Cell Parts and Functions

What is a cell?
A cell is a unit of life. Some organisms are made up of only one cell. These organisms are called unicellular organisms. Other organisms are made up of many cells. These organisms are called multicellular organisms. Cells come in different shapes and sizes, but they all have some common features. A cell consists of a tiny mass of living matter called protoplasm and a cell surface membrane. A protoplasm consists of a cytoplasm, nucleus, and many other organelles.

Plants:
Mitochondria (sing. Mitochondrion)
A mitochondrion is usually a sausage shaped organelle. It is bounded by two membranes. The inner membrane is folded to increase surface area for enzymatic reactions.

Function: For aerobic respiration. In the mitochondrion food molecules (e.g. sugars) are broken down
in the presence of oxygen to release large amounts of energy for activities in the cell.

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are found in plant cells. A chloroplast is an oval shaped organelle enclosed by two membranes. It contains a system of membranes (called thylakoid membranes) embedded in a fluid matrix. The membranes contain chlorophyll for the light stage of photosynthesis. The fluid matrix contains enzymes for the light independent stage of photosynthesis.

Function: To manufacture carbohydrates (glucose) by photosynthesis.

Cell Wall
A plant cell also has a non living cell wall that encloses the entire plant cell, surrounding the cell surface membrane. This cell wall is fully permeable. The cell wall is absent in animal cells.

Function: It protects the cell from injury and gives the plant cell a fixed shape.

Cell Surface Membrane

The Cell Surface Membrane is partially permeable. It controls substances passing through it. The cell surface membrane can perform active transport utilizing energy to move substances across it against a concentration gradient.

Function: It prevents harmful substances from entering the cell (i.e. wastes), but also allows useful
nutrients into the cell.

Vacuoles
A vacuole is a fluid filled space enclosed by a membrane. Animal cells contain many small vacuoles. A plant cell contains a large central vacuole enclosed by a membrane called the tonoplast. The tonoplast is partially permeable. The vacuole contains a liquid called cell sap. The cell sap contains water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.

Function: It stores water and food substances.

Vesicle
It is like a bag that transports molecules within the cell.

Golgi apparatus (Golgi body)

The Golgi apparatus consists of a sack of disc shaped, membrane bound cavities. Vesicles can be seen fusing or budding off from the Golgi apparatus.

Function: It is used for storing and packaging substances for secretion. It is also used to store
chemically modified substances for secretion.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

SER consists of a network of tubules (very small tubes or tube like structures) bound by membranes. No ribosomes are attached to the SER.

Function: This organelle synthesizes lipids (e.g. steroids like the sex hormones). It is also used for
detoxification (the conversion of toxic or harmful substances into harmless substances). The SER also transports lipids to the Golgi apparatus for secretion.

Nucleus
The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear envelope. It contains a dense mass of protoplasm called nucleoplasm. Chromatin threads are found in the nucleus. Each chromatin thread contains a DNA

molecule. The DNA molecule contains the genes that determine the characteristics of the organism. A nucleolus is usually present in the nucleus. It is concerned with protein synthesis, by synthesizing ribosomes.

Function: The Nucleus controls the chemical activities in the cell. (The genes in the chromatin threads
control the synthesis of proteins and enzymes in the cell). The nucleus is also essential for cell division. (Mitosis)

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

RER consists of a network of flattened cavities bound by membranes. It has ribosomes attached to its inner surface.

Function: The RER transports proteins synthesized by the ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus for
secretion.

Ribosome
A ribosome is a roughly spherical organelle consisting of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Function: Ribosomes synthesizes proteins. It translates the message in the RNA to form proteins.
Ribosomes attached to the RER synthesize proteins for secretion out of the cell. Ribosomes that lie freely in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins for use inside the cell.

Free Ribosome
This ribosome synthesizes proteins for use in the cell.

Animal Cell:
Cell Surface Membrane
The Cell Surface Membrane is partially permeable. It controls substances passing through it. The cell surface membrane can perform active transport utilizing energy to move substances across it against a concentration gradient.

Function: It prevents harmful substances from entering the cell (i.e. wastes), but also allows useful
nutrients into the cell.

Centriole
Centrioles are small, hollow cylinders. A pair of centrioles is usually found close to the nucleus. Centrioles can only be found in animal cells.

Function: They play an important role in cell division (Mitosis).

Vesicle
It is like a bag that transports molecules within the cell.

Free Ribosome
This ribosome synthesizes proteins for use in the cell.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a jelly like substance in which many chemical activities occur. In the cytoplasm, there are many organelles, each specialized for a particular function. The organelles include ribosomes, smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), Golgi apparatus (Golgi body), mitochondria, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and centrioles.

Mitochondria (sing. Mitochondrion)

A mitochondrion is usually a sausage shaped organelle. It is bounded by two membranes. The inner membrane is folded to increase surface area for enzymatic reactions.

Function: For aerobic respiration. In the mitochondrion food molecules (e.g. sugars) are broken down
in the presence of oxygen to release large amounts of energy for activities in the cell.

Nucleus
The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear envelope. It contains a dense mass of protoplasm called nucleoplasm. Chromatin threads are found in the nucleus. Each chromatin thread contains a DNA molecule. The DNA molecule contains the genes that determine the characteristics of the organism. A nucleolus is usually present in the nucleus. It is concerned with protein synthesis, by synthesizing ribosomes.

Function: The Nucleus controls the chemical activities in the cell. (The genes in the chromatin threads
control the synthesis of proteins and enzymes in the cell). The nucleus is also essential for cell division. (Mitosis)

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

SER consists of a network of tubules (very small tubes or tube like structures) bound by membranes. No ribosomes are attached to the SER.

Function: This organelle synthesizes lipids (e.g. steroids like the sex hormones). It is also used for
detoxification (the conversion of toxic or harmful substances into harmless substances). The SER also transports lipids to the Golgi apparatus for secretion.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

RER consists of a network of flattened cavities bound by membranes. It has ribosomes attached to its inner surface.

Function: The RER transports proteins synthesized by the ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus for
secretion.

Ribosome
A ribosome is a roughly spherical organelle consisting of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Function: Ribosomes synthesizes proteins. It translates the message in the RNA to form proteins.
Ribosomes attached to the RER synthesize proteins for secretion out of the cell. Ribosomes that lie freely in the cytoplasm synthesize proteins for use inside the cell.

Golgi apparatus (Golgi body)

The Golgi apparatus consists of a sack of disc shaped, membrane bound cavities. Vesicles can be seen fusing or budding off from the Golgi apparatus.

Function: It is used for storing and packaging substances for secretion. It is also used to store
chemically modified substances for secretion.

Vacuoles
A vacuole is a fluid filled space enclosed by a membrane. Animal cells contain many small vacuoles. A plant cell contains a large central vacuole enclosed by a membrane called the tonoplast. The tonoplast is

partially permeable. The vacuole contains a liquid called cell sap. The cell sap contains water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.

Function: It stores water and food substances.

Did You Know

Vesicle
Vesicles come in many types. Some are important for nerve cells to communicate with each other, while others are used to destroy other organelles that are no longer functioning.

Mitochondrion
The mitochondrion is known as the powerhouse of the cell. It is so similar to a battery that you might use it in electronic devices. Researchers are studying how it may be used to replace common metal based batteries.

Golgi
Discovered in 1898, the Golgi apparatus acts like a post office within the cell by sorting, packing, and even altering proteins to make sure they get sent to the right location.

Nucleus
Even though the cell nucleus was observed as early as the late 17th century, it wasnt until the early 20th century that its importance as the carrier of genetic information was given.

Cell Parts

Nucleus
The nucleus is where the DNA is kept and RNA is transcribed. RNA is moved out of the nucleus through the nuclear pores. Proteins needed inside the nucleus are transported in through the nuclear pores. The nucleolus is usually visible as a dark spot in the nucleus, and is the location of the ribosome formation.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are where RNA is translated into protein. This process is called protein synthesis. Protein synthesis is very important to cells, therefore large numbers of ribosomes are found in cells. Ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm, and are also bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER bound to ribosomes is called rough ER because the ribosomes on the ER give it a rough sandpaper like look. These organelles are very small, made up of 50 proteins and several long RNAs bound together. Ribosomes do not have a membrane. Ribosomes fall into two separate units while not synthesizing protein.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is the transport system for molecules needed for certain changes and specific destinations, instead of molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. There are two types of ER, rough and smooth. Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it, as mentioned before, and smooth ER does not.

Lysosome
The lysosome is the digestive system in the cell. It breaks down molecules into their base components digestive enzymes. This demonstrates one of the reasons for having all parts of a cell compartmentalized, the cell couldnt use the destructive enzymes if they werent sealed off from the rest of the cell.

Cell Membrane
The cell membrane functions as a semi-permeable barrier, allowing a very few molecules across it while fencing the majority of organically produced chemicals inside the cell. Electron microscopic examinations of cell membranes have led to the development of the lipid bilayer model (also referred to as the fluid-mosaic model). The most common molecule in the model is the phospholipid, which has a polar (hydrophilic) head and two nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails. These phospholipids are aligned tail to tail so the nonpolar areas form a hydrophobic region between the hydrophilic heads on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm was defined earlier as the material between the plasma membrane (cell membrane) and the nuclear envelope. Fibrous proteins that occur in the cytoplasm, referred to as the cytoskeleton maintain the shape of the cell as well as anchoring organelles, moving the cell and controlling internal movement of structures.

Microtubules
Microtubules function in cell division and serve as a "temporary scaffolding" for other organelles. Actin filaments are thin threads that function in cell division and cell motility. Intermediate filaments are between the size of the microtubules and the actin filaments.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are single-membrane organelles that are essentially part of the outside that is located within the cell. The single membrane is known in plant cells as a tonoplast. Many organisms will use vacuoles as storage areas. Vesicles; are much smaller than vacuoles and function in transport within and to the outside of the cell.

Golgi
The Golgi bodies changes molecules and divides them into small membrane contained sacs called vesicles. These sacs can be sent to various locations in the cell. Golgi Complexes are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs. They function as a packaging plant, modifying vesicles from the Rough ER. New membrane material is assembled in various cisternae of the Golgi.

Chloroplasts
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA, termed cpDNA. Chloroplasts of Green Algae (Protista) and Plants (descendants of some Green Algae) are thought to have originated by endosymbiosis of a prokaryotic alga similar to living Prochloron (Prochlorobacteria). Chloroplasts of Red Algae (Protista) are very similar biochemically to cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green bacteria). Endosymbiosis is also invoked for this similarity, perhaps indicating more than one endosymbiosis event occurred.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are a part of tissue cells that consists of an outer and an inner membrane. The mitochondria are the main energy source of the cell, in fact, they are often called the "power plants" of the body because this is where energy (ATP) is created. Uncoupled thermogenesis also occurs in the mitochondria; any of the very tiny rod - like or string - like structures that occur in nearly all cells of plants and animals, and that process food for energy.

Do all cells look the same?

Cells come in many shapes and sizes. Some cells are covered by a cell wall, other are not, some have slimy coats or elongated structures that push and pull them through their environment. Some cells have a thick layer surrounding their cell. This layer is called the capsule and is found in bacteria cells. In our body there are many different kinds of cells. We are made up of about 200 different types of cells. Our body also has non- living materials such as hair, finger nails, and the hard part of the bone and teeth. All these materials are made up of dead cells.

Taking a look inside a cell

Have you ever wondered what the inside of a cell looks like? If you think about the rooms in our homes, the inside of any animal or plant cell has many similar room-like structures called organelles. Both plant and animal cells have many of the same organelles. In some cases, like plant cells, there are more types of organelles than are found in animal cells. All organelles in a cell perform different functions. Here are some names and descriptions of organelles commonly found in cells:

Plasma membrane- The membrane enclosing a cell is made up of two lipid layers called a "bilipid"
membrane. The lipids that are present in the plasma membrane are called "phospholipids." These lipid layers are made up of a number of fatty acid building blocks. The fatty acid that makes up this membrane has two different parts to it- a small water loving head- hydrophilic head. Hydro stands for water and philic means liking or loving. The other part of this fatty acid is a long water-repelling or water hating tail. This tail is hydrophobic- Hydro stands for water and phobic means fear. The plasma membrane is arranged in such a way so that the tails face each other on the inside and the heads face towards the outside of the membrane.

Channels/pores- A channel in the cell's plasma membrane. This channel is made up of certain
proteins whose function is to control the movement of food and water into the cell. These channels are made up of certain proteins.

Nucleus- The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is the largest organelle in the cell and it
contains the DNA of the cell. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains all the information for cells to live, perform their functions and reproduce. Inside the nucleus is another organelle called the nucleolus. The nucleolus is responsible for making ribosomes. The circles on the surface of the nucleus are the nuclear pores. These are where ribosomes, and other materials move in and out of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - It is a network of membranes throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.
There are two types of ER.

When ribosomes are attached it is called rough ER and smooth ER when there are no ribosomes attached. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is where most protein synthesis occurs in the cell. The function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize lipids in the cell. The smooth ER is also helps in the detoxification of harmful substances in the cell.

Ribosomes- Organelles that help in the synthesis of proteins. Ribosomes are made up of two parts,
called subunits. They get their names from their size. One unit is larger than the other so they are called large and small subunits. Both these subunits are necessary for protein synthesis in the cell. When the two units are docked together with a special information unit called messenger RNA, they make proteins. Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but most are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. While attached to the ER, ribosomes make proteins that the cell needs and also ones to be exported from the cell for work elsewhere in the body.

Golgi complex- It is the organelle in the cell that is responsible for sorting and correctly shipping the
proteins produced in the ER. Just like our postal packages which should have a correct shipping address, the proteins produced in the ER, should be correctly sent to their respective address. In the cell, shipping and sorting is done by the Golgi complex. It is a very important step in protein synthesis. If the Golgi complex makes a mistake in shipping the proteins to the right address, certain functions in the cell may stop. This organelle was named after an Italian physician-Camillo Golgi. He was the first person to describe this organelle in the cell. It is also the only organelle that is capitalized.

Mitochondria- This is the cells powerhouse. This organelle packages the energy of the food into ATP
molecules. Every type of cell has a different amount of mitochondria. There are more mitochondria in cells that have to perform lots of work, for example- your leg muscle cells, heart muscle cells etc. Other cells need less energy to do their work and have less mitochondria.

Chloroplast- The cell organelle in which photosynthesis takes place. In this organelle the light energy
of the sun is converted into chemical energy.

Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells not animal cells. The chemical energy that is produced by chloroplasts is finally used to make carbohydrates like starch that get stored in the plant. Chloroplasts contain tiny pigments called chlorophylls. Chlorophylls are responsible for trapping the light energy from the sun.

Vesicles- This term literally means "small vessel". This organelle helps store and transport products
produced by the cell. The vesicles are the transport and delivery vehicles like our mail and Federal Express trucks. Some vesicles deliver materials to parts of the cell and others transport materials outside the cell in a process called exocytosis.

Vacuole- Plant cells have what looks like a very large empty space in the middle. This space is called
the vacuole. Don't be fooled, the vacuole contains large amounts of water and stores other important materials such as sugars, ions and pigments.

Cytoplasm- A term for all the contents of a cell other than the nucleus. Even though the cartoon
drawings do not look like it, the cytoplasm contains mostly water. Some fun facts about water and the human body:

Adult bodies are about 50 to 65 percent water. A childs body has a little more water at 75 percent. The human brain is about 75 percent water.

Cell wall and Plasmodesmata- In addition to cell membranes, plants have cell walls. Cell walls
provide protection and support for plants. Unlike cell membranes materials cannot get through cell walls. This would be a problem for plant cells if not for special openings called plasmodesmata. These openings are used to communicate and transport materials between plant cells because the cell membranes are able touch and therefore exchange needed materials.

Peroxisomes- These collect and safely break down chemicals that are toxic to the cell.

Centrioles- These are found only in animal cells and come into action when the cells divide, helping
with the organization of chromosomes.

Lysosomes- Created by the Golgi apparatus, these help break down large molecules into smaller
pieces that the cell can use.

Cytoskeleton- Made up of filaments and tubules, it helps shape and support the cell. It also helps
move things move around in the cell. For artistic purposes, the cytoskeleton is shown in just one place when in reality it is found throughout the entire cell.