant species is found.
Biological scores of the tributaries
5
4.5
4
3.5
3 BMWP (1:10)
2.5 ASPT
2 Lincoln index
1.5
1
0.5
0
A B C D E
Sample points

In the bar graph the different biological indices (BMWP, ASPT and Lincoln Index) are displayed
to the individual sampling sites of the tributaries. The relative high scores (and thus good water
quality) of SP A (Sg. Burong) and SP B (Sg. Ruil) is prevalent. As well as the exceptionally low
score (and thus severe water pollution) for SP C (Sg. Jasar). Although The ASPT score of SP
A and SP B are very similar it is clear that the BMWP score at SP B is much higher. This is
explained by the fact that the diversity in species occurrence at SP B is much higher. This also
results in a higher Lincoln Index. Especially the last is a more ‘’honest’’ figure; since a high
diversity (scores high on BMWP) equally distributed among the occurring species represents
the most ‘’healthy’’ ecological community and thus the better habitat & water quality.
Concluding; the water quality of SP B is better because of a higher diversity, and that of SP A
lower because relative abundance of fewer species of the tolerant classes. The same figure is
visible at SP D (Sg. Ulung) and SP E (Sg. Batu Pipih) whereas SP E scores much higher on
BMWP (indicating higher family and species diversity) resulting in a much higher Lincoln Index
at SP D, indicating a (much) better water quality.
In the table below the relationship between chemical analysis of nutrients (COD, N and P) and
biological Indices is given in a line graph. No relationship exists between the individual
sampling sites/points (except for SP 1, 2, 3, and which are all of the Sg. Bertram). The intention
is to give an overview of the nutrient trend and scores for water quality according to biological
Indices.
When comparing biological indices with nutrient concentrations (COD, N and P) the
relationship becomes apparent. Biological indices as the BMWP, ASPT and Lincoln Index are
designed to display a decrease in water quality based on organic pollution, oxygen
concentration (which for an important part depends on BOD and COD) and associated total
nutrient concentration. Especially Phosphor is an important parameter since fresh water
ecology is very sensitive to it regarding the effect of Eutropication.
Essentially Eutrophication means in this case biological degradation of the water quality. The
more sensitive classes of EPT-taxa are replaced by tolerant classes of Gastropoda,
Chironimidae and Hirundinae. The total diversity diminishes in this process and individual
species abundance increases.

Relation BMWP and Nutrients
0.7
0.6
0.5 COD (1:100)
0.4 totN (1:10)
0.3 totP
0.2 BMWP (1:100)
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 A B C D E
Sample points
In the line graph above the relationship of all sampling points/stations to the concentration
COD, N and P is displayed. Again; ignore the individual relationship between sampling points
and focus on the blue line for BMWP. Apparent is that COD, N and P show the same trend and
in this the BMWP score acts reverse to the nutrients all together. So when COD, N, and P
rises, the BMWP score lowers. A high score for the biological indicates a healthy biological
environment and thus good water quality. With nutrients (COD, N, P) this is exact the other way
around. A higher concentration of these values means pollution and a decrease in water
quality.
Relation ASPT and Nutrients
0.6
0.5
0.4 COD (1:100)

totN (1:10)
0.3
totP
0.2 ASPT (1:10)
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 A B C D E
Sample Points
The same figure as for the BMWP is found for ASPT. However the ASPT acts more predicable
and more balanced because also the species abundance it taken in account in its formula. The
result is a “clearer” figure and the reverse relationship becomes even more apparent. Although
reverse in numbers; the outcome is the same: high levels nutrients = low score biological
indice. Interesting is to know what exactly that relationship is; which concentration COD, N or P
causes which biological score on BMWP, ASPT or Lincoln Index. Because aquatic macro
invertebrates are living things sensitive for multi-parameters (for instance presence pesticides,
oxygen concentration and habitat) this can not be answered easily. When looking at the
“distance” between the lines of COD, N and P, and the indice (meaning interrelationship
between indice score and concentration in milligrams per litre) it comes prevalent that
especially Phosphor acts predicable. A certain concentration Phosphor seems to have a strict
relationship with indice score, although the exact relating concentration is not always the same.
It is not possible to draw conclusions from this, other than saying that a “clear reverse
relationship exists between Phosphor concentration and indice score”. Meaning that Phosphor
acts degradating on water quality and biological integrity. Again also multiple other parameters
have their influence on the macro invertebrate community.
Relation Lincoln Index and Nutrients
0.7
0.6
0.5 COD (1:100)
0.4 totN (1:10)
0.3 totP
0.2 Lincoln index (1:10)
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 A B C D E
Sample points
Above the same relationship is shown, but now for the Lincoln Index. The Lincoln acts even
more strong than the ASPT index which is logic when comparing its formula consisting of the
BMWP and ASPT in fixed corresponding empiric numbers. The figure however remains the
same. Empiric analysis could be carried out to exactly distinguish its higher value in this case.
Relation BMWP and Nutrients
0.7
0.6
0.5 COD (1:100)
0.4 totN (1:10)
0.3 totP
0.2 BMWP (1:100)
0.1
0
SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
Sample points
In the smaller line graph above and below the relationship of nutrient concentration and a
biological indice (BMWP) and the interrelationship of the sampling points is shown. The
sampling points SP 1, SP 2, SP 3 and SP 4 are all of the same river: Sg. Bertam. With SP 1 at
the source, going downstream to SP2, SP 3 and SP 4. Clear is that the water quality according
to the BMWP indice is decreasing going from upstream to downstream. It is also visible that
the concentration of nutrients increases going from upstream to downstream, which makes
perfectly sense considering the described relationship above.Especially the Nitrogen
concentration going from SP 3 to SP 4 is reacting differently.

An explanation may be the already high concentrations Phosphor (which is more restricting in
fresh water ecology than Nitrogen). The Phosphor concentration thus is predicable as always;
following exact the same (reverse) trend as the nutrient concentrations. The BMWP again
proves that it acts strongly on nutrient concentrations, showing very strong correlationship with
nutrient concentrations and its ability to predict water quality based on COD, N and P
concentration with aquatic macro invertebrates.
4.6.6 Short summary of the findings of the aquatic macro invertebrate

assessment
very low-nutrient forest streams, holds a vast diversity of aquatic macro invertebrates. The
upper-reaches of the tributaries (‘i.e. ’reference sample’’) and of the Bertam river itself are of
the original undisturbed ecological quality. These streams house the typical indicators of fast
flowing, oxygen rich, nutrient-poor aquatic habitats on a rocky-bottom that is typical for this
mountainous part of the catchment. The aquatic macro invertebrate community in these parts
was compiled of mainly Stonefly-larvae, Caddisfly-larvae and Mayfly-larvae (Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera and Trichoptera or EPT-taxa) of many different individual species, but also Fresh
water Crabs (Decapoda), Cranefly larvae (Tipulidae) and Riffle Beetle Larvae (Elmidae). Every
other part of the main stream and all the other streams range from ecological very poor (SP 2,
3 and 4 Bertam river) to
ecologically almost dead (SP C
Sungai Jasar). Only SP A (Sg.
Burong) and SP B (Sg. Ruil) were
of reasonable and moderate
ecological quality. The aquatic
macro invertebrate community of
the sampling points SP 2, 3, and 4
and of SP C, D, and E were mainly
compiled of Leeches, Snails and
Red Mosquito-larvae (Hirundiae,
Gastropoda and Chironimidae).
The water quality ranged from very
badly polluted to extremely
polluted, with mainly organic
pollutants of domestic waste water
origin (sewage). The addition of
first the sewage of the town of
Brinchang and later the sewage of
the town of Tanah Rata was very
evident on the macro invertebrate
community with a scope from
sensitive EPT taxa to the tolerant
Chironimidae taxa.
Left: the water quality of the upper-reaches and some of the tributaries is excellent. Besides that
they are also without any exception tapped for agricultural purposes. This water of drinking
water quality is therefore used for irrigation of crop-land. At this photo (near Brinchang) water is
running through the pipes instead of flowing through the riverbed.

The two extremes: source and river course in urbanized area
Excellent water quality
Stonefly-larvae
(Plecoptera)
Damselfly-larvae
(Odonata)
Perfectly clean forest stream at the source of

the Bertam River (upper reaches)
Extremely polluted with organic

pollutants
Leeches (Hirundinae)
in total abundance
Gastropoda
(Snails) dominating
the sample
Part of the river polluted with sewage,
fertilizers, pesticides and lots of solid waste

5. Legislation & policies

Function and place of the chapter ‘Legislation & policies’ in this report
This part of the research project forms the ‘backbone’ for the implementation of (part of the)
administrative solutions to water pollution in the area. Spatial legislation gives protection to a
certain designated land cover; for instance a water catchment. It provides with a whole set of
laws for allowed practices in this designated area. Protection and Quality Acts as well as
regulations (though less ‘strict’) apply on certain topics; for instance water quality.
Methodology
This part of the research was mainly carried-out by literature research as well as interviews.
The law-books of Malaysian Law were studied; using a list complied by WWF Malaysia.
Interviews were held with members of REACH, employees of the Department of Environment
(DOE) and with local farmers.

The first paragraph discusses international conventions and the second local laws and
legislation applying to (the quality) of rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment; Cameron
Highlands.
5.1 International conventions

Among the main international conventions and priorities that are relevant to this research
project and to the sustainable development of the Upper-Bertam catchment are:
• Agenda 21;
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive global programme on sustainable development adopted at the

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, 1992. Principles of the Rio Declaration define the rights of people to develop and their
responsibilities to safeguard the common environment. The most important of the Rio
Declaration principles with respect to the environment and development is Principle No 4: In
order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an
integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
This research, in its involvement of local communities (i.e. with R.E.A.C.H.) in safeguarding
their environment and advocating sustainable development for the Cameron Highlands, reflects
these Agenda 21 principles.
The most important chapters of Agenda 21 that are relevant to this research and the issues of
the Upper-Bertam catchment are:
• Chapter 13 "Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain development", which
recognises that mountain environments are essential to the survival of the global
ecosystem and are a key issue in the global debate on environment and development.
The principles of improving coordination of regional efforts to protect fragile mountain
ecosystems, and diversifying mountain economies (e.g. agro-tourism) in accordance
with integrated management of mountain areas.
• Chapter 7, which relates to promoting sustainable human settlement development by
improving the social, economic and environmental quality of human settlements and
the living and working environment of all people.

• Chapter 8, which relates to integrating environment and development in decision

making so that consideration of socio-economic and environmental issues is fully
integrated and a broader range of public participation is fully assured.
• Chapter 15, which considers conservation of biological diversity.
• Chapter 18, which considers protection of the quality and supply of freshwater
resources to ensure that the freshwater needs of the country are satisfied.
As a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Malaysia has an international

obligation to conserve natural biodiversity within its borders. Malaysia is one of the world’s 12
mega diversity countries and the highlands of the Main Range (within which Cameron
Highlands is located) is the largest remaining continuous forest tract in Peninsular Malaysia. Of
particular relevance to this project is Article 10: Sustainable use of components of biological
diversity by integrating consideration of the conservation and sustainable use of biological
resources into national decision-making and supporting local populations to develop and
implement remedial action in degraded areas where biological diversity has been reduced.
Also in the international context, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2002 as the
International Year of Mountains in recognition of the crucial role they play in our lives. The aim
was to "ensure the well-being of mountain and lowland communities by promoting the
conservation and sustainable development of mountain regions." The UN General Assembly
has also declared 2003 as the International Year of Freshwater. It encourages governments
and other organisations to take advantage of the Year to increase awareness of the importance
of sustainable freshwater use, management and protection. The UN General Assembly has
declared 2002 as the International Year of Mountains (IYM 2002). It aims to increase
international awareness of the global importance of mountain ecosystems.
The International Year of Mountains represents an important step in the long-term process
initiated by the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The major outcome of this conference
was Agenda 21, a global blueprint for sustainable development into the 21st century. Agenda
21's Chapter 13 "Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain development", placed
mountains on an equal footing with climate change, tropical deforestation and desertification as
a key issue in the global debate on environment and development.
“Mountains are an important source of water, energy and biological diversity. Furthermore, they
are a source of such key resources as minerals, forest, agricultural products and recreation. As
a major ecosystem representing the complex and interrelated ecology of our planet, mountain
environments are essential to the survival of the global ecosystem.”
Agenda 21, Chapter 13

5.2 Local laws and legislation
5.2.1 Laws involving protection and regulation of the national rivers in

Malaysia are:
• Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974;
• Environmental Quality (Licensing) Regulations 1974 ;
• Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979;
• Sewerage services Act & Regulations 2002;
• Pesticides Act 1974
• Water Acts.
5.2.2 Environmental Quality Act 1974

This Act is meant to prevent deterioration of the environment, it supplies protection and
prevents pollution. The most important government institute working with this legislation is the
Department of Environment (DOE). This Act requires all prescribed premises to be licensed
and states requirements to operation. There are also restrictions on pollution of rivers which
prohibits any discharge of any waste unless licensed into any river, drains or lakes.
5.2.3 National Forestry Act 1984

This Act, together with the supporting Forestry Rules 1986, provide for a legal basis for the
protection of the Forest for many purposes. It also designates areas for Water Catchment
preservation.
5.2.4 Riparian buffer zones

Department of Irrigation and Drainage's manual (DID, 1961) recommends that there must be a
protection zone of 46 m width alongside riverbanks. Within this zone, no damage to riverbanks
or vegetation would be allowed; neither should there be any buildings.
5.2.5 Protection of water catchment areas

Water catchment areas upstream of drinking water intakes should officially be gazetted under
section 10(e) of the National Forestry Act 1984.

6. Discussion
This chapter discusses the results, information and data provided in this report regarding
credibility, liability and data reproduction.
6.1 Area appraisal
6.1.1 Data collection

Data collection was limited by the available resources. It is impossible to cover all data present
on the topic and to be completely exhaustive. In the process of collection the position within
R.E.A.C.H. and the resources available from there were the limited factors. Professional and
personal choices were made in selecting certain reports and data for this research project.
6.1.2 Information reproduction

Professional and personal choices were made in information presentation. Choices are made
in information liability and relevance of information and data.
6.1.3 Interpretation
Interpretation and ‘’colouration’’ of information and data is a question of professional interests,
occupation and personal philosophy. Since this project is carried-out in assignment of
R.E.A.C.H., it was important to keep their goals and objectives regarding the subject.
6.2 Chemical appraisal
6.2.1 Parameter selection

The selection of parameters for analysis in this research project was a choice based on the
Area appraisal regarding the problems in water quality of the Upper-Bertam and their sources.
6.2.2 Sample locations

Sample locations were first chosen on the map, after that checked in the field. In some cases
the sample stations were moved after visiting the sample locations, because of the
accessibility.
6.2.3 Sample strategy

Samples were taken considering the NEN-EN-ISO 5667-1,2,3:2004 guidelines, own
professional experience and adopted to the local circumstances. The comments and advice of
the analytical laboratory were strictly used in taking samples, storing samples and
transportation of samples.
6.2.4 Results
The results of the chemical analysis provided by the analytical laboratory were exported to
graphics and tables. The original forms are kept in the archive of R.E.A.C.H. for consultation.
6.2.5 Interpretation
The results of the chemical analysis; the data is compared with several guidelines including
Malaysia’s INWQS and the standards of the WHO. These values/data are also compared with

relatively undisturbed parts of the catchment for evaluation of pollution and natural background
concentrations.
6.3 Ecological appraisal
6.3 1 Sample locations

Sample locations for the Ecological appraisal are the same as for the Chemical appraisal. This
made it possible to compare chemical/physical data with the found aquatic macro invertebrate
occurrence at the sample location.
6.3.2 Sample strategy and methodology

The sample strategy and methodology for sampling, transportation, identification and working
of the sample are adopted from several sources listed in the Consulted sources as well as
professional experience for carrying out these assessments. Because this was one of the first
attempts in Malaysia of an aquatic macro invertebrate assessment for chemical water quality
typing: most of the methodology was adapted and rewritten & reinvented for the specific case
of the Cameron Highlands & Upper Bertam catchment.
6.3.3 Data enumeration

Working with the data of abundance, diversity and occurrence of species in the samples are
adopted and transformed to local conditions.
6.4 Simplified error and accuracy assessment chemical

parameters
6.4.1 Introduction
In the chapter 3.5 strategy of this report the methodology of sampling is explained. The sub-
chapter 3.5.2 Sampling method gives an insight view in the method of sampling used and
refers to the NEN-EN-ISO 5667-1,2,3:2004 guidelines which were used for quality assurance.
Finally the chapter 3.5.3 Sampling moment discussed the influence of the moment of
sampling on the results of analysis. In this chapter the reliability of the given values is
discussed. The accuracy of the analysis of the accredited laboratory of Waterschap
Rivierenland is not taken in account.
6.4.2 Broad spectrum analysis on pesticides package

Pesticides are broken down in time; by bacteriological activity and reliant on for instance
concentration oxygen and temperature. Some pesticides are volatile; also decreasing the
concentration in the sample. In all the actual concentrations will always be higher than the
given values by analysis.
6.4.3 Total thermo-tolerant E.Coli

The concentration E.Coli is dependent on the concentration oxygen in the water (and sampling
bottle), de amount of UV-radiation on the water surface (time of day) among others; lowering
the concentration given by analysis. The method of sampling is also of importance especially
regarding contamination of material. In this the official guidelines of the laboratory were
followed; including a 4 hour maximum time between sampling and analysis; and cooled
transportation. Given the method of sampling (in sterile circumstance) the actual concentration
will always be higher than the measured concentration by analysis; and is representative for
the moment and place of sampling.
6.4.4 Standard package heavy metal and Potassium

The concentration is dependent on among others the amount of TSS; as discussed earlier.
Since heavy metals are not broken down or are volatile (except mercury) time between
sampling and analysis is not a causing any differences in found concentration. The given
concentration of heavy metals and Potassium can therefore be regarded as accurate for the
time and place of sampling.
6.4.5 Chemical Oxygen Demand

BOD-analysis was not chosen for analysis because of the lack of oxygen-measurement
equipment; and because of the relative long time between sampling and analysis; making this
analysis unreliable in this case. Instead the COD was chosen because it’s higher value;
especially on more stable oxygen demanding compounds. Of course a part of the easily broken
down compounds is gone after a few hours; this can only be as much as the maximum
concentration oxygen in the water (since the bottle were airtight sealed); which is 8 mg/l.
6.4.6 Total Dissolved Solids

Especially the time of sampling (place in hydrograph) is of importance for TDS; since high
concentrations is partly a result of surface run-off and inflow from excess ground water
(although diluted by the higher flow). The given value is dependent on the instrument used
(with a given accuracy after calibration of +/- 0.05 mg/l).
6.4.7 Total Suspended Solids

Especially the place of sampling is of importance when sampling TSS; the sampling should be
in the middle of the water way (both horizontal as vertical); in this way the samples were also
taken. The time of sampling; the place in the hydrograph is of huge importance too.
Transportation of sample for analyses has no effect on final analysis results. So the final given
values are exact for the place and time of sampling; with no significant discrepancies for the
actual values. However it remains important to realize that the time (High water flow or average
water flow; place in hydrograph and possible incidents at the time being) of sampling is most
restricting for the usability of these values. Therefore long term values are given in this report
based on extensive earlier studies.
6.4.8 Acidity
The acidity is mostly dependent on dilution processes (with rain) and is not stable for laboratory
analysis; and should thus be measured in the field. The measurements were carried-out in the
field. The given value is dependent on the instrument used (with a given accuracy after
calibration of +/- 0.02 mg/l).
6.4.9 Electrical Conductivity

Especially the time of sampling (place in hydrograph) is of importance for EC; since high
concentrations of salts (and thus high value EC) is partly a result of surface run-off and inflow
from excess ground water (although diluted by the higher flow). The given value is dependent
on the instrument used (with a given accuracy after calibration of +/- 100 µS).

6.4.10 Total Phosphor

The concentration P is partly a result of surface run-off and inflow from excess ground water
(although diluted by the higher flow) with High water flow. Since P is stable; sample transport
has no effect on the final results. However since total P is measured (with particle P as well as
other soluble orthophosphates) riverbed erosion is important; occurring during HWF.
6.4.11 Total Nitrogen

Nitrogen is not stable and by denitrification-processes in anaerobic environments (such as in
the sample bottle) the concentration Nitrogen between sampling and analysis decreases. In all
the actual concentrations will always be higher than the given values by analysis.

7. Conclusions
7.1 Area appraisal
7.1.1 Causes of water pollution in the catchment:

In preventing erosion and runoff in agriculture the slope gradient must be less then 25° and of
a capable soil type, almost 45% of the agricultural land in the Cameron Highlands is
indiscriminately used for agricultural purposes, because it exceeds these basic concepts.
The shortage of water supply in the highlands is mainly to the fact that intake points for water
supply are inevitably located in the upper reaches of the water catchments, where the water
yield is low. This is worsened by the fact that 80% of the same water supply is tapped for
agricultural irrigation.
The Upper-Bertam catchment serves many functions: as an essential supply of drinking water,
for aquatic ecology, a part of rainforest ecology, aesthetic view and recreational purposes.
The degradation of the river water quality Upper-Bertam catchment is caused by:
• Urban area; pouring in hardly or untreated sewage, which contributes pathogens
(E.Coli), organic enrichment (nutrients) and toxicants.
alteration).
7.1.2 Problems occurring at the Upper-Bertam catchment are:

• Ongoing and increasing water pollution by agriculture due excessive pesticides and
fertilizer usage and due urban area with poorly or untreated treated domestic sewage
poured in the river course. This causes severe water pollution with: E.Coli (and other
pathogens), pesticides and organic pollution (including inorganic nutrients), siltation
and erosion from land clearing, agriculture and construction.
• The (already scarce) drinking water supply is heavily polluted with several chemicals
i.e. pesticides, fertilizers, faecal bacteria (causing diseases), organic pollution (sewage,
manure & fertilizers), suspended solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste and
pesticides. Drinking water is hardly available through lack of management, (illegal)
tapping and soil erosion.
• Lack of enforcement by responsible governmental agencies in preventing and
enforcing environmental offences.
• 80% of total clean water supply is utilized by agricultural industry and only 20 % is left
for drinking water. Most of the water used in agriculture is (illegally) tapped from small
mountain streams in the forest that contain the best quality water of the Highlands.
• Most vulnerable part of the catchment lies in urbanized area with pollution sources
(agricultural & urban) located at the far upstream part of the catchment.
• Lack of proper wastewater treatment facilities and poor management of water
treatment/storage facilities.
• Over development of urban area as well as agriculture;
• Lack of proper multidisciplinary management of river courses by DID (= Department of
Irrigation and Drainage)
• A maximum is set of 6000 hectares for agriculture (according to Structure Plan
Cameron Highlands 1998-2015); and already 5800 hectares is present of which almost
45% has a larger slope gradient than the allowed 25º; causing massive siltation.
• Huge lack of environmental awareness with most citizens as well as governmental

institutions.
7.1.3 Besides all these problems the Upper-Bertam still has important
values and large potential as:
• A vital source of high quality drinking water;
• Aesthetic attractive view for local residents and tourists when it is not polluted;
improves;
7.2.1 Causes of water pollution:

The water quality of the Upper-Bertam river deteriorates because the huge increase of
suspended solids, the high concentrations of Nitrogen and Phosphor compounds (including
COD: causing very significant enrichment and Eutrophication), pesticides (including banned
types) and the huge presence of E.Coli-bacteria (and other pathogens) causing severe micro-
biological contamination.
• Agricultural activities; causing sedimentation, encroachment of nutrients (COD,
Nitrogen and Phosphor compounds) as well as pesticides and micro-biological
contamination due the use of chicken manure (E.Coli).
• Urban area; uncontrolled and hardly or untreated treated sewage poured in the river
causing; nutrient encroachment COD, Nitrogen and Phosphor compounds) and
biological contamination (E.Coli and other pathogens).
Overall organic pollution (mainly domestic sewage) is the biggest pollutant in the Upper-Bertam
catchment. It originates from sewage and fertilizers (animal fertilizers as chicken manure),
through point sources (hardly or non treated domestic sewage) and non-point sources as
agricultural runoff. This organic pollution also causes very severe micro-biological
contamination with bacteria and viruses, which can cause diseases such as Cholera, Typhoid,
Hepatitis A and virus infections.
7.2.2 Pesticides
Banned pesticides of the persistent Organochlorine group (i.e. POP’s: DDT, Heptachlor, Aldrin
and Dieldrin) are still used in the Cameron Highlands. On 10th April 2005 the presence of DDT
was found (by COSMO! Newspaper & R.E.A.C.H.) before the Sungai Burong drinking water
intake (a tributary of the Upper-Bertam) and was detected in a concentration of 1920 µg/l (t-
DDT)!!! (almost 20.000 times higher than allowed according to INWQS class II). In this
research residue levels of Alfa-Endosulfan, Endosulfan-sulfate and of Alfa-HCH (Lindane) are
found in the Sg. Bertam. The presence of measurable pesticide-levels in the rivers is highly
undesirable, but the presence of banned pesticides in the rivers is absolutely unacceptable.

(Heavy) metals are found in fertilizers, waste dumping and sewage. None of the found
concentrations of (heavy) metals were unacceptably high, but attention should be given from
their origin as anthropogenic disturbance; and this should be regarded as significant.

7.2.4 Nutrients
Very severe nutrient encroachment occurs due; (hardly or untreated) sewage and agricultural
runoff (fertilizers). According to “Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria of the WHO”
during both AWF and HWF; although during AWF much lower concentrations were found. The
present phosphor concentrations and COD at most sampling points are so high that it causes
severe Eutrophication. COD is exceeded (“Recommended Raw Water quality Criteria of the
WHO”) at almost all sampling points in ranges of 2 to 50 times during both AWF and HWF.
However sewage is by far the biggest pollutant and pollution with sewage is very evident in the
rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment; causing massive algae growth, sewage fungi, a strong
smell of the water and causing health risks regarding micro-biological contamination with
E.Coli. Due a huge lack of appropriate sewage treatment systems almost all the sewage is
discharged “raw”. The concentration of nutrients that are found are unacceptably high and do
not support aquatic live of any quality, is highly un-aesthetic (algae bloom i.e.) and causes
health risks by (blue) algae bloom and supporting a good environment for pathogenic
organisms to sustain and multiply.
7.2.5 Micro-biological contamination

In the Upper-Bertam the bacterial contamination (E.Coli.) is mainly caused due uncontrolled
pouring in of insufficient or non-treated sewage (domestic waste water) and the extensive use
of chicken manure as fertilizers in agriculture as well as dumping of organic waste (meat) in or
near the river. High levels of E.Coli (and other pathogens) are found in the rivers of the Upper-
Bertam catchment. E.Coli was present in all samples and in levels that often were too high to
count (>200 CFU). These high levels are unacceptably and do not meet the clean water
standards of the World Health Organization (<10 Coliforms and no faecal Coliform for 100 ml of
untreated water). Regarding this fact the rivers should be characterized as severely
contaminated (= thus a biohazard) and requires extensive treatment for drinking water.
7.2.6 Suspended solids

Siltation is the most significant source of water quality deterioration. Most important source is
agriculture on steep slopes, but also land clearing and construction are important sources. Of
the total of 71.218 ha of the Cameron Highlands only 3.292 ha is suitable for agriculture,
because of slope gradient; less then 25° and soil type. The use as agricultural land however
exceeds 5.890 ha, which implicates that 2.598.3 ha is indiscriminately used for agricultural
purposes (almost 45%). The sedimentation in the TNB Ringlet Reservoir (Upper-Bertam is the
most important river flowing into the reservoir) has increased 9 times in a period of 25 years.
High concentrations of Suspended Solids in the rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment cause
massive siltation and sedimentation of the TNB Ringlet Reservoir and destroys any present
aquatic ecology of some quality. Concentrations of Suspended Solids found were in the ranges
of 1800-4100 mg/l (!) during HWF.
The Sg. Bertam can be classified as of Class III (according to classification system of
Department of Environment & INWQS) at AWF and Class V during HWF. Meaning that the
water quality AWF is very low going to HWF extremely low. Some of the tributaries have
‘’reasonable water quality’’ with classes IIA/B and III). The potential for clean water in the
polluted rivers is very high, since the original mountain streams in the catchment have shown to
hold water of perfect quality. It is sole due pollution caused by anthropogenic influence that the
water quality deteriorates from that.


very low-nutrient forest streams, forms the biotope of a vast diversity of rare aquatic macro
invertebrates. The upper-reaches of the tributaries and of the Bertam river itself are of the
original undisturbed ecological quality, without anthropogenic influence (only tapping). These
streams house the typical indicators of fast flowing, oxygen rich, nutrient-poor aquatic habitats
on rocky-bottom that is typical for this mountainous part of the catchment. The aquatic macro
invertebrate community in these parts was complied of mainly Stonefly-larvae, Caddisfly-larvae
and Mayfly-larvae (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera) of many different individual
species. Together with these families many other were found including Freshwater Crabs
(Decapoda) and Dragonfly-larvae (Odonata). The water quality of these waters is outstanding
and perfect. Every other part of the river system, ranges from ecological very poor to
ecologically almost dead. The aquatic macro-invertebrate community there was mainly
compiled of Leeches, Snails and Red Mosquito-larvae (Hirundinae, Gastropoda and
Chironomidae). The water quality ranged from very heavy polluted to extremely polluted. The
addition of the sewage of the town of Brinchang and later the sewage of the town of Tanah
Rata is very evident. The invasive fish species Guppy (Gambusia affinis) was extremely
abundant.
7.4 Legislation & policies

Agenda 21's Chapter 13 "Managing fragile ecosystems: sustainable mountain development",
placed mountains on an equal footing with climate change, tropical deforestation and
desertification as a key issue in the global debate on environment and development. As a
signatory of this conference and of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Malaysia has an
international obligation to conserve natural biodiversity within its borders
The Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979 and Sewerage
services Act & Regulations 2002 prescribe regulations for the treatment of waste water and
effluent in rivers. In this research it was concluded that the sewage treatment plant at Tanah
Rata is not in active operation and produces ‘raw’ effluent.
The Pesticides Act 1974 gives the allowable pesticides for usage in agriculture. Regarding the
wide spread use of pesticides banned on this list (and their proven existence in river water) it
seems that enforcement of this law is a problem.
The Environmental Quality Act 1974 requires all prescribed premises to be licensed and states
requirements to operation. There are also restrictions on pollution of rivers which prohibits any
discharge of any waste unless licensed into any river, drains or lakes. The Department of
Environment (DOE) should control and enforce this package of laws; but they do not seem the
give any priority to this. Many of the farms are illegally operated and no legal action whatsoever
is taken. So again a (huge) lack of proper governmental control of illegal activities seems to be
a problem.

The Department of Irrigation and Drainage recommends a protection zone of 46 m width

alongside riverbanks. In the Cameron Highlands and especially the Upper-Bertam catchment
agricultural land is up to the river bank with absolutely no riparian zones in between. This is
causing significant siltation and the flow of pesticides and nutrients to the rivers.
Water catchment areas upstream of drinking water intakes should officially be gazetted under
section 10(e) of the National Forestry Act 1984. This did not took place and a as result of that
the rivers of the Upper-Bertam catchment face severe pollution problems because water
polluting activates take place on a large scale within the headwaters of the Upper-Bertam.

8. Recommendations
8.1. The final objectives on the long term for the Upper-Bertam catchment in which this
research projects would like to contribute positively is realizing the potentials of the
Upper-Bertam catchment as:
• A river system with outstanding river water quality of high ecological, environmental
and aesthetic value that is safe for recreation;
• Conserving the rare and important ecosystem with river water of good quality;
• Ensuring sufficient water resources of good quality for the use as drinking water and
irrigation as well as for nature.
8.1.2 In practise: points of immediate action:

Governmental action:
8. Action plans should be made on the short term by the Land Office to cope with
necessary environmental protection. ( to handle and realize the recommendations
made in this report)
9. Riparian buffer zones of at least 50 (according to guidelines DID) meters to the river
course should be gazetted and enforced by the Land Office. (reduction TDS, (in)
organic pollution and pesticides in rivers)
10. The usage and trade of banned pesticides should be strictly controlled by the Police.
(reduction pesticides in rivers)
11. The further expansion of agriculture should be controlled strictly to minimize loss of
biodiversity and pollution. Existing (illegal) agricultural land should be moved to
designated agricultural development areas. (reduction TDS, (in) organic pollution and
pesticides in rivers)
12. The responsible governmental agencies (DOE, DOA, DID, Land Office, Police) should
control and take legal action against illegal tapping and discharging of waste water.
(reduction organic pollution and micro biological contamination rivers)
13. An Erosion and Sediment Control Plan must be submitted together with all intended
earthworks and the Land Office should strictly control this. (reduction TSS in rivers)
Point of practical technological action:

14. Governmental sewage treatment facilities should be built and operated for the whole
townships of Brinchang and Tanah Rata in which over 90% of the producers of
domestic waste water are connected (reduction organic pollution and micro biological
contamination rivers)
Point of communicative action:

The Adopt-a-river-programme; a programme in which water quality of rivers is tested
interactively with the public and volunteers should be set-up as one of the follow-up projects of
this research project. The NGO’s W.W.F. and R.E.A.C.H. will set-up this project. They need
support however from the Land Office. A website can be hosted by the website of DOE;
supplying direct awareness and informing on water quality.
The full recommendations of this research project are:
Time scale:
Immediate action: within 1 year
Intermediate time scale: within 10 years
Long term time scale: within 20 years
8.2 Area appraisal

Recommendation 8.2.1: sustainable management
Water resources of the Upper-Bertam catchment should be managed in a sustainable manner
emphasizing water demand management and water catchment protection. The Upper-Bertam
catchment supplies not only water for the Cameron Highlands, but also forms the source for
water intakes in the lowlands (i.e. Sungai Pahang). This puts tremendous pressure on the
responsibility of water usage and dealing with water pollution. Therefore it is of vital importance
to protect and manage the Upper-Bertam catchment in a sustainable way focusing also on the
long term. This water supply management should aim on managing and reducing demand,
increasing water utilization efficiency, reducing water wastage, reduce water pollution of
sewage by water treatment and minimizing agricultural runoff.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office
Time scale: long term time scale
Recommendation 8.2.2 agricultural development areas

Some valleys in the Upper-Bertam catchment now in other use should be gazetted and used as
agricultural development areas. This can even be rain forested areas if that will prevent further
wide spread expansion of agriculture. Valleys should be chosen based on slope gradient and
soil type as well as function with in the water catchment. In this way agriculture is more
concentrated and measures as (centralised) silt raps, water supply i.e. can be realised more
effectively and is more efficiently. An EIA should be carried out before permitting a valley to be
developed.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office; townships of Tanah Rata and Brinchang
Time scale: long term time scale
Recommendation 8.2.3: natural watercourses

The Land Office should protect natural watercourses and structures, and rehabilitate the water
courses with civil-technical structures (channelling).
Time scale: intermediate time scale
Recommendation 8.2.4: buffer areas

The Land office should construct ponds and wetlands in agricultural areas to catch nutrients
and sediment and serve as habitat for wildlife.
Recommendation 8.2.5: riparian buffer zones

Riparian buffer zones of at least 50 meters to the river course should be gazetted and enforced
by the Land Office. These riparian buffer zones act as a filter to intercept and absorb excess
nutrients, sediment and pesticides from agricultural runoff. Vegetation in these areas provide a

multitude of barriers that slow and intercept runoff and pollutants. This slowdown enables a
number of pollution-attenuating functions to occur.
Responsible agency or body: Land office & Police (enforcement)
Time scale: immediate action

Recommendation 8.3.1: rain shelters
Responsible governmental agencies should promote the use of rain shelters, in this way a
reduction in fertilizer inputs can be achieved as well as adoption of integrated pest
management practices resulting in a reduced pesticide input.
Responsible agency or body: Police (enforcement) and DOA
Time scale: short term time scale
Recommendation 8.3.2: illegal pesticides

The usage, sale and trade of illegal pesticides should be strictly enforced. A close look on the
present pesticides usage is recommended, in which lists of used pesticides are compiled and in
which the usage of certain types is reviewed.
Responsible agency or body: Police (enforcement) and DOA
Recommendation 8.3.3: sewage treatment

Domestic waste water (sewage) treatment should be better organized. The use of certain
waste water treatment facilities with the right specifications should be implemented in law and
the output water quality must be much better than present. Ideally centralised governmental
sewage treatment facilities should be built and operated for the whole townships of Brinchang
and Tanah Rata in which over 90% of the producers of domestic waste water are connected.
This not only puts the responsibility of water quality entirely with the government, but also
ensures a stable and reliable tenure of operation and output water quality. The operation of
these facilities is much more cost-effective and produces output water of extremely good
quality (over 99% of nutrients is removed). They can be relatively small using the active sludge
technique, but have a huge capacity.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office and DID

Recommendation 8.4.1: water quality assessments
DOE should assess on a regular basis both chemical and biological river water quality of the
Upper-Bertam and the most important tributaries. This routinely monitoring data should best be
placed on a website with general information about the environment and actors in water
pollution. Such an interactive website were people can look for ‘’their’’ water quality of their own
neighbourhood can be combined with awareness raising (by supplying information about what
is ‘’good’’ and what is ‘’wrong’’ and what there is to do yourself). Data and data-credibility
should be assessed by the Parliamentary Administration.
Responsible agency or body: DOE

Recommendation 8.4.2: grass-root initiatives

The quality of the ecosystem of the Upper-Bertam catchment is important for the local
inhabitants. They depend on the good quality drinking water, the health of the rivers, aesthetic
view and many other values of this water catchment. It is therefore important that local citizens
of the Upper-Bertam catchment (residents of Brinchang Tanah Rata and Habu) should be
given the opportunity to be involved in the management and improvement of their surrounding
environment. Grass-root community projects that involve pro-active local community
participation should have the overall aim of garnering participation and a creating a lasting
sense of responsibility or ownership for the environment. One of the ways in achieving this is
by the Adopt-a-river project also set-up within this research project with R.E.A.C.H. In this
R.E.A.C.H. would play the management role setting-up and leading the project. The
government or institutions can play an important role by assisting R.E.A.C.H. financially or with
goods (for instance chemical analysis) to support the project; creating goodwill by integral
NGO-Governmental collaboration. The activities of R.E.A.C.H. are perfect examples of grass-
root initiatives in the area. Internationally good examples of such a project would be the Adopt-
a-river projects that carried-out by the ‘Green World Foundation’ in Thailand.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office, DOE, DID and Health Department
8.5 Legislation & policies

Recommendation 8.5.1: Integrated River Basin Management
The local government should set-up an Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM)
programme in which the several participants and governmental departments are united. River
management in Malaysia is fragmented and placed under different government departments,
each responsible for a distinct component with little or no interaction or coordination amongst
them. Such sectorial division of responsibilities and tasks leads to fragmentation of the
management and mismanagement, ‘’scoping’’ with responsibilities from one department to the
other and a lack of appropriate enforcement by this. It is therefore important that the forest
catchment areas and the rivers are viewed as an integrated living system. The usage and
management of adjacent land and water in the catchment will of course affect the river water
quality and quantity. It is important that ecological principles and conservation are incorporated
into the management of the Upper Bertam river catchment. If not, the river will be even more
abused and irreversibly damaged. Integrated River Basin Management is based on a key
objective of Agenda 21, Chapter 13 - Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable Mountain
Development. This is done by promoting integrated water catchment management by using a
framework for managing and protecting the Upper-Bertam catchment, doing this also with
participation of the inhabitants.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office, DID, DOE and DOA
Time scale: Long term time scale

Recommendation 8.5.2: legal enforcement

In this research it was found that all legislation, guidelines and laws are all present to be
applied. Most of these already exist for years (for instance the guideline on “Riparian buffer
zones” is of 1961). Even though very little action is undertaken. It is strongly recommended to
undertake action, to enforce and to carry out environmental protection; before irreversible
damage occurs.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office, Police and DID, DOE, DOA
Recommendation 8.5.3: environmental protection

It is recommended that action plans are made by the responsible governmental agencies to
coop with the proposed environmental protection activities & pollution minimization and
rehabilitation. Further research will be necessary, not only towards pollution sources but also
intrinsic to biodiversity i.e. macro invertebrates.
Recommendation 8.5.4: best agricultural practises

Best agricultural practices (meaning ‘durable’ use of pesticides and fertilizers) should be
promoted and facilitated in the Upper-Bertam catchment area; this is a responsibility of the
government. This can not only be realised by promotion and facilitating, but by strict
requirements and demands in the operation licence and enforcement based on this licence.
Responsible agency or body: DOA
Recommendation 8.5.5: communicating existing laws for agriculture

Farmers should be given better security of tenure on their farm land to encourage long term
investment and adoption of good agricultural practices. Laws, regulations and guidelines for
agriculture should be stated crystal clear by responsible governmental agencies and enforced
strongly. An idea is to publish leaflets in which a brief overview of laws & regulations in
understandable language is given.
Responsible agency or body: DOA
Recommendation 8.5.6: stop expansion of agriculture

The further expansion of agriculture should be controlled strictly to minimize loss of biodiversity
and pollution. A maximum of 6000 hectares agricultural land is set in the Structure Plan
Cameron Highlands 1998-2015. This maximum is almost reached (already 5800 hectares
exists). Of the total of 5.890 ha already 2.598.3 ha is indiscriminately used for agricultural
purposes (regarding slope gradient >25º and soil type) which is almost 45%. The most effective
way to ensure a sustainable development and reduce pollution is by enforcement and very
strict control of any further agricultural expansion. It is the task of the (local) government to
undertake action on all illegal operated farms. Which means that the already existing farms (on
too steep slopes or within riparian buffer zones) should be moved to agricultural development
areas. Only within these specially designated areas mitigation/compensation of existing
agriculture can have place.

Recommendation 8.5.7: protect water catchment areas

Water catchment areas upstream of drinking water intakes must be gazetted as protected
forest. The whole catchment area of the Upper-Bertam should be gazetted as catchment
forests under section 10(e) of the National Forestry Act 1984. Which means that (water)
polluting activities or activities with a risk for causing water pollution is not allowed (such as
housing and agriculture). This should be enforced strictly and existing illegal situations must
come to an end by governmental action.
Recommendation 8.5.8: Erosion and Sediment Control Plan

An Erosion and Sediment Control Plan must be submitted together with all intended earthworks
and the responsible governmental agencies should strictly enforce this.
Recommendation 8.5.9: legal action

The responsible governmental agencies (DOE, DOA, DID, Land Office, Police) should enforce
and take legal actions against illegal tapping (Water Act) and discharging of waste water
(Environmental Quality Act).
Responsible agency or body: Land Office DOE, DOA, DID and Police
Recommendation 8.5.10: undertake action on recommendations

When reading to recommendations above it is appalling that most of them are not new. Most of
the recommendations made in this report & research project are made before. Especially the
reports: “Study for the Sustainable Development of the Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia” and
‘’Study on the Development of Hill stations” of WWF Malaysia made numerous
recommendations: both general and very detailed. Many of the recommendations in this report
were made by them before. Still a few years after the publication of those reports, no action is
undertaken. In this research we repeat their recommendations, together with new ones in the
hope and expectation that action is undertaken.
Responsible agency or body: Land Office DOE, DOA, DID and Police

Glossary
Benthic - pertaining to the bottom (bed) of a water body.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - the amount of oxygen consumed by
Micro-organisms as they decompose organic materials in water.
Community - the whole of the plant and animal population inhabiting a given area.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) - oxygen dissolved in water and available for living organisms to use
for respiration.
Eutrophication - the natural and artificial addition of nutrients to a water body, which may lead
to depleted oxygen concentrations. Eutrophication is a natural process that is frequently
accelerated and intensified by human activities.
Land uses - activities that take place on the land, such as construction, farming, or tree
clearing.
Macro invertebrate - organisms that lack a backbone and can be seen with the naked eye.
Riffle - shallow area in a stream where water flows swiftly over gravel and rock.
Riparian - of or pertaining to the banks of a body of water.
Riparian zone - the vegetative area on each bank of a body of water.
Substrate - refers to a surface. This includes the material comprising the stream bed or the
surfaces to which plants or animals may attach or live upon.
Taxon (plural taxa) - a level of classification within a scientific system that categorizes living
organisms based on their physical characteristics.
Taxonomic key - a quick reference guide used to identify organisms. They are available in
varying degrees of complexity and detail.
Tolerance - the ability to withstand a particular condition, e.g., pollution-tolerant indicates the
ability to live in polluted waters.
Tributaries - a body of water that drains into another, typically larger, body of water.
Turbidity - murkiness or cloudiness of water, indicating the presence of some suspended
sediments, dissolved solids, natural or manmade chemicals, algae, etc.
Water quality standards - written goals for water quality
Water catchment - The definition of what comprises a water catchment or river basin varies
according to the context. Water catchment refers to the land area in the upper reaches of the
river system (in the highlands and mainly forested) which feeds into a stream/river.

Consulted sources
Literature & Reports:
1. A study on pollution prevention and water quality improvement program
of rivers in Cameron Highlands, National Seminar, March 2005,
HANDOUTS, Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting Engineers
HANDOUT Biodiversity and Natural resource management of Cameron
Highlands, Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting Engineers
HANDOUT Baseline Environment; Land use in Cameron Highlands District,
Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting Engineers
4. Abdullah, Shahrizaila, 2003, Country Dialogue on Water, Food and
Environment, concept and Process – A Malaysian Experience
5. Cameron Highlands Structure Plan 1998-2010, Majlis Daerah Cameron
Highlands
6. Dr. Nik & Associates, Government of Pahang, Jabatan Pengairan Dan
Saliran Pahang, 2004, Drainage master plan study and flood mitigation
project for Cameron Highlands
7. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, 1997, Volunteer Stream
Monitoring: A Methods Manual, EPA
8. Genet, J, Chirhart, J, 2004, Development of a Macro invertebrate Index of
Biological Integrity (MIBI) for Rivers and Streams of the Upper Mississippi
River Basin, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Biological Monitoring
Program
9. Hashim, A. Ir, National Seminar, March 2005, HANDOUT Formulation of
integrated sediment and erosion controls measures for pollution prevention
and water quality improvement of rivers in Cameron Highland, Government of
Malaysia, Adroit Consulting Engineers
10. Hashim, A. Ir, National Seminar, March 2005, HANDOUT Integrated
catchment management strategic plan for pollution prevention and water
quality improvement of rivers in Cameron Highland, Government of Malaysia,
Adroit Consulting Engineers
11. Hashim, Alias, Ir, 2005, Soil erosion and sedimentation issues and possible
control measures in Cameron Highlands, Adroit Consulting Engineers
12. Hashim, G.M, Rahaman, A.H. 2005, Soil erosion and water pollution in
Cameron Highlands: conservation strategies, Malaysian Agricultural Research
and Development Institute (MARDI)
13. Hashim, G.M., Wan Yusoff, W.A., 2003, Environmental Issues In Highlands
Agriculture, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute
(MARDI)
14. Ibrahim I, Ir, National Seminar, March 2005, HANDOUT Water quality
modelling, Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting Engineers
15. Kanjanavanit, Oy, Moonchinda, Niromon , 2002, Handbook for Stream
detectives The Green World Foundation

16. Kumaran, S, Ainuddin, A. N., 2004, Forests, Water and Climate of Cameron
Highlands, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
17. Kumaran, S, The Highland ecosystems: The urgency for conservation and
protection, WWF Malaysia
18. Mohd. Idris, S.M. a.o.1997, State of The Environment In Malaysia,
Consumers Association of Penang and Sahabat Alam Malaysia
19. Mohd. Long, S, Abang, F, Rahim, K.A, 2002, The macro invertebrate
community of the fast flowing rivers in the Crocker Range National Park
Sabah, Malaysia, ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental
Conservation (ARBEC)
20. Salam, M, N, A, Tang, J, Aquatic biota studies in the Selangor river basin,
WWF Malaysia
21. Samad, F, A, Ir, Dr, 2003, Dialogue on Water, Food and Environment:
sectorial level
22. Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research, 2003, Appendices, DEIA for The
Proposed Rehabilitation of Ringlet Reservoir, Cameron Highlands, TNB
23. Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research, 2003, Comments of REACH, DOE and
WWF on Supplementary Report, DEIA for The Proposed Rehabilitation of
Ringlet Reservoir, Cameron Highlands, TNB
24. Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research, 2003, DEIA for The Proposed
Rehabilitation of Ringlet Reservoir, Cameron Highlands, TNB
25. Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research, 2004, Additional Information, DEIA for
The Proposed Rehabilitation of Ringlet Reservoir, Cameron Highlands, TNB
26. Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research, 2004, Supplementary Report, DEIA for
The Proposed Rehabilitation of Ringlet Reservoir, Cameron Highlands, TNB
27. Whitmore, T.C. 1984, Tropical Rain Forests of the Far East, London: Oxford
University Press.
28. WWF Malaysia, 2001, Study for the Sustainable Development of the
Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia, Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s
Department
29. WWF Malaysia, 2001, Study on the Development of Hill stations”, Economic
Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department
30. WWF Malaysia, 2003, Water for Life presentation
31. Wyatt-Smith, J. 1963, Manual of Malayan Silviculture for Inland Forests

Internet sources:
A. www.lenntech.com Lentech 14/04/05
http://www.lenntech.com/drinking-water-standards.htm
B. www.who.int.en 20/04/05
http://www.wpro.who.int/health_topics/water_sanitation_and_hygiene/
C. www.reach.org.my 10/05/05
http://www.reach.org.my/index.php?option=content&task=category&sectionid=17&id=3
1&Itemid=55
D. www.greenworld.org.th 21/03/05
http://www.greenworld.or.th/2_gwf.htm
E. www.environmentagency.gov.uk 18/03/5
http://www.environmentagency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/wildlife/inverts/fresh_inverts/545851/
545897/?lang=_e&theme=&region=&subject=&searchfor=water+quality+invertebrate&
any_all=&choose_order=&exactphrase=&withoutwords=
Interviews & oral comment:

I. Mr. Ramakrishnan Ramasamy A.M.N, president REACH
II. Dr. T.L. Liau, Vice President REACH
III. Mr. Amran Nazar Khan, committee Member REACH
IV. Mr. Sanath Kuruman, WWF senior scientific officer
V. Mrs. Joanna Tang, WWF senior scientific officer
VI. Mr. Kaliyannan Karipurah, local ecological specialist
VII. Presentation Adroit Consultancy 9th March 2005, Merlinn Hotel Brinchang

Appendix 1: Overall Problem: deterioration of water quality of the Sungai Bertam catchment, Cameron
Highlands
Problem Tree
Problem: continuing and increasing
water pollution
Bad agricultural practice Urban and agricultural development Poor integrated basin management
& expansion
Loss of natural resources and Public risks

biodiversity Economic withdrawals
Negative impacts on socio-economy and quality of Water shortage
environment of Cameron Highlands Negative effects on down-stream users
Flora, fauna and biodiversity under pressure and threatened
Aesthetic/landscape/tourism appeal of Cameron Highlands
damaged
Soil less fertile
Increased surface run-off
Polluted run-off Risk of flooding
Siltation of rivers
Water pollution
Landslides
Loss of forest cover
Excessive use of fertiliser Lack of integrated and sustainable spatial planning attributes
Use of illegal pesticides Lack of enforcement Absence of integrated management plan
Illegal development of agricultural land Lack of expertise Lack of coordination between
(Illegal) forest logging governmental agencies and departments
Lack of empowerment and capacity of community & (local) government in enforcement of environmental degrading activities

Appendix 2: satellite map of Upper-Bertam catchment

From NASA World-wind programme

Appendix 3: Map sampling locations

Chemical & Ecological Appraisal

Study on river water quality of the Upper Bertam catchment – part 2 – system analysis
Detailed sampling locations
Saxion University Deventer 141

Institute of Spatial Planning and Environmental Science
Appendix 4: Result chemical analysis

Principle sampling points fact sheet AWF
Sampling stations unit SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
pH points 6.32 7.08 6.93 7.04
EC µS/cm 9 66 63 47
TDS mg/l 6.4 13 11 130
totN mg/l < 0.5 1.8 2.0 0.8
totP mg/l < 0.05 0.27 0.23 0.28
COD mg/l 11 10 12 14
E.Coli CFU - > 200 > 200 86
Arsenic µg/l <2 - <2 3
Cadmium µg/l < 0.05 - < 0.05 0.05
Chrome µg/l <2 - <2 3
Copper µg/l <1 - 2 5
Lead µg/l <1 - 1 5
Nickel µg/l <2 - <2 <2
Zink µg/l <9 - <9 18
Mercury µg/l - - < 0.03 <0.03
Alfa-HCH µg/l - - - < 0.002
Sum a-endosulfan- µg/l - - - 0.23
and Sulphate
Macro-invertebrate
BMWP points 61 22 14 9
ASPT points 5.5 3.6 2.8 2.3
Lincoln index points 6.5 3 2 1
Additional sampling points fact sheet AWF

Sampling stations unit SP A SP B SP C SP D SP E
pH points 7.1 6.48 6.69 7.07 7.3
EC µS/cm 48 16 111 53 52
TDS mg/l 13 <2 12 4.8 18
totN mg/l 0.8 0.9 4.6 0.6 < 0.5
totP mg/l 0.11 0.07 0.54 0.16 0.11
COD mg/l 11 11 33 < 10 < 10
E. Coli CFU 65 52 > 200 14 59
Macro-
invertebrate
BMWP points 32 46 2 21 14
ASPT points 4.6 4.6 2 3 2.8
Lincoln index points 4 4.5 1 4.2 2

Principle sampling points fact sheet HWF

Sampling stations unit SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4
pH points 7.41 7.12 7.17
EC µS/cm 65 62 48
TDS mg/l 67 4100 1800 930
totN mg/l 0.6 17 5.7 2.2
totP mg/l 0.07 14 2.6 1.3
COD mg/l 39 505 191 53
Arsenic µg/l <2 - 13 8.0
Cadmium µg/l < 0.05 - 0.2 0.1
Chrome µg/l <2 - 23 17
Copper µg/l <1 - 15 12
Lead µg/l 1 - 60 23
Nickel µg/l <2 - 7 5
Zink µg/l <9 - 140 60
Mercury µg/l - - 0.2 0.05
Alfa-HCH µg/l - - - 0.0060
Sum a-endosulfan- µg/l - - - 0.36
and Sulphate
Additional sampling points fact sheet HWF

Sampling stations unit SP A SP B SP C SP D SP E
pH points 7.17 6.83 6.93 7.32 7.37
EC µS/cm 65 19 53 53 54
TDS mg/l 3900 51 870 150 67
totN mg/l 9.7 1.6 2.7 1.5 0.6
totP mg/l 8.7 0.32 1.0 0.55 0.13
COD mg/l 570 17 96 34 < 10

Additional notations fact sheet

Rating in values from 0 to 10 with 1 absent and 10 being extremely abundant.
Average Water Flow (AWF)

topic SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4 SP A SP B SP C SP D SP E
Water colour 0 5 7 10 2 2 6 4 4
Foam 0 2 2 2 0 0 4 2 2
presence
Water turbidity 0 1 2 8 1 1 3 1 1
Oil presence 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
Sewage 0 8 9 7 1 0 10 1 1
Solid waste 1 5 8 3 3 3 5 5 4
Fungi 0 6 4 1 0 0 10 0 0
Algae 1 9 9 9 4 3 9 8 8
High Water Flow (HWF)

topic SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4 SP A SP B SP C SP D SP E
Water colour 2 5 7 10 2 2 6 4 4
Foam 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2
presence
Water turbidity 2 10 10 10 4 2 7 7 7
Oil presence 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sewage 0 4 5 3 0 0 7 0 0
Solid waste 1 6 7 2 2 2 4 4 5
Fungi 0 6 4 1 0 0 10 0 0
Algae 1 9 9 9 4 3 9 8 8

Explanation topics:
• Water colour - colourless, transparent or has it a colour (maybe yellow or
brown)
• Foam on the surface - might be natural or due to pollution, generally
detergents or nutrients
• Water turbidity - cloudy brown due to suspended silt or organic material
• Water colour dark brown - might indicate that acids are being released into
the stream due to decaying plants
• Oily sheen on the water surface – multi-coloured reflection might indicate oil
floating in the stream, although some sheens are natural
• Water odour can be a physical indicator of water pollution; no smell or a
natural odour or strong smell of some kind
• Visible sewage - might indicate the release of human waste material
• Litter or garbage in the stream-solid waste form urban use may also in clued
(partly) empty pesticide bottles
• Fungi on the stream bottom- grey or whitish underwater growing fungi
indicate extremely polluted water, full with sewage.
• Algae on rocks and gravel-indicating nutrient enrichment of the water, green
algae are better then the slimy brown ones (indicating severe nutrient

• Classification of waters according to DOE Malaysia
Parameter unit Classes

I IIA IIB III IV V
pH pH 6.5- 6-9 6-9 5-9 5-9 -
8.5
EC µS/cm 1000 1000 - - 6000 -
TDS mg/l 500 1000 - - 4000 -
COD mg/l 10 25 25 50 100 >100
BOD mg/l 1 3 3 6 12 >12
Faecal Coliforms CVU/100ml 10 100 400 2000 20.000 -
CLASS I : Conservation of natural environment water supply I practically no treatment

necessary- Fishery I- very sensitive aquatic species
CLASS IIA : Water supply II-conventional treatment required Fisheries II-sensitive aquatic
species
CLASS IIB : Recreational use with body contact
CLASS III : Water supply III extensive treatment required Fisheries III - common, of economic
value, and tolerant species livestock drinking
CLASS IV : Irrigation
CLASS V : none of the above

Appendix 5: Field records of chemical and Ecological

sampling

Appendix 6: Occurring amphibians in the Cameron

Highlands
Latin name English name
Bufo Asper River Toad
Bufo melanotictus Common Toad
Ichthyophus glutinosus -
Megophrys longipes -
Metaphrynella pollicaris -
Microhyla annectens -
Amolops larutensis Larut Cascade Frog
Taylorana hascheana Forest Hill Frog
Limnonectes nitidus -
Limnonectes paramacrodon Masked Swamp Frog
Limnonectes malesianus Malayan Giant Frog
Limnonectes laticeps -
Limnonectes kuhlii Kuhl’s Stream Frog
Limnonectes blythii Blyth’s Giant Frog
Rana nigrovittata Darked-sided Frog
Rana luctuosa -
Rana hosii Hose’s Rock Frog
Rana chalconata White-lipped Frog
Philautus petersi Brown Tree Frog
Polypedates leucomystax Common Tree Frog
Rhacophorus promianus Malayan Tree Frog
Rhacophorus bipunctatus Twin Spotted Tree Frog
Amphibian species occurring in the Cameron Highlands2

Appendix 7: fact sheet BMWP of the sampling stations

water Good to excellent Average Poor to very polluted
quality
scoring 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
BMWP
tolerance I II III
classes
animal
group
Diptera (Chironimidae)
Trichoptera (uncased)
Trichoptera (cased)
Trichoptera (cased)
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
Ephemeroptera
(Oligochaeta)
Coleoptera (Elmidae)*
Megaloptera
Heteroptera
Gastropoda
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Pelecypoda
Trichoptera
Amphipoda
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Plecoptera
Plecoptera
Hemiptera
Hirudinea
Hirudinea
Decapoda*
Planaria*
Isopoda
Diptera
Odonata
SP 1 1 11 0 0 8 0 25 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
SP 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 28 0 9 0 0 211 18
SP 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 91 0 36 0 0 188 16
SP 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 0 21 0 0 27 10
SP A 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 14 0 9 0 0 11 10
SP B 0 0 0 0 20 56 0 0 0 0 0 10 4 0 0 0 81 93 0 0 0 0 52 0 6 0 4 11 0
SP C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 314 0
SP D 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 0 18 0 48 441 28
SP E 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 1 0 6 0 0 4 2
RF 3 14 0 0 20 10 0 3 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 30 4
* Not in BMWP system

Appendix 8: BMWP Scoring Index System

(after Armitage et tal, 1983)
Order Family Score
Ephemeroptera Ephemerellidae, Ephemeridae, Heptageniidae,
Leptophlebiidae, Potamanthidae, Siphlonuridae, 10
Plecoptera Capniidae, Chloroperlidae, Leuctridae, Perlidae,
Perlodidae, Taeniopterygidae
Heteroptera Aphelocheiridae
Trichoptera Phryganeidae, Molannidae, Beraeidae, Odontoceridae,
(cased) Leptoceridae, Goeridae, Lepidostomatidae,
Brachycentridae, Sericostomatidae
Odonata Damselflies: Lestidae, Agriidae (i.e. Calopterygidae) 8
Dragonflies: Gomphidae, Cordulegastridae, Aeshnidae
(darters)
Trichoptera
(cased) Psychomyiidae, Philopotamidae
Ephemeroptera Caenidae 7
Plecoptera Nemouridae
Trichoptera Uncased: Rhyacophilidae, Polycentropodidae
Cased: Limnephilidae
Gastropoda Neritidae, Vulperidae , Abcylidae 6
Coleoptera Hydrophilidae (water scavenger beetles)
Pelecypoda Unionidae
Amphipoda Corophiidae, Gammaridae
Platynemididae, Coenagridae
Hemiptera Mesoveliidae, Hydrometridae, Gerridae, Nepidae,
Kjuceridae , Notonectidae, Pleidae, Corixidae, 5
Coleoptera Halplidae (crawling water beetles), Hygrobidae,
Dytiscidae (predaceous diving beetle), Gyrinidae
(whirligig beetles), Hydrophilidae (water scavenger
beetles),
Clambidae , Helodidae (Scirtidae or marsh beetles),
Dryopidae (long-toed water beetles), Elmenthidae ,
Chrysomelidae (leaf beetles), Curculionidae (weevils)
Trichoptera
(uncased) Hydropsychidae
Diptera Tipulidae, Simulidae (blackfly larvae)
Planariidae, Dendrocoelidae
Ephemeroptera Baetidae 4
Megaloptera Sialidae
Hirudinea Pisticolidae (leeches)
Valvalidae, Hydrobiidae, Lymnaeidae, Physidae,
Gastropoda Planorbidae 3
Pelecypoda Sphaeriidae
Hirudinea Glossiphoniidae, Elmodidae , Erebdellidae
Isopoda Ascellidae
Diptera Chironomidae 2
Oligochaeta (whole class) 1

Appendix 9: Water quality classification with biological

indices
Water quality classification based on BMWP index and ASPT index
Biotic Index Range of Scores Water Quality
BMWP (Armitage et. al., 1983, but adopted > 66 Very good
for the situation of the Cameron 49 - 65 Good
Highlands i.e. altitudinal zonation of 33 – 49 Moderately good
species occurrence)) 17 – 33 Bad
0 - 16 Very bad
ASPT (Average Score Per Taxon; original 0 Very polluted
scoring) – 2.9 Polluted
– 4.9 Moderately polluted
5.0 – 5.9 Moderately clean
6.0 – 7.9 Clean
8.0 – 10.0 Very clean
Water quality rating for Lincoln Quality Index (after Extence et. al, 1987)
Overall Quality Rating Index Water quality
6+ A++ Very good
5.5 A+ Very good
5 A Very good
4.5 B Good
4 C Good
3.5 D Moderately polluted
3 E Moderately polluted
2.5 F Polluted
2 G Polluted
1.5 H Very polluted
1 I Very polluted
Rating Standards for Lincoln index (adapted to BMWP scoring of this research project)
BMWP Score X Rating
60 + 7
50 – 59 6
40 – 49 5
30 – 39 4
20 – 29 3
10 – 19 2
0–9 1
ASPT Y Rating
6.0 + 7
5.5 – 5.9 6
5.1 – 5.4 5
4.6 – 5.0 4
3.6 – 4.5 3
2.6 – 3.5 2
0 – 2.5 1

Appendix 10: Vegetation zones on the Mountain Range of

Malaysia27
Important groups
Forest Formation Floristic zones
Coniferae
Ericaceae
Upper Montane Myrtaceae
montan ericaceou
e s Fagaceae
150 Lauraceae
0 Oak-
Lower laurel Shorea platyclados, S.
Elevation (m)
montan ciliata, S. ovata,

e Dipterocarpus retusus
Upper Dipterocarp As below + Shorea curtisii
750
Lowland Hill Dipterocarp Numerous dipterocarps
espcially Dipterocarpus spp.
Shorea spp. and Dryobalanops
aromatica
Lowland
Dipterocarp

Appendix 11: Facts: DDT in sg. Burong 09/04/05
• Total DDT concentration in sg. Burong (include metabolites:

DDD and DDE) = 1.92 mg/l (!!!) = 1920 µg/l
• DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane) is a POP

(Persistent Organochlorine Pesticide)
• DDT is associated with causing (chronic intake, so in low

concentrations): decreased fertility, still births, damage to
liver, nervous system, immune system and kidneys
• Half Time (the time after which the concentration is reduced

with 50%) of DDT in nature = 2 to 15 years
• LC50 fish = 10µg/l, (Lethal Concentration 50% mortality;

the deadly concentration within 96 hours), so concentration
in sg. Burong is high enough to kill all the fish in the stream
by 200 X
• Other water animals (aquatic macro-invertebrates) are more
sensitive with over 400 X exceeding the deadly
concentration
• Class II Interim National Water Quality Standards for

Malaysia t-DDT = maximum 0.1 µg/l
• (Class II waters are rivers used for water supply with
conventional (very limited) treatment)
• Concentration DDT (total) is exceeded with 19.200 X (!!!)
• According to the National Drinking Water Standards

(NDWS) t-DDT = maximum 1 µg/l
• This water ends up in the JBA sg. Burong water in take,
when the concentration is after treatment still the same
(very likely), the concentration exceeds the (NDWS) 1920 X
Summarizing:
Concentration t-DDT = 1.92 mg/l

Æ 200 times deadly for fish 400 times for other water animals
Æ Exceeds water quality standards with nearly 20.000 times
Æ If in drinking water, exceeds quality standards nearly 2000 times

Appendix 12: Facts: Rehabilitation project Ringlet

Reservoir: facts26
TNB spends 150 million RM on a 2,5 year

desiltation-project
Removing 2,2 million m3 polluted sediment

to a pristine Rainforest area
The yearly inflow of silt at this moment is

550.000 m3/year, (which is flowing in at the
same time of the project)
So 1,5 year after finishing the project, it has to

start all over again to remove again those
2,2 million m3 of sediment
Agriculture in the Upper-Bertam valley

(most important influx of silt in the Ringlet
Reservoir) is likely to double (at the least) in the
next 10 years


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- Study on river water quality of the Upper Bertam catchment - System Analysis -

Study on river water quality of

‘The ecologist cannot remain a voice crying in the wilderness

Antony van der Ent & Chantal Termeer

Brinchang 2005 – Deventer 2006

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

Saxion University IJselland

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

Executive summary ___________________________________________________7

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

3. Chemical appraisal ________________________________________________41

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

4.6 Interpretation _______________________________________________________ 108

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

The degradation of the Upper-Bertam catchment is caused by:

Degradation of water quality in Upper-Bertam catchment occurs due to:

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

• Agricultural activities; causing sedimentation, encroachment of nutrients (COD,

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

The most essential recommendation given in this report are:

4. The further expansion of agriculture should be controlled strictly to minimize loss of

Point of practical technological action:

Point of communicative action:

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

Deventer/Brinchang, January 20th, 2006,

Antony van der Ent & Chantal Termeer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

The state of Pahang, with

5 Cameron Highlands Structure Plan 1998-2010

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

1.2 Problem description

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

1.3.2 Research purpose

See also the Problem Tree in the Appendices

1.3.2.1 Object of research:

1.3.2.2 Research subject:

1.3.2.3 Principle research question

1.3.2.4 Key definitions

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

1.4 Reading guide

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

Lay-out and structure of this chapter

2.1.1 Water on world scale

2.1.2 Water in Malaysia

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

2.2 Methodology & Strategy

2.2.1 Literature research

2.3.1.1 Elevation and Land use

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

Terrain gradient Percentage of Elevation band Percentage

Above: The Cameron Highlands is the largest continuous mountainous

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

2.3.2 Brief History

2.3.3 Abiotic Environment

2.3.3.1 Geology & Soils

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer

R.E.A.C.H. - Saxion University of Applied Science Deventer