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5 Pipeline Design Pages

Fluid Flow in Steel Pipes 5.02 - 5.03 1


Pipeline Sizing - Pressure Loss 5.04 - 5.06
Fittings - Pressure Loss 5.07 - 5.09
2
Water Flow in Straight Pipes - Pressure Loss 5.10 - 5.19
Useful Pipe Properties 5.20
Valves - Pressure Loss 5.21 - 5.24
3
Compressible Fluids 5.25 - 5.27
Steam 5.28 - 5.29
Water Hammer 5.30 - 5.32 4

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.01
Fluid Flow in Steel Pipes and is measured in metres squared
per second (m 2/s).
The flow of fluids is a complex process, µ
the study of which is known as fluid ν= ρ
dynamics. Fluid transport is affected by
the physical properties of the fluid, the ν= kinematic viscosity (m 2/s)
type of flow, the pipe dimensions and the µ = absolute viscosity (Pa s or Ns/m 2)
properties of the pipe material. There are ρ = density (kg/m 3)
very few transport problems which can
be completely solved by the purely Density and Viscosity for Water
mathematical equations of fluid
dynamics. For everyday situations the Temperature Density Absolute viscosity
solutions are dependent on °C kg/m 3 Pa s
experimentally determined factors, such
10 1000 1.3 x 10 -3
as the friction factor. Most real problems
can be solved using the Darcy formula, 75 975 0.4 x 10 -3
which relies on this experimental friction 150 917 0.2 x 10 -3
factor. Fig. 5.01 Extract from CIBSE Guide C4.3

Physical Properties of Fluids Velocity of Fluid


The properties relevant to fluid flow are The mean velocity of a fluid is given by:
summarized below.
v= Q
Density: This is the mass per unit volume
of the fluid and is generally measured in A
kg/m 3. Another commonly used term is v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
specific gravity. This is in fact a relative
density, comparing the density of a fluid Q = volume flow rate (m 3/second)
at a given temperature to that of water A = pipe cross sectional area (m 2)
at the same temperature.
ρ
S= ρ water
S = specific gravity (dimensionless)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m 3)
ρ water = density of water (kg/m 3)
= 1000 at 10° C
Viscosity: This describes the ease with
which a fluid flows. A substance like
treacle has a high viscosity, while water
has a much lower value. Gases, such as
air, have a still lower viscosity. The
viscosity of a fluid can be described in
two ways.
a) Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity: This
is a measure of a fluid's resistance to
internal deformation. It is expressed
in pascal seconds (Pa s) or newton
seconds per square metre (Ns/m 2).
[1Pas = 1 Ns/m 2]
b) Kinematic viscosity: This is the ratio of
the absolute viscosity to the density

5.02 GEORGEFISCHER…
Types of Fluid Flow Reynolds Number
When a fluid moves through a pipe two A useful factor in determining which type
distinct types of flow are possible, of flow is involved is the Reynolds 1
laminar and turbulent. Laminar flow number. This is the ratio of the dynamic
occurs in fluids moving with small forces of mass flow to the shear
average velocities and turbulent flow resistance due to fluid viscosity and is
becomes apparent as the velocity is given by the following formula.
increased above a critical velocity. In vd i
laminar flow the fluid particles move Re = 2
ν
along the length of the pipe in a very Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless)
orderly fashion, with little or no sideways
motion across the width of the pipe. d i = pipe inside diameter (m)
Turbulent flow is characterised by v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
random, disorganised motion of the
ν = kinematic viscosity (m 2/s)
particles, from side to side across the 3
pipe as well as along its length. There In general for a fluid like water when the
will, however, always be a layer of Reynolds number is less than 2000 the
laminar flow at the pipe wall - the so- flow is laminar. The flow is turbulent for
called 'boundary layer'. Reynolds numbers above 4000. In
The two types of fluid flow are described between these two values
by different sets of equations. In general, (2000<Re<4000) the flow is a mixture of 4
for most practical situations, the flow will the two types and it is difficult to predict
be turbulent. the behaviour of the fluid.

d
v 6
Disturbed Turbulent Flow -
Laminar Flow - Re < 2000
Re >2000 and Re <4000

v
7

Disturbed Turbulent Flow - Re> 4000 8

Fig. 5.02
Velocity profiles for different types of flow.

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.03
Pipeline Sizing - b) changes in size and shape or
Pressure Loss direction of flow
c) obstructions
Pipeline Sizing For normal, cylindrical straight pipes the
What size should the pipe be? major cause of pressure loss will be
The following formula can be used as a friction. Pressure loss in a fitting or valve
first approximation for a given flow rate. is greater than in a straight pipe. When
fluid flows in a straight pipe the flow
pattern will be the same through out the
d = 1.13 Q pipe. In a valve or fitting changes in the
v flow pattern due to factors (b) and (c) will
cause extra pressure drops.
where v = flow velocity (m/s)
Pressure drops can be measured in a
d = inside pipe diameter (m) number of ways. The SI unit of pressure
Q = flow rate (m 2/s) is the pascal. However pressure is often
measured in bar. To convert from bar to
Normally the flow velocity is unknown
pascals we use:
and must be approximated. The
following are generally accepted design 1 bar = 10 5Pa
velocities. Another way of measuring pressure
Liquids v = 1.0-3.0 m/s drop is in terms of head loss. To convert
head loss to pascals we use :
Gases v= 10-30 m/s
∆p = Hρg
Example
What size steel pipe should be used where ∆p = pressure drop in pascals
when the flow rate Q = 8 x 10 -3 m 3/s and
∆H = head loss in metres
the velocity v = 2m/s?
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
-3
d =1.13 8 x 10
2 g = acceleration due to gravity
= 9.81m/s 2
= 0.071m = 71mm
In this case a 3'' (DN80) steel pipe can be
used, since it ha a nominal bore of
80.9mm. The next size down is 2 1/2"
(DN65) which has a bore of 68.7mm and
would cause a reduction in the required
flow rate to 7.45 x 10 -3m 3/s. If the flow
rate may be slightly less than 8 x
10 -3 m 3/s, it would be more economical
to use the smaller pipe.

Pressure Loss
Whenever fluid flows in a pipe there will
be some loss of pressure due to several
factors:
a) friction- this is affected by the
roughness of the inside surface of the
pipe, the pipe diameter, and the physical
properties of the fluid.

5.04 GEORGEFISCHER…
Fluid Flow in Straight Pipes diagram provided the Reynolds number
The pressure drop due to friction is given and the relative roughness of the pipe
by Darcy's formula: material are known. Values for the
relative roughness are given in the table 1
∆H pi = 2fv 2
on page 5.20. When considering steel
gd i
pipes it is not only necessary to allow for
∆H pi = head loss (m/m) pipe roughness, but also possible build
f = friction factor (dimensionless) up of scale and rusting.
v = fluid velocity (m/s) Pipe roughnesses and correction factors, 2
g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.81m/s 2 used to account for these, are given in
d i = inside pipe diameter (m) tables on page 5.20.
The friction factor (f) is a dimensionles Equivalent length: this is the length of
constant which is dependent on the pipe which will produce a frictional
Reynolds number (Re) and the roughness pressure loss of one velocity pressure. It is
of the pipe material. For turbulent flow given by: 3
(Re > 4000 for water) the friction factor le = di
has a very complex formula. However, a 4f
practical means of calculating the friction
factor is provided by Moody's diagram l e = equivalent length (m)
shown in Fig. 5.03 . A value for the friction d i = inside pipe diameter (m)
factor can be read directly from this
4
f = friction factor (dimensionless)

Example
Find the pressure loss per unit length for ν = µ = 1.3x10 -3 =1.3 x10 -6 m 2/s
water flow at 3 l/s through 2 1/ 2" (DN65) ρ 1000
medium grade BS 1387 steel pipe at 5
10°C. Re = vd i = (0.81) x (0.0687)
Pipe size 65mm
Inside diameter d i = 68.7 x 10 -3 m ν 1.3 x10 -6
Relative roughness 6.7x10 -4 = 4.3x10 4
See page 5.20 Useful Pipe Properties
Step 2
Cross-sectional area Use Moody diagram to determine the
6
A = π x (68.7x10 3m/2) 2m 2 friction factor. For a Reynolds number of
Volume flow rate Q = 3x10 -3 m 3/s 4.3 x10 4 and a roughness of 6.7 x 10 -4
Absolute viscosity µ = 1.3Pa s x 10 -3 we find f = 0.006
Density ρ = 1000kg/m 3
(both from Fig. 5.01)
Step 3 7
Step 1 Find head loss in m/m
Calculate Reynolds number
∆H pi = 2fv 2 =2 x (0.006) x (0.81) 2
Re = vd i g di (9.81) x (0.0687)
ν
find flow velocity = 0.012 m/m = 12mm/m 8
v = Q = volume flow rate
A cross-sectional area Step 4
If necessary change to pascals.
= 3x10 -3
(π x (68.7x10 -3 ) 2 ∆p =∆ H ρ g
4 =(0.012) x (1000) x (9.81) = 118 Pa 9
= 0.81m/s
So the pressure loss in this system is
find kinematic viscosity 12mm/m or 118 Pa/m

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.05
Moody’s Diagram

Fig. 5.03

5.06 GEORGEFISCHER…
Fittings - Pressure Loss Example 1
What is the ζ - value for a system of 1
There are two general types of fittings. inch (DN25) diameter with a malleable 1
Reducing (or expanding) fittings change cast iron elbow and a diverging tee
the cross sectional area of flow, while where the flow being considered is
deflecting fittings alter the direction of along the run of the tee?
flow (e.g. bends and elbows). Couplings
Step 1
or unions offer no appreciable resistance
to flow so may be considered as straight Find the ζ - value for the malleable cast
iron elbow. From the table we see this is
2
pipe.
0.8. ( Fig. 5.05)
The pressure drop for a valve or fitting
consists of two parts: Step 2
Find the ζ - value for the tee junction.
1. The pressure drop we would obtain
for straight pipe of the same length as The run is the important part so we have 3
the fitting. flow from A 1 to A 3 in Fig. 5.05 . So we read
2. The pressure drop of the fitting itself. the basic ζ 3 value of 0.2. We do not need
to add on a reduction or enlargement
The pressure loss factor (ζ - value) of the factor as the pipe bore does not change.
fitting is determined experimentally and
Step 3
allows us to calculate the total pressure 4
drop due to both of these factors. Find the total ζ - value
Finding the ζ - value The ζ - value for all the fittings will be:
Fig. 5.05 gives the ζ value for several ζ TOTAL = 0.8 + 0.2 = 1.0
fittings. For the elbows and bends, the ζ - Example 2
value can be easily read directly from the What is the ζ - value for the following
table. For example a 90° elbow 1 1/ 4
5
system?
(DN32) has ζ= 0.7 However the situation
may be more complex. In some pipe Diverging junction (DN 32) 1" (DN 25) pipe
systems we may have a reduction or
enlargement in pipe size. This change in Reducer
size has a ζ - value which depends on
the ratio of the two pipe areas (see
6
example below).
1 1/4 " (DN 32) pipe
Tees and junctions have ζ - values which
Fig. 5.04
vary depending on which branch is
being considered. Once the basic ζ - The diverging junction has the effect of a
value for the relevant branch has been 90° elbow. 7
determined extra factors need to be Step 1
added on. The first is for the elbow or
Find the basic ζ - value for a diverging
bend (if the flow is through the straight
junction. The table gives ζ 2 = 0.5 (Fig. 5.05)
section of a tee then this is zero). Finally
any reduction or enlargement in pipe Step 2
cross sectional area must be accounted Find the contribution due to the 90° 8
for. elbow. From the elbows and bends table
we see for a 32mm 90° elbow we have
ζ = 0.7.
Step 3
Find the contribution to ζ due to the 9
reduction from 32mm pipe to 25mm
pipe.

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.07
First we find the ratio of the two cross L ef = ζ d i
sectional areas. 4f
cross sectional area = π x (radius)2
L ef = equivalent length of fitting (m)
A 1 = π x (32) 2 A 2 = π x (25) 2
4 4 ζ = pressure loss factor (dimensionless)

A 2 = 0.6 d i = internal pipe diameter (m)


A1 f = friction factor (dimensionless)
The value corresponding to For an entire pipe system, the equivalent
A 2 = 0.6 length of all the fittings is added to the
A1 actual length of pipe to give a total
effective length. The total pressure loss is
is ζ = 0.25. then equal to this effective length
Step 4 multiplied by the pressure loss per unit
Find the total ζ by adding together length for the appropriate material and
contributions from the previous three pipe diameter (see Figs. 5.08-5.10) .
steps.
ζ TOTAL = 0.5 + 0.7 + 0.25 = 1.45

Calculating pressure loss


Once we have calculated the ζ value we
can find the pressure loss in two ways.
Method 1
Here we use the following formula.

∆p fi = ζ ρ v 2
2

∆p fi = pressure change in fittings (Pa)


ζ = pressure loss factor (dimensionless)
ρ = density (kg / m 3)
v = flow velocity (m/s)
The flow velocity for a given volume flow
rate and pipe dimension can be found in
the water flow pressure loss tables. The
pressure loss for the valves and fittings is
simply added to the pressure loss for the
straight pipe in a system to find the total
pressure loss.
Method 2
Equivalent length
The equivalent length of a fitting is the
length of pipe, of the same material and
diameter as the fitting, which would give
the same pressure loss as the fitting itself.
It can be calculated as follows.

5.08 GEORGEFISCHER…
Pressure Loss Factors for Pipe Fittings
(based on velocity pressure of combined flow. Factors refer to the branch
Tees and Junctions
indicated by the subscript, e.g. ζ 2 is for flow from branch 2).
1
Diverging ζ2 ζ3 Diverging ζ2

0.5 0.5
+ +
0.2 2
( factor for bend
or elbow as
) +
( factor for bend
or elbow as
)
(
appropriate Converging
)
factor for appropriate
Converging enlargement or
+ +
reduction where

( )
bores differ

(
factor for

)
factor for
enlargement or enlargement or
reduction where reduction where
bores differ bores differ
3
Reductions Enlargements
Based on velocity pressure in smaller pipe Based on velocity pressure in smaller pipe
A2
A1
ζ A2
A1
ζ A1
A2
ζ A1
A2
ζ
4
0.1 0.55 0.4 0.40 0.1 0.80 0.4 0.35
0.2 0.50 0.6 0.25 0.2 0.65 0.6 0.15
0.3 0.45 0.8 0.05 0.3 0.50 0.8 0.05

Elbows and Bends


5
DN
Type
10-25mm 32-50mm 65-90mm >100mm

Malleable Cast Iron 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6


90° Elbow
6
Malleable Cast Iron 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5
45° Elbow

7
Malleable Cast Iron 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.4
Bend

Malleable Cast Iron 0.9 0.8 0.8 –


Return Bend 8

Fig. 5.05
Extract from CIBSE Guide, Table 4.36.

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.09
Water Flow in Straight Pipes Example
The pressure drop for water at 10°C,
- Pressure Loss
flowing at 1 x 10 -3 m 3/s through heavy
The following tables (Figs. 5.08-5.10) relate black 1 1/ 2 " (DN40) pipe, can be read
a pressure loss per unit length (in pascals) from Fig. 5.08 as 220 Pa/m.
to the volume flow rate in the pipe. The However if this pipe were rusted we
correction tables which precede them would need to apply a correction factor.
allow compensation for rust and a As the nominal pipe size required is not
higher temperature. The value read from actually listed in Fig. 5.06 we use the next
the flow tables is multiplied by the size up, 2" (DN 50). Our pressure loss is
appropriate factor from the correction about 200 Pa so we read off a
tables. correction factor of 3.3. We multiply our
original pressure loss by this factor to
find the loss for rusted pipes. 220 x 3.3
gives us 726 Pa/m.
For new pipes the pressure loss is 220
Pa/m, but for rusted pipes it would be
726 Pa/m.

Correction factors for rusted steel pipes

Nominal pipe size Pressure loss as read from tables


mm inches 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
1
15 /2 1.0 3.2 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.7
25 1 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.6 3.7 3.9 4.0
50 2 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
100 4 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.1 3.1
Fig. 5.06

Correction factors for water at 150°C

Nominal pipe size Pressure loss as read from tables


mm inches 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000
1
15 /2 1.00 1.00 0.91 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.99 1.0 1.0
25 1 0.90 0.90 0.92 0.93 0.95 0.97 0.99 1.0 1.0
50 2 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
100 4 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.99 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Fig. 5.07

5.10 GEORGEFISCHER…
Pressure loss in steel pipes
The following pages (5.12-5.17) tabulate
the pressure loss data for water flowing
in different grades of steel pipe at either 1
10°C or 75°C, for a range of flow rates.

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.11
Pressure loss for water flow at 10°C in
steel pipes
with velocity of flow (v), for heavy grade
(H) and galvanised (G) steel

Volume Pressure loss per unit length (Pa/m) and velocity of flow (v)
flow 15mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm
1 3
rate / 2 in / 4 in 1 in 1 1 / 4 in 1 1 / 2 in
l/s
H G v H G v H G v H G v H G v
0.05 140 175 0.28 25.0 50 0.16 6.5 0.1 2.0 0.8 1.5 0.04
0.10 420 600 0.57 92.5 120 0.32 32.5 50 0.2 8.0 2.5 3.5 0.08
0.15 880 1500 0.85 200 250 0.48 62.5 80 0.3 17.5 0.19 7.5 0.12
0.20 1500 2250 1.13 320 450 0.64 120 130 0.41 27.5 0.25 12.5 0.16
0.25 3500 1.42 480 700 0.80 160 200 0.51 40.0 50 0.31 20.0 0.20
0.30 5000 1.70 660 1000 0.95 220 275 0.61 52.5 70 0.37 25.0 0.24
0.35 7000 1.98 880 1250 1.11 280 400 0.71 70.0 90 0.44 32.5 0.28
0.40 9000 2.26 1200 1750 1.27 360 500 0.82 87.5 110 0.50 42.5 50 0.32
0.45 11000 2.55 1400 2000 1.43 460 600 0.92 120 140 0.56 50.0 60 0.36
0.50 1700 2750 1.59 540 800 1.02 140 175 0.62 62.5 80 0.40

0.55 3000 1.75 640 900 1.12 160 200 0.68 72.5 90 0.44
0.60 3500 1.91 760 1100 1.22 200 225 0.75 85.0 100 0.48
0.65 4500 2.07 880 1250 1.32 220 275 0.81 97.5 120 0.52
0.70 5000 2.23 1000 1500 1.43 240 320 0.87 120 140 0.56
0.75 5500 2.39 1200 1750 1.53 280 350 0.93 140 160 0.60
0.80 6500 2.56 1300 2000 1.63 320 400 1.00 150 175 0.64
0.85 7000 2.71 1500 2150 1.73 360 450 1.06 160 200 0.68
0.90 8000 2.87 1600 2250 1.83 380 500 1.12 180 225 0.72
0.95 9000 3.03 1800 2500 1.94 420 550 1.18 200 250 0.76
1.00 10000 3.18 2750 2.04 460 600 1.24 220 275 0.80

1.50 7000 3.06 980 1500 1.87 460 600 1.19


2.00 11000 4.08 1700 2250 2.49 760 1000 1.60
2.50 3500 3.11 1200 1750 1.99
3.00 5000 3.73 1700 2250 2.39
3.50 7000 4.35 3000 2.79

Fig. 5.08
Data extracted and re-arranged (uses volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate)
From CIBSE Guide, tables C4-17, C21.

5.12 GEORGEFISCHER…
Pressure Loss for water flow at 10°C
in steel pipes
With velocity of flow (v), for heavy grade
(H) and galvanised (G) steel.
1

Pressure loss per unit length (Pa/m) and velocity of flow (v)
Volume
flow 50 mm 65 mm 80 mm 100 mm
rate 2 in 2 1/ 2 in 3 in 4 in 2
l/s H G v H G v H G v H G v
0.1 0.8 0.05 0.3 0.03 0.2 0.02
0.2 4.0 0.10 1.5 0.06 0.5 0.04 0.1 0.03
0.3 8.0 0.15 2.5 0.09 1.0 0.06 0.3 0.04
0.4 15.0 0.20 4.0 0.12 2.0 0.08 0.5 0.05 3
0.5 20.0 0.25 5.5 0.15 2.5 0.10 0.7 0.06

0.6 27.5 0.31 7.5 0.18 3.5 0.12 1.0 0.08


0.7 35.0 50.0 0.36 9.5 0.21 4.5 0.14 1.3 0.09
0.8 45.0 55.0 0.41 12.5 0.24 5.5 0.16 1.5 0.10
0.9 55.0 70.0 0.46 15.0 0.27 7.0 0.18 2.0 0.12
1.0 65.0 80.0 0.51 20.0 0.3 8.0 0.20 2.5 0.13 4
1.5 140 175 0.76 37.5 50.0 0.45 17.5 0.30 4.5 0.19
2.0 240 300 1.02 62.5 80.0 0.60 27.5 0.40 7.5 0.25
2.5 340 450 1.27 92.5 110.0 0.75 42.5 50.0 0.50 12.5 0.32
3.0 480 700 1.53 140.0 175.0 0.90 57.5 70.0 0.60 17.5 0.38
3.5 640 900 1.78 180.0 225.0 1.06 77.5 90.0 0.70 22.5 0.45
4.0 820 1250 2.04 220.0 275.0 1.21 97.5 120.0 0.80 27.5 0.51
5
4.5 1100 1500 2.29 280.0 350.0 1.36 120.0 150.0 0.90 32.5 0.57
5.0 1300 1750 2.55 340.0 450.0 1.51 160.0 175.0 1.00 40.0 50.0 0.64

5.5 1500 2250 2.80 400.0 500.0 1.66 180.0 225.0 1.10 47.0 55.0 0.70
6.0 1800 2500 3.06 480.0 600.0 1.81 220.0 250.0 1.20 55.0 70.0 0.76
6.5 3000 3.31 540.0 700.0 1.96 240.0 300.0 1.29 65.0 80.0 0.83 6
7.0 3500 3.57 620.0 800.0 2.11 280.0 350.0 1.39 72.5 90.0 0.89
7.5 4000 3.82 720.0 1000.0 2.26 320.0 400.0 1.49 82.5 100.0 0.96
8.0 4500 4.08 800.0 1100.0 2.41 360.0 450.0 1.59 92.5 110.0 1.02
8.5 5000 4.33 900.0 1250.0 2.56 400.0 500.0 1.69 110.0 130.0 1.08
9.0 5500 4.59 1000.0 1350.0 2.71 440.0 550.0 1.79 120.0 140.0 1.15
9.5 6000 4.84 1200.0 1500.0 2.87 500.0 650.0 1.89 130.0 160.0 1.21
10 7000 5.10 1300.0 1750.0 3.02 540.0 700.0 1.99 140.0 175.0 1.27 7
11 8000 5.61 1500.0 2000.0 3.32 640.0 800.0 2.19 180.0 200.0 1.40
12 1800.0 2250.0 3.62 760.0 1000.0 2.39 200.0 250.0 1.53
13 2750.0 3.92 880.0 1250.0 2.59 240.0 300.0 1.66
14 3200.0 4.22 1000.0 1350.0 2.79 280.0 350.0 1.78
15 3500.0 4.52 1200.0 1500.0 2.99 300.0 400.0 1.91
16 4000.0 4.82 1300.0 1750.0 3.18 340.0 450.0 2.04
8
17 4500.0 5.13 1500.0 2000.0 3.38 380.0 500.0 2.17
18 5500.0 5.43 1700.0 2250.0 3.58 420.0 550.0 2.29
19 6000.0 5.73 1800.0 2500.0 3.78 480.0 600.0 2.42

Fig. 5.08 (contd).


9

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.13
Pressure loss for water flow at 75°C in
steel pipes
with velocity of flow (v), for heavy grade
(H) and medium grade (M) steel

Volume Pressure loss per unit length (Pa/m) and velocity of flow (v)
flow 15mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm
1 3
rate / 2 in / 4 in 1 in 1 1/ 4 in 1 1/ 2 in
litres/sec H M v H M v H M v H M v H M v
0.05 90 65 0.28 20 15 0.16 6.5 5 0.1 2.0 1.5 0.06 0.8 0.7 0.04
0.10 360 240 0.57 70 55 0.32 22.5 20 0.2 5.5 5 0.12 2.5 2.5 0.08
0.15 760 500 0.85 160 120 0.48 47.5 35 0.3 12.5 9 0.19 5.5 4.5 0.12
0.20 1300 880 1.13 260 200 0.64 82.5 60 0.41 20 17 0.25 9.0 7.5 0.16
0.25 2000 1400 1.42 400 300 0.80 140 90 0.51 30 25 0.31 15 12.5 0.20
0.30 1900 1.70 560 420 0.95 180 140 0.61 42.5 35 0.37 20 17.5 0.24
0.35 760 560 1.11 240 180 0.71 55 45 0.44 25 22.5 0.28
0.40 960 720 1.27 300 220 0.82 70 55 0.50 35 27.5 0.32
0.45 1200 900 1.43 380 300 0.92 85 70 0.56 40 35 0.36
0.50 1500 1100 1.59 460 340 1.02 120 85 0.62 50 40 0.40

0.55 1900 1400 1.75 540 400 1.12 140 100 0.68 60 50 0.44
0.60 1600 1.91 660 480 1.22 160 120 0.75 65 55 0.48
0.65 1900 2.07 780 560 1.32 180 140 0.81 80 67.5 0.52
0.70 2.23 900 660 1.43 200 160 0.87 90 75 0.56
0.75 2.39 1000 740 1.53 240 200 0.93 100 85 0.60
0.80 2.56 1200 840 1.63 260 220 1.00 120 97.5 0.64
0.85 2.71 1300 980 1.73 300 240 1.06 140 120 0.68
0.90 2.87 1500 1100 1.83 320 260 1.12 160 130 0.72
0.95 3.03 1600 1200 1.94 360 280 1.18 180 140 0.76
1.00 3.18 1900 1300 2.04 400 320 1.24 200 160 0.80

1.50 840 680 1.87 320 1.19


2.00 1500 1200 2.49 540 1.60
2.50 1800 3.11 840 1.99
3.00 1200 2.39
3.50 1600 2.79

Fig. 5.09
Data extracted and re-arranged (uses volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate)
From CIBSE Guide, tables C4-11, C4-12.

5.14 GEORGEFISCHER…
Pressure loss for water flow at 75°C in
steel pipe
with velocity flow (v ) for heavy grade (H)
and medium grade (M) steel 1

Volume Pressure loss per unit length (Pa/m) and velocity of flow (v)
flow 50 mm 65 mm 80 mm 100 mm
rate 2 in 2 1/ 2 in 3 in 4 in 2
l/s H M v H M v H M v H M v
0.1 0.8 0.7 0.05 0.3 0.2 0.03 0.2 0.1 0.02
0.2 3.0 2.5 0.10 0.8 0.7 0.06 0.4 0.4 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.03
0.3 6.0 5.0 0.15 2.0 1.5 0.09 0.7 0.7 0.06 0.2 0.2 0.04
0.4 9.0 8.5 0.20 3.0 2.5 0.12 1.5 2.5 0.08 0.4 0.3 0.05
0.5 15.0 12.5 0.25 1.0 3.5 0.15 2.0 3.5 0.10 0.5 0.5 0.06 3
0.6 20.0 17.5 0.31 5.5 5.0 0.18 2.5 2.0 0.12 0.7 0.7 0.08
0.7 27.5 25.0 0.36 7.5 6.5 0.21 3.5 3.0 0.14 0.9 0.8 0.09
0.8 35.0 30.0 0.41 9.5 8.0 0.24 4.5 4.0 0.16 1.2 1.4 0.10
0.9 42.5 37.5 0.46 12.5 10.0 0.27 5.0 5.0 0.18 1.5 1.5 0.12
1.0 55.0 45.0 0.51 15.0 12.5 0.3 6.5 5.5 0.20 2.0 2.0 0.13
4
1.5 120 95 0.76 30.0 27.5 0.45 15.0 12.5 0.30 3.5 3.5 0.19
2.0 200 180 1.02 50.0 45.0 0.60 22.5 20.0 0.40 6.0 5.5 0.25
2.5 300 260 1.27 77.5 67.5 0.75 35.0 30.0 0.50 9.0 8.5 0.32
3.0 420 360 1.53 120.0 95.0 0.90 47.5 42.5 0.60 12.5 12.5 0.38
3.5 580 480 1.78 160.0 140.0 1.06 62.5 57.5 0.70 17.5 17.5 0.45
4.0 740 640 2.04 200.0 180.0 1.21 82.5 75.0 0.80 22.5 20.0 0.51
4.5 920 780 2.29 240.0 220.0 1.36 120.0 92.5 0.90 27.5 25.0 0.57 5
5.0 1200 960 2.55 300.0 260.0 1.51 140.0 120.0 1.00 32.5 30.0 0.64

5.5 1400 1200 2.80 360.0 320.0 1.66 160.0 140.0 1.10 40.0 37.5 0.70
6.0 1700 1400 3.06 420.0 360.0 1.81 180.0 160.0 1.20 47.5 42.5 0.76
6.5 3.31 480.0 440.0 1.96 220.0 20.0 1.29 55.0 50.0 0.83
7.0 3.57 560.0 500.0 2.11 240.0 220.0 1.39 62.5 57.5 0.89 6
7.5 3.82 640.0 560.0 2.26 280.0 260.0 1.49 70.0 65.0 0.96
8.0 4.08 720.0 640.0 2.41 320.0 300.0 1.59 80.0 72.5 1.02
8.5 4.33 820.0 720.0 2.56 360.0 320.0 1.69 90.0 82.5 1.08
9.0 4.59 920.0 820.0 2.71 400.0 360.0 1.79 100.0 90.0 1.15
9.5 4.84 1200.0 880.0 2.87 440.0 400.0 1.89 120.0 100.0 1.21
10 5.10 980.0 3.02 480.0 440.0 1.99 130.0 120.0 1.27
7
11 5.61 1200.0 3.32 580.0 520.0 2.19 150.0 140.0 1.40
12 6.12 1400.0 3.62 680.0 600.0 2.39 160.0 160.0 1.53
13 1700.0 3.92 820.0 720.0 2.59 200.0 200.0 1.66
14 1900.0 4.22 920.0 820.0 2.79 240.0 220.0 1.78
15 1100.0 940.0 2.99 280.0 260.0 1.91
16 1200.0 1100.0 3.18 300.0 280.0 2.04
17 1400.0 1200.0 3.38 340.0 320.0 2.17 8
18 1500.0 1400.0 3.58 380.0 360.0 2.29
19 1700.0 1500.0 3.78 420.0 400.0 2.42

Fig. 5.09 (contd.)

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.15
Pressure loss for water flow at 75°C in
steel pipe
with velocity flow (v), for galvanised (G)
steel

Pressure loss per unit length (Pa/m) and velocity of flow (v)
Volume
flow 15mm 20mm 25mm 32mm 40mm
1 3
rate / 2in / 4 in 1 in 1 1/ 4 in 1 1/ 2 in
litres/second G v G v G v G v G v
0.05 140 0.28 50 0.16
0.10 550 0.57 100 0.32 50 0.2
0.15 1250 0.85 225 0.48 70 0.3
0.20 2250 1.13 400 0.64 110 0.41
0.25 3500 1.42 600 0.80 175 0.51 50 0.31
0.30 5000 1.70 900 0.95 250 0.61 55 0.37
0.35 7000 1.98 1250 1.11 350 0.71 70 0.44
0.40 9000 2.26 1500 1.27 450 0.82 100 0.50
0.45 11000 2.55 2000 1.43 550 0.92 120 0.56 50 0.36
0.50 2250 1.49 700 1.02 140 0.62 70 0.40

0.55 2750 1.75 800 1.12 175 0.68 80 0.44


0.60 3500 1.91 1000 1.22 200 0.75 90 0.48
0.65 4000 2.07 1250 1.32 250 0.81 110 0.52
0.70 4500 2.23 1350 1.43 275 0.87 120 0.56
0.75 5000 2.39 1500 1.53 325 0.93 140 0.60
0.80 6000 2.56 1750 1.63 350 1.00 165 0.64
0.85 7000 2.71 2000 1.73 400 1.06 175 0.68
0.90 7500 2.87 2250 1.83 450 1.12 200 0.72
0.95 8000 3.03 2500 1.94 500 1.18 225 0.76
1.00 9000 3.18 2750 2.04 550 1.24 250 0.80

1.5 6000 3.06 1250 1.87 550 1.19


2.0 11000 4.08 2250 2.49 1000 1.60
2.5 3500 3.11 1500 1.99
3.0 5000 3.73 2250 2.39
3.5 7000 4.35 3000 2.79
4.0 9000 4.98 4000 3.18
4.5 11000 5.60 5000 3.58
5.0 6000 3.98
5.5 7000 4.38
6.0 9000 4.78
6.5 10000 5.18
7.0 11000 5.57

Fig. 5.10
Data extracted and re-arranged (uses volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate)
From CIBSE Guide, tables C4-16.

5.16 GEORGEFISCHER…
Pressure loss for water flow at 75°C in
steel pipes
with velocity of flow (v), for galvanised
(G) steel 1

Pressure loss per unit length (Pa/m) and velocity of flow (v)
Volume
flow 50mm 65mm 80mm 100mm
rate 2 in 2 1/ 2 in 3 in 4 in 2
litre/ second G v G v G v G v

0.8 50 0.41
0.9 55 0.46
1.0 70 0.51
1.5 150 0.76 50 0.45
2.0 275 1.02 70 0.60 3
2.5 400 1.27 100 0.75 50 0.50
3.0 600 1.53 140 0.90 60 0.60
3.5 800 1.78 200 1.06 80 0.70
4.0 1000 2.04 250 1.21 110 0.80
4.5 1500 2.29 350 1.36 130 0.90
5.0 1750 2.55 400 1.51 175 1.00 4
5.5 2000 2.80 500 1.66 200 1.10 50 0.70
6.0 2250 3.06 550 1.81 250 1.20 60 0.76
6.5 2750 3.31 700 1.96 275 1.29 70 0.83
7.0 3250 3.57 800 2.11 350 1.39 80 0.89
7.5 3500 3.82 900 2.26 400 1.49 90 0.96
8.0 4000 4.08 1000 2.41 450 1.59 100 1.02 5
8.5 4500 4.33 1100 2.56 500 1.69 120 1.08
9.0 5000 4.59 1250 2.71 550 1.79 130 1.15
9.5 6000 4.84 1350 2.87 600 1.89 140 1.21
10.0 6500 5.10 1500 3.02 700 1.99 160 1.27

11.0 8000 5.61 1850 3.32 800 2.19 200 1.40


12.0 2250 3.62 900 2.39 225 1.53 6
13.0 3750 3.92 1150 2.59 275 1.66
14.0 3000 4.22 1250 2.79 300 1.78
15.0 3500 4.52 1500 3.00 350 1.91
16.0 4000 4.82 1750 3.18 400 2.04
17.0 4500 5.13 2000 3.38 450 2.17
18.0 5000 5.43 2100 3.58 500 2.29 7
19.0 5500 5.73 2250 3.78 550 2.42
20.0 6000 6.03 2500 4.00 700 2.55

Fig. 5.10 (contd.)

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.17
Example 1
What is the pressure loss for the system below, made of heavy grade steel pipe, when
water flows at 10°C? The flow rate is 1litre/second.
Reducer
90° Diverging 2" (DN 50) pipe 1 1/4 " (DN 32)

1m
Junction
45° Elbow

1
1 4
Fig 240 Fig 41

/"
Fig 130

(D
N
32
3m 1m

)
Fig. 5.11

The internal pipe diameters are (pipe the diverging junction. We read its basic
diameter Fig. 5.14 ) ζ - value from table 2 as 0.5.
For 2" pipe d i = 51.3 x 10 -3 m Then we add a factor for a 90° elbow
1
1 /4 " pipe d i = 34.4 x 10 -3 m which is 0.7
First calculate the flow velocities. So we have ζ TOTAL = 0.6 + 0.7 = 1.3
The pressure loss is calculated from :
v= Q = flow rate (m 3/s)
A cross-sectional area (m 2) ∆p = ζ ρ v 2
for 2" pipe v= 1x10 -3 2
π x (57.3 x10 -3 ) 2 = 1.3 x (1000 )x (0.39) 2
4 2
= 0.39m/s = 99 Pa
for 1 1/4" pipe v= 1x10 -3 1 1/4" Fittings
π x (34.3 x10 -3 ) 2 Here we have a reduction and a 45°
4 elbow to consider.
= 1.08m/s For the 45° elbow we have ζ = 0.6.
For the reduction we need to find A 2/A 1
Pipe losses
π x (34.4x10 -3) 2
The total amount of straight pipe in the
A1 = 4 = 0.45
system is as follows:
3m of 2" pipe A2 π x (51.3x10 -3) 2
2m of 1 1/4" pipe 4
From Fig. 5.08 we read off the following This is between the values for ζ=0.40
values for pressure loss per metre: and ζ=0.25, so we take the larger value.
2" pipe 65Pa/m ζ TOTAL = 0.6 + 0.4 =1.0
1 1/4" pipe 460 Pa/m
The pressure loss here is
So the total pressue loss due to straight
pipe is ∆p = ζ ρ v 2 = 1.0 x (1000) x (1.08) 2
∆p pi = 3x65 + 2x460 = 1115 Pa 2 2
Fitting losses = 583 Pa
We need to split the fitting losses into So the total pressure loss due to fittings is
two sections, one for the 2" pipe fittings ∆p fi = 583 +99 = 682 Pa
and the other for the1 1/4" pipe fittings.
Reductions or enlargements, connecting Total Loss
pipes of different diameters, are included The total pressure loss will be
in the section for the smaller pipe. So ∆p pi + ∆p fi = 1115 + 682 = 1797 Pa
here the reduction is included in the 1 1/4"
fittings. The total pressure loss is 1.8 kPa
2" Pipe Fittings
The only fitting to be considered here is

5.18 GEORGEFISCHER…
Example 2 So
Consider part of a system of 2 1/2" Re = 0.28 x (0.067)
(DN65) heavy grade steel pipe as shown 1.3x10 -6
below. Water is flowing at a rate of 1 litre
1
per second at 10°C. = 14430
The roughness is given in Fig. 5.13 as
6.9x10 -4 and we combine this with our
Reynolds number in the Moody diagram
5m
to find the friction factor (f). 2
f = 0.0075
So the equivalent length is:
5m
l ef = 2.4 x 0.067
Fig 90
5m
4 x 0.0075
3

5m
= 5.36
5m
Now we add this equivalent length to the
Fig. 5.12 real length of straight pipe to get an
effective length.
Let's approach this problem from the Effective length = 25m + 5.36m = 30.36m
perspective of equivalent lengths. 4
The pressure loss per unit length for
Pipe: There is 25m of straight pipe. 65mm pipe with a flow rate of 1l/s is
Fittings: There are four 90° elbow fittings 20Pa/m. So we multiply this value by our
2 1/2" (DN65), which each have a ζ of 0.6. effective length to get a total pressure
So, loss.
∆p TOTAL = 20•30.36 = 607.2 Pa 5
ζ TOTAL = 2.4
To find the equivalent length of these So we lose 607.2 Pa of pressure in this
fittings we use part of the system.

l ef = ζd i
4f 6
We need to find the Reynolds number to
use this formula.
Re = vd i
ν
The flow velocity for 2 1/2" (DN65) pipe 7
with a flow rate of 1 litre per second is
found below.
v = Q = flow rate (m 3/s)
A cross-sectional area (m 2)
= 1 x 10 -3 8
π x (67 x 10 -3) 2
4
= 0.28 m/s
The internal diameter is 67mm from Fig. 9
5.14 and the kinematic viscosity (ν) is
1.3x10 -6 m 2/s.

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.19
Useful Pipe Properties
Relative Roughness

Nominal pipe size Relative roughness


Fig. 5.13
Mild steel BS 1387
Extract from CIBSE Guide
Table C4.5. mm inches Medium black Heavy black Heavy Galvanised
3
10 /8 3.7x10 -3 4.1x10 -3 1.4x10 -2
1
15 /2 2.9 x 10 -3 3.1 x 10 -3 1.4 x 10 -2
3
20 /4 2.1x10 -3 2.2x10 -3 7.5x10 -3
25 1 1.7x10 -3 1.8x10 -3 5.9x10 -3
32 1 1/ 4 1.3x10 -3 1.3x10 -3 4.4x10 -3
40 1 1/ 2 1.1x10 -3 1.1x10 -3 3.8x10 -3
50 2 8.7x10 -4 9.0x10 -4 2.9x10 -3
65 2 1/ 2 6.7x10 -4 6.9x10 -4 2.3x10 -3
80 3 5.7x10 -4 5.8x10 -4 1.9x10 -3
100 4 4.4x10 -4 4.5x10 -4 1.5x10 -3
Internal Diameters of Pipes

Nominal pipe size Mean internal diameter/mm


Fig. 5.14
Mild Steel BS 1387
Extract from CIBSE Guide
Table C4.4. mm inches Medium black Heavy black Heavy Galvanised
3
10 /8 12.4 11.3 10.8
1
15 /2 16.1 14.9 14.4
3
20 /4 21.6 20.4 19.9
25 1 27.3 25.7 25.2
1
32 1 /4 36.0 34.4 33.9
40 1 1/ 2 41.9 40.3 39.8
50 2 53.0 51.3 50.8
1
65 2 /2 68.7 67.0 66.5
80 3 80.7 79.1 78.6
100 4 105.1 103.5 102.8

Pipe Wall Thicknesses


Fig. 5.15
Nominal pipe size Wall Thickness/mm
Mild Steel BS 1387
mm inches Medium black Heavy black
3
10 /8 2.3 2.9
1
15 /2 2.6 3.2
3
20 /4 2.6 3.2
25 1 3.2 4.0
1
32 1 /4 3.2 4.0
40 1 1/ 2 3.2 4.0
50 2 3.6 4.5
1
65 2 /2 3.6 4.5
80 3 4.0 5.0
100 4 4.5 5.4

5.20 GEORGEFISCHER…
Valves - Pressure Loss where ν = kinematic viscosity
(centistokes)
Flow rate/ Flow factor k v = flow factor for water
(dimensionless) 1
The flow value or k v factor is a Q = flow rate (litres/minute)
convenient means of calculating flow
rates in hydraulics. It allows for all internal Gases
resistances and for practical purposes is
regarded as reliable. Qg = 30.8 kv ∆p x p2
2
ρxT
The k v factor is defined as the flow rate p1
of water in litres per minute with a valid for ∆p < only
pressure drop of 1 kg/cm 2 across the 2
valve. where
Q g = flow rate (m 3 / hour) 3
The relationships between k v factor, flow k v = flow factor for water
rate (Q) and pressure drop (∆p) are given (dimensionless)
in the following formulae. ∆p = pressure drop (kg / cm 2)
= p 1-p 2
Liquids with kinematic viscosity less
p 1 = absolute inlet pressure (bar)
4
than 22 centistokes (22 x 10 -6 m 2/s)
e.g. water, hydraulic oil p 2 = absolute outlet pressure (bar)
ρ = density of gas at 0°C (kg/m 3)
kv = Q ρ or Q = kv ∆p
ρ T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)
∆p
= 273 + t 5
or ∆p = ρ x Q 2
t = temperature in Celsius (°C)
k v2
Where there are several flow factors in
where Q = flow rate (litres per minute) series, the resultant k v factor is
ρ = density of the liquid (kg/dm 3)
∆p = pressure drop (kg/cm 2 ) 1 1 1 1 1 6
= + + + …+
k vx2 k v1 2 k v2 2 k v3 2 k vn 2
Liquids with kinematic viscosity Where the flow factors are in parallel, the
greater than 22 centistokes resultant k v factor is
The effect of viscosity, caused by friction
between the particles of the fluid, is no k vx = k v1 + k v2 + k v3 + …… + k vn
7
longer negligable, and the flow rate is
reduced. The flow factor must be All references are in metric (k v) units. For
multiplied by a correction factor, c, to imperial (f) or american (cv) units the
give a new flow factor, k vn. following conversions may be used:
8
k vn = k v x c
Flow Value Conversion Table
The correction factor is given by: kv Cv f
kv 1 14.28 17.09
c=1 + ν valid for c ≤ 3 only Cv 0.07 1 1.1966
kv 9
f 0.0585 0.8357 1
200 x Q
Fig. 5.16

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.21
Example 2

Part1
What is the k v factor for a 1 1/4 " water
pipeline with a flow of 300 litres/min, an
inlet pressure of 0.5 bar and an outlet
pressure of 0 bar?
Fig. 5.18
Part 2
If a valve has to be fitted and the
minimum acceptable flow rate in the Given Q =250 litres/min
pipline is 250 litres/min, which type of ρ = 1kg/dm 3
valve should be used? ∆p = p 1 – p 2 = 0.5 –0 = 0.5 kg/cm 2
kvt = ?
Part 3
Having established which type of valve kvt = 250 1
should be used, what will be the true 0 .5
flow rate of the system?
kvt = 354
Solution to part 1 The k v factor for the valve (k vv) can now
Calculate the k v for the pipeline (k vp) be established by subtracting the k v
factor for the pipline (k vp ) from the k v
factor for the total system (k vt). For this
purpose, the formula for calculating flow
factors in series should be used, which is
1 1 1
= +
2 2
k vx k v1 k v2 2

1 1 1
Fig. 5.17 thus = 2 -
2
k vv k vt k vp 2
1 1 1
Given Q = 300 litres/min 2
= 2
-
k vv 354 424 2
ρ = 1 kg/dm3
∆p = p1 – p2 = 0.5 – 0 = 0.5 kg/cm2 =7.98 ×10 -6 – 5.56 ×10 -6
k vp = ? = 2.42 ×10 -6

kvp = Q ρ k vv = 1
∆p 2.42 ×10 -6
= 300 1 = 643
0.5
In this example, the k v factor for the valve
= 424 has been determined by calculation. It
may also be found by the simpler
method of reading off the nomograph,
Solution to part 2 Fig. 5.20 .
First it is necessary to calculate the k v
factor for the total system (k vt).

5.22 GEORGEFISCHER…
by using the nomograph:
1
= 6 x10 -6 + 1.5 x 10 -6
k vt2 1
-6
= 7.5 x10
k vt = 365

The true flow for the system can now be


calculated as follows: 2
∆p
Q = kv
ρ
Fig. 5.19
0.5
= 365
The section of the nomograph
1 3
reproduced above allows us to read off = 258 litres/min
the reciprocals of the squares of the flow
factors.
k vt=354 gives 8.5 x10 -6 and
k vp=424 gives 6 x10 -6 4
We find the reciprocal of k vv by
subtracting these two values.
8.5 x10 -6 - 6 x10 -6 = 2.5 x10 -6

The value for the flow factor 5


corresponding to 2.5×10 -6 can also be
read from the nomograph. Thus,

k vv = 640
6
The valve used must therefore be one
with a minimum k v100 factor of 640.

A typical value for a ball valve, which


could be used in this example is
k vv = 800 7
(k v valves are supplied by valve
manufacturers).
Solution to part 3
First, calculate the k v factor for the pipline
with the 1 1/ 4 " ball valve installed. 8

1 1 1
= +
kvt2 kvp2 kv 2(ball valve)

1 1 9
= 2
+
424 800 2

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.23
Nomogram for valve losses

ρ
(kg/dm 3 )
(kg/cm 2 )

Fig. 5.20

5.24 GEORGEFISCHER…
Compressible Fluids
Fluids such as air and steam are 3. Connect the point on reference line F
compressible. A force acting on them to the working pressure (line E). Extend 1
may decrease the fluid volume this line to line G.
(increasing its density) rather than
causing movement of the fluid. This 4. Read the value of the pressure drop at
density change will lead to a pressure this intesection point.
drop. If this drop in pressure is less than
10% of the inlet pressure we can treat the Example 2
fluid as incompressible. If this is not the
The problem below is solved by the
case then new equations must be used
dotted lines on the nomogram.
to describe the flow depending on the
type of fluid and the surrounding Pipe length = 300m
conditions. Free air flow = 175 litres/second
Pipe inner diameter = 90mm
3
Compresssed Air Working pressure = 9 bar
Pipe Losses Following the steps above we draw the 3
For compressed air the pressure drop lines shown on the nomogram. The final
can be found from the following line intersects line G at approximately
equation 0.04. So the pressure drop is 0.04 bar. 4
A general rule is that the velocity of
∆p = 1.6 x 10 8 x V 1.85 x L
compressed air must be less than 6 m/s .
d5 x P
Using this restriction we find maximum
flow values through medium grade steel
∆p= pressure drop (bar) 5
as given in Fig. 5.21 .
V = free air flow (m 3/s)
L = pipe length (m)
d = inside pipe diameter (mm) Maximum Recommended Flow of
P = initial pressure (bar) Compressed Air at 7 bar

Values can be inserted directly into this Nominal bore Rate of air flow 6
formula, or the nomogram (Fig. 5.22) can (mm) (litres/second)
be used. The nomogram gives the free
air flow in litres/second and the pressure 10 5
drop in bar. Conversions to cubic metres 15 10
per second and pascal are given below. 20 17
25 25 7
m 3/s = l/s x 10 -3 32 50
bar = 10 5 Pa 40 65
50 100
To use the nomogram, follow these steps: 65 180
1. Connect pipe length (line A) to free air 80 240 8
flow (line B). Extend this line to the first 100 410
reference line (line C). Fig. 5.21

2. Connect the point found on this


reference line to the inner pipe diameter
(line D) and extend to the second 9
reference line (line F).

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.25
Air Flow through Black Iron Pipes

Fig. 5.22

5.26 GEORGEFISCHER…
Fitting Losses
For compressed air the pressure loss for
a system is most easily calculated using
equivalent lengths. The following table
1
gives the equivalent lengths for fittings of
various pipe sizes.
Pressure Loss - Equivalent Pipe Lengths
Fitting Equivalent pipe length (m) pipe diameter 2
1 3
Nom. Size /2 /4 1 1 1/ 2 2 3 4
DN 15 20 25 40 50 80 100

90° Elbow 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.3 1.6


Bend 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.2 3
Run of Tee Junction 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.6 2.0
Branch of Tee Junction 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.4 3.0 4.8 6.0
Reducer - 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0 2.5
4
Fig. 5.23

Example
A compressed air system where air flows l ef = 2 x 0.6 + 2.4 = 3.6m
at 0.2m 3/s has a working pressure of 10 Adding the length of straight pipe to this
bar (10 x10 5Pa) and consists of 20m of 5
value gives the effectve length of the
1 1/2" (DN 40) straight pipe with the system.
following fittings:
3.6 + 20 = 23.6
2 x 90° elbow
Now we can use the nomogram (Fig.
1 x tee: air flows through the branch of
the tee
5.22) to find the pressure drop. 6
First we find the equivalent length of the Effective pipe length = 23.6
fittings. Free air flow = 0.2m 3/s = 200 l/s
Nominal Pipe diameter = 40mm
The 90° elbow has an equivalent length
Working pressure = 10 bar
of 0.6m. 7
The tee has an equivalent length of 2.4m. The pressure drop is found to be
So the total equivalent length of the approximately 0.4 bar.
fittings

5m 8
DN 40 Fig 130 1 1 / 2

Fig 90
11/2
5m
5m

DN 40
9
Fig 90
11/2

Fig. 5.24 5m

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.27
Steam d i = pipe inside diameter (m)
Steam is another compressible fluid which V = volume flow rate (m 3/s)
behaves in a similar way to compressed air. f = friction factor
Two important factors to remember when Applying the method used in the analysis
laying steam piping are that temperature of water flow we calculate the friction
changes can lead to expansion or
factor (f) from the Reynolds number.
contraction, which must not put any
excessive stress on the system, and that no Re = vd i
water should be allowed to collect ν
anywhere in the system. Each time the
system is started from cold there will be
Values for the friction factor are given in
water of condensation to dispose of. the table Fig.5.26 below:
Another consideration is that if the velocity
Friction Factors for different Re
exceeds about 60 m/s the system may
become intolerably noisy. The volume flow Pipe size Reynolds no.
rate corresponding to a velocity of 60m/s is mm in 10 4
10 5 10 6 10 7
given below for various pipe sizes.
3
10 /8 0.035 0.029 0.027 0.027
Maximum Flow rates corresponding to a 25 1 0.033 0.025 0.023 0.023
velocity of 60m/s at 100°C 50 2 0.032 0.022 0.020 0.019
80 3 0.032 0.021 0.018 0.017
Nominal size Max. volume flow rate 100 4 0.031 0.020 0.017 0.016
mm inches (l/s)
Fig. 5.26
3
10 /8 6.1
20 3
/4 19.6 The pressure loss can now be
25 1 31.0 calculated.
32 1 1/4 55.6
Fitting losses
40 1 1/2 76.3
50 2 121.2 The pressure loss due to the fitting is
65 1
2 /2 211.3 found using:
80 3 294.1
100 4 504.2 ∆p = ζρ v 2
2
Fig. 5.25
where ∆p = pressure loss (Pa)
The density and viscosity of steam at ζ = pressure loss factor
various temperatures is given in Fig. 5.27 (dimensionless)
(Properties of Saturated Steam). ρ = density (kg/m 3)
v = velocity (m/s)
Pressure Loss
Pipe losses
The pressure loss for steam flowing in a
straight pipe is given by:

∆p = 6.48 fρ V2
d i 100000

∆p = pressure loss per unit length


(Pa/m)
ρ = density (kg/m )
3

5.28 GEORGEFISCHER…
Properties of Saturated Steam

bar Pressure Temperature Density Kinematic Viscosity 1


kPa °C kg/m 3 ρ (m 2/s) ν
0.5 50 81.35 0.309 5.2 x 10 -5
1.0 100 99.63 0.590 2.7 x 10 -5
1.5 150 111.37 0.863 1.9 x 10 -5
2.0 200 120.23 1.129 1.4 x 10 -5 2
2.5 250 127.43 1.391 1.2 x 10 -5
3.0 300 133.54 1.650 1.0 x 10 -5
3.5 350 138.88 1.908
4.0 400 143.63 2.165 8.4 x 10 -6
4.5 450 147.92 2.415 6.6 x 10 -6
5.0 500 151.85 2.667 6.0 x 10 -6
3
6.0 600 158.84 3.165 5.1 x 10 -6
7.0 700 164.96 3.663 4.4 x 10 -6
8.0 800 170.41 4.167 3.8 x 10 -6
9.0 900 175.36 4.651 3.4 x 10 -6
10.0 1000 179.88 5.155 3.1 x 10 -6 4
12.0 1200 187.96 6.135 2.6 x 10 -6
14.0 1400 195.04 7.092 2.3 x 10 -6
18.0 1800 207.10 9.091 1.8 x 10 -6
20.0 2000 212.37 10.000 1.6 x 10 -6
22.0 2200 217.24 10.989 1.5 x 10 -6
24.0 2400 221.78 12.048 1.3 x 10 -6
5
28.0 2800 230.04 14.085 1.1 x 10 -6
Fig. 5.27

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.29
Water Hammer
Water hammer, or surge pressure, is a The pressure waves travel along at
term used to describe dynamic surges speeds limited by the speed of sound in
caused by pressure changes in a piping the medium, causing the pipe to expand
system. They occur whenever there is a and contract. The energy carried by the
deviation from the steady state, i.e. when wave is dissipated and the waves are
the velocity of the fluid is increased or progressively damped. (see Figure ?)
decreased, and may be transient or
oscillating. Waves of positive or The pressure excess due to water
negative pressure may be generated by hammer must be considered in addition
any of the following: to the hydrostatic load, and this total
1. opening or closing of a valve pressure must be sustainable by the
2. pump start up or shut down pipng system. In the case of oscillatory
3. change in pump or turbine surge pressures extreme caution is
speed needed as surging at the harmonic
4. wave action in a feed tank frequency of the system could lead to
5. entrapped air catastrophic damage.

Wavelength
Fig. 5.28

Pressure
Change

Damped pressure wave

The maximum positive or negative E = modulus of elasticity of pipe


addition of pressure due to surging is a wall (Pa)
function of fluid velocity, bulk modulus of d i = pipe inner diameter (mm)
elasticity of the fluid, pipe dimensions t = pipe wall thickness (mm)
and the modulus of elasticity of the pipe
material. It can be calculated using the
following steps.
Step 1
Determine the velocity of the pressure
wave
K
Vw = K x di
ρ x (1 + )
txE
where
V w = velocity of pressure wave (m/s)
K = bulk modulus of elasticity of
fluid (Pa)
ρ = fluid density (kg/m 3)

5.30 GEORGEFISCHER…
Step 2 withstand this water hamer pressure
Calculate maximum pressure change instantaneously. As long as the
due to surging. calculated maximum total pressure due
to water hammer is within the maximum 1
∆p = Vw x ∆v x ρ x 10 -5 allowable pressure for a system the
effects of water hammer will not be
serious. The exception to this rule is when
where ∆p = maximum pressure change the pressure surges are oscillatory (e.g.
(bar) from a positive displacement pump). In 2
V w = velocity of pressure wave this case the system must be treated as if
(m/s) (see step 1) a load equal to the maximum total
∆v = change in fluid velocity (m/s) pressure, P max , exists throughout the
= (v 1-v 2) lifetime of the pipe.
v1 = velocity of fluid before If the total pressure due to water hammer
change (m/s)
3
does not fall within these limits an
v2 = velocity of fluid after increase in pipe diameter should be
change ( m/s) considered, or measures should be taken
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m 3) to reduce surge occurance (i.e. actuated
valves, surge tanks, slow start-up pumps).
NB. All pressure rises induced by a flow reduction
will have a corresponding reflected pressure drop When using actuated valves it is
4
(vacuum). If this exceeds the expected static common to design valves with closure
minimum operation pressure it must not exceed
the collapsing pressure for safe operation of the times greater than the critical period T c to
system. reduce water hammer. The critical period
is the time taken by the pressure wave to
complete one circuit of the pipeline. 5
Step 3
Calculate the maximum and minimum
Tc = 2L
total pressures Vw
p max = P + ∆p
p min = P – ∆p
where Tc = critical period 6
L = pipe length (m)
where p max = maximum total pressure V w = pressure wave velocity
(bar) (m/s)
p min = minimum total pressure
(bar) 7
P = expected operating
pressure (bar)
∆p = change due to surge
pressure (calculated in step 2)

Step 4 8
Compare the maximum total pressure
due to water hammer, calculated in step
3, with the maximum allowable pressure
in the system. The maximum allowable
pressure is determined by the pressure 9
rating of the weakest component in a
system. As most surges last for a matter
of seconds the system need only

GEORGEFISCHER… 5.31
Example Step 3
Water piping from a storage tank is Find maximum pressure
connected to a primary shut-off valve,
which is hydraulically actuated with an P max = 6 + 4.12 = 10.12 bar
electrical remote control. The water flow
rate is Q= 10m 3/h. The working pressure ∆p < p so the minimum pressure is
is 6 bar. positive. If the minimum pressure was
The pipe details are: negative (i.e. ∆p > p), then we would
material medium grade steel need to ensure that all the components in
Nom. size 100 the system could withstand the negative
inner diameter 105 mm pressure.
wall thickness 4.5 mm
pipeline length 500m Step 4
operating temp. 40°C The maximum total pressure due to
Modulus of elasticity E = 200 x 10 9 water hammer is 10.12 bar. If this value is
less than the maximum allowable
other information: instantaneous pressure in our system
water density ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 then the effects of water hammer are
bulk modulus acceptable. If it is not, adjustments need
of water K = 2.05 GPa to be made to pipe dimensions, or valve
closing time, to reduce water hammer.
Step 1
Find velocity of pressure wave
What is the critical period?
Vw = 2.05 x10 9

(
1000 x 1 +105 x 2.05 x 10 9
4.5 x 200 x 10 9 ) T c = 2L = 2 x 500
V w 1286

= 0.78s
= 1286 m/s
If we use an actuated valve with a
Step 2
closing time greater than this critical
Find velocity of fluid before change
period ( e.g. a closing time of 1.5s) this
will help to reduce water hammer.
volume fluid flow
v1 =
cross-sectional area

10/60 x 60 m 3/s
=
π (0.105 / 2 ) 2 m 2

= 0.32 m/s
assume water velocity goes to zero after
the valve is closed i.e. ∆v = 0.32m/s

Find pressure change

∆p = 1286 x (0.32) x 1000 x 10 -5

= 4.12 bar

5.32 GEORGEFISCHER…

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