Homework #1 Solutions

Chapter 1
Practice Problems 1. With pictures and words, describe each symmetry in D3 (the set of symmetries of an equilateral triangle). There are six symmetries: Three rotations of 0 , 120 , and 240 , and ips over three dierent axes, each going through one vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side.

2. Write out a complete Cayley table for D3 . R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC R120 R240 R0 FC FA FB R240 R0 R120 FB FC FA FA FB FC R0 R120 R240 FB FC FA R240 R0 R120 FC FA FB R120 R240 R0

R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC

3. Is D3 Abelian? No. The Cayley table is not symmetric about the diagonal. For example: FA R240 = FC = FB = R240 FA

13. Describe the symmetries of a nonsquare rectangle. Construct the corresponding Cayley table. There are four symmetries: Two rotations of 0 and 180 , and ips over the horizontal and vertical axes.

R0 R180 H V

R0 R180 H V R0 R180 H V R180 R0 V H H V R0 R180 V H R180 R0

Written Problems 6. In Dn , explain geometrically why a reection followed by a reection must be a rotation. If the vertices of the regular n-gon are labeled 1 through n clockwise, a reection changes the order to counterclockwise, while a rotation preserves the order. A reection followed by another reection will change the order twice, thus preserving the order, a rotation.

7. In Dn , explain why a rotation followed by a rotation must be a rotation. Two rotations will preserve the ordering of the vertices, thus another rotation.

8. In Dn , explain geometrically why a rotation and a reection taken together in either order must be a reection. Because there is only one reection, there is only one reversal of order, thus a reection.

9. Associate the number +1 with a rotation and the number -1 with a reection. Describe an analogy between multiplying these two numbers and multiplying elements of Dn . Multiplying +1 and +1 gives +1, and multiplying two rotations gives a rotation, #7. Multiplying -1 and -1 also gives +1, and multiplying two reections gives a rotation, #6. Multiplying +1 and -1 in either order gives -1, and multiplying a rotation by a reection in either order gives a reection, #8.

10. If r1 , r2 , and r3 represent rotations from Dn and f1 , f2 , f3 represent reections from Dn , determine whether r1 r2 f1 r3 f2 f3 r3 is a rotation or a reection. Associating the 1 as above: r1 r2 f1 r3 f2 f3 r3 = (+1)(+1)(1)(+1)(1)(1)(+1) = 1 Thus, it is a reection.

11. Find elements A, B , and C in D4 such that AB = BC but A = C . (Thus cross cancellation is not valid.) From the Cayley table on page 33 of the text we can see that DH = R270 = HD , but D=D.

12. Explain what the following diagram proves about the group Dn . The diagram shows that locally, for a few vertices, R 360 F = F R 360 . Thus globally, for n n all vertices, R 360 F = F R 360 , meaning that Dn is not Abelian.
n n

Chapter 2
Practice Problems 1. Give two reasons why the set of odd integers under addition is not a group. The sum of two odd numbers is an even number, thus the set is not closed under the addition operation. Also, there does not exist an additive identity, since zero is an even number.

4. Show that the group GL(2, R) of Example 9 is non-Abelian by exhibiting a pair of matrices A and B in GL(2, R) such that AB = BA. Let A= 1 1 0 1 and B = 0 1 1 0

det A = 1 and det B = 1 so both A, B GL(2, R). AB = 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 = 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

BA =

5. Find the inverse of the element

2 6 3 5

in GL(2, Z11 ).

We know how to form inverses for 2 2 matrices: a b c d

1

1 ad bc

d b c a

Because we are working in Z11 we need to do all our arithmetic modulo 11: Notice rst that ad bc = (2)(5) (3)(6) = 10 18 = 8 3(mod 11). We need to know what 1 or 31 is in Z11 . The trusty guess and check method tells us that 3 (3)(4) = 12 1(mod 11), so the inverse of 3 in Z11 is 4: 2 6 3 5
1

=4

5 6 3 2

5 5 8 2

20 20 32 8

9 9 10 8

Now we check our answer: 2 6 3 5 9 9 10 8 9 9 10 8 2 6 3 5 = 18 + 60 18 + 48 27 + 50 27 + 40 18 + 27 54 + 45 20 + 24 60 + 40 = 78 66 77 67 45 99 44 100 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

13. An abstract algebra teacher intended to give a typist a list of nine integers that form a group under multiplication modulo 91. Instead, one of the nine integers was inadvertently left out, so that the list appeared as 1, 9, 16, 22, 53, 74, 79, 81. Which integer was left out? Because we want the list of numbers to form a group, it must be closed under the operation. So we just need to multiply elements together, modulo 91, until we nd something not on the list, and that is the missing element. (9)(74) = 666 = 7(91) + 29 29(mod 91)

So, the list is missing 29.

22. Give and example of a group with 105 elements. Give two examples of groups with 44 elements. The set Z105 under addition is a group with 105 elements. Similarly Z44 under addition is a group with 44 elements. The set of 2 2 matrices with entries in Z11 , M2 (Z11 ), under matrix addition is a group with 44 elements. All of these groups are Abelian. A non-Abelian group with 44 elements is D22 .

Written Problems 8. Show that the set {5, 15, 25, 35} is a group under multiplication modulo 40. What is the identity element of this group? Can you see any relationship between this group and U (8)? When we have only four elements the easiest way to show they form a group is to construct the Cayley table: 5 5 25 15 35 25 5 35 15 15 35 25 15 5 25 5 15 25 35 35 15 5 35 25

We already know that multiplication of integers is associative. We can see from the Cayley table that: the set is closed under the operation, 25 acts as the identity element, and each element is its own inverse. Also, we notice that the table is symmetric about the main diagonal. So the set is an Abelian group.

If we look at the Cayley table for U (8): 1 1 3 5 7 3 3 1 7 5 5 5 7 1 3 7 7 5 3 1 3 1 5 3 7 7 5 1 7 3 1 3 7 1 5 5 7 3 5 1

1 3 5 7

or in a dierent order

3 7 1 5

We can see that it follows the same pattern. The 1 and 25, the 3 and 5, the 5 and 35, and the 7 and 15 all act the same in the table. We could just as easily replace them with random symbols and the pattern of the Cayley table would be the same. These types of groups have a special name and lots of interesting properties we will learn later.

14. Let G be a group with the following property: Whenever a, b, and c belong to G and ab = ca, then b = c. Prove that G is Abelian. Let G be a group with the above property, and let x, y G. We want to show that xy = yx. We know that xyx = xyx or (x)(yx) = (xy )(x). Treating (x) as a, (yx) as b, and (xy ) as c, we get: ab = ca. Since a = x, b = yx, c = xy G, or hypothesis says b = c. Using the same substitution again, we see yx = xy. Thus G is Abelian.

16. In a group, prove that (ab)1 = b1 a1 . Find an example that shows that it is possible to have (ab)2 = b2 a2 . Find distinct nonidentity elements a and b from a non-Abelian group with the property that (ab)1 = a1 b1 . Draw an analogy between the statement (ab)1 = b1 a1 and the act of putting on and taking o your shoes and socks.

To prove that (ab)1 = b1 a1 we need to show that (ab)(b1 a1 ) = (b1 a1 )(ab) = e: (ab)(b1 a1 ) = a(bb1 )a1 = a(e)a1 = aa1 =e and (b1 a1 )(ab) = b1 (a1 a)b = b1 (e)b = b1 b =e For an example where (ab)2 = b2 a2 well use the group D4 : Let a = V and b = R90 . We can use the Cayley table on page 33 of the text to compute the following. a 1 = V a 2 = a 1 a 1 = V V = R 0 b1 = R270 b2 = b1 b1 = R270 R270 = R180 b2 a2 = R0 R180 = R180 ab = D (ab)1 = D (ab)2 = (ab)1 (ab)1 = D D = R0 Since R180 = R0 , (ab)2 = b2 a2 . For a non-Abelian example of (ab)1 = a1 b1 , well again use D4 . Let a = R90 and b = R270 , then ab = R0 , so (ab)1 = R0 , while a1 = R270 and b1 = R90 , so a1 b1 = R270 R90 = R0 . To draw the analogy between groups and socks and shoes, think of the element a as representing putting on your socks and the element b as putting on your shoes. This is already a great example ab = ba. If we do ab, putting on your socks and then your shoes, to return to bare feet, the identity, we need to rst remove our shoes, b1 , and

then socks, a1 . If you tried to do a1 b1 , youd be taking o your socks before your shoes... dicult to do.

17. Prove that a group G is Abelian if and only if (ab)1 = a1 b1 for all a and b in G. (=) Suppose that G is an Abelian group. We know from the previous problem that (ab)1 = b1 a1 . Since G is Abelian these elements commute, so (ab)1 = b1 a1 = a 1 b 1 . (=) Suppose that for all a, b G, (ab)1 = a1 b1 . Now, let x and y be any elements of G, so x1 and y 1 are also elements of G. We perform two computations of (x1 y 1 )1 . According to our hypothesis, thinking of a = x1 and b = y 1 , (x1 y 1 )1 = (x1 )1 (y 1 )1 = (x)(y ) = xy Using our computations from problem 16: (x1 y 1 )1 = (y 1 )1 (x1 )1 = (y )(x) = yx The two methods of computing the same thing will give the same solution, so xy = yx for any x, y G, and thus G is Abelian.

35. Prove the assertion in Example 19 that the set {1, 2, . . . , n 1} is a group under multiplication modulo n if and only if n is prime. (=) We will prove the contrapositive. So suppose that n is not prime. Then n = pq for some p, q satisfying 1 < p, q < n. So p, q {1, 2, . . . n 1}. But pq = n 0 (mod n) and 0 / {1, 2, . . . , n 1}, so the set {1, 2, . . . , n 1} is not closed under multiplication modulo n, thus it cannot be a group. (=) Suppose that n is prime. Closure: Let a, b {1, 2, . . . , n 1}. By the division algorithm, ab = qn + r r (mod n)

for some q, r Z with 0 r < n. So as long as r = 0, the set is closed. Suppose r is equal to 0. Then n divides ab. Since n is prime, Euclids Lemma (page 7), says n divides a or n divides b. But both a and b are in {1, 2, . . . , n 1}, so this is a contradiction and r = 0, so the set is closed. Associative: Just like multiplication of integers, multiplication modulo n is associative, so you do not need to prove this. Identity: Since our set contains 1, we have an identity element. Inverses: Let a {1, 2, . . . , n 1}. Notice that gcd(a, n) = 1. So there exist integers s and t (page 5) such that 1 = as + nt as (mod n). So, as 1(mod n). If s {1, 2, . . . , n 1}, then s is the inverse of a, a1 = s. If s / {1, 2, . . . , n 1} let s be the element in {1, 2, . . . , n 1}, that is congruent to s (mod n). (We know such an s exists, since s is not a multiple of n).) Then a1 = s . So, for any a {1, 2, . . . , n 1} we have exhibited an inverse in the same set. .