A

TEXT-BOOK
OF

MINERALOGY
WITH AN EXTENDED

TREATISE

ON

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

AND

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

BY

EDWARD
Emeritus Professor

SALISBURY

DANA
ft

of Physics and Curator of Mineralogy Yale University

THIRD

EDITION,

REVISED

AND

ENLARGED

BY

WILLIAM

E.

FORD

School of of Mineralogy, Professor Sheffield Scientific Yale University

TOTAL

ISSUE,

TWENTY-SEVEN

THOUSAND

NEW

YORK

JOHN
LONDON:

WILEY
CHAPMAN

"
"

SONS,
HALL,

INC.
LIMITED

1922

EARTH

SCIENCES
LIBRARY

COPYRIGHT,
BY

1898

EDWARD

S. DANA.

COPYRIGHT,
BY

1922

EDWARD
AND

S. DANA

WILLIAM

E.

FORD.

TECHNICAL

COMPOSITION

CO.
U. S. A.

CAMBRIDGE,

MASS.,

PREFACE

TO

THE

THIRD

EDITION

The
years

first edition later after in

of this book

appeared
and
years,
are

in 1877

and

approximately twenty
was

(1898) the
more

second

revised
comes

edition the third of

published.
The

Now,

again

than

twenty

edition.

changes general
In the

involved
character section of the
on

the

present

edition book the

chiefly those
been

addition, the unchanged.

and

form

of the

having

retained

Crystallography employed
considerable been
more

important
use

change consists in the introduction stereographic and

on

methods A

in the

of the

gnomonic

jections. pro-

portion of the section

in the endeavor understood

the

Optical Characters
In the section

of

Minerals

has

rewritten

to make

this

portion of the book

on

simpler and
been

readily
all

by

the

student.

Descriptive Mineralogy brieflymentioned

corrections mineral been that unwise edition

species
been the

described

since

the previous edition

other

have

in their proper
course,

places.
in

Numerous
to

changes and
the results of

have,
in the

of

made

order

embody
minor

investigation during
order is
so

last two

decades.
of the
to

Only
of

changes have
It
was

made
as

of classification

mineral

species.

felt
was new

this book
to

closelyrelated
revision should of the

the

System

Mineralogy
until
the

it
a

attempt
that work

any

chemical The

classification

of

appear.

description of
been the minerals

methods A
new

of

Crystal Drawing
table has into lists been

given in Appendix
to.Appendix
to their to B

has

largely rewritten.
have been

added

in which

grouped
the book

according
has

important basic elements.

a

Throughout
science.

the endeavor needed The

been

present in

clear and

concise way
of the

all the information

by the elementary and

editor of this edition of the

advanced

student

is indebted Professor been

especially to the published and

Samuel used L.

published unterial ma-

writings
and and cordial
many

late

Penfield
sections also

for of

much

figures that
and
constant

have

in the He

raphy Crystallogthe

The

Optical Character

of Minerals.

acknowledges
Edward

support

assistance

given him

by Professor
WILLIAM

S.

Dana. E.
FORD

NEW

HAVEN,

CONN., Dec.

1, 1921.

469105
m

PREFACE

TO

THE

SECOND

EDITION

THE that

remarkable
have

advance

in the

Science
was

of

Mineralogy, during the

in

years

elapsed since this Text-Book

in the
new

first issued

1877, has made

as

it
as

necessary, to

preparation
matter

of

new new

edition,to rewrite
illustrations.
meet to

the whole

well

add The

much work

and

many

being designed

chiefly
once

the
the method

wants

of of

class

or

private

instruction, this
the order and

object has

at

determined and the

choice
of

topics discussed,

fullness
on

of treatment

presentation.
are

In the

chapter
under The

Crystallography, the
now

different

types of crystal forms

classed

described

the

accepted thirty-two groups given

form
to

according to
so

their

symmetry.
upon terms

names

these

groups
are

are

based,

far
to

as

possible,
the

the

characteristic

of

each, and
with
seems

intended

also

suggest

formerly applied in accordance

order

the

principles of hemihedrism.
to

The

adopted

is that

which

alone

suited

the

demands
groups

of the of
to

elementary
isometric
"

student, the
under
common

special and

mathematically

simple

the the
is of

system

being described

first.

Especial prominence
that

is

given

normal

group"
The forms

the successive
occurrence

systems,
and which

is,to the
the

group

which

relativelyof most
symmetry.
different In former the and

shows
as

methods the
on

of Miller

are

followed

highest degree regards the indices of the

the

mathematical

calculations. Chemical

chapters
science in the the of
means

Physical
of

and

Mineralogy,
characters

plan

of

the

edition of the
true

is retained
upon

presenting somewhat
the mineral
of

fully the elementary principles

which

depend;
been with

this is particularly
made
to

department
of

Optics.

The

effort has familiar

give

the

student

becoming
now

practically

all the

modern

methods

investigation
to the

commonly

applied.
introduced
to

Especial
to

attention

is,

given therefore,
the the different

optical properties of crystalsas revealed

are

scope. by the micropapers

on

Further, frequent references

important
student's

subjects discussed,in

order

direct

the

attention

to

original literature. Descriptive part of the volume

Edition of Dana's is
an essentially

The Sixth To

abridgment

of

the

System

of

Mineralogy, prepared by the author

the

(1892).
for

this work

(and

future

Appendices)

student

is,therefore, referred
of for data here

fuller

and crystallographic also for the analyses,lists of localities, etc.; In certain

descriptionsof the

opticalproperties
authorities been

species,for quoted.

directions, however,

the work

has

expanded

when

the interests

VI

PREFACE

TO

THE

SECOND

EDITION

of the the

the

student

have of the

seemed various

to

demand

it;

for

example,
Attention of each

in

the is

statement also

of
to

characters

isomorphous
in the

groups.

called

paragraph
are

headed the

"Diff.,"

description

common

species,
which
serve

in

which
to

given
it of from

distinguishing
other

characters,
with of which it

particularly
might
be

those

separate
The list

species
localities has than since but been

easily
as

confounded.
an

American

minerals,
since be

which in
to

appeared
its

Appendix
form

in it

the

earlier

edition,
more

omitted,
well is in Index

present

expanded
its
not

requires
here is of

space

could
it

given
to

it;

further,

tion reproduconly
Index in the has

unnecessary

accessible

all

interested A full

System
been
The

Mineralogy
besides of the

also

separate
of volume

form.

topical

added,

usual

Species.
to

obligations
"

the
to

present
those The of

well-known

works
too

of

other obvious

thors au-

particularly
special colleague,
mention. Prof.

Groth author

and

Rosenbusch
"

are

to

require
to

must,
who has

however, given
him of

express

his

gratitude
aid in the

his of

L.

V. with He

Pirsson,
the is also

material
minerals
as

part
under Haven

the the and

work

dealing

optical
indebted of

properties
to

examined
of New

microscope.
to

Prof.

S.

L. for

Penfield various

Prof.

H.

A.

Miers

Oxford,

England,

valuable

suggestions.
EDWARD

SALISBURY

DANA

NEW

HAVEN,

CONN.,

Aug.

1, 1898.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION

PART GENERAL GENERAL I. MORPHOLOGICAL MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM Class RELATIONS RELATIONS

I.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
OF

CRYSTALS CRYSTALS

7 26 52

OF

ISOMETRIC
1. 2.

Normal

(1).
Class Class

Galena

Type Type Type System

52
,

Pyritohedral
Tetrahedral

(2). Pyrite Type

(3). (4). (5).
Tetrahedrite

63
66

3.
4. 5.

Plagiohedral Class
Tetartohedral
Class Relations

Cuprite Type
Ullmannite Isometric

71 72 72 77

Mathematical II. TETRAGONAL

1. 2.

of the

SYSTEM Class

Normal

(6).
Class

Zircon

Type
lodosuccinimide
.

77 84
85 86

3.
4.

Hemimorphic Pyramidal Class Sphenoidal

Tetartohedral

(7).

(8).
(10).

Scheelite

Pyramidal-Hemimorphic
Class

5.
6.

Type Type Class (9). Wulfenite Type Chalcopyrite Type

Nickel

87 89 89

Trapezohedral

Class Class

(11). (12)
of the

Sulphate Type

7.

Mathematical III. HEXAGONAL A. SYSTEM

Relations

Tetragonal System

90 94 95

Hexagonal
1. 2.

Division Class

Normal

Hemimorphic Pyramidal

(13). Beryl Type Class (14). Zincite

(15).

95

Type

98 100

3.
4. 5.

Apatite Type Class (16). Nephelite Type Pyramidal-Hemimorphic

Class

Class

101
102 103

Trapezohedral
or

(17)
Division Benitoite

B.

Trigonal
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rhombohedral Class

Trigonal

(18).
Class

Type
Class

103 104

Rhombohedral

(19).

Calcite

Rhombohedral-Hemimorphic
Trirhombohedral Class

Type. (20).

Tourmaline

Type

109
110 112 114 115 121 121 126

(21).

Phenacite

Type

6. 7.
IV.

Trapezohedral Class (22). Quartz Type Other Classes (23) (24)

Relations SYSTEM Class of the

Mathematical ORTHORHOMBIC
1. 2. 3.

Hexagonal System
"

Normal

(25).

Barite

Type

Type Hemimorphic Class (26). Calamine Sphenoidal Class (27). Epsomite Type
Relations of the Orthorhombic vii

128

Mathematical

System

128

yiii

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS
PAGE

V.

MONOCLINIC
1. 2. 3.

SYSTEM Class (28).

133

Normal

Gypsum Type

133 138 '138 139 143 144

Hemimorphic
Clinohedral

Type Class (30). Clinohedrite Type

of the Monoclinic

Class (29). Tartaric Acid

Mathematical VI. TRICLINIC

1. 2.

Relations

System

SYSTEM Class (31). Axinite Type Class (32). Calcium Relations ANGLES CRYSTALS of Important Methods CRYSTALS in the Forms and Dimensions of Crystals of Twinning CRYSTALS

Normal

Asymmetric
OP OR THE

Thiosulphate Type

147
148 152 160 165 172

Mathematical MEASUREMENT COMPOUND

of the Triclinic System

OF

TWIN

Examples
IRREGULARITIES
1. 2. 3. 4.
OF

Regular Grouping of Crystals

Variations

174 174
176 178

of Imperfections Variations
in the

the Surfaces of

Angles of Internal Imperfection and Inclusions

AGGREGATES

Crystals Crystals

178 182

CRYSTALLINE

PART PHYSICAL
I.

II. MINERALS

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY
"

CHARACTERS

OF

185 186

Characters

dependingupon

Cohesion

and Elasticity
'

II.

III. Characters General

Gravity, or Specific depending upon

Density Light of Optics Principles

/
,

Relative

195 200 200 241 246

. .

and Methods OpticalInstruments Characters of Minerals General Optical 1. Diaphaneity

-

247 247 249 different Systems 251 252

253 253

2. 3.

Color Luster

IV. V. VI.

Optical Characters of Minerals belonging to the Special A. Isometric Crystals B. Uniaxial Crystals Relations General Optical of Uniaxial Crystals Examination Optical C. Biaxial Crystals Relations General Optical of Biaxial Crystals Examination Optical Heat Characters depending upon and Magnetism Electricity Characters depending upon
Taste and Odor

259
270 270

278 303
306

310

PART GENERAL CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES EXAMINATION Examination Examination

OF

III. CHEMISTRY
OF

CHEMICAL
AS

MINERALOGY
TO

APPLIED

MINERALS

311 327 328

MINERALS

in the Wet

Way
of the

by

Means

Blowpipe

329

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

IX

PART

IV.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

PAGE

NATIVE

ELEMENTS

344

SULPHIDES,
SULPHO-SALTS

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ETC

357
383

CHLORIDES,
OXIDES CARBONATES SILICATES

BROMIDES,

IODIDES,

FLUORIDES

394
402 436 454

TlTANO-SlLICATES, NIOBATES, PHOSPHATES,

NITRATES BORATES URANATES TANTALATES

TlTANATES

583 587

ARSENATES,

VANADATES,

ETC

592 619 619

'

623
624 641 644

SULPHATES, TUNGSTATES, OXALATES,

HYDROCARBON

CHROMATES,
MoLYBDATES MELLATES COMPOUNDS

ETC

645

APPENDIX

A.

ON

THE

DRAWING

OF

CRYSTAL

FIGURES

649

APPENDIX

B.

TABLES

TO

BE

USED

IN

THE

DETERMINATION

OF

MINERALS

663

GENERAL INDEX

INDEX
TO

695 703
.

SPECIES.

INTRODUCTION

1.

THE

SCIENCE

OF

MINERALOGY in rock
masses

treats
or

of those in bodies

inorganic species called

form make universe
up
so

minerals, which
material
as

together
crust

isolated

the far

of the

of the

earth,
"

and

of other

in the

it is
2.

possible to study them

in the

form

of meteorites.

is a body produced by the procA Mineral of a Mineral. Definition esses chemical composition and, if formed of inorganic nature, having a definite which structure under favorable conditions, a certain characteristic molecular is exhibited in its crystalline form and other physical properties. further explanation. This definition calls for some be a homogeneous when First of all, a mineral must substance, even it the have examined must by microscope; further, definite a minutely formula. chemical composition, capable of being expressed by a chemical examined basalt appears to the eye, but when to be homogeneous Thus, much of different to be made under the microscope in thin sections it is seen up volcanic of its own. Again, obsicftan, substances, each having characters or homogeneous, has not a definite composition though it may be essentially glass, formula, and is hence classed as a rock, corresponding to a specificchemical several not as a mineral species. Further, substances, as tachylyte, hyalomewhich time been at relegated to passed as minerals, have one lane, etc., of basalt, it has shown local forms because been that they are only petrology, form due to rapid cooling. retaining an apparently homogeneous has in all cases molecular Again, a mineral a definite structure,unless the is rarely true. conditions of formation have been such as to prevent this,which itself in the physical This molecular manifests later, structure, as will be shown characters and especially in the external crystallineform. mineral It is customary, of convenience, to limit the name to matter as a those compounds which have of been formed the nature alone, by processes while compounds made in the laboratory or the smelting-furnace are at most been procalled artificial minerals. have which Further, mineral substances duced included of organic life are not minerals, through the agency among the pearl of an as (tabasheer) secreted by the bamboo, oyster, the opal-silica etc. Finally, mineral species are, as a rule, limited to solid substances; the and water. Petroleum, or only liquids included being metallic mercury mineral oil,is not properly a homogeneous substance, consisting rather of several hydrocarbon mineral it is hence not species. a compounds; restricted It is obvious from the above that minerals, in the somewhat called the often is what constitute of sense usually adopted, only a part Mineral Kingdom. 3. Scope of Mineralogy. the general subject In the following pages, of mineralogy is treated under the following heads : (1) Crystallography. This comprises a discussion of crystals in general and especially of the crystallineforms of mineral species.
"
"

INTRODUCTION

(2) Physical Mineralogy.

"

This

includes

those characters of minerals,that is,

depending upon

discussion of the physical cohesion and elasticity,

and so on. heat, electricity, density, light, Chemical this head the (3) are Mineralogy. Under presented briefly o f to their mineral ters characgeneralprinciples chemistry as applied species; chemical also the methods of investigating as compounds are described, them from the chemical side by the blowpipe and other means. (4) Descriptive Mineralogy. This includes the classification of minerals of each species and the description with its varieties, in its relations especially to closely allied species, as regards crystalline form, physicaland chemical in nature, and other points. occurrence characters,
" "

4. Edition and

Literature. of Dana's works

"

Reference

is made

to

the

Introduction
an

to

the

Sixth
list of

for System of Mineralogy, pp. xlv-lxi,

on

extended

Mineralogy up to 1892 and to its Appendices I, II also given of the are published up to 1915; the names scientific contain memoirs w hich on periodicals original mineralogical many of the student the titles of a few works, subjects. For the convenience are mostly of a general character, given here. Further references to the of literature Mineralogy are introduced through the first half of this work, at the end of the sections dealingwith specialsubjects. particularly independent
III for works
and Crystallography

Physical Mineralogy

* de Flsle,1772; Haiiy, 1822; Neumann, WORKS include those of Rome EARLY Krys1825; Kupffer, 1825; Grassmann, Krystallonomie, tallonomie,1823, and Krystallographie, 1829 and later; Quenstedt, 1846 (also 1873); Miller, 1839 and 1863; 1829; Naumann, 1856; Kopp, 1862; von Grailich, Paris,1866 (1849); Lang, 1866; Bravais, Etudes Crist., Schrauf,1866-68; Rose-Sadebeck, 1873. include the following: RECENT WORKS 1910. Bayley. Elementary Crystallography,

Introduction to Crystallography, 1915. Statische und kinetische Kristalltheorien, 1913-. der Krystallographie, 1902. Elemente Bruhns. der Krystallformen der Mineralien; 3 vols., 1886-91. Goldschmidt. Index Also Berechnen der Krystalle,1887. Atlas der Krystallzum Anwendung der Linearprojection formen,
Beale.

Beckenkamp.

1913-. 1914. KristallberechnungUnd Kristallzeichnung, Einleitung in die krystallographische Physikalische Krystallographie und der wichtigerenSubstanzen, 1905. Kenntniss Klein. Einleitungin die Krystallberechnung, 1876 Lewis. Crystallography,1899. Geometrische 1881. Liebisch. Physikalische Krystallographie, Krystallographie,

Gossner.
Groth.

1891.

Mallard.
1884.

Traite

de Cristallographie geometrique et physique; vol. 1, 1879; vol. 2,

Moses.
Reeks.

1899. Characters of Crystals, Hints for Crystal Drawing, 1908.

II. Band), 1876. Sadebeck. Angewandte Krystallographie(Rose'sKrystallographie, 1879. Sohncke. Entwickelung einer Theorie der Krystallstruktur, 1911. Sommerfeldt. PhysikalischeKristallographie, 1907; Die Kristallgruppe, Story-Maskelyne. Crystallography: the Morphology of Crystals,1895. Tutton. Structure and Chemical Constitution,1910; Crystallography and Crystalline Practical Crystal Measurement, 1911. Viola. Walker. 1904. Grundziige der Kristallographie, Crystallography,1914.

The

of many full titles

of these

are

given in

of pp. li-lxi

Dana's

alogy, System of Miner-

1892.

INTRODUCTION

Wallerant.

1909. Cristallographie,

der Linearprojection zum Anwendung III. Band), 1887. Krystallographie

Websky.
Williams.

Berechnen

der

Krystalle (Rose's

Wulfing.
1914. In

1890. of Crystallography, Elements Die 32 krystallographischen Symmetrieklassen und

ihre einfachen

Formen,

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the

most

important general works

-in the

Mallard (1884), Liebisch (1891), mentioned (1868), etc. (1892). Important later Mikr. Physiographic,

works

those of Schrauf are above list;also Rosenbusch, include the following.

of the Ore Minerals, 1920. Microscopic Examination Davy-Farnham. Traite de Technique Mineralogique et Petrographique, 1907. Duparc and Pearce.
Groth. Groth1905. Krystallographie, Physikalische

Jackson. OpticalPropertiesof Crystals,1910. of Rock-Forming Minerals,1908. Manual of Petrographic Johannsen. Determination Methods, 1914. of the Opaque Minerals, 1916. Murdoch. MicroscopicalDetermination La Methode translated into French Universelle by Duparc and de Dervies. Nikitin, de Fedoroff,1914. of Optical Mineralogy, 1909. Elements Winchell. of Petrographic-Microscopic Research, 1911. Wright. The Methods
General

Mineralogy

Of the many works, a knowledge of which is needed by one who wishes a full acquaintance portant. imwith the historical development of Mineralogy, the following are particularly include those of Theophrastus, Pliny, Linnaeus, Wallerius, Very early works

Cronstedt, Werner, Bergmann,

Klaproth.

Within the nineteenth century: Hauy's Treatise,1801, 1822; Jameson, 1816, 1820; Werner's Letztes Mineral-System, 1817; Cleaveland's Mineralogy, 1816, 1822; Leonhard's Handbuch, 1821, 1826; Mohs's Min., 1822; Haidinger'stranslation of Mohs, 1824; Breit1820, 1823, 1832; Beudant's Treatise,1824, 1832; Phillips's Min., haupt's Charakteristik, 1823, 1837; Shepard's Min., 1832-35, and later editions;yon Kobell's Grundzuge, 1838; Mohs's Min., 1839; Breithaupt's Min., 1836-1847; Haidinger's Handbuch, 1845; Naumann's Min., 1846 and later; Hausmann's Handbuch, 1847; Dufrenoy'sMin., 1844-1847 (also1856-1859); Brooke " Miller,1852; J. D. Dana's System of 1837, 1844, 1850, 1854,.
1868.

More
Bauer.

RECENT

WORKS

are

the following:

Bauerman. Baumhauer.

der Mineralogie,1904. Lehrbuch Text-Book of DescriptiveMineralogy, 1884. Das Reich der Krystalle,1889.

Bayley.
Blum. Brauns. Clarke.

DescriptiveMineralogy,

1917.

Dana,

1899; II, York, 1895.

Des 1893.

der Mineralogie,4th ed.,1873-1874. Lehrbuch Das Mineralreich,1903. English,translation by Spencer, 1912. The Data of Geochemistry,1916. E. S. Dana's System of Mineralogy, 6th ed., New York, 1892. Appendix I, to study them, New 1909; III, 1915. Also (elementary) Minerals and How Manual of Manuel

Dana-Ford.
Cloizeaux.

Mineralogy,1912.
de Mineralogie; vol. 1, 1862; vol. 2, ler Fasc., 1874; 2me.

Tabellarische Uebersicht der Mineralien, 1898. Handbuch der Mineralogie,1889-1915. Iddings. Rock Minerals, 1906.
Groth. Hintze. Kraus. Lacroix.

DescriptiveMineralogy,1911. 1893-1913. Mineralogie de la France et de ses Colonies,5 vols., Miers. Mineralogy, 1902. Moses and Parsons. Mineralogy, Crystallography and Blowpipe Analysis,1916. Merrill. The Non-metallic Minerals, 1904. Phillios. Mineralogv, 1912. Rogers. Study of Minerals, 1912. Schrauf. Atlas der Krystall-Formen des Mineralreiches, 4to, vol. 1, A-C, 1865-1877.
Tschermak. Lehrbuch der

Mineralogie, 1884; 5th cd., 1897.

INTRODUCTION

see

1875. systematischeUebersicht des Mineralfeiches, Synopsis Mineralogica, 13th edition of Naumann's Mineralogy, Leipzig,1897. works on related subjects, Wiilfing. Die Meteoriten in Sammlungen, etc.,1897 (earlier Dana's System, p. 32). Weisbach.
Zirkel.

For a catalogueof localitiesof minerals in the United States and Canada the volume see sources (51 pp.) reprinted from Dana's System, 6th ed. See also the volumes on the Mineral Reof the United States published (since1882) under the auspices of the U. S. Geological Survey.

Chemical
Bischoff.

and

Determinative

Mineralogy

der chemischen und physikalischen Geologic, Lehrbuch 1847-54; 2d ed., (Alsoan Englishedition.) Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs, 1843. With 4 Nachtrage, 1847-1879. Manual of Determinative Brush-Penfield. pipe Mineralogy, with an Introduction on BlowAnalysis,1896. Doelter. Handbuch der MineralAllgemeine chemische Mineralogie,Leipzig,1890. chemie, 1912-. Traite de Technique Mineralogique et Petrographique, 1913. Duparc and Monnier. of Minerals by their PhysicalProperties, Eakle. Mineral Tables for the Determination
1863-66. Blum.

of QualitativeBlowpipe Analysis,New York, 1892. Tafeln zur Bestimmung der Mineralien mitteist einfacher chemischer und nassem Versuche auf trockenem Wege, lite Auflage, 1878. of Minerals, 1911. Tables for the Determination Kraus and Hunt. Lewis. Determinative Mineralogy, 1915. Handbuch der krystallographisch-physikalischen Chemie, Leipzig, Rammelsberg. Handbuch der Mineralchemie, 2d ed.,1875. 1881-82. Erganzungsheft, 1, 1886; 2, 1895. lien, Roth. Allgemeine und chemische Geologic; vol. 1, Bildung u. Umbildung der MineraManual
von.

1904. Endlich.

Kobell, F.

etc.,1879; 2, Petrographie,1887-1890. Die Mineral derselben angeGewicht Species nach den fiir das specifische Websky. und gefundenen Werthen, Breslau, 1868. nommenen nach Tabellen der Mineralien Weisbach. zur ausseren Kennzeichen, Bestimmung tion Also founded Weisbach's 3te Auflage, 1886. on work, Frazer's Tables for the determinaof minerals,4th ed.,1897.
Formation Artificial

of

Minerals

Dittler.

Mineralsynthetisches Praktikum, 1915.

Uebersicht der krystal-

der pyrogeneten ktinstlichen Mineralien, namentlich lisirten Hiittenerzeugnisse, 1857. Fuchs. Die.kiinstlich dargestellten Mineralien, 1872. Daubree. Etudes synthetique de Geologic experimentale,Paris,1879. et des Roches, 1882. Fouque and M. Levy. Synthese des Mineraux des Mineraux, 1884. Bourgeois. Reproduction artificielle Meunier. Les methodes de synthese en Mineralogie. 1903-1904. Vogt. Die Silikatschmelzlozungen,

'Gurlt.

MineralogicalJournals
The

followingJournals

are

largelydevoted

to

original papers

on

Mineralogy:

Min. 1916. Amer. The American Mineralogist, 1878-. Bull. Soc. Min. Bulletin de la Societe Francaise de Mineralogie, 1900-. Centralblatt fiirMineralogie,Geologie und Palseontologie, Centralbl. Min.

Fortschr.
1911.

Min.

Fortschritte

der

und Mineralogie, Kristallographie

Petrographie,

from 1833. Neues Jahrbuch fiirMineralogie, etc., Geologie und Palaeontologie, Jb. Min. The MineralogicalMagazine and Journal of the MineralogicalSociety of Mag. 1876-. Gt. Britain, Min. Mitth. Mineralogische und petrographische Mittheilungen, 1878- ; Earlier, G. Tschermak. from 1871, MineralogischeMittheilungen gesammelt von Riv. Min. Ri vista di Mineralogia e Crystallografia, 1887-. Zeitschrift fiirKrystallographie und Mineralogie. 1877-. Zs. Kr.
Min.

INTRODUCTION

ABBREVIATIONS

Ax.

pi.
Bxa.

Plane
Acute

of

the

optic
(p.

axes.

H. Obs. O.F.

Hardness. Observations
on

Bx,
Bxo.
B.B.

bisectrix bisectrix the

277). 277). (p. 330).

occurrence,

etc.

Obtuse Before

(p.

Oxidizing Pyrognostics
allied

Flame
or

(p.

331).
and

Blowpipe

Pyr.

blowpipe

Comp.
Diff.

Composition.
Differences,
acters.
or

characters. Flame

distinctive

char-

R.F. Var.

Reducing
Varieties.

(p.

331).

G.

Specific
The

Gravity.
to

sign
30'.

is used

indicate

the

angle

between

two

faces

of

crystal,

as

am

(100

110)

44"

8
as

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

action on light, etc. This is clearly shown by the cohesion, elasticity, fracture in certain directions, cleavage,or natural tendency to more yielding of galena, the cubic cleavage less smooth the rhombohedral as or or surfaces; that a small crystal differs from therefore, cleavageof calcite. It is evident, and that a fragment of a crystalis itselfessentially one a large a only in size, in all its physical faces. relations, though showing no crystalline crystal molecular structure Further, the external form without the corresponding of glass or wood does not make of a solid. A model is obviously a crystal its external is because there not a crystal, relation form, no though having between form and structure. Also, an octahedron of malachite, having the from which it has been derived by chemical form of the crystal of cuprite is not a crystal of malachite, but what is known as a pseudomorph alteration, of malachite after cuprite. (seeArt. 478) On the other hand, if the natural external faces are wanting, the solid is octahedron of fluorite and a cleavagerhomnot called a crystal. A cleavage because the surfaces have been of calcite are not properlycrystals, bohedron yieldedby fracture and not by the natural molecular growth of the crystal. When 8. Crystalline and Amorphous. mineral shows external a no be it It to massive. is said definite have a form, crystalline however, may, of
"

molecular
shown

structure, and then it is said

to be

If this structure, as crystalline. is the

same

by the

cleavage,

or

by optical means,

in all

directions parallel

If it varies from individual. through the mass, it is described as a single fiber be i t is said to to since it to or a crystalline fiber, grain grain, aggregate*

of individuals. Thus in a granular it may be possible to separate mass galenaor calcite, the fragments from one bohedral, another,each with its characteristic cubic,or rhomcleavage. Even if the individuals are so small that they cannot be and hence the crystalline dent structure, may be eviseparated, yet the cleavage, from the spangling broken surface, of a freshly ary statuas with fine-grained be so fine that the marble. Or, again,this aggregate structure may be resolved structure methods with the aid of can only by optical crystalline is said to be crystalline. the microscope. In all these cases, the structure If optical less distinct crystalline show a more means or structure, which, be is said to be cryptoresolved into the mass individuals, however, cannot this is true of some massive varieties of quartz. crystalline; If the definite molecular structure is entirely wanting,and all directions in the same, the substance is said to be amorphous. This the mass are sensibly and nearlyso of opal. The amorphous state is rare is true of a pieceof glass, minerals. among is in fact made
up

of

multitude
of

be in the glass-like A piece of feldsparwhich has been fused and cooled suddenly may in such But even amorphous condition as regards absence of definite molecular structure. into the crystalline there is a tendency to go over condition by molecular rearrangecases ment. A transparent amorphous of arsenic trioxide (AsaOa), formed mass by fusion, after a time. and crystalline the steel beams of a railroad bridge becomes Similarly opaque and thus lose some become of their original crystalline strength because of gradually may the molecular rearrangement made possible by the vibrations caused by the frequentjar of in which an analogous trains. The microscopicstudy of rocks reveals many cases passing change in molecular structure has taken place in a solid mass, as caused, for example, by great pressure.

* The consideration of the various forms end of the present chapter.

of crystalline aggregates is postponed to the

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

-is bounded crystal by smooth plane surfaces, in their or showing arrangement a certain characteristic planes,* laws. symmetry, and related to each other by definite mathematical at the moment, into the exact meaning of the Thus, without inquiring, and the kinds of symmetry term symmetry as appliedto crystals, possible, detail i which in will be explained later,t is apparent that the accompanying 1-3, show the external form spoken of. They represent,therefore, figures,
9. External Form.
"

called faces

certain definite types.

Galena

Vesuvianite

Chrysolite
Actual

10.

Variation from limits,

may

of Form

and

Surface.

"

crystals deviate,within

certain

the ideal forms. be variation in the size of like In the second distorted

thus producingwhat faces, the faces are rarely are as place, forms. smooth and lack and they absolutely brilliant; commonly they perfect polish, be rough or more less covered with fine parallel lines (called even or may show minute or striations), elevations, depressionsor other peculiarities. Both the above subjects discussed in detail in another place. are It may be noted in passing that the characters of natural faces, just alluded to, in generalmake it easy to distinguish between them and a face artificially ground,on the one hand, like the facet of a cut gem; other the surface commonly uneven on hand, the splintery or, yieldedby cleavage. 11. Constancy of the Interfacial Angles in the Same Species. The angles of inclination between like faces on the crystals of any species are constant, wherever essentially they are found, and whether products of nature or of the portant form of the imone laboratory. These angles,therefore, characters of a species. distinguishing the adjacent the angle between Thus, in Fig.4, of apatite, faces x and m like faces, is the for two same (130" 18') any this with s ituated each other. to reference Further, similarly Apatite is of the size constant matter what for the no angle species the crystal be or from what locality it may Moreover, the angles come. may between all the faces on crystals of the same (cf Figs.5-8 of zircon species less closelyconnected more or below) are together by certain definite
defined later
"

there First,

mathematical

laws.
cases

* This latter word is usually limited to definite surface itself, is designated.

where

rather the direction,

than

the

10

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

12. Diversity of Form, or Habit. of a given While in the crystals like faces, the forms of the crystals there is constancy of angle between species be exceedingly diverse. The (5-8) are examples accompanying figures may of a few of the forms of the species zircon. There is hardly any limit to the
"

number

habit,

as

of faces which may and as their relative size changes, the occur, it is called, may vary indefinitely.

Zircon

of all sizes, from the merest Diversity of Size. Crystals occur in stand, to It is diameter. more a or microscopicpoint important to underyard in is that the minute as a however, development complete as crystal of with a largeone. form and Indeed the highestperfection transparency is in found only of small size. crystals 13.
"

A singlecrystal of quartz, now at Milan, is three and a quarter feet long and five and a and seventy pounds. half in circumference,and its weight is estimated at eight hundred in Switzerland,discovered in A singlecavity in a vein of quartz near the Tiefen Glacier, number of which had a weight of 200 a considerable 1867, afforded smoky quartz crystals, four feet in A giganticberyl from to 250 pounds. Hampshire, measured Acworth, New length and two and a half in circumference; another, from Graf ton, was over four feet long, of its diameters,and weighed about two and a half tons. and thirty-twoinches in one

14. Symmetry in General. The faces of a crystal are arranged according to certain laws of symmetry, and this symmetry is the natural basis of the division of crystals into systems and classes. The symmetry be in axis relation defined to an a of symmetry, (2) (1) planeof symmetry, may and (3) a center of symmetry.
"

in the different kinds of symmetry may, or may not, be combined of It will be the is shown later that there one same class, crystals crystal. where which have neither center, axis, there nor plane of symmetry; another is only a center of symmetry. classes have all these On the other hand, some

These

elements
15.

of^symmetry represented. * of Symmetry. A solid is said to be geometrically metrical symwith reference to a plane of symmetry when for each face, edge, or solid angle there is another similar face,edge, or angle which has a like position of amwith reference to this plane. Thus it is obvious that the crystal shown in Fig. 9, is symmetrical with reference to the central plane phibole, of symmetry indicated by the shading.
Planes
"

The

symmetry

relation between the ideal geometricalsymmetry is discussed in Art. 18.

and

the actual

crystallographic

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

11

In
sense,

the

where

measured

the ideal is the exact

A

this symmetry is rightsymmetry in the geometrical crystal of the plane of symmetry the side one has a corpoint on responding every distances the other side, on point at equal to it. In other words, in line normal on a geometrical symmetry, one half of the crystal ideal

mirror-image of
have
as one

the other
as

half.

planes of symmetry, as is illustrated another, 16). Here the planesof the firstset by the cube * (Fig. the to the cubic faces; parallel crystal they pass through The planesof the second set join shown in Fig. 10. are the opposite cubic edges; they are shown in Fig. 11. crystal may
three of
many set and

nine

six of

16.

Axes

of

Symmetry.

"

If

solid

can

through a with the result that it again occupiesprecisely an axis, the same that axis is said positionin space as at first,
of
to

certain number

degreesabout

be revolved line as some

be

kinds of

four different There axis of symmetry. are Amphibole of symmetry fined crystals; they are deamong of times which the crystalrepeats itselfin accordingto the number pearance apduring a complete revolution of 360".
an axes

Symmetry
is said (a) A crystal
a

Planes

in the

Cube

to have

an

axis of

revolution

of 180"

produces

the result named

or twofold, binary, symmetry when above; in other words, when it

in

This is true of the crystal shown repeats itself twice in a complete revolution. Fig. 12 with respect to the vertical axis (and indeed each of the horizontal
axes

also). (6) A crystalhas

of 120" is

axis of trigonal, or threefold, symmetry when a when itself that it three times in a is, needed; repeats revolution. The vertical axis of the crystal shown in Fig. 13 is an
an

lution revoplete com-

axis

of

axis of tetragonal, an when or a fourfold, symmetry revolution of 90" is called for; in other words, when it repeats itself four times in a complete revolution. The in vertical axis in the crystal shown axis of hexagonal, an or sixfold, symmetry when revolution of 60" is called for; in other words, when it repeats itself six times in a complete revolution. This is illustrated by Fig. 15.
a
*

trigonal symmetry. (c) A crystal has

Fig. 14 is such an axis. has a crystal (d) Finally,

This is the cube of the normal

class of the isometric system.

12

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The different kinds of symmetry hexad axes.

12

axes

are

sometimes

known

as

tetrad and diad, triad,

13

14

16

Chrysolite
The cube of symmetry.
*

Calcite

Rutile

Beryl

kinds of symmetry with respect to axes illustratesthree of the four possible of binary symmetry joiningthe middle points of opposite It has six axes symmetry, joiningthe opposite solid angles edges (Fig.16). It has four axes of trigonal of tetragonal three axes symmetry joiningthe middle points of (Fig.17). It has, finally, 18). faces opposite (Fig.
16

17

18

-v

Symmetry 17.
"

Axes

in the Cube

Most Center of Symmetry. besides planes and axes of crystals, On the other hand, a crystal, symmetry, have also a center of symmetry. axis of symmetry, may neither plane nor though possessing yet be sym-

Rhodonite

Heulandite

metrical with reference to a point, its center. This last is true of the triclinic shown in Fig. 19, in which it follows that every face, edge, and solid crystal half of the crystal. anglehas a face, edge,and anglesimilar to it in the opposite
This is again the cube of the normal class of the isometric system.

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

13 Since

18.

Relation

of Geometrical

to

Crystallographic Symmetry.

"

the symmetry arrangement of the faces of a crystalis an expressionof molecular the internal structure, which in general is alike in all parallel tions, direcsize of the faces and their distance from the plane or axis of the relative
in the

their angular positionalone is essential. The of no moment, are in Fig. 20, although its faces show an represented crystal unequal development, has in the crystallographic sense as trulya vertical plane of symmetry to the face 6) as the ideally developed crystal shown in Fig. 21. (parallel The strict geometricaldefinition of symmetry would, however, apply only to the second crystal.*

symmetry

22

23

24

Cube

Distorted

Cubes

to each Also in a normal cube (Fig.22) the three central planesparallel pair of cubic faces are like planesof symmetry, as stated in Art. 15. But a is still crystallographically a cube,though deviatingwidely from the crystal in Figs.23, 24, if shown as definition, requirementsof the strict geometrical nature of the faces, by the physical only it can be proved, e.g., by cleavage, the of three that faces like are pairs or faces, independently by optical means, structure is the same in of their size, or, in other words, that the molecular the three directions normal to them.
25 26

Cube

and Octahedron

Further,in the case of a normal cube,a face of an octahedron on any solid as explainedbeyond, similar faces on the other angles. It is anglerequires, for in not necessary, however, that these eightfaces should be of equal size, 25 is with reference the crystallographic to sense as Fig. trulysymmetrical the planesnamed 26. as Fig.
* It is to be noted that the perspective of crystals usuallyshow the geometrically figures ideal form, in which like faces,edges, and angles have the same and position. shape, size, In other words, the ideal crystalis uniformly represented as having the symmetry called for by the strict geometricaldefinition.

14 19. On

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

the other hand, the molecular and hence the crystallographic would is not always that which the geometricalform suggest. the consideration of pseudo-symmetry, an for the moment Thus, deferring It has already been illustration of the fact stated is afforded by the cube. while cube of the normal later the be that and will fullyexplained implied in Arts. 15, 16, a class of the isometric system has the symmetry described

symmetry

for example, form but belongingmolecularly, geometrical faces but of h as t o the no class, planes symmetry parallel the four in shown axes Fig. 17 though only the six diagonalplanes;further, still of trigonal 18) are axes of binary are axes symmetry, the cubic axes (Fig. of symmetry to those corresponding symmetry only, and there are no axes represented in Fig. 16. Other more complex cases will be described later. a cube : having interfacial angles of 90" is not necessarily Further,a crystal in other words, the angular relations of the faces do not show in this case is bounded whether the figure by six like faces; or whether only four are whether there are three pairsof alike and the other pairunlike; or, finally, in such cases, by the molecular be decided, unlike faces. The questionmust of the surfaces, nature indicated by the physical structure as by the cleavage, with those connected or by other physical characters,as pyro-electricity, lightphenomena, etc. Still, again,the student will learn later that the decision reached in regard to the symmetry to which a crystal belongs,based upon the distribution of the and before being finally is and accepted approximate, faces, only preliminary be confirmed,first, by a accurate it must second, and, measurements, by minute study of the other physicalcharacters. cube of the
same

to the tetrahedral

conclusive results which gives most based upon the physical The method characters, is the skillful etching of the surface of the crystal by admits of the widest application, there are, in general, some produced upon it minute appropriate solvent. By this means cules. in the arrangement of the moleto the symmetry the shape of which conforms depressions lar This process, which is in part essentially one involvingthe dissection of the molecudiscussed in the chapter on Physical Mineralogy. particularly structure, is more and

of certain speciesapproximate The crystals Pseudo-symmetry. and in therefore apparent symmetry, to the requirements angle, of a system higher in symmetry than that to which they actuallybelong: examples are they are then said to exhibit pseudo-symmetry. Numerous to be shown been have the different micas Thus the systems. given under in be in some to angle they seem though trulymonoclinic in crystallization,
20.
"

in closely

rhombohedral, in others orthorhombic. also simulate It will be shown later that compound, or twin,crystals may grouping a highergrade of symmetry than that which belongs by their regular also exhibit pseudo-symmetry and are to the singlecrystal. Such crystals is an example of an orthorhombic mimetic. Thus called aragonite specifically imitate often whose by twinning those of the hexagonal crystals species, twinned of the monoclinic species, crystal system.* Again, a highlycomplex metric of the isododecahedron rhombic have form of the a nearly phillipsite, may the among system. This kind of pseudo-symmetry also occurs
cases

classes of
may

belongingto singlesystem, since a crystal symmetry by twinning gain the geometrical

etc.,used pseudo-hexagonal,
in this and similar
cases

class of low

metry sym-

of the

corresponding

The

terms

themselves. explain

16 24.

CRYSTALLOGRAPH

Each of the six systems, as will be understood from Art. 21, one in their symmetry. several classes differing themselves among One of these classes is convenientlycalled the normal since it is in class, it since further exhibits of and the generalthe common highestdegree one, the while in others for the lower are grade system, given symmetry possible of symmetry. It is important to note that the classes comprised within a given system at once connected together are characters, by their common optical essentially * and in generalseparated of the other systems in the same those from way. Below is given a list of the six systems togetherwith their subordinate in all. The order and the names classes, given firstare those that thirty-two used in this book while in the followingparenthesesare are given other Under that are also in common use. equivalentnames nearly all of the classes it is possible of a mineral or an artificial to give the name compound whose class. to illustrate the characters of that particular crystals serve order in There is some between different authors in the which variation slight the crystal systems and classes are considered but in the main essentials all uniform. modern discussions of crystallography are
embraces

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

Cubic System) (Regular,

1. NORMAL 2.

CLASS. (Hexoctahedral. Holohedral.) Galena Type. CLASS. PYRITOHEDRAL (Dyakisdodecahedral. Pentagonal HemiheCLASS. CLASS.

dral.) Pyrite Type.

3. TETRAHEDRAL Tetrahedrite Type. 4. PLAGIOHEDRAL 5.

(Hextetrahedral.Tetrahedral (Pentagonal Icositetrahedral.

Hemihedral.) Plagiohedral

Hemihedral.) Cuprite Type.

CLASS. TETARTOHEDRAL Sodium Chlorate Type. TETRAGONAL
6.

(Tetrahedral Pentagonal Dodecahedral.)

SYSTEM

NORMAL

CLASS.

(DitetragonalBipyramidal. Holohedral.) Zircon

Type. morphic.) lodosuccinimide

HemiPyramidal. Holohedral (Ditetragonal Type. hedral.) CLASS. 8. TRIPYRAMIDAL (TetragonalBipyramidal. Pyramidal HemiScheelite Type. dral CLASS. 9. PYRAMIDAL-HEMIMORPHIC (TetragonalPyramidal. HemiheWulfenite Hemimorphic.) Type. dral. CLASS. 10. SPHENOIDAL (TetragonalSphenoidal. Sphenoidal HemiheScalenohedral.) ChalcopyriteType. 11. TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS. (Tetragonal Trapezohedral. Trapezohedral Hemihedral.) Nickel Sulphate Type. 12. TETARTOHEDRAL CLASS. Bisphenoidal.) Artif. (Tetragonal 2 CaO.Al203.SiO2 Type. 7.

HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS.

* unaxial; Crystals of the tetragonaland hexagonal systems are alike in being optically characters, of all the other systems have distinguishing but the crystals optical

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

17

HEXAGONAL
A. 13.

SYSTEM DIVISION

HEXAGONAL

NORMAL
HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS.

(Dihexagonal Bipyramidal. Holohedral.) Beryl (DihexagonalPyramidal. Holohedral

Hemi-

Type.
14. 15. 16. CLASS.

morphic.)

Zincite

Type.
CLASS.

TRIPYRAMIDAL

(Hexagonal Bipyramidal. Pyramidal HemiCLASS. (Hexagonal Pyramidal. Pyramidal NepheliteType. (HexagonalTrapezohedral. Trapezohedral

hedral.) ApatiteType.
PYRAMIDAL-HEMIMORPHIC Hemihedral Hemimorphic.) CLASS. 17. TRAPEZOHEDRAL

Hemihedral.) /3-Quartz Type.

B.

TRIGONAL

OR

RHOMBOHEDRAL

DIVISION

(TrigonalSystem)
18. TRIGONAL Benitoite Type. 19. 20. RHOMBOHEDRAL RHOMBOHEDRAL

CLASS.

Bipyramidal. TrigonalHemihedral.) (Ditrigonal

CLASS. Scalenohedral. (Ditrigonal
CLASS.

Rhombohedral

Hemihedral.) Calcite Type^

HEMIMORPHIC

gonal (Ditrigonal Pyramidal. TriRhombohedral Te-

Hemihedral Hemimorphic.) Tourmaline Type. CLASS. 21. TRI-RHOMBOHEDRAL (Rhombohedral. Phenacite tartohedral.) Type.
22. TRAPEZOHEDRAL CLASS.

(TrigonalTrapezohedral. Trapezohedral
tohedral. (TrigonalBipyramidal. Trigonal Tetarhedral (TrigonalPyramidal. Trigonal TetartoType. SYSTEM Prismatic

Tetartohedral.)Quartz Type.
23.'
24.

Hemimorphic.)

Sodium

Periodate

ORTHORHOMBIC

(Rhombic
25.

or

System)

NORMAL

CLASS.

(OrthorhombicBipyramidal. Holohedral.) Barite (OrthorhombicPyramidal.) Calamine Type. (OrthorhombicBisphenoidal.) Epsomite Type.

SYSTEM

Type.
26. 27. HEMIMORPHIC

SPHENOIDAL

CLASS. CLASS.

MONOCLINIC

(Oblique System)
28. 29. 30.

NORMAL CLASS. (Prismatic. Holohedral.) Gypsum Type. HEMIMORPHIC CLASS. (Sphenoidal.) Tartaric Acid Type. CLINOHEDRAL CLASS. (Domatic. Hemihedral.) Clinohedrite TRICLINIC SYSTEM

Type.

(AnorthicSystem)
31. 32.

NORMAL CLASS. (Holohedral. Pinacoidal.) Axinite Type. ASYMMETRIC CLASS. (Hemihedral.) Clacium ThiosulphateType.

18
25.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

In the paragraphs immediately following, Symmetry of the Systems. is given of the symmetry of the normal class of each of the a synopsis different systems, and also that of one subordinate class of the hexagonal is of so great importance that it is also often conveniently system, which treated as a sub-system even when, as in this work, the forms are referred to those of the strictly the same axes as not adopted hexagonal type a usage by all authors. I. ISOMETRIC Three SYSTEM. like axial planes of symmetry (principal and fixing to the cubic faces, planes)parallel by their intersection the crystallographic six like of planes diagonal symmetry, passingthrough each axes; to the faces of the rhombic oppositepair of cubic edges,and hence parallel
" "

dodecahedron.

Further, three
axes

like

axes

normal

to the faces of the to the faces

normal

tetragonalsymmetry, the crystallographic cube; four like diagonalaxes of trigonal metry, symof the octahedron; and six like diagonalaxes of

of

There is also binary symmetry, normal to the faces of the dodecahedron. These center of relations illustrated a obviously symmetry.! are by Fig. 27 also by Fig.35; further by Figs.92 to 125.
27 28
29

\m

Galena

Rutile

Rutile

II. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM. Three axial planesof symmetry : of these, two like planes intersecting at 90" in a line which is the vertical crystalloand the third plane (a principal graphieaxis, plane) is normal to them and hence contains the horizontal axes. There are also two diagonalplanes of
are

symmetry,
at

in intersecting anglesof 45".

the vertical axis and

meeting the

two

axial

planes

axis ; this is Further, there is one axis of tetragonal symmetry, a principal the vertical crystallographic axis. There are also in a plane normal to this four axes of binary symmetry like two and two those of each pairat right
" "

and Fig.29 anglesto each other. Fig.28 shows a typical tetragonal crystal, of it, that is, a basal projection the principal a on projection plane of symmetry normal to the vertical axis. See also Fig. 36 and Figs.170-192.
said to be like when are they divide the ideal crystalinto identical to each other; otherwise,they are said to be unlike. Axes of also like or unlike. If a plane of symmetry are of the crystallosymmetry includes two graphic If the plane includes two or more axes, it is called an axial plane of symmetry. like axes of symmetry, it is called a principal plane of symmetry ; also an axis of symmetry in which two or more like planes of symmetry meet is a principal axis of symmetry. of the different classes, t In describingthe symmetry here and later,the center of not mentioned when its presence absence is obvious. symmetry is ordinarily or
*

Two

planes of symmetry
are

halves which

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

19

III.

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM.

In

the

crystallographic axis;the fourth to these. There also three are rightangles plane (a the of the other diagonalplanes of symmetry three first set in the meeting of vertical axis, arid making with them 30". angles axis of hexagonal symmetry; this is the Further, there is one principal at there vertical crystallographic it to also six binary rightangles are axis; each. The in of three sets last two 30 shows agonal axes. are a Fig. typicalhexof the same. See also Fig.37 and crystal,with a basal projection Figs.220-227. plane) is at principal
32

of these three are axial planes of symmetry; the vertical their intersection-line being 60",

Hexagonal Division there are four like planes meeting at angles of

Miorosoinmite

Cabito

Chrysolite of this system there

are

In the

Trigonal or

Rhombohedral

Division

three

at angles of 60" in the vertical axis. planes of symmetry intersecting axis of trigonal Further,the forms belonging here have a vertical principal with and three horizontal axes of binary symmetry, coinciding symmetry, rhombohedral the horizontal crystallographic shows 31 a typical axes. Fig. with its basal projection. See also Figs.243-269. crystal, IV. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM. Three unlike planes of symmetry meeting the of at 90", and their the intersection-lines graphic crystalloposition fixingby with axes. Further,three unlike axes of binary symmetry coinciding w ith its the last-named orthorhombic 32 shows crystal, axes. a typical Fig. basal projection. See also Fig. 38 and Figs.298-320. V. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM. One plane of symmetry which contains two of the crystallographic axis of binary symmetry, normal to this Also one axes. axis. See Fig. 33; also and with the third crystallographic plane coinciding Fig.39 and Figs.333-347.

like

"

No plane and no axis of symmetry, but symmetry 34 and 40 show typical with respect to the central point. Figs. solely triclinic crystals.See also Figs.359-366 VI.
TRICLINIC

SYSTEM.

20

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

26. The relations of the normal classes of the different systems are further and symmetry by the illustrated both as regards the crystallographic axes 35-40. The exterior form is here that bounded accompanying figures, by faces each of which is parallel to a planethrough two of the crystallographic lines. indicated by the central broken Further, there is shown, within axes the combination the extremities of the unit of faces each of which joins this, of the axes. lengths
34

Pyroxene

Axinite

The full understanding of the subject will not be gained until after a study of the forms of each system in detail. Nevertheless the student will do well to make himself familiar at the outset here illustrated.
35

with

the fundamental

relations

37

Isometric

Tetragonal
later that the symmetry
use

Hexagonal

It will be shown
most

and easily exhibited by the clearly in Art. 39 et seq.

of the different classes can be of the different projections explained

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

21

the different sysModels. Glass (or transparent celluloid)models illustrating tems, having the forms shown in Figs.35-40, will be very useful to the student,especially relations as regards symmetry. in learningthe fundamental They should show within,the or more simple crystallographic axes, and by colored threads or wires,the outlines of one of form; these are Models of wood are also made in great variety and perfection forms. of crystallography. to the student in mastering the principles indispensable 27.
"

Orthorhombic

Monoclinic

Triclinic

It will appear Forms. Hemihedral 28. So-called and Holohedral later that each crystal form * of the normal class in a given system embraces with reference to the all the faces which have a like geometricalposition such a form is said to be holohedral (from bXos,complete, crystallograpfeic axes; and Mpz, face). On the other hand, under the classes of lower symmetry, a certain form, while necessarily having all the faces which the symmetry form of the have but as as corresponding allows, half yet many may called on this account the normal class ; these half-faced forms are sometimes hemihedral. Furthermore, it will be seen that,in such cases, to the given holohedral form there correspondtwo similar and complementary hemihedral which and negative (or right and left), forms, called respectively positive togetherembrace all of its faces.
"

41

43

Octahedron

Positive Tetrahedron

Negative Tetrahedron

In the normal A singleexample will help to make the above statement intelligible. " holohedral" form with all class of the isometric system, the octahedron (Fig. 41) is a the possible at equal faces which are alike in that they meet the axes eightin number In the tetrahedral class of the same distances. system, the forms are referred to the same calls for defined in Art. 19 (and more fullylater) crystallographic axes, but the symmetry but four similar faces having the positiondescribed. hedral/' "hemiThese yield or a four-faced, and negative tetrahedron, form, the tetrahedron. Figures 42 and 43 show the positive which together, it will be seen, embrace all the faces of the octahedron, Fig. 41.
" "

The

use

of the word/orw

is defined in Art. 37

22
In
ut

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

certain classes of stilllower symmetry

form given crystal

may

have

normal one-quarter of the faces belongingto the corresponding The

form, and,

after the

same method, such a form is sometimes called tetartohedral. kinds of hemihedral (and tetartohedral) development of the various possible forms under a given system has played a prominent part in the crystallography of the past, but it leads to much less complexity and is distinctly

simple than
method
is

the direct statement

of the symmetry

in each

case.

The

latter

followed in this work, and the subjectof hemihesystematically drism is dismissed with the brief (and incomplete) of this and the statements following paragraphs. In several of the systems, forms 29. Hemimorphic Forms. occur
"

the classes of lower symmetry than that of the normal characterized by this : that the faces present are only those under

class which

are

belongingto one axis of of extremity an symmetry (and crystallographic called hemimorphic axis) Such forms are conveniently A simple example under the hexagonal (half-form). It is obvious that hemimorphic system is given in Fig. 44.
.

forms
30. been

have

no

center

of symmetry.
"

Molecular

Networks.

Much

light has

cently re-

the relations existing between thrown upon the one the different types of crystals, on hand, and of of crystals, the other, these to the physical on propertied the various of consideration of the methods possible by of the of the molecules which are crystals grouping This subject,very early supposed to be built up. J. D. Dana), treated by Haiiy and others (including Zincite discussed at Frankenheim and later by was lengthby More Bravais. recentlyit has been extended and elaborated by Sohncke, Wulff, Schonflies, Fedorow, Barlow, and others. All solid bodies, stated in Art. 7, are believed to be made up of definite as molecules. Of the form of the or physicalunits,called the physical, crystal, molecules nothingis definitely known, and though theoryhas something to say that they are almost infinitely it is enough here to understand about their size, small,so small that the surface of a solid e.g., of a crystal may appear to the touch and to the eye, even when assisted by a powerful microscope, as smooth. perfectly from The molecules are further believed to be not in contact but separated if in contact, it would be impossible another to explainthe motion to one which the sensible heat of the body is due, or the transmission of radiation motion of the ether, (radiantheat and light) through the mass by the wave is believed to penetrate the body. which When from the state of a liquid a body passes or a gas to that of a solid, under such conditions as to allow perfectly free action to the forces acting between the molecules, the result is a crystal of some definite type as regards that the The simplesthypothesiswhich can be made assumes symmetry. form of the crystal is determined by the way in which the molecules group in a position themselves together of equilibrium under the action of the intermolecular forces. the molecules vary in magnitude and As, however, the forces between direction from one of to type crystal another, the resultant grouping of the molecules must also vary, particularly as regardsthe distance between them
' " " "

24

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

for This is found to be true in the study of crystals, then II, nn, and so on. those whose all bears forms are, in nearly the common some position cases, simple relation to the assumed axes; forms whose position is complex are usuallypresent only as small faces on the simple predominating forms, that So-called vicinal forms, that is,forms taking is,as modifications of themforms to which they approximate very the place of the simple fundamental
are in angularposition, closely

exceptional.

Orthorhombic

Point System

tion the numerical rela(2) When a varietyof faces occur on the same crystal, between them (that which fixes their position) be rational must existing and, as stated in (1), ratio is to be expectedin the common a simplenumerical This, as explainedlater, cases. found is to be a fundamental by experience law of all crystals.Thus, in Fig.47, starting with a face meeting the section
common face,and for it the ratio is 1 : 2 in the directions be also common with the ratio 2:1. shows the natural easy fracture, (3) If a crystal due to a called cleavage, minimum of cohesion, the cleavagesurface must be a surface of relatively faces. great molecular crowding,that is, fundamental of the common or one This follows (and thus gives a partial, though not complete,explanationof cleavage)since it admits of easy proof that that plane in which the points closest together is farthest separated from the next molecular are plane. Thus in Fig 47 compare the distance separating two planesparallel adjoining to bb or aa, then two parallel Illustrations of the above to mm, II, nn, etc will be found under the special discussion of the subjectof cleavage.
a

II would be in mm, b and a; nn would

GENERAL

MORPHOLOGICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

25

32.

Kinds shows

of Molecular that there

as

with the seven classes defined t he normal classes of the six systems in Art. 25 as representing respectively with also that of the trigonal (orthe agonal rhombohedral) division of the hexOf the fourteen, system. metric three groupings belong to the isosystem (theseare shown, for in Fig. 48 from sake of illustration, Groth; a, cube lattice;", cubecentered lattice; c, face centered
These
agree to their

described molecules.

The discussion on the basis just Groupings. fourteen are possible types of arrangement of the
"

symmetry

Isometric

Lattices

cube
one

lattice) ; two
each to the
two

to the

tetragonal;
to the orthorhombic
one

hexagonal and the rhombohedral; four

monoclinic,and

system;

to the

to the triclinic.

the theory fails to explainthe exabove outlined, istence of the classes under the several systems of a symmetry lower than that and later by of the normal class. It has been shown, however, by Sohncke admits of the extension. that The and Schonflies theory Barlow, Fedorow, idea supposed by Sohncke is this: that,instead of the simple form shown, the be conceived of as consist of a double system, one of which may network may if to other one relative the as to side,or (2)as if pushed (1) having a position if rotated in both as rotated about an axis, as or (2)and displaced (3) finally makes it in to develop it of the The impossible as subject complexity (1) here. It must suffice to say that with this extension Sohncke concludes that has been further extended to 230 This number there are 65 possible groups. the stillremains true that these fall into 32 it other authors named, but by observed groups of forms all the and thus distinct types as regardssymmetry, described under the several systems, have a theoretical crystals, among
In its simplest form, as

explanation,
of this subjectcan only be gained A completeunderstanding Literature. careful study of the many papers devoted to it. An excellent and very clear summary is given by Groth in the fourth edition of of the whole subject his Physikalische 1905, and by Sommerfeldt, in his PhysiKrystallographie, kalische Kristallographie, 1907. 33. X-Rays and In 1912, while attempting to Crystal Structure. Dr. Laue, of the and light, between character a i n X-rays similarity prove of Zurich conceived the idea of using the ordered arrangement of University " the molecules or atoms of a crystal diffraction grating for their analysis a as which in turn lay section By placinga photographicplatebehind a crystal in the path of a beam of X-rays he found that not only did the developed of the X-rays had plateshow a dark spot in its center where the direct pencil hit it but it also showed a largenumber of smaller spots arranged around the formed in a regulargeometricalpattern. This pattern was center by the interference of waves which had been diffracted in different directions by the he succeeded in proving that molecular structure of the crystal. In this way of the class to same X-rays belong phenomena as lightbut with a much shorter wave The lengths experiment showed indeed that the wave length. the layersof between of the X-rays must be comparable to the distances molecular particles of crystals. Another, and, from the crystallographic point the furnishing of a of view, a very important,result of this investigation was
"

by

"

"

26

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

method for the study of the internal structure of crystals.The positionof smaller dark spots in the Laue photographs corresponded to that of in the crystal various planes existing network parallelto possible crystal faces and their arrangement indicated the symmetry of the crystal. of Laue and his colleagues another fruitful Followingthese investigations of crystal method of investigation structure of devised means by X-rays was of X-rays meets the by W. H. and W. L. Bragg. In this method the beam section with and acute the of incidence reflection of crystal varying angles the rays is studied. The reflected from the surface of not the X-rays are section like light of their short wave lengthspenetrate the rays but because section and are reflected from the successive layersof its molecular crystal In studying the reflection phenomena we structure. have to consider the each other of these different wave effect upon the from trains originating different layers of the crystal. In general these various reflected waves would be in different phases of vibration and so would tend to interfere with each other with the consequent cessation of all vibrations. But with a certain the different of incidence and reflection it would that flected reangle happen the would from the on same crystal phase of possess rays emergence therefore reinforce each other. vibration and would This angle would vary with the wave it has been found that the wave lengthof the X-ray used (for lengthof X-rays varies with the metal that is used as the anticathode in the of the mineral X-ray bulb) and with the spacingbetween the molecular layers used. It is also obvious that there might be other angles of incidence at which the successive wave trains would each differ in phase by two or even whole wave more flected lengthsfrom the precedingone and a similar strong rethe beam obtained. the of use a angles By special X-ray spectrometer If the be accuratelymeasured. at which these reflections take place can character of the X-ray used is therefore kept constant these anglesof reflection the between t he the data for calculating distance sive succesgive necessary molecular layersin the particular mineral used and for the direction ular to the surface used for reflection. The spacingof the molecperpendicular layerswas found to vary with different substances and in different directions in the same substance and by making a series of observations it has been possible conclusions as to the to arrive at some interesting very character of the molecular structure of certain minerals as well as to the between the structures of different but related compounds. relationship existing The possibilities in attack these methods of are great lying very and unquestionablymuch will structure information concerningcrystal new the and An be available. the soon excellent summary methods of employed " " results already obtained will be found in X-rays and Crystal Structure by W. H. and W. L. Bragg, 1915.
the

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS
34. Axial Ratio, Axial Plane. have been The crystallographic axes defined (Art. 22) as certain lines, usuallydetermined by the symmetry, which and in the determination of used in the description of the faces of crystals, are their position and angular inclination. With these objectsin view, certain
"

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

27
are

lengthsof these
referred.

axes

are

assumed

as

units to which

the

faces occurring

lettered a, b, c, to correspond to the scheme in The axes are, in general, they are designated Fig.49. If two of the axes are equal, a, a, c; if the three In one there are system, the hexagonal, are equal,a, a, a.
than the isometric, one the unit to which the other are referred;hence the lengths of the axes axes express for sulphur (orthorhombic, axial ratio. Thus t he strictly see Fig.49) the axial ratio is of the horizontal
axes

four axes, lettered a, a, a, c. Further, in the systems other

49

is taken

as

: c

0'8131

1'9034.

For
a

rutile
: c
=

it is (tetragonal)
1
:

0'64415,

or,

simply,

0'64415.

is called an axial plane, The plane of any two of the axes and the space included by the three axial planesis an octant, since the total space about the center is thus divided by the three axes into eightparts. In the hexagonal system, however, Orthorhombic where there are three horizontal axes, the space about CrystalAxes the center is divided into 12 parts,or sectants. 35. Parameters, Indices, Symbol. Parameters. The parameters of a plane consist of a series of numbers which express the relative intercepts of that plane upon the crys"

axes. tallographic They are lished given in terms of the estabunit lengths of those For example, in Fig. axes. 50 let the lines OX, OY, OZ

be taken as the directions of the crystallographic axes, and let OA, OB, OC represent their unit lengths, designated

(alwaysin the same the letters a, b, c. for the intercepts

HKL
are

order) by
Then the

plane (1) OK, OL; for the plane (2)ANM they are But in terms OA, ON, OM. of the unit lengths of the these give the following axes
OH, parameters,
and

(1) (2)

la

2c.

It is to be noted that since

MNA

and the two planes HKL the same, hence crystallographically these two sets of parameters are considered to be identical. Obviously each of them may be changed into the other by multiplying(ordividing) by 4.
are

to each other and parallel

28

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Indices and Symbol. Simplified and abbreviated expressions which have been derived from the parameters of a crystal form are commonly used to These are known indices. axes. as give its relations to the crystallographic of derivingindices have been devised and A number of different methods in use several are at present. The so-called Miller indices are most widely be will used in this work.* and Below, a description exclusively employed of the other important systems of indices is given togetherwith the necessary directions for transformingone type into another. be derived from the parameters of any form by The Miller indices may and clearing of fractions if necessary. For instance taking their reciprocals take the two sets of parameters as given above.

(1) \a

|6

\c,

and

(2)
obtain

la

|6 |6

2c.

we By inversion of these expressions and 36 : 2c, (1) 4a :

(2)

la

ic.

In the

case

(2)it is necessary (2) 4a : 36 : 2c.

of

to clear of

fractions, giving

The letters indicating the The indices of this form then are 4 a : 3 6 : 2 c. different axes are commonly dropped and the indices in this case would be the different axes on written simply as 432, the intercepts being indicated by are the order in which the numbers given. used for the indices of a form belonging A generalexpression frequently is hkl. In the to any axes crystal system which has three crystallographic becomes hkil. If the parameters hexagonal system, which has four axes, this of a form be written so that they are fractions with the numerators always the same will become the corresponding dices. inas unity then the denominators The The
in this generalexpression
case

would

therefore be

rl K

7 L

"

has the

symbol of a given form is the indices of the face of that form which The symbol is comaxes. monly simplestrelations to the crystallographic the whole form. used to designate the relations between paramVarious examples are given below illustrating eters
and indices.
"

Parameters

Miller's Symbol
:

fe
la

}a
la

16 16 26 006 GO6

%a

kb

Ic

221 212 201 210 100

%c jc

2c/
ooci
ooc ooc

lcl

la
la

16
26 006

\a ja

: :

" "6

:fc
:

la

"c

in behind on measured the a axis, If the axial intercepts are or below on the c axis, and left on the 6 axis, or they are called negative, of the indices; number as signis placed over the corresponding
Parameters

to the
a

minus

Indices

-\a -io
*In method the hexagonal system of Miller. the

-\b

\c

221 201

indices used

are

those adapted by Bravais

after the

GENERAL
Different Systems The above. preceded by a number

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

29
the

of 'Indices.

The
are

Weiss

indices

are

the

same

as

parameters

representedby the letters a, b and c, each being indicatingthe relative interceptof the face in question upon that axis. For instance, a possibleorthorhombic pyramid face might be represented particular be converted indices may into the Miller indices by inversion la : 26 : fc. The Weiss as In the Naumann of fractions, and clearing the above symbol becoming then 213. indices the unit pyramidal form is indicated by O in the isometric system where the three crystal differ in their unit lengths. unit lengths or by P where the axes all have the same axes mPn For other forms the indices become the (ormOn) in which m gives the intercept upon of the horizontal axes vertical axis, one (a or 6),the intercept c, and n the interceptupon the other horizontal axis being always at unity. To which particular horizontal axis upon be indicated by a mark refers may it as n for the b axis, ft or n' for the over this number from the indices. If the intercept The pyramid face m or n is unity it is omitted a axis. would therefore in the Naumann notation be represented by used as an example above modified J. D. Dana the Naumann |P2. Other examples are given in the table below. for the letter P or O and i for the infinity He indices by substituting a hyphen sign,oo the only parameter differing pyramid form simply by 1. When designated the fundamental the vertical axis, from unity was which referred to the interceptupon that one it was written alone; for example the pyramid face having the parameter relations of la : 16 : 2c and Dana indices are easilyconverted into the The Naumann would be indicated by 2. in the proper Miller indices by arranging them tions. order,invertingand then clearingof fracmethod of deriving indices. This has the Goldschmidt has proposed another from the position face can be derived directly advantage that the indices for any particular of its pole on the gnomonic projection. The first number gives the linear positionof the pole in respect to the left to right medial line of the projectionand in terms of the unit second figure similarlygives the distance of the projection (seeArt. 84). The pace stitute positionof the pole in reference to the front to back medial line. These two figurescondescribed different
axes
.

second

the Goldschmidt is omitted. The by adding 1 as the third The relations between system are given in Art. EXAMPLES OF

indices

should be the same the of the face. If the two numbers Goldschmidt indices are easilyconverted into the Miller indices figureand clearingof fractions and eliminatingany oo sign. indices for the hexagonal the Miller and the Miller-Bravais

169.

INDICES

ACCORDING NOTATION

TO

VARIOUS

SYSTEMS

OF

has established Indices. The study of crystals of Rational the axes the interceptson for the the general law that the ratios between different faces on a crystalcan always be expressedby rational numbers.
36. Law
"

1 : V2, etc. be 1:2, 2:1, 2:3, 1 : oo, etc., but never These ratios may be either whole the values of hkl in the Miller symbols must Hence always numbers or zero. their assumed If the form whose the axes on intercepts a, 6, c determine is well chosen,these numerical unit lengths the unit form as it is called values of the indices are in most cases simple. In the Miller symbols, very 0 and the numbers from 1 to 6 are most common. in The above law, which has been established as the result of experience, fact follows from the consideration of the molecular structure as hinted at in
" "

an

earlier paragraph

(Art.31).

30
37. Form. A

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

includes all the faces which form in crystallography the to relative have a like position or The full planes, axes, of symmetry. after will be of this a study of the several It appreciated meaning systems. will be seen that in the most generalcase, that of a form having the symbol whose unit axes at unequal (hkl), planes meet the assumed be forty-eight like faces in the isometric lengths,there must twenty-fourin the hexagonal(Fig. Fig.121), system * (see 226), sixteen in the tetragonal(Fig.187),eightin the orthorhombic and two in the triclinic. In (Fig.51),four in the monoclinic, the first four systems the faces named yieldan enclosed solid, and hence the form is called a closed form; in the remaining
"

systems this is not true, and such forms in these and called open forms. Fig. 298 shows a crystal other cases are bounded by three pairsof unlike faces;each pair is hence an Figs.52-55 show open forms. open form. The unit or fundamentalform is one where parameters correspond unit lengths of the axes. to the assumed Fig. 51 shows the unit the pyramid of sulphur whose symbol is (111);it has eight similar faces, of which determines the ratio of the axes given in Art. 34. position
two
52 53

Basal Pinacoid

Prism

(001)
54

(110)(/i/cO)

Dome

Dome

(101), (MM)
*

(Oil),(OW)
is referred to in each cla,ss

The

normal

case.

32

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

axes). From this crystallographic drawn to the successive faces of the crystaland the surface of the sphere. The continued until they meet pointsin which these normals touch that surface locate the poles of the respective faces and togetherform the spherical projectionof the crystal. The method of formation and the character of the is shown spherical projection in Fig. 57. It is to be noted that all lie the polesof faces which the in the same zone on i.e. faces whose tersectio incrystal, lines are mutually fall upon the same parallel, great circle on the sphere. TTulTls illustrated in the of the figure in the case a-d-a and a-o-d. versely, Conzone of course, all faces whose polesfallon the same great circle of the spherical lie in the projectionmust A face whose zone. same at the intersection falls pole of two or more great circles Penfield) Spherical Projection(after indelies in two or more pendent zones, as for instance o(lll),in Fig. 57. The angular relations ing between the faces on the crystal of course are preservedin the anglesexistbetween their respective projection. The angles poles on the spherical between the poles, however, are the supplementary anglesto those between the faces on the crystal, The in Fig. 58. shown as those which are are supplementary angles commonly measured and recorded when see studying a crystal, Art. 230. The spherical is very useful in getting projection of between the a mental picture the relations existing various faces and zones but because of a crystal upon its nature does not permit of the close study and accurate measurements that may be made on the other described below which are made on projections plane surfaces. 41. The Stereographic Projection. The stereo* considered as derived be best graphicprojection may from the spherical in the following manprojection The plane of the projectionis commonly taken as the equatorial ner. plane of the sphere. Imaginary lines are drawn from the polesof the spherical to the south pole of the sphere. The points in which these projection lines pierce the plane of the equator locate the polesin the stereographic projection. The relation between the two is shown in Fig. 59. projections
common

the point of intersection of crystal (i.e.

center

its

normals

are

"

projection sioij

"[

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

33

without the foreshortening projection stereographic Fig. 60 shows the same of Fig. 59. Commonly only the polesthat lie in the northern hemisphere, those on the equator, are transferred to the stereographic projection. including need to be noted. Certain facts concerningthe stereographic projection Its most importantcharac-*

ter is that all circles or

arcs on are

cular cir-

the

projection
arcs

spherical as projected
the
oft
111

of true

circles on

projection.* stereographic The poles of all crystal to faces that are parallel the vertical crystallogrator phic axis fall on the equaof the spherical jection proand
same

occupy

the

in the stereographic 010 positions projection. The

pole of a horizontal face of will fall on the center the stereographic tion. projecAll north and south meridians of the spherical will appear as projection radial lines in the straight stereographic projection ing of circles havarcs as (i.e. infinite radii). Other Relation between Sphericaland Stereographic Projections ical great circles on the spherwill be transferred to the stereographic as as projection, alreadystated, 60. in shown of all these circular arcs. are Fig. Examples The angularrelations between the polesof the various faces are preserved to a but the linear distance corresponding in the stereographic projection toward its of the center of increases from the projection degree arc naturally circle is in the This illustrated circumference. represents a Fig. 61 where A-B the line and vertical section through the spherical represents projection the trace of the horizontal plane of the stereographic projection.A point 20" from N on the sphere is projectedto the point a on the stereographic In this way N is projected to b,etc. a protractor a point45" from projection, be made of which angular distances from the center of the can by means determined. be readily can Fig.62 representssuch stereographic projection relation mathematical The which devised was a Penfield.f by protractor and its angular between the linear distance from the center of the projection value is seen by study of Fig.61. If the radius of the circle of the projection is taken as unity the distance from its center to any desired pointis equal to half of the anglerepresented. For instance the distance the tangent of one
*

Am. Jour. Sci., For proof of this statement 11, 10, 1901. see Penfield, tained This protractor and the other protractors and scales used by Penfield ?pan be obversity, from the Mineralogical Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale UniNew Haven, Ct.

34

CR YSTALLO

GR

APH

60

duo

dlio

01

a 010

100

Projectionof Stereographic

the Isometric

Forms, Cube, Octahedron, and Dodecahedron

61

the

the center to the point a is equivalent to the tangent of 10",to point c etc. of 35", tangent Fig. 63 represents a chart used by Penfield for making stereographic grees. projections.The circle has a diameter of 14 cm. and is graduated to deWith it go certain scales that are very useful in locating the desired described later. pointsand zonal circles. These will be briefly from

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

35

of the principles of the stereographic detailed descriptions projection reader the is referred to the various books and of its use and the methods the titlesof which are given beyond. It is possible here to giveonly articles, important methods of construction used. a brief outline of the more For
62

StereographicProtractor

for

plottingStereographicProjections(after Penfield; reduced one-half)

north and south great circle, on a known (1) To locate the poleofa facelying of the proangular distance from the center or a point on the circumference jection tion Fig.62, or the tangent relaprotractor, beinggiven. The stereographic The stated above, gives the proper distance. as poles labeled o (isometric be in this located octahedron), Fig.60, may way. of the arc of a great circle which is not a north (2) To locate the projection the equator. The of three points on the and south meridian or projections the the be known. circle will be stilla since of must arc projection Then, tion be determined circular arc, its position can by the usual geometricconstrucfor a circle with three pointson its arc given. If,as is commonly the the great circle crosses the equator and the angle it case, the pointswhere it is possible to get the radius of the promakes with the equator are known jected from Scale No. 1, Fig.63. The location of such a desired arc directly in Fig.64. The arcs shown is shown in Fig.60 were also located in this arc
.

its

way.

position of the poleof a facelyingon a known great circle, ference south a meridian, its anglefrom a pointon the circumthe known. of small vertical The projectedarc a of projection being cumferenc is drawn about the point on the cirwhose radius is the known angle, circle, and since all pointson this arc of the projection have the must requiredangular distance from the given point the intersection of this circle with the known great circle will give the desired point. The radius of the projectedarc of the small vertical circle can be determined by findingthe of three pointson the projection which have the requiredangular position and distance from of the projection the point given on the circumference the center of the requiredcircle in the usual then obtaining Or by the way. Scale obtained radius is of No. the use directly. It is 2, Fig. 63, required the of the circumference to be noted that the known projection, point on is not the actual center of while the stereographic of the small circle, center the projected The will lie outside the circumference on a concenter tinuation arc. of the radial line that joins the given point with the center of the if the radius of the requiredarc is taken from even projection.Therefore, (3) To
which is not north and

locate the

36

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

II

i
"a

E
3"

r3-

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

37

to establish at least one Scale No. 2, it will be necessary point on the reThese methods of construction are circle in order to find its center. is determined of the pole n (isotrated in Fig.65, in which the position

Zed

Location

of the

arc

of

Projectionat great circle in the Stereographic

above the equator

givenangle

Oil

dllQ

Location

of

Projection n(211), in Stereographic pole of trapezohedron,

lies
o on

trapezohedron)which polesa (isometric cube) and angle(35J")with a.

metric

the

great circle passing through the

a

and makes octahedron), (isometric

known

38

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

of the poleof a facegiven the anglesbetween it and (4) To locate the position lie whose within the divided circle. Circumscribe other two about poles faces known the poles of the two points small circles with the proper radii and The two small circles the desired point will be located at their intersection. intersect in two points. In touch at only a singlepoint or they may may the requiredconditions. both pointswill meet The positions the latter case of the projectedsmall circles are readilyfound by drawing radii from the center of the projection through the two known poles and then layingoff on these radii pointson either side of the known poleswith the requiredangular these two distances. The center is then found between pointsin each case This line of this circle will then be everyand a circle drawn through them. where from the known of degreesaway the requirednumber quired pole. The reof the Stereographic tor, Protracpointsmay be found readilyby means Fig. 62, remembering that the zero point on the protractor must always lie at the center of the projection. This construction is illustrated in Fig.66, 22" 12' and 19" 5' from in which the pointss (isometric are hexoctahedron), d and the pointso (isometric octahedron), (isometric dodecahedron). It is d that while the and the stereographic be noted are to points o here, also, about of the actual circles centers the are centers them, points which are farther out from the center of the projection. somewhat

010

duo

loo

Location

of two

poles of hexoctahedron, s,

in

Projection Stereographic

the angle between two (5) To measure given points on the stereographic If the the two lie circumference of the projection the on projection. points read from of the If between them is circle. the divisions angle directly they lie on the same the angle is given by the use radial line in the projection, of In is other 62. it the Stereographic first to cases Fig. Protractor, necessary which the two points lie. This is most find the arc of a great circle upon easilyaccomplished by the use of a transparent celluloid protractor upon Place this protractor over which the arcs of great circles are given,Fig. 67. the center of the projection the projection with its center coinciding with and turn it about Note the pointswhere until the requiredgreat circle is found. this circle intersects the circumference of the projection. Then place a small vertical circles are which second transparent protractor on given, with its ends on the pointsof the circumference Fig. 68, over the projection

40

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

by drawing the radial line through N and A and measuring with the stereographicprotractor an angleof 90" from A to the pointB. The required arc will pass through this pointand the points p and pf which are each 90" away from the pointsat which the line A-N-B the divided circle. The crosses this great circle givesthe value of the on angle between x and y measured requiredangle at A. This is most 69 measured readily by the use of the transparentprotractor showing small circles, Fig.68. This is placedacross the projection from p to p' and the between x and angle y read directly
from it.

Wiilfinghas described a stereographic net, which givesboth great

small circles for every two degrees. Over this is placeda sheet of tracing paper upon which the stereoIf the is made. graphic projection is fastened at the of the center paper that it be so into turned can drawing various positions in respect to the net below, the various stereographic great and small circlesneeded can be sketched directly the drawing. upon Or the requiredpointscan be transferred of three point dividers. separate drawing by means of the stereographic will be given later projection
70

and

from

the net to

Examples of the use under each crystal system.

no

^100
Relation between and Gnomonic Spherical
"

Projections

Gnomonic Projection. The characters of the gnomonic projection best be understood can it to be derived from the by considering spherical projection (seeArt. 40). In the case of the gnomonic projection the plane of the projection is usuallytaken as the horizontal plane which

42. The

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

41

lies tangent to the north pole of the sphere of the spherical aginary projection. Imlines are then taken from the center of the sphere through the poles of the crystal faces that lie on its surface and extended until they touch the of the projection. The points in which these lines touch that plane plane constitute the gnomonic projection of the forms represented. Fig. 70 shows the relations between the spherical and gnomonic projections, using the same isometric crystal and dodecahedron) as forms (cube,octahedron ployed emwere to illustrate the principles of the Stereographic Projection (Art.41). of the same set of forms. Fig.71 shows the gnomonic projection

100

Gnomonic

Projectionof Cube, Octahedron

and

Dodecahedron

are followingfeatures of the gnomonic projection important. All the spherical lines when ferred transon become projection straight to tho gnomonic. The polesof a series of crystal faces which belong in the same lie on a straight zone the gnomonic projection, on will, therefore, line. This primary distinction between the stereographic and gnomonic projections will be readily seen by a comparison of Figs.60 and 71. The pole of a horizontal crystal face (like the top face of the cube) will fall at the center of the projection.The poles of vertical crystal faces will lie on the plane of projection This is shown by a only at infinite distances from the center. consideration of Fig. 70. Such faces are commonly indicated on the projection which indicate the directions in by the use of radial lines or arrows

The

great circles

which

their poles lie. This is illustrated in the

case

of the vertical cube

and

dodecahedron faces in Fig.71. Crystalfaces having a steep inclination with the horizontal plane must frequently be indicated in the same way.

42

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

A simple relation exists between the linear distance from the center of the the projection and to a given point angular distance represented. This is shown in Fig. 72 where the circle is assumed to be a vertical cross-section the of the sphere of the spherical and line A-B projection represents the trace of the plane of the gnomonic projection. It is evident from this figure

d'

that if the radius of the circle is taken as unity the linear distances N-a',N-b', etc.,are the tangents of the angles quently 20", 35", etc. Consein the gnomonic the distance projection of a givenpolefrom the center of the projection, mental consideringthe fundadistance 0-Ar, Fig. 72, to be unity,is equal to the tangent of
the

angle represented.
case

In the

of the stereo-

this graphic projection distance is equal to the The stereographic half the angle,see Art. 41. tangent of one scale,used hi trie stereographic protractor,Fig. 62, can therefore be adapted for use in the gnomonic projection by taking the point on it reading at twice the of plotting, desired angle. The a however, is to make simplest method direct use of the tangent relation. The distance 0-Nt Fig. 72, is taken at convenient some length and then this distance by the by multiplying natural tangent of the angledesired the linear distance of the pole in

question from

the

center

of the

is obtained. projection

Frequently

the distance 0-N is taken as 5 cm. In making a gnomonic projection drawn about a circle is commonly the center of the projection, known the fundamental with a as circle, radius equal to this chosen distance. Points th at have an angular distance of 45" with the center will lie on pointof the projection the circumference of this circle. Measurement

of

Commonly

also the

gnomonic

pro-

(Ai,A2) on

angle between any two poles the Gnomonic Projection

is surrounded jection by a square border of two parallel lines on which is indicated the directions in which lie the poles that cannot the projection because of the vertical or on appear inclined their of faces. These characters are shown in position steeply 71. Fig. To measure the angle between two poleson the gnomonic projection. In

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

43

two pointsthe angle between which is desired. any line a straight through them or, in other words, find the direction of the zonal line upon which they lie. Next erect the line 0-A perpendicular to this zonal line and passingthrough the center 0 of the projection.On this line establish the point N, the distance A-N being equal to the hypoA OP the distance A-P. thenuse of the righttriangle or The point TV is known o f the the angle-point The angle AiNAz is equal to Ai-Az. zone as the desired angle between the pointsAI and A2. In the case of zonal lines that pass through the center of the projection this angle-point will lie on circle at the terminus of the fundamental the circumference of a radius which is at rightanglesto the zonal line in question. In the case of vertical faces whose poleslie at an infinite distance the center of the projeccrystal tion is itselfthe angle-point.

Fig.73

let Ai and

A2 be

First draw

explanationof the above method may be given as follows. In Fig. 74 let the circle vertical section through the sphere of the sphericalprojectionand the line a N-A the trace of the plane of the gnomonic projection. Let the line A-C represent the intersection of a zonal plane lying at rightangles to the plane of the drawing. The zonal line representingthe intersection of this zonal plane with the plane of the gnomonic projection would therefore be a straight line through point A which would be 74 ing. perpendicularto the plane of the drawThe angle between N O A any two poles mined lying on this zonal line would be deterby the angle formed by the lines drawn from these poles to the point C. consider this zonal line which Ifjwe passes through A perpendicularto the drawmg as an axis around which we revolve its zonal plane, the point may
The

represent

C may be moved that it will lie'in so the plane of the gnomonic projection and fall at N, the distance A-N being The character of the equal to A-C. point C has not been changed by this the transfer and the point N becomes angle-point of the zonal line running through A and the angle between any two poles on this line may be determined by running lines from them to this point and measuring the included angle. The point N lies on the line running through O (centerof the gnomonic projection) is equal and the distance A-N to the hypothenuse, A-C, of the right triangleone side of which is equal to A-O and the other to O-C circle). (theraclius of the fundamental

zonal lines on the gnomonic projection. the anglebetween parallel Zone In Fig. 75 let the two lines 1 and Zone 2 represent two parallel zonal lines the angle between which is desired. Draw the.radial line trom the center of the projection, 0, at rightangles to these zonal lines intersecting The 0-P them at the pointsAI and A2. Make at rightanglesto 0-AiA2. The construction angle AiPAz will give the anglebetween the two zones. will be readily is supposed to be turned on the line understood if the figure 0-AiAz as on an axis until the point P becomes the center of the spherical projection The broken arc now represents a vertical cross section of the and the points"i and 02 the pointswhere sphere of the spherical projection the two zonal lines cross it. The angle at P is obviouslythe angle between To
measure

angle between Zone 2 and the prism zone, the line of which lies at the gnomonic projection, is given in Fig. 75 by the angle A%PN on infinity
which is the
same as

the two The

zones.

44

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

A gnomonic net, similar in character to the stereographic net described in Art. 41, is useful in plotting the pointsof a projection in making measor urements it. The lines it the of straight represent upon upon projection the
arcs

of

great circles of the spherical

the

while projection,

hyperbolacurves
small vertical

represent those of the circles.

The

is most gnomonic projection commonly used in connection with the measurement of crystal anglesby of the two-circle goniometer. means This use will be explainedlater, see Art. 232. For more detailed descriptions of the principles and uses of the gnomonic projection the reader is referred to the literature listed below.
References the

on

Gnomonic

Stereographic and Projections.

In addition to the descriptions of these that are of the angle between given in many general projections parallel the Gnomonic texts the following books zones on crystallographic Projection of value. and papers are Die Anwendung der stereographischen Projektion bei kristallographiBoecke, H. E. schen Untersuchungen, 1911. in ihrer Anwendung auf krisDie gnomonische Projektion

Measurement

tallographische Aufgaben, 1913. Gnomonic in two planes. Min. Mag., 14, 149, 1905. Evans, J. W. Projections V. Uber und 1887. Goldschmidt, Projektion Kristallberechnung, graphische 1914. und Kristallzeichnung, Gossner, B. Kristallberechnung The Gnomonic of The Construction Hilton, H. Net, Min. Mag., 14, 18-20, 1904. Some Min. Mag., 14, 99-103, 1905. Projections, Crystallographic Applications of the Gnomonic Min. Mag., 14, 104-108, 1905. Projectionto Crystallography, and gnomonic Hutchinson, A. On a protractor for use in constructingstereographic of the sphere,Min. Mag., 15,94-112, 1908. projections The Gnomonic Palache, Charles. Projection. Amer. Min., 6, 67, 1920. S. L. The Stereographic Projection and Its Possibilities from a Graphical Penfield, in CrystalAm. J. Sci., On the Solution of Problems Standpoint, lography 9, 1-24, 115-144, 1901. of Graphical Methods based upon by Means Spherical and Plane Trigonometry. Am. J. Sci., On the 14, 249-284, 1902. Drawing of Crystalsfrom Stereographicand Gnomonic Projections, Am. J. Sci., 21, 206-215, 1906. On the Advantages of the Gnomonic Smith, G. H. H. tion Projecand its use in the Drawing of Crystals, Min. Mag., 13, 309-321,
1903.

Faces. The anglesmost veniently conwith the Miller symbols, and those given tween in this work, are the normal angles, the anglesbethat is, the polesor normals to the facts, measured arcs on of great circles joining the polesas shown on the stereo Chrysolite graphicprojection. These normal anglesare the supplements of the actual interfacial angles,as has been explained.
"

43.

Angles between
used

The relations between these normal angles, for example in a given zone, is much simpler than those existing between the actual interfacial angles. Thus it is always true that,for a series of faces in the same angle between two end faces is equal to the zone, the normal of the angles of faces falling Thus between. sum 76, 77) the normal angle of (Figs.

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

45
This
as

of aw(100 A 110),ms(110 A 120), and s6(120 A 010). A 010) is the sum relation holds true in all the systems. Furthermore, it will be seen that,supposing oca! (Fig.77) is a plane of symmetry

06(100

in

the
100

orthorhombic
A

system,

the

angle
77

(Fig. 76), is half Similarly 110(rara'"). 010 A 120(6s) is half the angle 120 A 120(ss')jagain, 100 A lll(ae) is the complement of half the angle 111 A and 010 A lll(6e)the_comple111(66') of half the angle 111 A 111(60. ment Here, as throughout this work, the sign A is used to represent the angle between two faces,usually designated by letters.
110,
or am

the angle 110

of the Stereographic fcoio Projection to Exhibit the Symmetry. The symmetry of any classes may of the crystalline one be readily exhibited by the help of the stereographic projection. The axes of binary,trigonal, tetragonaland hexagonal symmetry
Use
"

44.

010

ft

are represented respectively by the following signs: Further,a plane of stereographic Projection of Faces on Chrysolite Fig. 76 by a full symmetry is represented Crystal, while a dotted line (zone-circle), of the line indicates that the plane of symmetry is wanting. The position The the extremities lines. is of the shown at arrows axes by crystallographic face half of in the of a pole upper of the the crystal (above plane projection) is represented by a cross; below by a circle. If two like one
.

faces fallin a vertical zone a double within the sign is used, a cross circle. Figs. 91, 128, 140, etc., give illustrations. tween beRelations 45. General
Planes
-

in the

Same

Zone.

"Y

Certain important relations between the indices of faces exist All in the same that lie zone. faces to belong to the same zone, tautozonal facesas they are called, tions intersechave their mutual must
to parallel
see a

given direction,

This direction is known the axis of the zone. as of this zonal axis can The position be expressed by what is known as
Art. 38.

the zonal

two faces, crystal symbol. Consider Fig.78, where is represented In Z. Y the and axes the crystallographic X, ABC, and CDE, intersecting to both faces have been assumed for simplicity, pass through illustration,

46

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

since any crystal This, of course, is possible relative i ts to itselfwithout intercepts parallel altering These two planes intersect in the line C-W, which in which they then the direction of the zonal axis for the zone becomes has been drawn which to this direction lie. Let the line 0"P parallel of which it is the diagonal the represent that axis. In the parallelogram edges have been taken as equal to the lengthof the edge 0-S and its parallel The point P on the zonal axis and therefore the direction distance 0-C. of the axis itselfis fixed by the three coordinates, 0-M, 0-R, and 0-S. By that the it is possible to prove of the consideration of similar triangles means be expressedby, values of these coordinates may

point C on the plane may be moved the crystalaxes. on

the

axis

Z.

0-M where
a,

(Ar

lq)a;0-R

(Ip

hr)b;0-S

(hq

kp)c,

6, c represent the unit lengthsof the three crystallographic axes, and (pqr)represent the indices of the two faces ABC and (hkl) X, Y, These kr CDE. are u expressions usuallysimplified by substituting Iq, vb and 0-S we. v hr, w hq kp, giving 0-M Ip ua, 0-R in question. The three figures [uvw] are said to be the symbol of the zone the o f the values of the three in or reciprocals coordinates, They represent the indices of a point,P, on the zonal axis. They may other words are be obtained by a system of cross-multiplication and subtraction most readily the indices scheme. Write the of face twice in one following accordingto and the their proper order under them indices of the directly corresponding
Z and
=
"

"

"

of each series. Then Cross off the first and last number tiply mulsecond face. the figures see uct joinedby the cross lines, below, and substract the prodof the two joinedby light lines from that of those joined by heavy lines, working from left to right. The three numbers obtained will in their order correspondto u,.v and w. k

XXX
P
u
=

q
=

kr

"

v Iq,

Ip

"

hr,w

hq

"

kp.

of any
a

Since the zonal symbol for a given zone be obtained from the indices may two faces lyingin that zone it follows that the indices of every sible posface in that zone must have definite relations to the zonal symbol. For in a zone ing given face with indices (xyz), having the symbol [uvw]the followzonal known the must hold true. as equation, equation,
ux

-\-vy +

wz

0.

it can be readily In this way shown whether or not a given face can lie in a certain zone. Further if [uvw]be the symbol of one and [efg] that of another intersecting zone then the point of intersection will always be the pole of a possible it, face. Its indices (hkl) must and the equationsof both zones crystal satisfy be obtained by combining them be had by taking the same result may or may and subjecting the symbols of the two zones them to the same sort of crossthemselves originally derived. multiplication by which they were

48
48.
with

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Relations
"

between
In

the

Indices of

Plane

and

the

Angle made
Z

by it

the Axes.
80

X, Y, and Fig.80 let the three lines, axes crystallographic making any
other and let a, b and Assume face HKL any
c

represent three

angleswith each unit lengths. their represent with the these axes cutting Let and O-K 0-L. 0-H, 0-p-P be a intercepts the plane at normal to the plane HKL intersecting the the surface of and spherical enveloping jection prop Let hkl represent the indices of the at P. to the Since the line 0-p is normal given form.

the triangles plane HKL HOp, KOp and LOp are rightangles and the followingrelations hold true.
-

cos

HOp;

Qr

cos

KOp;

cos

LOp.

The

angles HOp, KOp, and LOp

on

are

to the angles repreequal,respectively, sented

arcs

the OL

spherical projection by the

= "=
.

PX, PY

and

PZ

and

OH

^,

we By substituting

have,
cos

OP

PY

j cos I

PZ.

This

equationis fundamental, and several of the relations given beyond

from it.
81

are

deduced

no

The

most

useful
Z
are

is that application

when

the axial

are 90", as representedin Fig. angles

81; then X, Y,
taken as a unit lengths

the normals to 100, 010, 001, respectively. Also if the face of the unit pyramid, that is, the axes are if its intercepts on

plane
taken

HKL
as

is

the

OH

a,

OK

b,

OL

c.

Then the lines HK, HL, KL give also the intersections of the planes 110, 101, Oil on to these the three axial planes, and their poles are hence at the points fixed by normals

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

49

lines drawn

from

O.

It will be obvious

from

this figure, then,that the

relations following

hold true:
tan

(100 (001 (001

110) 101) Oil)

^;
-

tan

tan

^-

These

values

are

often used later.

In the case of four faces in a Cotangent and Tangent Relations. the either between all the faces and which we know, angles concerning three faces and all the the indices of three of them, or the angles between method of plotting it is possible or by either a simple graphical indices, by indices. determine the to or missingangle ^calculation firstlet Fig.82 represent a cross section To illustrate the graphicmethod rhodonite of The the traces the a to zone crystal. prism perpendicular upon and of faces the the direction of the a(100) 6(010) provide drawing plane of the third It is assumed that the position of the lines of reference X and Y. to its trace upon the plane of and a line drawn parallel face w(110) is known the two the drawing from the point X will give its relative intercepts upon do not correspond to the unit lengths These intercepts lines of reference. rhodonite being triclinic, these axes 6 since, do not lie in of the axes a and the plane of the drawing but they represent rather the unit lengthsof these that plane. This makes ference, difforeshortened by projection no as axes upon true will stillbe that all faces in the it since lying prism however, these two lines in distances which will have of rhodonite must intercept zone of w(110). It is now rational relations to the lengthsof the intercepts sumed asin that a fourth face / has the indices (130) and its angular position From its indices it is in the the other faces must to zone required. respect in the ratio of 1 to ^. and Y-Y' the two lines of reference X-X' intercept Y-Y'. line joining Then X-X' and OZ Let OX 1 a on on f equal equal of of the direction the trace will the these two / upon plane of give points the anglesit will make with the other faces in the drawing and so determine 49.
"

zone

the

zone.

the other hand, the angles between / and the other faces in the the of trace of the zone position / upon the plane of the drawing known, could be found, and so its relative intercepts (and indices) upon the two lines of reference be determined.

If, on
were

of calculation is used let P, Q, S and R be the poles of If the method four faces in a zone (Fig.83) taken in such an order * that PQ " PR and let the indices of these faces be respectively
P

Q
pqr

R
uvw

S
xyz

fs

hkl Then it may

be proved that
cot

PS

cot PR
=

(P.Q)
(Q.R)

cot

PQ

cot PR

(S.R) (P.S)

* In the applicationof this principleit is essential that the planes should be taken in inth" dices above ; to accomplish this it is often ne_cessaryto use the proper order, as shown etc. but the face opposite (h k F), and correspondingangles,not of (hkl), r

50
where

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

1 X

2X3
kr
_ "

3 X

1 hr pw

hq
pv

"

kp
qu

Iq
_ "

Ip
ru

"

"

qw

rv

"

2X3
yw
"

3 X
zv

kz

ly

Ix

hz

If
must

one

of these fractions reduces

to

an

indeterminate

form,

-,

then

one

of the others

be taken in its place. This formula is chiefly used in the monoclinic referred to under these systems. cases are

and

triclinicsystems;

and

some

special

The for a rectangular zone, much simplified cotangent relation becomes between a pinacoidand a face lyingin a zone that is, at rightangles a zone 90". In Fig. 83 let P(hkl) and Q(pgr) to it so that the angle PR, becomes be two between faces lying in the zone a(100) and d(011) with the angle Pa and d Let 90". a Qa represent the angles between the two faces A Then the following holds true. and the pinacoida.
=

h
"*\s

tan tan
zones

Pa
:

k
___.

I
_

p
or

Qa

the

the faces P and Q lie in becomes expression

h P h
_

with the other

pinacoids6(010)or c(001)

k
. .

tan tan

P6 Pb

Q6
tan tan

k
_

PC

pqr

Qc
at

If the zone in question lies between two pinacoidswhich are anglesto each other so that the indices of the faces P and Q become hkQ and

right
either

p#0, hQl and pOr

or

OH
tan tan tan
tan

and (100 (100 (001 (001

Qqr, we
A A A A

have
k
=

hkQ) pqQ) MM) pQr)

=
~

p.
'

h h
=
~

r_
'

I k
'

'

p
r
'

tan tan

(001 A Qkl) (001 A Qqr)

These The

equations are plane or dome.

most
common

the

ones

ordinarily employed

to determine

the symbol of any

matic pristhe

of the positions

unit

and important applicationof this tangent principle is where faces 110, 101, Oil are known, then the relation becomes
tan
tan

(100 A fe/cO) =k h' (100 A 110) (001 A MM) (001 A 101)

h
=
~

tan
tan

(010 (010

A
A

hkO)
=

110)

k'

tan

tan tan

Also,
tan

I'

(001 A 0/cQ (001 A Oil)

=k
~

GENERAL

MATHEMATICAL

RELATIONS

OF

CRYSTALS

51

Thus

the

tangents

of 2 times

angles
the

between

the of the

base, angle

001,

and

102,
001

203,
and

302,
101.

201,

etc.,

are

respectively
tangent
half the These 84 of the

|, f,

|,

tangent
is twice

between

Again,
2

the

angle
of

100

120

the

tangent

of

100

110

(here
v

and

one-

tangent
last

010

A
are

110. shown

relations
a

clearly
of
zone a

in

Fig.

which

represents

cross-section

barite

crystal a(100)
between

showing
and the
and
as

the It
a,

macrodome
is
u,

between

c(001).
faces the

assumed

that
I and
c

the
have

angles
been mined deterbroken

d,

measured

positions
in
a

of

their

poles
The
line the

indicated
from

the
x

figure.
on

lines

drawn the
a

point

the show

ing representdirection
of

crystallographic
of
these If the it will

axis

of
a

the

traces
c axes.

faces
face
u

upon is

the assumed
the

plane
to two

the the
at

and

be
axes

unit

dome

(101)

intersect
to

distances

proportional
O-X
and

their

unit faces
at

lengths,
d and I

namely
are seen

O-Y. the
them

The
c

other
axis

to

intersect

and

the and

distance

O-Y,
But
u,

giving
the

the
on

indices O-Y
to

(102)
for the
and

(104).
faces of
the
as

intercepts
I
are

the

three

and

proportional
their

tangents
that of

angles
shown

between

poles

c(001)

below.
tan
tan

58" 38"
21"

10%' 5H' 56|'

1.6112 .8056 .4028

% i

tan

52

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

I. ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM
Cubic

(Regularor

System)

embraces all the forms which are referred to SYSTEM 50. THE ISOMETRIC three axes of equal lengthsand at rightangles to each other. Since these it is customary to designatethem all by are axes mutually interchangeable the letter a. When placed in properlyorientated (i.e. 85 the commonly of accepted positionfor study) one has vertical the these and of two axes a position a3 which lie in the horizontal plane, is perpendicular one to the observer. The order in and the other parallel which the axes referred to in are givingthe relations -i of any face to them is indicated in Fig.85 by lettering ^^ a* them ai, 0% and as. The positive and negative ends ox of each axis are also shown. There are five classes here included;of these the which possesses the highestdegree of normal class,* for the system and, indeed,for all crystals, symmetry Isometric Axes is by far the most of the other important. Two the pyritohearal and tetrahedral, also have numerous representatives classes, minerals. among
"

1.

NORMAL

CLASS

(1). GALENA

TYPE

Holohedral or (Hexoctahedral
"

Class)

The symmetry of each of the types of solids enumer51. Symmetry. ated in the following and of all their comas binations, belonging to this class, table, is as follows. Axes of Symmetry. There are three principal of tetragonalsymaxes metry which are coincident with the crystallographic and are times someaxes known to the faces of the cubic axes since they are perpendicular as the cube. There are three diagonalaxes of trigonal symmetry which emerge known These in the middle of the octants formed by the cubic axes. are as the octahedral axes since they are perpendic ular to the faces of the octahedron. Lastly there are six diagonalaxes of binary symmetry which bisect the plane These to the faces of the are anglesmade by the cubic axes. perpendicular These dodecahedron and are known the dodecahedral axes. as symmetry in shown the Figs.86-88. axes are Planes of Symmetry. There are three principalplanes of symmetry intersections fix the posiwhich are at rightanglesto each other and whose
It is called normal, as before stated,since it is the most common and hence by far the important class under the system ; also,more fundamentally, because the forms here included possess the highestgrade of symmetry possiblein the system. The cube is a possible form in each of the five classes of this system, but although these forms are alike geometrically, it is only the cube of the normal class that has the full symmetry as regards molecular structure which its geometricalshape suggests. If a crystalis said to belong to that it is included the isometric system, without further qualification-, it is to be understood Similar remarks apply to the normal classes of the other systems. here. most
*

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

53

In addition there are six diagonal tion of the crystallographic axes, Fig.89. which bisect the principal the angles between planes, planes of symmetry

Fig.90
87

Axes of Tetragonal Symmetry

Axes of

Trigonal Symmetry

Axes of Binary

(Cubic Axes)

(OctahedralAxes)

Symmetry Axes) (Dodecahedral

90

Principal Symmetry
The

Planes

DiagonalSymmetry

Planes

projection accompanying stereographic with the (Fig.91), constructed in accordance in Art. the distribution shows 44, explained principles of the faces of the generalform, hkl and hence (hexoctahedron) represents clearly the symmetry of the class. Compare also the given later. projections The various possible forms 52. Forms. the this to and class, belonging possessing be under seven grouped symmetry denned, may
"

types of solids. These

are

followingtable, comiQencing with

in the enumerated the simplest.

Symmetry

of Normal

Class,

Isometric System

54

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY Indices

1. Cube

Octahedron Dodecahedron 4. Tetrahexahedron 5. Trisoctahedron 6. Trapezohedron 7. Hexoctahedron

2. 3.
Attention

.'

(100) (Ill) (110)

etc. (AfcQ) as, (310) (210); (320),
etc. (hhl) as, (331) (221); (332), etc. (hll) as, (311) (211); (322), etc. (hkl) as, (421); (321), and in Dana's
are:

is called to the letters uniformlyused in this work Cube: a. Octahedron: o. Dodecahedron: d. Tetrahexahedrons: Trisoctahedrons: p

System of

Mineralogy (1892) to designate certain of the isometric forms.*

They

e
=

Trapezohedrons:
Hexoctahedrons:

m s
=

210; / 221; q 311; n 321; t

=

310; g 331; r 211; /3

=

320; 332; p
322.

h
=

410. 441.

421.

Cube. The in cube, whose general symbol is (100), is shown It is bounded each parallel to two of the axes. by six similar faces, Each face is a square, and the interfacial angles are all 90". The faces of the cube are parallel to the principal axial planesof symmetry. or 53.
"

Fig.92.

92

Cube

Octahedron

Dodecahedron

shown in' Fig. 93, has the general octahedron, each meeting the three by eightsimilar faces, Each at equal distances. with plane face is an axes triangle equilateral_ anglesof 60". The normal interfacial angle,(111 A 111), is 70" 31' 44". in Fig. 94, 55. Dodecahedron. The rhombic dodecahedron,f shown has the generalsymbol (110). It is bounded each of which by twelve faces, of the axes two to the third axis. meets at equal distances and is parallel terfacial Each face is a rhomb with plane anglesof 7Q"" and 109 J". The normal into the six angleis 60". The faces of the dodecahedron are parallel or diagonal, auxiliary, planesof symmetry.
54.
"

Octahedron.

The

symbol (111).

It is bounded

"

The

usage

followed here (as also in the other systems) is in most

cases

that of Miller

(1852).

t The dodecahedron of the crystallographcris this fc of garnet. Geometricians reco commonly found on crystals by twelve similar faces; of these the regular (pentagonal) this solid is impossible th" portant. In crystallography to it. (SeeArt. 68.) mates

rhombic
various

shaped

faces

solids bounded imledron is the most

pyritohedronapproxi-

56

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

that the octahedral faces replace It should be carefully noticed, further, the solid anglesof the cube, as regular triangles equallyinclined to the adjacent cubic faces,as shown in Fig.95. Again, the square cubic faces replace the six solid anglesof the octahedron,being equallyinclined to the adjacent The faces of the dodecahedron truncate * the octahedral faces (Fig.97)
.

in Fig. 101. twelve similar edges of the cube, as shown They also truncate the twelve edges of the octahedron (Fig.99). Further,in Fig. 98 the cubic faces replacethe six tetrahedral solid anglesof the dodecahedron,while the octahedral faces replaceits eighttrihedral solid angles(Fig.100).
101 102

103

Cube

and

Dodeca-

hedron
interfacial

Cube, Octahedron
Dodecahedron

and

Octahedron,Cube
Dodecahedron

and

The

normal

anglesfor adjacentfaces
111 110 110

are

as

follows:

100 A Cube on octahedron, ao. Cube on dodecahedron, ad, 100 A Octahedron on dodecahedron,od, 111 A

54" 44' 8". 45" 0' 0". 35" 15' 52".

less widelyfrom the or in Art. 18 actual crystals always deviate more 67. As explained of the unequal development of like faces. Such crystals, in consequence ideal solids figured, definition of rightsymmetry the geometrical to the three do not satisfy relatively therefore, ditions and the six auxiliary planes mentioned on p. 53 but they do conform to the conprincipal of crystallographic symmetry, requiring like angular position for similar faces. of the faces do not actuallymeet Again, it will be noted that in a combination form many It is still the axes within the crystal, true, as, for example, the octahedral face o in Fig. 95. if distances and since the the at meet would axes equal this face that produced; however, of each form, and the actual lengths of the axes axial ratio is the essential point in the case of no importance, it is not necessary that the faces of the differentforms in a crystal are to will be seen actual axial lengths. The above remarks should be referred to the same apply also to all the other forms and combinations of forms described in the pages following.

The tetrahexahedron (Figs. 104, 105, 106) is isosceles triangle. Four each of which is bounded an by twenty-fourfaces, these faces of one face of the cube (hexaheof dron) togetheroccupy the position whence the name The general commonly appliedto this form. symbol hence each face is parallel is (hkQ), while it meets the other of the axes to one at unequal distances which definite multiplesof each other. two axes are There kinds of edges,lettered A and C in Fig. 104; the interfacial two are angle of either edge is sufficient to determine the symbol of a given form forms are given on a later of the common (seebelow). The anglesof some
58.
"

Tetrahexahedron.

page
*

(p.63).
The words truncate,truncation, are with the adjacent similar faces. used

only when

the

modifyingface

makes

equal

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

57
the ratio of the

There

may

be

largenumber
and

interceptsof the Fig. 105, and

axes, (310),(210),(320),etc. The

two

of hence form

as tetrahexahedrons,

varies;for example (410) is in Fig. 104; (410) in shown (210)

of h to k

the tetrahexahedrons fall in a zone As h increases relatively with a a dodecahedral to k the form approachesthe cube (inwhich h : k "x" : 1 or 1 : 0),while as it diminishes and more and becomes more nearly equal to k in value it approaches k. the dodecahedron; for which h Compare Fig. 105 and Fig. 106; also Figs. 125, 126. The specialsymbols belonging to each face of the tetrashould be carefully noted. hexahedron cubic face and
face.
= =

(530) in Fig. 106.

All

106

Tetrahexahedrons
107

108

109

Cube

and Tetrahexahedron

Octahedron and Tetrahexahedron

Dodecahedron and Tetrahexahedron

bevel * the twelve similar edges of the cube, as in Fig. 107; they replacethe solid anglesof the octahedron by four faces inclined on and also the tetrahedral the edges (Fig. 108;/ 310), solid angles of the dodecahedron by four faces inclined on the faces (Fig. The faces of the tetrahexahedron
=

109; h
59.

410).
"

The Trisoctahedron. trisoctahedron (Fig. 110) is bounded by and three twenty-four similar faces; each of these is an isosceles triangle, the common the positionof an octahedral face,whence together occupy it-from the trapezohedron (or tetragonal name. Further, to distinguish it is sometimes trisoctahedron. There are called the trigonal trisoctahedron), two kinds of edges,lettered A and B in Fig. 110, and the interfacial angle of the special correspondingto either is sufficient for the determination

symbol.
* The word bevel is used when two like faces replacethe edge of inclined at equal angles to its adjacent similar faces.

.a

form

and

hence

are

58

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Eacn forms are (221),(331), etc. The generalsymbol is (hhl)', common of the axes two at a distance less than unity face of the trisoctahedron meets it and the third at the unit length,or (which is an identical expression*) of the axes two at the unit length and the third at a distance greater meets noted. than unity. The indices belonging to each face should be carefully forms are given of the more The normal interfacial anglesfor some common
on
a

later page.
Ill
112

Trisoctahedron

Cube

and

Trisoctahedron

Octahedron and Trisoctahedron

The trapezohedron 60. Trapezohedron. f (Figs. 113, 114) is bounded each of them a quadrilateral or by twenty-foursimilar faces, trapezium. It certain relation to the octahedron,whence also bears in appearance a the trisoctahedron. sometimes of There two are employed, tetragonal name, kinds of edges,lettered B and C, in Fig. 113. The generalsymbol is hll\ forms are each cuts an axis common (311),(211),(322),etc. Of the faces, at a distance less than unity,and the other two at the unit length, or (again, identical expression) of them intersects an axis at the unit lengthand one an the other two at equal distances greater than unity. The indices belonging The noted. normal interfacial angles for to each face should be carefully of the common forms are given on a later page. Another name for this some
"

form is icositetrahedron. of these forms with the cube, octahedron,etc., 61. The combinations It will be seen should be carefullystudied. (Fig.Ill) that the faces of the trisoctahedron the solid replace angles of the cube as three faces equally inclined on the edges;this is a combination which has not been observed on crystals. The faces of the trapezohedron appear as three equal triangles equallyinclined to the cubic faces (Fig.115). Again, the faces of the trisoctahedron bevel the edges of the octahedron, inclined to the faces Fig. 112, while those of the trapezohedron are triangles at the extremities of the cubic axes, Fig. 119; m(311). Stillagain, the faces of the trapezohedronn(211) truncate the edges of the dodecahedron (110), in Fig. 118; this can be proved to follow at once shown from the zonal as
*

Since

name trapezohedron is also given to other solids whose the trigonal to the tetragonal trapezohedron and trapeziums conspicuously trapezohedron.

la : 16 \a : %b : {c in Art. 35. It will be seen later that the

=

2c.

The

student

should

read

the again carefully

planations ex-

faces

are

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

59

relations
the

form

of the faces of 45, 46), cf. also Figs.125, 126. The position (Arts. m(311), in combination with o, is shown in Fig. 119; with d in
113 114

Fig. 120.

Trapezohedrons
form both It should be added that the trapezohedronn(211) is a common is in trisoccombination. The alone and in combination; m(311) common met with,though in combination tahedron alone is rarely (Fig.112) it is not
uncommon.

115

Analcite.

Cube

and

Trapezohedron
118

Analcite. Trapezohedron Garnet. Trapezohedron and and Octahedron Dodecahedron 119

Garnet. Dodecahedron and Trapezohedron

Spinel. Octahedron and Trapezohedron

"

Magnetite. Dodecahedron
and

Trapezohedron

The hexoctahedron. Figs. 121, 122, is the general form in this system; it is bounded similar faces, each of by forty-eight which is a scalene triangle, and each intersects the three axes at unequal

62.

Hexoctahedron,

60
distances.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

shown in forms are s(321), The generalsymbol is (hki)\ common of the individual faces, as The indices Fig. 121, and "(421), in Fig. 122 in the projections shown in Fig. 121 and more 125, 126), should (Figs. fully be carefully studied

edges lettered A, B, C (longer, edges are needed to middle, In Fig. 124 the of fix the symbol bevel the dodecahedral faces of the hexoctahedron edges,and hence for this has the special hedron form h k + 1; the form s symbol (321). The hexoctain combination alone is a very rare form, but it is seen with the cube each solid angle. Fig. 124 is (Fig 123, fluorite)as six small faces replacing
The

hexoctahedron

has

three kinds

of

shorter)in

Fig. 122; the anglesof two of these unless the zonal relation can be made use

common

with garnet.
123

Fluorite Cube Hexoctahedron

and

Garnet
and

Dodecahedron Hexoctahedron

Isometric forms, by Pseudo-symmetry in the Isometric System. development in the direction of one of the cubic axes, simulate tetragonal More and of greater interest, forms. forms simulating those of are common, rhombohedral in the direction of an or by extension, symmetry by flattening; octahedral Both these cases illustrated later. Conversely,certain axis. are rhombohedral forms resemble isometric octahedron an in angle. 65. Stereographic and Gnomonic The Projections. stereographic projection,Fig 125, and gnomonic projection, Fig. 126, show the positions of the poles of the faces of the cube (100),octahedron dron (111),and dodecahealso the tetrahexahedron the trisoctahedron (110); (210), (221),the and the hexoctahedron trapezohedron(211), (321). 64.
" "

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

61

126

110

010 H

Stereographic Projectionof
(110), Tetrahexahedron hedron (321))

Isometric Forms Dodecanedron Octahedron (Cube (100), (111), (210),Trisoctahedron (221),Trapezohedron (211), Hexocta-

between two cubic note the prominent zones Finally, of planes; for example,the zone faces includinga dodecahedral tetrahexahedrons. face and the faces of all possible Again, the zones from a cubic face (as 001) through an octahedral face (as 111) passing through the trisoctahedrons, as 113, 112, 223, and the trapezohedrons 332, 221, 331, etc. Also the from one dodecahedral zone face,as 110, to another, as 101,passing through 321, 211, 312, the figures shown At the same etc. time compare these zones on with the same zones A study of the relations illustrated in Fig. 127 will-^efound useful. already described. From it is seen in the zone that any crystal face falling between the cube and dodecahedron
the cube and octabetween hedron in the zone tetrahexahedron; any face falling the the in between and zone face to falling a belong trapezohedron; any further any face falling and octahedron dodecahedron must belong to a trisoctahedron, outside these three zones must belong to a hexoctahedron. must

belong to
must

62

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

126

821

"321

120

321

Gnomonic

Projection of Isometric (321))

Forms

(Cube (100),Octahedron

Tetrahexahedron (110), hedron

Trisoctahedron (210),

(111),Dodecahedron (221), Trapezohedron (211),Hexocta-

128

UOO)

Symmetry

of

class Pyritohedral

64

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

that the lower grade of symmetry the normal class, so described In studying the forms understood. here present thoroughly in matter of this and illustrated in the following symmetry, especially pages, the mind. before be of the normal should that continually relation to class, It will be observed that the faces of both the pyritohedron(Fig.129) and the diploid(Fig. 135) are pairs,and on this account arranged in parallel

(Fig.91) for jection

be

these forms
authors who

have

been

sometimes

called

hemihedrons. parallel

Further,those

call this cases as preferto describe these hemihedrism. hemihedrism or pentagonal type parallel-faced because The pyritohedron 68. Pyritohedron. (Fig.129) is so named It is solid bounded a it is a typical form with the common pyrite. species, by twelve faces,each of which is a pentagon, but with one edge (A, Fig.129) longerthan the other four similar edges (C). It 4s often called a pentagonal the regulardodecahedron of closely dodecahedron, and indeed it resembles geometry, in which the faces are regular pentagons. This latter form is, form in crystallography. however, an impossible
forms
"

of hemihedrism

129

130

Pyritohedrons

Showing

Relation

between

Pyritohedron and Tetrahexahedron

The generalsymbol is (MO) or like that of the tetrahexahedron of the each face is parallel normal class. Hence to one of the axes and meets the at unequal distances. other two axes Common forms are (410),(310),(210), etc. Besides the positive there is also the comas pyritohedron, (320), (210), plementary in Fig. 130; the symbol is here (120). negative form * shown Other common forms are (250),(230),(130), etc.
and negative pyritohedronstogether embrace positive twenty-four the the twenty-four like faces of the tetrasame as faces,having position hexahedron The

of the normal class. The relation between the tetrahexahedron is pyritohedron shown in Fig. 131, where the alternate faces of the tetrahexahedron (indicated by shading) are extended to form the faces of the pyritohedron. 69. Combinations. The faces of the pyritohedron replace the edges of the cube as shown in Fig. 132; this resembles Fig. 101 but here the faces make unequal angles with the two adjacent cubic faces. On the other hand, when the pyritohedronis modified by the cube,the faces of the latter truncate the longeredges of the pentagons.
and the
"

The negative forms in this and similar cases the same the positiveform, but are then as e(210) and e4 (120).

have

sometimes

distinct
a

times someletters, as

distinguished by

subscriptaccent,

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

65

the combination of the pyritohedron and octahedron, and forms are equally developed. The resulting tion combinabears a close similarity to the icosahedron, or regulartwenty-faced solid of geometry of the twenty faces, Here, however the eight octahedral are the twelve others equilateraltriangles, to the pyritohedron are belonging isosceles triangles.
m

Fig. 133 shows Fig. 134 these

two

132 134

Cube

and

Pyritohedron

Octahedron

and

Octahedron

and

Pyritohedron
70.
"

Pyritohedron

Diploid. The diploidis bounded by twenty-four similar faces, meeting the axes at -unequal distances; its general symbol is hence and common forms are s(321), (hkl), The form (321) is shown etc. 2(421), in Fig. 135; the symbols of its faces, as should giveii, be carefully studied. As seen in the figure, the faces are or quadrilaterals trapeziums; moreover, they are hence the common grouped in pairs, name diploid. It is also sometimes called a dyakisdodecahedron. The complementary negative form bears to the relation as the positiveform of Fig. 135 the same negative to the positive pyritohedron. Its faces have
each

the symbols 312, 231, 123, in the

front octant, and

with the proper similarly negativesignsin the others. The and positive negative forms togetherobviously hexoctahedron of the Diploid class. be considered to be diploid can from the hexoctahedron by the extension of the alternate faces of the latter and the omission of the remaining faces,exactlyas in the case of the pyritohedron and tetrahexahedron (Art.68). In Fig. 136 the positive is shown in combination with the cube. diploid Here the three faces replace each of its solid angles. This combination form resembles that of Fig. Ill, but the three faces are here unequally inclined with the two adjacent cubic faces. Other combinations of the diploid upon and 137 138. in and are cube,octahedron, given Figs. pyritohedron 71. Other If the pyritohedral Forms. type of symmetry be appliedto that this symmetry calls for to two of the axes, it is seen planes each parallel This cube cannot be six of these, form is obviously and the resulting a cube. but it has its from the cube of the normal class, distinguished geometrically mon characteristic molecular symmetry. own Corresponding to this ijbis comnate to the alterto find cubes of pyritewith fine lines (striations) parallel developedges,as indicated in Fig. 139. These are due to the partial
The
"

embrace normal derived

all the

faces

of the

66
ment

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

if cube similar striations, faces (210). On a normal pyritohedral cubic face. each to both sets of edges on present,must be parallel of
136

Cube

and

Diploid

Cube, Octahedron Diploid

and

Cube, Diploid and Pyritohedron

Similarlyto the cube, the remaining forms of this have namely, (111),(110),(hhl), pyritohedral class, (Ml), the same as the octahedron, geometrical form,respectively, dodecahedron,the trisoctahedrons and trapezohedronsof the normal class. In molecular structure, however, these forms are distinct, each having the symmetry described
in Art. 67. Pyrite. Striated Cube of
PYBITOHEDRONS.

^2"
some

A^g*68"

common

The following tables contain the forms.

angles

Angle on a(100) 14" 2J'

18 21 26 30 33 36 38 39 26 48 34

Angle on o(lll) 456 33f 43 5|

41 39 37 36 36 35 35 22 14 37

57|
41 52 3 48

48" 4i 45" 35f

DlPLOIDS. Cf. Fig. 135.

421 532 531 851 321 432 431 321

Edge A A 321, etc. 51" 45|' 58 14| 60 56| 63 36f 64 37" 67 42^ 72 4|

321

Edge B Edge C A 321, etc. 321 A 213, etc. 25" 12"' 48" 114' 37 51f 35 20 19 27f 19 27f
12 31 43 22 6 53 38 26

55i
12i m 3

0| 36^ 37 J

43

3.

TETRAHEDRAL

CLASS

(3). TETRAHEDRITE
Hemihedral The is the

TYPE

Tetrahedral (Hextetrahedral, 73. Typical Forms and Symmetry. that from which it derives its name,
"

Class)
of this

typicalform

and

shown tetrahedron,

in

class, Figs.

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

67

141,
150,

142.
151.

There

are

also three other distinct

forms, shown

in

Figs. 149,

symmetry of this class is as follows. There are three axes of binary symmetry which coincide with the crystallographic There are also axes. four diagonalaxes of trigonal symmetry which coincide with the octahedral
axes.

The

There are six diagonal planes of symmetry. There is no center of symmetry. The

stereographicprojection (Fig. 140)

the

shows

distribution

of

the

faces of

the

general form

and thus (hkl), hextetrahedron,

exhibits the symmetry of the class. It will be that the like faces are all grouped at once seen in the alternate octants, and this will be seen to be characteristic of all the forms peculiar The relation between to this class. the symmetry here described and that of the normal class must be carefully studied. In distinction from the pyritohedral forms in parallel whose faces were the faces of pairs, and the analogous solids are the tetrahedron Symmetry of Tetrahedral Class inclined to each other, and hence they are sometimes and the type of so-called hemispoken of as inclined hemihedrons, hedrism here illustrated is then called inclined or tetrahedral hemihedrism. The tetrahedron,* its name is a four74. Tetrahedron. as indicates, at equal distances. bounded Its faced solid, by planes meeting the axes the faces of form is 141) positive (Fig. generalsymbol (lll)_,_and_the_four These correspondto four of the faces have the symbols 111, 111, 111, 111. of the normal class (Fig. of the octahedron 93). The relation between the 143. in two forms is shown Fig.
"

Positive Tetrahedron

Negative Tetrahedron

Showing
Octahedron

Relation between and Tetrahedron

the triangle; of the four faces of the tetrahedron is an equilateral the is The tetrahedron 16". regular (normal) interfacial angle is 109" 29' be so placed it must but crystallographically of geometry, pyramid triangular and one is vertical. axis edges, that the axes jointhe middle pointsof opposite Each
hedron, of the five regularsolids of geometry,which include also the cube, octaThis is one the last as already the and two, icosahedron; dodecahedron, the regularpentagonal crystals. forms among noted, are impossible
*

68 There
two

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

designatedby

the positivetetrahedron possibletetrahedrons: (111), has alreadybeen described, and the negative form and symmetry, but the tetrahedron, having the_same_geometrica_l
are

the letter o, which

indices of its four faces are 111, 111, 111, 111. This second form is shown Fig. 142; it is usuallydesignatedby the letter o,. These two forms are, as stated above,identical in geometrical shape,but they may be distinguished in many to reveal the molecular cases by the tests which serve structure, the etching-figures; also in many cases particularly by pyro-electricity (see under It is probable that the positiveand boracite, p. 306), Art. 438. ence negative tetrahedrons of sphalerite (seethat species)have a constant differin this particular, it possible which makes to distinguish them on crystals from different localitiesand of different habit.
in
144
145 146

\/

Positive and Negative Tetrahedrons If both tetrahedrons This is geometrically an

Cube

and

Tetrahedron

Tetrahedron

and

Cube

in Fig. 144 results. when the two forms are equally developed, but crystallographically it is always only a combination of two unlike forms, the positive and negative tetrahedrons, which can be distinguished as already noted.
are

the form present together,

octahedron

147

Tetrahedron

and

Dodecahedron

Boracite. Cube, Dodecahedron with Positive and Negative Tetrahedrons

The

tetrahedron
as in

in

cube modifying the tetrahedron truncates its The normal angle between adjacent cubic and tetrahedral faces is 54" 44'. In Fig. 147 the dodecahedron is shown modifytet"hedr"n' whlle m FlS- 148 the cube is the predominating form with the positive and negative tetrahedrons and

angles

edges as

Fig. 145. shown in Fig

combination with the cube replacesthe alternate solid

The
146.

fnL -tPl?S^1Ve

dodecahedron.

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

gg

Other Typical Forms. There three other distinct are types of solids in this class, having the general symbols (hhl), and (hkl) The (hll), firstof these is shown in Fig 149; here the symbol is 221). There are twelve faces each a quadrilateral belonging to this
-

75.

tetrahedral type of symmetry. They correspond to twelve of the faces of the trisoctahedron, namely, all those falling in alternate octants I his type of solid is sometimes called a tetragonal tristetrahedron, or a deltoid dodecahedron It does not occur alone among but its faces are crystals, observed modifying other forms

by

the

form,distributed as determined

Tetragonal Tristetrahedron There is also

a

Trigonal Tristetrahedron

Hextetrahedron the

complementary negativeform, corresponding to

to it in

form, related
tetrahedron.

the precisely

same

way

as

the

negativeto the

tive posipositive

belong to the other

152

Its twelve faces are those set of alternate octants.

of the trisoctahedron which

Tetrahedrite

Sphalerite

Boracite

Another form, shown in Fig. 150, has the generalsymbol (hll), here (211); it is bounded distributed after manded the type defaces, by twelve like triangular by tetrahedral symmetry, and correspondingconsequentlyto the of the faces of the alternate octants of the form (hU) the trapezohedron normal tristetrahedron called a trigonal class. This type of solid is sometimes or trigondodecahedron.* It is observed both alone and in combination,
"

"

* It is to be noted that the tetragonaltristetrahedron has faces which resemble those of the trapezohedron (tetragonal trisoctahedron), although it is related not to this but to the tristetrahedron trisoctahedron (trigonal trisoctahedron). On the other hand, the faces of the trigonal resemble those of the trisoctahedron, though in fact related to the trapezohedron.

70

CR YST

ALLO

GR

APH

it is much than the with the species tetrahedrite; more common especially form Fig. 152 (hhl). There is here again a complementary negativeform. tetrahedron, and Fig. 153 the positive form n(211) with the positive shows and d(110). In Fig. 154, the negative the form m(311) with a(100),o(lll), form 71X211)is present. in Fig. 151. The fourth independent type of solids in this class is shown and is bounded here (321), It has the generalsymbol (hkl), by twenty-four faces distributed accordingto tetrahedral symmetry, that is,embracing all hexoctahedron. the faces of the alternate octants of the forty-eight-faced This form is sometimes

complementary

negative form

hexoctahedron. with the cube, 11) tristetrahedron nt (2 be applied in the case 76. If the tetrahedral symmetry of planes each that there must be six such faces. to the two axes, it will be seen parallel to the cube both of the normal and They form a cube similar geometrically in its molecular structure, class but differing be readily as can pyritohedral
.

hexakistetrahedron. The of faces the remaining The is shown in Fig. 154 0(531), positive hextetrahedron, octahedron, and dodecahedron, also the negative trigonal
called
a or

hextetrahedron

(hkl) embraces

the

(Art.438). Similarlyin the case proved, for example, by pyro-electricity of the planeshaving the symbol (110), there must be twelve faces forming a rhombic relation to the like geometrical dodecahedron bearing the same form of the normal class. The same is true again of the planeshaving the position expressedby the generalsymbol (hkQ); there must be twenty-four of them and they togetherform a tetrahexahedron. In this class, there are also seven therefore, types of forms, but only four of them distinct from the correspondingforms of the are geometrically
normal
77. class.

Angles.
:

"

The

followingtables contain

the

angles of

some

mon com-

forms
TETRAGONAL

TRISTETRAHEDRONS.

Angle on o(100) 50" 14J'

48
47 46 111

1\

Angle on o(lll) 10" If 15 47| 19 28|

22 0

TRIGONAL

TRISTETRAHEDRONS.

Angle on o(100) 19" 28i'

22 25 29 35 43 0

Angle on
o(lll)
35" 15f '
32 29 25 19 11 44

14i 29| 15f 18f

29f 14" 28" 25|

HEXTETRAHEDRONS.

Cf. Fig. 151.

531 321 432

321

431

Edge A A 312, etc. 27" 39|' 21 47i 15 5i 32 12J

EdgeB
321 A 312 etc. 321

EdgeC
231, etc. 27" 39f 21 47i 15 5" 15 56|
A

57"
69 82

67

7i' 4i 4f 22f

Angle on o(100) 32" 18f

36 42 38 42

Angle on o(lll) 28" 33fr

22 15 25 124

If

13*
4

19|

72

CR

YSTALLO

GR

APH

and halite. It is usually shown by the distribution of the moniac, sylvite, small modifying faces,or by the form of the etchingfigures.Fig. 158 shows 10' 12). with the form 2(13' a crystalof cupritefrom Cornwall (Pratt)

5.

TETARTOHEDRAL

CLASS

(5). ULLMANNITE Class)

TYPE.

Pentagonal Dodecahedral (Tetrahedral

80.

Symmetry and TypicalForms.

"

The

fifth remaining

class possible

under the isometric system is illustrated by Fig. 160, which represents the bution the to twelve-faced solid corresponding general symbol (hkl). The distriin the projection, of its faces is shown called a Fig. 159. This form is sometimes dodecahedron. It is tetrahedral-pentagonal have one-fourth faces to as the as seen many in the normal hence there are form (hkl) class, all four similar solids which together embrace These four the faces of the hexoctahedron. which are distinguished as solids, right-handed and negative)and left-handed (posi(positive

circular polarization. The the class are (besidesthe

remaining forms of
cube
and

rhombic

the pyritohedodecahedron) the tetrahedrons, Symmetry of Tetartohedral Class the and tnstetrahetetragonal drons, trigonal drons; geometrically they are like the solids of the same names already This class has no plane of symmetry described. and no center of symmetry. of binary symmetry There are three axes normal to the cubic faces, and four of normal the faces of the tetrahedron. to axes trigonal symmetry
160

tium stronnitrate, etc. chlorate, Further,the speciesullmannite, which sometimes shows pyritohedraland again tetrahedral forms, both having must be regarded as belonging here. the same composition, group

This

is illustrated by artificialcrystals of barium

nitrate,sodium

MATHEMATICAL 81. Most

of the

RELATIONS

OF

THE

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM
at once of any

in triangles right-angled

in the isometric system can problems arising be solved the sphereof projection(Fig.125) without the use

by the special

formulas.

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

73
as face, 100, and

It will be remembered that the angles between a cubic face of a tetrahexahedron, 310, 210, 320, etc can be this angle is equal to
-"-"-" o

the adjacent
"
'

obtained at once, since the

tangent of

or

in general
tan

"

(hkO

100)

162 k
ft
c
=

ac

1
2 90

6c
Z

a"c
=

26" 34'

(100) A

(210)

This relation is illustrated in Fig. 162, which also shows the method of graphically the angle between one determining the indices of a tetrahexahedron, of its faces and an adjacent cube face being given. Since all the forms of a given symbol under different specieshave the same angles,the tables of angles alreadygiven are very useful. and similar angles may These be calculated immediatelyfrom the sphere,or often more article. simply by the formulas given in the following 82. Formulas. (1) The distance of the pole of any face P(hkl) from the cubic faces is given by the followingequations. Here Pa is the distance between (hkl)and (100); Pb is the distance between (hkl)and (010); and PC that between (hkl)and (001). in the various specialcases, for (hkQ), These equationsadmit of much simplification
"

etc.: (hfd),

(2) The distance between the poles of which in specialcases followingequation, cosPQ

any
may

two

faces P(hkl) and Q(pqr) is givenby the also be more less simplified: or
Ir

hp + kq+ (p*

calculation of the supplement interfacial or normal anglesfor the several forms follows: the supplementsof the interfacial The angles A and B are, as before, Trisoctahedron. angles of the edges lettered as in Fig. 110.

(3) The
be

may

accomplishedas
"

V
cos

+
,

2hl.
,2
,

9/,2_/2
cos

For the

149), (Fig. tetragonal-tristetrahedron

B and

cos

113). Trapezohedron (Fig.

the figure.
cos

are

the supplement anglesof the edges as lettered in

=
T0 ,

^70

cos

For the

(Fig.150), trigonal-tristetrahedron (Fig.104).

cos

cos

Tetrahexahedron

=
,

"*
2
.

cos

^2

74

CR YST

ALLO

GR

APH

129), cos Forthepyritohedron(Fig.

Hexoctahedron
cos

h2 k2 "' ^2 _^_fc2
"

hk
cos

^rqrp*

(Fig.122).
-

I2
cOS

/+y;v

;2;^ + ;8;
M
,

/;y;p",",""
h2
-

For the diploid(Fig. 135),

cos

n;

cos

2kl k2 + I2

For the hextetrahedron

151), (Fig.

cos

h2 +

determine the indices of any face (fcfel) of an isometric form, given the position the stereographicprojection. As an illustrative example of this problem the hexoctahedron (321)has been taken, It is assumed that the angles 100 A 321 36" 42'

83. To of its

pole on

ISOMETRIC

SYSTEM

75

and from

methods by which the desired pole is located been described on page 38 and are illustrated in Fig. 163. Having located the pole (hkl)a line is drawn through it from the center O of the projection. This line O-P represents the intersection with' the horizontal plane (which is the face plane of the horizontal crystalaxes, a and 6) of a plane which is normal to the crystal (hkl) Since two planes which are at rightanglesto each other will intersect a third plane in lines that are at rightangles to each other, it follows that the plane of the hexoctahedral in a line at rightangles to O-P. face will intersect the plane of the horizontal axes If, be taken as representingunity on the distance 0-M the a axis and the line therefore, will represent the intercept be drawn of the distance 0-N at rightangles to O-P M-P-N in this case in value. the 6 axis. 0-N is found to be f 0-M the face in question upon the two horizontal axes The interceptsupon plottingof the are, therefore la, |6. The interceptupon the c axis is shown in the upper left hand quadrant of the figure. The protractor as angular distance from 0 to the pole (hkl)is measured by the stereographic the c axis and the line repre74" 30'. This angle is then laid off from the line representing senting The distance O-P. is transferred from the lower part of the pole (hkl)is drawn. the right triangle, the vertical side of which is the construct the figure. Then we can the horizontal side is this line O-P (the intersection of the plane which is normal to c axis, the crystalface with the horizontal plane) and the hypothenuse is a line lying in the face and therefore at rightangles to the pole of the face. This line would intersect the c axis this last line relation may be shown by starting The same at a distance equal to 30-M. equal to 0-M. from a point on the c axis which is at a distance from the center of the figure the horizontal line O-P would be at one third its total length. In this case the intercept on By these constructions the parameters of the face in question are shown to be la, |6,3c,
=
.

22" 12' are 111 A 321 these measurements have

given. The

giving (321)as its indices.

the indices of the faces of teometac 84. To determine their poles on the gnomonic projection. As an illustrative m Fig projectionof ^ometric lower right hand quadrant of the gnomonic re at ""* and ( lines O-M The been taken and reproduced in Fig. 164. each other and may representthe horizontal axial to these two of the projectionlines are drawn perpendicular pole ^ relations to rational have lines these made upon that the intercepts seen
-

forn^

2 126

?3^^^^^"

76

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

since alike O-M 45"

we

are

dealing

with

the with

isometric each
The
must

system

in

which
that

the

crystallographic
the different
from
axes.

axes

are

all
upon

and
and

interchangeable
O-N of the
are

other,
distance

it
O-R unit

follows

intercepts
the
center to

identical.

(i.e. the

distance
of

the
is

point
seen

projection)
the to To the

equal
of

the
165.
are

length
The

the

That
lines

this drawn and 3

is

true

readily
different unit

by poles

consideration lines find the O-M Miller

Fig.
O-N indices

intercepts
to face be

of

the

from
times

the this
to

and

found
any

|,

5,

f, 1,
it

|,
is

distance.

of

represented,

only

necessary

165

Plane

of

Gnomonic

Projection

take
these

the

intercepts
in

of

the

two

lines order

drawn and

from add
a

its
1

pole
as a

upon third

the

two

axes

a\

and
if

ct2,

place

numbers
of

their Take

proper

figure
with
the in

and indices

then 312.

necessary The

clear
drawn

fractions.
from
on

for

exa'mple
the
axes

the
at

hexoctahedrqn
lai and
the

face

lines

its

pole
of
to

intercept fractions,
the
may

"a2, which
indices of of which
any

gives
the
lies

expression question.
on

| \ 1, which,
In the
case

again,
of
a

clearing parallel
the

yields axis,
obtained

312,
the

face
at
on

face

vertical
be

pole taking

infinity
the lines radial

the
line

gnomonic
that

projection,
to

indices
of

by

point
to

points
the
two

the

position
axes.

the The

pole

and

dropping intercepts
while the

perpendiculars
formed
upon

the
axes

representing
will

horizontal numbers of

relative indices

these will

give
be
0.

the

first

two

the

required

third

number

necessarily

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

77

II. TETRAGONAL
85.
to

SYSTEM
which
are

THE
axes

TETRAGONAL
at

SYSTEM

includes all the forms

referred

rightanglesto each other of which the two horizontal axes each other in length and interchangeable to and the third, are the equal vertical axis,is either shorter or longer. The horizontal axes are nated desigby the letter a; the vertical axis by c (seeFig. 166). The lengthof the vertical axis expresses properlythe axial ratio of a : c, a being uniformly orientated and their oppositeends taken as equal to unity. The axes are designatedby plus and minus signsexactlyas in the case of the Isometric
three

System.
in this system. Of these the normal class is classes are embraced and important among minerals; two others have several representatives, and another a single one only. It may be noted that in four of the classes the vertical axis is an axis of tetragonal symmetry; in the remaining axis is of it three an binary symmetry only.

Seven

common

1.

NORMAL

CLASS

(6). ZIRCON
or

TYPE

Bipyramidal (Ditetragonal
86.
"

Holohedral

Class)

class of the The forms belonging to the normal Symmetry. axis of tetragonal tetragonal system (cf Figs.170 to 192) have one principal with the vertical coincides which the of name system) symmetry (whence of binary symhorizontal also four axes There are metry, c. crystallographic axis, axes coincide with the horizontal crystallographic of which two first the between the angles the other while two are diagonal axes bisecting
.

two.
166 167

eta

Axes of TetragonalMineral, 1 : 178 Octahedrite a : c

=

Symmetry

of Normal

Class

System Tetragonal

Further horizontal

symmetry

plane of symmetry, the plane of the principal also four vertical planes of There are axes. crystallographic make axis c and vertical the crystallographic which pass through
they
have
one

anglesof 45" with each other.

axes crystallographic

Two
are

and

zontal of these latter planes include the horiaxial planes of symmetry. known as

The

other two

are

known

as

diagonalplanesof symmetry.

78
The
The
axes

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

and

planes of symmetry
and

are

shown

in

symmetry
in the Forms.
are
"

the distribution of the faces of the

Figs.168 and 169. generalform, hkl,

the Symbols normal class of

is shown
87.

projection, Fig. 167. stereographic under The various possibleforms

as

this system
1. Base 2. 3. 4. 5.
or

follows:

Prism Prism

basal pinacoid of the firstorder of the second order

prism Ditetragonal Pyramid of the firstorder 6. Pyramid of the second order 7. Ditetragonal pyramid
168

(001) (110) (100) (hkO)as, (hhl)as, (hQl)as, (hkl)as,

etc. (310) f (320), ; (210) etc. (223); (111); (221), etc. (203) ; (101) ; (201), etc. (421); (321); (122),
169

Symmetry

of Normal

Class,TetragonalSystem

The 6ase is that form which 88. Base or Basal Pinacoid. includes the two similar faces which are parallel_to the plane of the horizontal axes. These faces have the indices 001 and 001 respectively; it is an "open form," as this form can they do not inclose a space, consequently occur bination only in comwith other forms. Cf. Figs. 170-173, etc. This form is always lettered c in this work.
"

170 OQL
4-

171
001

172

i
100 010

no

First Order

Prism

Second

Order

Prism

First and Second Order Prisms

89. Prisms. Prisms,in systems other than the isometric, have been defined to be forms whose faces are parallel to the vertical axis (c) of the while they meet the two horizontal axes; in this system the fourcrystal, faced form whose planes are parallel both to the vertical and one horizontal
"

80
As

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

the alreadystated,
to
a

name

pyramid
planes
meet

is

metric) given (insystems other than the iso-

of the axes; in this system the form whose planesmeet horizontal axis while parallel the axis c and one to the other is also called a pyramid. The pyramids of this class are strictly double pyramids (bipyramids of some authors). 94. Pyramid of First Order. A pyramid of the first order,is a form whose eightsimilar faces intersect the two horizontal axes at equal distances It has the general symbol (hhl). It is and also intersect the vertical axis. the terminal edges,and with a interfacial pyramid anglesover equal square of the faces replace the horizontal, the first order prism and or basal,edges the solid anglesof the second order prism. If the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal axis for a given firstorder pyramid is the assumed axial ratio for the species, the form is called the fundamentalform, and it has the symbol 174. The indices of its_faces_ oned in order are: me Above (lll)_as in_Fig. 111, 111, 111, 111; below 111, 111, 111, 111.
"

form

whose

all three

175

176

177

in in

First Order

Pyramid

Prism

Zircon, First Order and Pryamid

Zircon, First Order Prism and Pyramids

Second Apophyllite, Order Prism and First Order Pyramid

basal

Obviously the anglesof the firstorder pyramid, and hence its geometrical widely with the length of the vertical axis. In Figs. 174 and vary 182 the pyramids shown have in both cases the symbol (111) but in the first case (octahedrite) c 1.78,while in the second (vesuvianite), 0.64. c For a given species there may be a number of second order pyramids, in position varying accordingto the ratio of the intercepts the vertical upon and horizontal axes. Their symbols, passingfrom the base (001)to the unit thus be (115), (110), prism may (113),(223),(111),(332),(221),(441), etc. In the generalsymbol of these forms h diminishes, as (hhl), the form approximates and more more nearly to the base (001),for which h 0- as h increases, the form passes toward the firstorder prism. In Fig. 176 two pvramids of this order are shown, p(lll) and w(331). 95. Pyramid of Second Order. The pyramid of the second order is the iorm, .big. 178, whose faces are parallelto one of the horizontal axes while meeting the other two axes. The generalsymbol is (hOl) These faces replace the basal edges of the second order prism (Fig. 179),and the solid anglesof the firstorder prism (cf. Fig. 180). It is a square pyramid since its'
aspect,
= = =
"

section

is

square,

and

the interfacialangles

over

the four terminal

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

81

edges,above
are as

and below, are equal. The successivejaces of the form (101) follows: Above below 101, Oil, 101, Oil; 101, Oil, 101, Oil. the horizontal and vertical axes If the ratio of the intercepts on is the the symbol is (101), axial ratio of the species, assumed and the form is designated of by the letter e. This ratio can be deduced from the measurement either one of the interfacial angles(y or z, Fig.178) over the terminal or basal of second a number edges,as explainedlater. In the case of a given species,
180

Second

Order

Pyramid

Second Order Prism and Pyramid

Rutile, First
Order Prisms

and

Second and mids Pyra-

order

pyramids may occur, varying in the ratio of the axes a and c. Hence of such forms whose symbols may be, for there is possible a largenumber tioned example, (104),(103),(102),(101),(302),(201),(301),etc. Those menthose last to the second order first come nearest to the base (001), prism (100); the base is therefore the limit of these pyramids (hQl)when 0. 1 and I Fig. 186 h 0, and the second order prism (100) when h g(201). shows the three second order pyramids w(105),6(101),
= = =

182

183

Vesuvianite First Order Prism,

Vesuvianite
First Order Pyramid and First and Scond Order

Cassiterite First and Second Order

Pyramid

and

Base

Pyramids

Prisms

of a given first Thus I "h to Jor ( ratio as it order pyramid as in Fig. 183 has the same This etc. is obvious of (221), (201) of (111); the terminal edge truncates edge of the positionas the corresponding each face has the same because also Figs. 186, 191, 101; other form (see Fig. 183, when " - 111 and e the truncates first order pyramid if a 105). Again, where r 115, u h for I to is half second order pyramid,its ratio
A

second

order

pyramid truncatingthe pyramidaledges

,

pyramidal edges of

given

82

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

that of the other form; that is,(112)truncates the pyramidal edges of (101); (111) of (201), etc. This relation is exhibited by Fig. 186, where p(lll) the zonal equationsprove the the edges of 0(201). In both cases truncates relations stated.
184 185

186

First

Vesuvianite Order Second and amid Prisms,First Order Pyrand Base

Second

Apophyllite Order Prism, Ditetragonal Prism, First Order Pyramid and Base

Two

Octahedrite Order mids, PyraFirst Order Prism, Three Second Order Pyramids and Base
First

The ditetragonal Pyramid. pyramid, or double eightDitetragonal of each whose form sixteen is similar faces meets the the pyramid, This is the most of the three axes at unequal distances. generalcase symbol is equal to 0. That there are where h, k, I are all unequal and no one (hkl), form is evident. sixteen faces in a single Thus, for example, for the form (212) the face 212 is similar to 122, the two lateral axes being equal (not, however, to 221). Hence there are two like faces in each octant. Similarly the indices of all the faces in the successive octants a s are, therefore, follows:
96.
"

sided

Above

212 212

122 122
188

122 122

212 212

212 212
189

122 122

122 122

212 212
190

Below
187

DitetragonalPyramid

Zircon First and Second Order Prisms, First Order

Cassiterite

Rutile

Pyramid, Ditetragonal Pyramid This form is common zirconoid. It is shown with the species and is hence often called zircon, Fig. 187- It is not observed alone,though somea

in

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

83

times,
form.

as

in

In

Figs. 188 (x 311) and 189 (z 321), it is the predominating Fig. 190 two ditetragonal pyramids occur, namely, /(313) and
= =

Z\OZ\.),

-g-

perspectivefigures already of given, a basal projection (Fig. 191) is added the crystal of octahedrite already referred to (Fig. 186) ; also a stereographic (Fig. 192) and gnomonic with the faces of (Fig. 193) projectionsof the same the forms w(22l) and These exhibit $(313) added. well the general relations of this normal class of the here is to be tetragonal system. The symmetry the with to similar note"l first, zones 100, respect 001, 100 and 010, 001, OH); also,to the other pair of
similar zones,

97.

In

addition

to the

110, 001, 110, and

110, 001,
192

110.

Octahedrite

no

010*

:010

11

StereographicProjectionof Octahedrite

84

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 193

221 110\_

110

\UO

4*
Gnomonic

Projectionof Octahedrite
2.

HEMIMORPHIC IODOSUCCINIMIDE

CLASS
TYPE

(7).

(Ditetragonal Pyramidal or Holohedral Hemimorphic Class)

This class differs from 98. Symmetry. the normal class only in having no horizontal plane of symmetry; hence the forms are hemimorphic as defined in Art. 29. It is not known but is shown to be represented minerals, among the crystals Its symof iodosuccinimide. on
"

Symmetry
are

of

Hemimorphic

Class

distinct forms,001

jection (Fig.194). and 001; the prisms do not

*" stereographic pro"lufor^ed " P6^ Sf Here the two basal planes

differ

from geometrically

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

85

those of the normal class, though distinguished by their molecular structure; the pyramids are no longer double pyramids, but each form is repfurther, resented by one half of Figs. 174, 178, 187 (cf.Fig. 44, p. 22). There are hence six distinct pyramidal forms, correspondingto the upper and lower halves of the first and second order pyramids and the ditetragonal pyramid.
3.

TRIPYRAMIDAL

CLASS

(8). SCHEELITE

TYPE.

Bipyramidal or Pyramidal Hemihedral (Tetragonal

99.
"

Class)

and Symmetry. The forms here included have Typical Forms plane of symmetry only, that of the horizontal crystallographic axes, axis of tetragonalsymmetry and one axis) (the vertical crystallographic The distinctive forms are the tetragonalprism (hkO) and normal to it. shown in Figs.196, 197. pyramid (hkl)of the third order, The stereographicprojection, Fig. 195, 195
one

of the class and the exhibits the symmetry distribution of the faces of the generalform well as the figures as (hkl). Comparing this, with those of the normal immediately following, it is seen that this class differsfrom class, it in the absence of the vertical planesof symmetry of symmetry. and the horizontal axes and Pyramid of the Third 100, Prism The Order. typical forms of the class, above as stated,are a square prism and a are distinguished pyramid, which square from the square prisms a (100) respectively in Figs.170 and 171 and and m(110), shown from the square pyramids (hOl) and (hhl) y third order." of Figs. 174 and 178 by the name
"

Class Tri-Pyramidal

"

196

197

198

120

100

Third

Order

Prism

Third

Order

Pyramid
may

derived from half the faces forms of the normal class by taking only one the ditetragonal therefore of the latter and the omission of the remaining faces. There are which and right, each designatedleft in forms two case, complementary tragonal diteand (Fig.173) the of p rism faces ditetragonal include all the The third order

prism and pyramid

be considered

as

together pyramid (Fig.187) of the normal

class.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
are: complementary prisms,as (210),

The

indices of the faces of the two

Left: 210, 120, 210, Right: 120, 210, 120,

The indices of the faces of the

120. 210.

are: pyramids, as (212), corresponding

Left: above

Right: above

212, 122, 212, 122; 122, 212, 122, 212;

below below

212, 122, 212, 122, 212, 122,

122. 212.

Fig. 198 givesa transverse section of the prisms a(100) and m(110), also the prism of the third order (120). Figs.196, 197 show the rightprism (120) and pyramid (122)of the third order. that is, the base The other forms of this class, Forms. 101. Other and also the ra(110); square mids pyrac(001); the other square prisms,a(100) like the correspondingforms of the (hQl)and (hhl)are geometrically The class shows therefore three types of class already described. normal .class. called the is hence and tripyramidal pyramids square also the 102. To this class belongs the important speciesscheelite; be rather it u nless that and are stolzite powellite, they isomorphous species 199 shows of wulfenite a with classed be Fig. typicalcrystal to (p. 87).
"

199

201

Scheelite

Scheelite

Meionite

these illustrate well the a basal section of one similar; the forms characteristics of the class. Here are e(101),p(lll), and the third-order pyramids 0(212), s/131). Fig. 201 represents a meionite crystal and the third-order withr(lll), pyramid 2(311). See also Figs.203, 204, in which the third-order prism is shown. described (seeArt. 28) as showing The forms of this class are sometimes hemihedrism. pyramidal and Fig.200 scheelite, PYRAMID AL-HEMIMORPHIC
or

4.

CLASS
Hemihedral

(9). WULFENITE Hemimorphic Class)

TYPE

(Tetragonal Pyramidal
103. Symmetry. related to the class
"

The fourth class of the tetragonal system is closely vertical axis of tetragjustdescribed. It has the same onal but is there horizontal of no The forms symmetry, plane symmetry. hemimorphic in the distribution of the faces (cf. are, therefore, Fig. 202). The wulfenite of the Scheelite Group among mineral species probspecies ably belongshere,although the crystalsdo not always show the difference

88 ered

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

class by the the first order pyramid of the normal There latter. therefore of the are faces alternate the development of only and the known as forms positive negative possibletwo complementary is unit sphenoid (111),and positive sphenoids. The generalsymbol qf_the_ while the negative sphenoid its faces have the jndices:111, 111, 111, 111, if occur the complementary forms together, has the symbol (111). When two unlike sets of faces, the having s olid, though resulting developed, equally from the first order pyramid (111). geometrically be distinguished cannot
as

derived from

208

Sphenoid

TetragonalScalenohedron

which belongs to this class, the deviation in In the species chalcopyrite, angle and in axial ratio from the isometric system is very small,and hence from a tetrahedron the unit sphenoid cannot by the eye be distinguished 0'985 (instead c (compare Fig.209 with Fig. 144, p. 68). For this species of 1, as in the isometric system),and the normal sphenoidalangle is 108" 40', Hence instead of 109" 28',the angle of the tetrahedron. of chalcopyrite a crystal with both the positive and negative sphenoids equally developed octahedron. resembles a regular closely In Fig. 210 the second order pyramids e(101)and z(201)and base c(001) also present. are
=

209

Chalcopyrite
106. Tetragonal Scalenohedron. The sphenoidal symmetry yields another distinct type of form, that shown in Fig. 208. It is bounded by and hence is called a tetragonal eightsimilar scalene triangles, Scalenohedron; the general symbol is (hkl). It may be considered as derived from the class by taking the alternate pairs of ditetragenal pyramid of the normal
"

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

89

faces of the latter form. forms form

The faces of the complementary positive and negative therefore embrace all the faces of the ditetragonal pyramid. This in combination in chalcopyrite, but is not observed pendently. indeappears In Fig. 211 the form s(531)is the positive scalenotetragonal Other
"

hedron.

second

Forms. The other forms of the class, namely, the firstand the ditetragonal prisms,, prism, and the firstand second order like those of the normal class. pyramids (hhl)and (MM), are geometrically The lower symmetry in the molecular structure is onlv revealed by special as investigation, by etching. order
6. TRAPEZOHEDRAL

107.

CLASS

(11). NICKEL

SULPHATE

TYPE

or (Tetragonal Trapezohedral

Hemihedral Trapezohedral

Class)

the

class under The trapezohedral class is analogousto the plagiohedral isometric system; it is characterized by the absence of any plane or center of symmetry; the vertical axis, however, is an axis of tetragonalsyi: of binary symmetry. four axes and this to there are perpendicular metry, This symmetry and the distribution of the faces of the generalform (hkl) 108.
-

212

213

Symmetry
are

of

Class Trapezohedral

Trapezohedron Tetragonal

Fig.212, and Fig. 213 givesthe projection, stereographic tragonal be derived from the diteIt may trapezohedron. a tetragonal solid, resulting faces the alternate pyramid of the normal class by the extension of and leftThere two complementary forms called rightform. are that of the normal pyramid of handed which embrace all the faces of the ditetragonal salts to the and belonging are enantiomorphous, forms These two class.
shown in the
this class show

circular

polarization.
a

Nickel

sulphateand
7.

few

salts belong other artificial

in

this class.

TETARTOHEDRAL

CLASS

(12)

Tetartohedral Class) or Sphenoidal Bisphenoidal (Tetragonal

seventh and last possible The Symmetry. of symmetry, but the vertical axis is an axis center system has no plane nor The symmetry and the distribution of the faces of the of binary symmetry.
109
"

class under

this

90

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

shown are generalform (hkl) is known the solid resulting as

in the

c projection (Fig.214), and stereograph] It be derived order. third the can a sphenoid of of the normal the ditetragonal from pyramid class by taking only one quarter of the faces

of that

form.

There forms

are

therefore four
are

plementary com-

respectively as ) and left right ( + and distinguished (+ and ). These four togetherembrace all the sixteen faces of the ditetragonal pyramid.
" "

which

Symmetry

of Tetartohedral
MATHEMATICAL
"

Class

characteristic forms of this class of the the third order are ](hkty, prism of the first positiveand negative sphenoids second order of the (111),and also those artificial order (101). It is said that an in compound, 2CaO.Al203.SiO2, crystallizes this class.
The

other

the

RELATIONS

OF

THE

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

It appears of the seven from the discussion of the symmetry llOo Choice of Axes. classes of this system that with all of them the positionof the vertical axis is fixed. In either set classes 1, 2, however, where there are two sets of vertical planes of symmetry, the axial planes and the other the diagonal planes. The choice between these be made may of the horizontal axes is guided particularly two by the habit of the positions possible and the relations of the given speciesto others of similar form. With occurring crystals characters have been described it is customary to follow the orientation whose crystal a species description. given in the original of the Axial Ratio, The followingrelations serve 111. Determination etc. to connect that is, the length of the vertical axis c, when the axial ratio, a 1, with the fundamental angles (001 A 101) and (001 A 111):
"

tan For

(001 A

101)

c;

tan

(001

111)

X most
portant im-

faces in the
cases

same rectangular zone (cf. Fig. 214) are:

the tangent
A

principle applies. The

tan tan tan tan tan tan

(001

(001 A (001 A

hOl) 101)
OfcQ

h
=
~

I k
= "

'

(001 A Oil) (001

A

I h
=
~

'

hhl)
111)

(001

l'
tan

For the

prisms
tan

(010

fcfcO)
=
"

"

(100

hkQ]

"

112. It will be noted that in the stereographicprojection(Fig. Other Calculations. which are_ formed by great circles (diamare 214) all those spherical triangles right-angled eters) which meet the prismaticzone-circle 100, 010, 100,_010. Again, all those formed by 100 and the great circles drawn between 100, or 010 and 010, and crossingrespectively zone-circles 100, 001, 100, or 010, 001, 010. Also, all those formed by great circles drawn 110 and 110 and crossing the_zone-circle between 110 and 110 110, 001, 110, or between and crossingthe zone-circle 110, 001, 110. These hence be readilyused to calculate any angles desired; for spherical triangles may the pole of any face,as hkl (say 321), and the pinacoids 10_0, example, the angles between The terminal angles (x and z, Fig. 187) of the ditetragonal 010, 001. pyramid, 212 A 212 and 212 A 122 (or 313 A 133, etc.), (or 313 A 313, etc.), also be obtained in the same can The zonal relations give the symbols of the poles on the zones way. 001, 100 and 001, 110 for the given case. For example,the zone-circle 110, 313, 133, 110 fneets 110, 001, 110 at

TETRAGONAL the
"

SYSTEM

91

pole 223,
113.

and

given bek"wr
Formulas.
"

the calculated angle 313 A 223 is half the angle 313 A 133 If a laree tO ** Calculated" "* ^ tt is more Convenient to use a formula

"

expressed directlyin

terms

It is sometimes convenient to have the normal interfacial angles of the axis c and the indices h, k, and I Thus
'

These

may

also be expressed in the form

P"
'""-

',

"

"

/C2C2

|Ti

tan2 PC

"

"

"2

(2) For

the distance between

the poles of any

two

faces (hkl), we (pqr),

have

in general

cos

PQ

"

-^
"

[(# + k2)c2 + I2] [(p2-f o2)c2+ rz]

often occurring; for example,

The above equations take a simpler form for special cases for hkl and the angle of the edge y of Fig. 187. 114. Prismatic The angles for the commonly Angles. follows* are as
"

occurringditetragonal prisms

Angle
410 310 210

on

0(100)
14"
18 26

21'
26 34

Angle on w(110) 30"57f

26 18 34 26

Angle
530 320 430

on

Angle

on

o(100)
30" 57*'
33 36

w(llO) 14" 21'

11 8

41J 521

18| 7|

115. To determine, by plotting, the axial ratio, : c, of a tetragonalmineral from the a As an illustrative example it has been stereographic projection of its crystal forms. that the angles between the faces on the crystal assumed of rutile, representedin Fig 180, and from been measured these measurements have the poles of the faces in one octant In determining the axial ratio of a located on the stereographicprojection, see Fig. 215. thing,the length of the c axis,since the length of crystal (or what is the same tetragonal the a axes the indices of some are always taken as equal to 1) it is necessary to assume It is customary to take a pyramid which is prominent upon the crystals pyramidal form. that it is the fundamental unit pyramid of either the firstor of the mineral and assume or second order and has as its symbol either (111) or (101). In the example chosen both a dent firstorder and a second order pyramid are present and from their zonal relations it is evithat if the symbol assigned to the firstorder form be (111) that of the second order be (101), In order to determine the relative length of the c axis in respect to form must to plot the interceptof the length of the a axis for rutile therefore, it is only necessary In the case of the second order pyramid it is only the axes. either of these forms upon to construct a rightangle triangle (see upper left hand quadrant of Fig. 215) in necessary which the horizontal side shall equal the length of the a axis,(1),the vertical side shall represent the c axis and the hypothenuse shall show the proper angle of slope of the face. the center of the projectionand the pole e(101) is measured The by the angle between the making that angle with the line representing protractor and a line drawn stereographic then be at right angles to this pole. Its The hypothenuse of the trianglemust c axis. when expressed in relation to the distance interceptupon the vertical side of the triangle, will therefore give the length (0-M) which was chosen as representingunity on the a axis,
to be 0.644. In rutile this is found the positionof the pyramid of the first order s(lll) value is obtained when is first drawn at rightangles to the radial line 0-P the line M-P-N In this case has the distance to be plotted in this case drawn through the pole s(lll). The triangle be at rightangles to the O-P the length of its horizontal side. Its hypothenuse must as in the first the c axis is the same as on the pole to (111). The intercept line representing

of the

axis.
same

The is used.

case.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 216

H010

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM

93

To determine, by plotting, the indices of any face (hkl) of a tetragonal form from position of its pole on the stereographic projection. The solution of this problem is under the -Isometric System, see p. 74, except that the like that given in a similar case interceptof the face on the vertical axis must be referred to the established unit length of is exactly the reverse method of the that axis and not to the length of the a axis. The used in the problem discussed directlyabove. one the axial ratio, To determine, by plotting, from the 117. a : c, of a tetragonalmineral As an illustrative example consider the crystal gnomonic projection of its crystalforms. of rutile, Fig. 180, the poles to the faces of which, are shown plotted in gnomonic projection The in Fig. 216. pyramids of the first and second order present are taken as the and O-N with the symbols, s(lll) and e(101). The lines O-M unit forms represent the 116. the

the distance from the center O to the circumference of horizontal axes az and a\ and O-M and O-N circle is equal to unity on these axes. The intercepts the fundamental on the perpendiculars drawn from the poles of s(lll) give the made or by the polesof e (101) In this case this distance,when unit length of the vertical axis,c. expressed in terms of the assumed length of the horizontal axes system always equals (which in the tetragonal
two

1) is equal to
That

0.64.

This repthe above relation is true is-obvious from a consideration of Fig. 216. resents vertical section through the spherical and gnomonic projection including the a The horizontal axis,02. slope of the face e(011) is plotted with its interceptson the a2 of its pole in both the sphericaland gnomonic projectionsis and c axes and the position It is seen shown. through the two similar trianglesin the figurethat the distance from the intercept be the same as the center to the pole e(011) in the gnomonic projectionmust And the vertical axis c. represent unity on c. as e is a unit form this must of the face e upon 118. To the indices determine, by plotting, of any face of
a

tetragonal form
that in this
case a

from

the

positionof its pole on the gnomonic is being considered whose Unaxial ratio is known. der these conditions draw the perpendicularsfrom pole in question to the the two lines representing Then horizontal axes. these lines off on space to the distances equivalent bering rememlength of the c axis, be that it must expressed in terms of the length of the horizontal which in turn is equal axes the to the distance from of the projection center of the to the circumference circle. Give fundamental the intercepts of the lines from the pole of drawn the face to the axes a\ of the in terms and a2 length of the vertical axis, add a 1 as the third figure clear of and if necessary fractions and the required indices are the result. This
is illustrated in Fig. 217, is the lower right which hand quadrant of the gnomonic projection of the the rutile forms shown on
e

projection. It is assumed
217

mineral

dttetragonalpyramid ,(321),Perpendiculars
h

drawn

from

its

pole

.intera

as

"-

sr

94

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

be readily the indices of the face in question. The indices of a prism face like "(310)can the Isometric System, Art. 84. described under manner as obtained in exactly the same p. 75.

III.
119.

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

includes all the forms which referred SYSTEM are in at common a plane intersecting to four axes, three equal horizontal axes at rightanglesto them. anglesof 60",and a fourth,vertical axis, of distinct sections are here included, each embracing a number Two themselves. classes related among They are called the Hexagonal Division The symmetry of the former, and the Trigonal(orRhombohedral)Division. the to about the vertical axis, hexagonal type, that of the latter to belongs

The

HEXAGONAL

the

type. trigonal

Miller (1852) referred all the forms of the hexagonalsystem to three equal axes parallel at equal angles,not rhombohedron, and hence intersecting to the faces of the fundamental to bring 90". This method explained in Art. 169) had the disadvantage of failing (further between the normal hexagonal and tetragonaltypes, both characterized out the relationship axis of symmetry, which (on the system adopted in this book) is the vertical by a principal

different symbols to faces which axis. It further gave are crystallographic crystallqnatural to employ the three rhombohedral for trigonal axes graphicallyidentical. It is more who includes these groups in a TrigonalSystem; forms only, as done by Groth (1905), but this also has some disadvantages. The indices commonly used in describing hexagonal since they were the Miller-Bravais indices, forms are known as adopted by Bravais for use used by Miller in the other crystalsystems. from the scheme with the four axes

There are five possible classes in the Hexagonal Symmetry Classes. the most Of these the normal class is much Division. important,and others are also of importance among minerals. two crystallized In the Trigonal Division there are of these the rhomboseven hedral classes; of the Calcite is the class or that most and Type, by far common, three others are also of importance. and The 121. Axes taken is Symbols. position of the four axes shown in Fig.218; the three horizontal axes called a, since they are equal are and the vertical axis is c, since it has a different length, and Interchangeable, being either longer or shorter than the horizontal 218 of the vertical axis is expressed The length axes. in terms of that of the horizontal axes which in turn is always taken as unity. Further, sirable when it is de120.
"
"

they

between the horizontal axes distinguish designated"i, a2, a3. When properly orientated one of the horizontal axes is par(a2) allel to the observer and the other two make angles of 30" either side of the line perpendicular to him.
to may

be

Hexagonal Axes
manner

analogous

to

axis to the left is taken as ai, the one to the The as and a3. positive negative ends of ^e axes in Fig. 218. shown are The general be expressed in a position of any plane may that applicable in the other systems, viz.-

The

right

1111

h^'-k^'-i"*''!*'
.

The corresponding indices for a given plane are refer to the axes named in the above scheme.

then h, k, i,I; these always Since it is found convenient

96 The
is

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

order.Fig.220, includes prism of the first

two meets to the vertical axis and parallel It has hence to the third horizontal axis. while i^is parallel equal distances, by the letter m; the the generalsymbol (1010)and is uniformlydesignated indices of its six faces taken in order (seeFigs.220 and 229, 230) are:

each one of which faces, horizontal at axes adjacent

six

10TO, OlTO, TlOO, 1010,

221

0110,

lIOO.

T"~~
2110

i 1120

--1210

"First Order

Prism

Second

Order

Prism

Dihexagonal Prism

Order. The Second of the second order, prism and of which is parallel each one to the vertical axis, Fig.221, has six faces, the at the unit distance, the three horizontal axes, two alternate axes meets intermediate axis at one-half this distance;or, which is the same thing,it the last-named axis at the unit distance, the others at double this meets and is is The it distance.* (1120) uniformly designatedby generalsymbol the letter a; the indices of the six faces (seeFigs.221 and 229, 230) in order 126. Prism of the
"

are:

1120,
The from

1210, 2110,

1120,

1210,

2110.

first and second order prisms are not to be distinguished geometrically each other since each is a regularhexagonal prismwith normal interfacial angles of 60". They are related to each other in the same as way the two prismsra(110) and a(100)of the tetragonal system. The relation in position between the firstorder the hand and the (and on one prism pyramids) second order prism (and pyramids) on the other will be understood better from Fig. 223, representing section of the two prisms parallel a cross to the base c. 127. Dihexagonal Prism. The dihexagonal prism, Fig. 222, is a twelve-sided prism bounded each of which is parallel by twelve faces, one to the vertical axis, and also meets two adjacent horizontal axes at unequal distances, the ratio of which always lies between 1 : 1 and 1:2. This has two and prism edges,lettered x unlike_ y, as shown in Fig. 222. The generalsymbol is (hkzO)and the indices of the faces of a givenform, as (2130), are:
"

Since lai

la-j:

"

|a3 :

a"c

is equivalentto 2ai

2a2

"

Ia3

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

97

2130, 2130,
128.

1230, 1230,

1320, 1320,
"

2310, 2310,

3210,

3120,

32lO, 3l20.

Pyramids of the First Order. to the three types Corresponding of prisms justmentioned, there are three types of pyramids A pyramid of the first order, Fig. 224, is a double six-sided pyramid (or faces by twelve similar triangular above and six bipyramid)bounded six which have the same relative to the horizontal axes below the position as faces of the first order prism,while they also intersect the vertical axis above The generalsymbol is hence (hOhl). The faces of a givenform, and below. are: as 1011),
" "

Above Below On
a

1011, 1011,

0111, 0111,

1101, 1011, 1101,, 1011,

0111, 0111,

1101.

lIOl.

there may be a number of pyramids of the firstorder, given species of in ratio the the the horizontal to the vertical axis, o n intercepts differing between the base (0001) and the faces of the unit and thus forming a zone prism (1010). Their symbols, passing from the base (0001) tojthe unit prism (1010),would be, for example, 1014, 1012, 2023, 1011, 3032, 2021, In Fig. 228 the faces p_and u are firstorder pyramids and they have etc. in As shown 0.4989. here c the symbols respectively (1011) and (2021), the edges of the first the faces of the first order pyramids replace these cases the solid anglesof the second order prism. On the other hand, they replace order prism a(112Q).
=

224

226

First Order

Pyramid

Second

Order

Pyramid
"

DihexagonalPyramid

the faces as relative to the horizontal axes which have the same position vertical axis. the They intersect also of the second order prism,and which of the form the faces of indices have the general symbol (h'h-2h-l). The

The pyramid of the second order Pyramids of the Second Order. the twelve similar faces including (Fig.225), is a double six-sided pyramid
129.

(1122)are:
Above Below

1122, 1122,

1212,

1212,

2112, 2112,

1122, 1122,

1212, 1212,

2112. 2112.

the edges between the faces The faces of the second order pyramid replace the solid angles base. Further,they replace of the second order prism and_the a .numbe on a single crystal: ber of the first order prism m(1010). There may base the c(0( between zone a forming order pyramids of second

98 the the faces_of second

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

in order: JL124, order prism a(1120), as, naming them 1122, 2243, 1121, etc. In Fig. 227, s is the second order pyramid (1121). The 130. Dihexagonal Pyramid. dihexagonal pyramid, Fig. 226, is a double twelve-sided pyramid, having the twenty-four similar faces embraced under the general symbol (hk'd). It is bounded by twenty-four similar two zontal also the vertical and each meeting adjacent horimeeting axis, faces, the ratio of which lies at unequal distances, between axes always Thus the form (2131)includes the followingtwelve faces in 1 : 1 and 1:2. the upper half of the crystal:
"

2131, 2131,
And

1231, 1231,

1321, 2311, 3211, 3121,

1321, 2311,
3211,
3121.

below with I (here 1) negative, similarly 2131,etc. The dihexagonal because a common form with the species pyramid is often called a berylloid beryl. The dihexagonalpyramid v(2131)is shown on Figs.224, 225. 131. Combinations. of the Fig. 227 of beryl shows a combination
"

227

Beryl
and prism m(1010) with the_first base_c(0001) order pyramids p(10ll) and the second order pyramid s(1121) and the dihexagonal pyramid tt(2Q21); p(2131). Both the last forms lie in a zone between m and s, for which it is
that k I. The basal projection of a similar crystalshown in Fig.228 is very instructive as exhibiting the symmetry of the normal hexagonal class. This is also true of the stereographic and gnomonic projections in Figs.229 and 230 of a like crystalwith the added form
true
=

0(1122).
TYPE

2.

HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS
or

(14). ZINCITE

(Dihexagonal Pyramidal
132.
"

Holohedral Hemimorphic Class)

This class differs from Symmetry. the normal class only in having no horizontal plane of principal symmetry and no horizontal axes of binary symmetry. It has,however, the same six vertical planes of symmetry at meeting anglesof 30" in the vertical crystallographic axis which is

2110

0110

1100

1010

100
an

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

axis of

hexagonal symmetry.

There

is

no

center

symmetry
133.

is exhibited Forms. The

of symmetry. The in the stereographic

forms

Fig. 231. projection, belonging to this are planes, 0001 here distinct forms, the positive and 0001, (upper) and negative (lower) pyramids of each of the three types; also the three prisms, last do not differ geometricallyfrom which class. An the prisms of the normal example in zincite, of this class is found Fig. 44, and wurtzite are lodyrite, greenockite p. 22.
-

class

the

two

basal

Symmetry

of

Hemimorphic Class TRIPYRAMIDAL

also classed here.

3.

CLASS
or

(15).

APATITE Hemihedral

TYPE

(Hexagonal Bipyramidal
134.

Pyramidal
"

Class)

This class is important because and Symmetry. of the ApatiteGroup, apatite, species pyromorphite, The typicalform is the hexagonal prism (hklO)and each designatedas of the third order. These the hexagonal pyramid (hktl), in Figs.233 and 234 may be considered as derived forms which are shown the corresponding from sion dihexagonalforms of the normal class by the omisthe faces of the latter. of of one half They and the other forms of the class have only one plane of symmetry, the plane of the horizontal axes, and axis of hexagonal symmetry (the vertical axis). also one

Typical Forms

it includes the common mimetite,vanadinite.

The

symmetry

is exhibited

in

the

stereo-

232). It is seen here, graphicprojection (Fig. in the figures of crystals as given,that,like the tripyramidal class under the tetragonal faces the of the general form (hk~l) system, of the possible half are planesbelonging present
to

above
zone.

each sectant, and further that those and below fall in the same vertical
Prism
"

135. Order.

and

Pyramid

of

the

Third

The prism of the third order (Fig. under the 233) has six like faces embraced general symbol (hkiQ) and the form is a regular hexagonal prism with anglesof 60",not to be
,

if alone, from the Symmetry of Tripyramidal Class distinguished geometrically, cf. hexagonal prisms; Figs.220, 221, The six faces of the right-handedform (2130) have the indices p. 96. other

2130,
The faces of the

1320,

3210,

2l30, 1320, 32lO.

complementary left-handed form have the indices:

1230,
As

23lO, 3120, 1230, 2310, 3l20

forms

alreadystated these two dihexagonalprism (Fig.222).

togetherembrace

all the faces of the

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

101
236

233

234

Third

Order

Prism
a

Third

Order

Pyramid

The

pyramid is also

regulardouble

hexagonal pyramid of the third

order, and in its relations to the other hexagonalpyramids of the class (Figs. 224, 225) it is analogous to the square pyramid of the third order met with in the correspondingclass of the_ tetragonalsystem (see Art. 100). The

right-handedform (2131)are: Above 2131, 1321, 3211, 2131, 1321, 3211. Below 2131, 1321, 3211, 2131, 1321, 3211. There is also a complementary left-handed form, which with this embraces all the faces of the dihexagonal pyramid. The cross section of Fig.235 shows of the first order prism, and also that of the rightin outline the position handed prism of the third order. The prism and pyramid justdescribed do not often appear on crystals as predominatingforms,though this is sometimes the case, but commonly these faces are present modifying other fundamental forms. Forms. of the class are geometri136. Other The remaining forms cally the base (0001) like those of the normal class, viz., ; the firstorder prism the first order pyramids (hQhl); (1010); the second order prism (1120);_ ture, structheir molecular order pyramids (h'h'2h'l). That and the second is class this to the of readily proved,for however, corresponds symmetry In this it was shown that example,by etching. way pyromorphite and mimetite belonged in the same with (Baumhauer),though crystals group with apatite This class forms had not been observed. the typical of Tripyramidalbecause its forms is given its name include three distinct types of pyramids. in Fig. of apatiteis given_ 137. A typical crystal and the third order pjism ft(2130), It shows 236. also the third order pyramids, M_(2131), n_(3141); the first order pyramids r(1012),z(1011),"/(2021), the order second pyramids K1122), s(1121); the base c(0001). the prism w(1010), and Apatite finally,
"

faces of the

PYRAMIDAL-HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS
or

(16). NEPHELITE

TYPE

(Hexagonal Pyramidal
138.

Pyramidal Hemihedral

Hemimorphic Class)

the the hexagonal division, fourth class under is like that just described, except that the class, pyramidal-hemimorphic

Symmetry.

"

102 forms

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY The

are

hemimorphic.

horizontal plane of symmetry single

is

absent,

This symmetry but the vertical axis is stillan axis of hexagonal symmetry. form would The typical of Fig.237. projection is shown in the stenographic order. The third half of Fig. 234 of the pyramid of the be like the upper (Kg. is shown by the character of the etching-figures nephelite species Groth after Baumhauer) to belong here.
237

Symmetry

of

Class Pyramidal-Hemimorphic

Nephelite

5.

TRAPEZOHEDRAL

CLASS

(17) Class)

Hemihedral or Trapezohedral (HexagonalTrapezohedral

"

The last class of this division is the trapezohedral 139. Symmetry. agonal class. It has no plane of symmetry, but the vertical axis is an axis of hexsix horizontal axes of binary symsymmetry, and there are, further, metry. The symmetry and the distribuThere is no center of symmetry. tion is shown in the stereographic form (hkll) of the faces of the typical projection forms may be derived from the dihexagonal (Fig.239). The typical pyramid by the omission of the alternate faces of the latter. There are two the right and left hexagonal trapezohedroris as (see types known possible
239 240

o,{"

(--AA-H V ? % /
Symmetry
of Trapezohedral Class

Hexagonal Trapezohedron

Fig.240),which
in this class show

are

circular

salts falling enantiomorphous,and the few crystallized A modification of quartz known polarization. as

104
zones.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

mineral is the rare of this class known only representative This shows in 242. crystal Fig. of which is represented a crystal benitoite, second the prism of_the hexagonal_ the trigonal prisms m(1010) and ^(0110), and Tr(Olll); 6(0112)and the the trigonal p(1011] pyramids, order,a(1120), hexagonal pyramid of the second order, x(2241) The

2.

RHOMBOHEDRAL

CLASS
or

(19). CALCITE
Hemihedral

TYPE
.

Scalenohedral (Ditrigonal

Rhombohedral
"

Class)

The typicalforms of the rhomand Symmetry. 142. Typical Forms and the scalenohedron 244) rhombohedron (Fig. (Fig. bohedral class are the with the These forms, projections, 259). 243 Figs. 243 and 269, illustrate the symmetry I three ! characteristic of the class. There are these are diangoal planes of symmetry only; horizontal crystallographic and to the axes intersect at anglesof 60" in the vertical crystallographic axis. This axis is with these forms there axis of trigonal symmetry; an are, further,three horizontal axes diagonal to the of binary symmetry. axes crystallographic also Fig.245 et seq. Compare Fig. 244, 269 with Fig. 229, p. By comparing Fig. it that all the faces in half will be seen 99, Symmetry of Rhombohedral is hence This group the sectants are present. Class metric analogous to the tetrahedral class of the isosystem, and the sphenoidal class of the tetragonalsystem. 143. Rhombohedron. is Geometrically described,the rhombohedron It six rhomb. has six like like each lateral a a solid bounded by faces, edges and six like terminal edges, three forming a zigzag line about the crystal, The vertical axis joinsthe two below. above and three in alternate position and the horizontal axes trihedral solid angles, jointhe middle points of the shown in Fig. 244. as oppositesides,

".--" -^

"

244

245

246

Positive Rhombohedron

Calcite

Negative Rhombohedron
is

Positive Rhombohedron
Hematite

The generalsymbol of the rhombohedron faces of the unit form (1011)have the indices:

and the successive (hQhl),

Above, lOll, IlOl, Olll;

below, OlIT, Toil, llol.

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

105

varies widely as the angles geometricalshape of the rhombohedron change, and consequently the relative lengthof the vertical axis c (expressed of the horizontal axes, a in terms the 1). As the vertical axis diminishes, rhombohedrons become more and more obtuse or flattened; and as it increases and more A cube placed with an octahedral axis acute. more they become vertical is obviously the limiting between the obtuse and acute forms case where the interfacial angle is 90". In Fig. 244 of calcite the normal rhombohedral angle is 74" 55' and c while of this for 246 hematite 0-854, Fig. 94" is and 1-366. 246-251 other c show drons rhomboheFurther, Figs. angle of calcite, (0554), namely, I (0112), "/" /(0221), M(4041), and p(16-0-16-l) ; in the ratio of J, f 2, 4, 16, to that of the fundahere the vertical axes mental are of Fig. 244, whose angle determines the rhombohedron (cleavage)
= = =

The

value

of

c.

247

249

250

261

253

254

Figs.247-252,Calcite 144.

Figs.253-254,Gmelinite
"

To positive every and Negative Rhombohedrons. Positive identical and form, inverse be complementary an there rhombohedron may Thus alternate sectants. in the_ by faces falling but bounded geometrically, 245 has in shown Fig. rhombohedron (0111) unit the form of the negative

the faces:

Above,

Olll, 1011, 1101;

below, 1101, 0111,

1011.

fully 269, 270) should be care(Figs. of these in the projections The position 250 are to referred 246, Figs.244, Of the figuresalready studied. 251 Fig. rhombohedrons; and Figs. 245, 247, 248, 249 negative, positive, forms. both shows and negative rhombohedrons that the two complementary positive be It will seen the faces of the like all of given axial length togetherembrace two When these the first order. double six-sided hexagonal pyramid of form is geometrically the .identical developed equally are rhombohedrons of 254 r(1011), gmelimte illustrated is Fig. by with this pyramid. This
.

106

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

3(0111).* In each and by Figs.284, 285, p. 113,of quartz, r(1011), p(0111) double is pyramid (in Fig. hexagonal a geometrically the form, which case the unit of two combination rhombohedrons, 254 with c and m), is in fact a
the two forms a difference in size between and negative. Commonly positive form taken the the posias tive be observed, as in Figs.253 and 286, where may if distinction this cannot be rhombohedron predominates. But even be rhombohedrons distinguished can b y always etching, two the established, of quartz, by pyro-electrical phenomena. or, as in the case
the faces of the posiof rhombohedrons tive and the between the base first (0001) edges rhombohedrons the faces the of the Also replace negative order prism (1010). between and the that (0001) forms, edges is, alternate edges of the same

145. Of the two rhombohedrons

or series,

zones,

replacethe

(0110) (compare Figs. 253, 254, etc.). Fig. 255 shows the rhombohed_ron with the prism a(1120). Fig. 256 the same in combination with the base. the two forms happens to approximate to 70" 32' the angle between When This is illustrated octahedron. simulates the aspect of a regular the crystal 71" and the resembles also 69" here oo crystal 22', co 42', by Fig. 257; truncated with 55). octahedron Fig. 99, (cf. edges p. an closely
= =

255

257

258

Figs. 255, 256, Hematite

Coquimbite

Eudialyte

the positive 146. There is a very simple relation between and negative it which is The form of one series rhombohedrons important to remember. which truncates the terminal edges of a given form of the other will have one axis of the latter. This half the intercept on the vertical crystallographic in the values of the indices of the two forms. Thus (0112), ratio is expressed the terminal truncates edges of the positiveunit rhombohedron (1011); the terminal of truncates (2025). Again (1011) (1014) (0112),_(1015) edges_of
truncates

the edges of (0221),(4041) of _(0221), This is illustrated by etc. basal proFig. 252 with the forms r(1011)and /(0221). Also in Fig.258,_a jection^ of the of truncates 2(1014) edges e(0112);c(0112) r(1011); r(1011) of s(0221). 147. Scalenohedron. The shown in Fig. 259, is the scalenohedron, to the symbol hkll. It is a solid, generalform for this class corresponding each a scalene triangle. It has roughly the shape bounded by twelve faces, of a double six-sided pyramid, but there are two sets of terminal edges,one obtuse than the other, and the lateral edges form a zigzagedge around more the form like that of the rhombohedron. It may be considered as derived from the dihexagonalpyramid by taking the alternating pairs of faces of
"

the less so as a convenient illustration in this case, none Quartz serves the fact that it belongsto the trapezohedralclass of this division.

ing notwithstand-

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

107

It is to be noted that the faces in the lower half of the form do that form. with those of the upper half. Like the rhombohefall in vertical zones drons, the scalenohedrons be either positiveor negative. may forms correspond in position to the positive The positive
not

rhombohedrons
The

conversely. positivescalenohedron (2131),Fig. 259, has the

faces:

and

lowing fol-

indices for the several Above

Below For the

2131, 2311, 3211, 1231, 1321, 3l21 1231, 1321, 3121, 2131, 2311, 3211. complementary negative scalenohedron (1231)the
are:

"an

indices of the faces Above Below

148.

1231, 2311,

1321, 3211,

3121,

2131,

2311,

32ll.
2131.
"

1231, 1321, 3l2l,

of Scalenohedrons to Relation Rhombohedrons. It was that the scalenohedron in X above general has a series of Q bcaler like the rhombohedron. It lateral is edges obvious, further, zigzag rhombohedron there will be series or for every of scalenohedrons a that zone lateral edges. This is shown in Fig. 262, where the scalenohedron having the same

noted

260

261

262

263

Figs.260-263, Calcite
264 265 266
267

Figs.264, 265, Corundum

bevels w(2l3l) would the lateral edges of the fundamental
etc. (3251), be true of the scalenohedron

Figs.266, 267, Spangolite*

rhombohedron the r(10Tl);
same

hedron scalenoFurther,in Fig.263, the negative The relation rhombohedron /(0221). of the lateral negative edges 3(1341) bevels the be shown to be, for example, for the may of the indices which must exist in these cases See also the prok, etc. jections, k + l\ again for /(0221),h + 21 h rhombohedron r(lOTl), Further, the positionof the scalenohedron may be defined with Figs. 269, 270. y (2131) For example in Fig. 262 the scalenohedron reference to its parent rhombohedron. r(1011). Again in Fig. 263 has three times the vertical axis of the unit rhombohedron
= -

re

(1341) has twice the vertical axis

*

of

/(0221). (hemimorphic)group,
but

the next illustration. the of value the destroy

to belongs properly Spangolite

this fact does not

108
149. Other
Forms.
"

CR

YSTALLO

GR

APH

class of the The remaining forms of the normal division are rhombohedral geometricallylike gonal those of the correspondingclass of the hexathe base division c(0001); the viz._,
"

a(1120), prisms ra(lOlO), (teO);also the second of these order pyramids, as (1121). Some in forms shown the accompanying figures. are
For
to

further illustrations reference

etc.

may

be made

rhombohedral typical With

tite, hemaas calcite, species,

or

respect to the second order pyramid, it that if it occurs to note alone interesting in it is n Fig. 264, (as 2243) impossibleto whether it has the grounds, say, on geometrical Calcite trigonalsymmetry of the rhombohedral type of the hexagonal type. In the latter case, the hexagonal symmetry
is
=

2110

ml

1120

1010
m

Calcite

the form

might be made a first order pyramid by exchanging the axial and diagonalplanes of symmetry. The true symmetry, however, is often indi-

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

109
on_ other hedral rhombocrystals_^)f
=

cated,as

with

corundum, by the

occurrence
=

(herez 2241, co 14-14-28-3). Even if rhombohedral faces are absent (Fig.266), the etching-figures (Fig.267) will often serve to_ reveal the true trigonal molecular here symmetry; o (1124), (1122). p 150. A basal projection of a somewhat of calcite is given complex crystal in Fig.268, and stereographic and gnomonic projections of the same forms in Figs. 269 and 270; both show well the symmetry in the distribution
= =

faces,as r(1011)in Fig.265

270

of the faces. Here

ra(10lO); rhombohedrons, the forms are: prisms,a(l_120), scalenohedrons. e(0112), /(0221); positive, r(lOll),negative, positive,
3.

RHOMBOHEDRAL-HEMIMORPHIC
CLASS

(20). TOURMALINE

TYPE

Pyramidal or (Ditrigonal
Hemihedral
151.

Trigonal
of

Hemimorphic Class)
"

Symmetry.

number

prominent

rhombohedral

as species,

belong gyrite, proustite,

under this division. of the faces differs at the two in the grouping extremities of the verticalaxis. The forms have three diagonal planes of symmetry the same at meeting angles of 60" in the vertical axis,

pyrarto a hemimorphic class the symmetry For them

tourmaline,

Symmetry of Rhombohedral-Hemimorphic
Class

110
which
center

CRYSTALLOGRAP

is
axes

an

axis of

of

trigonalsymmetry.
as

There

are,

symmetry,
Cf.
"

in the rhombohedral

zontal however, no horiand there is no class,

of symmetry.

Fig. 271.

In this class the basal planes (0001) and (0001) the two other characteristic forms are trigonal also the four trigonal prisms ra(1010)and ra/0110) of the first order series; first order pyramids, correspondingrespectively to the three upper and three lower faces of a positiverhombohedron, and the three upper and three lower faces of the negative rhombohedron; also the hemimorphic the four ditrigonal order second hexagonal pyramid; finally, pyramids, and lower faces respectively to the of the positive corresponding upper illustrate these forms. and Figs. 272-275 negative scalenohedrons. Fig. 274 is a basal section with r/0111^ and e/1012) below. 152.

Typical

Forms.

are

distinct Jorms.

The

272

274

275

Figs.272-275, Tourmaline
4.

TRI-RHOMBOHEDRAL

CLASS

(21). PHENACITE
Tetartohedral

TYPE

(Rhombohedral or Rhombohedral
153.
"

Class)

This class,illustrated by the species dioptase, Symmetry. dolomite,ilmenite, It is etc., is an important one. phenacite,willemite, characterized by the absence of all planes of
276

symmetry, but the vertical axis is stillan axis of trigonal symmetry, and there is a center of
symmetry.
154. order of the class

Cf.
are

Fig.276.
The distinctiveforms the rhombohedron of the second
"

TypicalForms.
and

;.._..,.

v_...

the hexagonal prism and rhombohedron, each of the third order. The class is thus characterized by three rhombohedrons of distinct types (each + and ), and hence the name given to it. The second order rhombohedron be derived may
-

by taking one half the faces of the normal of the hexagonal second pyramid order. Class Tri-Rhombohedral There will be two complementary forms known and negative. For example, in a given case as positive the indices of the faces for the positiveand negative forms are:
Symmetry
of

Positive

(above) 1122, 2112, 1212; Negative (above) 1212, 1122, 2112;

(below) 12l2, Il22, 2ll2 (below) 2112, 1212, 1122!

112

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

loio

280

1100

10J50

shows

(+r,

of the third ojder the distributionof the faces of the four rhombohedrons unit to the faces of the hexagonal prism (1010). +/, r, "I) relatively
"

PHENACITE

TYPE

5.

TRAPEZOHEDRAL

CLASS

(22). QUARTZ

TYPE

Tetartohedral Class) or Trapezohedral (TrigonalTrapezohedral This class includes,among 157. Symmetry. minerals, the species The forms have and of cinnabar. no plane symmetry and no center quartz the vertical axis is,however, an axis of trigonal of symmetry; symmetry, of binary symmetry, coinciding also three horizontal axes and there are in cf. 281 direction with the crystallographic Fig. axes;
"

281

282

283

\ r
*

Symmetry

Class of Trapezohedral

Trigonal Trapezohedrons

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

113
of the
cJass

158.

Typical Forms.

"

The

characteristic form

is the

trapezohedron shown in Fig. 282. trigonal This is the general form corresponding to the symbol (hkil), the faces being distributed as indicated in the accompanying stereographic projection (Fig.281). The faces of this form correspondto one quarter of the faces of the normal dihexagonalpyramid,

Fig.226. There are therefore four such trapezohedrons, two called positive, respectively right-handed(Fig. and 282) and left-handed (Fig. lar simitwo 283), negative forms, also right-and left-handed (see the scheme given in Art. 160). It is obvious that the two forms of Figs.282, 283 are enantiois a striking character of the species morphous, and circular polarization to the class elsewhere discussed. as belonging The indices of the six faces belongingto each of these will be evident on form consulting Figs.281 and 229 and 230. The complementary positive of faces of a positive a given symbol include the twelve scalenohe(r and I) dron, while the faces of all four as already stated include the twenty-four faces of the dihexagonalpyramid. Corresponding to these trapezohedrons there are_two ditrigonal prisms, and left-handed, as respectively right(2130)and (3120). The remaining characteristic forms are the rightand left-handed trigonal and also the left-handed trigonal prism a(H20) and_a(2110); rightpyramid, half as one (1122)and (2112). They may be derived by takingrespectively of the faces the of the hexagonal prism of the second order (1120)or sponding correpyramid (1122); these are shown in Figs.221 and 225. The Forms. 159. Other other forms of the class are geometrically the hexagonal class. They are the base c(0001), like those of the normal and negativerhombohedrons and the positive as firstorder prism ra(1010), the from These be cannot geometrically distinguished (1011) and (0111).
"

normal
160.

forms. Illustrations.

to be of normal

(p. speciesquartz. As r(1011)and 2(0111) hexagonalsymmetry, the rhombohedrons ence In however, a differ285). cases, many 284, (Figs. being equallydeveloped and more be observed, comin molecular character between them can
284 285 288

forms alreadyremarked
"

The

of this class

are

best

shown

in

the

often appear 106),simple crystals

Figs.284-288, Quartz
in size; the distinction predominates monly one rhombohedron, r(1011), like Fig. 286, show crystals, out by etching. Some always be made can as

with a rightpositive modifying faces the righttrigonal pyramid *(ll2l), and rotate called right-handed are as z(5161). Such crystals trapezohedron,

114

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

transmitted in the direction of the vertical of light the plane of polarization like Fig. 287, with _thelefttrigonal pyramid axis to the right. A crystal, is called left-handed, as x(6151), trapezohedrons, left s(2111)and one or more and as regardslighthas the oppositecharacter to the crystalof Fig. 286.

complex right-handedcrystalwith several positive several positive righttrapezohedronsand the N. left trapezohedron, negative shows the distribution of the faces of the four The followingscheme agonal to the faces of the unit hex"I) relatively trapezohedrons(+r, -\-l, "r, it is to be compared with the correspondingscheme, prism (lOlO); of the negaof the phenacitetype. _In the case tive given in Art. 156, of crystals and authors prefer to make forms some the faces 2131, 1231, etc., right, 3121,1321, etc.,left.
Fig. 288
shows
a more

and

negative rhombohedrons,

QUARTZ

TYPE

the Trigonal as (23) is known class. It has one plane of symmetry that of the horizontal axes, and one axis of trigonal symmetry the vertical axis. There is no center of symmetry. Its characteristic forms the three and are of the three corresponding types of prisms types trigonal trigonal pyramids. Cf. Fig. 289. This class has no known representation
Other

161.

Classes.

"

The

next

class

Bipyramidal
"

or

Trigonal Tetartohedral

"

among

crystals.

or

last class (24) of this division is known the Trigonal Pyramidal as TrigonalTetartohedral Hemimorphic class. It has no plane of symmetry
289 290

The

Symmetry
and
no

of

TrigonalBipyramidal Class

Symmetry

of the

Trigonal Pyramidal Class

center

The sodium

forms

of symmetry, but the vertical axis is an axis of trigonal metry. symall hemimorphic, the prisms trigonal are prisms,and the

pyramids hemimorphic trigonal pyramids.

Cf.

Fig. 290.

The

of crystals

periodate belong to this class.

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

115
SYSTEM.

MATHEMATICAL
of Axis. 162. Choice the classes of this system
"

RELATIONS

OF

THE

HEXAGONAL

The positionof the vertical crystallographic axis is fixed in all since it coincides with the axis of hexagonal in the symmetry in the rhombohedral hexagonal division and that of trigonal symmetry division. The three horizontal axes also fixed in direction except in the normal are class and the subordinate in these there is a choice of two positions hemimorphic class of the hexagonal division; according to which of the two sets of vertical planes of symmetry is taken as the axial set. 163. Axial and The axial element is the length of the vertical Angular Elements. axis,c, in terms of a horizontal axis,a; in other words, the axial ratio of a : c. A single measured but the prismatic)may angle (in any zone be taken as the fundamental angle from which the axial ratio can be obtained. The angular element is usually taken as the angle between tfhe base c(0001) and the unit first order pyramid (1011),that is,0001 A 1011. The relation between this angle and the axis c is given by the formula
"

tan

(0001

lOll) X

Vs

c.

The

vertical axis is also easilyobtained

tan

from

the unit second

A

order pyramid, since

(0001

1122)
as

c.

These

relations become

general by writing them

tan

follows:

(0001

hOhl) X-^3
2i

-Xc;
I

tan

(0001

h'h'2h'l)
=

"

c.

In general it is easy to obtain any requiredangle between the poles of two faces on the or sphericalprojection either by the use of the tangent (or cotangent) relation, by the In practicemost of of both methods. solution of sphericaltriangles, or by the application used in calculation are right-angled. the triangles The tangent relation holds good in any zone 164. Tangent and Cotangent Relations. For example: to a face in the prismatic zone. from c(0001)
"

tan tan In

(0001 A

hOhl)

=h.
I
'

tan tan

(0001 A

2h h'h'2Ji'l)
_ "

(0001

lOll)

(0001
a

1122)

l"
a

the prismatic zone,

the cotangent

formula

takes

simplified form; for example,lor

prism, hklQ, as dihexagonal

(2130)
:

cot

(1010A M*0)
(1120
A

^
ML
"

cot

feHO)

of the angles (lOlOA hkiO) and (1120 A MnO) is equal to 30". sum to any generalform, applying Further, the last equations can be written in a more 0001 to 0110, where the 1010 and a face in the zone in a zone, first between pyramid (hkil) for the same pyramid, in a zone 1010 and this face is known; or_again, angle between 1120 and this face 0001 to 1010, the angle between between 1120 and a face in the zone is _Fig. 229, p. 99), if the first-mentioned zone example (cf. being given. For The

lOlO'/iEZ-OlIl and

the second
cot

is

llSfrAHMOll, then
=

(10TOA hM)

cot

(lOlOA Olll)
lOll)

"

"

^
"

"

and
cot

(1120

Mil)

cot

(1120

j-"p
"

Also

for similarly

other zones,
cot

(1010A MB)

cot

(1010A 0221)

f-" etc.

116
cot

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

(1120

hkil)
"

cot

(1120 A

2021) "~7""
.

etc.

165.

Other For
a

(1)
and
in

The followingsimple relations Angular Relations. order, hexagonalpyramid of the first

tan

are

of

frequent

use:

\ (lOTlA OlTl) \ (hOhl

A

sin "

Vj,

where

tan

"

c,

general
tan

Qhhl)

sin

",V|, where

tan

",=

^-c.

(2) For

hexagonalpyramid of the
2 sin

second
=

as (1122), order,

\ (1122

I2l2)

sin ",

and

tan

"

c.

(3) For
in

rhombohedron sin "

(lOTlA TlOl)
hhOl)

sin sin

Vf,
Vf
,

where where

(0001 (0001

lOTl);

general
sin \ (hOhl A
166.
=

a,

a,

The zonal equations,described in Arts 45, 46, apply here as to the horizontal only that it is to be noted that one of the indices referring in the calculations and only the other three is be to the dropped third,i, preferably axes, in which the faces (hkil), lie are (pqft) employed. Thus the indices (u, v, w) of the zone given by the scheme Zonal
Relations.
"

in other systems,

XXX
where
For
u
=

kt

"

Iq,

lp

"

ht,

hq

"

kp.

also in the zone example (Fig. 226) the face n lies in the zone mv, IOTO'2131 and^ For the_first the values obtained are: 2021. zone u I, w 1; for the 0, v 2. second zone, e !,/=!, 0 Combining these zone symbols according to the usual
au, 1120
'

scheme
1 0

The

face
167.

Formulas.
are

the indices 314i, since further i has, therefore, (h + k). The following formulas in which unit length of the c equals the
=
"
"

vertical axis

sometimes

useful:

(1) The_distances from the poles (see Fig. 229) of the pole of any face (hkil) of the faces (10TO), (0110),(1100),and (0001) are given by the following equations,
c cos

(hkil) (1010)

(k + 2h)
4c2
c

(h2+

k2 +

hk)

cos

(M#) (OlTO)
=

(2k + h)
_

4c2
c

+ k2 + hk) (/i9-

cos

(TlOO) (hkil)
=

(h

k) hk)

4c2

(As

cos

(hkil) (0001)
v

3?2 +

4c2
anv

(A2+
two

fc24-

A/c)
and Q(pqrt) is given P(hkil)

by

(2) The distance (PQ) between the equation

the poles of

faces

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM

117

W, +
cos

2c2

PQ

(hq + pk + 2hp + 2kq)

-7=

v + 4c2 (h2+ k2 [3J2 it serves to give the value (3) For specialcases the above formula becomes simplified; of the normal angles for the several forms in the system. They are as follows: Fig. 224: (a) Pyramid of First Order (hQhl),

cos

(terminal)
Order

cos

(basal)
=

3/2

(6) Pyramid of Second

cos

(h'h'2fcl), Fig. 225:

=

(terminal)

P +

4W'
Q/2

cosZ(basal)-P + 4^

: (c) Dihexagonal Pyramid (hkil) cos

(seeFig. 226) (seeFig.226)

",

^2+J(^
3l2 + 2c2 4^
.

O~2

/J,2 _|_ ]fZ

fc2

;
-

"
-

cos

(2h2+

2hk ". +

k2) M.)
'

3. +
=

fr, +
(h2+

cos

(basal)

3/2 +

4c2

k2 +

hk)
2ft2 + 2hk
-

(d) Dihexagonal Prism

cos

Fig. 222: (hkiQ),

.

(axial)
=

^^^
X

cos

(diagonal)

(h*+

A;2+

(e) Rhombohedron
cos

(1011): (terminal)
=

(f) Scalenohedron

(hkil):
2c (2A:2 +
cos

2hk

(seeFig.259) (seeFig. 259)

Cft.

3/2 3Z2 +
==

2c2

cos

" 2c2

4**

(2h* (h*+

k* +

hk)

(W +

prisms with the commonly occurringdihexagonal The angles for some 168. Angles. table: in the iven following owng risms order second are given first and prisms n
"

w(1010)
5160 4150 3140

a(1120)
21"
19 16 13 10

8" 57'
10 13 16 19 23 26 Indices.

53^
54 6

61
6 54

5270
2130 3250 5490

53^

24i

19{
forms

169.

The

Miller Axes

and
291

The

of the

by Miller to oblique axes

referred three equal taken which were to the edges of the unit parallel of the positiverhombohedron

hexagonalsystem
a

were

set of

species. Fig.
such
a

291

represents

would

122,001, have the indices, 100,221,010,

2l2.

with the rhombohedron of the Miller axes shown. position gonal for hexaThis choice of axes forms has the grave objection the that in several cases form are faces of the same resented repby two sets of different indices;for example the faces of .the pyramid of the first order however, disappearsifthe This objection,

118

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

that isfor forms Miller axes and indices are used only for forms in the Rhombohedral Division, It is belonging to classes which are characterized by a vertical axis of trigonalsymmetry. agonal believed, however, that the mutual relations of all the classes of both divisions of the hexthemselves (as also to the classes of the tetragonal system), both system among and physical are best brought out by keeping throughout the same morphological axes, The Miller method has, however, been adopted by a namely those of Fig. 218, Art. 121. of authors and consequently it is necessary number to give the followingbrief description.

(1120)

110

0210)
Oil

(1010)

Miller and Miller-Bravais Indices Compared

Fig.292 shows in stereographic projectionthe common hexagonal-rhombohedral forms .vith their Miller indices and in parentheses the corresponding indices when the faces are referred to the four axial system. It will be noted that the faces of the unit positive rhomhave the indices 100, 010, and 001 and those of the negative unit rhombohedron bohedron have 221, 122, 212. These two forms togethergive the faces of the hexagonal pyramid_of the firstorder (seeabove). The hexagonalprism of the first order is represented by 211, etc.,while the second order prism has 101, etc. The dihexagonal pyramid has also two sets of indices (hid)and (efg) ; of these the symbol (hkl)belongs to the positivescalenohedron and In this as it is true that in other cases (efg) to the negative form. 2h + 2k e 2h k + 21, g h + 2k + 21. For I,f example, the faces of the form 201, etc., Division of this system to the_scalenohedron belong in the Rhombohedral (2131) while the complementary negative form would have the indices 524, etc. The relation between the Miller-Bravais and the Miller indices for any form can be
=
-

120

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
2 =1,70

294

Determination 172. To

of the indices for

on

calcite

the determine, by plotting, 295

indices of hexagonal forms, given the position of then: poles on the gnomonic projection. To illustrate this problem of the gnosectant one monic projection of the important forms of beryl, Fig. 228, is reproduced in The directions Fig. 295. of the three horizontal dicated inaxes, ai, 02 and "3 are by the heavy lines. From the polesof the faces drawn are perpendiculars to these three axes. It will be noted that the various intercepts made the axes by these upon lines have simple rational relations to each other. One of these intercepts is chosen as having the length of 1 (this length will be equivalent to the unit length of the c crys-

tallographic axis, see below) and the others are then given in terms of it.

ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM

121

The indices of each face are obtained directly by taking these intercepts the three upon their proper horizontal axes in order and by adding a 1 as the fourth figure If necessarv of the clear of the second as in fractions, case order pyramid, 1122.
a hexagonal mineral from the gnomonic projection projectionof the beryl forms,Fig. 295, may be used as an illustrative example. The radius of the fundamental circle, a, is taken as equal to the and is given a value of 1. Then the length of the fundalength of the horizontal axes

173.

To

determine The

the axial ratio of

of its forms.

gnomonic

in the

same

manner

as

in the

case

of the tetragonalsystem,

see

Art. 117, p.

IV.

ORTHORHOMBIC (Rhombic
or

SYSTEM System)

Prismatic

The orthorhombic system includes all the referred to forms which three axes at are right 296 anglesto each other,all of different lengths. be taken as the of the three axes Any one may Of the two horizontal axes the vertical axis,c. longer is always taken as the b or macro-axis * and to the observer. orientated is parallel The when a or brachy-axisis the shorter of the two horizontal and is perpendicular to the observer. The length axes of the b axis is taken as unity and the lengthsof the other axes are expressed in terms of it. The for instance,is a : b : c 0*815 axial ratio for barite,
174.
"

Axes. Crystallographic

TOO

1*31.

Fig.

296

shows

the

crystallographic

axes

for barite.
1. NORMAL

CLASS

(25).
or

BARITE Holohedral

TYPE

Bipyramidal (Orthorhombic
175.

Class)

Orthorhombic

Axes

(Barite)
are

Symmetry.
297

"

The

forms

of the orthorhombic

system

of the normal class characterized by three which directions

axes are

of

binary symmetry,

coincident with

three

There also are axes. crystallographic at unlike planes of symmetry right lographic anglesto each other in which lie the crystalthe
axes.

The the

symmetry

of the

class is exhibited in

accompanying stereographicprojection, Fig.297. This should be compared with Fig. 91 (p.53) and Fig.167 (p.77),representing

classes of the of the normal the symmetry isometric and tetragonal systems respectively. metric that while normal isoIt will be seen are developed alike in the crystals those of the tetragonal three axial directions,

Symmetry

of Normal Class Orthorhombic System

type have
direction of

the

like development only in the horizontal axes, and two

in the triclinicsystem)

The

are

from

(and also used in this system ( brachy-and macroprefixes and long. short, Greek M"KPOS, the words, ppaxvs,

122
those

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

of the orthorhombic type are unlike in the three even axial directions. Compare also Figs.92 (p.54), 171 (p.78) and 298 (p.122). in this class are follows : as The various forms possible 176. Forms.
"

jr"^

Indices

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Macropinacoid or a-pinacoid Brachypinacoidor 6-pinacoid Base or c-pinacoid

Prisms Macrodomes
.

(100) (010) (001) (hkO) (hQl)

(OfcZ)

Brachydomes Pyramids

(hkl)

to two of defined on p. 31, a pinacoid is a form whose faces are parallel In general, as whose faces are parallel to the vertical axial plane; a prism is one to an the axes, that is, * is one whose (or horizontal prism) axis,but intersect the two horizontal axes; a dome of the horizontal axes, but intersect the vertical axis. A pyramid to one faces are parallel is a form whose faces meet all the three axes. These not only in the orthorhombic used in the above sense terms are system, but also in the monoclinic and triclinicsystems; in the last each form consists of two planes only.

The macropinacoidincludes two faces, 177. Pinacoids. each of which both to the macro-axis b and to the vertical axis c; their indices parallel 100. This form is uniformly designated by the 100 and are respectively called the a-faceor the a-pinacoid. and briefly letter a, and is conveniently The two i ncludes each of which is parallel both to brachypinacoid faces, the brachy-axis and to the vertical axis c; they have the indices 010 and a 010. This form is designatedby the letter 6; it is called the b-face the or b-pinacoid. The base or basal pinacoidincludes the two faces parallel to the plane of the horizontal axes, and having the indices 001 and 001. This form is designated the c-pinacoid. by the letter c; it is called the c-face or Each of these three pinacoidsis an open-form,! but together they one make the so-called diametral prism, shown in Fig. 298, a solid which is the analogue of the cube of the isometric system. Geometricallyit cannot be from the cube, but it differs in having the symmetry unlike in distinguished
"

is

299

300

120-

110

120
n

Macro-,Brachy-

and Basal Pinacoids

the three axial directions; this may be shown acter by the unlike physicalcharof the faces, a, 6, c, for example as to luster, striations, etc.; or, again, by the cleavage. Further,it is proved at once This

by optical properties.
of
a

From

the

Latin domus, because

resembling the

roof

house;

J feee p. 30.

cf. Figs. 301, 302.

ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM

123

prism, as juststated,has three pairsof unlike faces. It has three to the axes edges,four in each set, parallel respectively a, 6, and c; it has, further, eight similar solid angles. In Fig. 298 the dimensions are made to correspond to the relative lengthsojkthe chosen arbitrarily axes, will the understand student that a crystal but of this shape givesno information
kinds of
as

diametral

to these values.

The prisms proper include those forms whose faces are while they intersect both the horizontal axes; to the vertical axis, parallel their generalsymbol is,therefore, (hkQ). These all belong to one type of rhombic prism, in which the interfacial anglescorrespondingto the two unlike vertical edges have different values. is that form The unit prism, (110), whose faces intersect the horizontal ratio in correspondingto the accepted axial ratio of axes lengthshaving a in other the words, the angle of this unit prism fixes a : b for given species; This form is shown in combination the unit lengthsof the horizontal axes with the basal pinacoidin Fig.299; it is uniformly designatedby the letter The four faces of the unit prism have the indices 110, IlO,TlO,iTO. m. There cepts interof course, a largenumber of other possibleprisms whose is, not to their unit the horizontal axes are proportionate lengths. upon
178. Prisms.
"

follows: macroprisms, whose faces lie between those of the macropinacoid and the unit prism, brachyprisms those of the brachypinacoid and the unit prism. A with faces between macroprism has the generalsymbol (hkQ)in which h " k and is represented
These
may

be divided

into two

classes

as

Fig. 300. A brachyprism has the generalsymbol (hkQ) by the form Z(210), with h " k and is represented by n(120),Fig. 300.
301 302
303

101

Macrodome

and and

Brachydqme
Macropinacoid
"

Pyramid

Brachypinacoid
179.

faces

forms whose The macrodomes are Brachydomes. vertical axis intersect the while macro-axis they b, are is The (hOl). hence the angle axis generalsymbol the horizontal c and a; This form is a : c. fixes the ratio of the axes of the unit macrodome, (101), the with is form) brachypinacoid. it an in Fig.301 combined shown (since open the base c(001)and the macropinacoid between In the macrodome zone of macrodomes having the symbols, be a large number a (100) there may etc. (302), (201),(301); (101), (203), (102), taken in the order named, (103),

Macrodomes,
to parallel

the

Figs.318 and 319 described later. to the brachy-axis, a, The brachydomes are forms whose faces are parallel c and 6; their generalsymbol is (0/cZ). while they intersect the other axes with a(100) in The angle of the unit brachydome, (Oil),which is shown b : c. the of the ratio axes determines Fig.302, between c(001) and 6(010) includes the forms The brachydome zone Cf. Figs.318 and 319. etc. (021),(031),
Cf.

(013),(012),(023),(Oil),(032),

124 Both
sets

CRYSTALLOGEAPHY

spoken of as horizontal prisms. The propriety obvious, since they are in fact prisms in geometrical makes which the choice of positionfor the axes form; further, less is in the more or them narrower arbitrary, domes, instead of prisms sense, as alreadyexplainedelsewhere. The pyramids in this system all belong to one 180. Pyramids. type, the double rhombic pyramid, bounded by eightfaces,each a scalene triangle. This form has three kinds of edges, 303),each set with a different x, y, z (Fig. the axial ratio. of these angles suffice to determine interfacial angle; two the generalform for the system, is (hkl). The symbol for this, be divided into three groups The pyramids may correspondingrespectively to the three prisms just described, namely, unit pyramids, macropyramids, and br achy pyramids. characterized by the fact that their intercepts The unit pyramids are on have the same the horizontal axes ratio as those of the unit prism; that is, the assumed axial ratio (a : b) for the given species. For them, therefore, the generalsymbol becomes (hhl). There may be different unit pyramids on of the same crystals species vertical and with different intercepts the these of faces form a zone axis, upon would lyingbetween the base c(001)and the unit prism m(110). This zone include the forms, (119),(117),(115),(114),(113),(112),(111). In the symbol of all of the forms of this zone h k, and the lengthsof the vertical the in axes are hence, example given,^, \, ", J, f J of the vertical axis c of the unit pyramid. The macropyramids and brachypyramidsare related to each other and to the unit pyramids, as were the macroprisms and brachyprisms to themselves and to the unit prism. Further,each vertical zone of macropyramids (or ratio for the horizontal axes brachypyramids), having a common (or of h : k in the symbol), belongs to a particular acterized macroprism (or brachyprism) charratio. Thus the macropyramids (214),(213),(212), by the same all belong in a common vertical zone between the base (001) and (421), etc., the prism (210). Similarly the brachypyramids (123),(122),(121),(241), vertical zone between etc.,fall in a common (001) and (120). 181. Illustrations. The following figures of barite (304-311) give
of domes
are

often

is of this expression

"

"

305

306

307

Barite Crystals

excellent illustrations of crystals of a typical orthorhombic species, and show also how the habit of one and the same The speciesmay axial ratio vary. for this species is a : b : c 0'815 : 1 : 1'314. d is the macrodome Here
=

ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM

125

o the brachydome (Oil); m is, as always,the prism (110). Figs. and 309 are described as tabular j| in habit c; Fig.308 is prismatic in the direction of the macro-axis (6), and 310, 311 prismatic in that of the

(102)and

304-307

brachy-axis (a). of native sulphur show Figs.312-314 series of crystals a of pyramidal habit with the dome n(011), and the pyramids p(lll), cates s(113). Note n trunthe terminal edges of the fundamental it should pyramid p. In general
314

Sulphur Crystals
315 316

317

Staurolite

Figs. 316-318, Topaz

be remembered

that a macrodome truncating the edge of a pyramid must etc. the same ratio oth:l', thus, (201) truncates the edge of (221), have Ji. Similarlyof .the brachydomes: (021)truncates the edge of (221),etc. 319-321. Figs. the shows Again, Fig. 315, of staurolite,

pinacoids6(010), c(001), the prism m(110), and the macrodome r(101). are prismatic crystals of Figs. 316-318 topaz. Here m is the prism (110); I and n the prisms (120),(140); d and p are the are macrodomes (201) and (401);/and y are the brachydomes (021)and (041); i,u, and o are the pyramids (223),(111),(221). 182. Basal, stereographic, Projections. and gnomonic projections are given in Figs. of the 319-320a, on pp. 125,126,127 for a crystal species topaz. Fig.319 is the basal projection
-

Topaz

126

CR YST

ALLO

GR

APH

in *ig. 318. Figs.320 and 320a shown of the crystal forms these of present upon and gnomonic projections

give the stereographic

it.

110

ProjectionTopaz Crystal Stereographic

2.

HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS

(26). CALAMINE

TYPE

(Orthorhombic Pyramidal Class)

of the orthoThe forms 183. Class Symmetry and Typical Forms. class are characterized by two unlike planes of symrhombic-hemimorphic metry and one axis of binary symmetry, the line in which they intersect; there is no center of symmetry. The forms are therefore .hemimorphic,as defined in Art. 29. For example, if, is usuallythe case, the vertical axis as to the is made the axis of symmetry, the two planesof symmetry are parallel those like and pinacoids a(100) 6(010). The prisms are then geometrically of the normal also the macropinacoid and brachypinacoid; as are class, but the two basal planesbecome independent forms,(001)and (001). There also two are in general(hQl)and (MM); and macrodomes, (101) and (101), or t wo similarly sets,for a given symbol, of brachydomes and pyramids. The general symmetry of the class is shown in the stereographic projec"

128
tion

CR YSTALLO

GR

APH

represent 322, of calamine, and 323, of struvite, Fig 321. Further, Figs. forms are "(301), i(031), present In of this class. Fig.322_the crystals typical 0(011). "i(101), in Fig.323 they are 8(101), t"(12l);
3.

SPHENOIDAL

CLASS

(27). EPSOMITE

TYPE.

Class) Bisphenoidal (Orthorhombic

184. Symmetry
324

and

Typical

Forms.
325

"

forms The class of the

of

the

remaining
ortho-

system, the
three

acterized charare class, rhombic-sphenoidal unlike tangular recof axes binary symmetry coincide with the cryswhich tallographic axes, but they have no plane and no center of symmetry (Fig. 324). The general form hkl here has four faces only, solid is a and the corresponding

by

rhombic the

sphenoid, analogous to sphenoid of the tetragonal

itive pos-

system. The complementary

Symmetry
of Class Sphenoidal

negativesphenoids are of epsomite, with enantiomorphous. Fig. 325 represents a typicalcrystal, the positivesphenoid, z(lll). Other crystalsof this species often show but usually unequally both positiveand negative complementary forms developed.
,

Epsomite

and

"

MATHEMATICAL
"

RELATIONS

OF

THE

ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM

in Art. 175, the three crystallographic As explained axes are 186. Choice of Axes. be made of them but any one fixed as regards direction in all orthorhombic crystals, may the vertical axis,c; and of the two horizontal axes, which is the longer (6) and which the the fundamental, be determined until it is decided which faces to assume as snorter (a) cannot
or

unit,pyramid, prism, or

domes.

choice is generallyso made, in a given case, as to best bring out the relation of the in hand to others allied to them in form or in chemical composition, of the species crystals the cleavageparallel in both respects; or, so as to make to the fundamental form; or, as or other considerations. habit of the crystals, or suggestedby the common The axial elements are given by the ratio of the 186. Axial and Angular Elements. lengthsof the three axes in terms of the macro-axis,b, as unity. For example, with barite the axial ratio is The
"

: c

0'81520

1'31359.

The the three pinacoids and angular elements are usually taken as the angles between the unit faces in the three zones between them. these elements are Thus, again for barite,
'

100

110

39" 11' 13",

001

101

58" 10' 36",

001

Oil

52" 43' 8".

of these anglesobviously determine the third angle as well as the axial ratio. The of the axial ratio depends upon to be attempted in the statement the accuracy from which this ratio has been deduced. character of the fundamental measurements There is no good reason for giving the values of a and c to many decimal places if the probable of the measurements amounts to many minutes. In the above the measurements error case within a few seconds. It is convenient,however, (by Helmhacker) are supposed to be accurate to have the angular elements correct, say, within 10", so that the calculated angles obtained from them will not vary from those derived direct from the measured angles by than 30" to 1'. more Two

degree of

ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM

129
the

axes

187. Calculation of the Axes. with the angular elements :

tan

"

The

following simple relations (cf Art. 48) connect

.

(100

110)

a,

tan

(001

Oil)

c,

tan

(001

101)

to give either the axes from the 'angularelements, equations serve It will be noted that the axes not angular elements from the axes. are needed for simple purposes of calculation, but it is stillimportant to have them, for example to use in comparing the morphological relations of allied species. In practice it is easy to pass from the measured assumed as the angles, from basis of calculation (or deduced the observations by the method of least squares),to the angular elements, or from either to any other angles by the applicationof the tangent principle (Art.49) to the pinacoidalzones, and by the solution of the right-angled triangles given on the sphere spherical of projection. Thus face hkl lies in the three zones, 100 and Qkl,010 and hOl, 001 any For example, the positionof the face 312 is fixed if the positions and hkO. These of two of the poles, last are given, respectively, 302, 012, 310, are known. by the equations Stibnite tan f x tan (001 A 101), (001 A 302) \ X tan (100 A 110). tan (001 A 012) \ x tan (001 A Oil) tan (100 A 310)
or

These

the

m'

:010

Projection Stibnite Crystal Stereographic

130

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Fig. 327 of stibnite from Japan and 188 Fig. 326 represents a crystal Example. ra(110) and co3(5-10'3), of its forms, p(lll), r(343),77(353), the stereographicprojection taken as fundamental: 6(010). On this the followingmeasured angles were 1' 0", =55" (353 A 353) 7777'
"

7777'" (353
Hence,
=

353)

99" 39' 0".

=

out with27" 30|' are known 40" 10*' and 353 A 053 the angles 353 A 010 * the 010'053'353 angle yields The sphericaltriangle calculation. right-angled the angle at 010, which is equal to (001 A 101). also hence A 053); and A (001 053) (010 tan c. Also, since f X tan (001 A 053), and tan (001 A Oil) But tan (001 A Oil)
= =

(001
at

101)

--,

the axial ratio is thus known, and

two

of the angular elements.

(001 A 110) can be calculated independently, for the angle is equal to (010 A 350) and tan (010 A 350) x f triangle001'053'353 (010 A 110),the complement of (100 A 110). be used to check the value of a already Then since tan (100 A 110) a, this can with the occasional solution of a rightof the The further use tangent principle obtained. either the fundamental desired angle from angles to give any angled trianglewill serve elements. from the angular or direct, measured be readily calculated if two face can Again, the symbol of any unknown the face for the For ured meashand. at example, tolerable are suppose co, angles of accuracy
The

third angular element

001

in the

angles to be
6co

(010

hkl)

30" 15', coco' (hkl A

hkl)

51" 32'.
=

The

b'u'Okl gives the angle (010 A solution of the triangle tan

tan

Okl)
k
=

16" 25' 20", and

(001 (001
I must

A A

Okl)
_ ~

tan

73" 34|'
45"

'

Oil)

tan

30^'
the number derived

I agrees most

But
10
:

the ratio of k

be rational and

with closely the

3.

be calculated from the same Again, the angle (001 A hOl) may now this the ratio of h to I is derived since From value 59" 38 f obtained.
tan

triangleand

tan

(001 (001

A
A

hOl

) 101)

tan
=

59" 38f '

=

h
_

'

tan

45" 43J'

This ratio is nearlyequal to 5 : 3, and the two values thus obtained give the symbol 5'10'3. the value 26" 42f the angle at 001 is calculated, 001' Okl'u, If, however, from the triangle From this the ratio h : k is deduced, since is obtained,which is also the angle (010 A MO).
tan

(010

tan

(010

110) hkO)

tan
~

45" 12f
= "
~

k
'

tan

26" 42f

The

value of
same

-r

is hence closely equal to 2; this combined

with that firstobtained

=-

-5-

gives the

symbol

5" 10*3.

than usually complex calls for fairly This symbol being more accurate measurements. is can best be judged by comparing the measured How accurate the symbol obtained angles the symbol. For example, in the given case with those calculated from the calculated 30" 16', are anglesfor u(5'10'3) 6"(010 A 5'10'3) coco'(5'10-3)51" 35'. The correctness of the value deduced is further established if it is found that the given face falls into
= =

prominent

zones. on

It will be understood further that the zonal relations, explained important part in all calculations. For example, in Fig. 326, if the
"

pp.

45-47,play an
=

of r were known, unit could be obtained from a singleangle (as br),since for this zone h I. 189. Formulas. Although it is not often necessary to employ formulas in calculations, few are added here for sake of completeness. Here a and c in the formulas are the lengths

symbol

of the two

axes

and

c.

The

student

in this

as

in every

similar

case

should

draw

cf. Fig. 327 projection,

(not necessarily to show, if only approximately, the relative posiaccuratelyconstructed), tion of the faces present.

ORTHORHOMBIC

SYSTEM

131
the pinacoidsa, 6, c,
we

have

(1) For the distance in general:

between

the pole of any

face P(hkl) and

cos2 Pa

cos2

(Md (Md (Md

100) 010) 001)

he2 +
=

k2a?c2 +

I2a?

cos2 P6

cos2

Me*

A;2a2c2+ Pa?

Pa?

'

cos2 PC

cos2

_ '

We2

/c2a2c2+ two Ira2

I2a?

(2) For

the distance (PQ) between

cos

the poles of any

faces (Md) and

'

(par)

hpc2 + kqa?c2+
PQ
=

V(h2c2 +
,

"2a2c2 +

+ ?2a2c2 Z2a2][p2c2 + r2a2]

the

the axial ratio of an orthorhombic To determine, by plotting, having given crystal, In order to solve this problem it is necessary stereographicprojectionof its forms. indices be given or the position of the pole of a pyramid face of known that the position tration For illusdome and a brachydome. of both a macroof the faces of a prism and one or such as represented in Fig. 305, has been of barite, that a crystal it is assumed the goniometer and the polesof its faces plotted in the stereographic tion. projecmeasured on The lower righthand quadrant of this is shown in Fig. projection 190. 328.
are

The
common

forms
ones

present
on

ite bar-

crystals
been

and

have

given the symbols, ro(110), d(102), o(011), c(001). The ratio of a : 6 be determined can readily from the position of the A radial pole m(110).
line

102

Oil

of

is drawn the face

to

the

pole
a

and

then

111

perpendicularerected
it from

to

the end

representing the tallographicaxis. intercept of this

on

of the line b crysThe dicular perpen-

the line senting reprewhen the a axis, expressed in terms of the assumed unit length of the b axis, gives the length It is to be noted of a. that the fact that this line in the present case
passes

very

through nearly

the pole 111 is wholly accidental. The length of the vertical axis can the determined from be

position of the pole of either d(102) or o(011).

given^n8 the upper

hand quadrant figure. If the
of

leftthe

Determination

of the Axial Ratio for Barite

.

to the length the horizontal line equivalent on a distance tion of the face is started from the unit length of that axis. .on the c axis will equal of the 6 axis, or 1, and its intercept must be made equal of d(102) is used the base line of the triangle If the

brachydome, o(011),is used the sloping line that

gives

the

,. inchnA.

however,
?

to the unit

equal

position the intercept on length of the a axis as already established and Tatter's unit length. of the

the

axis

will

132

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

of the pyramid face,111, The problem could have been wholly solved from the position in this case is also construction The the been had on crystal. if that form present illustrated. the indices of a face upon an orthorhombic crystal, 191. To determine, by plotting,
329

given the position of iis the stereographic pole upon and the axial ratio projection
of the mineral. this problem that the To illustrate it is assumed position of the

stereographic pole in the projectionof the face o, Fig. 329, upon a topaz crystal is
First draw known. line through the e
erect
a a
.

radial
Next

pol o
as

perpendicular to this the line, starting it from

distance 1

selected
on

senting repre-

the

graphic axis.
of this line

crystalloThe intercept
a

the line axis when of the expressed in terms unit length of the b axis is This is equivalent 0'53. to the established unit length of the a axis and therefore the parameters of the face o the horizontal crystalloon
upon

the representing

graphic axes

are

la, 16.

Next

is transferred the distance O-P into the upper left-hand quadrant of the figure. The of the normal to the face is determined by measuring with a protractor the angular position O and o. The line giving the slope of the face is next drawn perpendicudistance between lar the line representing the vertical axis determined. to this normal and its intercept upon This distance when expressed in terms of the length of the 6 axis is 0'95. This is twice the established length of the c axis (0'476) and the third parameter consequently of the face o is 2c. This givesthe indices 221 for the face.
192. To deter the axial ratio of

mine, by plotting,
an

orthorhombic

crystal having given the gnomonic To illusof its forms. trate projection this problem the gnomonic projectionof the crystalof topaz alreadygiven in Fig. 320a will be In Fig. 330 one used. quadrant of this projection is reproduced. From each pole lines are drawn lines perpendicular to the two representingthe a and b crystalIt will be found lographicaxes. in this that the intercepts made
way

2"

upon the a axis have rational relations to each other. The same is true of the intercepts upon the 6 axis. The intercepts upon the two however, are axes, irrational in respect to each other. A convenient interceptupon each axis is chosen as 1 and the other intercepts that axis are then expressed in terms of this length. Of upon

MONOCLINIC

SYSTEM

133

with a known mineral, whose forms have alreadyhad indices assigned to them, the interceptthat shall be considered as 1 is fixed. If we take r as equivalent to the radius of the fundamental circle of the projection, the 6 crystallographic axis and p that upon the q as equal to the chosen interceptupon be derived from the following then the axial ratio can a axis, expressions:
course

b
c

a c

alreadygiven under the Tetragonal 117, p. 93. the indices of a face upon 193. orthorhombic an determine, by plotting, crystal, of the its and the axial ratio of the minthe eral. pole gnomonic projection position upon given method of construction in this case is the reverse The of that given in the problem the same as given under the Isometric and Tetragonal Systems, above and is essentially In the case of an orthorhombic mineral the intercepts of the perpendicuArts. 84 and 118. lars in must be expressedin each case drawn from the poleof the face to the a and b axes that axis. These values, on be determined from the terms of the unit intercept p and q, can given in the precedingproblem. equations
The

proof of
Art. To

is similar to these relationships

that

System,

V.

MONOCLINIC

SYSTEM

(Obliqw System)
Axes. 194. Crystallographic referred to three forms which are unequal axes, having one of their
"

The

monoclinic

system includes all the

331
i

axial inclinations oblique. designated as are The axes clino-axis inclined or follows: the tical is a; the ortho-axis is b, the verThe acute angle axis is c. and c is repthe axes a resented between by the letter (3; the b and b and c between a and angles

right angles. See Fig. 331. When properly orientated the

are

.toward inclined axis, a, dopes dawn zontal horiis b axis the observer, the and observer to the and parallel
1. NORMAL

S^Omi^^W1
the
c
axis

vertical.

CLASS

(28). GYPSUM
Holohedral

TYPE

or (Prismatic

Class)

class of the In the normal of symis there one plane metry monoclinic system of axis binary symmetry normal and one The plane of symmetry is always the to it. metry plane of the axes a and c, and the axis of symto this coincides with the axis b, normal axis (6)and that of of one plane. The position (a and c) is thus the plane of the other two axes may fixed by the symmetry; but the latter axes 332 in this plane. Fig. different positions
195.

Symmetry.

"

occupy
snows

Symmetry
on

of Normal

Class

the

planeof symmetry.

projection, jected protypicalstereographic actual of the an 348 are projections 347, Figs.
the

134

CR YST

ALLO

GR

APH

is normal to the of epidote;here,as is usual,the plane of projection crystal zone. prismatic The various forms * belonging to this class,with their 196. Forms. table. in As more the particularly following explained symbols, are given faces and two includes a pyramid four only. orthodome only, an later,
"

Symbols

1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

or a-pinacoid Orthopinacoid or 6-pinacoid Clinopinacoid Base or c-pinacoid

(100) (010) (001)

(hkO) ' (/^

Prisms Orthodomes.. Clinodomes.

.

197. Pinacoids. and the basal plane.

"

The

pinacoidsare

the

orthopinacoid, clinopinacoid,

includes the two faces parallel to the plane of (100), orthopinacoid, b and the vertical axis c. They have the indices 100 and 100. This form is designated by the letter a, since it is situated at the extremity of called the a-faceor a-pinacoid. the a axis; it is hence conveniently The includes the two faces parallel to the plane of (010), clinopinacoid, of the and that clino-axis the the axis c. a is, plane symmetry, They The have the indices 010 and 010. is clinopinacoid designatedby the letter 6, and is called the b-faceor b-pinacoid. The base or basal pinacoid, includes the two terminal faces, above (001), to the plane of the axes and below, parallel have the indices 001 a, 6; they The base is designatedby the letter c, and is often called the and 001. and the or c-face c-pinacoid.It is obviouslyinclined to the orthopinacoid, normal angle between the two faces (100 A 001) is the acute axial angle 0.
The the ortho-axis
333

335

101

Ortho-, Clmo
and

Basal

Pinacoids

Prism and Basal Pinacoid

Orthodomes and

Clinopinacoid

The

diametral

prism, formed

taken by these three pinacoids,

four

together,

Fig.333, is the analogueof the cube in the isometric system.

by
three
sets

It is bounded

of unlike

faces; it has
sets.

four similar
to the axis On

to edges parallel

b, are

of two

edges; also the axis a, but the remaining edges, parallel Of its eightsolid anglesthere are two sets of
see

similar

vertical

the generaluse

of the terms

pinacoid,prisms,domes, pyramids,

pp.

31, 122.

136
202. Illustrations.
=

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

0-589, ft
shows

74"

Figs. 336-339 o(100) A c(001)) show

"

of

pyroxene

(a
is the
are

: c

1'092

typicalmonoclinic

forms. unit

the

diametral
an

prism.

p(101) is figures see

orthoclase

orthodome;
p.

forms, m w(lll), 0(221), s(lll)

340-342
=

Of

the

other

Fig. 336 prism (110);

for other

pyramids;
common

475. b
: c
=

Again, Figs.
0'659
:

represent
is
a

crystals of
is

(aj

0'555, ft
;

#(101) and
Since

are 2/(201)

orthodomes

n(021)

edge crystal.

of

(Fig.340) c and x happen to make the prism m, the combination

340

64"). Here z (130) a prism; clinodome; 0(111) a pyramid. nearly equal angles with the vertical
often
simulates
an

orthorhombic

341

342

Orthoclase

epidote,prismatic in the direction of crystal, the ortho-axis; the forms are a(100), c(001), r(101) and w(Ill). Fig. 344 is flattened || of gypsum 6(010); it shows the unit pyramid /(111) with the unit prism w(110). Fig. 343
shows
a

monoclinic

Epidote
203.

Epidote

Projections. Fig. 345 shows a projection of a crystal of epidote to the prismatic zone, and a plane normal p. 531) on Fig. 346 of a similar crystal on one a plane parallel to 6(010); both should be carefully studied, as also the stereographic and gnomonic projectionsof the same The Figs. 347, 348. species, symbols of the prominent faces are given in
"

(cf.Fig. 897,

the latter

figures.

Stereographic of EpidoteCrystal Projection

210
IV

211

10211

100

Gnomonic

of EpidoteCrystal Projection

(137)

138
2.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

HEMIMORPHIC

CLASS

(29). TARTARIC

ACID

TYPE

(SphenoidalClass)
204. The class is characterized by a singleaxis monoclinic-hemimorphic of binary symmetry, the 350 axis 6,but 349 crystallographic it has no plane of symmetry. ^
It

is illustrated

X.

^^"

7^

by the stereographic jection pro(Fig. 349) made a to plane parallel upon 6(010). Fig. 350 shows a
common

form

of

tartaric

acid; sugar crystalsalso belong here. The hemitinctly morphic character is disin shown the distribution of the clinodomes and pyramids; corresponding to this the marked pyroelectrical mena. pheno-

Symmetry of Hemimorphic Class artificialsalts

Tartaric

Acid

belonging here often exhibit

CLASS

3.

CLINOHEDRAL

(30). CLINOHEDRITE Class)

TYPE

(Domatic or Hemihedral

205. The monoclinic-clinohedral class is characterized by a singleplane to the clinopinacoid, but it has no axis of symof symmetry, parallel 6(010), metry. made This symmetry is shown in the stereographic projection upon the forms parallel to 6(010), a planeparallel therefore, Fig.351. In this class, and the to the 6 axis, viz., c(001), a(100), orthodomes, are represented by a
353

Symmetry

of Clinohedral

Class

Clinohedrite

face only. The other forms have each two faces,but it is to be noted single with the singleexceptionof the clinopinacoid that, 6(010),the faces of a to each other. The name given form are never parallel given to the class is based on this fact. Several artificialsalts but the only belong here in their crystallization,

MONOCLINIC

SYSTEM

139

known

minerals is the rare representativeamong clinohedrite silicate, of a (H2CaZnSiO5),* complex crystal which is shown in two positions in Figs. As seen in these figures, the crystalsof the group 352, 353. have a hemimorphic aspect with respect to their development in the direction of the vertical axis, although they cannot properly be called hemimorphic since this is not an axis of symmetry. The forms in Figs.352 shown 353 are as follows: pinacoid,b (010) Z(130); ;_ prisms,w(110), Wi(IlO), fc(3_20), n_(120), orthodomes, e(10_l), pyramids, p(lll), Pi(lll), tf(lll),r(331), ei(l_01); *(771), s(551), w(531),o(131), z(131),y(121). It is to be noted that crystalsof the common of species (also pyroxene and s how this habit in the distribution of their segirite titanite) occasionally but it is not certain that this may not be accidental^ faces,
MATHEMATICAL 206. Choice
"

RELATIONS

OF

THE

MONOCLINIC

SYSTEM

of Axes. It is repeated here (Art. 196) that the fixed positionof the establishes the direction of the plane of the a and c crystallographic and also of the axis b which is the symmetry axis and lies at rightangles to this plane. axes The have varying positions in the symmetry c axes, a and however, may plane according and which the unit pyramid, to which faces are taken as the pinacoids a(100) and c(001),

plane of symmetry

prism, or
207.
a

domes. Axial and

"

The axial elements are the lengthsof the axes Angular Elements. with also the acute of the unit axis b, that is. the axial ratio, angle of for orthoclase the axial elements are: inclination of the axes a and c, called /3. Thus and
c

in terms

: c

0'6585

0'5554

63" 56f. the angle the unit for Thus, again,

The

angular elements

are

taken usually the three

/3; also the angles between

as the angle (100 A 001) which is equalto and 100, 010, 001, respectively, pinacoids

prism 110, the

unit orthodome

(101 or
are:

101) and the unit clinodomeOll.

A A 110 Oil
=

the angular elements orthoclase,

001 A A 100

001
208.

101

100 63" 56f , 50" 16"', 001

30" 36"'. 26" 31'.

relations connecting axial and angular elements are given in mathematical which in the following equations a, b, and c represent the unit lengths of the respective The
axes. crystallographic

tan
a
=

(10"
sin

110)
or

tan

(100

110)=

a.

sin 0;

(1)

/3
A

tan
=

(001
A

Oil)
Qr

tan

(001
(m

Oil)
101)

sin /3;

(2)

sin.tf
a
.

tan
cos

(001
0
tan
.

101) (001
A

sin ?

101)
" .

cos

(3)
a.
("
=

tan
"

(001
:

101)
or Ul

tan UCkU

(001
^vyv/i

A
/\

101)
J.WA/

"

sin 0 + These

cos

tan

(001

101)
more

cos

0
"

relations may

be made and

by writing in general
for a; in (2) OW

the several and

cases
i

in

(1)

MO

for 110

for Oil

Before;

in (3)

hOl for 101

and

j-

for c..

38, 115, ,889.

140
Also
c
=

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

sin (001 A
sin

101)
=

sin (001 A sin

(100

101)

(TOO A

101); TOl)'
hQl)

and

more

generally
h
'
~

sin (001 A sin (100 A

0
a

hOl)
=
~

sin (001 A sin

tan

hOl)
and

(TOOA hQl)
f
=

Note

also that
tan
=

c,

is the angle (Fig. 347) between the zone-circles (001, 100) and (001, 110); also f is "f" and (100,Oil). between 001) (100, angle All the above relations are important and should be thoroughly understood. 209. The problems which usually arise have as their object either the deducing of the of 6(= 1), from three the angle /3 and the values of a and c in terms axial elements, i.e.,

where

the

measured angles,or the findingof any required interfacial angles from these elements or from the fundamental angles. The simple relations of the preceding article connect the angular and axial elements, be solved * either by the solution of spherical and beyond this all ordinary problems can the aid of the cotangent (and tangent) relation. of the or by on sphere projection, triangles
It is to be

the
001

that noted, in the first place, Fig. 347) from projection, stereographic

The simpjetangent relation holds good for all circle 100, 001. 100; in other words, for the prisms, of pyramids in which the ratio of h : I is constant (from 001 to clinodomes, and also zones hOl or to "(M). Thus it is still true, as in the orthorhombic system, that the tangents of the angles of the prisms 210, 110, 120, 130 from 100 are in the ratio of * : 1 : 2 : 3, or, more that generally,
"

angles,but those from 100 cut the zone circle 100, 010, 100. cuttingthe zone 210. Tangent and Cotangent Relations.
from 010
to any

all great circles on 010 cut the zone circles 010, 001, 010

sphere of projection(see circle 100, 001, 100 at right also those from as obliquely,
the

zones

poleon

the

zone

tan tan

(100 (100

MO) 110)

k
=
~~

tan tan

(010 (010

A A

hkO) 110)

h
_ ~

k'

Also for the clinodomes the tangents of the angles of 012, Oil, 021 from 001 are in the A^similarrelation holds for the tangents of the angles of pyramids in ratio of \ i : 1 : 2, etc. the zones mentioned, as 121, 111, 212, etc. from 100 to a clinodome, or from 001 to a For zones other than those mentioned as tion general cotangentformula given in Art. 49 must be employed. This relaprism, the more for certain common is simplified cases. For any zone startingfrom 001, as the zone 001, 100, or 001, 110, or 001, 210, etc.; if the angles between 001 and those two faces in the given zone two angles are known, viz., which fall (1) in the zone 010, 101, and (2) in the prismatic zone 010, 100; then the angle be calculated. between 001 and any other face in the given zone can

Thus,
Let
or or
" "

001 001 001

A A A

101 111 212

PQ PQ PQ

and
"

001 001 001

A A A

100 110 210

PR, PR, PR,

etc.

Then
zone

for these,or any similar cases, the angle (PS) between 001 and any face in the given in general hQl,hhl,etc.)is given by the equation or (as201, or 221, or 421, etc.,
cot PS
-

cot PR
=
~

l_ h

cotPQ
For
same

cot

PR
to

the corresponding zones value; but here

from

001

to

100,

110,

to

210, etc.,the expressionhas the

001 001

PQ
or

001 001

A A

TOl, PR Til,etc.,

001 001

A A

TOO, PS TlO,etc.,

A A

hOl,

hhl,etc.

any
as

The generalformulas,from which it is possible to calculate directly the angles between face and the pinacoids, the angle between or any two faces whatever,are so complex to be of littlevalue.

MONOCLINIC

SYSTEM

141

If,however,

100

is the

and starting-point, 100 A A 101 111 100 100 A

A

001 Oil

or

100

PR, PR, etc.,

then the relation becomes

cot cot

PS

cot PR
cot

PQ

PR

To determine,by plotting, 211 the axial elements of a monoclinic crystal eiven the As an example of this problem stereographjcprojection of its forms. that orthoclase crystalsimilar to the one shown in Fig 341 has been measured an of its faces located on the stenographic projection, of the a axis The Fig. 354. the angle 0 is given or of the stenographic protractor the directly by measuring, by means angular distance between the poles of a(100) and c(001). In the present case the a(100) iirmt does not actually form the crystal, p is measured occur on 64" If thp basp as the crystalit will be usualfy of some present upon possibleto locate its positionby mean^
zone

"t [fassumld andThe pol?s inclination

circle on

which

it must
"^

he

the

oiemto the base

In the present case the great circle of the zone of m'(TlO), t0 ba"k llne (Z"ne "f the orthodomes)at ^ point of

mllO

fc'oio*

6010

100

Determination
The

of Axial Elements

of Orthoclase

from

Projection Stereographic

from the be readily determined can the lengths of the a and b axes ratio between the of the center from O-P projection line radial Draw the positionof the pole,m(110). This represents a line at rightangles to O-P. From the end of the b axis draw to m(110). and the distance O-R horizontal the plane with face of the the intersection prism of the a axis. The distance of the prism upon the horizontal projection gives the intercept foreshortened somewhat distance that but is axis the of a unit O-R therefore is not the length because of the inclination of that axis. The construction by which the true length The line R-O-S-T represents the horizontal in Fig. 355. of the a axis is obtained is shown As the from Fig. 354. projectionof the a axis upon which the distance O-R is transferred a perpendicufound be lar dropping 'a axis by can the prism face is vertical its interceptupon of this last from R to intersect the line which represents the a axis. The inclination

142

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

The length of the which has been already determined. line is found by use of the angle ft, expressed in terms of the b axis (TOO) was found to be 0'66. a axis when be found best from the inclination of the ?/(201) face. This The length of the c axis can face will intersect the negative end of the a axis and the upper end of the c axis at either the center of the projection, O, Fig. 354, and the \a, Ic or la, 2c. The angle between this angle the position of the stereographic protractor. From pole y is measured by means The line representing the slope of of the normal to y, as shown in Fig. 355, is determined. from the negative unit length of at rightangles to this normal, starting the face is drawn found to be equal to I'll,which, as the inclined a axis. The intercepton the c axis was it is equal to 2c, would give the unit length of the c axis as, 0'55. from the inclination of the pyramid The length of the c axis could also be determined lem face,o(Tll). The method of construction would be similar to that described in the probbelow. the indices of a face upon monoclinic a 212. To determine crystal, having given the

positionof
The

its

pole upon

the

stereographicprojectionand

the

axial elements

of the

eral. min-

face o on orthoclase will be used to illustrate the problem. see First, through the pole o and a perpendicular S-T erected to it, Fig. 354, a radial line is drawn from the unit length of the b axis. It is to be noted that the point T is the intersection starting Transfer the distance of the face o with the horizontal projectionof the a axis

pyramid

Determination
O-S
to the horizontal

of Axial and

Elements, etc.

of Orthoclase
to
o

line in Fig. 355

locate the positionof the normal

by the

angle, Fig. 354, between O and o. The line giving the slope of the face can then be drawn from the point S (Fig. 355) perpendicular 'to the normal. This line intersects the line representing the vertical axis at a distance equal to its unit length. Two section points of interof the pyramid face with the plane of the been determined, have now a and c axes
A line joining namely Ic and T. these two points will give the intersection of the two planes and the point where it crosses the line representingthe a axis will therefore give the intercept of the pyramid upon that axis. This is also found to be at the unit length and therefore the indices of o must be 111. 213. To determine, the axial elements of a monoclinic by plotting, having given crystal, the gnomonic projectionof its forms. The construction by which this problem is solved is shown in Fig. 356. The poles of the unit forms (101),(Oil),(001) and (111) are located tor pyroxene) and the zonal lines drawn. (in this case The to is

angle /S

complementary

144
tion and

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

is called the c axis (cf. Fig.357),a second axis lies in the front-totoward the observer,and is back plane,slopingdown 357 The called the a axis. remaining axis is designated as the b axis. Usually the a and b axes chosen that are so the a axis is the shorter and, like in the orthorhombic called the brachy-axis. In that system, is sometimes the 6 axis is longer and is known the macroas case But this is not invariably axis. donite true; thus with rho1*073 : 1. of a :b ratio The the angle b and c is called a, that between the axes between a Triclinic Axes and c is 0, and that between and b is 7 (Fig.357). a relation between the values of It is to be noted that there is no necessary less be than and one 90"; this is determined by greater or may a, p, 7, any forms. choice of the fundamental the
=

1. NORMAL

CLASS

(31). AXINITE Class)

TYPE

Pinacoidal or (Holohedral 216.

Symmetry.
a

by
but

center

there is no

The normal class of the triclinic system is characterized of symmetry, the point of intersection of the three axes, This symmetry is shown in plane and no axis of symmetry.
"

the

accompanying stereographic projection (Fig.358).

358

Symmetry
217.

of Normal

Class

Triclim'cPinacoids

Forms. Each form of the class includes two faces,parallel to another and symmetrical with reference to the center of symmetry. This is true as well of the form with the general symbol of one o" the as (hkl) specialforms, as, for example, the a-pinacoid(100).
"

one

the four pjismatic following table, faces 110, TlO, forms, namely, 110, 110, and 110, 110. The same is true of the domes._ Further, eight corresponding pyramidal _any faces,as, for example, 111, 111_,_111,_111, 111, _1_11, 111, 111 belong to four distinct forms, namely, 111, 111; 111, 111; Hi, lll;-in, 111, and similarly in
as
__

Hence,

shown

in the

10, 110 include two

general.

TRICLINIC

SYSTEM

145

The

various types of forms

are

given in the following table:

Indices
' "

Macropinacoid or a-pinacoid Brachypinacoid or 6-pinacoid Base or c-pinacoid

Prisms MacrodomeS

(100) (010) (001)

{ ", W

I(MO)

BrahydomeB

(P) (g
I

Pyramids
In the above
were

(hkl)
If the opposite

\(hkl)
true

table it is assumed that the axial ratio is such that a " the names would be interchanged. brachy- and macro-

b.

the two precedingsystems make it the discuss in detail various forms individually, as unnecessary except of crystals illustrated in the case triclinicspecies. belongingto certain typical be mentioned, however, that Fig. 359 shows the diametral prism, It may bounded the pinacoidsa, 6, and c. is which by three sets of unlike faces, of cube the of the isometric This is the analogue system, but here the like and solid anglesinclude only a given face, edge,and angle,and faces,edges, to it. that opposite A typical triclinic crystal is shown 360 of 219. Illustrations. in_Fig. axinite. Here a (100) is the macropinacoid; m(110)_and M(110) the two unit prisms; s(201)a macrodome, and z(lll) and r(lll)two unit pyramids. The axial ratio is as follows:
218.

The

explanations given under

to

"

: c

0'49

0'48, a

82"

54', ft

91"

52', 7

131" 32'.

which is allied to of rhodonite, a species Figs.361, 362 show two crystals it in and habit. Here the faces and which approximatesto angle pyroxene,
361
362

Rhodonite

are:

6(010),c(001); prisms m(110), M(lTO); pyramids a(l_00), Pina_coids

Further

thite.

illustrations are given by Fig.363 of albite and and The symbols of the faces,besides the pinacoids

Fig.364 of
the
unit

anor-

prisms,

146
are
as

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

30), z(130); domes 364, prisms /(1 Fig. 363, z(101); _Fig. e(021),r(061),n(021); pyramids m(lll), a(lll), o(lll), t/(201), *(207),
follows:
363
365

"0104

"010

mllO

100

MllQ

Stereographic of Projection
.

an

Axinite

Crystal
one

In

clase is evident

to of the crystal Fig.364 of anorthite the similarity and on examination slight 340, 341), (cf. Figs.

of ortho-

careful

study

TRICLINIC

SYSTEM

147

with the measurement of anglesshows that the Hence in this case the choice of the fundamental

Fig. 365
graphic
and

is very close correspondence made. planes is readily represents a crystal of axinite; Figs.366 and 367 its stereognomonic projections.
367
M110

6010-4

K110

100

Gnomonic

of Projection

an

Axinite

Crystal THIOSULPHATE TYPE

2.

ASYMMETRIC

CLASS

(32). CALCIUM (Hemihedral Class)

220.

Besides

the

normal

class of the triclinic system there is another

368
"

neither possibleclass,possessing symmetry with respect to a plane,axis nor center; in it has one face only. This class finds a given form of artificialsalts. number a examples among calcium of is these One thiosulphate (CaS2O3.6H2O); as yet no mineral speciesis This is the most be included here. general of all the thirty-twotypes of forms and classified according to their symmetry known
to
comes

*"

^-

"
..

in order

if the classes are arranged first, therefore, the degree of symmetry to according

This class is one of those them. characterizing whose crystals circular polarization. show may This is true of eleven of the classes which have Symmetry been described in the preceding pages.

of

Asymmetric

Class

148
MATHEMATICAL
"

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY RELATIONS
TRICLINIC

OF

THE

SYSTEM

of It is obvious,from what has been said as to the symmetry 221. Choice of Axes. be chosen the pinacoids, as or may this system, that any three faces of a tricliniccrystal of the axial planes and the directions of the axes; moreover, the faces which fix the position or pyramids which further fix in the choice of the unit prisms,domes there is a like liberty the lengthsof the axes. in hand is allied in form or composition to other species, whether of the crystal When the choice of the the problem and makes different systems, this fact simplifies the same or This is well illustrated, as alreadynoted,by the triclinic forms easy. feldspars fundamental albite and anorthite, Figs.363, 364) which are near in angleto the allied monoclinic (e.g., of the pyroxene (Figs.361, 362), the triclinic member species orthoclase. Rhodonite is another example. good group, and where varied habit makes different exists, In other cases, where no such relationship there is but littleto guide the choice. This is illustrated in the case orientations plausible, have been assumed of axinite (Fig. by different 360),where at least ten distinct positions authors. axial elements The of a triclinic crystal are : 222. Axial and Angular Elements. which expresses the lengths of the axes of the third a and c in terms (1) the axial ratio, axis,6; and (2)the anglesbetween the axes a, 3, 7 (Fig.357). There are here five quantities which obviouslyrequirethe measurement of five independent angles to be determined between the faces. The angular elements are usually taken as the angles between the pinacoids and, in those between each pinacoidand the unit face lyingin the zone of the other pinaaddition, coids; that is,
"

100

A A

010,

ac,

100 001

A A

001,

be,

010 001

A A

also
or,

am one or

instead, any

110, all of these,

100 100 A

101, 101,

001; Oil;
Oil.

aM,

110,

001

001

stated.

Of these six anglestaken, one is determined when the others are known. 223. The mathematical relations existing between the axial anglesand axial ratio, the on one hand, and the angles between the faces on the other,admit of being drawn out with great completeness,but they are necessarily complex and in general have littlepractical In fact, value. most of the problems likely to arise can be solved by means of the triangles of the spherical projection, togetherwith the cotangent formula connecting four planes in the same zone (Art.49, p. 49); this will often be laborious and may requiresome ingenuity but in generalinvolves no serious difficulty. In connection with the use of the cotangent it is noted be to that in certain commonly occurringcases formula, its form is much fied; simpliof these have alreadybeen explained under the monoclinic some system (Art.210). The formulas given there are of course here. equallyapplicable 224. The firstproblem may be to find the axial elements from measured angles. Since these elements include five unknown the three axial angles a quantities, viz., /3 7 and the lengthsof the axes of b, five measured a and c in terms angles are required, as already

positive ends
which
are

Fig. 369 represents the crystallographic of the triclinic mineral rhodonite axes The of the three axes are joined by lines forming three triangles the angles of
very

important.

In the

for instance, which triangle,

two

has the b and c axes for of its sides since the length of the b axis is taken as I'O,it is only to know necessary the angle a and either or ?r p in order to determine the length of the c axis. In the triangle that has the a and b axes for two of its sides it is necessary to know the value of 7 and either a or T in order to determine the lengthof the a axis. And lastly in the triangle formed between the a and c axes, if the lengthof either of
a

of the other

can

be determined from

the angle " and

either'f orT " "S*? ^af

TRICLINIC rhodonite forms "i{ ^*k ?ho*jD" the, 370, has of

SYSTEM

149
see

o(100),6(010),c(001) and
371
100

bee^me^ural and^e
connect
as

poles

the faces plotted in the

p(lll), stereogr^hic'p
Fie

great

these those shown in the the triangles built upon crystallographic With axes, Fig.369. the anglesbetween the different crystal faces known by measurement, it is easy, by the formulas of spherical to calculate the value trigonometry, of these other angles and from them obtain the axial ratio. That the anglesshown on the stereographic

poles are

circles which the same

projection, Fig. 371,

identical with be proved as

are

represent

those in Fig.369 may follows. Let Fig. 372 vertical section cut

through the spherical projectionof

in rhodonite such to a as way include the 6 and c crystallographic The triangle, axes. which has these two sides and axes as the three angles a, -K and p, lies therefore in the plane of the figure. The mals noraioo to all faces parallelto the i.e. the c axis, prism zone, would lie in a plane at rightangles to that axis. This plane would intersect the sphere of the spherical 372 projectionin a great circlewhich is representedon the stereographicprojection, Fig. 371, by the divided circle. On Fig. 372 this great circle would in orthographicprojection as the appear line C-C' lying at rightangles to the c axis. In the same all faces lying way to the b axis, i.e.the zone parallel (100)would have their normals (101)(001), in a plane which would be foreshortened to the line B-B' in Fig. 372. Since the lines C-C' and B-B' at right are to the c and b axes angles respectively the angle between them must equal the axial angle, a. This same angle will therefore on the stereographic appear projection, Fig. 371, between the great circles of the two zones, the faces of which are parallel to the c respectively and b axes. Further the normals to all faces which intersect the b and c axes at their unit lengthswould lie in a plane at right angles to the line b-c, Fig. 372. This plane would appear in orthographic On the stereographic projection as the line P-P'. be projection,Fig. 371, this would represented the zonal circle passing through (100), (111), as 373 B-B' and P-P' (Oil),(100). The angle between will by construction equalV and that between C-C' and P-P' will equal p. These same angleswill appear therefore in the stereographic between the projection the circles. In the same corresponding zone way of the anglesj, a, T, 0, n and v in Figs.369 identity and 371 can be proved. the necessary With number of these anglesgiven the formulas required for the calculation of the axial lengthsare given below. The angles T',a',t"',

//,if'and p' are the correspondinganglesto in the adjacentquadrants,see Fig. 373.

T, o-, etc..

150
sin
sin
T
_ ~~

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY sin v'

_ _ ~ _ ~

sin T'
sin a'

sin
'

c
'

sin sin

-w
_

sin TT'
_

"r

sin

sin M'

"

sin p'

'

and the pyramid hkl (not the unit form) If the anglesgiven are between the three pinacoids the correspondinganglesbe represented hkl if for That the face similar. the relations are is, circles 100, 001 and 100, 010 the zone by TO, ffo, etc.,where TO, "TO are the angles between in the general be expressed relations these circle and the zone may 001, hkO, respectively form k a sin TO' sin TO a_
_ ~ _

sin

o-o

sin

'

o-0

h,

b'

sin sin

vn

sin

VQ

he
"

""

MO

sin MO'

la

htt
sin sin
TTO
_

sin TH/
_

c
_

k I

PO

sin p0'

I,

Thus

for the face 321 the formulas sin

sin
TO
_

become sin sin

v0
_

a^

2_a
_

3c
a

sin sin

XQ
_

2c
^

(TO

|6 A,

36

MO

po

It is also to be noted
a

that
=

180"

ft

180"

B,

180"

C,
at

where

the angles in the That is, polesrespectively.

A, B, C

are

pinacoidal sphericaltriangle IOO'010'OOI

=

these

A B
=

*"

P
=

TO ^ T0

+ + +

PO /io=
"r0=

^+M
T-f-"r TT' +

C Also 180"
-

(180" a); (180" -0); (180" 7).

-

P'

TTO' 4- PO'

".

the faces or calculation,the angles between Hence, having given, by measurement the ab(100 A 010),ac(100 A 001) and 6c(010 A 001), which are the sides of this triangle, anglesA, B, C are calculated and their supplements are the axial angles a, /3, 7 respectively. Stillanother series of equations are those below, which give the relations of the angles and axial angles. By means to the axes of them, with the sine formulas given /*, v, p, etc., above, the angularelements (and other angles) can be calculated from the axial elements.
a

tan fj.

sin )8
"

sin 8
"

" "

; a

;
cos
a
-

tan

"

/3
'

+
c

cos
a

b sin tan p
= ,
,

sin
c

tan b + tan
a
=
'

cos

cos 7

sin
"

tan

7'"
'

6 sin
;
7
a

r"

b +

cos

'

cos

These equations apply when M + v, etc.,is less than is negative. 90" the sign in the denominator 207. The following equations are also often useful.
2 sin
tan
a
=

90";

if their

sum

is greater than

P
-

sm

P'
= **

2 sin

?r
-

sin w'
'

sin (p
2 sin
,
,,
_

p')
//
_

sin (TT
2 sin sin
v

TT') v')

fj.sin
"

sin v'
"

sin (n
2 sin tan
T

n'}
sin T'
-

(v
a

2 sin

sin "r'
'
-

sin (T

T')
+
y
=

sin ("r

a')
(r
=

Also,
a

7r+p=/3+M
the

7+r

180".
measured

The calculation, from angular elements or from the assumed fundamental angles,either (1) of the angular position of any face whose symbol is given, or

(2) of the

152

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

expressed in terms of the l'93c. ;. By dividingthese numbers by 1'55 we get the intercepts then become that as 1*0. The intercepts 0'71a,16, l'24c. h of the 6 axis, considering length T114 : 1 : 0'986, these are compared with the axial ratio of rhodonite, a : b : c When The indices of x are therefore 321. the parameters of the face are found to be fa, 16, 2c. of a triclinic crystal the axial elements having given the 227. To determine,by plotting, that the posiof its forms. To illustrate this problem it is assumed tions gnomonic projection of the poles of the faces,(100),(010),(001),(101),(Oil) and (111) On rhodonite are If this figureis compared with the stereographicprojectionof the known, see Fig. 376. forms given in Fig.371, it will be seen that the angle between the zones same (100)-(101)the zones is equal to TT, that between (100)-(111)-(011)and (001) and (100)-(111)-(011) is equal to p, between and (010)-(111)-(101)is equal (010)-(011)-(001) (100)-(110)-(010) The method to v and between (010)-(111)-(101)and (010)-(110)-(100)is equal to Mbe measured was -by which the angles between these various zones explained in Art. may From these angles triangles ^2, p. 43, and is illustrated by the construction of Fig. 376. in terms be readilyconstructed to give the lengths of the a and c axes of the 6 axis, can with its length taken as equal to 1 '0.
=

228. To determine, by plotting, the indices of the forms of a triclinic crystal, having of other poles upon the gnomonic given the position for the solution projection. The method of this problem is similar to that already described under the previous systems. The difference lies in the fact that the lines of reference upon which are plotted the intercepts to them from the polesof the faces make of the lines drawn angles with each other oblique

These

reference lines

are

from which intercepts study of the gnomonic

taken as the zonal lines the indices are determined are

and the (OOl)-(Oll) from the pole of (001) A of axinite, projection Fig. 367, will illustrate this problem.
measured

and (OOl)-(lOl)

MEASUREMENT
229.

OF
"

THE

ANGLES

OF

CRYSTALS

measured

Contact-Goniometers. of instruments by means

The interfacial angles of crystals are which are called goniometers.

MEASUREMENT

OF

THE

ANGLES

OF

CRYSTALS

153
form of which is

COntact"

or

hand-goniometer one

This

arc

use

celluloid arm which may be turned to any desired position. The method of of the goniometer is illustrated in Fig.377. The bottom of the card and
"77

consists of a card on which is contact-goniometer circular printeda semigraduated to half degreesat the center of which is fastened a

PenfieldContact Goniometer,Model

the blackened end of the celluloid arm are brought in as accurate contact as the anglebetween which is desired. Care with the two crystal faces, possible must be taken to see that the planeof the goniometeris at rightangles to the the faces. between Another model of two the intersection of contactedge swiveled togetherand separate from the goniometer,Fig.378, has two arms of the arms is The and then crystal angle obtained by means graduated arc. the them the angle between them measured graduated arc. by placing upon liesin such a position This latter type is employed in cases where the crystal of the former.* to prevent the use as
* devised by S L. Penfield and can be were These simple types of contact-goniometers Laboratory of the Sheffield Scientific School of obtained by addressing the Mineralogical Yale University,New Haven, Ct.

154
The whose

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

is useful contact-goniometer
faces
are

in the

case

of

not

well

polished;the
378

measurements

and those largecrystals with it,however, are

Penfield

Contact

Goniometer,

Model

seldom

accurate

within
the faces

quarter of
are

where crystals,

smooth
may

379

a degree. In the finest specimens of and lustrous, accurate results far more be obtained by means of a different

instrument,
230.

called

the

ometer. gonireflecting
-

Goniometer. This instrument devised was type by Wollaston in 1809. It has undergone extensive modifications and improvements since that time. Only the perfectedforms that in are common use to-day will be described. The principle the construction underlying

Reflecting

of

of

the

understood

reflecting goniometer will be by reference to the figure (Fig.

represents
a

379),

which

section

of

crystal,whose angle, abc, between the faces ab, be, is required. Let the eye be placed at P and the point M be a source of light. The eye at P, looking at the face of the crystal, be, will observe a reflected image of
in

the

direction of Pn.
same

m,

The

crystalmay

that
fn.

the
lo

image is seen effect this, the

reflected by

crystal must

be so changed in its position the next face and in the same direction, be turned around, until abd has the
now

MEASUREMENT

OF

THE

ANGLES

OF

CRYSTALS

155

of the number therefore, present direction of be. The angle dbc measures, be measured degrees through which the crystalmust be turned; it may by which turns with the crystal. attachingthe crystalto a graduated circle, This angle is the supplement of the interior angle between the two faces, or is the normal in other words or angle, angle between the two poles(seeArt. the angle needed 43, p. 44). The reflecting goniometer hence givesdirectly
on

the system of Miller here followed. A form Goniometer. 231. Horizontal of reflecting goniometer well for in The measurements accurate is 380. shown particular adapted Fig. * Fuess. is made form of instrument here figured by
"

One-circle

Reflection

Goniometer

The central screws. stands on a tripod with leveling instrument which the d, with plate, turns, carrying axis, o, has within it a hollow axis,6, the uprightsupport of which is the verniers and also the observingtelescope, carries the graduated which e, shown at B. Within b is a second hollow axis, 0; the tangent screw, circle, /, above, and which is turned by the screw-head, B, the screw, c, being for the observingtelescope, fine
The

for this purpose raised so as to bind b and e together. The tangent screw, 0, the third is a fine adjustment for the graduatedcircle. Again, within e is which the central h within rod, is and h, turned by the screw-head, i, axis, trivances conand centering the with adjusting carries the support for the crystal, the lowered fc, raised by or be screw, rod This can below. mentioned
The here used figure is from

a,

serves

as

adjustment

the catalogueof Fuess.

156
so as

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

to

to the bring the crystal

proper

height
"

that

is, up

to the axis of the

telescope; when this has been accomplished,the clamp at p, turned by a take placeindependof h can The movement h. ently binds s to the axis, set-key, these two for measurement axes is are the but after ready of g, crystal is at The /. the C, telescope supported signal bound set-screw, togetherby The mounted is of the the on of crystal tripod. legs firmly attached to one The the plateis clamped by the screw, v. centering the plate, u, with wax, other each to at slides (one of these is rightangles apparatus consists of two and the screw, a, which works it;the end of the other in the figure) shown is seen at a'. The adjustingarrangement consists of correspondingscrew the other at rf; in the figure, shown of them, r, one two sections, cylindrical is The circle on / center. have a common graduated to degrees the cylinders to 30". and quarter degrees,and the vernier givesthe readings of lightis placed behind the collimator tube which is A brilliant source Openings of various size and character are provided at the top of the support C. end of this tube in order to modify the size and shape of the at the rear faces. The most monly comthat is to be reflected from the crystal beam of light made tact used opening is one by placingtwo circular disks nearly in conthem between an with each other leaving shaped figure. The hour-glass with lenses removable with several L tube is telescopes provided telescope and hence are which have different angular breadths and magnifying powers faces varying in size and degree of polish. At the front suitable for observing is so pivotedthat it may be thrown into or is L the there tube of a lens which of lens this liesin axis the tube it of When the of axis the the out telescope. with which the into the telescope a converts crystal low-power microscope this lens the telescopehas a long-distance focus Without be observed. may reflected from the crystal face can be seen. of light and only the beam
is briefly The littleplate u is removed of use of the instrument method as follows. The of some the crystalto be measured. faces of it is fastened by means wax should be placed as nearlyas possiblevertical to the surthat is to be measured face zone facilitatethe subsequent adjustment if a prominent face of this plate. It will usually be placed so that it is parallel in this zone of the edges of the plate u. This plate to one is then fastened in place by the screw with the attached crystal v. During the preliminary the small lens in front of the tube L is placed in its axis and the adjustments of the crystal It is usually better also to make observed through the microscope thus formed. crystal k these first adjustments outside the dark room in daylight. By means of the screw-head the central post is raised or lowered until the center of the crystallies in the plane of the of the two sliding tables controlled by the screw-heads a and a' telescope. Next by means the crystalis adjusted so that the edge over which the angle is to be measured coincides with the axis of the instrument. This adjustment is most easilyaccomplished by turning the central post of the instrument of these slidingplates lies at rightangles to until one and then by turning its screw-head the telescope cide to coinbring the intersection in question with the vertical cross-hair of the telescope tube. Then turn the post until the other and make Then in a similar plateliesat rightanglesto the telescope a similar adjustment. of the tipping screws manner the faces by means x and y bring the intersection between to a positionparallel with the vertical cross-hair of the telescope.By a combination of these adjustments this edge should be made to coincide with the vertical cross-hair and to remain stationarywhile the crystalis revolved upon the central post of the instrument. the instrument Next is taken into the dark room and a lightplaced behind the collimator turned until one of the faces is seen tube, and the crystal through the tube L to be brightly illuminated. Then the littlelens in the front of this tube is raised and the reflection of the beam of light, should lie in the field. If the preliminary adjustor signalas it is called, ments the horizontal accurate were cross-hair will bisect this signal. In the majority of cases, however, further slightadjustments will be necessary. Before the angles between the faces can be measured their various must all be bisected by the horizontal crosssignals hair. When these conditions are fulfilledeach signalin turn is brought into place so that The and the
upon

MEASUREMENT
it

OF

THE

ANGLES

OF

CRYSTALS

157

is bisected also by the vertical cross-hair and its angular positionread by of the means The difference between graduated scale and vernier. the angles for two the normal angle between them. In making these readings care must be taken that the plate which the graduated circle is engraved is turned with the on central post. In order to do this only the screw-head be used unless, is wise,the two screw-heads i and g must as a have been previouslyclamped togetherby means of I. For the accurate adjustment of the

LeTgfves

signals on
th"

the

vertical cross-hair the tangent

screw

/3 is used.

anglesmeasured

In making
a

record of the

a?i of the

it is important to note character of the signal. It is

accuratelythe face from which each signal is derived

frequently to helpful
A form

make

different faces and

sketch of the outlines

number

or

letter them.
"

232.

Theodolite-Goniometer.

practicaladvantages and

at present in wide
381

of goniometer * having many has two independent use circles

Two-circle

Reflection

Goniometer

is commonly known the two-circle goniometer. It is used in a manner as of this type were analagousto that of the ordinarytheodolite. Instruments devised and Goldschmidt. Other independentlyby Fedorow, Czapski models have been described since. In addition to the usual graduated horizontal and collimator, circle of Fig. 380, and the accompanying telescope a second graduated circle is added which revolves in a plane at rightangles to the first. Fig.381, after Goldschmidt,givesa cross-sectional view of one of
* Fedorow, Universal or Theodolit-Goniometer, Zs. Kryst., 21. 574, 1893; 22, 229, 21, 210, 1893; Czapski, Zeitschr. f. Instrumentenkunde, 1, 1893; Goldschmidt. Zs. Kryst., of Goldschmidt, On the method 1892; 24, 610, 1895; 25, 321, 538, 1896; 29, 333, 589, 1898. A see Palache, Am. J. Sc.,2, 279, 1896; Amer. Mineral, 6, No. 2, et seq., 1920. form is described by Stober, Zs. Kryst., 29, 25, of the theodolite-goniometer simplified 1897; 64,442.

and

158

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

It will serve to illustrate the essential the earlier machines devised by him. instrument. features of the is attached at the end of the axis (h) of the to be measured The crystal of suitable centeringand vertical circle and so adjusted by means tipping to this axis and devices that a given plane, called the polar plane, is normal the axis of the horizontal circle. In using the instrument, lies directly over the position instead of directly measuring the interfacial anglesof the crystal, of the others by the measurement of of each face is determined independently what its angular co-ordinates, or might be called its latitude and longitude. and p of Goldschmidt) measured, respecThese co-ordinates are the angles("f" tively, in the vertical and horizontal circlesfrom an assumed ian, poleand meridin most the In of the which are fixed, crystal. symmetry cases, by tice practhat its prismatic the crystalis usually so mounted is perpendicular zone to this zone, i.e., the basal plane to the vertical circle. A plane at rightangles in the first four systems, is known the polar plane and its position when as the signalinto the telescope establishes the zero reflecting positionfor the horizontal circle. The position of a pinacoid, usuallythe 010 plane,in the for the vertical circle. For example, prism zone establishes the zero position for the pyramid 111, the angle "f" with an orthorhombic crystal, (measured on the vertical circle) is equal to 010 A 110 and p (measured on the horizontal is equal to 001 A 111. circle) Goldschmidt has shown that this instrument is directly to the applicable and of of indices methods system calculation and projection adopted by him, which admit of the deducing of the elements and symbols of a of given crystal with a minimum labor and calculation.* Fedorow has also shown strument, that this inwith the addition of the appliances devised by him, can be most used in the crysconveniently and tallographic optical study of

crystals.
The following hints as to the methods of using this instrument may helpful. prove The telescope and colhmator tube are convenient placed at some angle each to other (usually about 70") and then clamped in position. The find the polar posinext step is to tion of the horizontal circle, the positionat which a crystalplane lying i.e., at rightangles to the axis of the vertical circle will throw the reflected beam of lighton to the cross-hairs of the telescope. Obviously the plane under these conditions must be normal to the bisector of the angle between the axes of the collimator and telescope, the line B-P Fig 382. The method by which this polarpositionis found is as follows: Some reflectingsurface is mounted the end of the post h, Figs. 381, upon small inclined 382, making some angle to the plane normal to that post. Then by turning the instrument in both the hori*

See

Goldschmidt's
les

Krystallographische Winkeltabellen
f"* all known atlas der

9Q wnrV work

gystem bT his, "TT"a"e a-?" rec*ulre(i author's

The.same

(432 pp., Berlin, 1897). species. See also Zs. Kryst.,

et seq.,
a

giving

"/

-11

all

1913 Krystallformen,

is a monumental

previouslypublished crystal figures together with

tnem.

discussion of the forms

ooserveu

upon

160

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

After these adjustments have been completed the crystal is turned about both the it successivelyreflects the signal horizontal and vertical planes so that each face upon made in each case. horizontal and vertical readings are The into the telescope. The forms tions. present can then be readilyplotted in either the stereographicor gnomonic projecFig. 383 shows how the forms of a simple crystalof topaz could be plotted in the from the "f" the two and p angles obtained from it circle gonistereographic projection ometer For each face the vertical circle angle, "",is plottedon the divided measurements. of 6(010)givingthe zero the position point while the horizontal circle angle is plotted circle, the position of c(001)givingits zero point. radial line from the center of the projection, on a
"

COMPOUND
233.
Twin
"

OR

TWIN

CRYSTALS

those in which are or one more Crystals. Twin crystals with reference in to the are reverse other position arranged parts regularly to consist of two or more crystals part or parts. They often appear externally form of a cross and sometimes have the star. or united, symmetrically They of part of the faces, also exhibit the compositionin the reversed arrangement
384 386

Thenardite

Columbite

Fluorite

and in re-entering the surface, angles; in certain cases by an examination in polarized kinds of examples of typical twin crystals, and many others are given on the pages following. To illustratethe relation of the parts in a twin Figs.387, 388 are crystal, given. Fig. 387 shows a regularoctahedron divided into halves by a plane to an octahedral face. If now parallel the lower half be supposed to be revolved 180" about an axis normal to this plane,the twinned octahedron of Fig.388 results. This is a common type of twin in the isometric system, and the method here employed to describe the position of the parts of the crystalto one another is applicable to nearlyall twins. 234. Distinction between It is Twinning and Parallel Grouping. important to understand that crystals, or so parts of crystals, grouped as to parallel with reference to each other occupy positions that is, those whose similar faces are parallel are not called twins; the term is appliedonly where the crystals or parts of them are united in their reversed position in accordance with some deducible mathematical law. Thus Fig. 389, which represents a cluster of partial crystals of analcite, of parallel is a case grouping simply (seeArt. 252); but Fig.407 illustrates twinning,and this is

in the striae of the

compound

structure can only be surelydetected light. The above figures (Figs. 384-386) are

"

"

"

COMPOUND

OR

TWIN

CRYSTALS

161

true

the similar faces (and planes of symmetry) 235. The relative Twinning-Axis.
"

the axes remain parallel in position. of the parts of a twinned position crystal can be best described as justexplained, by reference to that line or called the twinning-axis, axis a revolution of 180" about which would serve to
cases are

of

Fig. 416 also.

Since

though in these

reversed

388

Twinned

Octahedron

Analei'te

in other words, which would to the other, or bring the twinned part parallel of the parallel cause to the other. one relatively partsto take a twinned position The is always a possible line that is,either crystalline twinning-axis axis or the normal to some face on the crystal, a possible crystallographic the fundamental forms. of one common usually twins have actuallybeen formed by It is not to be supposed that ordinary such a revolution of the parts of crystals, for all twins (except those of secondary molecular growth or enlargeArt 242) are the result of regular see origin, ment, like that of the simple crystal. This reference to a revolution, and an the forms. of describing axis of revolution, is only a convenient means In certain rare of certain pseudo-hexagonal a species, cases, particularly
"

120" about a normal to the base has been assumed to observed. complex group The plane normal to the axis of revolution is 236. T winning-Plane. axis and plane of twinning bear the same The called the twinning-plane. in the in their reversed position; relation to both individuals consequently, are symmetricalwith reference to the majority of cases, the twinned crystals revolution of 60"
or

explain the

"

twinning-plane. to a possible with rate exceptions, The twinning-plane parallel occurring is, of the more or fundamental one face on the givenspecies, frequent and usually The forms. only in the triclinicand monoclinic systems, exceptionsoccur where the twinning-axis is sometimes one of the obliquecrystallographic axes, a and then the plane of twinning normal to it is obviously not necessarily in albite. true is conspicuously crystallographic plane; this 237. Composition-Plane. The plane by which the reversed crystals This and the twinning-plane monly united is the composition-plane. are very comcoincide;this is true of the simple example given above (Fig.388),
"

be conceived to take place the revolution may which the semi-individuals are the and by plane twinning-axis) at the two planesare generally not coinciding, united are identical. When i s to the the parallel that composition-plane is, other rightangles to each axis of revolution. Examples of this are given below. Stillagain,where the where
the

plane

about

which

(normal to the

"

162
are crystals

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

the contact they interpenetrate, irregular.In such exceedingly but always, a definite position, cases its loses significance. the composition-plane parts have often no rectilinear Thus in quartz twins the interpenetrating manner in most the throughout the mass, irregular boundary, but mingle in the character of variations by abrupt showing this composite irregularity in found internal crystals, This irregular structure, quartz many the surfaces. of polarized light;also the common kinds, is well brought out by means even acid. by etching with hydrofluoric than the definite signification has sometimes a more The composition-plane former in whereas the cases, many twinning-plane. This is due to the fact that is fixed, the twinning-axis maybe exchanged (andtwinning-plane) 390 for another line (and plane)at right anglesto each, respectively, the since a revolution about the second axis will also satisfy 7v ' * An example of this form. conditions of producingthe required is furnished by Fig. 390, of orthoclase; the composition-plane to the is here fixed crystalface,6(010). namely, parallel to this be either (1) parallel But the axis of revolution may is then consequently the to a (100),which face and normal though the axis does not coincide with the twinning-plane, be taken as axis;or (2)the twinning-axis crystallographic may then the and vertical with the twinning-plane axis, coinciding face. In other simpler to it is not a crystallographic normal Orthoclase holds good, generallyin conthe same sequence principle cases, also, of the possible mutual interchangeof the planesof twinning and is evident,since it is the true twinning-plane composition. In most cases the crystal face on ratio. of simple mathematical to some parallel
not

and developed, regularly

where

be be interrupted, or surface may may the axis and plane of twinning have, as

"

'

"

__

two twinning-axes at right 238. An interesting example of the possiblechoice between anglesto each other is furnished by the speciesstaurolite. Fig. 439 shows a prismatictwin The measured from Fannin Co., Ga. angle for bb was 70" 30'. The twinning-axisdeduced be normal to the face (230),which would then be the twinning-plane. Or, from this may be taken, which would its complementary axis at rightangles to it may instead of this axis, in this species Now it happens that the faces, 130 equallywell produce the observed form. and 230 (over100),are almost exactlyat rightangleswith each other,and, according to the latter supposition, 130 becomes the twinning-plane,and the axis of revolution is normal to it. Hence, either 230 or 130 may be the twinning-plane, either suppositionagreeingclosely with the measured angle (which could not be obtained with great accuracy). The former method of twinning (tw. pi.230) conforms to the other twins observed the species, and on hence it may be accepted. What is true in this case, however, is not always true, for it will seldom happen that of the two complementary axes each is so nearly normal to a face of the crystal. In most of the two axes conforms cases one to the law in being a normal to a possible face,and the other does not, and hence there is no doubt as to which is the true twinning-axis. Another is that furnished by columbite. case The common interesting twins of the but twins speciesare similar to Fig. 385, p. 160, and have e(021) as the twinning-plane; also occur like Fig. 434, p. 169, where the twinning-plane is g(023). The two faces,021 and 023, are nearly at rightangles to each other,but the measured angles are in this case exact to prove that the two kinds cannot be referred to one sufficiently and the same law.

239.

Contact-

and

Penetration-Twins.

"

In

when contact-twins,

mally nor-

formed, the two halves are simple connate, being united to each other by the composition-plane; they are illustrated by Figs. 385, 388, etc. In actual crystals the two parts are seldom symmetrical, as demanded by but one theory, preponderateto a greater or less extent over the other; may

COMPOUND

OR

TWIN

CRYSTALS

163

in

individual in the reversed in nature in this position may the often are obliterated the mal abnorre-entering angles respect. Moreover, by of other of the and often one or developments parts, only an indistinct line of the faces marks the division between the -two individuals. on some Penetration-twins are those in which two or more interpenetrate, complete crystals have as it were crossing through each other. Normally,the crystals a common center, which is the center of the axial system for both ; practically,
some cases
a

only

small

portionof the

second

exist.

Very great irregularities observed are

occur. contact-twins, great irregularities Examples of twins of this second kind are given in the annexed figures, and Fig. 386 and 391 of fluorite, 393 of chabazite. Fig.392 of tetrahedrite, Figs. in the pages of the species Other examples occur following, as, for instance, in nature of which sometimes staurolite (Figs. occur 438-441),the crystals with almost the perfect by theory. It is obvious that symmetry demanded is not of great importand penetration-twins contactthe distinction between ance, drawn between them. and the line cannot always be clearly

however,

as

in

392

393

Fluorite
240.

Tetrahedrite
"

Chabazite

twins

and metagenic distinction of paragenic The Paragenic and Metagenic Twins. often so Yet the forms are than crystallography. belongs rather to crystallogeny is important. distinction of the notice brief that distinct a obviously had its beginning in a nucleal compound In ordinary twins, the compound structure compound in its very origin; and whatever molecule, or was opment in the develthese are 394 only irregularities in the result, inequalities at in others,the crystalwas But such a nucleus. from change in itself or in first simple; and afterwards,through some
the

condition
or a

of the material

for supplied

its increase,

received

new

ot continuation,in a reversed position. This mode layers, the of the to result origin subsequent a or twinning is metagenic, ot it is form is paragenic. One crystal; while the ordinary mode attained had a length of middle The 394. portion illustrated in Fig.

simultaneously geniculated and then became half an inch or more, often repeated in are These geniculations at either extremity. thus bent into one another, are and the ends of the crystal rutile,
forms.

Rutile

are albite, etc., "., and the face c(001),

_-

prismatic and occasionally produce nearly regular by the successive presented This metagenic twinning is sometimes crvstals, especia quartz as in some in crystal, a of deposition layers beingof oppos exceedinglythin, layers, amethyst, the inseparable of the triclmic feldspars, crystals similar manner, In kinds. a composition, oscillatory osc to by 6(010) often made up of thin platesparallel to the edge striated parallel is finely accordingly,

and Repeated Twinning, Polysynthetic twinning precedingparagraph one case of repeated

241. of the

Symmetrical.
"

In

the

has

been

mentioned, that

feldspars;it is
of position

versed rein or parallel grouping repetition parallel is of kind This twinning lamellae. successive crystalline a

case

of

164

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

cases often called polysynthetic being extremely twinning,the lamellae in many lines (striations) face or a crystal on thin,and givingrise to a series of parallel show in many cases surface of cleavage. The triclinic feldspars thetic polysyna both c(001)and 6(010),cf. p. 172. on twinning and not infrequently It is also observed with magnetite (Fig. etc. 474) pyroxene, barite, Another kind of repeatedtwinning is illustrated by Figs.395-400, where reversed individuals are not parallel.In these cases the axes the successively twins of lie in the as o r a prismatic however, aragonite, they zone, may, may In all such cases the be inclined to each other, as in Fig. 397 of staurolite to tends circular o f the when the forms, twinning produce repetition angle the two axial systems is an aliquotpart of 360" (approximately). between of three individuals (hence called Thus twinned crystals, consisting six-rayed with chrysoberyl staurolite occur 395),or cerussite (Fig. or (Fig. trillings), 396), 397),since three times the angle of twinning in each case is not far from (Fig. in the octahedrons of gold and 360". occur Again,five-fold twins,or fivelings,
,

397

Spinel

Rutile

Phillipsite

spinel(Fig 398), since 5 X 70" 32' 360" (approx.). Eight-fold twins,or of rutile (Figs. eigktlings, 399, 413) occur, since the angleof the axes in twinned position goes approximatelyeighttimes in 360". Repeated twinning of the symmetrical type often serves to give the compound crystalan apparent symmetry of highergrade than that of the simple and the result is often spoken of as a kind of individual, pseudo-symmetry (Art.20) cf. Fig. 431 of aragonite, which represents a basal section of a pseudo-hexagonal crystal. Fig.400 of phillipsite (cf. Figs. 452-454) is an inter=

EXAMPLES

OF

IMPORTANT

METHODS

OF

TWINNING

165

estingcase, since it shows how a multipletwin of a monoclinic crystal may simulate an isometric crystal (dodecahedron). in which twinning exists in accordance with two laws Compound crystals of not at once excellent example is afforded by common are an occurrence; staurolite, Fig. 441. They have also been observed with albite, orthoclase,
and in other
242.
cases.
"

When there is reason to believe that the Secondary Twinning. formation of the twinning has been produced subsequentlyto the original for or crystalline crystal, example, by pressure, it is said to be as, mass, Thus calcite the of limestone often show such grains a crystalline secondary. lamellae. The observed (||c, same are secondary twinning occasionally 001) in pyroxene crystals.Further, the poly synthetictwinning of the triclinic is often secondary in origin. This subject is further discussed on a feldspars later page, where it is also explainedthat in certain cases twinning may be in a crystal individual Art. 282). produced artificially e.g., in calcite (see
"

EXAMPLES 243. Isometric

OF

IMPORTANT
"

METHODS

OF

TWINNING

few exceptions the twins of the normal the octahedral axis, and an kind, twinning-axis system are in t o most octahedral the twinning-plane an consequentlyparallel face; cases, also,the latter coincides with the composition-plane.Fig. 388, p. 161,*

System.
of

With

class of this

one

401

402

403

Galena

Hauynite

Sodalite

common shows this kind as appliedto the simple octahedron; it is especially a and is hence called in general spinel-twin. with the spinel group of minerals,
*

It will!be

the twinned

the faces noted that here and elsewhere the letters used to designate line. subscript by a distinguished are parts of crystals

on

166

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

Fig.401 is a similarmore complex form; Fig.402 shows a cube twinned by this in the direction form but shortened method, and Fig.403 representsthe same hence and the anomalous of the octahedral axis, aspect of a triangular having pyramid. All these cases are contact-twins. the same A simple following Penetration-twins, law, are also common. in of fluorite is shown case Fig. 391, p. 163; Fig. 404 shows one of galena; and Fig.405 is a repeated octahedral twin of haiiynite, Fig.406 a dodecahedral twin of sodalite.
244. In the class of the isometric system pyritohedral in Fig. 407 are ot the type shown penetration-twins common (thisform of pyriteis often called the iron and cross). Here the cubic axis is the twinning-axis, obviously such a twin is impossible in the normal

class.

Figs.408 and 409 show analogousforms with parallel for crystals axes belonging to the tetrahedral class. The peculiar development of Fig. 408 of Pyrite tetrahedrite is to be noted. Fig.410 is a twin of the with it, ordinary spinel type of another tetrahedral species, sphalerite; and sometimes complex forms with repeated twinning are not uncommon twin lamellae are noted. polysynthetic
408 409 410

Tetrahedrite

Eulytite
"

Sphalerite

the

The most method is that where common face of the pyramid,e(101) It is especially characteristic of the species of the rutile group rutile and cassiterite: viz., is parallel to twinning-plane
a
.
"

245.

Tetragonal System.

411

413

Cassiterite

Zircon

Rutile

also

the similarly

allied

zircon. species

This

is illustrated in

Fig.411, and

168
axes

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

both left-handed but or the individuals both rightparallel, with 2(0111). The and to coinciding then r (]0ll) parallel symmetrical,
hence
420 421 422

unre-

Figs. 419-426, Calcite and the parts are suiting forms,as in Fig.428, are mostly penetration-twins, often very irregularly shown by dull areas as united, (z)on the plus rhombohedral face (r); otherwise these twins are recognized by pyro-electrical phenomena. In Fig. 429 the twinning-planeis a(1120) the Brazil law the individuals respectively and left-handed and the twin symmetrical rightwith reference to an a-face;these are usuallyirregular in penetration-twins;
" "

these twins

and
427

r, also

and

z, coincide
428

These

twins often show, in

429

con-

Figs. 427-429,Quartz the phenomenon vergingpolarized light, that pseudo-twins of quartz are common
of
"

Airy'sspirals.It may be added that is, of crystals which groups

EXAMPLES

OF

IMPORTANT

METHODS

OF

TWINNING

169
but

less complex twinning or nearly conform to some more law, grouping is nevertheless only accidental 430 249. Orthorhombic In the System.
"

where
431

the

the commonest is that where the twinning is face of a of a prism twinning-plane 60", or nearly60". This is well shown with the of the aragonite In accordance species group. with the principle stated in Art. 241, the twinning after this law is often repeated, and thus forms with pseudoresult. hexagonal symmetry Fig. 430 shows a simple twin of aragonite;Fig.431 \ shows a basal section of an aragonite triplet Aragonite which although it resembles a hexagonal prism reveals its twinned character by the striations on the basal plane and its composite prism faces due to the fact that the prison by irregularities matic angle is not exactly 60". With witherite (and bromlite), apparent but the true complex twinning is revealed hexagonal pyramids are common, in polarized noted later. as light, Twinning of the same type, but where a dome of 60" is twinning-plane, in Figs. is common with arsenopyrite as shown 432, 433; also (tw.pi.e(101)),

orthorhombic
of

system

method

434

Arsenopyrite

Columbite

but compare columbite, Fig.385 and remarks in Art 238, Another manexample is given in Fig.395 of alexandrite (chrysoberyl) Chrysolite,
.

Fig.434 of

435

436

437

Marcasite

Arsenopyrite

ganite, humite,
Another

are

common

with which this kind of twinningis common. other species of twinningis that where the twinningis parallel method

170
to
a

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

prism of about 70J",as shown in Fig.435. With this method not infrequently occur (Figs. 436, 437). symmetricalfivelings staurolite illustrates three kinds of twinning. In Fig.438 the The species 45" 41',the crystalscross and since (001 A 032) is (032), twinning-plane is the prism (230). In nearly at right angles. In Fig.439 the twinning-plane then crossing at anglesof about Fig.440 it is the pyramid (232) ; the crystals occur (see Fig.397),and indeed more complex forms. In 60",stellate trillings to both (032)and (232). Fig.441 there is twinningaccording
face of
a
=

440

Staurolite
441

Staurolite

Struvite

as

In the hemimorphic class, twins of the type shown in Fig.442, with c(001) the twinning-plane, to be noted. are 250. Mpnoclinic System. In the monoclinic system, twins with the vertical axis as twinning-axis is this illustrated 443 of are common Fig. by augite ; and Fig.445 of orthoclase (seealso Fig.390, (pyroxene), Fig.444 of gypsum,
"

443

444

445

Augite
p.

Gypsum

Orthoclase

common

162). With the latter species these twins are called Carlsbad twins (because in the trachyteof Carlsbad,Bohemia) ; they may be contact-twins

EXAMPLES

OF

IMPORTANT

METHODS

OF

TWINNING

171

(Fig.390),or irregular penetration-twins(Fig. 445). In Fig.390 it is to be c and x fall nearlyin the same plane. In Fig.446, also of orthoclase, the twinning-plane is the clinodome (021), and since (001 A 021) 44" 56^',this method of twinning yieldsnearly prisms. These twins are called Baveno twins (from a prominent square at Baveno, Italy) locality ; they are often repeated (Fig. 447). In Fig.448 a
noted that
=

446

447

448

Orthoclase

is c(001). Other rarer shown; here the twinning-plane been noted with orthoclase. twinning Polysynthetic with c(001)as twinning-plane i" common with pyroxene (cf. Fig.461, p. 173). with monoTwins of the aragonite-chrysoberyl type are not uncommon clinicspecies, having a prominent 60" prism (ordome), as in Fig.449. Stellate

Manebach

twin

is

types of

twinning have

An and with chondrodite clinohumite. in Fig.450; here the pyramid (122)is the at angles 59" 21', the crystals and since (010 A 122) cross twinning-plane, in f all the common a of nearly_60"; nearly further, orthopinacoids zone, since the orthodome is In 9'. 451 90" the twinning-plane Fig. (100 A 122)

twins

after this law

are

common

analogous twin of pyroxene

is shown

449

450

461

Wolframite

Pyroxene

Pyroxene

with cruciform fourling pseudo-symmetry. Fig. 452 shows a the side face. the twinning shown by the stnations on c(001) as twinning-plane, (Oil),making nearly This is compounded in Fig. 453 with twinning-plane as twinning-plane with ra(110) further repeated prisms, and this square often show

(101)

and harmotome Phillipsite

exhibit multiple twinning, and the crystals

172

CR YST

ALLO

GR

APH

the form in Fig.454, or even Fig.400, p. 164, resemblingan yields dodecahedron, each face showing a fourfold striation.
452 453 454

isometric

251.

Triclinic
are

System.

"

those shown by is especially twinning-plane very common, polysynthetic twinning yielding the striations on the face c (orthe correspondthin parallel shown by ing lamellae, and also clearly revealed in polarized cleavage-surface), light. This is known the albite law (Figs. as 455, 456). Another important method (Fig. is that of the is the crystallographic law; the twinning-axis 457) pericline axis b. Here the twins are united by a section (rhombic section) shown in the and further explained under the feldspars.Polysynthetic figure twinningafter this law is common, and hence a cleavage-mass show two sets of striations, may the surface parallel to c(001)and the other on one to 6(010). on that parallel The angle made by these last striations with the edge 001/010 is characteristic of the particular triclinicspecies, noted later. as

system

Phillipsite The most twins of the triclinic interesting the feldspars.Twinning with 6(010) as the

455

456

457

Albite

Twins
458

of albite of other rarer types also occur, and further twins similar to the Carlsbad, twins of orthoBaveno, and Manebach clase. Fig. 458 shows twinning according to both the albite and Carlsbad types. REGULAR GROUPING
"

OF

CRYSTALS

252. Parallel Grouping. with the subConnected ject of twin crystals that is of the parallel positionof associated crystals of the same of different or species,

species.
Albite very

Crystals of the same speciesoccurringtogetherare commonly in parallel position. In this way large

EXAMPLES

OF

IMPORTANT

METHODS

OF

TWINNING

173

of calcite, as crystals, are quartz, fluorite, sometimes buiJt up of smaller grouped together with corresponding faces parallel. This in crystals as they lie on grouping is often seen parallel the supporting rock. On glancingthe eye over a surface covered with crystals a reflection from face will often be accompanied by reflections from the corresone ponding individuals face in each of the other crystals, showing that the crystalsare throughout similar in their positions. With many forms result from the growth of species, complex crystalline

parallelpartial crystals in the direction of the crystallographic

axes,
or axes

459

460

of symmetry.

Thus

ing branchforms,resembling o ften of icacy, vegetation, great delwith gold,copper, are seen and other species, argentite, especially those of the isometric tem. sysThis is shown in Fig. 459 and (ideal), again in Fig. 460, the twinned where and flattened cubes (cf. Fig. 403, p. 165) are grouped in directions corresponding octahedral to the diagonalsof an Co face which is the twinning-plane. 253. Parallel Grouping of Unlike Species. Crystalsof different species in the to often show same tendency parallelism mutual position. This is similar in form which are more true most of species or less closely frequently of orthoclase, surface and composition. Crystalsof albite, implantedon a sometimes an are example of 461 462 of amphibole and this;crystals (Fig.461), of zircon pyroxene rious and xenotime (Fig. 462),of vaalso at kinds of mica, are times observed associated in parallel
"

dendritic

position.
The
also
same

relation of

position

where connection in composition, the crystalsof rutile as of hematite, tabular on crystals of the former the vertical axes coincidingwith the horizontal z ircon Xenotime of the latter. Crystals of enclosing axes Amphibole enclosing in parallel in position parallel calcite have been observed whose pyroxene position rhombohedral faces had a series sometimes three in all position; parallel them, of

occasionallyoccurs

there is no

quartz crystals upon envelop each rhombohedral face, entirely on one quartz crystals, form to pseudo-twins(rather with unite re-entering angles and the calcite, chalcopyrof quartz after calcite. Parallel growths of the sphenoidal trillings)
such
ite upon structure

in crystal the similarity are common, the tetrahedral sphalerite of chalthe of the crystals position controlling of the two species

copyrite.

174

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

IRREGULARITIES
254. should The
laws also

OF

CRYSTALS

of

produce

forms

but only equal,

unmodified when by extrinsic causes, crystallization, the of exact geometrical anglesbeing not symmetry, and the dimensions in the the homologous faces of crystals
This other

directions of like axes. hardly be considered

symmetry
than
an

is, however,
ideal

so

uncommon

that it can various

perfection. The

possible

symmetry to the kinds of symmetry, and the relation of this ideal geometrical in been discussed Arts. 14 and 18 et actual crystallographic symmetry, have often the fundamental forms a nd are distorted, generally Crystals very seq. that an intimate familiarity with the possible so completelydisguised are is requiredin order to unravel their complexities.Even the irregularities
rather widely. vary anglesmay occasionally be treated of crystals under several heads: The irregularities 1, may and tions dimensions; 2, Imperfections Variations of form of surface; 3, Variaand impurities. 4, Internal imperfections ofangles; 1.

VARIATIONS

IN

THE

FORMS CRYSTALS

AND

DIMENSIONS

OF
255.
"

The variations in the forms of crystals, Distortion in General. their in character, other certain faces in distortion, words, or, may be irregular solid. On the being largerand others smaller than in the ideal geometrical be symmetrical, other hand, it may givingto the distorted form the symmetry of a group or system different from that to which it actually belongs. The
former 256.
case

is the

common

but rule,
"

the latter is the

more

interesting.

stated above and on p. 13, all crystals less extent accidental variation from the show to a greateror an or irregular if not accompanied by change in form. This distortion, ideal geometrical has no particular the interfacial angles, and does not involve any significance, deviation from the laws of crystallographic symmetry. Figs.463, 464 show of quartz ; they may distorted crystals be compared with the ideal form, Fig. 284, p. 113. Fig.465 is an ideal and Fig.466 an actual crystalof lazulite.
463 464 465 466

Distortion. Irregular

As

Quartz
The
because

Lazulite

on a difficult crystalis rendered much more prevailingdistortion, it results in the entire obliteration of when especially urtain laces by the enlargement of others. In deciphering the distorted crystalline forms it must be remembered that while the appearance of the crystals be entirely altered, may e intertacial angles remain the same; alike that is moreover, like faces are physically
"

correct ol this

identificationof the forms

176

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

symmetry axis becomes a The dodecahedron lengthenedin the direction of a trigonal If shortened in the same tion, direcsix-sided prism with three-sided summits, as in Fig. 470. kind (Fig.471). Both resemble rhombohedral it becomes a short prism of the same in garnet. When lengthened in the direction of one of the cubic forms and are common with pyramidal summits becomes dodecahedron (Fig.472), and a square prism the axes, axis it is reduced to a square octahedron, with truncated shortened along the same angles (Fig.473).
axis assumes The elongated in the direction of an octahedral (trigonal) trapezohedron rhombohedral symmetry. (trigonal) takes placealong a cubic axis, it becomes a double of the trapezohedron If the elongation eight-sided pyramid with four-sided summits; or if these summit planes are obliterated double pyramid. it becomes a complete eight-sided by a farther extension, tetrahexahedron and hexoctahedron show distortion Similarlythe trisoctahedron, may Further examples are to be found in the other systems. kind. of the same

2.

IMPERFECTIONS

OF

THE

SURFACES

[OF
"

CRYSTALS

Combinations. The parallel 258. to Oscillatory Striations Due lines called strice or striations, and such furrows on the surfaces of crystals are surfaces are said to be striated. Each littleridgeon a striated surface is inclosed by two narrow planes less regular. These to different more or planes often correspond in position and these ridges have been formed faces of the crystal, by a continued of the causes that give rise, oscillation in the operation when actinguninterruptedly, this the surfaces to enlarged faces. of a By crystal are means, with a succession of narrow marked in parallel lines, planes meeting at an the ridges referred to. angleand constituting This combination of different planesin the formation of a surface has been termed The combination. horizontal striations on oscillatory prismatic of of this crystals quartz are examples combination,in which the oscillation has- taken place between the prismatic and rhombohedral faces. Thus of quartz are often tapered to a point, without the usual pyramidal crystals terminations. Other examples are the striations on the cubic faces of pyriteparallel to the intersections of the cube with the faces of the pyritohedron; also the striations on magnetite due the octahedron to the oscillation between and dodecahedron Prisms of tourmaline are monly comvery bounded vertically by three convex surfaces, combination owing to an oscillatory of the faces in the prismatic zone. 259. Striations Due to Repeated Twinning. The striations of the basal plane of albite and other triclinicfeldspars, also of thex rhombohedral surfaces of some have been calcite, explainedin Art. 241 as due to polysynthetic twinning. This is illustrated by Magnetite 474 of magnetitefrom Port Henry, N. Y. Fig. (Kemp.) 260. Markings from Erosion and Other Causes. The faces of crystals often uneven, are have the crystalline or structure developed as a consequence of etchingby some chemical agent. Cubes of galena are frequently thus uneven, and crystals of lead sulphate (anglesite) or lead carbonate (cerussite)are sometimes present as evidence with regard to the cause. Crystals of numerous other species, of corundum, spinel, even quartz, etc.,sometimes show the same result of partialchange over the surface often the
or
" " "

incipient

IRREGULARITIES

OF

CRYSTALS

177

process tendingto a final removal of the whole crystal. Interesting been have made by various authors on the action of solvents investigations the actual different structure of the crystalsbeing developedin minerals, on This method of this way. etching is fullydiscussed, with illustrations in

stage in

place (Art.286). markings on the surfaces of crystalsare not, however, always to be such depressions, ascribed to etching. In most cases well as the minute as the faces having the form of low pyramids (so-called elevations upon vicinal of the m olecular are a of the original part and prominences) growth crystal, to show the successive stages in its history. They often serve be fections impermay from an interrupted disturbed development of the form,the or arising smooth and even faces being the result of completed crystalline perfectly free from disturbing causes. action Examples of the markings referred to of most minerals, the crystals and conspicuously the rhomboon occur so on
another
The
,

hedral faces of quartz. with angular elevations more often marked less or combination. due to oscillatory Octahedrons of fluorite which have for each face a surface of minute cubes,proceeding common are Sometimes from an oscillationbetween the cube and octahedron. tion examinaan shows that though the form is apparentlyoctahedral, of such a crystal octahedral faces present at all. Other similar cases there are could be no
Faces of
are crystals

which distinct,

are

their cause, these minute markings are often of great importance true molecular symmetry of the crystal. For it follows from that like faces must be physically alike the symmetry of crystallization it thus often happens that on all in regardto their surface character; that is,
as

mentioned. Whatever

the revealing

"

the or perhapsfrom all localities, givenlocality, is alike. There much uniformityon roughened planes are same in this the faces of quartz crystals respect. result from surfaces may 261. Curved (a) oscillatory combination; in the independent molecular condition producing curvatures or (6) some from a mechanical cause. laminae of the crystal ; or (c) kind have been alreadymentioned (Art.258). surfaces of the first Curved in the lower in Fig.475, of calcite; of this nature is seen curvature A singular the of crystals
a

from species

etched

or

476

476

Calcite

Diamond
are

Beryl
was

part

traces

of a scalenohedral form form. with the prismatic

apparent which

in

bination comoscillatory

178
Curvatures

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

have all the faces convex. This of the second kind sometimes which almost of of diamond are 476), some spheres. is the case in crystals (Fig. is less of curvature, in which all the faces are equally convex, The mode and surface is opposite to a than that in which a convex parallel common of dolomite and siderite are surface. Rhombohedrons concave corresponding of frost on windows and the usually thus curved. The feathery curves in The alabaster winter other are of examples. pavements flagging-stones the Mammoth rosettes from Cave, Kentucky, are similar. Stibnite crystals curved and twisted forms. show very remarkable sometimes is of mechanical A third kind of curvature origin. Sometimes crystals been broken had if they a transverselyinto many pieces, slight as appear of which has given a curved form to the prism. This is common displacement in tourmaline and beryl. The berylsof Monroe, Conn., often present these in Fig.477. curvatures, as represented interrupted with a deep pyramidal depression not infrequently occur Crystals ing occupythe placeof each plane,as is often observed in common salt, alum, and sulphur. This is due in part to their rapidgrowth.

3.

VARIATIONS

IN

THE

ANGLES

OF

CRYSTALS

262. The greater part of the distortions described in Arts 256, 257 occasion no change in the interfacial angles of crystals. But those imperfections such that produce convex, cause curved,or striated faces necessarily of heat or pressure variations. Furthermore, circumstances under which formed sometimes have resulted not only in distortion the crystals were may variation in angle. The presence of impurities at the of form, but also some also have a like effect. time of crystallization may Still more important is the change in the angles of completed crystals which is caused by subsequent pressure on the matrix in which they were or formed, as, for example, the change which may take place during the more less complete metamorphism of the inclosing rock. The in pseudomorphous crystals(see change of composition resulting Art. 273) is generally accompanied by an irregular change of angle,so that the pseudomorphs of a species in angle. much vary In general it is safe to affirm that,with the exceptionof the irregularities from imperfections in the process of crystallization, sequent from the subarising or alluded in variations and the are changes to, angles constancy rare, of angle alluded to in Art. 11 is the universal law. In cases where a greater or less variation in angleis observed in the crystals of the same from different localities, the cause for this can species usuallybe found in a difference of chemical composition. In the case of isomorphous that an exchange of correspondingchemically compounds it is well known equivalentelements may take place without a change of form, though usually variation in the fundamental accompanied with a slight angles. The effect of heat upon the form of crystals is alluded to in Art. 433.
4.

INTERNAL The

IMPERFECTIONS

AND

INCLUSIONS

263.

is often destroyedby disturbed crystaltransparency of crystals lization; from the solution during the process of up the presence of foreignmatter from resulting

taken by impurities

crystallization; or, again,by

IRREGULARITIES

OF

CRYSTALS

179

partialchemical alteration. The general name, is given to any inclusion, whatever its origin. These inclusions body inclosed within the crystal, foreign are they may be gaseous, liquid, extremely common; or solid;visible to the the use of the microscope. unaided eye or requiring is a common Rapid crystallization explanation of inclusions. This is illustrated by quartz crystalscontaining largecavities full or nearly full of the latter these water (in showing a movable bubble); or, they may case, contain sand or iron oxide in large amount. In the case of calcite, tion crystallizafrom a liquidlargely with a foreign as quartz sand, may charged material, in which the impurity makes result in the formation of crystals up as much
as

two-thirds
264.

of the whole
and Gas

mass;

this is

seen

in the famous
was

Fontainebleau

limestone, and
Brewster
to

in that from similarly

presence

early called by as minerals, quartz, In later years this subject etc. has been thoroughly chrysolite, topaz, beryl, studied by Sorby, Zirkel, Vogelsang,Fischer, Rosenbusch, and others. The of the liquidcan often be determined, nature by its refractive power, or by determination of the of test critical point in the case (e.g., physical special In examination. the observed chemical of the cases or majority by CO2), be the salt solution in which the crystal is simply water; but it may was liquid in the carbon of not and case especially formed, quartz, liquid infrequently, dioxide (CO2), as first proved by Vogelsang. These liquidinclusions are in the cavityof a movable marked as such, in many cases, by the presence
"

Liquid
the

other localities. Inclusions. Attention

of fluids in cavities in certain

bubble
latter

of gas.
water

Occasionallycavities contain
and

two

as liquids,

liquidcarbon

the dioxide,

stance subbubble of the same a inclosing Interesting iments exper(cf. Fig.478). gas be made with sections showing such can mixture inclusions (cf.literature, p. 181). The of gases yielded by smoky quartz,meteoric iron, of heat, and other substances,on the application has been analyzedby Wright.

then
as

the cavities appear to be empty; form determined by if they then have a regular of the species, the crystallization they are often
In
some cases

called negativecrystals.Such cavities are a on of secondary origin, as remarked

"pase.

monly com-

later

Beryllonite

infinite in solid inclusions are almost The Inclusions. be referred to a nd can their variety. Sometimes they are large and distinct, the which to the scales of gothiteor hematite, as mineral species, known common is a very is due. Magnetite character of aventurine feldspar peculiar
265.

Solid

"

impurity in

for example, in the Pennsbury mica; minerals,appearing, staurolite and gmelinite quartz is also often mechanically mixed, as in inclose foreignmaterial,such the other hand, quartz crystals very commonly other minerals. hematite,asbestus,and many tourmaline, rutile, as chlorite, (Cf.also Arts. 266, 267.) of material; consist of a heterogeneous mass The inclusions may granite; or the in a porphyntic in orthoclase crystals matter seen granitic of berylor crystals coarse feldspar, quartz, etc.,sometimes inclosed in large
many
,
, ,

""

veins. in granite spodumene, occurring

180
266.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

microscopic crystalsobserved as but more sometimes be referred to known inclusions may species, generally The is doubtful. term their true nature microlites, proposed by Vogelsang, the minute inclosed crystals; is often used to designate they are generallyof and often very remarkable in their needlelike form, sometimes quiteirregular, of them are exhibited in Fig.484 and Fig. arrangement and groupings; some individuals belong to known the minute Where 485, as explainedbelow. etc. f or are microlites, example,feldspar called, they species is used those minute term to cover an by Vogelsang Crystallites analogous exterior form of crystals, but may be conforms which have not the regular sidered matter and true between Some intermediate crystals. as amorphous of the forms are shown in Figs.479-483; they are often observed in glassy A series of names has been given to and also in furnace-slags. volcanic rocks, Trichite and such as globulites, etc. varieties of crystallites, margarites, is derived from introduced by Zirkel;the former name belonite are names in obsidian. like that in Fig.483, are common i",hair; trichites,
Microlites, Crystallites. The
"

479

480

481

482

Crystallites inclusions may The microscopic also be of an irregular glassynature; this kind is often observed in crystals which have formed from a molten as mass, lava or the slagof an iron furnace. 267. Symmetrically In general, while the solid Arranged Inclusions. inclusions sometimes i n the occur quite irregularly crystals, they are more evident reference to the symmetry of the form, generally arrangedwith some shown in the following or external faces of the crystals.Examples of this are
"

484

486

Augite (Zirkel)

Leucite

(Zirkel)

Garnet

inclosing quartz (Heddle)

and

figures.Fig. 484 exhibits a crystalof augite, inclosing magnetite,feldspar etc. nephelite microlites, a Fig. 485 shows a crystalof leucite, species

IRREGULARITIES

OF

CRYSTALS

181

whose

tion of

crystals commonly inclose foreign matter, very of garnet, containing a crystal quartz.
487

Fig.486 shows

sec

Andalusite

striking example is afforded by andalusite (Fig. 487),in which the of and remarkably extent considerable are impurities to yield symmetrical figuresof various forms. Staurolite arranged, so as tributed. occasionally shows analogous carbonaceous impuritiessymmetrically disinclosed carbonaceous The magnetite common inclusion in muscovite,alluded to above, an as to usually parallel always symmetricallydisposed, 488 the directions of the percussion-figure 491, p. 189). (Fig. is explained by the presence The asterism of phlogopite of symmetricallyarranged inclusions (cf, Art, 368). is
of symmetrically shows an interesting case arranged The alteration. due to chemical originalmineral, spodumene, from Branchville,Conn., has been altered to a found to the substance apparently homogeneous eye, but the structure shown in Fig. 488. under the microscope to have Chemical analysisproves the base to be albite and the inclosed lithium silicate (LiAlSO4) called to be a hexagonal mineral eucryptite. It has not yet been identified except in this

Another

Fig.

488

inclusions

form. LITERATURE

Eucryptite in Albite

of the most important works on the subject of microscopic inclusions are referred be made to the work of Rosenbusch reference may (1904); a fuller listof papers on also that of Zirkel and others mentioned pp. 3 and 4. Brewster. Many papers, publishedmostly in the PhilosophicalMagazine, and the Edinburgh Phil. Journal,from 1822-1856. Mineralien in krystalliBlum, Leonhard, Seyfert,and Sochting. Die Einschlusse von Some
to

here;

for

sirten Mineralien. Sorby. On the

Haarlem,

1854.

other On the structure of rubies,sapphires,diamonds, and some Butler. Proc. Roy. Soc.,No. 109, 1869. minerals. Labradorite. Pogg. Ann., 120, 95, 1863. Reusch. Arch. Neerland, 3, 32, 1868. Vogelsang. Labradorite. Freiburg in Br., 64 pp., mineralogische Studien. Kritische-microscopische Fischer.

(and other Sorby and

structure microscopical papers).

(Preisschrift.) etc. of crystals,

Q.

J. G.

Soc.,14, 453,

1858

J. Chem. Soc.,1, 137; 2, 237, 1876, 1, 241, 2, etc. Liquid CO2 in cavities, 1877 150, 271, 1877; also,Proc. Roy. Soc, 26, 137, 1881. Ber. Ak. Miinchen, 10, 241, 1880; 11, 321, Gumbel. Enhydros.

96 pp., 1873 Ite Fortsetzung, 64 pp., 1871; 2te Forts., Kosmann. Hypersthene.Jahrb. Min., 532, 1869; 501, 1871. Ber. Ak. Wien, 60 (1)996, 1869. Labradorite. Schrauf. 1875. Vogelsang. Die Krystalliten.175 pp., Bonn, in der Flussigkeitsemschlusse Natur gewissen die Ueber Geissler. and Vogelsang 1869 Mineralien. Ann, 137, 56, 257,

1869;

Pogg.

Hartley.

1881 Smoky quartz (CO.). Am. J. Sc 21,203, J. fee, 21, 209, Am in quartz. Gases smoky Wright. Mm. MM., t, 2W-, 18M. Rutley. Notes on Crystallites. Zs. Kr, 27, 505, 189b. der Krystalliten, Vater. Das Wesen Hawes. A. W.

l?

182

CEYSTALLOGBAPHY

CRYSTALLINE
268.

AGGREGATES

of minerals that occur The greater part of the specimens or masses of imperfectcrystals.Many specimens be described as aggregations may whose structure appears to the eye quitehomogeneous, and destitute internally to be composed of crystalline be shown can grains. of distinct crystallization, included all the remaining varieties are Under the above head, consequently,

minerals. of structure among individuals may be: crystallized The individuals composing imperfectly is columnar or fibrous. the structure in which case 1. Columns, or fibers, 2. Thin lamince, producing a lamellar structure.
3. structure. a granular Grains, constituting Columnar
"

A mineral Structure. umnar coland Fibrous a possesses of slender as some when it is made columns, amphibole. up in cyanite, the strucas ture the individuals are flattened like a knife-blade, When is said to be bladed. when the mineral is made The structure again is called fibrous up of fibres, of The fibres the also or variety gypsum. satin-spar as in asbestus, may may between columnar and coarse are gradations not be separable.There many Fibrous minerals have often luster. a silky fine fibrous structures. The following are properlyvarieties of columnar or fibrous structure : in various directions and the fibers or columns cross Reticulated: when to a net. resemblance having some produce an appearance Stellated: when they radiate from a center in all directions and produce wavellite. Ex. stilbite, star-like forms. radiate from the crystals without center a Radiated, divergent: when Ex. stibnite. stellar forms. quartz, producing The of a mineral is lamellar structure Structure. 270. Lamellar The laminae may be curved or straight, leaves. when it consists of plates or and thus give rise to the curved lamellar and straight lamellar structure. Ex. varieties If of the wollastonite (tabular etc. some spar), talc, plates gypsum, the structure is said to be center about a common are approximatelyparallel the laminae are thin and separable, the structure is said to concentric. When Mica is a striking be foliaceous or foliated. example, and the term micaceous is often used to describe this kind of structure. 271. Granular Structure. The particles in a granular structure differ much in size. When when coarse, the mineral is described as coarse-granular; and if not distinguishable fine-granular; fine, by the naked eye, the structure is termed impalpable. Examples of the firstmay be observed in granularcrystalline sometimes called saccharoidal; of the second,in some ties varielimestone, of hematite; of the last, in some kinds of sphalerite. but from necessity, The above terms are indefinite, as there is every degree of fineness of structure among mineral species, from perfectly impalpable, to the coarsest granular. The term phanero-crysthrough all possible shades, tallinehas been used for varieties in which the grainsare distinct, and cryptoin for which those not crystalline they are discernible, although an indistinct 269. structure
"
"

be proved by the microscope. structure can crystalline Granular minerals, when easily crumbled in the fingers, said to be friable. are f -272. Imitative The followingare Shapes. important terms used in the imitative forms of massive minerals. describing
"

1 84

CR

YSTALLO

GR

APH

Such the been

agency,

crystals

are

called

pseudomorphs,
of

and

their that

existence the

is

explained
mineral

by
has
some

assumption,
changed
and

often
into

admitting
new

direct
or

proof,
it has

original

the

compound;
taken In

disappeared
compound
substance

through
to

its
not

place belong.

been

by
these mineral.

another
cases

chemical the
new

which
to

the be
a

form

does

all

is

said

pseudomorph
Common
in

after

the

orginal
of

illustrations the
etc.

pseudomorphous
limonite is further
in

crystals
form of

are

afforded barite
in
on

by
the

chite malaform of

form

of

cuprite, subject

the

pyrite,
the

quartz,

This

discussed

in

chapter

Chemical

Mineralogy.

PART

II.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

274.

The

PHYSICAL

CHARACTERS

of minerals

fall under

the

following

heads

:
"

I. Characters depending upon Cohesion and Elasticity viz., cleavage, fracture, tenacity, hardness,elasticity, etc. II. Specific the Density compared with that of water. or Gravity, III. Characters depending upon Light viz., parency, color, luster, degreeof transetc. special optical properties, IV. Characters Heat depending upon viz., heat-conductivity, change of form and of optical characters with change of temperature, fusibility, etc. V. Characters and Magnetism. depending upon Electricity VI. Characters depending upon the action of the senses viz., taste,
"

"

"

odor, feel.
275. General Relation
pp.

of

Physical Characters
of

to Molecular

Structure."
A full

It has been

stated on is the external

form 7, 8 that the geometrical the internal

of

eral mincrystallized

evidence

molecular

structure.

knowledge in regard to this structure, however, can only be obtained by the study of the various physical characters included in the classes enumerated
above. Of these atomic

the specific characters, gravity merely gives indication of the of the state of molecular of the elements mass present, and further, is illustrated The of these first by the high specific points aggregation. gravity of compounds of lead; the second,by the distinction observed,for gravity example, between carbon in the form of the diamond, with a specific with a specific of 3' 5, and the same chemical substance as the mineral graphite, gravity of only 2. of Class All the other characters (exceptthe relatively unimportant ones in words the other in direction in the to crystal; VI) generalvary according directions true it is that For of them all orientation. have definite a they characters. identical have like physical which are crystallographically all directions crystalthat in In regard to the converse lographica proposition viz., the be a variation in an there may dissimilar physical characters, This propositionholds true for all important distinction is to be made. concerned; that is,those far as the characters of Class I are so crystals, in the cleavage, ness, hardshown and as cohesion the elasticity, depending upon It is also true etc. the etching-figures, the planes of molecular gliding,
"

and piezo-electricity. of pyro-electricity in the case with respect to the characters which in the It does not apply same way radiant heat),the change of volume with involve the propagationof light (and etc. electric radiation, magnetic induction, change of temperature; further,
185

186

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

characters of crystals are Thus, although it will be shown that the optical of their form, they do not show in agreement in generalwith the symmetry It is true, for example, that all directions all the variations in this symmetry.
in a crystal belongingto any class under the isometric be true of its molecular as is not cohesion, this obviously may system; in at right directions all a tetragonal crystal the shown Again, cleavage. by similar;but this again is not true of anglesto the vertical axis are optically elucidated under the description of further These are cohesion. the points
are

similar optically
but

the

characters of each special

group.

I. CHARACTERS
\

DEPENDING ELASTICITY

UPON

COHESION

AND

cohesion is given to the force of name of and the same molecules the between one sequence body, in conexisting of which they offer resistance to any influence tendingto separate of its surface. them, as in the breakingof a solid body or the scratching of a body back restore the i s to which tends molecules the force Elasticity been when a from which they have as into their original disturbed, position, body has suffered change of shape or of volume under pressure. for crystals of different The varying degrees of cohesion and elasticity shown in the are minerals, or for different directions in the same crystal, hardness; also in the prominent characters: cleavage,fracture,tenacity, and the etching-figures. or pressure-figures, percussion-figures gliding-planes, is the of mineral to 277. Cleavage. a tendency Cleavage crystallized less smooth surfaces. break in certain definite directions, or yieldingmore in value of cohesion the direction of easy It obviouslyindicates a minimum that is, itself. The cleavageparallel fracture normal to the cleavage-plane to the cubic faces of a crystal of galena is a familiar illustration. An amorphous show no cleavage. can body (p.8) necessarily As stated in Art. 31, the consideration of the molecular of structure be a direction in which the molecules must crystalsshows that a cleavage-plane are closelyaggregated together; while normal to this the distance between successive layers and hence this of molecules must be relatively large, last is the direction of easy separation. It further follows that cleavagecan exist only parallel to some face of a crystal, that this possible and, further, be one must of the common in cases fundamental forms. Hence where the choice in the position of the axes is more less arbitrary the presence of or is properly regarded as showing which planes should be made mental. fundacleavage Still again,cleavageis the same in all directions in a crystal which identical. are crystallographically Cleavageis defined, as (1) accordingto its direction, cubic,octahedral, 276.
"

Cohesion, Elasticity. The

attraction

"

"

which

etc. rhomobohedral,basal,prismatic, Also, (2) according to the ease with it is obtained, and the smoothness of the surface yielded. It is said to be perfect eminent when it is obtained with great ease, affording or smooth, lustrous surfaces, in mica, topaz, calcite. Inferior degreesof cleavage are as indistinct -or imperfect, spoken of as distinct, in traces,difficult. interrupted, These terms are sufficiently without further explanation. It may intelligible be noticed that the cleavage of a species is sometimes better developedin some of its varieties than in others.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

COHESION

AND

ELASTICITY

187

278. Cleavage in the Different Systems. (1) In the ISOMETRIC SYSTEM, cleavage when to the faces of the cube; this is the common cubic, parallel case, as illustrated by it is also often octahedral galena and halite, that is, to the octahedral faces as parallel with fluonte and the diamond. Less frequently it is dodecahedral, to the faces or parallel of the rhombic dodecahedron,as with sphalerite. In the TETRAGONAL cleavageis often basal,or parallel SYSTEM, to the basal plane, as with apophylhte; also prismatic, or to one parallel (or both) of the square prisms as with rutile and wernerite; less frequently it is pyramidal, or parallel to the faces of the square pyramid, as with scheelite. In the HEXAGONAL cleavage is usuallyeither basal, with beryl,or prismatic, SYSTEM, as of the six-sided prisms, as with nephelite; to one parallel pyramidal cleavage, with as pyromorphite, is rare and imperfect. In the RHOMBOHEDRAL besides the basal and prismatic cleavages rhomboDIVISION, hedral cleavage,parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron, is also with calcite as common, and the allied species. In the ORTHORHOMBIC to one cleavage parallel of the pinacoids is or SYSTEM, more Thus it is basal with topaz, and in all three pinacoidal common. directions with anhydrite. Prismatic with cleavage is also common, as barite; in this case the arbitraryposition assumed in describing the crystal make this cleavageparallel to a "horizontal prism," may
"

is

"

or

MONOCLINIC to the clinopinacoid, cleavageparallel is common, with SYSTEM, as heulandite and euclase; also basal, orthoclase, with the micas and orthoclase, gypsum, as or parallelto the orthopinacoid; also prismatic,as with amphibole. Less frequently to a hemi -pyramid, as with gypsum. cleavage is parallel

dome. In the

cleavage directions correspond with the pinacoids. In some 279. not observed cases be developed by a cleavage which is ordinarily may sharp blow or by sudden change of temperature. Thus, quartz is usually conspicuously free from cleavage,but a quartz crystalheated and plunged into cold water often shows to both the + and and to the prism as planes of separation* parallel rhombohedrqns well. is observed with great distinctness in the prismaticcleavage of pyroxene Similarly, made thin sections, while not so readilynoted in largecrystals. by grinding, that is, the cleavage is parallel When to a closed form when it is cubic,octahedral, dodecahedral, or rhombohedral (alsopyramidal in the tetragonal, hexagonal, and orthooften be broken from solids resembling crystalsmay out rhombic a systems) single and all the fragments have the same crystalline" individual, angles. It is,in general, easy of fluorite, to from a true distinguishsuch a cleavage form, as a cleavage octahedron crystalby the splinterycharacter of the faces of the former. The there is perfect 280. face of a crystalparallel to which Cleavage and Luster. separationof the crystal cleavageoften shows a pearly luster (see p. 249),due to the partial the clinopinainto parallel coid plates. This is illustrated by the basal plane of apophyllite. of stilbite and iridescent play of colors is also often seen, as with An heulandite. sufficient to produce the prismatic colors by when the separation has been calcite,
" " " "

make

In the the

TRICLINIC

SYSTEM,

it is usual

and proper

to

so

select the fundamental

form

as

to

interference.

281. Gliding-planes. Closely related to the cleavage directions in the glidingare their connection with the cohesion of the molecules of a crystal molecules take of the which t o directions a may slipping or parallel planes, mechanical o f as the by under force, place pressure. application into layersin This may have the result of simply producing a separation there may be and the other more the given direction, hand, commonly, or, on
"

revolution of the molecules formed. are twinning-lamellce

a

into

new

that secondary so twinning-position,

in

to gradual pressure be subjected rock salt, of halite, or crystal of separationis developed face, a plane the direction of a dodecahedral

Thus,

if

normal

form. in the direction of another face of the same in and separation a crystal There six such directions of molecular slipping are Certain kinds of mica of the biotite class often show of this substance.
to this and

hence

(Zs.Kr., 11, 608, 1886) and Judd gliding-planes (seeArt. 281).

*

Lehmann

(Min. Mag., 8, 7, 1888^ regardthese

as

188

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

faces,which pseudo-crystalline

are

is,have

been

undoubtedly secondary in origin that sequently developed by pressure exerted sub"

to the

growth

of the

(cf. crystal Fig.489).

the base, c(001),normal to the plane of perfect In stibnite, molecules a slippingof the is a gliding-plane. Thus cleavage, made to take be place by their separation may without of perfect to the direction normal pressure in a plane (||c) crystalsupported near cleavage (||6). A slender prismatic by a dull edge is readilybent, the ends and pressed downward the parts beyond the or knicked, in this direction without support being affected.

282.
Biotite

Secondary Twinning.

The

other

case

of the molecules into a by calcite. Pressure upon of thin lamella of a number

where molecular in the precedingarticle, mentioned is accompanied by a half -re volution (180") slipping well illustrated (see twinning-position p. 160 et seq.)jis new
a

tion result in the formacleavage-fragment may the to the parent mass, twinning-position ary Secondobtuse the rhombohedron, 0(0112). negative twinning-planebeing similar to these are often observed in natural cleavagetwinning-lamellaB in the grainsof a crystalline limestone,as and particularly of calcite, masses in in thin sections under the microscope. also be produced (and are Secondary twinning-lamellse may of the triclinic feldspars, nature) in the case pyroxene, in quartz barite,etc. A secondary lamellar structure the lamellae observed been has by Judd, in which

observed

often noted in
490

consisted of

and left-handed portions. right-handed

be artificially a complete calcite twin may By the proper means Thus, if a cleavage-fragment of prismatic produced by pressure. in breadth, be placed in length and 3-6 mm. form, say fr-8 mm. with the obtuse edge on a firm horizontal support, and pressed by the blade of an ordinary tableknife on the other obtuse edge (at a, is reversed in Fig.490), the result is that a portion of the crystal if twinned as parallelto the plane (0112) which in the position, done, the twinning figurelies in a vertical position. If skillfully the re-entrant surface is perfectlysmooth, and angle corresponds Artificial Twinning in Calcite exactly with that required by theory.

often 283. Parting. The secondary twinning-planes described are which may directions of an easy separation conveniently called parting is a common basal parting of pyroxene be mistaken for cleavage.* The it was example of such pseudo-cleavage; long mistaken for cleavage. The basal and rhombohedral (1011)and the less distinct prismatic(1120) parting of corundum; the octahedral Fig. 474, p. 176),are partingof magnetite (cf.
" " "

other An

examples.
"

importantdistinction between cleavage and partingis this : partingcan exist only in certain definite planes that is, the surface of a twinning-lamelon la while the cleavage in take place any plane having the given direction. may
"

with the Percussion-figures. Immediately connected called the planes are figures percussion-figures f produced upon
" " "

284.

glidingcrystal
cause

The lamellar structure of a massive mineral,without twinning, may fracture which can be mistaken for cleavage. best obtained if the crystalplate under t The percussion-figures are supported upon a hard cushion and a blow be struck with a lighthammer rounded the slightly point of which is held firmlyagainst the surface. of
a

also be the

be investigation
upon
a

steel rod

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

COHESION

AND

ELASTICITY

189

section by a blow or pressure with a suitable point. In such cases, the method described serves to develop more less well-defined cracks whose orientation or varies with the crystallographic direction of the surface. Thus the upon cubic face of a crystalof halite a four-rayed, is produced star-shaped figure with arms to the diagonals parallel that is, to parallel the dodecahedral faces. On an octahedral face a threerayed star is obtained. The in the case of the micas have percussion-figures
"

been
a

investigated, and, as remarked later, they form the true orientation of a cleavage-plate fixing outlines. The having no crystalline figure(Fig.491) is here a six-rayed of whose star one branches is parallel to the clinopinacoid (6),the others approximately parallel to the intersection edges of the prism (m) and base (c).* Pressure upon a mica plateproduces a less distinct six-rayed star^diagonal to that justnamed; this is called a pressure-figure.
means

often

of

it is possibleto prove Solution-planes. In the case of many crystals, the existence in which chemical action takes place most or directions, structure-planes, is under great pressure. readily for example, when a crystal These directions of chemical weakness have been called solution-planes. They often manifest themselves by the of a multitude of oriented cavities of crystalline outline (so-called presence negativecrystals) in the given direction. in certain cases, as shown These solution-planes by Judd, are the same as the directions of secondary lamellar twinning, as is illustrated by calcite. Connected with this is the schillerization (seeArt. 369),observed in certain minerals in rocks (asdiallage, schillerspar). 285.
"

of certain
"

with the general subjects Etching-figures. Intimately connected in relation cohesion to o f the are crystals, considered, figures duced profaces; these are often called etching-figures. by etchingon crystalline This method of investigation, developedparticularly by Baumhauer, is of high of structure molecular the the crystal faces under importance as revealing examination,and therefore the symmetry of the crystalitself. The as by water in some cases, etchingis performed mostly by solvents, caustic mineral also at the or steam acids, alkalies, more by ordinary generally and hydrofluoric powerful in its acid; the last is especially a high pressure with the silicates. The figures produced are in and is used frequently action, the majorityof cases angulardepressions, 493 492 such as low triangular or quadrilateral run pyramids,whose outlines may allel parto some of the crystalline edges. In some the planesproduced can be cases referred to occurring crystallographic alike on faces. They appear similar and hence faces of crystals, to serve different forms, perhaps in distinguish the two sets of as identical, appearance faces in the ordinary double pyramid of quartz; so, too, they reveal the cornon common pound twinning-structure Quartz,rightQuartz,lefthanded as handed crystal some crystal crystals, quartz and aragonite.
286.
"

here

* Cf. Walker, Am. J. Sc.,2, 5, 1896, and G. Friedel, Bull. Soc. Min., 19, 18, 1896. Walker found the angle opposite6(010) (x in Fig.491) to be 53" to 56" for muscovite, 59" for lepidolite, 60" for biotite, and 61" to 63" for phlogopite.

190

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

in general corresponds to the symmetry form of the reveal thus the the given crystalbelongs. They trapegroup zohedral symmetry of quartz and the difference between a right-handed and calcite and left-handed crystal(Figs. 492, 493); the distinction between dolomite (Figs. 496, 497) ; the distinctive character of apatite, pyromorphite, etc.; the hemimorphic symmetry of calamine and nephelite(cf.Fig. 237, of etc.; they also prove by their form the monoclinic crystallization p. 102), muscovite and other micas (Fig. 495).

Further, their
to

which

of topaz by fused formed on a basal plane (cleavage) Fig. 494 shows the etching-figures of muscovite by hydrofluoric caustic potash; Fig. 495, those on a cleavage-plate acid; Fig. and Fig.497, on one of dolomite by dilute hydroface of calcite, 496, upon a rhombohedral chloric acid.

494

495

497

Topaz

Muscovite 499

Calcite

Dolomite 500

Spangolite
The shape of the etching-figures with the nature of the crystal may vary with the same solvent employed,though their symmetry For example, Fig. 498 shows remains constant. the figures obtained with spangolite 601 502 by the action of sulphuric acid, Fig. 499 by the same diluted,and

Fig.

500

by the

hydrochloric acid

of

different degrees of concentration.

Of the the
are on

same

nature

as

etching-figures artificially produced, in their relation to

of the crystal, symmetry the markings of ten observed the natural faces of crystals. These sometimes are

caused by a natural secondary, etchingprocess, but are more rften an in the crystalline irregularity development of the crystal. The inverted triangular often seen on the octahedral faces of diamond depressions crystals are an example. Fig.501 shows natural depressions, rhombohedral C observed on corundum crystalsfrom Montana h1aracter' (Pratt). Fig. shows a twin crystal of fluorite with natural etching-figures (Pirsson)
Fluorite
,,
-

Corundum

192
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

Talc.

6. 7.

Orthoclase.

Gypsum
Caltite. Fluorite.

Quartz. 8. Topaz.
9. 10.

Corundum.
Diamond.

Apatite.

varieties with smooth Crystalline

surfaces

should

be

taken

so

far

as

possible.
is scratched by the knife-blade as easily If the mineral under examination than calcite and more calcite its hardness is said to be 3; if less easily so In the latter case the mineral in question than fluorite its hardness is 3'5. itself scratch calcite. It need be scratched by fluorite but would would is attainable not that added be by the above methods, great accuracy hardly determination the of for of is exactness minerals, though, indeed, purposes
as

quiteunnecessary.
be noted that minerals of grade 1 have a greasy feel to the hand; scratched by the finger-nail; those of grade 3 are grade 2 are easily scratched of rather rather readily grade 4, easily by the cut, as by a knife; grade 6, barelyscratched by a difficulty; knife;grade 5, scratched with some they also scratch ordinaryglass. knife,but distinctly by a file moreover, but are Minerals as hard as quartz (H. 7),or harder,scratch glassreadily the few speciesbelonging here are enumerated in littletouched by a file; Appendix B; they include all the gems. Accurate determinations of the hardness of minerals 290. Sclerometer. in of of the best various ment instrube made use an one being by can ways, The mineral is placedon a movable with called a sclerometer. carriage, horizontal ; this is brought in contact with the surface to be experimentedupon fixed on a support above; the weight is then a steel point(ordiamond point), is and produce a scratch the carriage determined which justsufficient to move the surface of the mineral. on the hardness of the different faces of a of such an instrument By means in a varietyof cases. It has been found has been determined given crystal that different faces of a crystal differ in hardness, and the same (e.g., cyanite) face may differ as it is scratched in different directions. In general, ences differin hardness which show distinct cleavage; noted onlywith crystals are the hardest face is that which is intersected by the plane of most complete which is intersected by cleavage-planes, cleavage. Further,of a single face, the direction perpendicularto the cleavage-direction is the softer, those to it the harder. parallel
It should

those of

"

"

This subject has been investigated who has given the form of the by Exner (p. 194), obtained as of hardness for the different faces of many are crystals. These curves follows: the least weight required to scratch a crystalline surface in different directions, for each 10" or 15", from 0" to 180", is determined with the sclerometer; these directions laid off as radii from a center, and the length of each is made proportional are to the weight fixed by experiment that is,to the hardness thus determined; the line connecting the extremities of these radii is the curve of hardness for the given face. The following ness table gives the results obtained * (seeliterature) in comparing the hardof the minerals of the scale from No. 2. corundum, No. 9, taken as 1000, to gypsum, Pfaff used the method of boring with a standard point, the hardness being determined by the number of rotations; Rosiwal used a standard powder to grind the surface,Jaggar employed his micro-sclerometer, the method modification of that of a being essentially
cwrves
"

The

numbers

are

here given

as

tabulated

by Jaggar.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

COHESION

AND

ELASTICITY

193

of this instrument he is able to test the hardness of the minerals present the microscope. Measurements of absolute hardness have also been made by Auerbach. Holmquist has recently made hardness tests by the grinding many method. His results with regard to the minerals of the scale of hardness well agree fairly with those ot Rosiwal below but show considerable discrepancies given with the results obtained by the other methods. He, like Rosiwal, finds that topaz is lower in the scale than quartz.
means in a

Pfaff.

By

thin section

under

Pfaff, 1884 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2.

Rosiwal, 1892 1000 138 149 287 6'20 470 2'68 '34

Jaggar, 1897 1000 152 40 25 1'23 75 '26 '04

Corundum

1000 459 254 191

:...

Topaz Quartz
Orthoclase

Apatite
Fluorite Calcite

53'5

37'3
15'3 12'03

Gypsum

291. and

Relation of Hardness to Chemical Composition. be stated * in regard to the connection between its chemical composition.
can

"

Some generalfacts of importance of a mineral the hardness

1.

Compounds

of the

heavy metals, as silver, copper,

mercury,

lead,etc.,are

their soft,

seldom exceeding 2 '5 to 3. Among the compounds of the common and oxides of metals,the sulphides (arsenides) iron (also of nickel and cobalt) are hard for pyrite H. 6 to 6'5; for relatively (e.g., hematite H. iron tantalate; 6, etc.);here belong also columbite,iron niobate;tantalite,
= =

hardness

"

wolframite,iron tungstate. 2. The soft (exceptas noted in 1), also most sulphides are mostly relatively of the carbonates,sulphates,and phosphates. 3. Hydrous salts are relatively soft. This is most the silicates shown among distinctly and zeolites. the feldspars e.g., compare 4. The conspicuously hard minerals are found chiefly the oxides and silicates; among of them are compounds containing aluminium many e.g., corundum, diaspore,chrysoalumino-silicates. is hard (H. Outside of these the borate,boracite, beryl,and many 7);
"

also iridosmine. On the relation of hardness

292. Practical

to
"

hi the trials of hardness: is often the case with corundum, garnet, etc., as (1) If the mineral is slightly altered, be impossiblewith the mineral itself; the surface may be readilyscratched when this would a trial with an edge of the latter will often give a correct result in such a case. to be scratched when the grains (2) A mineral with a granular surface often appears have been only torn apart or crushed. soft mineral may leave a faint white ridge on a surface,as of glass, (3) A relatively observed. which can be mistaken for a scratch if carelessly scratched by the edge of another of the same as of quartz, is often slightly (4) A crystal, speciesand like hardness. the specimen as littleas (5) The scratch should be made in such a way as to disfigure

Suggestions.

specific gravity,see Art. 302. Several points should be regarded

possible.
293.

Tenacity.
"

Minerals

may

be

either

or malleable, sectile, brittle,

flexible.

(a) Brittle; when

parts of
calcite.

mineral

separate in powder

or

grains on

attempting to cut

as it, to be cut off with a knife without falling (b) Sectile; when pieces may is This character hammer. u nder a powder, but still the mineral pulverizes intermediate between brittle and malleable, as gypsum.

(c) Malleable; when

under
a

slices may

hammer;

native

and be cut off, gold,native silver.

*

these slices flattened out

See

further in

Appendix

B.

194

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

(d) Flexible;when the mineral will bend without breaking,and remain bent after the bending force is removed, as talc. of a substance is properlya consequence The tenacity of its elasticity. of 294. at once the Elasticity. The elasticity -a solid body expresses resistance which itmakes to a change in shape or volume, and also its tendency to act. to return to its original If the shape when the deforming force ceases is not passed, limit of elasticity the change in molecular position is proportional is exactlyresumed; if and the former shape of volume to the force acting, the deformation becomes permanent, a new this limit is exceeded, of position molecular equilibrium having been assumed; this is shown in the phenomena and of gliding-planes secondary twinning,already discussed. The magnitude of a given substance is measured of the elasticity by the coefficient of
"

the coefficientof restitution. This is denned elasticity, or, better, for example, between the elongation of a bar of unit section

as

the relation,

to the force

of the bending or twisting of a bar. actingto produce this effect; similarly The subjectwas early investigated by Savart; in recent years, acoustically of the elasticity of many stances subVoigt and others have made accurate measures and of the crystals of the same substance in different directions. of an amorphous body isthe same The elasticity in all directions, but it changes in value with change of crystallographic direction in all crystals. distinction between elastic and inelastic is often made between the of the mica and allied minerals. species Muscovite, for example, is group described as while phlogopite is much less so. In this case highlyelastic/' it is not true in the physcialsense that muscovite has a high value for the coefficient of elasticity; its peculiarity liesrather in the fact that its elasticity is displayed through unusuallywide limits. The
"

LITERATURE Hardness

Sklerometer. Programm d. Coin Realgymnasiums, 1833. Pogg., 80, 37, 1850. Grailich u. Pekarek. Ber. Ak. Wien, 13, 410, 1854. Pfaff. Mesosklerometer. Ber. Ak. Munchen, 13, 55, 1883. Sohncke. Halite. Pogg., 137, 177, 1869.
Seebeck.
Franz.

Exner. Ueber die Harte der Krystallflachen, 166 pp. Vienna, 1873 Wiener. Akad.). Auerbach. Wied. Ann., 43, 61, 1891; 45, 262, 277, 1892; 68, 357, 1896. Rosiwal. Verb. G. Reichs.,475, 1896.
T. A. Jaggar, Jr. Schroeder der van

(Preisschrift

Microsclerometer.
Kolk. Ueber

Am. J. Sc., 4, 399, 1897. Harte in Verland mit Spaltbarkeit, Verb.

Ak.

sterdam, Am-

8, 1901. Holmquist. Ueber den Relativen Abnutzungswiderstand der Mineralien der Harteskala. Geol. For. Forh., 33, 281, 1911. Die Schleifharte der Feldspathe, ibid., 36, 401, 1914. Die Hartestufe, 4-5, ibid., 38, 501, 1916.
etc. Etching-figures,

Goldschmidt and Wright. Ueber Aetzfiguren, und Losungskorper. Lichtfiguren exhaustive references to the literature. N. Jb. Min. Beil-Bd., 17, 355-390, 1903.

With

Gliding-planes, Secondary Twinning, etc.

136, 130,632, 1869.
~

calcite. Pogg. Ann., 132, 441, 1867. )be," halite, Mica, ibid., Gypsum, ibid., Ber. Ak., Berlin, p. 135. 440, 1873. 61\ vSoMfe' Pogg" Ann-' 138"337' 1869" Zs" G- Ges-"26" 137" 1874- Galena,
L., 1,

L6",

SPECIFIC

GRAVITY

OR

RELATIVE

DENSITY

195

Baumhauer.
1

Calcite.

7" 898

Caldte"augite"stibnite" etc.

Zs. Kr., 3, 588, 1879. Jb. Min., 1,32, 1883; 2, 13, 1883. Min.

Also

ibid.,

1887.

LiJ* JU?d" ^ Structure

Savart. Neumann. Ann.

etc. Solution-planes Q. J. G. Soc.,41, 374, 1885; planes of corundum, Min. Mag., 11, 49 1895

Mag., 7, 81,

Voigt. See below. Elasticity

Ch. Phys., 40, 1, 113, 1829; also in Pogg. Ann., 16, 206, 1829.

Pogg. Ann., 31, 177, 1834. Angstrom. Pogg. Ann., 86, 206, 1852. Calcite. Baumgarten. Pogg. Ann., 152, 369, 1874. Groth. Halite. Pogg. Ann., 157, 115, 1876. Coromilas. Gypsum, mica. Inaug. Diss., Tubingen, 1877 (Zs.Kr., 1, 407, 1877) Reusch. Ice. Wied. Ann., 9, 329, 1880. Klang. Fluorite. Wied. Ann., 12, 321, 1881. Koch. sylvite. Wied. Ann., 18, 325, 1883. Halite, Alum. Zs. Kr., 10, 41, 1885. Beckenkamp. Voigt. Pogg. Ann., Erg. Bd., 7, 1, 177, 1876. Wied. Ann., 38, 573, 1889. Calcite, 39, 412, 1890. Dolomite, ibid., 40, 642, 1890. Tourmaline,ibid., 41, 712, 1890; 44, 168
1891.

Also papers in Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen. Tutton. The Elasmometer. Structure Crystalline

and

Chemical

1910. Constitution,

II. SPECIFIC

GRAVITY

OR
"

RELATIVE

DENSITY

295. Definition of Specific Gravity. The specific gravityof a mineral is the ratio of its density* to that of water at 4" C. (39'2" F.). This relative densitymay be learned in any case by comparing the ratioof the weight of a certain volume of the given substance to that of an equal volume of water; hence the specific is often defined the the as: divided gravity weightof body by the weight of an equalvolume of water. that the specific The statement is 2, of corundum gravityof graphite 4, of that the densities of the minerals named are galena 7'5,etc.,means 2, 4, and times that of water; in other words, as familiarly 7'5,etc., expressed,any volume 4 times, of them, a cubic inch for example,weighs 2 times, 7*5 times, etc.,as much as a like volume, a cubic inch, of water. Strictly speaking,since the densityof water varies with its expansionor contraction under change of temperature, the comparison should be made with at which it has itsmaxiwater at a fixed temperature, namely 4" C. (39'2" mum F.), suitable If correction at should made a a highertemperature, density. be introduced however, since a high degree of by calculation. Practically, in is impracticable often to cases is called not for,and, indeed, many accuracy attain in consequence of the nature of the material at hand, in the ordinary work of obtainingthe specific gravityof minerals the temperature at which variations of temperature the observation is made can safelybe neglected. Common would seldom affect the value of the specific gravityto the extent of unit in the third decimal place. one
Thus if a cubic centimeter the mass of the unit volume. body is strictly 4" C. or 39'2" F.) is taken as the unit of mass, the density, of mass of grams is given by the number (about 19) in a as gold body cubic centimeter; in this case the same gives the relative density or specific number, 1.9, gravity. If, however, a pound is taken as the unit of mass, and the cubic foot as the unit of that of gold about 1188 Ibs., and the of a cubic foot of water is 62'5 Ibs., volume, the mass 19. the second again, to is the of the first, ratio or, specific gravity
*

The

densityof

of water density of any

(at its maximum

"

"

196
For

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

to take into consideration the fact it is not necessary is less than its true weight of of a mineral that the observed weight a fragment by the weight of air displaced. calls for an accurate determination of the investigation the nature Where of the precautions to four decimal places), no one of the specific gravity(e.g.,

the

same

reason,

in

regardto

the

exactness purityof material,

of

weight-measurement,temperature,

values spoken of are needed in be neglected.* The accurate ular volume, the relation of molecthe consideration of such problems as the specific others. and many volume to specific gravity, of the SpecificGravity by the Balance. The 296. Determination of the given mineral with an direct comparison by weight of a certain volume

etc.,can

"

equal volume of water is not often practicable.By making use, however, of in hydrostatics, that a solid immersed in water, in viz., a familiar principle in loses of the amount the which is of weight an buoyancy latter, consequence the the of volume water volume it displaces) (thatis, equalto the weight of an equal of the specific the determination gravity becomes a very simple
"

ner; weight of the solid in the air (w) is firstdetermined in the usual manis found (w')] the difference between the weight in water these is the weight of a volume the loss by immersion wf) (w weights that is, that of the solid to water the quotientof of ; finally, equal 505 the first weight (w) by that of the equal volume of water is the determined as w') (w specific gravity(G). Hence,

process. The

then
"

"

"

"

w w
"

w'

of obtaining A common method the specific gravity of firm fragment of a mineral is as follows: First weigh the specimen accurately on a good chemical balance. from of the balance by a horseThen it hair, one suspend pan fine silk thread,or, better still, a by platinum wire, in a glassof water conveniently placed beneath, and take the weight again with the same care; then use the results above directed. The as platinum wire may be wound around the specimen,or where the latter is small it may be made at one end into a littlespiral support. 297. The of using an ordinInstead ary Jolly Balance. the spiral balance and determiningthe actual weight, balance of Jolly, shown in Fig. 505, maybe conveniently employed; this is also suitable when the mineral is in the form of small grains. The instrument consists of a spiral the Springor at lower end of which spring are suspended two pans Jolly Balance ^ and or baskets" ' d, Fig. 505. Upon the movable stand -B rests a beaker filledwith water. in adjustWhen ment for readingthis stand has such a position in that the pan d is immersed the water while c hangs above it. Upon the uprightA there is a mirror upon which is marked The position a scale. of the balance at any time is obtained the eye that the bead, m, and its reflection in the mirror coincide by so placing
a
"

for'spedSfGravitv

Cf. Earl of

Berkeleyin

Min.

Mag., 11, 64, 1895.

SPECIFIC

GRAVITY

OR

RELATIVE

DENSITY

197

of the top of the bead upon then readingthe position the scale. The first in consists in the the o f the operation getting step position alone,having spring in the water in the beaker. the pan d immersed Let this reading be represented The mineral whose specific by n. gravityis to be determined is then placed the pan or basket, c, and the platform B raised until d is properly immersed on The position of the bead m is again read. in the water. Let this value be the representedby NI. If from N\ be subtracted the number n, expressing to which the scale is stretched by the weight of spring amount and pans alone, the difference will be proportionalto the weight of the mineral. Next, the in the water, and again the mineral is placed in the lower pan, d, immersed scale number, Nz, read. The difference between these readings corresponding to is number The a Nz) proportional the loss of weight in water. (Ni and
"

gravityis then specific

Nj-n
.

the lower pan It is obviously necessary to have the wires supporting to the same depth in the case of each of the three determinations. taken the specific gravitycan Balance. Beam 298. The be obtained
"

immersed

If care is decimal places. A beam balance described by Penfield is and device for measuring the specific accurate another quite simple very make will clear its essential parts. in which illustrated is It 506, Fig. gravity. The beam is so balanced by a weight on its shorter end that it is very nearly in water. An exact balance when the lower pan is immersed in equilibrium beam is balanced this d. the When rider small once the is then obtained by
to accurately two

in the subsequentreadings. rider is kept stationaryand its position disregarded beam the balanced by another and in the upper pan The mineral is first placed outer end of the beam. be the will near rider of such a weight that its position
506

Beam

Balance

for

Gravity, "th Specific

Natural

Penfield) Size (after

The

the beam. of this rider is then read from the scale engraved upon position to the lower transferred is next mineral The Let this value be equal to Ni. rider back. againbrought into balance by moving this same pan and the beam the for formula obtaining The be represented by N2. The second reading may gravityis now: specific

Nl
n
=
.

N^^"2
of grains or small of the pycnometer.

If the mineral is in the form be obtained by use may gravity fragments,the specific
299.

Pycnometer.

"

198

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

and ends in This is a small bottle (Fig. 507) having a stopper which fitstightly with is The distilled bottle filled fine opening. water, the a tube with a very water the and removed overflowing carefully stopper inserted, The of the and then cloth water soft with 607 weighed. weight a this between last and difference the that is obviously weight firstdetermined. mineral The and of the bottle as together, is be determined is to also mineral whose density weighed. Lastly the bottle is weighed with the mineral in it and filled The described above.* with water as weight of the water is obviouslythe difference between displacedby the mineral this last weight and that of the bottle filledwith water plus The specific eral the weight of the mineral. gravityof the minis equalto its weight alone divided by the weight of the Where this method equal volume of water thus determined. is followed with sufficient care, especially avoiding any change in results be highly the the of water, temperature may Pycnometer
accurate. be firstreduced to forms a porous mass, it may Rose that chemical it is to be noted that it has been shown by If the mineral

powder, but precipitates

substance in a less higherdensitythan belongs to the same also of This increase divided state. density characterizes, though to a finely of in fine mechanical subdivision. It is explained state less extent, a mineral a by the condensation of the water on the surface of the powder. It is often found convenient 300. Use of Liquids of High Density. both in the determination of the specific gravityand in the mechanical separation to obtain pure material of fragments of different specific gravities (e.g., of high density for analysis, or again in the study of rocks) to use a liquid so-called heavy solution. One of these is the solution of mercuric that is, a solution. When iodide in potassium iodide,called the Sonstadt or Thoulet made it has a maximum with care density of nearly 3 '2,which by dilution have

uniformly

"

"

may

be lowered A second

at will.

the borotungstate often employed, is the Klein solution, solution, This maximum of 3*6. density again may be lowered cadmium, having a certain will at precautions. Still a third by dilution, observing necessary solution of much practical value is that proposed by Brauns, methylene iodide, of 3*324. A number which has a specific of other solutions, or less more gravity have also been suggested.! When is to be used of these liquids one practical, for the determination of the specific gravityof fragments of a certain mineral it must be diluted until the fragmentsjustfloat and the specific gravitythen most conveniently obtained, by the Westphal balance (Art.301). is to be used for the separation of the When, on the other hand, the liquid minerals mixed together, the material is firstreduced fragmentsof two or more to the proper degree of fineness, the dust and smallest fragmentsbeing sifted of

out, then it is introduced

after another

into the solution and this diluted until one stituent consinks and is removed. For the convenient application

taken to prevent air-bubbles being included among the mineral be accomplished by placing the bottle under an air-pump and exhausting the air or by suspending the bottle for a short time in a beaker filledwith boiling water and then allowing it to cool again before weighing. in detail an account t Johannsen, Manual of Petrographic Methods, p. 519 et seq., gives of the various solutions, the methods of their preparation, etc.

Care

should

be

particles. This

may

200

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

calcite

trained to detect a difference of specific be soon It is to be noted that the hand may thus the difference between small in fragment a eravitv if like volumes are taken, even and a quartz small diamond a the difference between albite and barite,even
"

or

can crystal,

be detected. LITERATURE.
"

Gravity Specific

General:

Pogg. Ann., 14,474, 1828. Jenzsch. Pogg. Ann., 99, 151, 1856. Jolly. Ber. Ak. Miinchen, 1864, 162. Gadolin. Pogg., 106, 213, 1859. G. Rose. Pogg. Ann., 73, 1; 75, 403, 1848. Scheerer. Pogg. Ann., 67, 120, 1846. Jb. Min., 561, 932, 1873; 399, 1874, etc. Schroder. Pogg. Ann., 106, 226, 1859. Ber. Ak. Wien, 47 (1),292, 1863. Tschermak. derselben angenomGewicht Die Mineralien nach den fur das specifische Websky. 1868. 170 Werthen. Breslau, und pp. gefundenen menen
Beudant.
etc.: Use of Heavy Solutions,

Sonstadt.
Thoulet. Breon. D. Klein.

Chem. News, 29, 127, 1874. Bull. Soc. Min., 2, 17, 189, 1879.
Bull. Soc. Min.,

3, 46,

1880.

Goldschmidt. Rohrbach.
Gisevius. Brauns.

Jb. Min., Beil.-Bd., 1, 179, 1881. Bull. Soc. Min., 4, 149, 1881. Jb. Min., 2, 186, 1883.

Bonn., Inaug. Diss.,

1883.

Jb. Min., 2, 72, 1886; 1, 213, 1888. Retgers. Jb. Min., 2, 185, 1889. Jb. Min., 2, 214, 1891. Salomon. Am. J. Sc., Penfield. 50, 446, 1895. Am. J. Sc.,32,425, 1911. Merwin.

III.

CHARACTERS
GENERAL

DEPENDING
PRINCIPLES OF

UPON
OPTICS

LIGHT

characters of minerals in general, the optical and Before considering of the different systems, it those that belong to the crystals particularly of the more of optics is desirable to review briefly some important principles in the which questiondepend. phenomena upon

306.

more

of

specialreference is made to the works crystals, (translation by Jackson), Liebisch,Mallard, Duparc and Pearce, Rosenbusch on by Iddings),Iddings,Johannsen, Winchell, mentioned p. 3 also to the (translation text-books of Physics. various advanced
For
a

fuller discussion of the opticsof

Groth

considered to be an electroof Light. magnetic Light is now the in to due a periodicJvariation energy given off by phenomenon This electrons. vibrating energy is transmitted by a series of periodicchanges that show all the characters of ordinarywave phenomena. The light waves, short as they are commonly called, wave-lengthsthat are of the possess certain correct magnitude to affect the optic Other similar waves with longer nerves. 307. The Nature
"

or

shorter wave-lengths class of phenomena. belong to the same Immediately the so-called violet" ultrabeyond the violet end of the visible spectrum come with stillshorter wave-lengthsand on beyond these we waves have the X-rays and the Of the radium. waves by gamma" produced rays have the waves that give having greater lengthsthan those of light waves we
"

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

201
All of

these the

rise to the sensation of heat and the Hertzian waves used in wireless while varying enormously in their vibrations,
same

order

of

phenomena
series

wave-lengths, belong to
The

and

obey the

same

laws.

the section
may into

of the

proportion that

be
a so

shown strikingly
a as

which when

produces
we

spectrum
to

yard long and

the effect of light bears to the whole white light say that if ordinary is broken up this then considered to be extended either on

end would

be

and space, through liquids time been explained by the assumption that a medium, called the luminiferous ether,pervades all space, including the intermodular of material bodies. In this medium space the vibrations of assumed to take place. For the waves are light of the present work, purposes is it to consider closely however, the exact nature unnecessary of light the or mode of its transmission. It will assist greatly, however,in obtaining a clear idea of the behavior of light in crystals if we that light assume waves are chanical mein nature and consist of periodic vibrations in an all-prevailing ether. 308. Wave-motion in General. A familiar example of wave-motion is given by the series of concentric waves which on a surface of smooth water
has for transparent solids,
some
"

The

include all known electro-magnetic waves five million miles in length. transmission of light through interstellar
over

the entire spectrum

of disturbance, center the point where a pebble has been as These surface-waves are propagated by a motion of the waterdropped which is transverse to the direction in which the waves particles themselves to the next adjoining, travel;this motion is given from each particle and so Thus the particles of water at any on. one spot oscillate up and down,* while the wave moves on as a circular ridgeof water of constantlyincreasing diameter, but of diminishingheight. The ridge is followed by a valley, indeed both togetherproperlyconstitute a wave in the physicalsense. This is another followed and wave compound wave by another, until the original impulse has exhausted itself. Another familiar kind of wave-motion is illustrated by the sound-waves which in the free air travel outward from a sonorous body in the form of concentric spheres. Here the actual motion of the layersof air is forward and back that is, in the direction of propagationof the sound and the effect of the transfer of this impulse from one layer to the next is to give rise and rarefied shell of air, which together constitute to a condensed alternately in of constantly decreasing sound-wave and which w aves a spherical expand in the motion air set of waves, Soundcontinuallyincreases). mass (since intensity and they travel at a rate of the voice, be several feet in length, as may of 1120 feet per second at ordinarytemperatures. 309. It is important to understand that in both the cases mentioned,as in free each be considered a of on wave wave-motion, case point given may every tend to go out. of disturbance from which a system of new waves as a center These individual wave-systems ordinarily destroyeach other except so far as is concerned. whole the onward This is further o f the as a wave progression to light-waves discussed and illustrated in its application (Art 312 and Figs.
go out
a

from

in.

"

"

509, 510).
is to be considered as the resultant of a given wave therefore, general, obstacle in encounters an all these minor wave-systems. If, however, a wave in comparison with the length its path, as a narrow narrow one opening (i.e.,
In
*

to approximatesclosely Strictly speaking,the path of each particle

circle.

202 of the
waves

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

wave)
seem

or

to bend

sharp edge,then the fact justmentioned since new waves about the obstacles,
an

how explains
start

the
as

from
case

them
of

in the centers. important application of diffraction the (Art. 331). phenomena explaining This has principle

waves, light-

be mentioned, since it is particularly of wave-motion 310. Stillanother case ful helpmay at one in giving a correct apprehension of light-phenomena. If a long rope, attached end, be grasped at the other,a quick motion of the hand, up or down, will give rise to a half which will travel quickly to the in one wave-form case a crest,in the other a trough forward other end and be reflected back with a reversal in its position; that is,if it went has reached the end. a it will return as a trough. If,just as the wave a hill-likewave, as and pass in the middle, but here for a brief be started, the two will meet second like one at rest, since it feels two equal and opposite impulses. This interval the rope is sensibly of the simple interference of two like waves later to be a case will be seen opposed in phase. Again, a double motion of the hand, up and down, will produce a complete wave, with Still and this again is reflected back as in the simpler case. crest and trough, as the result,
" "

again, if a series of like motions are continued rhythmically and so timed that each wave is an even passing in part of the whole rope, the two systems of equal and opposite waves will be the the two directions will interfere and a system of so-called stationary waves the rope seeming to vibrate in segments to and fro about the positionof equilibrium. result, to describe a small circle at a rapid,uniform, if the end of the rope be made Finally,
will again result, but now the vibrations of of stationarywaves will be seen to the stringwill be sensiblyin circles about the central line. This last case of circularly vibrations by which the waves ized polarroughly indicate the kind of transverse of what lightare propagated, while the former case represents the vibrations of waves is called plane-polarized light. All these cases of waves obtained with a rope deserve to be carefullyconsidered and studied by experiment, for the sake of the assistance they give to an understanding of the complex phenomena of light-waves.

rhythmicalrate, a system

in order to make In the discussion that follows, 311. Light-waves. have been treated as if they the explanations waves simplerand clearer, light called the ether. consisted of mechanical disturbances in a material medium The vibrations in the ether caused by the transmission of a lightwave take place in directions transverse to the direction of the movement of the These When characters. oscillations have the ether wave. an following ticle parit moves from its original is set vibrating with gradually ing decreasposition is reached. of its maximum until the position Then velocity displacement with graduallyincreasing and since it returns to its original velocity position it is moving without friction it will continue in the same direction on past this will then again diminish until it has reached a displacepoint. Its velocity ment in direction to its firstswing,when it will start back equal but opposite and repeat the oscillation. The varying velocityof such an its course on oscillation would be the same that shown as by a particle moving around a circlewith uniform speed if the particle observed in direction was a lyingin the of the Under circle. these conditions the particle to move would appear plane forward and backward line with constantlychangingvelocity. alonga straight Such a motion is called simple harmonic motion. The motion of one ether particle is communicated to another and so on, littlebehind in the time of its oscillation. Consequently, a each, in order, falling while the individual particles move only back and forth in the same line the wave disturbance moves forward. If,at a given instant of time,the of successive particles in their oscillations are plotted, such positions a curve, in Fig.508, will be formed. as shown harmonic Such a curve is known as a The oscillatory curve. of the particles is called a motion in a lightwave m otion it since itself The disintervals. maximum periodic at regular repeats
"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

203

placement of
of the instant the
wave

from particle C-D, (distance is its positionin

a

its

original positionof rest is called the amplitude Fig. 508). The phase of a particle at a given
608 D

vibration and direction in which

the it is

moving.
The
any

/^
distance between the next

and particle

/" /
"

"

is in a like positionr of like phase, as A \ i.e., is the wave-length;\~ and B and the time requiredfor this completed movement which
"

j\l
Harmonic Curve

I/

is the
or

time

of

vibration,
wave-system
therefore travels onward
the distance

vibration-period.The
one

The of the light varies wave-lengthin one vibration-period. intensity and the color, in later with the amplitude of the vibration, ticle, aras a explained the the is the of of the violet waves length depends upon length waves; about one-half the lengthof the red waves. In ordinarylight the transverse vibrations are to be thought of as taking vibrations place in all planesabout the line of propagation. In the above figure, direction of in one plane only are represented ; lightthat has only one vibration is said to be plane-polarized. transverse only 0'000023 of an inch for the Light-waves have a very minute length, and with travel sodium enormous velocity, 186,000 miles flame, they yellow in about earth the from thus the to in second sun a light passes vacuum; per time of is The quently one minutes. or oscillation, consevibration-period, eight the traveled is distance it by light given by dividing extremelybrief; of

in

included.* of waves second by the number In an Wave-front. medium, as air,water, or glass isotropic nous in which light would be propagatedin all directions about a lumithat is, one The in form. the the are waves with spherical same velocity point all which includes in this continuous is case the spherical, surface, wave-front time. ously Obviof the moment vibration at same their that commence particles of the wave-front diminishes as the distance of the source the curvature from an indefinitely comes great distance and when the light of light increases, Such surface. are waves a plane (asthe sun) the wave-front becomes sensibly
one

312.

"

"

"

usually called plane waves.

In

These

cases

are

illustrated by
and
.

Figs.509
the

and

510.

being 0, Fig. 509 the luminous is spherical.It is ABC the G, as that is wave-front, obvious il isotropic, stated in Art. 309, the resultant how, as briefly also made clear by this figure as of all the individual impulses which go out from the successive points, with concentric abc form wave-front, new a g, A, B, C, etc.,as centers, In Fig.510 the luminous body is supposed to be at a great disG. ABC point is supposed to be
. . .

medium

of vibration, speed at which lighttravels the rapidity of the tremendous is extremely great. About eight fixed point, a it through of as light passes or "frequency Ine of violet lightwould pass through such a point in a second. trillion waves hundred of a singlewave of this for the passage time of interval required the of extreme brevity of a sort may perhaps be realized better when it is said that one eight-hundred-trillionth is of the whole of historic time. second is a vastly smaller part of a second than a second Nature of Matter and Electricity,p. 157. and Troland, "The Comstock
*

"On

account
"

204 tance,
so

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

that the wave-front

609

AB

F
.

is a plane surface. Here also the individual impulsesfrom A, B, etc., ab unite to form the wave-front /
.

to parallel

AB
. . .

F.
"

313.

Light-ray.

The

study of

in certain cases, light-phenomenais, facilitated by the conception of a

a light-ray,

line

drawn
to

from
so

the
as

direction is taken to represent that of the wave

510

luminous and whose

point

the

wave-front,
itself.

/
in Fig. 510 and diverging light-rays, Fig. 509 OA, OB, etc., are where these OB, etc., are parallel light-rays. In both cases, is normal to the waveis assumed the light-ray the medium to be isotropic, in a onward This is equivalent front. to saying that the light-wave moves In

OA,

"

direction normal to the wave-front. that the " light-ray" has no real existence and is It must be understood the direction of to be taken only as a convenient method of representing under Thus conditions. when by appromotion of the light-waves varying priate the is altered the curvature wave-front of of the means use (e.g., lenses) then for example,if from being a plane surface it is made sharplyconvex if at firstparallel, the light-rays, said to be made to are diverge. Again, the wave-front is made plane, then said to be the diverging convex are light-rays
"

made small

Notwithstanding the very with great precision. can The visual part of the waves incandescent body, going out from a brilliantly the glowing carbons of an electric arc-light, be shown to consist of as may of widely varying lengths. They include red waves waves whose length is
Color. White of light, they

314.

parallel. Wave-length. lengthof the waves

Light.
"

be measured

0*0007604

mm.

(about
\

"

of
nAA

an

inch

)and
/

waves

whose

length constantly

oy,uuu

diminishes without break, through the orange, yellow, green, and blue to the w hose minimum 'about half of that of the is violet, length (0'0003968 mm.) red. The colo of light is commonly said to depend upon its wave-lengthand will be so spoken of here. This is not strictly true, however, because, since the velocity of lightvaries with the medium through which it is traveling

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

205

under all conditions, it follows color must be differentin different media. rather the frequency is, therefore, with which the light waves reach the eye tLat determines the color sensation. Commonly a given color produced by the combination of several different of light It wave-lengths monochromatic strictly only when it corresponds to one definite this is nearly true of the bright-yellow sodium line, though strictly this consists of two sets of waves of

constant
same

mpL

of the "fht ^ave;1,engt.h It

of

t I

wave-length

different slightly
if all the
"

The

lengths.
a

TpeS
piece of

effect of
come

white

is obtained light"

violet
The

waves

platinum

at

together to the eye simultaneously; for this reason a temperature of 1500" C. appears white hot"

from the red to the

radiation from the sources named, either the the sun, electric carbons the glowing platinum, includes also or longer waves which do not affect the eye, but which, like the light-waves, produce the effect of sensible heat when received an upon absorbing as one of lampsurface, black. There are also,particularly in the radiation from the sun, waves shorter than the which also do not affect the The former are eye. called infra-red, the latter ultra-violet waves. The brightness of light

violet

depends
and

the plitude amupon of its vibrations

varies directly the as of this distance. 315. Complementary Colors. The sensation of white light mentioned above is also obtained when to a given color
square
-

"

\r
"*
V

\^
*"*
x

\,"
n
*

\^
T"*

^X
/T*

is, light-waves of given wave-length is

-

that

combined certain other a called so complementary color. Thus certain shades of pink and combined, as by the rapid rotation of a card on green which the colors form segments, produce the effect of white. Blue and yellow of certain shades are also complementary. For every shade of color in the spectrum there is another one here complementary to it in the sense defined. The most perfect illustration of complementary colors is givenby the examination in polarizedlight, of sections of crystals later explained. as 316. Reflection. When to the waves come lightboundary which medium from another,as a surface of water, or glassin air, separates one in part reflected or returned back into the firstmedium. they are, in general, The reflection of light-waves 511 and 512. In Fig. is illustrated by Figs. MM is surface and the lighthere a plane surface the reflecting 511, waves have a plane wave-front (Abcde); in other words, the light-rays (OA, Ob, etc.)are parallel. It is obvious that the wave-front meets the surface from pointto pointto E. firstat A and successively These pointsare to be regarded as the centers of new wave-systems which unimpeded would be in all directions and at a given instant would have propagated outward Hence the comtraveled through distances equal to the lines Aa', Bb' etc.
" " "

206
mon

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

tangent fghkE to the circular arcs drawn wave-front. or reflected etc.,representsthe direction of the new ricallythe

with

these

radii from
But

A, B, geomet512

is angle eAE cident equal to fEA, or the inand wavereflected make angles equal fronts with the reflecting surface.

at A, is a normal If NA called the angle OAN is incidence the angleof the angle equal to NAF, Hence the of reflection.
"

familiar law:
The

equal to the

angleofincidence is angle of reflection.

"

Furthermore, the

cident in-

Fig.512, where the luminous pointis at 0, at points, firstat the pointA and successively the plane mirror MM it is easy Here also A. the to farther of (and right as left) away B, C, D, etc., which have at their centers A, B, C, etc., to show that all the new impulses, at of rise is reflected series center whose to a 0',at a must together waves give surface the from to MM measured normal distance equally great on a O'A}. (OA to the wave-front, the lines OA, OB, etc.,which are perpendicular Now and the eye placed in the direction BE, represent certain incident light-rays, tion It follows from the construcCF, etc.,will see the luminous pointas if at 0' be proved by experiment that if BN, CN', etc.,are and can of the figure normals to the mirror the anglesof incidence, etc.,are equal to OBN, OCN' ', the above law Hence the angles of reflection, NBE, N'CF, etc., respectively. to this also. case applies If the reflecting surface is not plane,but, for example, a concave surface, that of a spherical there is a change in the curvature of as or parabolic mirror, the wave-front after reflection, but the same law still holds true.
In

and reflected rays" both lie in the same plane .to the the normal with surface. reflecting the waves going out from it

will meet

The proportion of the reflected to the incident lightincreases with the smoothness of surface and also as the angle of incidence diminishes. The intensityof the reflected is a maximum for a given surface in the case of perpendicularincidence (OA, Fig.512). light If the surface is not perfectly will take place,and there will polished, diffuse reflection be no distinct reflected ray. It is the diffusely the reflected reflected lightwhich makes if the surface of a mirror were surface visible; the eye would smooth the see absolutely reflected body in it only, not the surface itself. Opticallyexpressed,the surface is to be considered smooth if the distance between the scratches upon it is considerablv less (say one-fourth)than the wave-length of light.
the

317. Refraction. When into another lightpasses from one medium there is, in general, increase in its decrease a nd this an or velocity, commonly results in the phenomenon of refraction that is, a change in the direction of here can be most easily shown in the propagation. The principles applicable
" "

208

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

sin

^
-

The

law

of refraction then is given by the expression,

as

or
, /

may

be

olll

formulated
The sine

follows:

of the angle of incidence bears

air into

constant

ratio to the sine

ratio

of the
to

angleof refraction. of light In the case passingfrom

3in ^
=

crown

this glass

is

found of

be,
sin r

T608, and index,

or

this for

number

consequently gives the

kind

value

the

refractive

this

of glass. The above

any

relation holds true for

of

514

wave-system
in

given
one

length wave-

into front

passingfrom another, whatever

or

medium
the
wave-

In

point is
shown

face. bounding surshape Fig. 514 the luminous be readily it can at 0, and

of the

that

the

new

wave-front

dium mepropagated in the second (of greater opticaldensity)

has

flattened
to
=

curvature

and
center

corresponding
at 0'

this
"

fwhere ^4^
OA
rays
at

). Here
v

the

incident

fracted reOB, OC, are J3*andC, the corresponding refracted rays being BE and CF.

For

this

case

also the relation holds

good,
sin n i sin i

sinr

sin

-,,
r

etc.

If the bounding surface is not plane but curved, as in in the second of the wave-front change in the curvature

there is a lenses, medium, but the is isotropic.

simplelaw, n

"

"

holds true

here

also,so long as the medium

The relation between wave-length and refractive index is spoken of in Art. 328. 319. Relation of Refractive Index to Lightvelocity. The discussion stance of the precedingarticle shows that if n is the refractive index of a given subin and for waves air of a certain length, the V referred to air, v velocity the velocity in the given medium, then
"

V
n
=
""

For two that

media

whose

indices

are

n\

and
n\
_

nz

follows it consequently respectively,

v%
t

nz

v\

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

209
length wave-

Therefore,The
are

In

of refraction of two given media for a certain to their relativelight-velocities. inversely proportional other words, if the velocity of lightin air is taken as equal to

indices

1 and

of the same velocity lightis found to be one half as great when passing the index of refraction, through a given substance, or n, of that substance when referred to air (n TO) will be equal to 2*0. 320. The refractive index Principal Refractive Indices. has, as value for every substance, stated,a constant is usual, to air (or as referred, be to a vacuum). it may In regard to solid media, it is evident from Art. 318 and will be further explained later that those which are isotropic, viz., amorphous substances and crystalsof the isometric system, can have but a value of this index. of the tetragonaland hexagonalsystems single Crystals two principal refractive indices, have, as later explained, e and co, corresponding to the velocities of light-propagation in certain definite directions in them. Further, all orthorhombic,monoclinic, and triclinic crystalshave similarly three principal In the latter 'cases of so-called anisotropic indices, a, |S,7. the refractive index is mean media, taken,namely, as the arithmetical mean
=
"

the

Effect of Index of Refraction upon Luster, etc. The luster and of a transparent substance depend largely itsrefractive generalappearance upon index. For instance the peculiar by means aspect of the mineral cryolite, of which it is usuallypossible is due to its to readily the substance, identify low index of refraction. If cryolite is pulverized and the powder poured into it will disappearand apparently go into solution. of water It is a test tube in the but becomes invisible water because its index quiteinsoluble, however, of refraction (about 1*34)is near that of water will travel (T335). The light the same the with practically as cryolite velocity through through the water and consequently suffer littlereflection or refraction at the surfaces between the two. On the other hand powdered glass with a higherindex of refraction than that of water conditions because of the white under the same appears reflection of light from the surfaces of the particles. Substances having an unusually high index of refraction have an appearance tine and which is generally which it is hard to define, spoken of as an adamanbe best comprehended by examining luster. .This kind of luster may cerussite (n of 1*98). They have a 2*419) or (n specimens of diamond which is not metallic almost flash and sometimes a quality, appearance, for example, specimens possessed by minerals of a low refractive index. Compare, of cerussite and fluorite (n 1'434). The usual index of refraction for to minerals a luster be said to range not far from 1*55,and gives minerals may and halite show vitreous. which good has been termed Quartz, feldspar,
321.
"

examples
Below

of vitreous luster. is givena list of

common

to their indices minerals arrangedaccording isometric the of than those other system the of refraction. For minerals here. is the value (asdefined in precedingarticle) given average

Water
...........

1 335
'

Muscovite

1 582
.......

Fluorite
.........

1'434 1523
.......

Beryl
Topaz

1'582 T601
..........

...........

Orthoclase

Calcite

Gypsum

1'524
.........

1622
...........

Quartz

1 "547
..........

Tremolite

1 '622
.......

210 Dolomite

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

1626
........

Anglesite
Zircon Cerussite Cassiterite
........... ..........

T884
1

........

Aragonite Apatite
.........

1 633 1 633 1640 T 685

952

.......

T 986 2'029
.......

........

Barite

...........

Diopside Cyanite Epidote

Corundum Almandite Malachite

........

1'723
1750 1 765
.......

..........

Sulphur Sphalerite
........

2'077 2369 2 419 2 711

Diamond
........

..........

Rutile
...........

1*810
.......

Cuprite
Cinnabar

2849 2 969
........

..........

1 880
'

........

That Chemical Composition, Density, and Refractive Index. 322. Relations between of a substance,its specific the chemical composition gravity, definite relations exist between in many With the plagioshown has been conclusively cases. and its index of refraction, the variation in composition which the different members clase feldspargroup, for instance, refractive index. Attempts show is accompanied by a direct variation in density and of mathematical these relations in the form to express statements. have been made most The two expressions are the one proposed by Gladstone and Dale,* satisfactory
"

l-^
"

constant, and
"

the

one

proposed
n

independently by
mean

Lorentz

f and
d to the

Lorenz,t density.

n2
~

-.

constant.

In these

is equal to the

refractive index and

originally proposed for use with gases and solutions and for these bodievS have about equallywell. When serve attempts are made, however, to apply them solids the results are at the best only approximate." This is probably because to crystalline the formulas do not take into consideration the modifications that the crystal structure
These
were

been

found

to

must

introduce.

323.

Total

Reflection.

Critical

Angle.

"

In
=

regard
"

to

the

principle
to be

stated in Art. 318 and expressedby the

=

equationn
"

two
,

are points

if the anglei noted. 0",then sin i First, 0, and obviouslyalso r 0; in other words, when the ray of light(asOA, Fig.514) coincides with the perpendicular, no change of direction takes place,the ray proceedsonward (AD) but with a change of velocity. without deviation, into the second medium if 90",then sin i Again, the anglei 1,and the equationabove becomes
= = =

"

or T

sin

-.

Asn
a

has

fixed value

for every
of the

it is obvisubstance,

sin ous

7i

that there will also be From

value corresponding table it is seen

angle r
r

for the
=

case

mentioned. 48"

the above

that for water, sin and

VT^H 1 OOO

31'; for
=

crown

glass (n
-

sin 1'608),

38"

27'; for

diamond, sin r

^r"

and

24" 25'.

This fact, that for each substance at a particular value of the angle r~the angle i becomes equal to 90", has an important bearing on the behavior of when it is passing from an optically denser into an optically light medium. rarer
*

Phil. Trans.,153, 317, 1863.

t Wiedem.

Ann., 9, 641, 1880. J Wiedem. Ann., 11, 70, 1880. " E. S. Larsen, Am. Jour. Sci., 28, 263, 1909.
'28 J, 1907.

See also

Cheneveau, Ann.

Chem.

Phys.,

12) 145,

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

211 various directions

In
meet

Fig. 515

we

may

assume a

that O-A will

a an

lightrays

coming from
515
B

the surface
out

between

block of glass and

the air at the point A.

Light

traveling along the path

pass

into

the

air without

change in its direction but with increase in its velocity. If

emerges

it

from

the

glass

at

any

angle than 90" the ray on enteringthe air will be bent away the perpendicular and from the
other

angle of deviation
the

angle at which

the surface and

with will vary touched with the index of the ray

refraction of the glass. The same in law holds true in this case as the case of a ray entering from the

air,
except that the formula
nows

reads

"

"

where
=

the

angle the

ray

in

szn

air makes with the normal to the surface and i the anglethat the ray makes In Fig.515 the ray C-A within the glassto the same normal. will pass out But the angle i for the ray E-A into the air along the line A-D. 38" 27' where n and, as shown in the precedingparagraph, for glass, 1*608,the in 90" travel the the air will be and the will surface of the r angle along ray the in direction A-F. such which meets as glass Consequently any ray, G-A, at an anglegreaterthan 38" 27', the surface of the glass will be unable to pass at the surface, out into the air and will suffer total reflection passingback into in the direction A-G', with angle GAG the glass The angle angle GAG'. is known its critical at which total reflection takes placefor any substance as
= = =

The of gem

stones.
on

phenomenon of total reflection is taken advantage such a stone practice According to common
top and
enters

of in the cutting is cut with a flat

The of inclined facets on the bottom. number reflected above is in a largemeasure totally back to the eye through the stone. from the slopingplanesbelow and comes of the and the consequent brilliancy The amount reflected in this way of light cut stones increases with its index of refraction. Two one exactlyalike, gem and the other,perhaps,from quartz, would have very different from diamond

surface

that light

with the stone

from

516

517

Total

Reflection

in Fluorite

1.43

Total

Reflection

in Diamond

2.42

appearances

due

to this difference in the amount

of

their lower

facets.

This

is illustrated in principle

reflected from totally light 517. and 516 They Figs.

212

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

sections of two hemispheres cut, one from fmorite and the from all directions is focused that light is It assumed diamond. other from that meets All the light each of surface hemisphere. the of the center plane on will be mineral the for critical than the angle this surface at an angle greater of the The shaded surface. areas the back spherical through totallyreflected reflected be and would so that in each of case show the amount light

represent cross

figures

difference between clearlyillustrate the optical

the two

substances.
"

In 324. Effect of Index of Refraction upon Microscopic Phenomena. the tions variaunder sections in thin microscope, the study of minerals,especially In Fig. in the index of refraction give effects which are of importance. of lens a compound microscope, that L is the objective 518 let it be assumed a is exactly focused upon point O, Fig. 518, A. If and that the instrument index of refraction is mineral of mean we now imagine that a section of some
518

Cover glass br~~Sectionin balsam

"

A-Glass slide
be in focus,or as in Fig.518, B, the point O' will now placedunder the lens, Fig.518, C, where the mineral is supposed to have a high index of refraction, Thus the focus will be at O". it is that with two sections of equal thickness and with the lens in the same looks deeper into the mineral of one position, higherindex of refraction. Consequently,when there are two minerals in the same the one having a high and the other a low index of refraction section, in quartz, n the of zircon, embedded n 1.55), (forexample,a crystal 1.95, one having the higher index of refraction will apparently have the greater
= =

will appear to stand up in reliefabove the surface of the mineral index. The apparent relief is furthermore augmented by other to be explained below. properties In preparing thin sections of minerals or rocks for study with the microscope is to make first the process, in brief, the mineral or rock a flatsurface upon it upon a platesupplied This flat surface is with some abrasive. by grinding then cemented to a pieceof glassby means balsam and the reof Canada mainder of the mineral is ground away until only a thin film remains,which in The section is finally the best rock sections is not over 0'03 mm. in thickness. in balsam,n about 1'54, embedded and over it a thin cover glassis laid. In
thickness and

of lower

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

213

the

nature

preparationof a section the surfaces are not polished, hence, from the of the abrasive, they must be pittedand scratched and it may be
that in in
cross

assumed

section such

preparationwould

be somewhat

as

sented repre-

a thin section is examined Fig.518, D. When under the microscope the lightenters the section from below, having been reflected up into the microscope tube by an inclined mirror. Before it reaches the section it will have passedthrough a nicol prism and through a slightly lens. Let converging that the mineral at a, Fig. 518, D, is one it be assumed of mean refractive The index. the section will pass with littleor no convergent lightentering

refraction from the mineral into the balsam because their refractive indices are nearly alike. Hence the roughness of the surface of the section is not if polished. If there is a crack, as apparent and the mineral appears at 6, as much so lightpenetrates it that it is scarcelyvisible when the convergent lens is close to the object, but when the latter is lowered, and especially when the light is restricted by the use of an irisdiaphragm inserted into the microscope will suffer some total reflection tube, the nearly parallel rays of light along the line of the crack and so make itvisible. On the other hand, if the mineral has a high index of refraction there will be innumerable placesall over the section where the surfaces are so inclined that the light will suffer total reflection in attemptingto pass from the optically dense mineral into the rarer the uneven Hence surface of the section due to its grinding balsam. is plainly visible. This effect is more pronounced if the convergent lens is lowered. The cracks that may exist in a mineral of high index of refraction are for the distinct than in a mineral of low index. much more reasons same Further, in one if a mineral of high index of refraction is embedded of low, c, Fig.518, D, there will be places alongits outer edge where total reflectionwill take place, thus causingits outline to be dark and distinct. This effect combined with the roughened aspect of the surface and the apparent increase in thickness, of high described in the precedingparagraph,all tend to make a mineral as in relief. index of refraction stand out conspicuously of Refraction of the Indices of Mineral 325. Determination Grains The considerations of the preceding article sugunder the Microscope. gest of determiningthe indices of refraction of mineral grainsunder a means of known in a liquid index of refracthe microscope. If a grainis immersed tion it has a higher or lower index of whether to determine it is possible of a series of liquids of varying refraction than the liquidand by the use with considerable accuracy to determine the refractive indices it is possible * A listof liquids in common such index of refraction of the mineral. usejfor with their indices of refraction is given below. purposes, 1 450-1 '475 Mixtures of refined petroleum oils and turpentine 480-1 clove oil 1 535 bromide or and ethylene Turpentine
"

"

'

Clove oil and a-monobromnaphthalene Petroleum oils and a-monobromnaphthalene a-monobromnaphthalene and methylene iodide Sulphur dissolved in methylene iodide Mixtures of methylene iodide with iodides of antimony, arsenic and tin,also sulphur and iodof orm (seeMerwin)
...

1 540-1 1 475-1 1' 650-1 1 740-1 1 740-1 1 740-2

'

635 650 740

'

'

790
870 280

(seeMerwin) Methylene iodide and arsenic trisulphide formed from mixtures of piperineand Resin-like substances
*

Acad.

Research, p. 98; Merwin, Jour. Wash. Wright, Methods of Petrographic-Microscopic Sc.,3, 35, 1913.

214

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

These fuse easily the tri-iodides of arsenic and antimony. film of the in thin thus embedded be a can and mineral grains 1 '680-2 10 material be determined either b can The indices of refraction of the test liquids hollow glass prism with th a the use of the total refractometer or by filling metho'ds mineral prisms, se with the and ordinary employed using liquid
'

Art. 327.

should be preparedwhich for most purposes migh A series of these liquids in the indices of the different liquids of 0*01 show differences conveniently the indices the differences betw.een of member work smaller For more exacting kept in well stopperei of the series would be of advantage. If these are
bottles and
are

considerable
at least
once

from protected of time. periods

a

the

they will show light

very

It is advisable, however, to check

littlechange ove their indice

into uniform studied should be broken down sma] and then few is a diameter) a usually good grains place" (0'05mm. grains. index of refraction is the] with a known slide. A drop of liquid a glass upon and the whole covered with a thin cover glass. Whei placedupon the grains in a liquid the same of closely index of refractio] a mineral grainis immersed it loses its sharpnessof outline and if the mineral is colorless and the corre spondence of the two indices exact it will quite disappear. Certain tests however, are commonly used to determine the relative indices of the minera and the liquid which with proper differences as small a care can distinguish and especial O'Ol or with practice small O'OOl. To make these test as care as the condenser below the microscopestage should be lowered and, if the instru ment has a sub-stage iris diaphragm, this should be partly closed. Unde: these conditions the obliquity of the light is reduced and only a small penci of lightcomposed of nearly parallel enters the section. Let Fig. 511 rays The mineral

year. to be

represent a mineral grair illuminated in this way wher immersed in a liquid o1 higher index of refraction The as light rays the} the from mineral intc pass the higher refracting liquic above will be bent awa^ from the perpendicular. In the opposite case, Fig. 520, where the mineral has the wil] higher index the reverse be true and the light rays will be bent toward the This will perpendicular. Grain with Low Refractive Grain with High Refractive in produce one case a Index immersed in Liquid Index immersed in Liquid illumination of the brighter of High Refractive Index of Low Refractive Index borders of the mineral grain and the in other a brighter illumination of its. center. difThis
519 520
_ _

__.

_0

ference
used with

in

illumination is, however, commonly

so

detected
under
a

slightas

to

be

tainly cer-

only with difficulty. The

circumstances.

these power

high

and objective

so-called Becke Test is commonly This consists in focusing the grain upon then slowlyraising or lowering the micro-

216
the slide.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the crystal orientation of a to determine possible and obtain the index structure so cleavage or significant graindue to some all be that determined but ordinarily can for some direction, crystal particular

Sometimes

it is

is the

index of refraction of the mineral. The Becke test can be often Sections. Test in Rock Becke of refraction of two used in a rock section to determine the relative indices Their contact in contact with each other. plane should different minerals lying
mean

326.

The

"

The of this plane to give clear results. position by focusingon the surface of the section and then when of the dividing tube is lowered note whether or not the position the microscope If it remains or moves. the two minerals remains stationary line between is vertical or the nearly so. plane a dividing moves only or little, stationary of light that the cone enteringfrom below is Under these conditions assume plane between L (mineral focused at point O, Fig.522, lyingon the dividing with lower index) and H (mineralwith higher index). The lightrays 1-6 passing as they do from be

nearly vertical
be determined

in order

can

522
12
11

10

9654

3 2

a mineral into one

suffer

no

index higher will total reflection

of

of lower

from the and all emerge section on the side of H. On the other hand, rays 7-12 from

attempting to pass H to L will only in

pass
across

part

the

dividingplane while the will be others totally

reflected and
to rays

add
1-6

on

themselves the

12

3456

H will therefore side of H. show a brighter In illumination than L. the this case also when tube of the microscopeis raised the Becke line will be seen moving toward of higher mineral the index or when the tube is that of toward lowered

lower

The best results will be obtained by using an objective of high a nd be the must lens condenser lowered. magnification 327. Determination of the Index of Refraction by Means of Prisms or Plates. For the more of the indices of refraction of accurate determination minerals a natural or cut prism or plateof the mineral is used. In all cases, except minerals of the isometric system, the prism or plate used must have a
"

index.

certain crystallographic orientation. This matter, however, will be discussed the optical characters of such minerals are given. For the present, we will assume that the mineral whose index of refraction is to be determined is isometric in its crystallization. There are two chief methods of determining the index of refraction by the use of a prism. 1. The Method of Perpendicular Incidence. This method, although not
when
"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

217

the

one

most

with,as it may
necessary for

generally employed, is an excellent one to become acquainted be used to advantage in some and from it the formula cases making the calculations is readily to derived. It is necessary
of the

have

prism

mineral
a

which

has two

angle. angle should be small enough so that the lightmay freely through the prism pass
This and
not

plane

surfaces

meeting at

small

suffer
to

attempts

with

total reflection as it into the air. For instance fluorite in which n 1*434,the
any out pass
=

for at prism angle 12', a this angle total reflection would take place. For a mineral of higher index the angle would have to be smaller still, with diamond, as 2 '419, where total n reflection would take place at 24" 24'. On the other results will be obtained Refraction of Light through a Prism accurate hand, more if the prism angle is fairly to the limit Method near of Perpendicular Incidence for the mineral being used.*
must

be

less than

44"

The data for index refraction under these of of the calculation the necessary conditions are the angle of the prism, a, and that of the deviation in that a and a' are It is easy to see from the figure the path of the light, 5.
o-d.

Fig.523 represent the cross section of such a prism. Let a-b It the face of this prism at 90" incidence. light striking ray deviation in its path on entering the prism but will proceed with no diminished velocity out of the prism at until itreaches c. In passing from a denser be deflected away the to a rarer will medium, light normal to the surface, 5 in the direction deviation P-P', making a.
a

Let

represent
will suffer somewhat
this

of

point,
the

from

both parts of right-angled having the angle triangles bP'c in common, and a" is equal to a! because they are opposite angles. The defined in Art. 317, is equal to a + 8 and the angle of as angle of incidence,

equal, for they

are

refraction is equal to
Sm

a.

Therefore

the usual formula

"

becomes

here

sin

.a
sin
a

n.

In order to make
to
measure on a as

determination
these two

of the index of

refraction,

it is necessary therefore, The prism is mounted

a

measured

in the

same uses

way

a and 5. angles, one-circle reflection goniometer and its angle an angle upon a crystal. The instrument is

it is necessary For this purpose of a refractometer. the outer rim of the to note that the telescope and vernier are both fastened to instrument and move together. The graduated circle being clamped, the tube is firstmoved to the position T',Fig.524, so that the rays from telescope to the light the collimator tube,C, passing the edge of the prism,cause signal beingclamped fallon the vertical cross-hair of the telescope. The inner T" and 60" to position the telescope is next moved through an arc of exactly that the so then clamped. Next the prism is turned to the first position
then

adapted

to the

Circle

from C light

is reflected from

the cross-hair of T". In this position the angle between and the axes of C
an

the s falls on face and the signal its right-hand bisect must the face, to prism normal, N, turned through The prism is now T".

angle

of

exactly 60"
the

to

exactlyin line with

which its second position, axis of the collimator tube.

bringsthe
When

normal

AT been

this has

218

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

accomplishedthe graduated circle is securelyclamped. The

524
now

telescope may

be and undamped moved without altering the positionof the prism, and somewhere between T' and T" a position T'" will be where the refracted found the falls cross-hair on ray
of the

telescope.
of the

The

ment move-

from telescope the position T"' back to T' gives the angle of deviation, or light 5, of the that has been refracted the by prism. In practice it is well to repeat the of a and both measurements several times d and to through all the operations go of shiftingthe positions of the prism and telescope. If white lightis for illumination the used T"f refracted at seen ray
ray

will
exact

appear

as

narrow an chromatic mono-

spectrum.

make determination a
To

is best) must
2. Determination
Method of Refraction of PerpendicularIncidence
of Index

light(sodium light be employed.

Method
-

The

imum of MinThis is is most

use

Deviation.

the

method

that

generallyemployed for determiningindices of refraction by the prisms. It depends upon the principle that when a 525 beam of light,abed, Fig. 525,traverses a prism in such that the anglesi and i' a way
are suffers equal,the beam the minimum of amount deviation in its path of any

of

possible course through the This fact be prism. may proven empirically by experimentation
tometer.

the refracorder to make a determination, the angle a of the prism is firstmeasured the on goniometer. The angle of the prism with this method be considerably than may larger
on

In

when

the method

of

perpendicular

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

219

incidence is used. in the position

".

_,

W110

moved until the refracted ray in it. Now, appears turn the central post with the prism it toward the leftand follow the signal on with the telescope. The position of minimum deviation is soon reached, when, on turning the prism,the signal to remain stationary for a moment seems and then to the right, moves away in which direction the prism is matter no A little practice is needed turned. to determine imum exactly the position of mindeviation and the measurement in a monochromatic be made should When the light. telescopeis properly at this placed point the graduated circle is clamped and the telescope turned until the direct signal from the collimator tube is fixed upon the vertical crosshair. The these two angle between as positionsof the telescopeis the same mula forthe angle of deviation, 5. The or for making the necessary lation calcufrom these measurements follows very simply from a comparison of Figs. 525 and 523. It may be imagined that Fig.525 is composed of two This results in doublingthe angles prisms like Fig.523 placed back to back. becomes 5 so that the formula now a and
sn sn

telescopeundamped

and

526

8) -J-a

ciple of Total Reflection. This method is based upon the prindense into an optically cannot that light always pass from an optically the critical angle, will suffer known but at a certain angle, as medium rarer index of with the varies for substance total reflection. The criticalangle any in 323. Art. refraction of that substance as explained Consequently if we the index of refraction of the calculate this criticalanglewe can can measure the measurement because is particularly useful This method substance. be which may be made upon quitesmall in area. can a single polished surface, the Total known as of an instrument, is made This measurement by means The essential 352. of which will be found in Art. a description Refractometer, with a known, high index is a hemisphere of glass feature of this instrument surface of the hemisphere is plane and should be of refraction. The upper in horizontal a position. The mineral to be tested may accurately adjusted
3. The Method
"

surface upon it has been ground plane shape provided that some tween of high index of refraction is placedbeof A some liquid polished. drop the surface of the glass hemisphere and the flat surface of the mineral. the thin layerof air that substances and dispel to unite the two This serves should have an index of refraction The liquid would otherwise separate them. As the liquid and that of the mineral. intermediate between that of the glass be of any
and

220 liesbetween

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

surfaces the two substances in the form of a thin film with parallel be will balanced it enters as the light by effect it has upon whatever optical effect of the So the optical leaves the film. the oppositeeffect as the light sphere liquidcan be ignored. Fig. 527 represents a cross section of such a hemithat it be Let it. now supposed by with a mineral plateresting upon is thrown upon the apparatus light of a mirror a beam of monochromatic means refraction at the from the direction of X. Rays 1 and 2 will suffer partial the dividing plane between 527 to and the mineral rays glass also 2' and 1' and partial 1" and 2". reflection to rays strikes the mineral at critical angle for the the of the glass and combination will in part be mineral and refracted at a 90" angle and

Ray

emerge

as

ray

just grazing 3',

the surface of the hemisphere. The greater part of ray 3 will be reflected as ray 3". however all the light Beyond this point, be totally thus must reflected, If 4". the 4 to optical axis of a telescopeis now of Index of Refraction Determination brought to the direction 3", I. of Total Reflection, Method to be a marked what appears in the field of vision. One side will be illuminated by the shadow will appear total reflection of all rays beyond those of the critical angle while the other darker since side will be distinctly 528 here a considerable of amount the light passed out into the mineral. The angle between the of and the shadow the position of to the the surface normal will be hemisphere, /*, Fig. 527, the criticalangle for the combination of glass and mineral. As the index of refraction of the glassis known it is possible to calculate what the index of refraction of the be. mineral must If the mineral is plate transparent enough so that light may through pass it into the glass hemisphere
another may

method be

of
as

used,
The
to

illumination illustrated m
from

Fig.
is so

528.

mirror reflecting
1' and 2' and 3 which

Determination of Index of Refraction Method of Total Reflection, II.

arranged that the light comes

be refracted

this point
its
axis

no will pass light along the line 3' will show

the direction X. Rays 1 and 2 will justgrazes the surface to 3'. Beyond into the hemisphere and a telescope placed with in its field a dark shadow. The
contrast

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

221

and dark portionsof the field, light by this method of illumination, is so placed stronger than by the one firstdescribed. The telescope that the line of the shadow exactlydivides the angle between the diagonal cross-hairs of the eyepiece. The telescope is attached to a graduated circle from which the angleM can be directly read. With each of these instruments the indices of refraction corresponding comes a table giving to the ordinarily different possible values of ju. This table can easily be converted into a curve plottedon co-ordinate paper in such a way that the index of refraction for a the calculation can be made particular anglecan be read at a glance. Further, the of index of refraction the having given glassof the hemisphere and the value of fjifor a special mineral plate. Let n' equal the index of refraction of of the hemisphere and // the criticalanglemeasured; then the index the glass of refraction of the mineral, sin ju X n'.* n, 328. suffers in Dispersion. Thus far the change in direction which light
is much
=
"

between

the

It is further true that refraction has alone been considered. of refraction differs for lightof different wave-lengths, being if ordinary light be of this fact, greater for blue than for red. In consequence but it will passed through a prism,as in Fig.525, it will not only be refracted, also suffer dispersion thus forming be separatedinto its component colors, or the prismaticspectrum. This variation for the different colors depends directly their wavelengths; upon vibrations the red waves transverse their are slower,and are longer, it may be shown to follow from this that they suffer less change of velocity shorter and than the violet Waves, which are medium on enteringthe new the refractive index of transverse whose velocity vibration is greater. Hence for a given substance is greater for blue than for red light. The following determined by Schrauf : values of the refractive indices for diamond are the
amount

reflection and

red (lithium flame). yellow (sodium flame). 2*42549 green (thallium flame). most instrument 329. Spectroscope. The commonly used for the is familiar to all as the spectroscope. There of the light analysis by dispersion 2-40845 2*41723
"

The

derivation

of this formula

follows.

From

the ordinary law for the index of

n-

re-

But

when

the critical angle h

reached
n
=
--

90" and sin i

=
-

"

1.
-,

Therefore
or

we

may

substitute and have

mineral
=
-

in of light velocity

we Further,

may

derive

in velocity of light

mineral

in the

same

svay

for the

glassof the hemispherewhose highly refracting

=
"

refractive index, have in the

case

in glass of light velocity n1, is known, the expression,

Further, we

of the lightattempting to pass the expression,

from

denser medium) the glass (optically sin 90"

_

into the mineral

in mineral velocity of light in glass of light velocity this becomes By substituting

sin

/x

(measuredon instrument).

n
_

sin 90"
_

sin

sin

n'
or
"
-

"

or n

sin

/n

X "'"

sin

222
are a

PHYSTCAL

MINERALOGY

"

of which consists of varietiesof spectroscopes made, the simplest instrument the with two tubes of at the center of a glassprism mounted is received from the given source through pointingaway from it. The light tube and made to fall as a plane-wave (thatis, slitin the end of one a narrow surface of a prism at the center. The one of parallel as a pencil rays ") upon the and the its produced is spectrum prism through by dispersed passage light is viewed through a suitable telescopeat the end of the second tube. which is ''white hot" (Art.314) from an incandescent solid If the light of colors of the is viewed through the spectroscope,the complete band to the the from red the is yellow, through seen green, blue, orange, spectrum it is is from incandescent the an examined, violet. If,however, vapor light lines and o f these bands) to (or only, found give a spectrum consisting bright the yellow line (doubleline) of characteristic of it as in a definite position and and lines series of the more complex bands, red,yellow, sodium vapor; multitude of bright lines due to iron green, characteristicof barium; the and so on. (inthe intenselyhot electric arc), vapor the surface of a new Of the light incident upon 330. Absorption. fracted medium, not only is part reflected (Art.316) and part transmitted and re(Art.317),but, in general, part is also absorbed at the surface and part also during the transmission. expressed, absorptionin this case Physically into the transformation of the ether-waves into sensible heat,that is, means the motion of the molecules of the body itself. The color of a body givesan evidence of this absorption. Thus a sheet of because in the transmission red to the eye by transmitted light, red glass appears those all which it absorbs gether toof the light-waves except through it, the of of red. For the effect same reason a piece jasper produce at the because it absorbs part of the light-waves red by reflected light, appears in which it reflects those other together give the surface,or, only words, of this particular shade of red. effect is selective a given body absorbs Absorptionin general absorption;that is, of a definite waves definitely, parts of the total radiation, particular or, more of different colors are of glass wave-length only. Thus, if transparent pieces held in succession in the path of the white lightwhich is passing into the spectroscope, the spectrum viewed will be that due to the selective absorption of the substance in question. A layerof blood absorbs certain parts of the Certain lightso that its spectrum consists of a series of absorptionbands. have the property of selective rare substances,as the salts of didymium, etc., of this, a section of a mineral absorptionin a high degree. In consequence often them characteristic a containing gives absorption spectrum. This latter property may be made certain minerals, of in testing more use These those that contain the earths uranium. acteristic charrare or especially give bands in the spectrum. absorption They may be tested by passing a strong white light through a thin section of the mineral and observingthe of a direct vision spectroscope. Often a better resulting spectrum by means result will be obtained by illuminating the surface of the mineral and testing the reflected lightfor absorption bands. The lightwill have sufficiently of it absorbed. penetrated the mineral before reflection to have had some be made These tests can best by some which sort of a microspectroscope, will give a clear spectrum superimposed upon a scale of wave-lengths.*

number

"

"

"

"

*'""

For

details of this method

of

testingminerals

see

Wherry. Smithsonian

Misc. Coll..

66, No. 5, 1915.

224

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

of the except those of the isometric system. The wide separation minerals, is a makes the which so refracted rays by calcite, striking, two phenomenon in of indices of in the values its difference of the refraction; large consequence the of its due double to it is other words, as technically strength expressed, its birefringence. or refraction, media refraction also takes place in the anisotropic 333. Double just the when incident is perpenof in the majority light dicular cases, even mentioned, If the medium to the surface. belongs to the uniaxial class (see p. 253, retains its initialdirection normal to the surof the rays always face; et seq.), one less deviated or but the other, except in certain special cases, is more refracted and both rays are usually from it. With a biaxial substance,further, direction. In the case of both uniaxial and biaxial bent from their original remains unretrue that the normal to the wave-front media,however, it is still incidence. fracted with perpendicular in General. ference The of Waves 334. Interference subject of 'the interIt detailed discussion. alluded to in Art. 331, requires of light-waves, and beautiful since it serves to explain is one of great importance, common many study of crystals. phenomena in the optical spoken of in Art. 308, it is easily Referringagain to the water-waves that when two wave-systems, going out, for example, from two understood if at a given point centers of disturbance near one another,come together, the result is to givethe particle phase (ascrest to crest), they meet in the same in question On the other hand, if at any point a double amplitude of motion. half a wavethe two wave-systems come length togetherin opposite phases,that is, the the to the of of crest one other,they corresponding trough apart, interfere and the amplitude of motion is zero. certain conditions, Under unite two sets of to form of double waves waves amplitude; on therefore, may interfere and ously Obvithe other hand, they may each other. mutually destroy
"

indefinite number of intermediate cases lie between these extremes. an and of waveis true of the waves What mentioned is true also of sound-waves motion in general. A very simple case of interference was nection spoken of in conwith the discussion of the waves carried by a long rope (Art.310). 335. Interference of Light-waves. be Interference phenomena can most The studied in extreme the of cases are case satisfactorily light-waves. follows: If two waves of like length and intensity, and propagated in the as meet in the same of double same direction, phase,they unite to form a wave an intensity (double amplitude). This, as stated in Art. 311, will cause increase in the intensity of the light. If,however, the waves differ in phase odd multiple of this, and extinguish or by half a wave-length, an they interfere each other and no light results. For other relations of phase they are also
"

said to

interfere, forming a

new

resultant wave,

in amplitude from differing

each of the component waves. In the above cases monochromatic waves lightthose of like length). If ordinarywhite light assumed is used were (that is, interference for certain wave-lengths may traction result with the consequent subof the correspondingcolor from the white light and so give rise to various spectrum colors. 336. Illustrations of Interference. A simpleillustration is afforded by the brightcolors of very thin films or plates, as a film of oil on water, a soapit is only necessary to remember bubble,and like cases,. To understand these, that the incident light-waves and in part reflected in part from the upper are from the lower surface of the film or plate. The rays that are reflected from
"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

225

the under surface of the very thin film (seeFig.530) having traveled a greater distance and with a different velocity when they unite with those rays will, reflected from the upper surface,show in generala different phase. For some ular partic-

wave-length of lightthis difference is likelyto be exactly a half wave-lengthor odd multiple of this amount and so the some corresponding color will be eliminated is being (assuming that ordinarywhite light used) and its complementary color will be It is to be noted that the phenomseen. ena of interference by reflection are what somefact is the that there complicatedby reversal of phase (that is, a loss of a half a wave-length) at the surface that of greater optical density from the rarer one. separates the medium actual Hence relation in phase of the two reflected rays, as AC, BD the posing (supthem of the same wave-length)is that determined by the retardation. due to the greater length of path traversed 531 with the loss of a by BD, together A half wave-length due to the reversal of phase spoken of. As shown in the there are also two transmitted waves which also interfere in like manner. figure, A plano-convex lens of long curvature, resting on a plane glasssurface the hence and from at (Fig.531), separated it, center, by a film of air except of varyingthickness, and reflected monochromatic a dark center givesby light about this a series of lightand dark rings, dark called Newton's rings. The
the the interference of the incident and reflected waves, a wave-length behind the former. The lightrings correspond in the same the two sets of reflected waves to the distances where meet that is (notingthe explanation above) where the retardation of those phase, having the longerpath is a half wave-lengthor an odd multipleof this (JX,
center

is due

to

later half

ringsfall between these and correspondto in opposite phase,the retardation being closer together The with of this. are a wave-lengthor an even multiple rings blue than with red because of the smaller wave-lengthof blue light. In each of the cases described the ringis properlythe intersection on the plane surface
the fX, fX, etc.). Similarly

dark

the points where

the two

waves

meet

of like retardation. and dark rings get,instead of the alternate light If the illumination was described above, a series of colored bands. originally of the dark ringsindicates where lightfor that by sodium lightthe position When through interference. particularwave-length has been extinguished white lightis used the conditions in respect to its component having the will stillbe yellow sodium-light wave-length have not changed and this light
of the In
cone

of rays

we ordinarywhite light

but now, instead of dark rings, we having get rings points, of illumination If was means by blue. color our original complementary from those have different had red the would dark a positions duced prorings light inated is used red light is elimin sodium light. And again when white light In this way we at those pointsand its complementary color shows. the successive of colors the obtain a series of colored rings, each showing of times The series of the spectrum colors are repeateda number spectrum.

eliminated at the

same

the

226

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

due to successive interferences produced by differences of phase of J, 1J,2|, of the first, as distinguished etc., wave-lengths. The different series are as red,may be repeated a number etc.,order; for a given color, second, third, not evenly The interference ringsfor different colored lights are of times. closer togetherthan being,for instance, spaced,the ringsshown in blue light of the spectrum bands for red. Consequently after three or four repetitions the different interference ringsbegin to overlapone another and the resulting fainter and less pure. colors become Ultimately this overlappingbecomes and white light, the so-called white of is lost of color that the effect so general the higherorders,is shown.
means

illustration of the interference of light-waves is given by most Another satisfactory of the diffraction gratingsspoken of in Art. 331.

of the compositionof two systems of light-waves Other cases will be considered after some remarks on polarized light. 337. Polarization and Polarized Light. Ordinary lightis propagated by transverse vibrations of the ether which may take place in any direction as to the line of propagation. The direction of vibration angles longas it is at right disturbance of the ether is a is constantlychanging and the resulting A ray of ordinarylight will be symmetrical,therefore, complex one. only to the line of its propagation. the other hand, as stated briefly in Art. 311, is on Plane-polarized light, propagated by ether-vibrations which take place in one plane only. The change by which ordinarylightis converted into a polarized lightis called of and the at the to vibration transverse plane rightangles polarization, plane is called the planeof polarization* Polarization may be accomplished (1)by reflection and by single tion, refracand (2)by double refraction. 338. Polarization by Reflection and Single Refraction. In general, has suffered reflection light which 532 from a surface like that of polished less completely poor glassis more larized; that is,the reflected waves are propagated by vibrations to a largeextent limited to a single plane, viz., (as assumed) the plane normal to the plane of incidence, which last is hence the plane of polarization. Furthermore, in this case, the light transmitted and refracted by the is also in like medium reflecting
"
"

manner

that partially polarized;

are more or

is,

the vibrations
to

less limited

the vibrations
"
*

are

a single plane,in this case a plane at rightanglesto the former and hence with the planeof incidence. coinciding For instance, in Fig.532, let a-b represent incident light an ray in which in allpossible takingplace transverse directions as represented

plane
of the

It is necessary to keep clear the distinctionbetween the plane of polarization and the the vibrations take place. All ambiguity is avoided in which by speaking uniformly

of the light. vibration-plane

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

227

this ray strikes the polished surface will be reflected along b-c and x-x other vibrations near to x-x in direction will be shifted to this direction so that the reflected ray will be largelypolarized. In a similar the light having z-" manner vibrations will enter the the as transparent substance refracted ray b-d and other will be shifted to vibrations this direction so that the refracted is also ray largely and in a plane at right polarized angles to that of the reflected Light reflected from a ray.
arrows,
z-z.

by the
at

x-x, y-y, and

When

lightwith

vibrations

parallelto

polished and
face is
not

transparent

sur-

completely

Brewster's

Law

there is an for every angle of incidence substance will be at its maximum. of polarization the amount This will happen, the angle between illustrated in Fig. 533, when as the reflected and refracted rays A B and AC equals90". It is evident from a consideration of
at which

polarized but

the

that the angler is the complement of i\ hence the formula figure in this
case

becomes

sin i
"

tan

n.

cos

This law, established by Brewster, may The angleof incidence for maximum
is the index

be stated

as

follows

is that polarization

angle whose tangent

substance. For crown this angle reflecting of refraction of-the glass If light suffers repeated reflections from a series is about 57" (seeFig.533)
.

is more of thin glassplates, the polarization is complete,though its intensity the light weakened. Metallic surfaces polarize very slightly. Refraction. When 339. Polarization light in passing by Double is doubly refracted (Art.332) or divided into medium through a crystalline and in two sets of waves, it is always true that both are completelypolarized This be other. each at to can only subject planes satisfactorily rightangles of anisotropic crystalline explained after a full discussion of the properties factory be alluded to here since this principle givesthe most satismedia, but it. may end For this it is method of obtaining light. polarized necessary that that so of the two wave-systems should be extinguished, only that one one This is accomplishedby due to a singleset of vibrations is transmitted. and by artificial in in the case of tourmaline plates means natural absorption
"

the nicol 340.

Polarized

prisms of calcite. Light by

but

Absorption.
"

Light

passing through
"
"

transparent thin section of a tourmaline crystal the axis will be almost to the vertical crystallographic section being cut parallel in the demonstrated be This following can easily way. completelypolarized. stand in such a position that floor surface, Select a polished or a table top and to wood the Look at from the reflected is polished from a window eye. light the it first with tourmaline the holding this reflected lightthrough section,

stronglycolored

228

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

and then turning the axis in a horizontal position direction 'ofthe c crystal The into the tourvertical. maline becomes axis lightpassing the until c section through its reflection from section is in considerable part polarized It will be the wood surface and possesses a horizontal vibration direction. is horizontal the section tourmaline the the of axis readily c noted that when this axis is vertical the section becomes but when practically transmits light The crystal structure of the tourmaline is such that light entering opaque. of which has its it is doubly refracted), one into two it is broken up rays (i.e., while the vibrations of the other lie in the to the c axis, vibrations parallel From the foregoingexperiment it is axes. plane of the horizontal crystal the to transmitted by c axis is readily vibratingparallel obvious that the light the axial plane,is in horizontal but that the other ray, vibrating the crystal is clear that the transUnder conditions it these mitted absorbed. almost completely belongs almost wholly to one ray, the vibrations of which take light transmitted by such a direction. In other words, the light place in a single tourmaline section is polarized. available it is instructive to make are If two such sections of tourmaline Place them together, first with their the following experiment with them. section upon the other until to each other,and then turn one c axes parallel In the firstcase, the light to each other. at rightangles comes these axes are of because vibration the transmitted the sections the planes rays in through In the second all to each other. is the two sections are parallel light case, these two vibration planes are at rightangles to each cut off because now that did get through the firstsection being wholly absorbed other,the light in the second. 341. Polarized Lightby Double Refraction. as Calcite, already stated in an unusual degree the power to doubly refract light. in Art. 332, possesses block of clear calcite (Iceland If we take a cleavage spar)and look at an image of line drawn dot such on a piece or as a throughit, paper, the image will appear in it make If and take card a double. we a place the card upon pinhole, rhombohedron of hold face a cleavage and, looking through the calcite, one will observe two brightdots. if we of light, Now it up againsta source we reflected from a polished at the light wooden look in the same surface, way will find that when a line bisecting described in the precedingarticle, we as the acute anglesof the rhombic face of the cleavage block is horizontal one of these images is brightwhile the other is almost invisible. If we then turn the block so that the line bisecting the obtuse anglesof the rhombic face is horizontal the first bering image will fade while the second becomes bright. Rememthat the lightreflected from the polishedwooden surface is largely with a horizontal vibration direction, it becomes evident from this polarized experiment that the two rays into which the lightis broken up in passing and that their planes of vibration are at through the calcite are polarized bisect the anglesof the rhombic rightanglesto each other and respectively face of the cleavageblock. As the double refraction of calcite is strong, it follows that the indices of refraction of the two rays show considerable differences. This fact is taken advantage of in constructing calcite a prism from in such a way of these as to wholly eliminate one rays and so, as only the other the the light can come that emerges. through prism,effectively polarizing ray The prism referred to above is called the Nicol Prism or simply the nicol. A full explanation of the nicol cannot be made at this time,as there would be of the a of hexagonal crystals, but a required knowledge opticalproperties
"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

229

be given enabling one to understand its construction and description may In Fig.534 is represented a cleavagerhombohedron of calcite uses. with its edges vertical. Let d represent a point of lightunderneath the rhombohedron. Light coming from d will be broken into two rays whose paths the rhombohedron shown are through 535 As lines and the shown o e. by above, these two with are polarized, rays vibration directions as indicated .by
the

double

arrows

in the

top view in

In the construction of a Fig. 534. the top and bottom surfaces of nicol, such a cleavage rhombohedron are ground and polished so that they make angles of 68" with the vertical edges. Then the block is cut in two along the diagonal a-/, as shown in after Fig. 535. These two surfaces, cemented are being polished, together of a thin layer of Canada by means

balsam.
shown

Let

us

assume

that

ray

of

lightenters
into

the

prism from below, as

in Fig. 535. It is broken up the rays o and The e. o ray travels with the slower velocity, has therefo'rethe higherindex of refraction, and shows a greater deviation from Nico1 Prism the original path. The Canada balsam has a lower index of refraction than ray a, which,therefore, when it strikes the layer of balsam, is attempting to pass from an optically dense into a rarer medium. The construction of the prism is such that this ray meets the layerof balsam at an angle greater than the criticalangle for. this optical combination and suffers therefore total reflection toward the side of the prism,and will be absorbed second by whatever fasteningholds the nicol. The e ray with almost the deviation from its no prism course. through original passes Its index of refraction and that of the Canada balsam are nearly the same, hence the ray suffers almost no deflection at this point and passes out of the face of the prism. The that emerges from a nicol light, therefore, upper is all and t o to the shorter one vibrating belongswholly parallel diagonal ray of the rhombic end surface. It should be noted,however, that some prisms made in a different way and that the above statement are concerningthe plane of vibration of the light emerging from the prism may not always hold true. It is always wise to test the plane of vibration of a nicol by looking The prism will described. through it at the floor or a table top as previously to show brightwhen its plane of vibration is horizontal, thus corresponding the plane of vibration of the reflected light. of two 342. Analyzer. The combination Polariscope. Polarizer. which transparent mineral other polarizing contrivances,between or nicols,
"

in general, is called, in polarized be examined a polariscope; sections may light the lower In any polariscope forms of which are described later. the common outside from the which t he other given polarizes light contrivance, prism,or the If these is is the the called prisms source analyser. polarizer; upper prism

230
have

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

said to be at rightangles to each other, they are their vibration-planes then the w ill be incident by polarizer extinguished crossed;the light polarized under these conditions it is said to suffer extinction. by the analyzer; briefly, Interference of Plane-polarized Waves. Colors. 343. Interference in polarized minerals are examined sections of doubly refracting When light obtained that are of great imporcertain interference effects are commonly tance. also polarizes As shown in Art. 341, calcitewhen it doubly refracts light the two rays and in planesthat are at right anglesto each other. In general, minerals. this is true of sections of doubly refracting Consider, then,what mineral is placed in takes place when a generalsection of a doubly refracting and analyzerthe planes of vibration of the polarizer between a polariscope In Fig.536 let the rectangular outwhich are at rightanglesto each other. line and section. The double marked such show the arrows a o e represent in the The directions vibration section. of of direction two light possible from the polarwhich emerges P-P' represents the plane of vibration of light izer must vibrate when it below and A- A' shows the direction in which light In the first case from the analyzer above. to be considered the emerges Ato P-P' directions o and e are taken as parallel A' and The respectively. that enters the section from below must all vibrate parallel to the direction light P-P'. It enters the mineral section and must vibrate there as the ray labeled o. There will be no ray in the mineral vibrating to the direction parallel be resolved into another at right to o cannot e, as a vibration parallel will leave the section, still anglesto it. The light therefore, vibrating parallel to P-P' and enter the analyzer It will, above. reflected however, be entirely in the analyzer at the'layer of balsam since only light to A- A', vibrating parallel which is at right to P-P', can from the angles analyzer. Consequently, emerge when such a section has its planesof vibration parallel to those of the polarizer and analyzer, the section will appear dark. The same reasoningholds true when the section is turned to a position at 90" from the first. Consequently with such a section there are four positions at 90" to each other in which it appears dark during its complete rotation upon the stage of the At such the section, is said to be extinguished. polariscope. positions
"

636

537 A'

538

-P'

consider what happens when the vibration directions of the section at obliqueangles to those of the polarizer and analyzer. In Fig. 537 let o and e represent the directions of vibration in a section which makes
are
some

Next

with the directions P-P' and A- A'. obliqueangle. In Fig.538A let the line P-P' representthe direction and amplitude of the vibration of the enterlight

232
of known

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

be used to study the effects of polarized orientation and may light of the sections wedge) of different thicknesses. Take the on plates(short and analyzerwithout of polarizer form of polariscope, a combination simplest
539
A

Quartz Wedge
it so that the vibration planesof the instrument are crossed. with ordinary lightand on the stage of the instrument place a to the plane of vibration of the quartz wedge with its X direction parallel to the X polarizer.The lightin enteringthe quartz will vibrate parallel direction and without changing its plane of vibration will pass through the quartz and up into the upper nicol where it will suffer total reflection. Hence will appear dark throughout its length. A similar the wedge in this position result will be obtained when the X direction of the wedge is placed parallel to the vibration plane of the analyzer. But if the wedge is turned so that its X direction makes an angle of about 45" with the plane of vibration of the the wedge will exhibit a series of beautiful interference colors, polarizer arrangedin transverse bands, the nature of which will be discussed in a later the colors become paragraph. If the wedge is turned from this 45" position less and less brilliant as the position of extinction is neared. i As preliminary to another experiment, paste a narrow strip of paper, Place this of a quartz wedge. P-P, Fig.539, B, on the top, but to one side, the stage of a polariscope and illuminate with diffused on (withoutlenses) sodium light. When the wedge is examined under these conditions it will be found that it shows extinction when its vibration directions are parallel to those of the polariscope but at the 45" position it will show transverse dark bands upon number of these bands will depend upon the a yellow field. The thickness of the wedge; usually there will be two or three,although for this to have a longerand proportionally thicker wedge experimentit is interesting than those commonly supplied, to have more bands appearing. Mark so as the strip of paper the position of each band, as illustrated in Fig.539, B and on number at the band nearest the thinner end of the wedge. The them, starting number 1 band marks the place where the faster of the two rays, into which the quartz breaks up the sodium light, has gained exactly one wave length in its phase over the slower ray. At the point marked 2 the gain is two wavelengths,
and lenses,
arrange

Illuminate

etc.

In 540

the phenomenon explaining it is assumed

in which

that P-P'

reference is made to Fig. justdescribed, is the plane of the polarizer and A- A1

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

233

is the plane of the analyzer,and

a quartz wedge is between them at such an of the direction that the vertical axis liesparallel to C-C'. If we angle crystal in the wedge in a purelymechanical the action of light explain we way may say, let the amplitude of vibration of an ether particle before the light has entered the wedge be represented in the figure by the line 0-p. The vibration may be likened to that of a pendulum', swinging back and forth from p to p'. If the of an ether particle is communicated to the ether impact, or disturbance, it is at 0 at the middle of an oscillation from of the quartz when particles to r parallel one to C-C' and the p to p',there will result two disturbances, The amplitude of the vibrations repreother to s at rightangles thereto. sented of forces, cated by 0-r and 0-s are determined by the parallelogram as indiDuring the passage of these two rays by the dotted lines in the figure.^ through the quartz the one whose vibrations are represented by s-s' travels the faster and it is assumed that the thickness of the quartz wedge at the place under consideration is such that, on emerging,this ray is justone wave-length ahead of the one whose vibrations are parallel to r-r'. Now, when one ray is ahead of another be three one or wavelength (it two, exactly any exact may of wavelengths) the conditions are such,that,at the middle of the number from 0 to s, of the ray s-s' is juststarting vibration,when an ether particle be r-r' from will to the 0 Now o f ether r. sider conan juststarting particle ray in the directions the simultaneous 0 to effects the impacts produced by the o f the calcite the ether constituting analyzer. particles s and 0 to r upon of the A* vibration from s' to s acting at 0 will displacethe ether particles at r' 0 will to r acting calcite to a and a'. Likewise a vibration from displace of these resulting to p and p'. Two the ether particles namely disturbances, 0-"j' and 0-p',are easily disposedof,for being in the plane P-P' their effects turbances in the nicol. The other disbalsam cannot pass beyond the layer of Canada from the 0-ff and 0-p are both in the plane A- A' and can emerge at Oare acted upon but since the ether particles by forces simultaneously nicol, disturbance can take of equal magnitude acting in opposite directions no From the above it dark. section is the conditions these under and place

540

641

\
P\

tween mineral is observed besection of a doubly refracting a follows that, when angle vibration oblique planes making some crossed nicols with its

234

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

with the vibration planesof the nicols, complete interference will take place for some wave-length of lightwhenever the two polarizedrays particular from the section in the same to this color emerge phase. corresponding It is well to consider next the effects that result when, with the planesof vibration of the nicols crossed, lighttravels through such thicknesses of the the other half wave-lengthover that one f or some quartz wedge ray gains-J-, of an oscillation second ray. Let it be supposed,Fig.541, that at 0, the middle to the ether particles from of a p to p',the impact is communicated the axis of which lies to direction parallel quartz section the vertical crystal from 0 to r and There will result two disturbances in the quartz, one C"Cr. the section the phases of the two rays After traversing the other from 0 to s. half wave-lengthso that when the direction of the firstoscillation differ by one is from 0 to r, that of the other will be from 0 to sf. The impulse 0-r gives rise in the analyzer to two disturbances 0-p and 0-p'. The impulse O-a- and 0-a'. Of these disturbances 0-s' results in the two displacements extend 0-a' the not and do of Canada balsam of the analyzer, 0-p' beyond layer in the plane A- A', while 0-p and 0-a, both of equal magnitude and vibrating additive and giverise to a disturbance and the sensation of light. Hence, are there are areas in the experiment with the quartz wedge in sodium of light, between the dark bands, Fig.539, B. light An instructive experiment with the wedge should also be tried with sodium light illumination but with the planes of vibration of the polarito each other instead of crossed as in the previous cases. parallel scope If light traverses such a thickness of quartz that, on emerging, one ray half of a wave-length over has gained one the other the conditions up to the analyzer will be the same in the time the vibrations enter the as The now vibrations, previous case. however, which can through pass the analyzer result, Fig.542, from the disturbances 0-p' and 0-a',and these ether particle in opposite directions but with unequal force would on an acting produce a disturbance in the direction 0-p' and, therefore, give rise to the sensation of light. A wedge with the direction of the vertical crystal axis about parallel to C-C' will appear yellow throughout its entire length. This will not be the case, however, if the wedge is turned so that the vertical axis
,

542

543

makes forces

angle of actingupon
an

45
an

with the plane of polarization, Fig. 543, for then the ether particle at 0 are 0-p' and 0-a, which,being equal

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

235

will neutralize each other and therefore will not oppositedirections, sensation of light. A wedge in the 45" positionwill therefore of dark bands,the first, show a series from the thin end of the wedge, starting where one being the second where it has gained ray has gained J wave-length, the second ray. over In Fig.539, B, the positions wave-lengths,etc., of the j bands this experiment are indicated by the crosses in marked the stripof on pasted upon one side of the quartz wedge. The lines and crosses paper on this paper strip indicating gainsof whole and one half wave-lengths for yellow now as serve light starting pointsfor further considerations. may For the next experimentuse a microscope with crossed nicols, 3 or a number 4 objective, and illuminate with ordinarylight;placethe wedge in the 45"

and

in

produce any

that part of it opposite the firstline drawn on the paper at its center a blue color, about at the pointwhere strip it is beginning to merge into red. A moment's consideration will indicate this color really what is. It is a mixture of all colors of the spectrum except yellow. That this is the case may be proved by analyzing the blue by means of a small direct-vision spectroscope. This will show a spectrum through which runs band between the red and green, that is, a dark where the yellow would normally appear. The blue of the wedge at this pointis therefore the complement of yellow,which has been made to disappearby interference. Next focus the microscope the wedge opposite the second line. Here the on color will be nearly a sky blue, with perhaps a tingeof green. Upon analysis with the spectroscopeagain a dark band will be found in the yellow, this time due to interferencebrought about by a difference in phase of two wave-lengths for sodium light. Proceeding next to oppositethe third line the color will be found to be a light shows a band where yellow green, which on analysis of the spectrum, especially ting should occur and a perceptible by cutshortening off the extreme blue and violet. Oppositethe fourth line the color would show be a very pale green which upon with the spectroscopewould analysis The pale green in the yellow and another in the blue. two dark bands, one in the original color is therefore due to a mixture of red, green, and violet. If, blue light monochromatic illuminated the had been experiment wedge by a it would have been found at the thicker end of the wedge, where the fourth band for yellow light was located,there would have been a fifth band for the blue light. Consequently the interference color at this point of the wedge is tracted. equivalentto white lightfrom which both yellow and blue have been subIf a wedge of extra lengthwas available for study it would have been

position and
The

focus

on

field will show

the color showing,when the eighthband for sodium light opposite white. This upon in was the is studied microscope, polarizing wedge in the bands crossed red,yellow, would show green, and a by spectrum analysis the thickness of the quartz at this point, In other words, in traversing blue. the faster ray has gained for red seven wave-lengthsover the slower ray, for effect The white polarization ten. for blue yellow eight,for green nine, white of the is known as the microscope when lookingat this point with seen the colors of several spectrum, primary higherorder. It is a mixture of the of all of which are present and combine to givethe effect of white. some portions colors of the quartz the polarization It is important to study carefully usingFig.544 as a guide. It will be noted that wedge under the microscope, order as the thickness of the quartz in the following in general the colors occur of colors is This sequence red. increases : violet, orange, blue,green, yellow, three times and then as the thicker end of the wedge repeated quitedistinctly
noted

that

the

236

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

fainter and not so clear. This series of is approached the colors become indicated in Fig.544. It is to be into orders as interference colors is divided
544

Ll
i
A
o

I!
JJfg
fa

i "JS (C

122

*+
"-

x-fOrder

a
Third

First

-A^

Second

Order

Order

"", i-A.

a
Fourth Order
A -A-

Higher Ordere-

Interference

Colors

with

Quartz Wedge

noted that at the very thin end of the wedge before any interference can have Also the thicker end of the wedge is white taken place the color is white. because here there is an overlappingof the various points of interference of the different colors. The thickness of the wedge at the different points is given in millimeters in Fig.544. scope microthe accessories of the polarizing 344. Sensitive Tint. Among of mounted between two is a thin plateof gypsum plates glass. It is and T. marked either X (o)or Z (c), also with marked S. an arrow commonly faster or slower ray. direction vibration of the the of respectively indicating in the 45" with the nicols is If this position placed on the microscope stage the same that close the interference color shown is reddish violet, as crossed, It is an interesting to the red of the first order of the quartz wedge. ment experithe redto first put a quartz wedge under the microscope and focus on it with the sensitive violet, justbeyond the red of the firstorder and then cover that its X direction is at rightanglesto the tint arranged in such a way X direction of the quartz wedge. The color will be gray. The resulting of the faster this is Whatever had made the over simple. gain explanation ray slower in passing through the quartz has been overcome neutralized or by of oppositeoptical orientation- and of suitable passingthrough a layerof gypsum thickness to produce the same interference as the quartz. The name Sensitive Tint is given to this gypsum increase of the plate because a slight double refraction which it shows will give a blue color while a corresponding decrease will change the color to yellow. Numerous tive of the sensiuses slight tint will be given in subsequentarticles. 345. Interference Colors of Mineral Sections. interference colThe ors of mineral sections depend upon three things. 1. On the strengthof the birefringence of the mineral, or in other words of the amount that the double refraction The mineral shows. upon greater the higherthe order of interference color, the birefringence the other influencing factors remaining constant. 2. The thickness of the section. The thicker the section the greater will of double refraction and consequentlythe higher the order of be the amount the interference color.
"

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

237

This will be explained described are 346. Determination of the Order of the Interference Color of a Mineral Section. It is often important to determine to which order (see last paragraph of Art. 343) the interference color of a given section belongs. If, as is often the case, the section has somewhere a tapering wedge-like edge,the bands of color shown successive there can be counted and the order of the color of the surface of the section determined. In other words the order of the color can be told in the same the as way upon quartz wedge itself. If such an edge cannot be found the quartz wedge is used as described below. Suppose a certain mineral section showed an interference color of orangered and it was desired to ascertain whether this color belonged to the first or second order. Under the microscope with crossed nicols find a position of extinction of the section and then turn it the stage of the microscope upon through an angle of 45". By doing this the vibration directions of the section are that they make angles of 45" with the vibrabrought into such a position tion directions of the polarizer and analyzer. Then insert above the section and below the analyzera quartz wedge, the optical orientation of which is A slot running through the microscopetube justabove the known. objective and making an angle of 45" to the cross-hairs is provided for this purpose. Under these conditions there are two Either the optical possibilities. orientation of the section and the quartz wedge agree; i.e., the X direction of the section is parallel to the X direction of the wedge, or these two directions at rightanglesto each other. are The effect of the introduction of the wedge above the section will be either to increase or decrease the amount of double refraction of the light due to the mineral section. If the double refraction is the optical effect will be as if the mineral section had been thickened increased, and in this case its interference color will rise in its order. On the other hand, if the double refraction of the light is decreased by the introduction of the quartz wedge the effect will be as if the mineral section had been thinned and the interference color will fall in its order. In the firstcase the red interference color of the section would be changed as the wedge is pushed in,firstto In the second case blue and then to green. it would change to orange, then to yellow and green. the introthat upon duction so Arrange the section, therefore, Then of the quartz wedge the interference color will fall in its order. graduallycontinue to push in the wedge, noting the successive colors that the point the amount of the double refraction is decreased. occur as Finally will be reached where the thickness of the wedge will give practically the same amount of double refraction as the mineral section. The two having opposite orientations the result will be to eliminate all interference and a optical this condition arises the quartz color of the firstorder will result. When gray By noting the succession of colors wedge is said to compensate the mineral. color of the until this point is reached the order of the original that occurs
later when the

3.

The

orientation crystallographic characters optical

of the section.

of the different

crystal systems

"

section
347.
or

can

Determination of double

be determined. of

Strength of Birefringence. The

"

birefringence,

It is expressed varies with different minerals. refraction, the and least between difference is the that greatest numericallyby a figure of calcite, for instance, In the case indices of refraction of a given mineral. amount The of refraction for one ray is 1'486 and for the other is T658. is than for much This 0'172. of calcite therefore equals higher birefringence 0*0091. of most the strengthof the birefringence quartz being only minerals,

the index

238
An accurate

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

estimation

of the

of strengthof the birefringence

the

mineral

is

only by determining approximatedetermination,however,

be made the The order

greatestand
can

least indices of refraction. in

a a

to An

often be made color of

thin section under

stated in as section, microscope. its the tion orientathe thickness of with varies crystallographic Art. 345, mineral, If the first two factors are known of its birefringence. and the strength color of the' be estimated by noting the interference the birefringence can The in thickness of the secdetermination. this will aid tion 545 section. Fig. the is left. The column of in the at is shown the strength birefringence of the side that and a figure. Suppose right-hand expressedalong the top interference in thickness and showed an orange-red givensection was 0*03 mm. zontal the diagonalline that crosses the horicolor of the first order. By following in the of middle the orange-red at a pointlying 0*03 mm. line marked be of the mineral must that the birefringence of the firstorder it will be seen of determiningbirefringence is most This method about Q'015. commonly
of the interference

of minerals observed in rock sections. In the case of the best rock sections the thickness of the section is usuallyabout 0'03 to 0'04 mm. also be judged from the interference color The thickness of the section can known like quartz or feldspar, which is to be observed shown mineral, by some of a mineral varies with in the section. As the strengthof the birefringence orientation it is necessary the rock its crystallographic always to look over section and use in the observations that section of the mineral which shows the of a mineral is always highestorder of interference color. The birefringence
used in the
case

545

ill
*

I!
11
0.06

"s,i
.2o
"o'w ".""="
" "

-i ll .1^3122 |MfS diii "-M SS3 g "S

"
.2
"

/*
o

II

i^jtf

I
ffl

White

of higher order.

"
o

,OP^P3O

oo

He"^

"A

o^^dtf'S^S

0.045

0.05
0.050 0.055

0.04

0.060 0.065 0.070

I
.1 \

0.03

0.100

0.02

0.120 0.160

0.01

0.200 0.300

0.00

Determination

of the

Strengthof Birefringence Pirsson (after differencebetween

such thickness,
as

and

Robinson)

expressed as the maximum with a uniform

the indices of refraction. Consequently, is obtained in a rock section, that

240
or

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the section it on thicker part of the interference as a thinner part did originally. section is now showing the same If this is In other words, the result is as if the section had been thinned. and must the wedge be opposed so, then the X and Z directions of the section off the section it On the other hand, if the color bands move to each other. interference that a thinner part of the section is showing the same means The introduction of the quartz effect that a thicker portiondid originally. wedge has in effect thickened the section and therefore the similar optical ing useful for determindirections of the two coincide. This test is particularly the X and Z directions of deeply colored minerals,as the natural color of the thicker portion of the section, the mineral may, over completely mask
the color bands go off toward the edge. When the effect of that the means quartz wedge is such
move

up

that

color. section shows an interference color of white or gray of the first a mineral order the sensitive tint will give better results than the quartz wedge. If the similar opticaldirections of the section and the sensitive tint coincide the effect will be to raise the color of the sensitive tint (red of the first order)to orientations of the two are opposed blue. On the other hand, if the optical be made to advantage only when the color will fall to yellow. This test can effect of the section is small enough to justraise or lower the the birefringent to blue or yellow. color of the sensitive tint respectively
the interference If Polarized 349. Light. In the preceding Circularlyand Elliptically articles the two interfering after light-rays, emerging from the second nicol, in be the to assumed same were polarized plane; for them the resulting nomena pheindicated are as comparatively simple. If, however, two planedirection have their vibration-directions polarized rays propagatedin the same and if they differ one-quarter of a wave-length at rightanglesto each other, then it may be shown that (JX) in phase (assuming monochromatic light), the compositionof these two systems results in a ray of circularly polarized this is a ray that,looked at end-on,would seem to light. Briefly expressed, be propagated by ether-vibrations taking place in circles about the line of From transmission. the side, the onward motion would be like that of a and either left-handed. or right-handed screw, meet two light-rays with a difference of phase as above If, again, described, from JX (but not equal to an even of |X),then the resulting differing multiple that is, a light-ray compositiongivesrise to elliptically polarized light, propagated by ether-motions takingplacein ellipses. The above results are obtained most simply by passingplane-polarized medium of the proper thickness (e.g., light through a doubly refracting a mica inclined 45" to that of the plate) which is placed with its vibration-planes polarizer. If the thickness is such as to give a difference in phase of JX or an odd multipleof this, the light which emerges is circularly polarized. If the differsfrom is is ellipphase \\ (but not equal to |X or X),the emergent light tically

polarized.
In the case of certain doubly media (asquartz), and also of certain solutions, refracting crystallized (as of be shown it can that the lightis propagated by two sets of ethersugar), vibrations which take place, not in definite transverse in planeas planes that is, polarized each ray is circularly light but in circles; one polarized, the other left-handed. of these being right-handed, will one Further, rays, uniformly gain with reference to the other. The result is, that if a ray of
"
"

350.

Rotation

of Plane

of Polarization.

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

241

fall upon plane-polarized light

of
a

such

medium

the simplest (assuming case,

as

section of quartz cut normal

rays

to the vertical

it is found that crystalaxis),

within unite on emerging to a plane-polarcircularly polarized ized but the of has suffered an angularchange or rotaplane polarization ray, tion, which may be either to the right(toone lookingin the direction of the ray),when the substance is said to be right-handed, to the left, or when it is

the two

left-handed. with all crystalsof a given phenomenon is theoretically possible system belonging to any of the classes of lower symmetry than the normal class which show a plagiohedral development of the faces *; or, more simply, those in which the corresponding rightand left (or + and forms ) typical are as noted in the chapter enantiomorphous (pp.71,112), on crystallography. In mineralogy, this subject is most important with the common species quartz, of the rhombohedral-trapezohedral and a further discussion of it is class, postponed to a later page (Art.394).
This
"

called

OPTICAL

INSTRUMENTS

AND

METHODS
"

351. Measurement of Refractive Indices. Refractometer. For the determination of the refractive indices of crystallized minerals various methods when suitable material is at hand, are employed. The most accurate results, obtained be the refractometer. This requires the observation by ordinary may of the angle of minimum deviation (5) of a light-ray on passingthrough a and with its edge cut in prism of the givenmaterial, having a known angle(a}, the proper direction. The measurements of a and 5 can be made with an ordinary refractometer or with the horizontal goniometer described in Art. 231. For the latter instrument,the collimator is made stationary, being with the fastened to a leg of the tripodsupport, but the observingtelescope the graduatedcircleis clamped, verniers moves freely. Further,for this object the support, and and the screw attachments connected with the axis carrying loosened. the vernier circle and observingtelescope chromatic are Light from a monoand slit of this is an image source through an appropriate passes With substance thrown by the collimator upon the prism. a doubly refracting deviation must be measured two images are yielded and the angleof minimum for each ; the proper direction for the edge of the prism in this case is discussed the formula in Art. 327 is used. and 5 are known later. When a The principle of total reflection (Art. 352. Total Refractometer. 323) No prism is reindex. refractive the determine quired, also be of to made use may polished surface;this may but only a small fragment having a single have a but in other cases must have any direction with an isometric crystal, instruments different of number later. A described definite orientation, as be measured of which indices of refraction may have been devised by means is at present represented by the use of total reflection. A type widely used made by Leiss. It consists of a instrument was in Fig.546. This particular hemisphere of glass(H) having a high refractive index which is mounted upon be reflected from the mirror Sp. The a glass may post through which light
"

be characterized the following eleven may classes among crystals, Of the thirty-twopossible Class 4, p. 71; 5, p. 72; 11 and 12, p. 89; 17, p. 102; by circular polarization: 22, p. 112; 23 and 24, p. 114; 27, p. 128; 29, p. 138; 32, p. 147.
*

242

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

tube P contains a nicol prism so that when a thin section of a mineral is placed to obtain its optical the plane surface of the hemisphere it is possible upon with the polarizing orientation in the same microscope. The manner as mineral surface polished 546 is placed upon the plane surface of H with film of a ing some high refractoilbetween them. of Then beam a

light
source

from of

some

illumination,
a chromatic mono-

usually

light, is reflected by means

of the mirror such a way Bl in
as

to

producea
on

total reflection

shadow down the opposite side of the hemisphere. For further details of the operation see The escope telArt. 327. F is attached to the disk V which in turn carries a scale its edge. The on telescope is moved until the up or down between the light line of and dark portions the field lies on the Total Refractometer cross-hairs.The angle which is read on the scale under these conditions is the desired critical angle for the combination of the glassof the hemisphere and the mineral plate. Knowing this angle and the index of refraction of the glassof the hemisphere to calculate the index of refraction of the mineral ; see Art. 327. it is possible of which the isfurnished with the total refractometer table Usuallya by means measured desired refractive index is obtained directly the of from the value critical angle. The post carryingthe glasshemisphere may be revolved in This the horizontal plane and the angleof rotation measured the scale K. on tions of indices corresponding to different vibration direcpermitsthe measurement the mineral. L is an eye lens which in combination with the other in lenses of the tube F makes which is used in the prea low power liminary microscope, In the tube A etc. operationsin order to center the mineral plate, is an iris diaphragm and usuallya small nicol prism that may be pushed in out of the tube. or Fig.547 represents a small total refractometer devised by G. F. H. Smith which depends upon the same principle.The mineral plateis placed upon surface shown the glass the top of the instrument. The instrument is so on

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

243

held that

enters light of
an

by

means

at the forward end, and the is sent reflected light totally inclined mirror to the eyepiece. A scale is in the instruplaced
647

Smith Total Refractometer ment

seen

(Actual Size)

that the boundary between the light a and dark areas is way the value of the refractive superimposed upon it and so yieldsdirectly For rapid and approximate determinations index. this instrument is very useful.
353.
"

in such

A very simple form Tourmaline of polariscope for converging Tongs. is shown in Fig.548; it is convenient in use, but of limited applilight cation. Here the polarizer and analyzerare two tourmaline platessuch as in pieces described in Art. 340. of cork and held in were They are mounted to a kind of wire pincers. The be examined is object placedbetween them and In there the in wire. use supported spring the by they are held close to the in this position the crystal section is viewed in convergingpolarized eye, and with the result of showing (under proper the axial interference-fig light, conditions) .389 and 407) (Arts.
.

Tourmaline

Tongs

forms of polariscopes The common Polariscope. Conoscope. in 550.* 549 and Fig.549 represents Figs. employing nicol prisms are shown is called a conoscope. often which the instrument arrangedfor converginglight, the light, which after the mirror S, reflecting The essential parts are It is then rendered the is prism lens by the p. e polarized passingthrough stronglyconverging by the system of lenses nn, before passingthrough the section under examination placedon a plateat k. This plate can be revolved
354.
"

These

are figures

taken from

the catalogueof Fuess.

244

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

its circumference. The upper tube measured on angledesired, and the the lens t, contains the converging system oo, analyzingprism q. the tubes need no explanation, nor The arrangements for loweringor raising

through any

649

550

Conoscope

Polariscope

indeed the special devices for setting of the nicols at the vibration-planes

rightanglesto each other. The accompanying tube (Fig. 550) shows the arrangement for observations in parallel the converging lenses having been removed. light,

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

245

Fig.551 represents in cross-section a simple, but quiteefficient inexpensive of polariscope.The polarizing device, P, is in the form of two or three thin glass sheets,the back of the bottom 561 These one being blackened. glass plates set at the appropriate are angle to secure the of polarization amount maximum of the lightreflected from them up through the opening in the stage K. M represents an mirror by means of which light is adjustable P. reflected upon The is a analyzer,A, small nicol prism which is held over the of the standard opening in the stage by means
form

series of lenses may double be placed upon the stage of the instrument and convert it into a conoscope. so 355. Polarization -Microscope. The form and investigation of the optical of minerals when in microscopic properties form has been much facilitated by the * of use microscopes specially adapted for this purpose. First arrangedwith reference to the special in study of minerals as seen thin sections of rocks, they have now been so elaborated as largely to take the placeof the older opticalinstruments. They not only allow of the determination of the optical Polariscope(| natural size) of with minerals properties greater facility, in hand are far too small but are where the crystals to many cases applicable for other means. A highly serviceable microscope is the Laboratory Model made by the and Lomb Bausch OpticalCo., and illustrated in Fig. 552. The essential at A, which is arrangements of this instrument are as follows: The eyepiece for focusing removable, contains the cross-hairs with an eye lens adjustable in and Bertrand slides out of the B that lens is them. At tube, with a upon C isthe box which slides it. At above iris analyzer an diaphragm immediately be revolved in and out of the body tube. This prism may through a quarter shutter for the D is a slot in the microscope tube with a dust-proof turn. At E is such as the quartz wedge, etc. introduction of various accessories, which work at right be centered by the two screws the nosepiece which can F is held in placeby a spring angles in the N and E positions.The objective The stage, G, revolves and carries a scale clamp and is quicklydetached. the readingof angles vernier permitting attached the into graduated degrees, irisdiaphragm H carries at The lenses, to one-tenth condensing substage degree. and downward It moved be and the polarizing upward can prism.
A
"

S.

to one screw-head and when at its lowest point can be sprung has both and / is a axis. The mirror at adjustable out of the optical side, while at is J, surface. The coarse focusingadjustment plane and concave of which a vertical the milled head at K provides a fine adjustment by means be read. of 0'0005 mm. movement can

by

means

of

For

of the detailed descriptions of

microscope and polarizing Wright,

The

its accessories see

Manual

PetrographicMethods;

Methods

of

Johannsen, Petrographic Research; etc.

246 356.
in The

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

Research
553. 552

Fig.

trated and Lomb of the Bausch microscope is illusModel described after one instrument is by This patterned
553

PetrographicalMicroscope (Laboratory Model, Bausch and Lomb, | actual size)

PetrographicalMicroscope (Research Model, Bausch and

Lomb
j

actual size)

The detailed account. Wright to whose papers reference is made for a more be briefly follows : summarized features of the instrument may as outstanding It has a largebody-tube within which are always contained the analyzerand the Bertrand lens, both when scope. axis of the microthey liein or outside the optical The bar be connected the and two nicols may of upright by means the measurement rotated simultaneously 90". This enables through an arc of of extinction angles, of revolvingthe etc.,to be made without the necessity and in keepingthe mineral grainunder observathe consequent difficulty tion stage exactly centered in the field. This bar carries verniers that lie against the scale engraved upon the stage so that the angle of rotation of the nicols be accurately measured. The can polarizing prism can be entirelyremoved from the opticalaxis. A revolvable carrier for to the irisdiaphragm mount of the substage. GENERAL 357. There
are a

sensitive plate is attached

OPTICAL
certain

CHARACTERS

OF

MINERALS

and crystallized

characteristics belonging to all minerals alike, in their relation to light. These are: non-crystallized, 1. DIAPHANEITY: transmitted. depending on the relative quantityof light

248 which crystallization,

are

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

discussed later. Here belong dichroism or pleochrodifferent colors in different crystallographic ism, the property exhibiting directions by transmitted light. This subjectis explainedfurther in Arts.
of

396 and 411. The followingeight colors were selected by 302. Varieties of Color. Werner as fundamental, to facilitate the employment of this character in of minerals: the description white, gray, black, blue, green, yellow, red,and brown.
"

"

COLORS recognized are as follows: (a) The varieties of METALLIC 2. Bronze-yellow: pyrrhotite. 3. Brass-yellow: Copper-red: native copper. less distinct chalcopyrite. 4. Gold-yellow:native gold. 5. Silver-while: native silver, in arsenopyrite. 6. Tin-white: mercury; 7. Lead-gray:galena,molybdenite. cobaltite. steel on a recent fracture; native plati8. Steel-gray: nearly the color of fine-grained num, and palladium. COLORS: (6) The followingare the varieties of NON-METALLIC A. WHITE. 1. Snow-white: Carrara marble. 2. Reddish white,3. Yellowish white and 4. Grayish white: all illustrated by some varieties of calcite and quartz. 5. Greenish white: talc. 6. Milk white: white, slightly bluish; some chalcedony. B. GRAY. 1. Bluish gray: 2. Pearl-gray:gray, mixed to dirtyblue. gray, inclining with red and blue; cerargyrite. 3. Smoke-gray: gray, with some brown; flint. 4. Greenish gray: gray, with some varieties of talc. 5. Yellowish some cat's-eye; green; varieties of compact limestone. 6. Ash-gray: the purest gray color; zoisite. gray: some C. BLACK. 1. Grayish black: black, mixed with gray (without green, brown, or blue 2. Velvet-black: pure tints);basalt; Lydian stone. black; obsidian,black tourmaline. black: 3. Greenish black: brown augite. 4. Brownish coal, lignite. 5. Bluish
1.
" " " "

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

'

"

"

"

black cobalt. 1. Blackish blue: dark varieties of azurite. 2. Azure-blue: a clear shade p. BLUE. of brightblue; pale varieties of azurite, 3. Violet-blue: blue, bright varieties of lazulite. mixed with red; amethyst, fluorite. 4. Lavender-blue: red and much blue,with some 5. Prussian-blue, Berlin blue: pure blue; sapphire,cyanite. or 6. Smalt-blue: gray. varieties of gypsum. 7. Indigo-blue: some with black and green; blue tourmaline. blue, 8. Sky-blue: pale blue, with a littlegreen; it is called mountain-blue by painters. E. GREEN. 1. Verdigris-green: to blue; some feldspar (amazon-stone). green, inclining 2. Celandine-green: varieties of talc and beryl. It is green, with blue and gray; some the color of the leaves of the celandine. 3. Mountain-green: green, with much blue; beryl. 4. Leek-green:green, with some brown; the color of leaves of garlic;distinctly in prase, a variety of quartz. seen 5. Emerald-green: pure deep green; emerald. 6-. Apple-green: light green with some yellow; chrysoprase. 7. Grass-green: bright yellow; green diallage. 8. Pistachio-green: green, with more yellowishgreen, with some brown; epidote. 9. Asparagus-green: pale green, with much yellow; asparagus stone (apatite). 10. Blackish green: serpentine. 11. Olive-green: dark green, with much brown and yellow; chrysolite. 12. Oil-green:the color of olive-oil; beryl,pitchstone. 13. Siskin-green: lightgreen, much inclining to yellow; uranite. F. YELLOW. 1.. Sulphur-yellow: sulphur. 2. Straw-yellow:pale yellow; topaz. 3. Wax-yellow: grayish yellow with some brown; sphalerite, opal. 4. Honey-yellow: red and yellow, with some brown; calcite. 5. Lemon-yellow: sulphur, orpiment. 6. Ocher-yellow: yellow,with brown; yellow pcher. 7. Wine-yellow: topaz and fluorite. 8. Cream-yellow: varieties of kaolinite. some 9. Orange-yellow:orpiment. G. RED. 1. Aurora-red: red, with much yellow; some realgar. 2. Hyacinth-red:
black:
" " " " " "

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

per. jasdark 5. Blood-red: tinge of yellow; cinnabar. some 6. Flesh-red: feldspar. 7. Carmine-red: yellow; pyrope. red; pure ruby sapphire. 8. Rose-red: rose quartz. 9. Crimson-red: 10. Peachblossomruby. red: red,with white and gray; lepidolite. 11. Columbine-red: deep red,with some blue; 12. Cherry-red: dark red, with some garnet. blue and brown; spinel, some jasper. 13. Brownish-red: limonite. jasper, H. BROWN. 1. Reddish brown: 2. Clove-brown: garnet, zircon. brown, with red and some 3. Hair-brown: blue; axinite. 4. Broccoli-brown: wood-opal. brown, with blue, red, and gray; zircon. 5. Chestnut-brown: brown: brown. 6. Yellowish pure 7. Pinchbeck-brown: jasper. yellowishbrown, with a metallic or metallic-pearly luster; several varieties of talc, bronzite. 8. Wood-brown: color of old wood nearly rotten; some
some
"

red,with yellow and

4. red, with
"

brown; hyacinth garnet.

a
"

3.

Brick-red:

some polyhalite,

Scarlet-red: brightred, with

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

249
and green;

specimens
10.

of asbestus9. Liver-brown: brown, with Blackish brown: bituminous coal,brown coal.

some

gray

jasper.
-

3.

LUSTER

Nature of Luster. The luster of minerals varies with the nature surfaces- A variation in the quantity of lightreflected produces 5different degrees of intensity of luster; a variation in the nature of the reflecting surface produces different kinds of luster. 364. Kinds of Luster. The kinds of luster recognized are as follows: 1. METALLIC: the luster of the metals, as of gold, tin. copper, iron, In general,a mineral is not said to have metallic luster unless it is opaque the mmeralogical in that it transmits is, no sense, the edges of thin on light splinters.Some minerals have varieties with metallic and others with nonmetallic luster; this is true of hematite. Imperfect metallic luster is expressed by the term sub-metallic, trated as illuswolframite. by columbite, Other kinds of luster are described briefly
"

363.

1*

"

as

NON-METALLIC. 2. NON-METALLIC.

A.

Adamantine:

the luster of the diamond.

When

as metallic-adamantine, cerussite, pyrargyrite. Adamantine luster belongs to substances of high refractive index. This be connected with their relatively may with as great density(and hardness), the diamond, also corundum, etc. or because they contain ; heavy molecules, thus most compounds of lead,not metallic in luster, have a high refractive

also

it is termed sub-metallic,

index and an adamantine luster. B. Vitreous: the luster of broken glass. An imperfectly vitreous luster is termed sub-vitreous. The vitreous and sub-vitreous lusters are the most in the mineral kingdom. Quartz possesses the former in an eminent common often degree; calcite, C. Resinous: of
and some yellow varieties opal, sphalerite. D. Greasy: luster of oilyglass. This is near resinous luster, but is often quitedistinct, as nephelite. E. Pearly: like pearl, etc. When united with as talc, brucite, stilbite, in hypersthene, as the term metallic-pearly is used. sub-metallic, of thin glass-plates; reflected from a pile Pearly luster belongsto the light is i t exhibited similarly be by minerals, which,having a perfect cleavage, may the basal plane of apophyllite. partially separated into successive plates, as on It is also shown for a like reason by foliated minerals,as talc and brucite. F. Silky: like silk; Ex. fibrous calit is the result of a fibrous structure. cite, the latter. luster of the yellow resins, as

fibrous gypsum. different degreesand kinds of luster are often exhibited differently by unlike faces of the same but always similarly by like faces. For crystal, has a pearlyluster wanting in the prisexample,the basal plane of apophyllite matic which have a vitreous luster. faces,
The

by Haidinger, only vitreous, adamantine,and metallic luster belongto faces In the first, the refractive index of the mineral is I'S-l'S; and pure. in the second, l'9-2'5;in the third, metallic and The true difference between about 2'5. vitreous luster is due to the effect which the different surfaces have upon the reflected light; in general, the luster is produced by the union of two simultaneous impressionsmade upon the eye. If the lightreflected from a metallic surface be examined by a nicol prism (orthe of Haidinger, Art. 393), it will be found that both rays, that vibratingin the dichroscope each having the plane of incidence and that whose vibrations are normal to it,are alike,
As shown smooth perfectly

250

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the contrary, of the light on little in brilliancy; a color of the material,only differing vibrations are at rightangles to the reflected by a vitreous substance,those rays whose while those whose vibrations and are colorless, or less polarized, plane of incidence are more and suffered some into the medium tion, absorpin this plane,having penetratedsomewhat are will show show the color of the substance itself. A plate of red glassthus examined between the others. luster occupiesa position Adamantine a red image. a colorless and

365.
as

Degrees of Luster.

"

The

of luster degreesof intensity

are

fied classi-

follows:

1.

well-defined images,as and giving with brilliancy reflecting Splendent:

one as well-defined,

hematite,cassiterite. but not 2. Shining: producingan image by reflection,

celestite.
3.
"

reflection from a general Glistening:affording

the

but surface,

no

chalcopyrite. image,as talc, and apparently from points 4. Glimmering: affording reflection, imperfect the surface, as flint, chalcedony. over as A mineral is said to be dull when there is a total absence of luster, chalk,
the

ochers,kaolin.
366.

The term play of colors in rapid prismatic in to the perfection belongs property is observed is to It also in its which it due high dispersive power. diamond, where it is explained of interference; in this the principle in precious on opal, is most brilliant it case by candle-light. color appears The expression change of colorsis used when each particular than in the play of colors and the succession proto pervade a larger space duced as by turningthe mineral is less rapid. This is shown in labradorite, under that species. explained is a milky or pearlyreflectionfrom the interior of a specimen. Opalescence Observed in some opal,and in cat's-eye. Iridescence means the exhibition of prismatic colors in the interior or on The phenomena of the play of colors, the surface of a mineral. iridescence, sometimes to be explained are crystals, by the presence of minute foreign etc., in parallel more positions; generally, however,they are caused by the presence in the light of fine cleavage-lamellae, reflected from which interference takes place, analogousto the well-known Newton's rings(seeArt. 336).

Play

of Colors.

Opalescence.

Iridescence.

"

colors is used to describe the appearance the mineral. This succession on turning

of several

367. Tarnish. from that obtained

metallic surface is tarnished when its color differs is the case with specimensof bornite. A surface possesses the steeltarnish when it presents the superficial blue color of columbite. fixed when The tarnish is it exhibits a s irised tempered steel, is with the hematite of Elba. as These tarnish and common colors, prismatic iris colors of minerals are owing to a thin surface or film, proceedingfrom different sources, either from a change in the surface of the mineral or from foreign incrustation; hydrated iron oxide is one of the most common sources of it and produces the colors on anthracite and hematite. 368. Asterism. This name is given to the peculiar star-like rays of observed in certain directions in some minerals. This is seen by reflected light in the form of a six-rayed star in sapphire, and is also well shown by light transmitted light of small with the a mica from South (as flame) phlogopite In the Canada. former it is explained Burgess, case by the presence of thin twinning-lamellse symmetrically arranged. In the other case it is due to the of minute inclosed crystals, also symmetrically which are presence arranged, probably rutile or tourmaline in most cases. faces which have Crystalline
"

as by fracture,

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

251

been artificially etched also sometimes exhibit asterism. The peculiar lightsometimes observed in reflected light figures the faces of crystals either on natural or etched, of similar nature. are Schillerization. The general term schilleris appliedto the liar pecusometimes luster, observed in definite directions in certain nearlymetallic, in schiller-spar minerals,as conspicuously (an altered varietyof bronzite) also in diallage, hypersthene, sunstone, and others. It is explainedby the reflection either from minute inclosed plates in parallel positionor from the surfaces of minute cavities (negative crystals) having a common orientation In many it is due to alteration which has cases these bodies (or developed the cavities) in the direction of solution-planes (seeArt. 285). The process by which it has been produced is then called schillerization.
"

369.

370. Fluorescence. The emission of lightfrom within a substance while it is being exposed to direct radiation, or in certain cases to an electrical dischargein a vacuum tube, is called fluorescence.It is best exhibited by from which the phenomenon gained its name. fluorite, Thus, if a beam of white light be passed through a cube of colorlessfluoritea delicate violet color is called out in its path. This effect is due to the action of the ultrachiefly violet rays, and is connected with a change of refrangibility in the transmitted
"

light.
The electricaldischarge from the negative tube calls out pole of a vacuum brilliantfluorescence not only with the diamond, the ruby, and many gems, but also with calcite and other minerals. Such substances may continue to emit light, after the discharge or ceases. phosphoresce, 371. Phosphorescence. The continued emission of lightby a substance
a
"

after heating, (notincandescent) produced especially to light exposure to an electricaldischarge, or is called phosphorescence. Fluorite becomes highly phosphorescentafter being heated to about 150" C. Different varieties give off light of different colors; the chlorophane others and an variety, reddish tints. This emerald-green purple,blue, light; in be observed dark phosphorescence the pulverized a placeby subjecting may mineral to a heat below redness. It may even be produced by a sharp blow with a hammer. Some varieties of white limestone or marble, after slight emit also tremolite, and other species. a yellowlight; heating, so danburite, The X-ray and ultra-violet light will produce phosphorescence in willemite, and some diamonds. The fact that willemite glows when exposed to kunzite, ultra-violet light of in testing is made the residues from a willemite ore to use certain the separation make has been complete. Radium emanations cause certain minerals to phosphoresce, as willemite and wurtzite. of the sun produces very apparent phosphorescence Exposure to the light with many to be destitute of this power. diamonds, but some specimensseem This property is most striking after exposure to the blue rays of the spectrum, while in the red rays it is rapidly lost. A mixture of calcium sulphideand bismuth will phosphorescefor a considerable periodafter being exposed to sunlight.

SPECIAL

OPTICAL OF THE

CHARACTERS DIFFERENT

BELONGING SYSTEMS

TO

CRYSTALS

be grouped into three grand classes, minerals may 372. All crystallized as well as their geometriwhich are distinguished properties, by their physical cal form. These three classes are as follows:

252 Isometric referred to three

A.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

of the isometric system, which are class, embracing crystals axes. equal rectangular and hexagonal of the tetragonal B. Isodiametric class, embracing crystals and horizontal a axes or fourth, third, systems.,referred to two, or three,equal of this class have to their plane. Crystals axis unequal to them at right angles axis of crystallographic a fixed principal symmetry. of the orthorhombic,monoC. Anisometric class, embracing the crystals three and triclinicsystems, referred to unequal axes. Crystalsof this clinic, class are without a fixed axis of crystallographic symmetry. the ISOMETBIC 373. IsotropicCrystals. Of the three classes, CLASS and related phenomena involving includes all crystals which, with respect to light the ether, equal turning) are (from the Greek, signifying isotropic ; that is, in alldirections. Their distinguishing those which have like optical properties in all characteristic is that lighttravels through them with equal velocity is not disturbed by external directions, provided their molecular equilibrium starts from internal strain. If it be imagined therefore that light or pressure at a given moment medium of time the resulting a point within an isotropic surface will be a sphere. wave is not isotropic It must be emphasized here,however, that such a crystal with reference to those characters which depend directly the molecular upon Art. cohesion and elasticity. structure alone, as (See 275.) as Further, amorphous bodies, glassand opal, which are destitute of any that is, those in which all directions are sensiorientated molecular structure bly and not with the same also reference to are but isotropic, only light, also as regardstheir strictly molecular properties. 374. AnisotropicCrystals Crystalsof the ISO; Uniaxial and Biaxal. and ANISOMETRIC the other hand, are in distinction DIAMETRIC on CLASSES, anisotropic (from the Greek,signifying unequal turning) Their optical erties propin generalunlike in different directions, are the particularly, or, more with which light is propagated varies with the direction. velocity of the isodiametric class that variable property of the Further,in crystals which the velocity of propagationdepends remains constant light-ether upon for all directions which are normal to, or, again, for all those equallyinclined axis. In the direction of this axis there is no to, the vertical crystallographic double refraction; it is hence called the opticaxis, and the crystalsof this
" " "

"

class are

said to be uniaxial.

of the third or anisometric class have more Crystals tions relacomplex optical b ut in it stated be that in requiring them special explanation, general may there are always two directions analogousin character to the single opticaxis said to be optically spoken of above; hence,these crystals are biaxial. A. 375. ISOMETRIC CRYSTALS

It has been stated that crystals of the isometric system are optically and hence with travels in every the isotropic, direction in same light velocity them. s uffer refraction in passinginto an Light can, therefore, only single isotropic medium; or, in other words, there can be but one value of the refractive index for a given wave-length. If this be represented by n, while V is the velocity of light in air and v that in the given medium, then
V
n
=
"

V
,

or

"

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

253

medium isotropic
be

light-waves propagated from any point within such an alreadystated, is, a sphere. The sphere, therefore, may taken to represent the opticalpropertiesof an medium. tions Secisotropic of a sphere normal to any diameter will always be circles. These circular
as

The

wave-front

for

with like radii in all directions correspond to the fact that the character of an isotropic optical substance is the same in all directions normal to the line of lightpropagation. Or, in other words, lightvibrations may take place in any direction normal to the direction of the
sections

transmission; i.e.,

its velocity remains uniform no matter what be the direction of its vibration. may This statement holds true of allthe classes of isometric crystals. In other words, a crystal of maximum and one symmetry, as fluorite, having the restricted symmetry characteristic of the tetrahedral or pyritohedral divisions, have alike the same character. Two of the classes, isotropic however,namely, the plagiohedral and the tetartohedral classes, differ in this particular: that crystals belongingto them may exhibit what has alreadybeen defined (Art. 350) as circular polarization. 376. of Sections of Isometric Crystalsin Polarized Light. Behavior
"

is light

not

polarized. Further

isometric crystalsexhibit no isotropic consequence character, As special section phenomena in polarized of an isotropic a substance light. (isometric or some crystal amorphous material) has no polarizing or doubly effect upon it does not change at all the character of light refracting that light enters it from the polarizer of a polariscope.Therefore thin sections of isotropic media when examined in a polariscope or polarizing microscopewith the nicols crossed will appear dark in all positions.In other words, they are always extinguished. Further, when a colored mineral is examined without the analyzerthere will be no change in its color when the section is revolved with the stage of the microscope. Some anomalies are mentioned on a later
page, (Art.429). The refractive index single

In

of their

by

means

of

substance may be determined an isotropic Art. 327) with its edge cut in any direction whatever. prism (see
B.

of

UNI

AXIAL

CRYSTALS

General 377.

Relations Optical

and optical relations of crystals The crystallographic belongingto have and of the hexagonal systems already been briefly tetragonal crystals remains their characters to it summarized now optical develop (Art.374); This be done most can more simply by making frequentuse of the fully. to representthe character and motion of the of a light-ray familiar conception

light-wave.
378. Behavior is in axial mineral

of Light in Uniaxial Minerals. Light enteringa uniin planes broken up into two rays which are polarized general
"

travel with different velocities and to each other and which perpendicular therefore have different indices of refraction. One of the two rays derived from a single incident ray always vibrates in the planeof the horizontal crystallographic The other ray vibrates at rightangles to the first and axes. axis. always in a vertical plane that includes the vertical crystallographic all directions is for uniform mineral of character The optical lying a uniaxial tions in the horizontal crystallographic plane and therefore the ray whose vibramatter what its direction no lie in this plane will have uniform velocity

254
of transmission.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

index of and constant This ray will therefore have a single usual follows the law this Since commonly designatedby co. ray refraction, and tion refracincidence of sines of the ratio between the angles as to the constant it is called the ordinary ray. and in generalbehaves in an ordinary way The ray which vibrates in a plane that includes the vertical crystallographic
tion the direction of its vibration constantlychanging as the direcwill correspondof its path through the crystal ingly changes and its velocity direction the index of Its will therefore refraction depend upon vary. This of its propagation and it will not in generalobey the usual sine law. the is therefore called extraordinary ray. ray to the When light travels in a uniaxial mineral in a direction parallel axis will have

take place in the since all its vibrations must vertical crystallographic axis, it behaves wholly as the ordinaryray with a single horizontal plane, velocity be no double refraction of light, There can and refractive index. therefore, along this direction and in this case the mineral will behave like an isotropic This direction of no double refraction, coincident with the versubstance. tical such direction isknown axis and as there is only one as the optic axis, crystal the direcin this optical As soon tion the latter is called uniaxial. as group of transmission becomes is inclined to the vertical crystal axis the light doubly refracted and as the inclination increases the direction of vibration of of the extraordinary from the light the plane of and more ray departs more and vibration of the ordinaryray with a correspondingchange in its velocity refractive index. The difference between the refractive indices of the two when becomes maximum the lightpasses a through the mineral in a rays horizontal direction with the direction of vibration of the extraordinary ray axis to the vertical crystal words or in other parallel as possible as divergent from the horizontal plane. The value of the refractive index of the extraordinary at its maximum difference from the constant index of the ray when ordinaryray is the one always quoted and is indicated by"e. These two indices, and e, are called the principal indices of a uniaxial crystal. A principal w section of a uniaxial crystal is a section passingthrough the vertical axis. 379. Positive and Negative Crystals. Uniaxial crystals divided into are two classes, of the extraordinary depending upon whether the velocity ray is greater or less than that of the ordinary ray. Those in which the refractive index of the ordinary ray, co, is less than that of the extraordinaryray, e called positive. This is illustrated by quartz for which " e), are (co (foryellow sodium light) :
" "

co

T544.

1-553. to be

On the other Calcite is an

hand, if e is less than co (e " co), the crystal is said sodium light) example for which (for
co
=

negative*

T658.

1-486.

Other The

examples are given later (Art.383)

Determination
of the

380.

Refractive Indices in Uniaxial Crystals. indices of refraction of uniaxial minerals are measured in much the same
"

It will assist in
case.

remembering
with

positive and
each

negative agrees

these relations to note that the firstvowel in the words the symbol used fo* the smaller index of refraction in

256

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

by

an

whose ellipse

axes

proportional (OC, OA, Figs.554, 555) are respectively

554
555
c

to the above

values.

00:OA=or an ellipsoid The wave-front of the extraordinary ray is then a spheroid, the vertical with axis, coincides axis crystallographic whose revolution of that it obvious is axis vertical of the In direction the axis. the optic that is, coincide. will the wave-fronts of the ordinaryand extraordinary rays waveFigures 556 and 557 represent vertical sections of the combined

666

557

Negative

crystal,

Positive crystal,ox:

e.

like calcite surfaces for both "rays. Fig. 556 givesthat for a negative crystal the the surface of " wave ellipsoidal (e "o), extraordinaryray being outside
the surface spherical of the

ordinary ray;

Fig. 557

that

of

positive crystal

the ellipsoidal like quartz (co" surface within that of the is an Fig.558 attempt to show the relations of the two wave-fronts of for a singleoctant. The constant value crystalin perspective of the ordinary ray ( velocity
-

e) with

sphere.
a

tive nega-

of the

whatever

its direction in the

plane of Figs.

556 and 557, is expressedby the radius of the circle (= OC). On the other of the extraordinary hand, the velocity ray in the horizontal direction is given

by OA

(-1 while

in any

obliquedirection, as Osr,Fig.556 (Ors,Fig.557),it is

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

257

558

expressed by the lengthof this line, becoming

OC (
-

more

and

more

nearlyequal to

as

its direction

approaches that of the vertical axis.

"

Uniaxial Indicatrix. The opticalstructure of a uniaxial crystal be represented by an ellipsoid called the Indicatrix* from of revolution, which can be obtained the directions of vibration and indices of refraction of the ordinary and extraordinary derived from any single incident ray. rays for an optically section of such an ellipsoid Fig.559 representsa principal tive negacrystalthe line C-C being its axis of revolution. The axes of this ellipsoid to the indices of refraction of the two made are proportional inversely rays, co and e, as follows :
can
,

382.

OC In this

OA

or

CO.

CO

sion let Or be a direction of transmisfigure of light. Let Vr and VR be tangents to the elliptical surface at the pointsr and R and to the tangent OR be a radius vector parallel
Vr.

659

known then what are the From geometrical it follows that the ellipse propertiesof an of any area parallelogram with conjugate in Fig. radii forming two sides,such as ORVr of the to is constant and a pararea equal 559, allelogram sides. two OA OC and as having line be perpendicular to the extended Let RN Then the area will be equal to Or. of ORVr OA'OC a constant, RN'Or. It follows since RN'Or k OA'OC J^ Or
and

OR

form

as

conjugate radii.

k, that

(Jr

_ " "

RN
*

T-.IT

RN'

T-k-"r

"

also

The

Optical Indicatrix and

1892.

the Transmission

of Light in Crystals,by L.

Fletcher,

London,

258
From

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

index, OA will as each representsthe minimum be for maximum will the which of the velocity light corresponding represent and Or RN In in the are same direction the transmission way crystal. any the velocity to each other,the distance Or representing proportional inversely RN while will direction that represent of the extraordinaryray traveling along will also give the direction of vibration of The line RN its refractive index.
OC the

the last expression see we in other words, other, or,

that OA

and

OC

are

to proportional inversely

extraordinary ray.
For the radius vector
to it and

direction perpendicOr there will be another possible ular This will be a line from 0 surface. to the ellipsoidal in Fig.559. This line will section represented to the principal perpendicular with its length lie in the horizontal circular section of the indicatrix ellipsoid to the index of the ordinaryray, co. equal to OA which in turn is proportional such as Or, the two lines that So for a given direction of transmission of light, normal it and at time the to the surface of the to same are perpendicular indicatrix yield both the indices of refraction of the two rays and the directions of their vibrations. is passingparallel axis of the indicato the principal trix, however, the light If, be infinite will number there of lines which an are C-C, Fig. 559, i.e., to this direction and at the same time normal to the surface of perpendicular the indicatrix. These will lie in the horizontal circular section of the ellipsoid will be of a uniform length. From and consequently this it is evident vibrate in any transverse direction and will that such a transmitted ray may index of refraction and velocity. Along this direction, known possess a single there will consequently be no double refraction of the light. as the opticaxis,
also normal
lists give promiExamples of Positive and Negative Crystals. The following nent and negative uniaxial crystals, with the values of the refractive indices, positive co and light.* The difference between these, e, for each,correspondingto yellow sodium o" or the birefringence of the double refraction. e or strength co, is also given; this measures be remarked It may that in some varieties have been observed. speciesboth + and of apophylliteare Certain crystals positivefor one end of the spectrum and negative for the other, and consequently for some color between the two extremes it has no double refraction. The is true for some other species (e.g., same of weak chabazite) double
383.
" "

"

"

refraction. NEGATIVE CRYSTALS

CO "

Proustite.
.

2 '979

2711 1-486 1'620 1-760 1-578

0-268 0-172 0-018 0-008 0'006 0-005 0-004

1715
1-538 1-631

0-003

POSITIVE

CRYSTALS

From

tables by E. S. Larsen.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

259

Examination 384.
a

in Polarized Light of Uniaxial Crystals

"

to the Axis in Parallel Polarized Section Normal pose Light. Supsection of a uniaxial crystalto be cut perpendicularto the vertical axis. It has alreadybeen shown that light crystallographic passingthrough in this direction suffers no double refraction; the crystal such a consequently, section examined in parallel behaves as a section of an polarized light isotropic If the nicols are crossed it appears dark, or extinguished, substance. and remains when revolved. so 385. A section cut parallel Section Parallel to the Axis. cal to the vertihas two directions of lightas alreadyexplained,, one vibration, axis, parallel that of the extraordinary to it, to this axis, ray, and the other at rightangles that of the ordinary ray. A ray of lightfalling such a section with upon incidence is divided into the two rays, ordinaryand extraordinary, perpendicular but one of them which travel on in the same path through the crystal, in polarto the other. retarded relatively When such a section is examined ized its when with crossed nicols it will appear dark, or be extinguished, light vibration directions lie parallel to the vibration directions of the nicols. Assume that the section abed, Fig.560, lieswith the direction of its vertical axis parallel the vibration direction to P-P, which represents crystallographic the section under these conditions will of the polarizer.The light entering and will therefore pass be vibrating to the vertical axis of the crystal parallel there into the mineral wholly as the extraordinary being no vibration ray,
"

in possible
ray.

the

tion direc560

of the The

ordinary lightwill,

therefore,

leave the section with the same direction of vibration it entered and as when lost by will be entirely reflection in the analyzer. If the section is turned at an angle of 90", aWd', Fig. as 560, similar conditions

although in this case the lightwill vibrate in the section as the prevail, during Therefore in such a section there will be four positions ordinaryray. it when o r the of microscope the polariscope its complete revolution on stage will be extinguished. light abed in Fig. 561, it will appear as If the section stand obliquely, have P-P that to vibrations the for parallel colored), to the eye (and usually tion resolution a component in the direchave upon passedthrough the polarizer these of each section. the of Again, of each of the vibration-planes of of the direction vibration-plane the components can be resolved along the both from the analyzer, will emerge A- A. Therefore,two rays upper nicol, reference with retarded less but or having the same vibration-plane, one more and with the birefringence of retardation increasing to the other,the amount will these interfere, therefore, rays the thickness of the section. In general, not too great)it will and if the thickness of the section is sufficient (and the thickness uniform, of the and, supposing colored in white light
appear
same

color

throughout.

260
386.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the vibration directions of a section When Parallel Extinction. and coincide with those of the polarizer assuming them to be crossed, analyzer, of extinction. in the If a be the section appears dark and it is said to position axis or axial plane is -parallel to when its crystallographic section extinguishes extinction. of the planesof vibration of the nicols it is said to show parallel one the crystallographic exists between the other hand, no such parallelism on If, directions and the directions of vibration in the mineral the section is said to
"

show

inclined extinction. of uniaxial minerals,since the vibration directions always lie case axial plane,all sections of such minerals will show in some crystallographic e xtinction. parallel
In the 387. Determination of the Relative
"

Character

of the

Extinction

tions Direc-

The relative characters of the exof a Given Uniaxial tinction directions of a section of a uniaxial mineral are to be determined by described in Art. the use of the quartz wedge or the sensitive tint as If the orientation of the section is known that it can be told which of so 348. dinary the directions of vibration belongsto the ordinaryand which to the extraorof the the mineral character be determined. can o r negative positive ray if the ordinary the For instance, ray is proved to be the faster of the two (i.e., X direction)it follows that its index is the smaller,i.e., and the " co e, mineral is positive. 388. Interference Colors of Uniaxial Minerals. Birefringence. The interference color of any section of a uniaxial mineral depends upon the following: first upon the thickness of the section, second upon the strengthof the double refraction of the mineral, its birefringence, this beingmeasured i.e., tion, by the difference between the indices of refraction of the two rays in the secand third upon the crystallographic orientation of the section. A section to the basal planeshows no double refraction and therefore cannot cut parallel exhibit any interference color. The strengthof the birefringence, the other conditions remaining uniform,increases as the inclination of the section to the basal plane increases. The highestbirefringence of a given mineral is therefore shown by its prismatic sections. The following table * givesthe thickness (inmillimeters) of sections of a few uniaxial crystals which yield red of the firstorder:
Mineral.
"

Birefringence (03 e) or (e o")

"
"

Thickness in Millimeters

Rutile Calcite Zircon Tourmaline

0-287 0172 0'062 0'023 0'009 0*004 0*001

0'0019 0'0032 0*0089 0'0240 0*0612 01377 0*5510

"

Quartz Nephelite
Leucite
as

example, it may be noted that with zircon (e co Again, ness 0*062),a thickof about 0'009 mm. givesred of the firstorder; of 0'017 red of the second order: of 0*026 red of the third order. The methods ordinarily used to determine the birefringence of a section (not J_ c axis) of a uniaxial crystal, also to fix the relative value of its two vibration-directions, as have Arts. 347 and 348. already been discussed, see
another
=

389.

Minerals.
*

Effects of Convergent Polarized Light upon Sections of Uniaxial Uniaxial Interference Figures. When certain sections of uni"

See further, Rosenbusch

(Mikr. Phys. Min., 1904,p. 292),from whom

these

are

taken.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

261

axial minerals
are

known

as

in convergent polarized lightthey show what isobtained interference figures. A symmetricalinterference figure
are

observed

in uniaxial minerals basal

to by allowingconvergingpolarized light

pass

through a

section of the crystal. Parallel polarized such a section light entering would suffer no double refraction and consequently give no interference. To the parallel from the polarizer into conconvert vergent polarized lightthat comes lens is the a nd the between section. Under a polarizer light placed these conditions a sharply convergingcone of light the section. rays enters the section to change these oblique lens is placed above Another rays back Such instrument is known an as a postion. again into a parallel conoscope and and may be obtained by placinga pair of lenses between the polarizer the polarizing of a polariscope, microscopeis used,the small analyzer or, in case is swung into position by a lever converginglens that lies above the polarizer lens is introduced the Bertrand and at the same time a small lens known as into the microscopetube. such conditions Under
562

the

lightenteringthe section is composed of a and converging system of rays polarized in the 562. vibrating plane P-P, Fig. Let B-B (Fig.562, A) be a vertical
section section of the mineral along the line B-B, Fig. 562, B. Consider any ray, as a, enteringthe the enters section. Since the ray section obliquely it will be doubly the and refracted into e. o rays
cross

563

calcite the extraordinary being (calcite as mineral being taken ray negative)will have the greater velocityand be least refracted. As the the traces of the two rays as they enters the section in the form of a cone light consider in a similar Now B. be circles, will 562, section the from Fig. emerge 563) upon each other. the action of the two rays a and b or a' and V (Fig. case into the rays e and refracted is polarized section the doubly Ray a on entering the the section at r. from e and points considered as emerging and o which are and refracted is polarized.Suppose section the doubly Ray b also on entering The
the

from the section at the same extraordinary ray derived from b emerges Since it travels with a is at r. pointas the ordinary ray derived from a, that this point will have at greater velocitythe extraordinary ray emerging In that case they that of the ordinary ray. in its phase over advanced would be in a condition to interfere with each other except that they are
rays to each other and so in planesperpendicular vibrating other and each maintaining to at in rightangles travel on, vibrating planes cannot.

The

two

262

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

there they are each this difference in phase until they reach the upper 'nicol; in the resolved into rays vibrating in plane A-A, Fig. 562, B, and are now that the conditions with each other. interfere Let it be assumed condition to from the section justone waveare length rightfor the extraordinary ray to emerge the Their components in the upper ahead of nicol will ordinaryray. Art. 335. have oppositephases and therefore compensate each other, If see the section is viewed in a monochromatic sodium light) light(forinstance, this interference will result in a black point. But as these rays are converging in the form of a cone a circular they will make, when they strike the section, trace upon its surface and their interference will result in a dark ring. Going out from the center of the section there will be a succession of these rings to the interference of waves corresponding 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., wave-lengths the paths apart. As the distance from the center of the section is increased, of the refracted rays in the section are lengthened and the points of interference are brought closer together. This will cause the interference rings to lie nearer togetheras the distance from the center of the figure increases. is 564 a Fig. top view of the section without taking into consideration the effects of the upper nicol. Let the two circles represent the traces of the of the two rays emergence into which e and o one incident conical is ray divided ; e, being the least refracted (forcalcite), will be the inner one. The plane of vibration of e is always parallel to some plane passing through the vertical axis of the crystal, therefore the trace of its plane of vibration upon the surface of the section will always be in a radial direction. The plane of vibration of o is at rightanglesto that of the extraordinary and parallel ray to the horizontal axes of the crystal, therefore the trace of its plane of vibration the surface of the section will always be in a tangential upon direction, see Fig.564. Along the line P-P, Fig.564, only light in a radial vibrating plane or that of the extraordinary since the come through the section, ray can the section cannot be resolved into the vibrations of the ordinary light entering The intensity and direction of vibration of the light ray. that emerges from the section alongthe line P-P is representedby the double arrow that line. on Along the line A-A, since the lightenteringthe section is stillvibrating in the plane P-P, all the light passingthrough the section must vibrate as the It is evident, ordinaryray. that along these two directions, P-P therefore, and A-A the plane of vibration of the light is not changed by passage through the section and consequently such lightwill be completelyabsorbed in the

264

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the difference between the or obviously depends upon the birefringence, figure also upon for the ordinaryand extraordinary the refractive indices, ray, and and double refraction the thicker thickness of the plate. The stronger the which will give a certain the plate, the smaller the angle of the light-cone

the circleswill be to the words, the nearer section the circleswill be nearer for blue light than for red, because of their shorter wave-length. When the plateis either seen. quitethin or quitethick only the black brushes will be distinctly 390. Determination of the Positive or Negative Character of the Birefringence of a Uniaxial Mineral from Its Interference Figure. Use of the Mica Plate. For the identification of a uniaxial mineral it is naturallyimportant to determine whether the character of its birefringence be best accomplishedby tests made is positive or negative. This can usually of making this 'testis ways upon its interference figure. One of the common by the use of a sheet of muscovite mica, cleaved so thin that, of the two rays of lightpassingthrough it, has gained one one quarter of a wave-length in between mounted phase over the other. The mica is usually long and narrow and is known the mica one as glassplates plate. It is quarter wave-length 1 /4M with marked commonly an arrow indicatingthe Z In testing direction. optical interference an figure by of the mica plate the means latter is inserted somewhere between the polarizerand analyzer (in the microscope commonly through the slot and justabove the objective) is so orientated that the Z direction makes an angle of 45" with the planes of vibration of the nicols.
amount of

retardation, or, in
same

other

center.

Further,for the

"

Fig. 566 let P-P represent the tion plane of vibraof the polarizerand A-A the plane of vibration of the analyzer of a conoscope. Let 0 be the point of emergence of the optic axis of a mineral. positive uniaxial
conical ray of light Suppose a single enters the section. It is broken up in the mineral into two rays, o and e, which from the section along the arcs of emerge the circles shown in Fig.566. The trace of the ordinaryray, o, will be within that of the extraordinary mineral the o ray travels ray, e, because in a positive the and is less refracted. The directions of vibration of these two rays at the 45" points R and R' are representedby the double-headed When arrows. these rays reach the analyzerthey will be resolved into components vibrating to A-A There are an infinitenumber parallel and passof such rays entering ing through the mineral section with varying angles of inclination and therefore

In

faster

varying lengthsof path.

0 two
rays

At
same

some

will emerge

on

the

certain distance out from the center circle with a difference of phase of one

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

265

wave-length and when resolved in the upper nicol into rays vibrating same plane will interfere with each other and produce the firstdark it is viewed in monochromatic as ringof the interference figure light. If the mica plateis introduced above the section a change in the interference is noted. The character of the mica cannot figure optical be fully explainedat this point. It is sufficient for present purposes to know that it is a doubly refracting mineral which breaks light up into two rays which in at are polarized planes rightangles to each other and which,traveling with different velocities through the mica, will emerge from it with different phases. As stated above, the mica plate is cleaved to the requisite thickness so that the two from it with a difference of phase of one rays emerge quarter of a wavelength. Consider what takes place when such a plateis introduced above the section represented in Fig.566 in such a position that its vibration direction Z is parallel to the direction R-O-R of the figure. Consider what takes place at the points R. There the vibration direction of the e ray coincides with the vibration direction Z of the mica plate. These vibration directions in each case those of the rays traveling with the smaller velocity. On the are other hand, at the same the vibration direction of the o ray in the mineral point coincides with the vibration direction X in the plate, both of these being of the rays with the greater velocity. So at this point the effect of the mica plateis to increase the difference of phase between o and e and to produce the result as if the mineral section had been thickened. same Consequently the interference ringsalong the line R-O-R increased in number are and drawn toward the center of the figure. At the pointsR' the opposite is true. The vibration direction of e coincides now with that of X in the mica plate;the direction of least velocity in the mineral with that of the greatest in the mica.
in the Also the vibration

whole

direction of

coincides with that of Z\ that of the greater

in the mineral with the less velocity in the mica. So at this point velocity the mica will decrease the difference in phase between o and e and produce the effect of thinningthe section and so spreadingthe interference ringsfarther In quadrants 2 and 4, therefore, the rings will apart along the line R'-O-R'. in and be drawn 1 3 while the will be nearer center, quadrants they spread farther apart. Another effect caused by the introduction of the mica plate is even more pronounced. In quadrants 1 and 3, in the case illustrated in Fig. 566, black dots will appear near the center of the figure. In the interference there were in quadrants before the introduction of the mica plate, figure, points 1 and 3 at short distances from the center, 0, where the two rays, o and e, emerged from the section with a difference of phase of one quarter wave-length. Under these conditions no interference could take placeand these spots were light. The effect of the mica platein these two quadrants is to everywhere due to the mineral reduce the birefringence by one quarter of a wave-length. Therefore at these two pointsthe difference of phase caused by the birefringence at these of the mineral is annulled by the mica plateand consequently The mica black dots and interference result will produces plate points appear.

dark in the interference figure come bebrushes which were of the lines the brushes the s ection from along crystal light.Lightcoming and ordinarily is is vibratingonly in the vibration direction of the polarizer the with mica t his But above. the intervening plate wholly cut out by analyzer lightis broken up in the mica into two rays which vibrate in the vibration planes of the mica and as these are inclined to the plane of the analyzera coming from will come through to the eye. As the light portionof the light
stillother effects. The

266
the

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

along the lines of the brushes had only a singlevelocity(was either the ordinary or extraordinary ray) there are only two rays entirely and their difference of directions emerging from the mica plate along these there can be no conditions phase is one quarter of a wave-length. Under these
section interference and the interference white
brushes

result.

In the

same

way

the dark

center

of

becomes figure

light.
667

Determination

of

Optical Character

with Mica

Plate

of the interference figure of Fig.567, A, is a diagrammatic representation the direction mineral as affected by the insertion of the mica plate, positive the direction of vibration the direction Z of the mica, i.e., of the arrow indicating of the ray having the smaller velocity. In the case of a negativemineral the conditions as described above will be completelyreversed. Fig. 567, B, the appearance of an interference figure of a negativemineral when represents the mica plateis used. to determine the opticalcharacter of a uniaxial mineral from Therefore, insert a mica plateabove the section with its Z direction its interference figure making 45" with the vibration planesof the nicols. Then, if this direction Z the cenis at rightangles the two black dots that appear near to a line joining ter of the figure the mineral is positive; the two lines form a plussign), (i.e., the other hand, these two directions coincide (form together a minus on if, the mineral is negative. sign) mine Art. 344, is used to deterUse of the Sensitive Tint. The sensitive tint, see the positive its ference interuniaxial mineral from of or a negativecharacter when the the mineral section is so thin,or mineral possesses figure such a low birefringence, to show in the figure as only a black cross without rings. Under such conditions the mica platewould not give a decisive any test. The sensitive tint is usuallyso mounted cides that its longerdirection coina
"

with the direction of the vibration of the faster ray, i.e., the direction X. sensitive tint is introduced somewhere and anabetween the polarizer lyzer in such a position that itsvibration directions are at 45" with the planes of vibration of the nicols. Let it be assumed that we have the interference from such a is figure positive as mineral, representedin Fig. 566. If the sensitive tint is introduced in such a position that its X direction is parallel to the line R-O-R the X direction of the sensitive tint will be parallel to the direction of vibration of the e ray in the mineral. Since the mineral is positive the e ray will have the smaller velocity and therefore in quadrants 2 and 4 the
The

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

267

opticalorientation
each

of the

mineral

and

the sensitive tint will be

opposed

to

would The other. produce an interference color of if the effect of the birefringence But of the mineral is red of the first order. from the birefringence of the sensitive tint the color will such as to subtract

sensitive tint alone

change
near

to

yellow. Consequently
center

in these

quadrants yellow spots will

In the

appear

the

of the field at the

lower

points where

the effect of the mineral and

has

been

sufficient to

the interference

1 and 3, the faster and directions and the effect of the two in their coincide tint sequently Contive one.

quadrants,

color to that extent. slower of the mineral rays

other addi-

sensitive is an

substances

in these two

568

quadrants
In

the

color

will rise to blue.

making

the above

test with

the sensitive tint it is convenient to follow the rule that

if the

direction line blue

a

of

the
crosses

sensitive
a

tint

uniting
dots

the

two

plus sign) the mineral is positive ; (makes

on if,

the
two

these

other hand, directions

Determination

of

OpticalCharacter
These

with Sensitive

Tint

coincide
a

gether to( make minus sign)the mineral is negative

conditions

are

illustrated

391.

Interference

Figures

from

Inclined
569

Sections

of Uniaxial

Minerals.

Eccentric Uniaxial Interference

Figures

268
An

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

wu393:

obtained from such an inclined section will of course be interference figure If is section inclined the field. little to the a eccentric to the microscope only of the optic the pointof emergence the center of the figure (i.e., basal plane, and vision in the field of will circle about the move a axis)will stillbe within the microscope stage. center of the field wtien the section is revolved upon of such an interference figure during Fig.569, A, shows the successive positions If the section is more ference revolution. sharply inclined the center of the interthe As outside field. the section is be the turned on quite figure may will traverse interference the fieldin succession. of the four cross the arms stage bars and, provided the section has the field as straight across They will move will move the field across been cut not too highlyinclined to the opticaxis, This of is the fact of cross-hairs to the microscope. importance in parallel interference from uniaxial s uch certain biaxial a order to distinguish figure bars similar often show which, however, will always figures. The latter will as curve they cross- the field of the microscope. If the first of these bars in left to rightacross from the field, the second will the uniaxial figure moves from the top to the bottom, the third from rightto left and the last move of from the bottom to the top, etc. Fig. 569, B, shows the different position of revolution. a such a figure one during quarter mined The positive or negative character of the mineral can usuallybe deterfrom an eccentric figure if care is taken 570 to make certain which quadrant is visible when the test is made. For instance, in Fig. 570 is shown how the test is made with the sensitive tint upon the eccentric interference of a positive mineral. figure In examining unorientated sections of a such as the random section found in mineral, rock section or the small a fragments of a mineral placed upon it is advisable a glass slide, hunt to for that section that always gives the lowest interference color. The amount of birefringence shown in various sections of a uniaxial mineral decreases as the section approaches the orientation of the basal plane. Sensitive Tint with Consequently that section showing the Eccentric Interference Figure lowest interference color will yieldthe most nearlysymmetrical interference figure. 392. Interference Figure from Prismatic Section a of a Uniaxial Mineral. When a prismatic section of a uniaxial mineral is examined for an interference figure indefiniteresult is obtained. an The figure is analogous to one obtained in the case of biaxial crystals.The reasons for this resemblance will be pointed out in a later article. The two types of figures cannot be in this case easily differentiated. Two dark and usually indefinite hyperbolas approach each other as the section is turned on the microscope stage,form an indistinctcross, and rapidlyseparate. These bars differ from those obtained in a biaxial interference in that they rapidly fade out as figure they move from the crossed position. This type of interference figure away be obtained easily can from the quartz wedge. AbsorPtion Phenomena of Uniaxial Crystals. Dichroism. When enters colored minerals as light of white vibralight, i.e., rays containing
. " "

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

269

tions of allwave-lengths from that of violet light at one end of the spectrum to that of red light at the other, certain wave-lengths will be absorbed during the passage of the light through the mineral, that the light, so it emerges, as has a definite color. It happens in certain deeply colored minerals that the and character of this absorption amount depends upon the direction of the vibration. For instance in the case of uniaxial minerals, light the ordinary and extraordinary from the section with distinctly rays may emerge different colors. Take, for instance, a prismatic section of a brown colored tourmaline and observe it in planepolarized without the use of the upper nicol. As light the section is revolved upon the stage of the polariscope the color may change from a dark brown to a light yellow-brown. The greatest difference in the color occurs at positions 90" apart and when the crystallographic directions of the section, the vertical crystallographic i.e., axis and the trace of the planeof the horizontal or axes, are either parallel perpendicularto the vibration plane of the polarizer. In other words, these extremes of color occur when the directions of the vibration of the ordinary and P 1 in the section extraordinary are or parallel rays to the vibration plane of the perpendicular the section. In Fig.571,A, let light entering P-P represent the vibration direction of the the section. The mineral section light entering is so placed that the direction of the vertical

crystal axis is perpendicular to P-P.

The

Vertical Axis

light on

entering the section will therefore vibrate in the plane of the horizontal axes or the ordinary ray, o. In this position as the
section is dark colored and consequently it is seen in the that lightvibrating mineral as the ordinary absorbed. ray is largely Now turn the section through a 90" angle to the position shown in In Fig. 571, B. this position the light must in the vibrate the section wholly as fore extraordinary ray, e, and the color is a light yellow-brown. Therethe extraordinary absorbed. This difference in ray is only slightly dichroism. Either the absorption the color of the two rays is known as or and two the ordinaryor the extraordinary absorbed the be most the may ray cases are expressed as either o " e (o"" e) or e " o (e " co). In uniaxial sections where it attains minerals dichroism is to be best observed in prismatic itsfullintensity. Basal sections show no dichroism, since light passing through the section parallel all vibrate in the horizontal axial to the opticaxis must tourmaline

plane and belongwholly to the ordinaryray.

used for An instrument contrived by Haidinger, is sometimes called a dichroscope, of Iceland spar is placed examining this property of crystals. An oblong rhombohedron in a metallic cylindrical lens at one end, and a square hole at the case, having a convex other. image belongs to the On looking through it, the square hole appears double; one crystalis examined ordinaryand the other to the extraordinaryray. When a pleochroic lution, with it by transmitted light, on revolvingit the two squares, at intervals of 90" in the revoof the ordinary and to the vibration-planes have different colors, corresponding a very slight extraordinaryray in calcite. Since the two images are situated side by side, difference of color is A perceptible. similar device is sometimes used
as an

ocular in the

microscope.

270
394.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

Circular observed

Polarization.
among

"

The
in

alluded has already been briefly polarization minerals that is,quartz class, trapezohedral
It has been

light and circular polarized subject 9f elliptically This phenomenon is most tinctly disto in Art. 350. of crystalsbelonging to the rhombohedralthe case
cinnabar.

and

explained that a section of an ordinary uniaxial crystalcut normal to the dark in parallelpolarizedlight for every position between vertical (optic)axis appears in thickness, be examined crossed nicols. If, however, a similar section of quartz, say 1 mm. dark in monochromatic it appears lightonly, and that not until under these conditions, for sodium makes lightan angle the analyzer has been rotated so that its vibration-plane of 24" with that of the polarizer. In other words, this quartz section has rotated the plane looking in the direction of of vibration some 24", and here either to the rightor to the left, of this rotation increases with the thickness of the section, and, as the light. The amount the wave-length of the lightdiminishes (forred this angle of rotation for a section of 1 mm. denned as is about 19",for blue 32"). The direction of the rotation is to the right or left, is crystallographically right-handedor left-handed (p. 113). above according as the crystal to the axis)be viewed between crossed section of quartz (cut perpendicular If the same differs from that it is found that the interference-figure nicols in converging polarizedlight, has disappeared, of an ordinary uniaxial crystal. The central portion of the black cross colored.* Furthermore, when the and instead the space within the inner ring is brilliantly analyzing nicol is revolved,this color changes from blue to yellow to red, and it is found and in other this change is produced by revolvingthe nicol to the right, that in some cases and the second with left-handed. the first is true with right-handedcrystals, to the left; cases If sections of a right-handed and left-handed crystal are placed together in the polariscope, is occupied with a four-rayedspiral from the center of the interference-figure curve, called, the discoverer, consistingof Airy's spiral. Twins of quartz crystalsare not uncommon, of right-and left-handed individuals (accordingto the Brazil law) which the combination cinnabar similar phenomena observed. Twins of show these spiralsof Airy. With are in the polariscope. this speciesalso not infrequentlyshow Airy'sspirals
"

of Uniaxial Optical Characters Crystals. All show double refraction except those that are cut sections of uniaxial crystals to the basal plane. All doubly refracting sections show parallel tinction. exparallel viewed in convergent polarized When with crossed nicols all light sections show a characteristic uniaxial interference figure except those that lie in the prism zone of the crystal that are only slightly inclined to that or All doubly refracting sections have two refractive indices correspondzone. ing of these is always co and the other has to the two extinction directions : one a value (c') rangingfrom co to e, dependent on the inclination of the section to the optic axis. Dark colored minerals may show dichroism. Tetragonal and hexagonal substances cannot be distinguished from each other by optical tests. sections of They may be at times told apart by characteristic cross their crystals. 395.

Summary

of the

"

C.

BIAXIAL

CRYSTALS

General

Relations Optical

The crystals of the remaining systems, i.e., the orthorhombic,monoclinic, and triclinic to what is known as the Biaxial Group. belongoptically of Light in Biaxial Crystals. 396. The Behavior In biaxial crystals there are three especially important directions at rightangles to each other which are designated and c). These as three directions X, Y, and Z (alsoa, fo, sometimes in reference are certain to spoken of as axes of elasticity assumed differences in the ether along them. The nature of these three directions is as follows. Light which results from vibrations parallel of to X (axis is with the maximum from that vibragreatest elasticity) propagated velocity;
"

of

an

Very thin sections of quartz, however,show uniaxial crystal. ordinary

with the microscope) the dark (e.g.,

cross

272

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

to OF, ing from vibrations parallel

hence

Likewise

in the

direction OF
573

there

will be

with mean velocity1/0. traveling from vibrations a resulting ray ing travelto OX, hence parallel with
the In

maximum
all directions

I/a. velocity,

intermediate between X and F the lightvelocities will be proportionalto the radii of an ellipsehaving itssemi-minor
as respectively and semi-major In the diameters, Fig. 573. and F plane of the X therefore, in a directions, of time light given moment

1/0

and

I/a

will radiate
as

from

the

center

and ordinary

rays,

the

wave

extraordinary fronts being

a

represented by an ellipse.

circlewithin

Consider next the planeof the F and Z directions, Fig. 572. Light will radiate in all intermediate F and directions resulting from 0 toward and Z It will therefore travel with uniform and the to OX. from vibrations parallel maximum I/a. The velocity, distance traveled in a given moment of time be may circle plottedby drawing a the about 0 with radius 574. Likewise I/a, Fig. there in will travel the second direction OF a ray vibrations resulting from

parallel to OZ,
with the

hence

ing mov-

minimum velocity,l/y. Also in the direction OZ there will be a from vibrations ray resulting with the parallel to OF In directions velocity 1/0. intermediate between F and Z the lightvelocities will be proportional to the radii of

ellipsehaving l/y and its semias 1/0 respectively minor and semi-major In diameters, Fig. 574. the plane of the F and Z directions, in a given moment of time,light therefore, will radiate from the center as ordinary and extraordinary rays, the wave fronts being representedby an ellipse within a circle.
an

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

273

The

last and most

directions, Fig. 572.

uniform
and

important plane to be considered is that of the X and Z Light will radiate from 0 toward X and Z and all intermedia directions with vibrations parallel to OF, hence traveling with a

intermediate velocity, traveled 1/jS. The distance in a given moment of time is representedin Fig. 575 by the the radius circle with 1/0. There will likewise travel in the direction OZ a resulting ray from vibrations parallel to OX, the hence with imum maxmoving

velocity,I/a.
ray

Also

will travel in the direction OX with vibrations parallel to OZ, hence having the minimum l/y. In intermediate velocity, will the light velocity positions to the radii of be proportional with an I/a and l/y ellipse its semi-major as respectively and semi-minor diameters,Fig. 575. In the plane of the X and Z directions, in a given therefore, of moment time, light will radiate from the center as ordinary and extraordinary rays, the wave fronts represented, an ellipse. It is to be by a circle intersecting the two wave four pointswhere noted that in this last plane there are fronts coincide. In other

words, light traveling along

the radial lines connecting these pointswill be moving with uniform and velocity

consequently along

these

directions there will be no These refraction. double directions are known as the the of crystal optic axes and since there are two of them is the opticalgroup spoken of as biaxial. The of these optic character will be more axes fully in later article. a developed In the above paragraphs fronts for light the wave Ellipse in the three principal moving opticalplanes of the fronts in these crystalhave been discussed. Fig. 576 represents the wave The completewave when bounding one octant. three planes as they
appear

274

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

surfaces for light propagated in all directions consist of warped figures fronts already described in wave to the circular or which conform elliptical elsewhere. The the three principal planes and have intermediate positions to represent these complete surfaces is by means of way only satisfactory
a

model.
397.
"

It is found further that the optical structure Biaxial Indicatrix. .known as the indicatrix, be represented biaxial crystal can by an ellipsoid, three lines which at right are having as its axes and in each other to proportional length to angles is the This the indices a, /3, to similar analogous 7. for uniaxial d escribed in 382. Art. figure crystals This ellipsoid, whose axes represent in magnitude refractive the three principal a indices, /3, 7 (where " a |8 " 7), (see Fig. 577), not only exhibits the character of the opticalsymmetry, but from it be derived the direction, and plane of velocity may vibration of any light the crystal. ray traversing In general be stated that the character of it may the two light which result from a single incident, rays be derived from a study of that elliptical ray may section of the indicatrix which is normal to the If this section happens to be one incident ray. of the three principal sections of the indicatrix, A BAB, or ACAC, BCBC, Fig. 577, its major, and minor diameters give the directions of vibration and their tion semi-lengths the indices of refracof the If the incident two has some Biaxial Indicatrix rays. ray direction different from the directions of the of the indicatrix ellipsoid three axes the derivation of the character of the refracted rays is not as simple. Let Fig.578 represent such an elliptical two section normal to the inclined ray L-L. In this case the major and minor diameters R-O-R and r-0-r of the section liein the vibration elliptical L of the two planes rays but the directions of vibration of the latter will be somewhat inclined to the elliptical section. These directions of vibration may be obtained by erectingnormals to the surface of the indicatrix at the points R and where the r

of

"

major and minor diameters of the section meet that surf ace. elliptical
These normals RN and rn, when extended to the line of the incident L-L, yield the directions of ray vibration and the refractive indices of the two refracted Their directions rays. of transmission (the lines OS and OT) will be perpendicular to these normals and since neither of the latter lie in the elliptical section both rays will be refracted and behave as extraordinary rays. There are two special sections of the indicatrix that notice. The

require

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

275

line B-O-B (Fig. but shorter than the line 577) is longerthan the line A-O-A C-O-C. in some Obviously, positionintermediate between A-O-A and C-O-C there will be a diameter of the ellipse AC AC which will be equal in There are two such lines, length to B-O-B. S-O-S and S'-O-S' in Fig. as 577. The major and minor diameters of these sections of the indicatrix, and BS'BS', are equal and the sections therefore become BSBS circles. Consequently light passingthrough a section of a crystalcut parallel to either of these circular sections of its indicatrix will have a uniform velocity and may vibrate in any transverse direction. In other words, there will be no double refraction along the lines normal to these two sections. These lines constitute what are known the primary opticaxes as of the crystal; further in see Art. 398. The major and minor diameters of any section of the indicatrix yieldthe traces upon that section of the planesof vibrations of the two rays into which the ray normal to the section is refracted. In other words, the major and minor diameters of the elliptical section of the indicatrix givethe directions of extinction of a crystalsection having this opticalorientation. Further, these extinction directions bisect the angles made by the traces upon the section of two planes, each of which includes the pole of the section and one of the two This may be demonstrated opticaxes. by aid of Fig.579 which represents section of an indicatrix. A- A and B-B a general elliptical the major and are minor diameters of the ellipse and so represent the extinction directions of the mineral section. C-C and C'-C' representthe intersections of the two circular sections of the indicatrix with this elliptical section. As these lines are diameters of equal circlesthey must be equalin lengthand it therefore follows that the anglesAOC of an ellipse from the geometrical and AOC' nature are line P-P intersection section Let with this the the equal. elliptical represent of a plane in which lie the normal of the optic axes. to the section and one Since this plane includes an opticaxis it must 579 be perpendicularto the circular section of the indicatrix of which the line C'-C' is a Also since this plane includes the diameter. eration normal section under considto the elliptical it must be at right angles to the latter plane. Under these conditions it is and C'-C' in Fig. obvious that the lines P-P 579 must be at right angles to each other. In the same it can be proved that the way lines P'-P' and C-C are also at rightangles and to each other. Since the angles AOC AOC' are equal and the angles POC' and P'OC are also equal it follows that the angles A OP* and A OP' are likewise equal. In other words and B-B the lines A-A representing the directions of extinction of the section bisect the angles made the section of the

respectively pass

by the traces upon two planes which through each opticaxis and
of the biaxial

This fact will be the normal to the section. the characters made of later,see Art. 407, in explaining use interference figure.

276

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

Primary and Secondary Optic Axes. namely, (Art.397) that there are two directions,
"

580

already been stated normal to the circular sections of the indicatrix (SS, S'S', cross Fig. 577) in which all light is propagated in these uniform with velocity. Hence double be no refraction directions there can
It has those

within
emerges.
an

crystal;nor
These
two

is there

when

the
so

ray

directions bear

close

of a uniaxial analogy to the optic axes also called that are opticaxes, they crystal here considered are hence the crystals and named biaxial. In Fig.575, which represents

in the section of the wave-surfaces X Z these optic and directions, plane of the to have the direction SS, S'S' normal axes and the direction the tangent planes tt,t't', is given by the normal of the external wave
a cross

Str
are

580). (Fig. Properlyspeakingthe directions mentioned

those of the

primary opticaxes, for there also two other somewhat PP, P'P', of Fig. 575, are analogous directions, The properties of the called for sake of distinction the secondaryopticaxes.
considerations. latter directions are obvious from the following in Fig. In the section of the wave-surface shown in Fig.575 (also enlarged, that the circlewith radius to the axial plane XZ, it is seen 580),corresponding
-

intersects the

whose ellipse

major and minor

axes

are

and

in the four

of propaP, P, Pf,P'. Correspondingto these directions the velocity points gation is obviouslythe same* for both rays. Hence within the crystal these is travel without refraction. there double together Since, however, rays wave-front for these two rays (for the tangent for one ray is repreno common sented and for the other by nn, Fig.580) they do suffer double refraction by mm two external light-waves formed whose directions on are emerging;in fact, are given by the normals Pju and Pv. These directions, PP, P'P',therefore, have a relatively minor interest, and whenever, in the pages following, optic those having axes are spoken of, they are always the primary opticaxes, that is, the directions SS, S'S' (Fig. 575),or OS, Fig.580. In practice, however, as in the next article, remarked the angular variation between the two sets of is usually axes perhaps 1" or less. very small,
Interior and Exterior Conical Refraction. The tangent plane to the wave-surface normal to the line OS through the point S (Fig.580) may it in a be shown to meet small circle on whose circumference lie the points S and T. This circle is the base .of the interior cone of rays SOT, whose remarkable If a hinted at. propertieswill be briefly section of a biaxial crystal be cut with its faces normal to OS, those parallel rays belonging to a cylinder having this circle as its base,incident upon it from without, will be propagated within as the cone SOT. Conversely, rays from within corresponding in positionto the surface of this cone will emerge and form a circular cylinder. This phenomenon parallel is called interior conical refraction. On the other hand, if a section be cut with its faces normal to OP, those having rays the direction of the surface of a cone formed by perpendiculars and nn will be propato mm gated within parallel to OP, and emerging on the other surface form without a similar cone the other side. This phenomenon is called exterior conical on refraction. In the various figures given (573-580) the relations are much exaggerated for the sake
"

399.

drawn

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

277

of
a

in practicethe relatively small clearness;

and
7

difference between
2".

the indices of refraction

makes

this

cone

of small

angular size, rarelyover

Optic Axial Angle. Bisectrices. Positive and Negative Biaxial Crystals. The optic axes always lie in the plane of the X and Z optical this plane is called the opticaxial plane (or, directions; ax. briefly, pi.). It is obvious from a consideration of the indicatrix ellipsoid that the position of its circular sections and consequentlyof the opticaxes normal to them, will
"

400.

variation in the relative values of the indices of refraction. As the index 0 is not an arithmetical mean between a and 7 but at times be nearer to a than to 7 or the reverse. As these relations may of its circular sections and change,the shape of the indicatrix and the position the anglebetween the optic will also change. The mathematical axes relations between the opticaxial angle and the principle refractive indices are given in the next article. From the above it is obvious that for certain relative values of the refractive indices, the opticanglemust be 90".* Such a case, however, is rarely observed and when it occurs it is true for light of a certain color (wave-length) only and not for others. The X and Z optical directions bisect the anglesbetween the opticaxes and are therefore known bisectrices. The one that bisects the acute axial as the is called bisectrix while acute the the obtuse one angle (orBxa) bisecting bisectrix is the is obtuse If the word bisectrix used alone without angle (orBx0) it is always to be understood as referring to the acute special qualification bisectrix. Either X or Z may be the acute bisectrix. If X is the acute bisectrix the substance is said to be optically while if Z is the acute bisectrix it is negative,
vary
a

with

alreadystated

will lie nearer to Z than to X that is, the value of the intermediate index, is nearer /3, It is obvious (cf Fig.575) that in this case, as to that of a than to that of 7. the angle diminishes and becomes nearlyequal to zero, the form of the ellipsoid uniaxial then approaches that of the prolatespheroid of the positive of the its limit (Fig.557, p. 256) ; this shows the appropriateness as crystal + signhere used. that is, to X than to Z On the other hand, the opticaxes will lie nearer index 0 is nearer to that of X will be the bisectrix if the value of the mean for which Bxa Such a crystal, X, is called optically 7 than to that of a. the the the In this case the smaller more ellipsoid approaches angle negative. the oblate spheroidof the negativeuniaxial crystal 556, p. 256). (Fig. and negativebiaxial crystals: The following are a few examples of positive
"

positive. optically the opticaxes Roughly expressed,

Z will be the bisectrix
"

when

"

"

Positive (+).

Negative (-).

Sulphur.
Enstatite.

Aragonite. Hypersthene.
Muscovite. Orthoclase.

Topaz.
Barite.

Chrysolite.
Albite.
*

Epidpte.
Axinite.
the followingequation: the indices satisfy

The

axial angle will equal 90" when

1 _!
a2

I
-

1
72'
and (thallium) 90" 14' for blue

j82

ft2

For

danburite

axial angle

89" 14' for green

(CuSO4).

278
401.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

If in a Relation of the Axial Angle to the Refractive Indices. of the interior value the and are known, optic 7 given case the values of a, 0, axial angle known as 2V; see also Art. 408, can be calculated from them by
"

the

formulas: following
11 11

cos2F

P
a2

72
or

tan2 V

72

Examination 402. Sections

in Polarized Light of Biaxial Crystals

Nicols. Light with Crossed biaxial when examined of sections between Thin Colors. crystals Interference color. This color will interference in show some crossed nicols depend general factors : the thickness of the section, the thicker the secthe following tion upon the birefringence the order of color; the higher ofthe substance, the higher the values of a and the greater the difference between the birefringence (i.e., orientation of the section, in gen7) the higherthe order of color; the optical eral, to the optic axial plane, to being parallel the nearer the section comes in which he the vibration directions of the fastest and slowest rays, the higher will be its birefringence and the order of its interference color. A section which,in general, iscolored will show durExtinction Directions. ing the microscopestage four positions at 90" intervals a complete revolution on These are the positions in which it appears dark. of extinction, or are i n the which the of section those positions vibration planes coincide with those
in Parallel Polarized
" " "

of the nicols. at
a

When

the directions of extinction of

or

section

are

parallel or

axis rightangles to a crystallographic axial plane it is said crystallographic extinction

681

to the

to show

of section, extinction. If the parallel

trace,upon
are

the

directions

not

parallelto these
extinction
two

directions the crystallographic said to be inclined. For example, in

arrows

is

Fig.581, let the

larger

rectangular represent the vibration directions for the two and between nicols, .,6' which suppose section of a biaxial crystal, a ^-P abed, to be placed so that one edge of a known crystallographic tion plane coincides with the direcof one of these lines. The vibration directions of the section are indicated by the dotted arrows and as in this position of the section these directions do not coincide with the vibration directions of the nicols the section will light. The section will have to be turned to the position a'b'c'd' appear in order to achieve this coincidence and so bring about extinction. The in the figure) which it has been necessary angle (indicated to revolve the to obtain the effect described, plate is the angle which one of the vibration directions in the given plate makes with the given crystallographic edge ad', it is called the extinction angle. 403. Measurement of the Extinction Angle. It frequently becomes
"
"

importantto

measure

as

the extinction angle of as possible accurately

sec-

280

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

to that of the two effect is added of extinction its birefringent position from that of the remaining subtracted quadrants of the ocular and opposite A very colored. two. Consequentlyadjacentquadrants become differently effect. rotation of the section is sufficientto produce an appreciable slight the Bertrand as Another principle using the same microscope accessory sists ocular is the so-called bi-quartz wedge platedescribed by Wright. This confrom of two adjacentplates one of quartz cut normal to the c crystal axis, these are left-handed and the other from a right-handedcrystal. Above a the above left-handed two of placed wedges quartz, a right-handedwedge etc. At the point where the wedge is equal in thickness to the plate plate, crossed nicols this and between beneath there will be zero rotation of the light As the distance increases from this the field. will produce a dark line across in increases equally but of rotation of the light opposite point the amount line of the plate. Both halves directions on either side of the central dividing illuminated if the mineral section is in the position of the plate will be equally of extinction, fringent but if the latter is turned so that it adds or subtracts its bireeffect to that of the quartz platethe two halves become differently be found where illuminated. can By moving the plate in or out a position this change in illumination is most marked. This quartz plateis used with ocular providedwith a slot in such a position that the quartz plate a special be introduced into the microscopetube at the focal plane of the ocular may and with the medial line of the plateparallel to the plane of vibration of the polarizer.A cap nicol is used above the ocular. 404. Determination of the Birefringence with the Microscope. The value of the maximum birefringence a) is obviouslygiven at once when (7 the refractive indices are known. It can be approximatelyestimated for a section of proper orientation and of measured ference-col thickness by noting the inter"

"

"

described in Art. 347. as Determination of the Relative Refractive Power. The relative the refractive power of two vibration-directions in a thin section is readily determined with the microscope(inparallel polarized light) by the method of to any section, whatever its orientation and compensation. This Is applicable whether uniaxial or biaxial. The methods employed have already been described in Art 348. A crystal-section is said to have positive if its direction of extension elongation coincides with the ether-axis Z; if with X the elongation approximately is negative. The same terms are also used, in general, to the relative according refractive power of the two directions. 406. Determination of the Indices of Refraction of a Biaxial Mineral. The indices of refraction of a biaxial mineral are determined by the same methods as outlined previously, Art. 327, the only modification introduced see being necessitated by the fact that three principal to indices, a, ftand 7, are be determined. Measurement of the Angles of Refraction Two or by Means of Prisms. three prisms must be used to determine the three indices. If three
405.
"

prisms

that their edgesare parallel to the X, F, respectively and Z directions of the mineral. In the case in of an orthorhombic mineral, which these directions are parallel to the directions of the three
are

used

they are

cut

so

crystallo-

graphicaxes,
a,

b, and

prism edges would have to be respectively to the parallel In crystals crystalaxes. of the monoclinic and triclinic systems

the

the proper

orientation of the three

prismsis a

matter

of considerable

difficulty.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

281

Each such prism will yieldtwo refracted and polarized rays but only the one has its vibrations parallel whose light to the edge of the prism (to be determined In certain cases all three indices by the use of a nicol)is considered. be obtained from two prisms. If one prism is cut so that not only is its may of the directions X, Y, and Z but so that its medial plane to one edge parallel contains not only this direction but one then by the use of the method other, of minimum deviation an index may be determined from each of the two
refracted
two rays.

Or of

with

small

of these directions the

tains angleprism cut so that one of its faces conindices be two determined corresponding may

when

the method

these measurements
to which parallel

this face. In making upon it is important to note the crystallographic directions In this way the different rays vibrate. the optical tion orienta-

perpendicular incidence is used

in respect to the crystallographic directions can be determined. Method The method of total reflection for determining of Total Reflection. the indices of refraction of a biaxial mineral has the obvious advantage that

orientated platesof the mineral are requiredinstead of carefully only polished the plane surface of a plate will give with the total prisms. In general,
two boundaries of total reflection. Both of these shadows move Four be taken corresponding the section is rotated. should readings and minimum and to the maximum o f each positions boundary. The largest smallest anglesread will give on calculation the values for the greatestand index of refraction, least indices of refraction, The mean i.e., 0, can j and a. of the other measurements. be derived from one There are certain more or less complicatedmethods by which these two intermediate readingscan be tested in order to prove which is the correct one for the index |8. It is commonly simplerto make use of another platehaving a different crystallographic orientation. It will be found that in the second plateone of the intermediate angles correspondswith one already observed on the first plate while the to second angle shows no such correspondence. The angle that is common the two plates is the one desired. If the plateis orientated so that its plane contains two of the three optical X, Y and Z, all three indices can directions, be obtained easily from the single plate. In this case one of the boundaries of the plate. This of total reflection is stationaryfor different positions corresponds to the ray whose vibrations are normal to the surface of the plate. the plateis rotated and yieldat The other boundary will vary its position as to the other its maximum the anglescorresponding and minimum positions when two

refractometer

indices of refraction.
407. Sections of Biaxial

Crystalsin Convergent Polarized

Light.

"

In

in convergent polarized examined sections of biaxial crystalswhen general, The best most and symmetrical figuresare lightshow interference figures. to a bisectrix, the section has been cut perpendicular to be observed when under is examined and preferably to the acute bisectrix. If such a section Art. 389, figures of uniaxial crystals, the conditions described in the case see the axial plane, When in Fig. 583 will be observed. similar to those shown to the direction of the plane including the two opticaxes, lies parallel i.e., is similar to that of Fig. 583, A. When the figure vibration of the polarizer is like that shown in these two directions are inclined at a 45" anglethe figure

Fig.583, B.
in the parallel First consider the interference figure Fig. 583, A position, bars that of black two It consists and when viewed in monochromatic light. horizonThe uniaxial of a form a cross similar to the cross somewhat figure.

282

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

About two points tal bar is thinner and better denned than the vertical one. of dark ellipseries concentric tical be observed a will there the horizontal bar, on and first a eight figure forming coalesce, which, as they enlarge, curves
583

Biaxial Interference

Figures

As the section is rotated on the microscope or polardouble curve. iscope stage, the black bars forming the cross separate at the center and curve these pointsuntil at the 45" position, Fig. 583, B, the field pivoting on across of a hyperbola. they form the two arms the directions of the opticaxes, along A biaxial mineral has two directions, travels with no double refraction. At these pointsthere would which light As the paths dark spots would result. and consequently be no birefringence of the light the directions to the axes inclined become of the light optic rays of inclination suffers double refraction and in increasing degreeas the amount from these points becomes greater. Consequently at short distances away be refracted into two rays which have a difference of phase of must the light then
a

one

this

the yellow of the sodium flame in a certain colored light, result will be extinguishmentat such points. The assemblage of all points where the difference of phase equalsone wave-lengthyields in the figure. the first dark elliptical-like shown called a lemniscate, ire. curve, o" the the Further out will be found curves difference where embracing points

wave-lengthfor
case.

The

phase is

two wave-lengths, three wave-lengths, etc. If the interference figure is viewed in daylightinstead of the monochr TOV niatic light the black curves Each colored will be replacedby colored ones.

is produced by the elimination from the white light curve of some particular account of the interference explained above. on wave-lengthof light The convergent bundle of light rays that pass through the section will each have its own particularplane of vibration. The directions of the planes of vibration for light emerging from the section at any given pointcan be found, in Art. 397, by bisecting as the angles made by two lines connecting explained this pointwith the two points of emergence of the opticaxes. Fig.584 shows how the direction of vibration of the two rays emerging from given points These directions of vibration vary the over of them must be or parallel always nearly very so to the planes of vibration of the nicol prisms. When this happens the light is extinguished and darkness results. This explains the formation of the black bars of the interferencefigure. Fig. 585 shows the bars in the crossed position
can

be

obtained

in this way.

field and

some consequently

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

283

and Fig. 586 when As the section is separated into the hyperbola arms. turned the vibration directions of new become pointssuccessively parallel to the planesof the nicols and so the dark bars sweep and curve the field. across
584

585

586

With a thick section or one of a mineral of high birefringence, the number of colored curves is viewed in daylight) is greater than with (when the figure with low birefringence. section or one An instructive experiment a thinner be made by notingthe changes in the interference figure can obtained from a section of muscovite as the mineral is cleaved into thinner and thinner sheets. In most rock sections the minerals are ground so thin that their interference do not show but rather only the dark hyperbola figures any colored curves
bars. the

biaxial interference figure varies in appearance with the change in is this Where angle between the opticaxes. angle very small the figure becomes that of a uniaxial crystal. Where the same this as practically of the opticaxes angle becomes greaterthan 60" the pointsof the emergence will commonly lie outside the microscopefield. In the latter case the hyperbola will appear as the section is brought into the parallel form arms position, out of the field then as the section is further revolved will curve a cross, and again. The largerthe axial angle the more rapidlywill the bars disappear of the axial angles of two from the field. A comparative measurement minerals can be made by notingthe anglethrough which the microscopestage has to be turned in order to cause the bars to leave the field. The system of for the two experiments. Or by experimenting be kept the same lenses must axial anglesa scale could be derived for a with various minerals with known certain microscope and system of lenses so that the axial angle of any other in this way. mineral could be approximatelymeasured A symmetrical interference figure also be obtained from a section cut may the obtuse axial angle is perpendicular to the obtuse bisectrix. In general, and the the interference than acute will differ figure angle considerably larger therefore in this respect from that obtained from the section cut perpendicular
to the acute

The

bisectrix.
to

which

obtained are fact that the the by

recognizethe biaxial interference figures characterized They are chiefly the bars field. This characteristic cross curve as they hyperbola from uniaxial eccentric in the which the an figure distinguishes figure is the section lines turned. in 587 bars of the cross as Fig. move straight in different positions the appearance shows in the row A a series illustrating
It is

important

be

able

to

from

inclined sections.

284

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

In inclined to the bisectrix. when the section is slightly of the figure and the axis to an optic the section is cut perpendicular a series where a pivot. In this case the bar bar revolves in the field as upon
687

row

B, hyperbola
curves

Eccentric

Biaxial Interference Figures

90" side toward the acute bisectrix. If the axial angle was with its convex and bisectrices the obtuse and acute there would be no distinction between indicates line. Therefore such a figure bar would then revolve as a straight of the bar the size of the axial angle. The of the curvature by the amount given by planescut nearlynormal to an opticaxis are often of great figures Sections which will furnish them examination of a mineral. in the optical use mineral that remain dark or those sections of the found are easily by noting between nicols. If the singlebar crossed rotation their nearly so during it indicates that the such decided exhibits in curvature shown a a figure inclined to the plane of the direction of the acute bisectrix is not very much section and consequently its character, whether X or Z, can be determined by notingthe character of that extinction direction which symmetricallybisects From the curve. this observation the positive or negative character of the mineral can be determined. In row C, Fig. 587, is shown a series of figures where the section has a still to the greaterinclination. A section cut parallel axial plane does not givea decisive interference figure. Often it is difficultto it from the figure obtained from a section cut parallel to the optic distinguish axis of a uniaxial mineral, Art. 392. It be should see pointedout that,while in generalthe interference figures classes are to be clearly of these two optical from each other,cases arise in which such differentiation distinguished may is difficult if not impossible. 408. Measurement of the Axial Angle. The determination of the angle made by the optic axes is most ment accuratelyaccomplishedby use of the instrushown in Fig.588. The section of the crystal, cut at rightangles to the is held in the pincers at p, with the plane of the axes bisectrix, and horizontal, of the nicols. There is a making an angle of 45" with the vibration-plane cross-wire in the focus of the eyepiece, and as the pincers holdingthe section turned by the screw are at the top (here omitted)one of the axes, that is, one black hyperbola, is brought in coincidence with the vertical cross-wire, and
"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

285

then, by
been

the second. The angle which the section has a further revolution, axis to the second, as read off at the vernier on the turned from one graduatedcircle above, is the apparent angle for the axes of the given crystal
688

Axial
as
seen
=

Angle Apparatus

on in the air (aca for, 2E, Fig.589). It is only the apparent angle, is axial more the or to the true from the section of the crystal angle passing air, The less increased, accordingto the refractive power of the given crystal. relation between the real interior angleand the measured angleis given below. If the axial angle is large, the axes may suffer total reflection. In this case some oil or liquid with a high refractive power will no is interposed so that the axes into but be reflected totally emerge longer the liquid and thence into the air. In the small receptacle instrument described a the holding the oil is brought between and the pincers tubes,as seen in the figure, in this holding the section are immersed

and the
acute

only the to practicable of Axial Angle Measurement when but sometimes, especially measure; is made oil (orother liquid) of,the obtuse angle can also be determined use
In the
cases

anglemeasured majority of axial angle that

as

before. it is

it is

from a second section normal to the obtuse bisectrix. 589), the apparent semi-acute axial angle in air (Fig. If E u " " in oil, Ha
=

"

Ho

"
=

"

Va

the

or (real

angle in oil, semi-acute angle, interior)

semi-obtuse

286 V0
=

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

semi-obtuse angle, the (real or interior) oil or other medium, for the index refractive n for the given crystallized index refractive substance, the mean |8 m entioned: the various connect quantities the followingsimplerelations
= =

Bin E

0 sin 7"; sin E

sin Ha; sin Va

^sin Ha;
(2F)
mean

sin V0
from

sin H0.

formulas give the true interior angle apparent anglein air (2E) or in oil (2H) when the is known.
These
"

the measured refractive index (0)

of with the Microscope. Approximate measurements Axial Angle Measured 409. with the microscope. In most cases some the axial angle may be made by various methods of this ocular is used which contains an engraved scale. By means sort of a micrometer be determined. of the optic axes can the points of emergence scale the distance between Mallard * showed that the distance of any point from the center of the interference figure the sine of the angle which the the same as observed in the microscope is very closely as the The Mallard equation of makes axis with the microscope. at this point ray emerging half the measK sin E, in which D equals one ured for the derivation of the axial angle is D which varies with the microscope the optic axes and K a constant distance between be determined K for a given set of lenses may by observing and the system of lenses used. axial angles and then derived from platesof minerals with known the interference figures angular values of the the values for D and E in the above equation. The substituting also be determined scale of the ocular may directly by the use divisions on the micrometer of an axial angle by means The measurement of an instrument known as the apertometer. of of the microscope is naturallymost easilyaccomplished when the points of emergence both opticaxes are visible in the field. It is possible, however, by various ingeniousmethods its value when plicated only one optic axis is in view. These methods are too comto determine and too seldom used to be explained here and the reader is referred to the text for their details, of petrographicinvestigationbooks on the methods f
=

Mineral of a Biaxial Optical Character If the section of the Quartz Wedge. and then the quartz is in the 45" position is turned until its interference figure the above 45" section in the the slot inserted through microscopetube wedge the vibration directions of the section along a line that joins the optical axes and a line at rightanglesto this through the center of the figure will be parallel to the vibration directions of the quartz-wedge. Under these circumstances the effect of the introduction of the quartz wedge will be to gradually increase or diminish alongthese lines the birefringence due to the section alone. 410. Determination of the from Its Interference

Figure.

Use

"

If the directions of vibration of the faster and slower rays in the quartz coincide with the vibration directions of the similar rays in the section, the total

will be increased and the effect upon the interference figure will birefringence be as ifthe section had been thickened. Complete interference will take place and the colored curves with rays of less obliquity will be drawn closer together. They will move, as the quartz wedge is pushed in over the section, as indicated shown in Fig. 590. On the other hand, ifthe quartz wedge is so by the arrows orientation is opposed to that of the section, placed that its optical the effect will be the same if the section was as The thinned. colored being gradually the of about the will until rings points opticaxes ter expand they meet in the cenas a figure The eight and then grow outwards as a continuous curve. directions of their movements shown by the arrows are in Fig. 591. fore, Thereorientation of the quartz-wedge and noting the by knowing the optical
Bull. Soc. Min., 6, 7787, 1882. t See especially of Petrographic Microscopic Research, and Wright, The Methods Johannsen,Manual of Petrographic Methods.
*

288
411.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

'

of Biaxial Crystals. Pleochroism. Absorption Phenomena show different degrees uniaxial similar like crystals may Colored biaxial crystals them depending the of passingthrough upon kinds of absorption light or there may be three the direction of vibration of the light. In biaxial crystals correspondingto three different directions of different degreesof absorption In general, these directions coincide vibration lyingat rightanglesto each other. Z. Variations from this parallelism directions X, F, and with the optical of the monoclinic and triclinic be observed, however, in crystals may the absorption as it is observed describe to is It however, customary, systems. If Z. to and parallel directions the vibrating light t o X, Y, parallel to Z is the least absorbed parallel X is the most absorbed and light vibrating There are various other possibilities, " Y " Z. these facts are expressedasX the kind to X etc. Z " " such as X " Y F, Further,according Z, for d ifferent colors show t he distinctly of selective absorption, crystal may in show the different or general pleochr9ism. directions, lightvibratingin of the pleochroismis stated by giving the colors corresponding The character For instance, in the case of to X, F, and Z. to the vibrations parallel Z to X yellow-green. In order lightblue, deep blue, F riebeckite, of a biaxial crystal at (least two sections the absorption properties investigate Z. These secbe obtained in which will lie the directions X, F, and tions must or examined the stage of the polariscope on microscope without the are variations nicol. They will show as they are rotated upon the stage, upper to in absorption and in color as the light passing through them vibrates parallel
"

firstone and then the other of their vibration directions. Art. 393. of dichroism in uniaxial minerals,

See the discussion

When to an optic axis of a crystalcharacterized by a high degree a section cut normal of color-absorption is examined verging by the eye alone (or with the microscope) in strongly conit often shows the so-called epoptic or light, figures, polarization-brushes, houppes This is true of andalusite, somewhat resemblingthe ordinary axial interference-figures. held close to the also tourmaline,etc. A cleavagesection of epidote ||c(001) iolite, epidote, here brown on a eye and looked through to a bright sky shows the polarization-brushes, absorbed as it passes caused by the lightbeing differently are ground. These figures green through the section with different degrees of inclination. In certain minerals small circular or elliptical spots may be observed in which the pleochroism is stronger than in the surrounding mineral. These are commonly spoken of as halos. other mineral. pleochroic They are found to surround minute inclusions of some There have been many diverse theories to account for these ''halos" but recently it has been shown that they are probably due to some radioactive property of the inclosed crystal. Pleochroic halos have been observed in biotite, iolite, andalusite, hornblende, pyroxene, tourmaline,etc.,while the included crystals belong to allanite, rutile, titanite, zircon,apatite,
etc.

Characters of Orthorhombic SpecialOptical

"

Crystals

412. Position of the Ether-axis. In the ORTHORHOMBIC in SYSTEM, accordance with the symmetry of the crystallization, the three axes of the that is, the directions X, F, and Z, coincide with the three crystalindicatrix, lographic axial planes of symmetry correspond axes, and the three crystallographic to the planesof symmetry of the ellipsoid. there Further than this, is no immediate relation between the two sets of axes in respect to magnitude, for the reason that, as has been stated,the choice of the crystallographic is arbitrary axes so far as relative lengthand are and hence position concerned, made, in most cases, without reference to the optical character. Sections of an orthorhombic to a pinacoidplane (a(100), crystalparallel 6(010), dark or c(001)) between crossed nicols, when the axial directions appear

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

289

show

coincide with the vibration-planes of the nicols; in other words, such sections extinction. parallel The same is true of all sections that are parallel to one of the three
crys-

sections lyingin the prism, tallographic axes, i.e., macrodome and brachydome zones. Sections,however, that are inclined to all three crystallographic will show inclined extinction. pyramidal sections, axes, i.e., 413. Determination of the Plane of the Optic Axes. The plane of the optic axes, that is, the plane including the directions X and Z, must be to one of the three pinacoids. Further,the acute bisectrix must parallel be normal to one of the two pinacoids that are at rightanglesto the opticaxial plane while the obtuse bisectrix is normal to the other such pinacoid. The the relation between the principal optical orientation, i.e., and crystaloptical lographic be easily determined can directions, by the examination of sections of a crystal which are cut parallel to the three pinacoids. To illustrate by it an let be assumed that such sections of the mineral aragonite example, are available. These are represented in Fig. 592, A, B, and C. If the relative
"

6 axis

Optical

Orientation

of

Aragonite

it will be characters of the vibration directions of each section are determined to the c axis in sections parallel found that lightvibrating to (100) parallel with t hat the ing vibratand (010)is in both cases moving light greatervelocity, is in both in 6 and axis the slower to the cases (001) (100) parallel ray, and axis is the the faster in but the slower that light to a (001) vibrating parallel ray it the is that axis must coincide with From this the tion direcin seen a (010). ray be the same of vibration of the ray having the intermediate velocity, or X and b axis Z. direction Y. Also it follows that c axis the optical as X it include and lies since The opticaxial plane, must to Z, parallel therefore, and examined in t o sections If the (010)are convergent parallel (001) (100). with the pointsof emergence both will show biaxial interference figures light The axial angle of the opticaxes lyingas illustrated in B and C, Fig. 592. than that obtained is smaller much to observed with the section parallel (001) bisectrix is normal to the base (001) from (010). Consequently the acute facts X the mineral is These and since it is the direction negative. optically in summarized the be statements: orientation may of optical optically ,
= =
"

Bxa.1 Ax.pl. ||a(100),

c(001).

290
414.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

in Orthorhombic Crystals. In the Optic Axes the of means refraction of prism method a crystal by determining the indices of the refracted ray white is of incident the light ray it is to be noted that when its into primary colors. The dispersed show this white light will in general substances in certain but becomes small is usually of this dispersion amount varies in this way considerable. Obviously since the angle of refraction of refraction will also vary. the indices of light different wave-lengths the with the opticaxial angleis directly dependent In biaxial minerals,as alreadystated, and y. three indices of refraction, the 0, of values relative a, the upon the considerable differences, depending show upon indices As these may it refracted the follows of wave-length ray, axial anglewill also vary with that the optic In other words, used. the color of the light

Dispersionof

"

the

optic axes

may

be

dispersed. Fig. 593

in which the angle represents such a case for red light is between the optic axes The blue. opposite greater than that for condition may hold,in which the angle for From this it blue is greater than for red. follows that the interference figure when observed in blue lightwill not exactly coincide with that produced by rod light. The will be the bisectrices of both figures but the position of the pointswhere same will be different and the opticaxes emerge the positionsof the hyperconsequently bolas will also be and lemniscate curves Ditpemoo orthorhombic of orthorhombic different. In the case will always be symmetrical to the two the dispersion symmetry crystals the directions i.e., planesof the indicatrix that pass through the acute bisectrix, and N-N M-M 594 595 in Figs. 594 and 595. A A This particular type of is said to be dispersion Orthorhombic sion, Disperin order to distinguish served it from that obin biaxial crystals of other systems. The two possible cases N of orthorhombic sion dispershown in Figs. are 594 and 595. In expressing Orthorhombic Dispersion these two cases the Greek letters p (for for red used. When the axes are red) and v (for violet) than those for blue that fact is expressed as p " v lightare more dispersed in the reverse it is p " v. or case In the majorityof cases the effect produced upon the interference figure the is o f the be noted. In exceptional too to dispersion by opticaxes slight the where of amount i s effects The cases the dispersion large seen. are clearly which are black throughout,will, when the figure hyperbolabars, ordinarily

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

291

be seen, near the center, is observed in white light, to be bordered on one side and the other red blue on a The one. firstone fringe by by a two of the or colored lemniscates will also be broadened out along the line joining the two As already stated these changes in the of the figure opticaxes. appearance will always be symmetricalin respectto the traces of the two symmetry planes
596 597

'Blue

-Red

Orthorhombic

Dispersion

lyingat rightanglesto each other. In the case, Fig.594, where the axes for red light farther apart than those for blue (p " v), are the hyperbolasin the interference figure for the two different wave-lengths will not coincide of light and the ones where the red light is extinguished will be farther out than those for blue light. When red light is taken out of the white light, blue remains,
blue is subtracted the resultant color is red. quently Consethe hyperbola bars will be bordered on their concave sides sides by red,Fig.596. In the other case, where by blue and on their convex their concave sides by red and on on p " v, the hyperbolas will be bordered their convex sides by blue,Fig.597. In other words, if blue light shows at the red it that has been eliminated these means from larger angle light positions and the opticaxes for red are more than those for blue, etc. dispersed
in this
case

and

conversely when

Characters of Monoclinic SpecialOptical 415.

Crystals
"

stals there is one

of Monoclinic Crystals. In monoclinic crysaxis of symmetry, the b crystallographic and one axis, plane of symmetry, the plane of the a and c crystallographic These are the axes. elements that are definitely fixed in position. One of only crystallographic the three chief optical coincident with the 6 crystalX, Y, or Z, is directions, lographic while the other two lie in the symmetry plane,(010), but not axis, to any cases. parallel crystaldirection. There are obviouslythree possible If Y coincides with the axis b (and this is apparentlythe most common case) the directions X and Z will liein the crystal which therefore symmetry plane, becomes the opticaxial plane. If X or Z coincides with the" 6 axis the optic axial planewill be at rightangles trix to (010)and either the acute or obtuse bisec-willbe normal of a monoclinic crystal to that plane. This clino-pinacoid is usuallythe best plane upon orientation. which to study its optical Fig. 598 represents such a section cleaved from an of gypsum. ordinarycrystal The cleavagesparallel to give its crystalloto (100) and (111) will serve graphic orientation. Examination of the section in convergent light fails to show a distinct interference figure, that the consequentlyit is to be assumed section itselfis parallel to the opticaxial plane and that the direction Y is

OpticalOrientation

292 normal
to the

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the section is rotated on the microscope stage directions are seen to be inclined to the extinction crossed nicols its between of inclination the being measured axis, angle direction of the c crystallographic extinction the directions two be of can as 52J". The relative character of the the determined use quartz wedge by easily 598 of X and Z established. In and so the position the orientation of the X, Y and Z this way It is also posbe determined. directions can sible this section to determine from whether to (111) or the mineral is optically positive negative. If the section is viewed in convergent lighta somewhat is interference observed. figure vague its position of the section is turned from When that faint dark extinction it will be noted of the field. out hyperbolas rapidly move Careful observation will show that they disappear (100) than into more slowly into one set of -quadrants The line bisecting the the other. opposite the into which bars hyperbola quadrants of is direction the the more slowly disappear bisectrix. The X or Z character of this acute and from this the direction can be determined In or negativecharacter of the mineral. positive section of similar the a clino-pinacoid crystals way Optical Orientation of Gypsum classes would belongingto the two other possible orientations. yielddata concerningtheir optical 416. Extinction in Monoclinic Crystals. Since only one of the three coincides with or Z, of a monoclinic crystal optical directions, principal X, F, that only secthe it follows axis a crystallographic tions 6, axis, namely symmetry that are sections to this axis, 599 parallel i.e., in the orthodome will show parallel zone, All extinction. other sections will exhibit inclined extinction. 417. Dispersionin Monoclinic Crystals. As previouslystated there are three possible orientations of a monoclinic crystal. In optical the first case the vibration direction Y coincides with that of the symmetry axis 6 and the optic axial plane coincides with the symmetry plane (010). In the other cases either the vibration direction X Z coincides with the crystalor lographic axis b and the optic axial plane is at right angles to "the crystallographic symmetry these conditions either the acute plane. Under obtuse bisectrix may or coincide with the axis b. Each of these three possibilities produce a may different kind of dispersion.It should be emphasized that the phenomenon of dispersion is seldom to be clearly observed and then commonly Inclined Dispersion only in unusually thick mineral sections. Case 1. Inclined Dispersion. Inclined dispersion is observed in the case

section. When

"

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

293

where the direction Y coincides with the axis 6. This is illustrated in Fig.599. not In this case the axial angles vary for lightof different only may bisectrices of these anglesmay lie along different lines. wave-lengthsbut -the
600 601

Red

Inclined

Dispersion, p=*v

In Fig. and the bisectrices may be dispersed. is greater than for red light 599 with p " v the anglebetween the opticaxes because of the that But for blue. 602 it bisectrices follows of the dispersion that on one side the pointof emergence liesbeyond of the opticaxis for red light while the other side that for blue, on reversed. Also the the conditions are blue will be for red and optic axes side of the interference farther apart on one figurethan on the other side. ence the interferWith this sort of dispersion will be symmetrical only in figure all Colon respect to the line which is the trace axial plane, the section of the optic upon is but unsymmetricalto J N-N, Fig.600, M-M. to it, the line at rightangles is shown in the Inclined dispersion fact that the the interference figure by colored borders to the hyperbola bars if blue reversed in the two cases, i.e., are side of one, red will is on the concave side of the other. be on the concave Dispersion Horizontal shown of dispersion tho amount Further, bar than with the other. is much Fig.601 representsa greater with one

both the optical axes So, here,

of inclined dispersion. axis b the crystallographic Case 2. Horizontal Dispersion. In this case be either the X or Z direction, coincides with the obtuse bisectrix which may is optically ter. or negativein characpositive depending upon whether the crystal of all In this case the direction of the obtuse bisectrix is fixed for light and the further the between The axes optic angle vary may wave-lengths. itliesin the bisectrix o f the as as crystallographic acute long vary position may see symmetry plane. In other words, the axial planes may be dispersed, blue and of for the when " of emergence opticaxes, p v, Fig.602. The points red light, might therefore be like that shown in Fig.603. It will be noted that of course from a section approxin this case the interference figure (obtained
case

294

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

to the imatelyperpendicular but in unsymmetrical

acute

is symmetrical to the line M-M bisectrix)

respect to the line N-N.

the interference
603

horizontal

dispersion upon

Fig. 604 shows figure.

604

the effect of

Axis for Red

"p

Axis

for Blue

"P

Horizontal

Dispersion. p"v

Case

3.

Crossed
605,

ion.

In

the crystallographic axis b this case the acute coincides with bisectrix, be either the X or Z direcwhich may tion acter chardepending upon the optical of the crystal. In this case the direction of the acute bisectrix is fixed for light of all wave-lengths. The

Red

anglebetween
and

the

opticaxes

may

vary

all Colors

Blue

Crossed

Dispersion

the

effect of crossed

dispersion upon
606

further the position of the axial planes for different wave-lengthsmay ular vary as long as they remain perpendicto the crystallographic symmetry of this sort is shown plane. A case in Fig. 605. The gence points of emerof the optic when p " v for axes blue and red lightmight therefore be like that shown in Fig.606. It will be that in this is symthe figure seen case metrical to neither the line M-M nor N-N but only to the central point of the figure, the point of emergence i.e., of the acute bisectrix. Fig.607 shows the interference figure.
607

Crossed

Dispersion p"v

296

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

the relative character of the two vibration directions of d. Determine to which as responds corthe two extinction directions), the section (i.e., Test slower be to the to which faster and to the ray. 348. Art. sensitive see tint, made with quartz wedge or Find the grainshowing the highestorder of interference color and e. fringence. so approximately determine the strengthof the mineral's birerefractive indices determine as indices refractive shown of the accurately range in connection with tests be possible It may by the mineral. the values for certain of the prinunder 3 to determine made refractive indices. cipal with crossed nicols. 3. Observations in convergent polarized light and if so interference figure, the mineral shows an Note whether a.

/. By

immersion

in oils of known

as

the possible

whether 6. If mineral

c.

biaxial. or of the optic axis in is uniaxial determine the position determine respectto the plane of the given section and if possible character of the mineral. the positive or negative of the axial plane in If the mineral is biaxial determine the position the positive if the section. to or Determine, possible, respect if of mineral. character the an Obtain, possible, imate approxnegative idea as to the size of the axial angle. Note any evidences
it is uniaxial

dispersion. to keep,as far as possible, making the above tests it is helpful that in Fig.592. like illustrated record of the results, a graphic something The Characters. 422. Effect of Heat general effects of Optical upon of later. It is conheat upon are venient, as regards expansion, spoken etc., crystals the changes produced by this however, to consider here, briefly, in the special It is assumed that no alteration of characters. means optical the chemical compositiontakes place and no abnormal change in molecular In general, structure. the effect of a temperature change causes a change in the refractive indices. In the majority of cases the indices decrease in
Note.
"

of

In

"

value with rise of temperature but in certain cases is consequentlyimportant in any exact statement

the
of
a

reverse

determined. The give the temperature at which it was the different optical classes are as follows : remain isotropic at all temperatures. however, (1) Isotropic crystals Crystals, which, like sodium chlorate (NaClO3 of Class 5, p. 72),show circular have their rotatory power in this substance it is inpolarization creased altered; may by rise of temperature. remain uniaxial with rise or fall of tempera(2) Uniaxial crystals similarly ture; the only change noted is a variation in the relative values of co and e, that in the strength of the double refraction. This increases, is, for example, with calcite and grows weaker with beryland quartz. It is, to further, interesting
note that the rotatory power of quartz increases with rise of temperature, but the relation for all parts of the spectrum remains sensibly the same. the effect of change of temperature varies with (3) With Biaxial crystals, the system to which they belong. The axial angle of biaxial crystals be measured at any required temperature by the may of a metal air-bath. This is placed at P (Fig.588) and extends beyond the instrument either side, to allow of its being heated with gas-burners; so as inserted a thermometer

is true. It refractive index to facts for particular

use on

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

297

in the bath makes it possible to regulatethe temperature as may be desired. This bath has two openings, closed with glassplates, correspondingto the two tubes carrying the lenses, held as usual in the pincers, and the crystal-section, is seen through these glasswindows. Suitable accessories to the refractometer also allow of the measurement of the refractive indices at different temperatures.

of orthorhombic crystals, the position of the three rectangular since must coincide with the crystalloalter, they always The values of the refractive axes. graphic indices, however, may change,and hence with them also the opticaxial angle; indeed a change of axial plane or of the optical character is thus possible. With monodinic ether-axis must coincide at all temperatures one crystals, with the axis of symmetry, but the position of the other two in the plane of and this, with the possible symmetry may alter, change in the value of the "refractive indices, cause a variation in the degree(orkind) of dispersion as may well as in the axial angle. With tricliniccrystals, both the positions of the ether-axes and the values of the refractive indices may The observed characters may change. optical therefore vary widely.
case

In the ether-axes

cannot

strikingexample of the change of optical characters with change of temperature is At ordinary temperatures, the as by gypsum, investigatedby Des Cloizeaux. is inclined, the optic axial plane is || 95". As the temperature dispersion 6(010)and 2Er rises this anglediminishes; 0. thus,at 47",2Er 76"; at 95",2Er 39"; and at 116",2Er At this last temperature the axes for blue rays have already separated in a plane _1_6(010); for red rays also separate in this plane (_L 6) and the dispersion at 120" the axes becomes horizontal. red axis is more The motion toward the center of one rapid than that of the 33" 55' while the other moves other,namely, between 20" and 95",one axis moves only 22" 38'; thus Bxr moves 5" 38'. Another interesting is that of glauberite. Its optical characters under normal concase ditions described as follows: Optically Ax. pi.J_ 6(010),Bxa.r A c axis are "31" 3', -30" 46',Bxa.bi A c axis -30" 10'. The optical character (-) and Bxa.y A c axis of elasticity the positionof the axes remain sensiblyconstant between 0" and 100". The and v " p becomes ax. rise of pi., however, at first _l_ 6(010) with horizontal dispersion on and v " p. The axial angle accordingly diminishes temperature 1 16 with inclined dispersion to 0" at a temperature depending upon the wave-length and then increases in the new the interference-figures abnormal and change with plane. In white light, are therefore,
furnished
= = = =
"

rise in temperature. Des Cloizeaux found that the feldspars, when heated up to a certain point, suffer a change in the positionof the axes, and if the heat becomes greater and is long continued but remain altered. they do not return again to their original position,

referred to, itis to be noted that when elevation with change of chemical compositionwide characters are possible. This is illustrated by the zeolites changes in optical and related species, where the effect of loss of water has been particularly ular bringabout a change of moleccharacters. For ple, examoptical the greenish-yellow orthorhombic of antimony iodide (artificial) crystals on (SbI3) heating (toabout 114")change to red uniaxial hexagonal crystals. also Note the remarks made later in regard to the effect of heat upon leucite and boracite (Art. 429).
some

In addition to the typical cases of temperature is connected

investigated. with Further,

structure

heat crystals,
a

and with that

total

to change of
serves

423.

Some

Peculiarities

in Axial

Interference-figures.*
"

In the
one

case

of uniaxial crystals,

the characteristic interference-figure varies but

from little

speciesto another, such spoken

* embraced Variations in the axial figures of later (Art.429).

under

the head .of anomalies optical

are

298
variation
as

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

fringence. being usuallydue 19 the thickness of the section and the birethe interferenceFor noted. example, are In some cases, however, peculiarities is very since its birefringence weak, and it may is somewhat peculiar, of apophyllite figure other. for the and the of negative for spectrum one be optically part positive The followingare some common. more are of biaxial crystals, In the case peculiarities is observed

typicalexamples: ever, Brookite is optically + and the acute bisectrix is always normal to a (100). While, howit monly com2ET with is 30", for and 55", 2EV red is axial yellow, the c(001) plane || Hence 34". 1a(100) in the conoa section 1 6(010)for green and blue,with 2Egr || but with four sets of somewhat resembling that of a uniaxial crystal shows a figure scope
= = =

bands. hyperbolic the

of with colored hyperbolas because also gives a peculiarinterference-figure 2E for red and between lightbeing green high color-dispersion, p " v, the variation of the bisectrices is,however, very small. approximately 10"; the dispersion afforded by twin crystals(Art.425). of peculiar axial figures are The most striking cases

Titanite

of OpticalPropertiesto Chemical Composition. characters has the optical effect of varying chemical compositionupon and series of isomorphous salts, minutely studied in the case of many of the indeed, only a part of the generalsubject important results. It is,
424. Relation
"

The been with tion relaand

between

chemical
Art. 322.

form and molecular structure on crystalline the other,one on part of which has composition
can

the

one

hand

been

It was shown there that the refractive index calculated from the chemical composition.

discussed in often be approximately

Among minerals,the most important examples of the relation between composition and optical characters are afforded by the triclinic feldspars of the albite-anorthite series. part of this work, the relation is so close Here, as explained in detail in the descriptive be preof this isomorphous group can that the composition of any intermediate member dicted from the positionof its ether-axes, or more simply from the vibration directions on the fundamental cleavage-directions, 6(010). c(001) and || || of the The effect of varying amounts of iron protoxide (FeO) is illustrated in the case monoclinic pyroxenes, where, for example, the angle Bxa A c axis is 38" in diopside (2'9 related This is also shown in the closely p. c. FeO) and 47" in hedenbergite (26 p. c. FeO). of the same orthorhombic and hypersthene, species MgSiOs with littleiron, group, enstatite, (Mg,Fe)SiO3 with iron to nearly 30 p. c. With both of these speciesthe axial plane is to 6(010),but the former is optically parallel + (Bxa Z) and the dispersionp " v, the latter is optically (Bxa In other words,the optic axial angle A^) and dispersion v. p " In the case 10 p. c. changes rapidly with the FeO percentage, being about 90" for FeO of the chrysolites, the species and others, the epidotes, and lithiophilite, analogous triphylite
=
"

relations have

been

made

out."

425.

of twin
serves

of sections Optical Propertiesof Twin Crystals. The examination of any other than the isometric system in polarized crystals light to establish the compound character at once a'nd also to show the

relative orientation of the several parts. This is most distinct in the case of but is also well shown with penetration-twins, here the contact-twins, though parts are usually not separated by a sharp line. Thus the examination of a section parallel of to 6(010)of a twin crystal of the of type gypsum, Fig.608, makes it easy not only to establish the fact of the twinning but also to fix the relative positions of the ether-axes in the two parts. The measurement in such cases be made between the extinction-directi can in the two halves, instead of between of these and some one definite crystallographic the vertical axis. as line,
the triclinic feldspars, with as species, appears of a section of albite, case parallel to the basal cleavage, the alternate bands extinguishtogether and assume the same tint when the quartz section is inserted. Hence these directions is easily the angle between measured, and this is obviously double the extinction-angle made with the edge 6(010) A c(001). A basal section of microcline in the same shows its compound twinning way The

polysynthetic twinning

of certain

great distinctness in polarized light. For example, in the

CHAEACTERS

DEPENDING.

UPON

LIGHT

299

according to both the albite and pericline laws,the characteristicgrating structure being revealed in polarized clearly light. Fig.609 of a section of chondrodite (from Des Cloizeaux) shows how the compound structure is shown by opticalexamination; the positionof the
609

001

lamellae. The complex plane is indicated in the case of the successive polysynthetic of right-and left-handed crystals of quartz (seethe description of that penetration-twins revealed in polarizedlight. species)also have their character strikingly axial 610 612

Witherite

Bromlite

(Des Cloizeaux)

Still again, the true structure of complex multipletwins, exhibiting pseudo-symmetry in their external form, can This is illustrated by Fig. only be fullymade out in this way. 610, a basal section of an apparent hexagonal pyramid of witherite. The analogous six613

614

615

Stilbite

(Lasaulx)

612.

sided pyramid of bromlite (Fig.611) has a stillmore complex structure, as shown in Fig. Fig. 613 shows a simple crystalof stilbite; Fig. 614 is the common type of twinand Fig. is revealed in polarized 615 illustrates how the complex structure crystal, (||6010)

300
light. Other

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

that the axial It will be understood illustrations are given in Art. 429. show often the superposed, many are where parts of twin crystals, interference-figures illustration. will serve an as 270) o f (p. quartz the spirals Airy peculiarities;

discussed in the interesting case, related to the subject particularly of cleavageof superposed that the is properties special article, preceding be superof of form, rectangular If posed more these, three or say sections of mica. of make the axial of lines angles equal planes and so placed that the has which is the that passed effect light polarized with each other 60" (45", etc.) with a rotation to right or through the center suffers circular polarization, The ference-fig interbuilt up. in which the sections are left accordingto the way
426. A

resembles that of a section of quartz cut normal to the axis. and very thin the imitation of the phenomena If the sections are numerous ular lightupon the ultimate molecof quartz is closer. These facts throw much ther, Furcircular medium of polarization. showing a structure crystallized in sections to have how it is understand to from this possible is it easy which are biaxial and others of clinochlore) portions of certain crystals (e.g., intimate to due latter an the twinning after this being that are uniaxial, method of biaxial

portions.
"

The special opticalphenomena of 427. Aggregates. OpticalPropertiesof Crystalline the different kinds of crystalline aggregates described on pp. 182, 183, and the extent to in the the distinctness be determined, depend upon characters can which their optical of The orientation. individuals relative and their case ordinary of the lar, granudevelopment columnar Where, however, the or aggregates needs no specialdiscussion. fibrous, to do more grainsare extremely small,the microscope may hardly serve doubly refracting than to show the aggregate polarization present. in form and that is, A case of special interest is that of spherulites, aggregates spherical various chlorites, with calcite, radiated or concentric in structure; such aggregates occur of a doubly refractingcrystalline If they are formed etc. mineral, or of an feldspars, characters due to internal tension,they commonly amorphous substance which has birefringent in the microscope between this cross, as crossed nicols;further, exhibit a dark cross backward. to rotate the section is revolved on the stage, though actuallystationary, seems A distinct and more specialcase is that of sphericalaggregates of a mineral optically in parallel Sections of these (not central) uniaxial (orbiaxial with a small angle) polarized of a uniaxial crystal. The less distinctly the interference-figure or lightshow more tive objecbe focussed on a point a littleremoved from the section itself, must say on the surface of the sphere of which it is a part. In such cases the + or character of the double usual. refraction can be determined as 428. Induced As the difference between Change of Optical Character by Pressure. the optical phenomena exhibited by an isometric crystalon the one hand and a uniaxial or the other is referred to a difference in molecular structure modifying the biaxial crystal on of the ether,it would be inferred that if an amorphous substance were properties subjected to conditions tending to develop an it would analogous difference in its molecular structure also show doubly refracting properties. This is found to be the case. Glass which has been suddenly cooled from a state of fusion,and which is therefore characterized by strong internal tension,usually shows marked double refraction. Further,glassplatessubjected to great mechanical in pressure direction show in polarizedlightmore one less distinct interference-curves. Gelatine or exhibit like phenomena. sections, also,under pressure Even the strain in a glass block developed under the influence of unlike charges of electricity of great difference of potential its opposite sides is sufficient to make on it doubly refracting. In an analogous manner the double refraction of a crystal be changed by the application may of mechanical force. Pressure exerted normal to the vertical axis of a section of a tetragonalor hexagonal crystalwhich has been cut _L c axis,changes the uniaxial interference-figur into a biaxial, and with substances optically the plane of the optic positive, and with negative substances normal, to the direction of is parallel, axes pressure. The o.uartz crystals in rocks, which have been subjected to great often are pressure, found to be in an abnormal state of tension, showing an undulatory extinction in polarized
. "
"

light.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

LIGHT

301

Since the earlyinvestigations of Brewster, others (1815 et seq.)it has been recognized that many crystals in harmony with the apparent which not exhibit opticalphenomena are of their external form. isometric species, Crystalsof many symmetry as less pronounced or analcite, alum, boracite, garnet, etc., often show more and sometimes double refraction, uniaxial or biaxial. A they are distinctly in parallel section examined less sharply or polarized lightmay show more bands or lamellae with varying denned or parallel doubly refracting areas, extinction. as noted by Klein in the case of garnet,while most Occasionally, others show optical characters which seem are normally isotropic, to crystals be determined by the external bounding faces and edges;thus, a dodecahedron to be made whose apices pyramids (biaxial) up of twelve rhombic appear may the hexoctahedron to made be at seem are similarly center; a may up of forty429.

OpticalAn6malies.

"

Herschel,and

pyramids, etc. eighttriangular of many common or tetragonal hexagonal species, Similarly, crystals as ence-figures corundum, chabazite, beryl,apatite, vesuvianite, zircon, etc.,give interferdictions resembling those of biaxial crystals. Also, analogous contrabetween form and optical characters are noted with crystalsof and monoclinic orthorhombic species, etc. e.g., topaz, natrolite, orthoclase,
All such as those a nomalies. optical
cases

mentioned

are

embraced

under

the

common

term

of

in recent investigators subjecthas been minutely studied by many have to been made it additions both the and and on practical important years is The result doubtful side. theoretical still the that, though cases remain, have found a satisfactory of the typical ones explanation. No single many applied. theory,however, can be universally the anomalies The chief question involved has been whether to be are whether considered as secondary and non-essential, or they belong to the in question. On the one of the crystals inherent molecular structure hand, it has been urged that internal tension suffices (Art.428) to call out double substance or to give a uniaxial crystalthe typical refraction in an isotropic biaxial of structure a crystal. On the other hand, it is equallyclear optical that twinning often produces pseudo-symmetry in external form, and at the the simplest characters. From time conceals or changes the optical same case, witherite that of aragonite, we as complex cases, as (Fig. 610), pass to more bromlite (Figs. times (Figs. 400, 452-454), which last is some611, 612),phillipsite in form though optical study shows the monoclinic pseudo-isometric character of the individuals.* Reasoning from the analogy of these last cases, anomalies could in most Mallard was led (1876)to the theory that the optical intimate be explainedby the assumption of a similar but stillmore cases unite this without would to themselves form which of molecules tals crysgrouping of a lower grade of symmetry than that which their complex twinned
This

simulate. crystals actually In regard to the two probable that points of view mentioned, it seems of sudden or internal tension (due to pressure, rapidity growth, etc.) cooling, character of many be safely can appealed to to explainthe anomalous optical has been fully it as proved beryl, quartz,etc. Again, diamond, halite, species, that the later growth of isomorphous layers of varying composition may

Crystalsshowing pseudo-symmetry of highlycomplex type

are

called mimetic

crystals

by

Tschermak.

302

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

anomalies, probably here also to be referred to tension. Alum produce optical of this species were earlyinvestigated is a striking example. The peculiarities of lamellar of his the basis polarization," him theory by Biot and made by 616 the true one. doubtless Brauns) is Fig. (from but the present explanation in from section a of || 0(111) in a crystal the appearance light polarized shows to Further, have different according composition. which the successive layers be referred to this other species of many may peculiarities Brauns, the optical with those some cases garnets) (as He includes here,particularly, cause. same the external to form, as characters seem depend upon in which the optical (from Golden, a section of which Here belongs also apophyllite, noted above. The section has been cut || c(001) Col.,by Klein) is shown in Fig. 617.
"

616

617

618

111 Alum, ||

001 || Apophyllite,

100 Leucite, ||

it appears in parallel and is represented as through the center of the crystal light. polarized Another quite distinct but most important class is that includingspecies which are such as boracite and leucite, dimorphous; that is,those species which at a certain elevation of temperature (300"for boracite and 500" to 600" these species for leucite) become strictly isotropic.Under ordinaryconditions, their but the fact stated makes it probable that originally are anisotropic, form and optical in harmony. The relations for characters were crystalline leucite deserve to be more minutely stated.
feeble double refraction: to 1'509. This Leucite usually shows 1'508, e very double refraction, anomalous early noted (Brewster,Biot),was variouslyexplained. In 1873, Rath, on the basis of careful measurements, referred the seemingly isometric crystals to the tetragonal system, the trapezohedralface 112 being taken as 111 and 211, 121 as Later also 101, Oil Weisbach as 421, 241; respectively; (1880), on the 201, 021. same ground, made them orthorhombic; Mallard, however, referred them (1876), on chiefly opticalgrounds, to the monoclinic system, and Fouque and Levy (1879) to the triclinic. tend The true symmetry, corresponding to the molecular structure which they possess or to possess at ordinary temperatures, is in doubt, but it has been shown (Klein,Penfield) that at 500" to 600" sections become isotropic; and further (Rosenbusch) that the twinning striations disappear on heating,to reappear again in new positionon cooling. Sections show twinning-lamellae to what ordinarily cases a bisectrix (+) is normal d(110); in some |j the axial anglebeing very small. The structure correspondsin correspondsto a cubic face, of three crystals, in twinning position|| general (Klein) to the interpenetration d, which be equallyor unequally developed; or there may individual with be one fundamental may inclosed twinning-lamellse.Fig. 618 shows a section of a crystal(|| a, 100) which is apparently made up by the twinning of three individuals.
=
=

Still again,in a limited number of cases, it can be shown that -the interdifferent crystallographic growth of lamellae having slightly orientation is the of the opticalpeculiarities. cause Prehnite is a conspicuous example of this class.

304

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

ters characstructure; change in optical in their relation to crystalline especially the also or diathermancy, heat; of power with change temperature; specific and other related these discussion of The full radiation. heat of transmitting A few brief subjectslies outside of the range of the present text-book. be made reference must these to and made beyond remarks are them, upon of mentioned which are some to memoirs, text-books on Physics and special in the literature (p.305). 431. Fusibility. The
"

erals of different minapproximate relative fusibility from different in one species distinguishing is an important character is scale For this a conveniently another by means of the blowpipe. purpose in the articleslater devoted to the blowpipe. used for comparison, as explained and though of little of the fusibility are Accurate determinations difficult, point. from a theoretical standthey are interesting importancefor the above object, They have been attempted by various authors by the use of a number The of different methods. followingare the approximate melting-point 525" : KobelPs scale (Art.491): Stibnite, values for the minerals used in von 1296"; orthoclase,1200"; natrolite,965"; almandite, 1200"; actinolite, bronzite,1380"; also for quartz, about 1600". of different crystallized 432. Conductivity. The conducting power stance He the faces of the subcovered Senarmont. media was early investigated by the and form of under observed the w ith wax figure investigation with the surface at its middle point. melted by a hot wire placed in contact Later investigations have been made by Rontgen (who modified the method of In general itIs found that, as regards and others. Senarmont),by Jannettaz, to be into the three classes their thermal conductivity, divided are crystals noted on p. 252. In other words, the conductivity for heat seems to follow the same the of It laws as however, general propagation light. is to be stated, that experimentsby S. P. Thompson and 0. J. Lodge have shown a different in tourmaline rate of conductivity in the oppositedirections of the vertical
"

axis.

increase in volume rise of Expansion. Expansion, that is, upon temperature, is a nearly universal property for all solids. The increment of volume for the unit volume in passing from 0" to 1" C. is called the coefficient of expansion. This quantity has been determined for a number of species. Further, the relative expansion in different directions is found to obey the laws as the light-propagation. same as are Crystals, regardsheat-expansion,
"

433.

thus

in the

divided into the same three classes mentioned on p. 252 and referred to precedingarticle. The amount of expansion varies widely,and, as shown by Jannettaz,is influenced particularly the Mitscherlich found that in calcite by cleavage. there was of 8' 37" in the angleof the rhombohedron a diminution on passing from 0" to 100" C., the form thus approachingthat of a cube as the temperature increased. The rhombohedron of dolomite, for the same perature, range of temdiminishes 4' 46"; and in aragonite, for a rise in temperature from 21" to 100", the angleof the prism diminishes 2' 46". In some rhombohedrons, of calcite, the vertical axis is lengthened (and the horizontal shortened), as while in others, like quartz, the reverse is true. The variation is such in both that the birefringence cases is diminished with the increase of temperature, for calcite possesses and quartz, positive. negativedouble refraction, It is to be noted that in general the expansion by heat,while it may serve to alter the anglesof crystals, other than those of the isometric system, does

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

HEAT

305

alter the zone-relations and the crystalline In certain cases, symmetry. however, the effect of heat may be to give rise to twinning-lamellse (as in not

their disappearance(asin calcite).Rarely heat serves or to cause anhydrite) in Art. 429, boracite develop a new molecular structure;thus,as explained and leucite, which are anisotropic at ordinarytemperatures, become isotropic when heated,the former to 300" the latter to 500" or 600". The change in the optical of crystals properties produced by heat has already been noticed 422). (Art. 434. Determinations of the specific heat of many SpecificHeat. minerals have been made by Joly, by Oeberg,and others. Some of the results
to
"

reached

are

as

follows:
Joly 0'0541

Galena, cryst. Chalcopyrite Pyrite

Hematite

01271
01306 01683 01793

Garnet, red cryst.01780 Epidote

"

G'1877
"

435. Besides the slow molecular propagation of heat Diathermancy. in a body, measured there is also to be considered its thermal by conductivity, the rapid propagationof what is called radiant heat through it by the wavemotion of the ether which surrounds its molecules. This is merely a part of the generalsubjectof light-propagation since heatwaves, alreadyfullydiscussed, in the restricted sense, differ from light-waves only in their relatively exerted by the body is measured greater length The degreeof absorption by its diathermancy, which corresponds to transparency in light. In this sense and fluorite are highly diathermanous, since they absorb but halite, sylvite, littleof the heat-waves passingthrough them; on the other hand, gypsum and, stillmore, alum are comparativelyathermanous, since while transparent to the short light-waves they absorb the long heat-waves, transformingthe into sensible that of heat. of the diathermancy were Measurements energy made later by Tyndall,Langley,and others. early by Melloni,
*

LITERATURE Heat Mitscherlich.

F. E. Neumann. Ann. Senarmont.

191; 74, 190; 75.

Pogg. Ann., 1, 125, 1824; 10, 137, 1827. Pogg. Ann., 27, 240, 1833. Gypsum. Ch. Phys., 21, 457, 1847; 22, 179, 1848; also in Pogg. Ann., 73, 50, 482.
1852.

Angstrom.
Grailich Fizeau.

Pogg. Ann., 86, 206,

335, 1866;

and von Lang. Ber. Ak. Wien, 33, 369, 1858. Ann. Thermal expansion. C. R., 58, 923, 1864. also C. R., 1864-1867.

Ch. Phys., 2, 143, 1864; 8,

C. Neumann. Pogg. Ann., 114, 492, 1868. Pape. Thermic axes of blue vitriol. Wied. Ann., 1, 126, 1877. Rontgen. Pogg. Ann., 151, 603, 1874; Zs. Kr., 3, 17, 1878. Jannettaz. Conductivity of crystals. Bull. Soc. Geol., (3) 1, 117, 252; 2, 264; 3, 499; 4, 116, 554; 9, 196. Bull. Soc. Min., 1, 19, 1879. C. R., 1848, 114, 1352, 1892. O. J. Lodge. Thermal conductivity. Phil. Mag., 5, 110, 1878. Phil. Mag., 8, 18, S. P. Thompson and O. J. Lodge. Conductivity of tourmaline. 1879. Arzruni. H. Dufet.

Effect of heat

on

Beckenkamp. 191, 1881.

monoclinic Expansion'of Effect of heat

Zs. Kr., 1, 165, 1877. etc. refractive indices of barite, and tricliniccrystals.Zs. Kr., 5,436, 1881. Bull. Soc. Min., 4, 113, refractive indices of gypsum. on

306
A. Schrauf. L. Fletcher.

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

9, 433, 1884. Zs. Kr., 12, 321, 1887; TiO2, ibid., 1880. Zs. 337, of 4, Kr., crystals. Expansion Ch. News, 65, 1, 16, 1892, and Proc. Roy. Irish Joly. Meldometer. Proc. Roy. Soc.,41, 250, 352, 1887. heat. 1891. Specific

Sulphur.

Acad., 2, 38,
der Mineral-

X.

Oeberg.
Doelter.

f^.

kJfJV/V-'ll.lV-'AXV/C*V"
Ct

-1.

J.W.

-*.vv^
f^

Specific Specifn heat.

"

"

C.

""

For

methods m

Oefv. Ak. Stockh., No. 8, 43, 1885. see and results in fusing silicates,
e A 1

Ctj._-l_t_

TVT_

/IO

1OOC

Handbuch

chemie, 1, 628

et seq.

V.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING
AND
1.

UPON

ELECTRICITY

MAGNETISM
ELECTRICITY
"

The subject of the relative conducting Electrical Conductivity. erals, minor interest.* In generalmost minof is one power and luster the are metallic oxides, sulphides among except those having a show non-conductors can non-conductors. pyro-electrical ena, phenomOnly the and only the conductors can give a thermo-electric current. electrical charge Frictional Electricity. The development of an 437. electric is a familiar subject. All minerals become bodies by friction on many although the degree to which this is manifested differs widely. by friction, There is no line of distinction among dividingthem into positively minerals, be presentedby electric; for both electrical states may electric and negatively and by the same different varieties of the same varietyin different species,

436.

of different minerals

"

electric only when polished;the generalpositively It is not. or polished observed of amber upon friction was a familiar fact that the electrification early rise to the later gave (600 B. C.),and indeed the Greek name (^Xe/crpo*/) word electricity. 438. Pyro-electricity.The simultaneous and development of positive different parts of the same when its on crystal negativechargesof electricity changed is called pyro-electricity. Crystals exhibiting temperature is suitably such first This phenomenon was phenomena are said to be pyro-electric. of tourmaline, which is rhombohedral-hemimorphic in observed in the case and it is particularly marked with crystals crystallization, belongingto groups of relatively low symmetry, especially those of the hemimorphic type. It is of course, only with non-conductors. This subject tigated was possible, earlyinvesRiess and Rose later also C. K undt. by (1843), by Hankel, by Friedel, and others (seeliterature). In all cases it is true that directions of like crystallographic symmetry of like sign, show charges while unlike directions exhibit opposite charges. may Substances not crystallized cannot A few of the many show pyro-electricity. essential points. to bring out the most possible examples will serve Boracite (isometric-tetrahedral, on p. 66) on heatingexhibits + electricity set of tetrahedral faces and one the other. Cf. Fig. 619. on electricity Tourmaline (rhombohedral-hemimorphic, at charges p. 109)shows opposite the opposite extremities of the vertical axis corresponding to its hemimorphic In this and in other similar cases, the extremity which crystallization.
states.

The

gem"

are

in

whether electricity diamond, however, exhibits positive

"

"

On

the

of minerals, Jb. Min., Beil.-Bd., conductivity see Beijerinck, 11,403, 1898.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

ELECTRICITY

AND

MAGNETISM

307

becomes positive on heatinghas been called the analogous and that which pole, becomes negativehas been called the antilogous pole. Calamine and struvite (orthorhombic-hemimorphic, p. 126)exhibit phenomena analogousto those of tourmaline.

Quartz (rhombohedral-trapezohedral, p. 112) shows + electricity on heating

prismatic at the three remaining edges and electricity edges; the distribution for right-handedcrystalsis opposite to that of lefthanded. Twins may exhibit a high degreeof complexity. Cf. Figs. 620, 621. Axinite (triclinic, heated to 120" or 130",has an p. 144),when
"

at the three alternate

analogous

619

620

621

mr'M'
A the

pole (Riess" Rose) near plane n.

very

at the solid

anglerxM'; the antilogous pole at the angle

convenient and simple method for investigating the phenomena is to w hich is due Kundt: First heat section carethe or fully following, crystal it several times in an air-bath;pass through the flame of an alcohol of brass to cool. While lamp and then place it on a littleupright cylinder mixture of red lead and sulphur finely and previously a pulverized cooling, agitatedis dusted over it through a fine cloth from a suitable bellows. The electrifiedred lead collects on the parts having a negativecharge, positively electrifiedsulphuron those with a positive and the negatively charge. This is illustrated by Figs. 619-621, and still better by the illustrations given by Kundt and others. (Cf.Plate III of Groth, Phys. Kryst.,1905.) has been given to 439. Piezoelectricity. The name piezo-electricity This the development of electricalchargeson a crystallized body by pressure. of calcite, also by topaz. This phenomenon is is shown by a cleavage mass be established between the electrical where a relation can most interesting molecular is true with quartz, as excitement and the conspicuously structure, other species. tourmaline, and some This subject has been investigated by Hankel, Curie, and others, and Hankel has also discussed theoretically by Lord Kelvin (see literature). for the phenomenon employed the term actino-electricity ',or, better,photo-electricity, electrical condition by the influence of direct of producing an
"

fluorite is a conspicuousexample. radiation; 440. Thermo-electricity. The contact of two unlike metals in general of them positively and the other negatively. If, results in electrifying one further,the point of contact be heated while the other parts,connected with current of electricity shown, for example, a continuous are a wire, kept cool, of the heat-energy set at is the expense suitable galvanometer by a plied. supup is of the the other hand, point junction cooled,a current is set If,on direction. This phenomenon is called thermo-electricity up in the reverse
" " "

308 and two

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

metals so connected constitute a thermo-electric couple. Further it be arranged in order in a table that different conductors can a series so-called thermo-electric according to the direction of the current set of this current. force Among up on heating and according to the electromotive at ends of the the opposite the metals, bismuth (+) and antimony (") stand the current passes through the connectingwire from antimony to series;
is found
"
"

bismuth. it was shown by Bunsen is so far importantfor mineralogy, as This subject stand farther off in the series than bismuth that the natural metallic sulphides and antimony, and consequentlyby them a higher electromotive force is number of minerals were produced. The thermo-electrical relations of a large determined by Flight. It was minerals have varieties which are both -fearlyobserved that some Rose establish relation between to and the positive a and attempted forms and and of the positiveor negapyrite cobaltite, negativepyritohedral tive Later investigations thermo-electrical character. by Schrauf and Dana have shown, however, that the same peculiarity belongs also to glaucodot, and other minerals, and it is demonstrated tetradymite, skutterudite, danaite, by them that it cannot be dependent upon crystalline form, but rather upon chemical composition.
"

LITERATURE
etc. Pyro-electricity,

Rose.
Riess Kobell. Hankel.

Tourmaline. Pogg. Ann., 39, 285, 1836. and Rose. Pogg. Ann., 59, 353, 1843: 61. 659, 1844.

in Abhandl.
etc.

Pogg. Ann., 118, 594, 1863. Pogg. Ann., 49, 493; 50, 237, 1840; 61, 281, 1844. Many important papers K. Sachs. Ges., 1865 and later; also Wied. Ann., 2, 66, 1877; 11, 269, 1880,

J. and P. Curie. C. R., 91, 294, 383, 1880; 92, 186, 350, 1881; 93, 204, 1882. Kundt. Ber. Ak. Berlin, 421, 1883; Wied. Ann., 20, 592, 1893. Kolenko. Quartz. Zs. Kr., 9, 1, 1884. C. Friedel. Bull. Soc. Min., 2, 31, 1879. etc. Sphalerite, C. Friedel and Curie. boracite. Bull. Soc. Min., 6. 191, 1883. Sphalerite, Mack. Boracite. Zs. Kr., 8, 503, 1883. Voigt. Abhandl. Ges. Gottingen, 36, 99, 1890. Kelvin. Phil. Mag., 36, 331, 453, 1893. G. S. Schmidt. of fluorite. Wied. Ann., 62, 407, 1897. Photo-electricity

Thermo-electricity
C. R., 45, 705, 1857. Pogg. Ann., 123, 505, 1864. Friedel. Ann. Ch. Phys., 17, 79, 1869; C. R., 78, 508, 1874. Rose. Pyrite and cobaltite. Pogg. Ann., 142, 1, 1871. Schrauf and E. S. Dana. Ber. Ak. Wien, 69 (1),142, 1874; Am. Marbach. Bunsen.

J.

Sc., 8, 255, 1874.

2.

MAGNETISM
"

Magnetic Minerals. Natural Magnets. A few minerals in their are capableof being attracted by a strong steel magnet; they said to be magnetic. This is are true of magnetite, the magnetic conspicuously oxide of iron; also of pyrrhotiteor a nd of varieties of magnetic pyrites, some native platinum (especially the variety called iron-platinum). A number of other minerals, as hematite,franklinite, etc.,are in some
natural
state
*

441.

touched

See Liebisch Phys. Krystallographie, 1891, for a full discussion of the topicsbriefly in the preceding upon pages, also for references to original articles.

CHARACTERS

DEPENDING

UPON

ELECTRICITY

AND

MAGNETISM

309 because

cases

attracted

by

steel magnet,

but

probably in

most

if not all cases

of admixed magnetite (but see Art. 443). Occasional varieties of the three of magnetite, minerals mentioned exhibit themselves above,as the lodestone variety the attracting and of polarity a true magnet. power They are then In such cases the magnetic polarity has probably been called natural magnets. which is itselfa huge magnet. derived from the inductive action of the earth,
as field,

In a very Diamagnetism. strong magnetic all minerals, polesof a very powerful electromagnet, influenced by the magnetic force. Accordindeed all other substances, ing are as divided into two classes, the paramagnetic and to their behavior they are to be attracted, those of the former appear those of the latter to diamagnetic; of experiment the substance in question, in the be repelled. For purposes 442.

Paramagnetism.
the

"

that between

form If

of a rod,is suspended on a horizontal axis between the polesof the magnet. to the magnetic axis; if diamagparallel netic, paramagnetic,it takes a position to it. Iron,cobalt, it sets transversely nickel, platinum are manganese, bismuth are diamagnetic. Among minerals paramagnetic; silver, copper, also diopside; as siderite, compounds of iron are paramagnetic, further, beryl, etc. zircon, wulfenite, dioptase. Diamagnetic speciesinclude calcite, the relative amount to determine of By the use of a sphere it is possible the in of directions substance. induction different same Experiment magnetic the magnetic induction is alike in all has shown that in isometric crystals there is a direction of maximum that in those optically uniaxial, directions; minimum to of it,one and, normal magnetic induction;that in biaxial of which may be there are three unequal magnetic axes, the position crystals, In other words, the magnetic relations of the three classes of determined. relations. are crystals analogousto their optical 443. that all compounds of iron Corresponding to the facts juststated, are powerful electromagnet paramagnetic, it is found that a sufficiently in the cases attracts all minerals containing given in Art. iron, though, except hence the bar sensible influence has no efficiency 441, a them; upon magnet of separating method of the electromagnetic ores. the magnetic attraction of a number of substances Plucker * determined for magnetitehe obtained compared with iron taken as 100,000. For example,

150. 71; pyrite, 533, massive,134; limonite, 40,227; for hematite,crystallized,

LITERATURE

Magnetism
Plucker.

Pogg. Ann., 72, 315, 1847; 76, 576, 1849; 77, 447, 1849; 78, 427, 1849; 86,
and Beer. Pogg. Ann., 81, 115, 1850; 82, 42, 1852. Phil. Trans., 1849-1857, and Experimental Researches, Series

1, 1852.
Plucker

Faraday. XXVI, XXX.

W.

XXII,

Brit. Assoc.,1850, pt. 2, Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Theory of Magnetic Induction. and Magnetism, Electrostatics of etc. Phil. on Reprint Papers Mag., 177, 1, 1851, 23; 1872. Tyndall. Phil. Mag., 2, 165, 1851; 10, 153, 257, 1855; 11, 125, 1856; Phil. Trans., action. London, 1870. on 1855, 1. Researches diamagnetism and magne-crystallic Knoblauch and Tyndall. Pogg. Ann., 79, 233; 81, 481, 1850 (Phil.Mag., 36, 37,

1850).

Jacques. Bismuth, Calcite. Am. J. Sc.,18, 360, 1879. Quartz. Wied. Ann., 27, 133, 1886. Koenig. Wied. Ann., 31, 273, 1887. Stenger. Calcite. Wied. Ann., 20, 304, 1883; 35, 331, 1888.
Rowland Tumlirz. and
*

Pogg. Ann., 74, 343, 1848.

310

PHYSICAL

MINERALOGY

VI.
action

TASTE

AND
few

ODOR
minerals

In

their
some

upon

the

senses

possess

taste,

and

others

under
444. taste 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 445. in

circumstances
Taste

give only
are

off
to
as

odor. soluble follows

:

belongs
for reference the

minerals.

The

different

kinds

of

adopted

Astringent:
Sweetish Saline: Alkaline:

taste

of
taste

vitriol. of alum.

astringent:
taste
taste

of

common

salt.

of of of

soda.

Cooling:
Bitter:

taste taste

saltpeter.
salts. acid. few and odor. volatile
are

Epsom sulphuric

Sour:
Odor.

taste

of

"

Excepting
state do

gaseous off

soluble

species,
by
heat

minerals with

the

dry

unchanged
and sometimes
the

not

give
of
some

By

friction, moistening
or

the
odors

breath,
are

elimination obtained the odor obtained

odor:

ingredient
:

acids,

which of

thus

designated
of

1.

Alliaceous:
it
may

garlic.
from
odor

Friction

arsenopyrite by
means

elicits
of

this

odor;
2.

also

be

arsenical of of

compounds

heat. odor is

Horse-radish

the the
ores

decaying
are

horse-radish. heated.

This

strongly
3.

perceived
Sulphurous:

when

selenium odor

friction

elicits

this

from

pyrite,

and

heat

from

many

sulphides.
4. 5. Bituminous: Fetid:

the
odor
some

odor of

of

bitumen.

the
from

sulphureted
of

hydrogen
and

or

rotten

eggs.

It

is elicited

by

friction
6. and

varieties the odor of

quartz

limestone. It is obtained with the from

tine serpen-

Argillaceous:
some

moistened

clay.
them

allied afford
"

minerals,
it when
FEEL

after heated. is
a

moistening

breath;

others,

as

pyrargillite,
446. Feel.

The

character

which
greasy

is

occasionally
or

of

some

importance;
etc.

it is said

to

be

smooth

(sepiolite),
of with their

(talc), harsh,
character,

meager,

Some

minerals,
when

in

consequence

hygroscopic

adhere

to

the

tongue

brought

in

contact

it.

312
451.

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

The Formula. symbol of an element is the initial Latin its often of by which it is represented when or letters, name, letter, into the compoconstitution of substances in notation the chemical sition expressing H is of of hydrogen, Cl the Thus O enters. of which it symbol oxygen, etc. ther, FurFe (fromferrum) of iron, of chlorine, Ag (from argentum) of silver, that definite to indicate of the understood amount this symbol is always in other it words, represents one by itsatomic weight; givenelement expressed two atoms, this is indicated If twice this quantityis involved,that is, atom. written immediately after the symbol. number Thus, by a small subscript of antimony and three of of two atoms a Sb2S3 means compound consisting

Symbol.

"

of 2 X 120 parts by weight of antimony and 3 X 32 of sulphur. or sulphur, is called the formula of the given compound, since This expression, Sb2S3, the formula of the it expresses in briefest form its composition. Similarly mineral
albite is NaAlSisOg. such formulas are merely empirical formulas,since they speaking, Strictly of the result the actual relative number as of analysis, giving only express of each element present,and make no attempt to represent the actual constitution. A formula developed with the latter objectin view is called a constitutional formula (seeArt. 469). or structural, rational, The followingtable gives a list of all 452. Table of the Elements. established elements with their acceptedsymbols and also their the definitely atomic weights.* than eightyin all Of the elements given in this list more only a very in small number, say twelve, play an the crust of important part making up the earth and the water and air surroundingit. The common elements concerned in the compositionof minerals are: minium, aluOxygen, sulphur,silicon, calcium,magnesium, sodium,potassium. Besides these, iron, gen hydrois present in water, nitrogenin the air, and carbon in all animal and substances. few of the elements Only a very as such in nature, vegetable occur native silver, native gold, native sulphur, etc. as Of the elements, oxygen, and fluorine are hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, is a volatile liquid;mercury is also a liquid, but the others gases; bromine solids under ordinaryconditions. are
atoms
"
"

"

* These correspond in value to those decimal place.

and commonly accepted,

are

given accurate

to

one

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY

AS

APPLIED

TO

MINERALS

313

The elements be divided into and Non-metals. may the metals and the non-metals. less distinct classes, Between the two of elements sometimes called the semi-metals. lie a number The those elements are iron, sodium, which, physically metals,as gold, silver, less perfect or degreethe fundamental characters described, possess to a more metallic luster (and opacity to light), of the ideal metal, viz.: malleability, for heat and electricity; chemically described, moreover, conductivity they in a simplecompound, or basic element commonly play the part of the positive as later denned (Arts. 462-465). The non-metals, as sulphur, carbon,silicon, have none of the physical ters characetc., etc.,also the gases, as oxygen, chlorine, often transparent to light-radiation, alluded to: they are, if solids, brittle, for heat and electricity. conductors are Chemically expressed, they poor in acid a or the compound. simple part negative usuallyplay include certain elements, as The so-called semi-metals,or metalloids, have which the physical characters of tellurium, antimony, bismuth, arsenic, less are more or to a less perfect they a metal brittle); and, more degree(e.g., important 4 han this,they often play the part of the acidic element in the compound into which they enter. These pointsare illustrated later. the classes of the It is to be understood that the distinctions between metallic be very sharplyapplied. Thus the typical cannot elements named to a very unequal degreeby the different characters mentioned are possessed substances classed as metals; for example,by silver and tin. Corresponding to this a number play the part of an of the true metals, as tin and manganese,
453.
more

Metals
or

"

two

in

acid in numerous described as an

salts.

iron both acid and base. the of play part 454. Positive and Negative Elements.

Further, the mineral magnetite,FeFe2O4, is often the same element would so that in this compound ferrate;
It is common to make tinction disa hi element and a compound. electro-negative electro-positive
"

between

the

314
The passage of in many
or a

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

pound strong electrical current through a chemical comsufficiently into its ments elein its (or results electrolysis) decomposition cases

parts. In such

of
at

one

element

collect at the

the

pole positive

that for each compound the atoms negativepole (thecathode) and those of the other (the anode). The former is called the electro-positive
cases

it is found

Thus in the electrolysis element. and the latter the electro-negative is and hence at cathode called posithe tive, of water (H20) the hydrogen collects in hydrois and called at the anode and the oxygen negative. Similarly, chloric to be positive, the chlorine acid (HC1) the hydrogen is thus shown negative. This distinction is also carried to complex compounds, as copper is broken into Cu, which is found to be sulphate(CuSO4),which by electrolysis and SO4 (thelast separatesinto SO3, forming H2SC"4 and free electro-positive, element

oxygen).
is said to the positive element which will be explainedlater, The in acidic. the as the alreadystated, metals, negative part, the the while to t he non-metals to the former most latter, cases class, belong semi-metals may play both parts. basic element in writingthe formula to put the positive It is common or

For

reasons

play the basic

thus H2O, H2S, HC1, H2SO4, Sb2S3, As2O3,AsH3, NiSb, FeAs2. Here first, of in some it will be noted that antimony (Sb) and arsenic (As) are positive but negativein the others. the compounds named 455. Periodic Law.
"

In

order

to

understand

the

chief classes of chemical

compounds represented among

relations of the still as more minerals,

"

down their further subdivision, to the many isomorphous groups finally of species similar form, as having analogous compositionand closely groups the fundamental ments relations and grouping of the eleexplainedin Art. 471 be understood, must as especially developedof recent years and shown in the so-called Periodic Law. touched upon, it will be useful to Although the subjectcan be onlybriefly as give here the general distribution of the elements into Groups and Series, in the Principles of Chemistry (Engl.Ed., 1891) of D. Mendeleeff, presented is due more than any one else the development of the Periodic Law. to whom the elements are arrangedaccording When to the values of their atomic weights it is seen that they fall more less into groups consisting of eightelements or double sixteen or elements. The each, containing corresponding groups members of each group show similar chemical characters. The table given below will illustrate these relationships. For the thorough explanationof this subject, relation more as or particularly regardsthe periodic progressive between the atomic weightsand various properties of the elements, the reader is referred to the work above mentioned of the many other excellent to one or modern text-books of chemistry. The relations of some of the elements of the first group exhibited by are the isomorphism (see Art. 471, also the description and of the various groups here referred to, which are given in Part IV of this work) of NaCl, species KC1, AgCl; or againof LiMnP04 and NaMnPO4, etc. In the second group, reference may be made to the isomorphism of the carbonates and sulphates (p.322) of calcium, barium, and strontium; while among the sulphides, ZnS, CaS, and HgS are doubly related. In the third group, we find boron and aluminium often replacing another among one silicates. In the fourth group, the relations of silicon and titanium are shown in the titano-silicates, while the compounds Ti02,SnO2, Pb02 (and MnO2), also ZrSiO4 and ThSi04, have
"

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY

AS

APPLIED

TO

MINERALS

315

II

5
3

"

II

II
02

"

"

43
^

II

23
ii

ffl

" 8

8
u

316 similar form. closely

and

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

In the fifth group,

are

many

bismuth

isomorphous

among

metallic

mony, anticompounds of arsenic, compounds, while the

also antimony, are shown among vanadium, arsenic, relations of phosphorous, and again the mutual antimonates; the phosphates,vanadates, arsenates, be noted. to tantalates are relations of the niobates and the strongly acidic elements, sulphur, selenium, In the sixth group, in many telluall closely sulphides, selenides, as seen related, are tellurium, and of the relations of sulphur and chromium, similarly both rides; further, artificial phates, sulof these to molybdenum and tungsten, are shown among many

chromates, molybdates,and tungstates.

In the seventh
to need

group

remark. special meteoric iron,and their

halogensare too well understood eighthgroup, we have Fe, Co, Ni alloyedin in several cases are closely phosphates and sulphates
the relations of the
In the

isomorphous; further,the relation of the iron series to that of the platinum series is exhibited in the isomorphism of FeS2,FeAsS, FeAs2, etc.,with PtAs2 and probably RuS2. that the Chemical 456. investigationproves Combining Weight. into is a of a given element entering compound always proportional mass either to its atomic weight or to some simple multipleof this; the atomic sodium weight is hence also called the combining weight. Thus in rock salt, and chlorine present are found involved of sodium the masses by chloride, in to be equal to 39'4 and 60'6 in 100 parts, and these numbers are analysis and chlorine; hence it is to 23 : 35*4,the atomic weights of sodium proportion The formula is, of each is present in the compound. concluded that one atom the In the method calcium NaCl. same masses chloride, therefore, by ent presto 39'9 : 70*8, that is,to 39'9 found to be proportional : 2 X are 35'4;
"

hence the formula

is CaCl2.

Stillagain,a series of compounds of nitrogen with oxygen is known in which the ratios of the two elements are as follows: (1)28 : 16, (2) 14 : 16,(3)28 : 48, (4)14 : 32, of the masses (5)28 : 80. It is seen at once that these must have the formulas (1)N2O; (2)NO, (3)N2O3, (4) NO2, (5) N2O6. On the contrary, atmospheric air which contains these elements in about be a chemical compound of these elements, since the ratio of 76 '8 to 23 '2 cannot in the ratio of n X 14 : m not these numbers are X 16 (asidefrom other considerations) where n and m are simple whole numbers.

457.

molecule

of the of the hydroof the mass gen atom The molecular weight of hydrogen is 2 because the moleas unit. cule be shown The molecular to consist of two can atoms. of weight chloric hydroacid (HC1) is 36*4, of water (H2O) 18, of hydrogen sulphide vapor

Molecular
of the

Weight.

"

The

molecular

weight is the weight

given substance,expressedin

terms

of different gases under like conditions as to temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules, it is obvious that the molecular weight of substances in the form of gas can be derived directly from the relative density or specific gravity. If the densityis referred to hydrogen, whose molecular weight is 2, it will be always true that the molecular weight is twice the densityin the state of a Thus the observed densityof carbon dioxide (CO2) is 22, gas and vice versa. hence its molecular weight must It is this principle be 44. it that makes possiblein the case of a gas to fix the constitution of the molecule when the ratio in number of the atoms into it has been determined by analysis. entering In the case of solids, where the constitution of the molecule in generalcannot

(H2S) 34. Since,accordingto the law of Avagadro, like volumes

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY

AS

APPLIED

TO

MINERALS

317
in its
atoms

be fixed,it is best, as

already stated,to write

for albite.

the

molecular

formula

form, simplest
458.

as

NaAlSi3Os
as
"

The

sum

of the

weightsof the

present is then taken

Valence.

element is given by a number an to combine of some the capacityof its atoms with the atoms representing like hydrogen or chlorine. unit element Thus, using the examples of Art. atom of sodium unites with one of chlorine, its 456, in NaCl, since one valence is one; or, in other words, it is said to be univalent. Further, is trivacalcium (as in CaCl2),also barium, etc., are bivalent; aluminium The valence etc. be is silicon tetravalent, expressed by the lent; may is united to another, element in a compound of bonds by which one number The thus:

the molecular valence of

weight.

Na-Cl,
compounds.
Thus

Ba

Cl2,
Sb203 and

Au=Cl3,
a

SniiCU, known;

etc.

different valence in different also FeO and Fe2p3; These variations are indicated in the following CuCl and CuCl2. possible elements. table which givesthe valences for the common Univalent: H, Cl, Br, I, F; Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ag, Hg, Cu, Au.
A considerable number

of the elements show

both

Sb2O5

are

Bivalent:

O, S, Se,Te; Be, Mg, Ca, Sr,Ba, Pb, Hg, Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Fe,
Sn.

Mn, Cr, C,

B, Au, Al, Fe, Mn, Cr, Co, Ni, N, P, As, Sb, Bi. C, Si,Ti, Zr, Sn, Mn, Pb. Pentavalent: N, P, As, Sb, V, Bi,Nb, Ta.
Trivalent: Tetravalent:

chemical substances with other each upon brought the result of forming new nomenon compounds out of the elements present; this phebe substances may One of the original is called a chemical reaction. and from obtained a a results in similar and are solid, liquid cases a gas, many
459. Chemical Reactions.
"

When

solutions

of

two

are

in many together,

cases

they react

or

less often from

two

For example, (AgNO3) react on nitrate (NaNO3).

solids. chloride (NaCl) and silver nitrate solutions of sodium each other and yield silver chloride (AgCl) and sodium in chemical language as follows: This is expressed NaCl AgCl + NaN03. + AgNO3
=

meaning that equal weights This is a chemical signof equality reaction. after the involved both before and are Again, hydrochloricacid (HC1) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) yield calcium chloride (CaCl2) and carbonic acid (H2CO3) ; which last breaks up into water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2),the last going off as a gas with equation,the
effervescence. Hence

CaCO3
"

2HC1

CaCl2 +

H2O

C02.

elements according to of two or more A compound Radicals. 460. rated. is said to be satusatisfied their relative valence in which all their bonds are O"H. H" be however, If, written, This is true of H2O, or, as it may combination of elements is the resulting bonds is left unsatisfied, more one or is a common radical, hydroxyl, O radical. Thus H, called briefly is againa univalent NH4 univalent other in words, of ; valence a having one, or, pound radical;so, too, (CaF), (MgF) or (A10). Radicals often enter into a comchloride, NH4C1, the like a simple element; for example,in ammonium part as the univalent element Na in univalent radical NH4 plays the same radical the commonest of mineral species, In the chemical composition NaCl. called
a
" "

318
is hydroxyl (
"

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

H) alreadydefined. Other examples are (CaF) in apatite basic silicates, etc. (A1O) in many 471),(MgF) in wagnerite, is combination chemical A a 461. Chemical compound Compound. It is elements united by the force of chemical attraction. of two or more the that elements stated before of (Art. 456), present are it,as always true of their atomic weights or some in the proportion combined simplemultiples this condition is not a compound, of these. A substance which does not satisfy but only a mechanical mixture. or Examples of the simplerclass of compounds are afforded by the oxides, minerals we have Thus, among compounds of oxygen with another element. ZnO, zinc oxide (zincite); A1203, alumina Cu2O, cuprous oxide (cuprite); (corundum); SnO2, tin dioxide (cassiterite) ; SiO2,silicon dioxide (quartz); As2O3,arsenic trioxide.(arsenolite). Another simple class of compounds are the sulphides (with the selenides, compounds in which sulphur (selenantimonides, etc.), ium, arsenides, tellurides, tellurium, arsenic, antimony, etc.) playsthe same part as oxygen in the oxides. Here belongCu2S, cuprous sulphide(chalcocite) ; ZnS, zinc sulphide (sphalerite); PbTe, lead telluride (altaite); FeS2, iron disulphide(pyrite); Sb2S3, antimony trisulphide (stibnite). The more 462. Acids. complex chemical compounds, an understanding of which is needed in a study of minerals, classed as acids,bases,and are distinctions the between them are salts; important. An acid is a compound of hydrogen, or hydroxyl, with a non-metallic element (as chlorine, radical conor a sulphur,nitrogen, taining phosphorus,etc.), these elements. When dissolved in water they all give the positive hydrogen ion and a negative ionic substance such as Cl, SO4, etc. The of an acid may be replacedby metallic atoms; the result hydrogen atoms then of salt the formation a being (seeArt. 464). Acids in generalturn blue litmus paper red and have a sharp, sour taste. The following familiar are examples: HC1, hydrochloric acid, HNO3, nitric acid. H2CO3, carbonic acid. acid. H2S04, sulphuric H2Si03,metasilicic acid. H3PO4, phosphoricacid. H4Si04,orthosilicic acid.
0
"

(seeArt.

"

"

It is to be noted that with a given acid element several acids are possible. Thus normal, or orthosilicic, acid is H4SiO4,in which the bonds of the element silicon are all satisfied by the hydroxyl (HO). But the removal of one molecule of water, H2O, from this gives the formula H2SiO3, or metasilicic acid. Acids which, like HN03, contain one of hydrogen that atom be
may

replacedby

metallic atom in KNO3) are called monobasic. (e.g., If,as in H2CO3 and H2SO4, there are two atoms or a in singlebivalent atom, (e.g., CaC03, BaSO4) the acids are dibasic. Similarly, H3PO4 is tribasic, etc. Most acids are liquids and hence acids are represented (or gases),
a

very

sparinglyamong

minerals;B(OH)3, boric acid (sassolite), is an illustration. 463. Bases. The bases,or hydroxides, as they are also called, are compounds which may be regardedas formed of a metallic element (orradical)
"

320
such

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

be written * as if the compound consisted of a normal salt and an acid; thus, for the example given,K2SO4 H2SO4. in which- the acid part of the compound is not sufficient A basic salt is one Thus malachite is a basic salt basic all the bonds of the base. to satisfy the formula its composition being expressed by carbonate of copper
cases

may

"

"

f^r\

Cu2(OH)2C03.
The

This may

be written CuCO3

Cu(OH)2,

or

(Cu2)
=

^g^

as those noted above, but majorityof minerals consist not of simplesalts, several in which metallic elements salts double are less or more complex orthosilicate is both an Thus containing garnet grossular common present. is Ca3Al2(SiO4)3. calcium and aluminium as bases; its formula far thus salts The 467. spoken of are all oxygen salts. Sulpho-salts. in which sulphur takes the also others,of analogous constitution, There are Thus normal sulphhence called sulpha-salts. they are placeof the oxygen; arsenious acid has the formula H3AsS3, and the correspondingsilver salt is the silver salt of the analogous AgsAsS3, the mineral proustite.Similarly antimony acid is Ag3SbS3,the mineral pyrargyrite. From the normal acids acids may be derived, as HAsS2, H4As2S5, named, a series of other hypothetical but their salts are important minerals. to exist, etc. ; these acids are not known and jamesonite, is a salt of the acid H2Sb2S4, Thus zinkenite, Pb2Sb2S5, PbSb2S4,

of

"

of the acid H4Sb2S5, etc.

Crystallization. As stated in Art. 463, the hydroxides, yieldwater when ignited. Thus or bases,and further basic salts-in general, calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 breaks up on heating into CaO and H2O, as in the chemical equation expressed
468. Water of
"

2Ca(OH)2

2CaO

H20.

So also the basic cupriccarbonate, water on malachite, Cu2(OH)2C03, yields is true of the complex basic orthosilicates, and the same like zoisite, ignition; whose formula is (HO)Ca2Al3(Si04)3.It is not to be understood, however, in these or similar cases, that water as such is present in the substance. On the other hand, there is a large number of mineral compounds which when heated, and in which the water molecules are regarded water readily yield as Thus, the formula of gypsum present as so-called water of crystallization. is written

CaSO4

2H2O,

and the molecules of water (2H2O) are considered as water of crystallization. So,too, in potashalum, KA1(S04)2 + 12H2O, the water is believed to play the
same

part.
469. Formulas
"

of Minerals. The strictly empiricalformula expresses and numbers of atoms of the elements present in the given compound, without attempting to show the way in which it is believed that the atoms combined. are Thus, in the case of zoisite the empiricalformula is HCa2Al3Si3Oi3. While not attempting to represent the structural formula it is convenient in certain cases (which will not be discussed here), to indicate the atoms which there is reason to believe play a peculiar relation to each other. Thus the same formula written (HO)Ca2Al3(SiO4)3 shows that it is regardedas in other words, a basic salt of orthosilicic acid,H4SiO4. a basic orthosilicate,
the kinds
*

This earlyform of writingthe composition explainsthe namely, in this case, "bisulphate of potash."

name

often given to the

pound, com-

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY

AS

APPLIED

TO

MINERALS

321

formula of common is Ca5FP3Oi2 ; but if this apatite Again, the empirical is shows that it it is written (CaF)Ca4(PO4)3, regarded as a phosphate of the acid H3PO4, that is, H^PO^s, in which the nine hydrogen atoms are replaced with the univalent radical (CaF). In another kind by four Ca atoms together of apatitethe radical (CaCl) enters in the same to this the Similarly way. of vanadinite (PbCl)Pb4(VO4)3. formula of pyromorphite is (PbCl)Pb4(PO4)3, ulas Further,it is often convenient to employ the method of writingthe formin vogue under the old dualistic system. For example, 3CaO for CaCO3, CaO.CO2 A12O3 3SiO2 for Ca3Al2Si3Oi2, 3Ag2S Sb2S3 for Ag3SbS3,etc.
.
.

however, that the molecular groups CaO, A1203, longerbelieved, etc., But in part because these exist in the molecule of the substance. actually and in part because what of the substance affords directly, are analysis groups is still of writing this method retained in the memory, often used. so easily from 470. Calculation of a Formula an Analysis. The result of an in a hundred of either the parts of the mineral, analysis givesthe proportions, oxides other obtained of their in the or elements themselves, or compounds obtain atomic In lo the of the order elements chemical analysis. : proportions Divide the percentages of the elements by the respective ATOMIC WEIGHTS; of each by their or, for those of the oxides: Divide the percentage amounts ratio in whole numbers then find the simplest MOLECULAR for the WEIGHTS;
It is no
"

numbers

thus obtained.
. "

An analysis of bournonite from Wolfsberg gave C. Bromeis the results under Example. atomic weights,as indicated, These percentages divided by the respective give (1) below. under the numbers gives very nearly 1 : 3 : 1 : 1. (2). Finally the ratio of these numbers The theoretical values called for by the formula Hence the formula derived is CuPbSbS3. added under are (4). (3) (4) (2) (1)

Sb S Pb Cu

24'34 1976 42-88 13-06 100-04

-r-

120 32 206-4 63-2

0'203

1 3 1 1

247 19'8 42'5 13'0 lOO'O

"*" -5-r-

0'617
0'208

0-207

analysesof a garnet from Alaska gave Kountze the of the several molecular usual,the percentage amounts These amounts (SiO2,A12O3, etc.) are given instead of those of the elements. groups under (2). In this case the niolecular weights give the numbers divided by the respective of the protoxidesare taken together and the ratio thus obtained is 3 '09 : 1 : 2 "92, amounts or which corresponds approximatelyto the formula 3FeO.Al2O3.3SiO2, Fe3Al2(SiO4)3.The magnesium in this garnet would ordinarilybe explained by the presence of the pyrope molecule (Mg3Al2[SiO4]3) together with the simple almandite molecule whose composition is given above. (2) (3) (1)
Second Example. The mean results under (1) below. Here,
"

of two

as

SiO2 A12O3 Fe203

FeO MnO

39-29 21-70
tr.

-5-5-

60 102 71 -9 70-8 55-9

0'655 0-212 0'429 0'022 0-132 0'036

3'09 1

30-82 1-51 5-26 1-99 100-57

H-f-

MgO
CaO

-^40
-J-

L.A1Q l

9.Q9

It is necessary,

when

very

above)

are

present, to neglectthem

small quantities only of certain elements (asMnO, MgO, CaO in the final formula,reckoning them in with the elements

322
which

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

that is,with those of the they replace, between the

upon depends entirely

i

The degree of correvalence. spondence quanti same if the latter is correctly assumed, formula the deduced, a nd analysis of the former. the accuracy
"

Chemical compounds which have an analogous Isomorphism. form are said to be isomorphous. related crystalline compositionand a closely first brought out by Mitwas clearly This phenomenon, called ISOMORPHISM,
! 471.

scherlich.

isomorphous compounds will be found among Some examples are mentioned following pages. here in order to elucidate the subject. ments classification of the chemical eleIn the brief discussion of the periodic of Art. 455, attention has been called to the prominent groups among calcium, barium, and the elements which form analogous compounds. Thus series of form the two also analogouscompounds, and lead, strontium,
groups the minerals described in the

Many

examples of

of

Aragonite Group

Barite Group

CaCO3, BaC03, SrCO3, PbCO3,

aragonite.
witherite. strontianite.

Also

CaSO4, anhydrite.

cerussite,

BaS04, barite. SrS04, celestite. PbSO4, anglesite.

similar forms. The in closely of each series crystallize Further, the members with axial ratios not far from one another; thus carbonates are orthorhombic, to this the prismatic angleapproximatesto 60" and 120",and corresponding also forms due to twinning. The sulphates they all exhibit pseudo-hexagonal and though anhydritedeviates somewhat form a similar orthorhombic series, in angle and in cleavage. the others are close together widely, and manganese form a series of carbonates zinc, Again,calcium,magnesium, iron, in the list of the speciesof with analogous composition as shown the close This table brings out clearly the Calcite Group given on p. 437.
named. relation in form between the species true with an isomorphous series that the various Further it is also generally of the enter in greater or less degreeinto the constitution of one molecules may the in members of the series without causing any marked crystal change For instance, in the Calcite Group, calcite itself may contain characters. small percentages of MgCO3, FeCO3 and MnCO3. These different molecules the the in functions as the of mineral structure the assume same crystal may of amounts which have CaC03 corresponding they replaced. The molecules of magnesiteand siderite, and MgCO3 FeCO3, may replaceeach other in any is and the with siderite and rhodochrosite, true same MnC03. proportion intermediate Various mixtures of these latter molecules have been described and givendistinctive names to which definite formulas have been assigned. It is doubtful, however, if these compounds have any real existence but merely represent certain pointsin the complete isomorphous series that lies between the end members. Dolomite,CaMg(CO3)2, on the other hand, is a definite It may, compound and not an isomorphous mixture of CaCO3 and MgCO3. of FeCO3, MnCO3 and also an of however, contain varying amounts excess CaCO3 or MgCO3, all of which enter the regularmolecule in the form of

isomorphousreplacements. The ApatiteGroup forms another valuable illustration since in it are the analogouscompounds, apatite and pyromorphite,both phosrepresented phates, but respectively of calcium and lead; also the analogous phosphates

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY

AS

APPLIED

TO

MINERALS

323

lead compounds pyromorphite,mimetite, and vanadinite respectively and lead lead vanadate. in arsenate, phosphate, Further, allthese compounds the radical (RC1) or (RF) enters in the same (seeArt. 469). Thus the way and that for pyromorphite are as follows : formulas for the two kinds of apatite lead

(CaF)Ca4(P04)3,
Some
of

(CaCl)Ca4(PO4)3,
others

(PbCl)Pb4(PO4)3.

mentioned For a discusbelow. are sion groups that might be mentioned here, reference must be to the descriptive made part of this work. The Isometric System. Spinel group, includingspinel,MgAl2O4; also magnetite, gahnite, etc. The Galena group, as galena,PbS; argentite, chromite, franklinite, Ag-"S, The Garnet group, as grossularite, etc. etc. CasAiiSiiOn, Rutile group, including rutile, SnC"2. The TiO2,' cassiterite, Tetragonal System. Scheelite group, includingscheelite, PbMoO4. PbW04; wulfenite, CaWO4; stolzite,
more

of the

important isomorphous
of many

them,

as

well

as

"

"

Apatite group, already mentioned, including apatite,pyromorHexagonal System. phite, Corundum mimetite, and vanadinite. FesOs. corundum, A12O3; hematite, group, Phenacite group, Calcite group, already mentioned. etc. Orthorhombic above. Aragonite group, and Barite group, both mentioned System. Chrysolitegroup, (Mg,Fe)2SiO4; Topaz group, etc. Monodinic FeSO4 + THizO; bieberite, System. Copperas group, includingmelanterite, CoSO4 + 7H2O, etc. Pyroxene and Amphibole groups, and the Mica group. Monodinic and Triclinic Systems. Feldspar group.
" " " "

It is important to note that the intermediate Isomorphous Mixtures. in such as those spoken the case of an isomorphous series, compounds often show a distinct gradation of in the precedingarticle, in crystalline form, in physicalcharacters (e.g., and more specific gravity,optical particularly of the calcite group already etc.). This is illustrated by the species properties, referred to; also stillmore as strikingly by the group of the triclinicfeldspars See further Art. 424. of that group. fullydiscussed under the description also illustrate two other important points in the subject, The feldspars have been shown alluded to here. The triclinic which must be briefly feldspars end mixtures of the to Tschermak be compounds in varying isomorphous by : proportions CaAl2Si2O8. NaAlSi3O8. Anorthite, Albite,
472.
"

in the compounds have not an analogouscomposition and yet they are isomorphous and form an narrow sense previously illustrated, the pyroxenes, isomorphous series. Other examples of this are found among the scapolites, etc. includes several other Further,the Feldspar group in the broader sense KAlSi3Os, which, though species,conspicuouslythe monoclinic orthoclase, in form to the belonging to a different system, still approximates closely triclinicspecies. Variation in Composition of Minerals. 473. Isomorphous Replacement conform in its and The idea that a mineral must Solid Solution. rigidly derived from its formula chemical compositionto a theoretical composition It is true that the majorityof minerals do show held. can no longerbe strictly commonly within the limits of possible a close correspondence to that theory, minerals show slight and in the analyses. On the other hand, many errors Here

it is seen

that these

"

certain
These

ones

considerable

variations

from

their

theoretical

compositions.

of isomorphism. explainedby the principle Note in the analyses of sphalerite. An instructive example is the case quoted below how the percentages of zinc diminish and those of iron correspondingly and in a much that iron, smaller increase. It is evident from these analyses
can variations.

usuallybe

324

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

ing enter into the chemical compound and while replacof the structure the in crystalline function as it, the zinc perform the same with the zinc of isomorphous as being The iron is therefore spoken mineral. molecule. zinc the with sulphide molecule as isomorphous the iron
degree other metals, may
or

sulphide

and zinc that may of the iron the amounts definite ratio between the of the atoms sum be present but there is a constant ratio (1 : 1) between the composition although of sulphur. That is, of the metals and the atoms In constant. structure remain the ratios and atomic crystalline the vary, may be complete, elements or radicals may this interchangebetween cases some be distinct limitations to the amount by which any in other cases there may For instance in sphalerite be replacedby another. radical may element or iron to be about 16 to seems the isomorphous the maximum percentage of

There

is no

18 per cent.
Colorless Sphalerite
Brown

Sphalerite 33.36 63.36 3.60 100.32

Black

Sphalerite 33.25 50.02 15.44 0.30

S
Zn Fe

32.93 66.69 0.42

S
Zn Fe

S
Zn Fe

moi

Cd

100.02

Further,we have cases where a compound may, in a certain sense, dissolve solid solution. and form what is known as a another unrelated substance artificialsalts and has This kind of phenomenon is well recognizedamong it has been definitely proved with certain minerals. For instance, recently the artificial iron that been shown FeS, corresponding sulphide, experimentally of sulphur up to about 6 per cent. dissove an excess to pyrrhotite, can that requiredby of sulphurover Natural pyrrhotite always contains an excess have been the formula, FeS, and various formulas such as Fe7S8, FenSn+i, etc., This extra sulphurin the mineral varies in amount to the mineral. assigned In view of the experimental about 6 per cent. but also has as its maximum data there is no doubt but that pyrrhotite should be considered as the monoof excess of iron containing sulphur in the varying small amounts sulphide form of a solid solution. Another of solid solution is undoubtedly shown case by nephelitewhich It contains small is of SiO2. a excess commonly probable that further very show minerals have this power will that many of holding in investigation solid solution small amounts of foreignsubstances and that many hitherto be explained in this way. discrepanciesin their analysesmay inexplicable Such an assumption should not be made, however, without convincingproof of its probability, since many are undoubtedly due to analytical discrepancies either faulty analyses or to impure material. 474. Colloidal Minerals Gels.* Mineral It has been recognized or in recentlythat our amorphous hydrated minerals frequently do not conform their analysesto the usually and be cannot accepted formulas regardedin the strict sense definite chemical compounds. as They show rather the properties of solid colloids or as they are commonly called mineral gels. A colloidal solution may be conceived as being intermediate in its characters between a true solution and the case where the mineral material is definitely in suspen"

For

made

of the subject of gel minerals and a complete bibliography a resume reference is to articles by Marc and Himmelbauer, Fortschritte Min. Krist. Pet.,3, 11, 33, 1913.

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

CHEMISTRY

AS

APPLIED

TO

MINERALS

325

between these two extremes liquid. It is probablethat all gradations The mineral or as gels, hydrogels, they are sometimes called, may since water is the liquid are involved, apparentlyformed from such colloidal of coagulation. They are considered therefore to solutions by some process mixture of excessively consist of a micro-heterogeneous minute particles of sion in
a occur.

material and water. mineral gelsare formed at low temperatures and pressures and are found among the products of rock weathering and in the characteristically of ore deposits. Some of them also occur oxidized zone in hot springdeposits. These minerals ordinarily r eniform stalactitic shapes, assume or botryoidal, conditions of when the formation do not permit free growth, they although, be dendritic. mineral colloidal may Frequently a earthy or originally may less character become in more or crystalline through a molecular rearrangement and develop a fibrous" or foliated structure. These have been designated meta-colloids. as One important character of the gelminerals is their power to adsorb foreign If through some materials. change in condition one of these hydrogelsshould lose a part of its water content the remaining material would have a finely of divided and porous structure exactlyadapted to exert a strong power in the main of the cases mass adsorption. Consequently,although many similar to some definite crystallized mineral may have a compositionclosely show considerable in it will mineral, a commonly compositiondue both range and of to this secondary water the contained relations to the non-molecular substances derived from them are opal, mineral gels or adsorption. Common of the phosphate and arsenate various members psilomelane, bauxite, groups, also in crystalAs suggestedabove, gel varieties of minerals that occur etc. line authors speak of bauxite forms are thought to exist. For example some
mineral These of goethite, the gel form as stilpnosiderite gel form of hydrargillite, such and further as of new gelvariscite, give names, chrysocolla dioptase, minerals. to the gelphasesof the corresponding crystalline etc., gelpyrophyllite, A chemical 475. Dimorphism. compound, which Isodimorphism. to said be i s in distinct, dimorphous; if in crystallizes two forms genetically This phenomenon is called three,trimorphous,or in generalpleomorphous.
as

the

"

DIMORPHISM

Or

PLEOMORPHISM.

example is given by the compound calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which it crystallizes is dimorphous : appearingas calcite and as aragonite. As calcite class of the^hexagonal system, and, unlike as its many in the rhombohedral fundamental be all referred to the same forms are, they may axes, crystalline and the same all the what have same specific is cleavage and, they more, cium calopticalcharacters. As aragonite, gravity(27) and, of course, the same characters w hose in orthorhombic carbonate optical crystals, appears the specific gravityof different from those of calcite; are moreover, entirely is higherthan that of calcite (27). aragonite(2'9) morphous, Many other examples might be given: Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is triG. (c 4*25; 0'6442), the species tetragonal being called rutile, orthorhombic, 3 '9; and brookite, 1778), G. octahedrite, tetragonal(c and graphite. Other G. 4'15. Carbon appears in two forms, in diamond and wurtzite sphalerite familiar examples are pyriteand marcasite (FeS2), etc. (ZnS), time isomorphous When two or more analogouscompounds are at the same the and be phenomenon is said to and dimorphous, they are isodimbrphous,
An
= = = = =

326

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

An example of this is given in the Pyriteand Marcalled ISODIMORPHISM. have in the isometric PyriteGroup, we casite groups described later. Thus Marcasite Group, marcasorthorhombic in the smaltite, CoAs2; FeS2, pyrite,

CoAs2, FeS2, safflorite, ite,

476.

etc.
"

erals Microchemical Analysis. The analysis of mintreated of in chemical works, and need not be touched upon is a subject methods, here except so far as to note the convenient use of certain qualitative of this later in the described chapter. as part to sections Of more importance are the microchemical methods applicable under the microscope and often yieldingdecisive results with little labor. Chemical
and

developedby Boricky,Haushofer,Behrens, particularly is made to the discussion by Rosenbusch. Reference Streng, Johannsen t o 435 et (Manual of Pet. Methods, seq.), (Mikr. Phys., 1904, p. Microchemical methods used upon 559, et seq., including a bibliography). Murdock described of minerals surfaces are (Micro. by polished opaque of the Deter. Opaque Min., 1916) and by Davy-Farnham (Micro. Exam, Ore Min., 1920). of certain mineral 477. Mineral pounds comSynthesis. The occurrence the furnaces the products of metallurgical (e.g., chrysolites) among But it has only been in recent years that the formation has long been noted. the subjectof minute systematicexperiof artificial minerals has been made mental direction the French chemists have been particularly In this study. be stated that the majorityof common minerals and now it may successful, the mica. etc. have been obtained in crystalamphibole, lized feldspars, quartz, diamond in Even the has been formed minute form. crystals by Moissan. These studies are as obviouslyof great importance particularly of formation of minerals in nature. method The throwing lightupon the chief results of the work thus far done are given in the volumes mentioned in the Introduction, p. 4. 478. Alteration of Minerals. The chemical tion alteraPseudomorphs. of mineral species under the action of natural agenciesis a subjectof when it results in the change of the great importanceand interest, particularly into some other equallydefinite compound. A crystaloriginal composition lized mineral which has thus suffered change so that its form no longerbelongs to its chemical compositionhas already been defined (Art. 273, p. 183) as a the different kinds of pseudopseudomorph. It remains to describe more fully morphs. Pseudomorphs are classed under several heads : 1. Pseudomorphs by substitution. 2. Pseudomorphs by simpledeposition, and either by (a) incrustation or (b)infiltration. 3. Pseudomorphs by alteration; and these may be altered (a)without a change of composition, by paramorphism; (b)by the loss of an ingredient; (c)by the assumption of a foreign substance; (d)by a partial exchange of constituents.
This has subject and been

others.

"

"

"

"

firstclass of pseudomorphs, by substitution, embraces those cases there has been a gradual removal of the original material and a corresponding and simultaneous replacementof it by another,without,however, the two. any chemical reaction between A common example of this is a piece of fossilizedwood, where the original fiber has been replaced entirelyby where

1. The

328 of the will be

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

blowpipe,or of both methods given applyingto both cases.

EXAMINATION

combined.

Some

instructions practical

IN

THE

WET

WAY

480.
To

agents most The commonly employed chemical reetc. a nd acids. nitric, mineral sulphuric hydrochloric, acids, three the are also solutions of barium ride, chlobe added ammonium hydroxide, these may ammonium tilled disammonium oxalate;finally, molybdate, silver nitrate,

Reagents,

"

water

in

wash-bottle.

dish a porcelain test-tubes are needed for the trials and sometimes and funnel a filter-paper. with a handle called a casserole;further, glass of heat, though an alcohol The Bunsen (p.330) is the best source gas-burner to remark that the use of acids lamp may take its place. It is unnecessary to person much care to avoid injury or clothing. and the other reagentsrequires the importantpointsto be the powdered mineral with the acids, In testing the phenomena attending and (2) entire noted are: (1)the degree of solubility, is solution obtained w ithout that whether a (a) quietly, is, or partial solution; and, if so, what its color is; or (6)a gas is evolved,producing effervescence, or (c)an insoluble constituent is separated out. effervescence; the degree of solubility 481. Solubility. In testing hydrochloricacid in of the metallic the case as is most commonly used, though minerals, many Less n itric is and acid of lead and compounds required. silver, sulphides acid and aqua regia(nitro-hydrochloric often sulphuric acid)are resorted to. "and in general the fragment of made in a test-tube, The trial is usually should be first carefully mineral to be examined pulverizedin an agate the heat of the Bunsen burner must be employed. In most mortar. cases (a) Many minerals are completely soluble without effervescence; among phates, sulof the oxides, these are some as hematite,limonite, gothite, etc.; some and and Gold etc. soluble are arsenates, phosphates platinum many acid. only in aqua regiaor nitro-hydrochloric A yellow solution is usuallyobtained if much iron is present; a blue or blue blue solution (turning the addition of ammonium on deep greenish droxide hyin excess) from compounds of copper; etc. pink or pale rose from cobalt, takes with effervescence (b)Solubility place when the mineral loses a when is generatedby the mutual reaction of acid one or ingredient, gaseous and mineral. here are the carbonates, Most conspicuous all of which dissolve A few
"

with
some

effervescence, givingoff the odorless gas carbon dioxide (C02),though of them only when In the addition of heat. pulverized, or, again,on acid is employed. applyingthis test dilute hydrochloric when dissolved in Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is evolved by some sulphides is a cid: this of true etc. This gas is readily hydrochloric sphalerite, stibnite, by its offensive odor. recognized Chlorine is evolved by oxides of manganese and also chromic and vanadic acid salts when dissolved in hydrochloric acid. in the form of red suffocating Nitrogendioxide (NO2) is given off, fumes, and also some by many metallic minerals, of the lower oxides (cuprite, etc.),
when treated with nitric acid.

(c) The separation of an insoluble ingredienttakes place: With many the silicaseparating silicates, sometimes as a fine powder, and again as a jelly; in the latter case the mineral is said to gelatinize (sodalite, analcite). In order to test this pointthe finely silicateis pulverized with strong hydrodigested

CHEMICAL

EXAMINATION

OF

MINERALS

329

chloric acid, and the solution afterward slowlyevaporated nearlyto dryness. of silicatesthe gelatinization With a considerable number takes place only after the mineral has been previously while narily which ordifused; some others, insoluble rendered are gelatinize, by ignition. With many a separationof sulphurtakes placewhen (aspyrite) sulphides they are treated with nitric acid. Some compounds of titanium and tungsten are decomposed by hydrochloric of the oxides of the elements named acid with the separation (TiO2, The same is true of salts of molybdic and vanadic acids, WO3) only that here the oxides are soluble in an excess of the acid.
.

Compounds containing silver, give with hydrochloric lead,and mercury acid insoluble residues of the chlorides. These compounds are, however, soluble in nitric acid. When compounds containingtin are treated with nitric acid, the tin dioxide (SnO2) separates as a white powder. A corresponding reaction takes circumstances with under similar minerals place containing arsenic and

antimony.
attacked sensibly Among by followingoxides: corundum, spinel, chromite,diaspore, rutile, cassiterite, quartz; also cerarof the suland niobates;some phates, gyrite;many silicates, titanates, tantalates, as barite, as xenotime, celestite; phosphates, lazulite, childrenite, many amblygonite; also the borate,boracite. 482. Examination of the Solution. If the mineral is difficultly, or the question is not always as to solubility or insolubility onlypartially, soluble, settled at once. Partial solution is often shown by the color given to the for example,on the addition or more liquid, yielded, generally by the precipitate of ammonium hydroxide to the liquidfiltered off from the remaining whether from parpowder. The further examination of the solution yielded, tial a fter of any insoluble the filtration or separation by complete solution, the systematiclaboratory methods of qualitative residue, requires analysis. It may be noted,however, that in the case of sulphates the presence of is the of white shown of barium a precipitation heavy sulphur by powder The presence of silver in sulphate(BaSOO when barium chloride is added. solution is shown of silver by the separation of a white curdy precipitate chloride (AgCl) upon the addition of any chlorine compound; conversely, the of chlorine when silver nitrate is added shows the presence same precipitate
"

Insoluble Minerals. of the acids. any

number large
these

of minerals are not be named the may

"

to the solution.

in small quantity, be detected if present, even nitricacid solution of a mineral by the fine yellow powder which separates, when ammonium sometimes after standing, molybdate has been added.

Again, phosphorus may

in

EXAMINATION

BY

MEANS

OF

THE

BLOWPIPE*

in skilled hands, gives a quick method of 483. The use of the blowpipe, compositionof a mineral. obtaininga partial knowledge of the qualitative The apparatus needed includes the following articles:
* The subject of the student who wishes to be

in this place. The blowpipe and its use is treated very briefly ments, fullyinformed not only in regard to the use of the various instruuseful in the identification of but also as to all the valuable reactions practically the subject. The Brush-Penfield should of Determinative Manual consult a manual on minerals, to be Mineralogy, with an introduction on Blowpipe Analysis,is particularly recommended.

330

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

with platinum points, platinum wire, preferably Blowpipe, lamp, forceps, with a steel anvil an hammer also small edges, a sharp glasstubes; charcoal, inch or two long,a horseshoe magnet, a small agate mortar, a pair of cutting
a three-cornered file. pliers,

little pure a Further, test-paper, both turmeric and blue litmus paper; fluxes: the borax boxes (sodium tetraborate) also in small wooden tin-foil;
,

salt of phosphorus or microcosmic salt (anhydrous sodium carbonate), acid also a potassium sulphate (HKS04); (sodium-ammonium phosphate), the three acids further, solution of cobalt nitrate in a dropping bulb or bottle;

soda

mentioned
484. 622. The

in Art. 480. Blowpipe and

Lamp. air-chamber, at a,

"

good

form

of

blowpipe is shown
the

in

Fig.

the

which the tip(6), breath, which may mouthpiece

The
most

condensed moisture of of brass,(c)is a removis removable, is usually able

is essential to
not

stop

or

may

be used

as

preferred.

lamp is that furnished by an ordinaryBunsen * 623),providedwith a tube,6, which when inserted cuts off gas-burner (Fig.
convenient form of
the air
622

to one and of The inches the is held near half a tip blow-pipe high. see beyond), and the air blown (orjust within the flame, in the flame to take the shape shown through it causes usual

a; the gas then burns at the flame. This flame should be one yellow

supply at

top with the

Fig.625.
It is necessary

keep

up

to learn to blow continuously, to that is, blast of air from the compressed reservoir in the mouth-cavity while respiration is maintained through the nose. To accomplish this successfully and at the same time to produce a clear flame without unnecessary fatiguing effort calls for some practice. When the tube,6,is removed, the gas burns with a colorless flame and is used for heatingglass tubes,test-

tubes, etc.
The forceps Forceps. Wire. made of steel, (Fig.624) are and should have a spring nickel-plated, strong enough to support firmlythe small fragment of mineral between the at d. The steel points platinum points at the other end are used to pick up small pieces of minerals, but must not be inserted in the flame. Care must be taken not to injure the platinumby allowing it to come in contact with the fused mineral,especially if this contains etc. of steel wire,etc., made while antimony, arsenic, lead, Cheaper forceps, not so convenient, will also serve well. reasonably A short lengthof fairly stout platinum wire to be used in the making of bead tests should be available. A similar length of finer wire for making
"

485.

flame tests is also desirable.

Instead of this, a good stearin candle will answer,

or

an

oil flame with flat wick.

CHEMICAL

EXAMINATION

OF

MINERALS

331

The charcoal employed should not snap and should 486. Charcoal. yieldbut littleash; the kinds made from basswood, pine or willow are best. It is most pieces, employed in rectangular conveniently say four inches long, The surface must inch wide, and three-quartersof an inch in thickness. an before trial. each clean be perfectly always Tubes. The 487. Glass glass tubes should be preferably of two about 5 mm. interior diameter to be cut in with hard glasstubing grades; a and used tube tests and in a soft glass inch five tubingwith about open lengths inch in about six be diameter each length to interior 3 mm. lengths, 624
" "

blowpipe flame,shown in Fig.625, inner of a blue color, : an consists of three cones pale violet c, a second The invisible consists of a. cone outer c and an cone, b, cone, the blowpipe. There from air is with mixed no unburned gas combustion in this cone and 625 therefore no heat. The cone b is the one in which combustion is takingplace.This cone carbon contains monoxide which is a strong reducing Cone a is merely a agent, see below. envelope composed of the final gas products of combustion, C02 and Blowpipe Flame R^ The ^ ^ mogt intense near the tip of the cone 6, and the mineral is held at this point when its fusibility is to be tested. ized The pointo, Fig.625, is called the OXIDIZING FLAME (O.F.) ; it is characterthe the and of air of has hence effect an oxygen oxidizing by the excess This flame is best produced when the jet of the blowpipe the assay. upon little in the gas flame; it should be entirelynon-luminous. is inserted a very
Flame.
"

closed two yielding 488. Blowpipe

tubes. The

6 is called the REDUCING FLAME (R.F.); it is characterized by of carbon the perature the or at the high temof hydrocarbons gas, which excess combine with to of the tend the mineral brought into oxygen present The reduce it. to best flame is produced other in it (atr), words, reducing or, little distance is held from the it should retain a the blowpipe when gas flame; its of the latter on the yellow color edge. upper of Examination. The blowpipe investigation of minerals Methods 489. includes their examination,(1)in the forceps, (2)in the closed and the tubes, (3) on charcoal or other support, and (4) with the fluxes on the open The
cone

the

"

platinum wire.
1. 490. of Use of the EXAMINATION
IN
THE

FORCEPS
to employed

Forceps.
a

"

Forceps
as

are

hold the

fragment

of the mineral
a

while

test is made
may

which volatile ingredient

also when the presence to its fusibility; the flame characteristic color is tested a give

for,etc.
those The followingpractical points must be regarded: (1) Metallic minerals,especially containingarsenic or antimony, which when fused might injurethe platinum of the forceps,

332

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

on charcoal;* (2) the fragment taken should be thin,and as should first be examined well beyond the points; (3)when small as can convenientlybe held,with its edge projecting heat be slowly, must the applied or, if this does not prevent it, takes place, decrepitation made with and be water, thick enough to be held in the a paste the mineral may powdered end in view, be heated on forcepsor on the platinumwire; or the paste may, with the same be held in the hottest part is to be tested must charcoal; (4) the fragment whose fusibility of the flame,just beyond the extremity of the blue cone.

exist among minerals,from 491. Fusibility. All grades of fusibility see those which fuse in largefragments in the flame of the candle (stibnite, in the hottest thinnest the fuse which on blowpipe those to edges only below) which number a considerable are flame (bronzite) ; and stillagain there are
"

infusible (e.g., corundum). entirely

of the temperature of fusion is not easily plished accomexact determination of species of determination it is 431 (cfArt. p. 304),and for purposes of relative is fixed by The approximate degree fusibility readily unnecessary. The the mineral referring to the

scale, suggestedby following

4.

von

Kobell:

1. Stibnite. 2. Natrolite 3. Almandite

(orChalcopyrite).
Garnet.

Actinolite. 5. Orthoclase. 6. Bronzite.

the following with the trial of fusibility, phenomena Art. 493); (b)swelling flame of the coloration (see (a) up may of the mineral (vermiculite) or (stilbite), exfoliation ; or (c)glowingwithout out of the mass and (d) intumescence,or a spirting fusion (calcite); it as fuses (scapolite). is to be noted; and the nature The color of the mineral after ignition of the fused mass is also to be observed,whether clear or blebby glassis a obtained,or a black slag; also whether the bead or residue is magnetic or not etc. (due to iron,less often nickel, cobalt), The ignited be moistened with fragment,if nearlyor quiteinfusible, may the cobalt solution and again ignited, in which case, if it turns blue,this of aluminium indicates the presence (aswith cyanite, topaz, etc.) ; but note that zinc silicate (calamine) also assumes blue color. If it becomes a pink, this indicates a compound of magnesium (asbrucite). it may, after treatment in the forceps, be placed Also, if not too fusible, of moistened turmeric paper, in which case an alkaline reaction a strip upon of an the presence alkali, proves sodium, potassium; or an alkaline earth, calcium, barium, strontium. 493. Flame Coloration. The color often imparted to the outer blowpipe while the mineral held in the forceps is being heated,makes posflame, sible 492.
In connection be observed:
"

the identification of The

colors which

they are

due, are
Color

as

of the elements. number be produced, and the substances may follows:

a

to whose

presence

Substance Lithium. Strontium. Calcium. Sodium. Barium. Boron.

Carmine-red

Purple-red

Orange-red
Yellow. Yellowish green

Siskine-green
*

Arsenic,antimony, and

easilyreducible metals like lead,also

copper,

form

more

or

less fusible

with platinum. alloys

CHEMICAL

EXAMINATION

OF

MINERALS

333

Emerald-green
Bluish green Greenish blue Whitish blue Azure-blue Violet A

Oxide

of copper.

Phosphoric acid (phosphates). Antimony.

Arsenic. Chloride of copper; Potassium. also selenium.

yellowishgreen flame is also given by the oxide or sulphideof molybdenum; a bluish flame (instreaks)by zinc; a pale bluish flame by tellurium; a blue flame by lead. in small quantities, 494. Notes. The presence of soda,even produces a yellow flame, less completely masks the coloration of the which (except in the spectroscope)more or flame due to other substances,e.g., potassium. A filterof blue glassheld in front of the flame will shut out the monochromatic flame and allow the characteristic yellow of the sodium often so difficultly Silicates are violet color of the potassium to be observed. when the substance is present; in such decomposed that no distinct color is obtained even be fused on the platinum wire with the powdered mineral may cases potash feldspar) (e.g., when the flame can be seen an equal volume of gypsum, (at least through blue glass). phate Again, a silicate like tourmaline fused with a mixture of fluorite and acid potassium sulPhosphates and borates give the yields the characteristic green flame of boron. flame in general best when they have been pulverizedand moistened with sulphuric green acid. cases Moistening with hydrochloricacid makes the coloration in many (as with the distinct. carbonates of calcium,barium, strontium) more
green
"

2.

HEATING

IN

THE

CLOSED

AND

OPEN

TUBES

useful chiefly for examining minerals containing tubes are 495. The volatile ingredients, given off at the temperature of the gas flame. In the case the heatinggoes on practically uninfluenced of the closed tube, the driven this is of the tube in since out the air early by present, stages of In the open tube,on the other hand, a continual stream of hot the process. the oxidation that of hot to over produce air, is, assay, tending oxygen, passes and hence often materially changing the result. A small fragment is inserted, 496. Closed Tube. amount or a small with care in this case not to soil the sides of the of the powdered mineral of the ordinary Bunsen flame. The tube and heat is appliedby means is s hown the volatile mate, subliof or a ordinarily by deposit, ingredient presence distance above the assay where the tube is relatively the tube at some upon cool. tion, Independent of this,other phenomena may be noted,namely: decrepitaexhibited by gadoliriite; shown as calcite, as etc.; glowing, by fluorite, of which fluorite is an example; change of color (limonite), phosphorescence, and here the color of the mineral should be noted both when hot,and again after cooling; acid or fusion; givingoff oxygen, as mercuric oxide; yielding alkaline vapors, which should be tested by inserting a stripof moistened litmus or turmeric paper in the tube. those with Of the sublimates which form in the tube, the following are which it is most important to be familiar:
" " "

Substance Water

Sublimate

in the Closed

Tube

(H20)
;

Sulphur (S)

Tellurium dioxide (TeO2) Arsenic sulphide (As2S3)

Antimony oxysulphide (Sb2S2O) Arsenic (As) Mercury sulphide (HgS) Mercury (Hg)
In addition to the above:

Colorless liquiddrops. solid. Red to deep yellow,liquid ; pale yellow, Pale yellow to colorless, liquid; colorless or white,solid. Dark red,liquid;reddish yellow,solid. solid. Black to reddish brown on cooling, solid Black, brilliant metallic to gray crystalline, Deep black,red when rubbed very fine. Gray metallic globules. selenium the givesblack fusible globules;
same,

Tellurium

but

334
in

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY
of arsenic and

chloride of lead and oxides part dark red when very small; the sublimates. solid white give

antimony

The small fragment is placed in the tube about but not inclined (say20"), inch from the lower end, the tube being slightly an beneath. The heat rent curand applied out, enough to cause the mineral to slip has the an the tube heating during process of air passing upward through the of formation be observed are to phenomena oxidizingeffect. The special The acid alkaline character or the odor of the escaping gases. a sublimate and The with the closed tube. as is tested for in the same way of the vapors is sulphur dioxide, in this way S02, when most common gas to be obtained its be is to This recognizedby irritating, oxidized. gas are being sulphides blue litmus moistened reaction its acid and paper. odor upon
497.

Open Tube.

"

pungent
The

more

important sublimates

are

as

follows:
in the

Substance

Sublimate

Open

Tube

volatile. White, crystalline, Arsenic trioxide (AsaOa) hot; white, cold. Antimony antimonate (Sb2O4) Straw-yellow,

Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3)

.

Infusible, non-volatile, of tube. Obtained amorphous, settlingalong bottom also the from compounds containingsulphur as stibnite, bournonite)as dense white fumes. (e.g., sulphantimonites Usually accompanied by the following: forming as a ring on slowly volatile, White, crystalline,
walls of tube. White to pale yellow globules. volatile. White, crystalline, Pale yellow,hot; white, cold. easilyunited by rubbing. Gray metallic globules,

Tellurium dioxide (TeO2) Selenium dioxide (SeO2) Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3)

Mercury (Hg)

mates, It is also to be noted that if the heating process is too rapid for full oxidation,sublibe formed, especially with sulphur (yellow), like those of the closed tubes, may arsenic sulphide (orange), sulphide (black), antimony oxysulphide arsenic (black), mercury (blackto reddish brown).

3.

HEATING

ON

CHARCOAL is placed near end of one along its length. If the with

498. The fragment (orpowder) to be examined the piece and this so held that the flame passes be powdered, mixed mineral decrepitates, it may
material

water, and

then

the

employed as a paste. reducing flame is employed if it is desired to reduce a metal (e.g.., eral case. silver, copper)from its ores : this is the common If, however, the minis to be roasted, that is, heated in contact with the air so as to oxidize and for example,the sulphur, volatilize, antimony present, the oxidizing arsenic, flame is needed and the mineral should be in powder and spread out.
The
The

points to be noted are as follows : (a) The odor given off after short heating. In this

way

the

presence

of

arsenic (garlic alliaceous odor),and selenium (odor of decayed sulphur, or be horseradish) recognized. may In the case (b) Fusion. of the salts of the alkalies the fused mass is absorbed into the charcoal;this is also true, after long heating, of the carbonates and sulphates of barium and strontium. (Art.501.) (c) The Sublimate. the presence of many of the metals By this means be determined. The color of the sublimate, both near may the assay (N) and at a distance (D) as also when hot and when is to be noted. cold, The important sublimates are the following:
"

"

336

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

of soda on coal charBy means 500. Detection of Sulphur in Sulphates. be in the in the shown, of following sulphates may the presence sulphur The Fuse the powdered mineral with soda and charcoal dust. manner. the to sulphate a sulphide latter acting as a strong reducing agent changes is placed with the fused mass with the formation of sodium sulphide. When silver surface a black or yellow stain of silver a clean a drop of water upon be obtained from A similar reaction would of course will be formed. sulphide
"

sulphide.
tube

The
or

latter
upon

can

however

the open

charcoal and
TREATMENT
"

be readily distinguished by roastingin notingthe formation of SO2.

4.

ON

THE

PLATINUM

WIRE

fluxes are The three common of the Fluxes. borax, salt of used with the and carbonate of soda (p.330). They are generally phosphorus, platinum wire, less often on charcoal (see p. 335) If the wire is employed it must have a small loop at the end; this is heated to redness and dipped into fused to a bead; this operation the powdered flux,and the adheringparticles in the use of soda the wire may until the loop is filled. Sometimes is repeated adhere. little it to to be first moistened cause a at it is, while hot,brought in contact the bead is ready, with the powWhen dered the to will adhere and then which of it, mineral, some heating process and the be continued. Very littleof the mineral is in generalrequired, may with a minute quantity and more added if experimentshould be commenced The be heated successively bead must firstin the oxidizing flame necessary. and in each case and then in the reducingflame (R.F.), the color noted (O.F.) cold. The phenomena connected with fusion, if it takes when hot and when be must also observed. place,

501.

Use

Minerals containingsulphur or arsenic, or both, must be first roasted (see p. 334) till have been volatilized. If too much of the mineral has been added and the these substances bead is hence too opaque to show the color, it may, while hot, be flattened out with the and the remainder diluted hammer, or d'rawn out into a wire,or part of it may be removed with more of the flux With salt of phosphorus, the wire should be held above the flame so that the escaping support the bead ; this is continued tillquiet fusion is attained. gases may It is to be noted that the colors vary much of material present ; they with the amount also modified by the presence of other metals. are
.

502. Borax. The following listenumerates the different colored beads obtained with borax, both in the oxidizing (O.F.)and reducingflames (R.F.), and also the metals to the presence of whose oxides the colors are due. pare Comfurther the reactions given in the listof elements (Art.504).
-

Color in Borax

Bead 1. OXIDIZING

Substance

FLAME

or Colorless,

opaque

white.
. .

Ked, red-brown

to brown

Green

also silver, zinc,etc. (paleyellow,hot, if in small amount). Chromium (CrO3),hot (yellowish green, cold). Manganese (Mn2O3), amethystine-red (violet, hot). Iron (Fe2O3), if saturated. hot (yellow, cold) Nickel (NiO) red-brown to brown, cold" (violet, hot). Uranium (UO3), hot cold). (yellow, Copper (CuO), hot (blue,cold,or bluish green if highly

calcium,aluminium; Silica, Iron, cold

" "

"

"

"

"

"

saturated).
Chromium

yellowishgreen, (CrO3),

cold

"

(red,hot).

CHEMICAL

EXAMINATION

OF

MINERALS

337
"

Yellow

Iron

Blue Violet
,.
.

but (paleyellow to colorless, cold) yellow if saturated. Uranium (UOs), hot, if in small amount; paler on cooling. Chromium hot and in small amount (CrO3), (yellowish cold). green, Cobalt (CoO), hot and cold. Copper (CuO), cold if highly saturated (green,hot). Nickel (NiO), hot (red-brown, cold). Manganese (Mn2O3), hot (amethystine-red, cold).
"

(Fe2O3),hot
and

red-brown

"

"

"

"

2.

REDUCING

FLAME

(R.F.)

Colorless
Red Green

Manganese (MnO), or a faint rose color. Copper (Cu2O, with Cu), opaque red. Iron (FeO), bottle-green. Chromium (CrjOs), emerald-green. Uranium (U^Os),yellowishgreen if saturated.
Cobalt Nickel

Blue

(CoO), hot
(Ni).

and

cold.

Gray, turbid

503. Salt of Phosphorus. This flux gives for the most part reactions The only cases similar to those obtained with borax. enumerated here are and hence those where the flux is a good test. those which are distinct, in 'which the bases of the silicate are With silicates this flux forms a glass the is left It appears insoluble. but silicaitself as a skeleton readily dissolved, in a bout the melted bead. seen floating The colors of the beads,and the metals to whose oxides these are due, are :
"

Color Red Green

:

Substance Chromium Chromium

in

in O.F.

Molybdenum in O.F.).
Uranium

cold). (fine green when R.F., when cold (red in O.F., hot). in R.F., dirtygreen, hot; fine green, cold (yellow-green O.F., hot
and
"
"

"

Yellow

Violet

hot. in R.F., cold; yellow-green, red,hot). In O.F., Vanadium, chrome-green in R.F., cold (brownish dark yellow,hot, paleron cooling. Molybdenum, yellowishgreen in O.F.,hot,paleron cooling (inR.F., dirty green, hot; fine green, cold). Uranium in O.F. hot; yellowishgreen, cold (inR.F. yellowish green, hot; green, cold). Vanadium in O.F., dark yellow,hot, paler on cooling (in R.F., brownish red, hot; chrome-green, cold). hot. Titanium (TiO2) in R.F., yellow, (Alsoin O.F.,yellow,hot; colorcold.)
"

"

"

"

CHARACTERISTIC

REACTIONS
OF

OF

THE

IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS

ELEMENTS

AND

OF

SOME

THEIR

504. The following characteristic reactions, listcontains the most chiefly before the blowpipe and in some also in the wet way, 'of the different cases elements and their oxides. It is desirable for every student to gain familiarity with them by trial with as many minerals as possible.Many of them have For a thoroughlyfull in the preceding mentioned alreadybeen briefly pages. of these and other characteristic tests (blowpipe and otherwise) description reference should be made to the volume by Brush and Penfield referred to on
p. 329.

be

It is to be remembered substance may that while the reaction of a single of substances if other distinct the or more perfectly alone, presence may

338
less obscure entirely these

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

consequentlyobvious that in the have to be taken, and special precautions actual examination from this the cause. arising to difficulty have to be devised, overcome methods in characters" nection (Pyr.) given conThese will be gatheredfrom the "pyrognostic of Part this Fourth work. in the of each species with the description
reactions; it
is

of minerals

infusible minerals,containinga conin most siderable of aluminium presence when, after being be detected by the blue color which they assume cyanite,andalusite, heated,they are moistened with cobalt solution and again ignited(e.g., pulverized. The test is not etc.). Very hard minerals (as corundum) must be first finely be formed. conclusive with fusible minerals since a glasscolored blue by cobalt oxide may Aluminium,
"

The

amount,

may

also assumes a blue color when (zincsilicate) It is to be noted that the infusible calamine will be precipitated as a flocculent solutions aluminium treated with cobalt nitrate. From the addition of ammonium hydroxide in excess. white or colorless precipitate on minerals roasted on charcoal give dense white odorless fumes; Antimonial Antimony. tube a white sublimate of metallic antimony and its sulphur compounds give in the open also many sulpharitimonites, oxide of antimony (seep. 334). Antimony sulphide (stibnite), give in a strong heat in the closed tube a sublimate of antimony oxysulphide, black when
"

hot, brown-red when cold. See also p. 333. In nitric acid,compounds containing antimony deposit white
acid.
"

insoluble metantimonic

roasted on when Arsenic. charcoal, etc., give off fumes Arsenides, sulpharsenites, odor. In the open tube they give a white, recognizedby their peculiargarlic usuallyeasily of arsenic trioxide. In the closed tube arsenic sulphide sublimate crystalline volatile, gives a sublimate dark brown-red when hot, and red or reddish yellow when cold; arsenic In arsenates arsenides yielda black mirror of metallic arsenic in the closed tube. and some be detected by the garlicodor yielded when mixture of the powdered the arsenic can a carbonate mineral with charcoal dust and sodium is heated (R.F.) on charcoal. Barium. A yellowish coloration of the flame is given by all barium salts, except green alkaline reaction is usually obtained the silicates; after intense ignition. an In solution the presence is proved by the heavy white precipitate(BaSO4) of barium the addition of dilute sulphuricacid. formed upon Bismuth. On charcoal alone,or better with soda, bismuth gives a very characteristic orange-yellow sublimate; brittle globules of the reduced metal are also obtained (with treated with 3 or 4 times the volume of a mixture in equal parts of soda). Also when iodide and sulphur, and fused on charcoal,a beautiful red sublimate of bismuth potassium iodide is obtained; near the mineral the coating is yellow. Boron. also the silicates, danMany compounds containing boron (borates, datolite, if moistened burite, etc.)tinge the flame intense yellowishgreen, especially with sulphuric acid. For some .silicates(as tourmaline) the best method is to mix the powdered mineral with one part powdered fluorite and two parts potassium bisulphate. The mixture is moistened and placed on platinum wire. of fusion the green At the moment color appears,
" " "

solution containing boron gives a reddish brown color to turmeric paper which has been moistened with it and then dried at 100"; the color changes to black when ammonia is poured on the paper. Cakium. Many calcium minerals (carbonates, etc.) sulphates, give an alkaline reaction turmeric paper after being ignited. A yellowishred color is given to the flame by some on calcite after moistening with HG1) ; the strontium flame is a much compounds (e.g., deeper
"

but lasts but an instant. A clilute hydrochloric acid

red. acid or alkaline solutions calcium is precipitated oxalate by the addition of as oxalate. Cadmium. On charcoal with soda, compounds of cadmium limate give a characteristic subof the reddish brown oxide. Carbonates. All carbonates effervesce with dilute less hydrochloricacid,yieldingthe odorgas CO2 (e.g., calcite); and some requireto be pulverized, need the addition of many heat (dolomite, sidente). Carbonates of lead should be tested with nitric acid. LMprides. If a small portion of a mineral containing chlorine (a chloride, also pyrois added to the bead of salt of phosphorus, morphite,etc.) saturated with copper oxide,the bead when heated is instantly surrounded with an intense purplishflame of copper chloride. In solution chlorine gives with silver nitrate of silver chloride a white curdy precipitate which darkens color on exposure in to the light; it is insoluble in nitric acid, but entirely soluble m ammonia.
ammonium
"

In

weakly

"

"

CHEMICAL

EXAMINATION

OF

MINERALS

339

Chromium. Chromium giveswith borax a bead which (O.F.)is yellow to red (hot)and yellowish green (cold)and R.F. a fine emerald-green. With salt of phosphorus in O.F. the bead is dirty green Cf. Vanadium (hot) and clear green (cold); in R.F. the same. beyond (alsopp. 336, 337).
"

Cobalt.

"

beautiful blue

bead

is obtained

with

borax

in both

flames

from

minerals

containing cobalt. Where sulphur or arsenic is present the mineral should first be thoroughly roasted on charcoal. On charcoal, at least with soda, metallic be reduced from most of Copper. can copper its compounds. In the case of sulphides the powdered mineral should be roasted firstin order to eliminate the major part of the sulphur before fusion with soda. With borax it gives (O.F.)a green bead when hot,becoming blue when cold; also (R.F.),if saturated, an red bead containingCu2O and often Cu is obtained. obtained by Copper chloride, opaque moistening the mineral with hydrochloricacid (inthe case of sulphidesthe mineral should be previously roasted)yieldsa vivid azure-blue flame; copper oxide gives a green flame. Most metallic compounds are soluble in nitric acid. Ammonia in excess produces an
"

intense blue color in the solution. in the closed tube with potassium bisulphate and powdered glass Heated Fluorine. acid present produces a white sublimate of SiO2. This sublimate and the hydrofluosilicic But ifthe lower end of the tube isbroken off and the open tube form a volatile combination. then dipped in a test tube of water that the acid is removed, the depositof SiO2 which so will appear when the tube is dried will be found to be no longer volatile. Heated gently in a platinum crucible with sulphuric acid, many compounds (e.g., fluorite) give off hydrofluoric acid,which corrodes the exposed parts of a glassplate placed and then scratched. it which has been coated with wax over Iron. Minerals which contain of iron yield a magnetic mass small amount even a when heated in the reducing flame. With borax iron gives a bead (O.F.) which is yellow red (according to quantity) while hot, but is colorless to yellow on cooling; to brownish R.F. becomes bottle-green 337). (seepp. 336', Lead. With soda on charcoal a malleable globuleof metallic lead is obtained from lead compounds; the coating has a yellow color near the as"ay; the sulphide gives also a white ing coating (PbSO3) farther off (p.335). On being touched with the reducing flame the coatdisappears, tingeingthe flame azure-blue. In solutions dilute sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate of lead sulphate; when of the acid is added, the solution evaporated to dryness,and delicacyis required an excess water added; the lead sulphate,if present, will then be left as a residue. Lithium. Lithium givesan intense carmine-red to the outer flame,the color somewhat it is evident resembling that of the strontium flame but is deeper; in very small quantities in the spectroscope. Magnesium. Moistened, after heating,with cobalt nitrate and again ignited, a pink color is obtained from some infusible compounds of magnesium (e.g., brucite). In solution the addition of ammonium and a littlehydrogen sodium hydroxide in large excess phate phosof NH4MgPO4. Elements produces a white granular precipitate precipitated by ammonium oxalate should be removed first. hydroxide or ammonium With borax manganese and colorless (R.F.). Manganese. givesa bead violet-red (O.F.), With soda (O.F.) it gives a bluish green bead; this reaction is very delicate and may be relied upon, even in presence of almost any other metal. In the closed tube sublimate of metallic mercury is yielded when a the Mercury. mineral is heated with dry sodium carbonate. In the open tube the sulphidegivesa mirror of metallic mercury; in the closed tube a black lusterless sublimate of HgS, red when rubbed, is obtained. On charcoal molybdenum the assay a copper-red Molybdenum. sulphide gives near stain (O.F.), and beyond a white coating of the oxide; the former becomes azure-blue when for a moment touched with the R.F. The salt of phosphorus bead (O.F.) is yellowish (hot) and nearlycolorless (cold); also (R.F.) a fine green. green Nickel. With borax, nickel oxide gives a bead which (O.F.) is violet when hot and red-brown on cooling; (R.F.) the glass becomes gray and turbid from the separation of metallic nickel. Niobium An acid solution boiled with metallic tin gives a blue color. (Columbium). The reactions with the fluxes are not very satisfactory. Nitrates. These detonate when heated on charcoal. Heated in a tube with sulphuric acid they give off red fumes of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Most Phosphorus. after having phosphates impart a green color to the flarne, especially been moistened with sulphuricacid,though this test may be rendered unsatisfactory n by
"
" " " " " "

"

"

"

"

"

340
the presence
of metallic

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

used in the closed tube with a fragment are with water, phosphureted moistened afterward and magnesium or sodium, odor. by its disagreeable recognizable hydrogen is given off, tion acid,produce in a solucontaining phosphoric A few drops of a nitric acid solution, of ammonium phosphoof ammonium yellowprecipitate molybdate a pulverulent

of other coloring agents. If they

molybdate.
The flame is best Potash imparts a violet color to the flame when alone. Potassium. observed through a blue glassfilterwhich will eliminate the sodium flame color which will when soda or or almost invariablybe present. It is best detected in small quantities, lithia is present, by the aid of the spectroscope. See also p. 333. On charcoal selenium fuses easily, giving off brown fumes with a peculiar Selenium. and when heated (R.F.) disagreeable organic odor; the sublimate on charcoal is volatile, givesa fine azure-blue flame. A small fragment of a silicatein the salt of phosphorusbead leaves a skeleton Silicon. the bases being dissolved. of silica, then dissolved If a silicatein a fine powder is fused with sodium carbonate and the mass and mass acid and evaporated to dryness,the silicaseparates as a gelatinous in hydrochloric acid is added and on evaporationto dryness is made insoluble. When strong hydrochloric dissolved and the silica left then water to the dry residue in the test tube, the bases are behind. those which are hydrous, are decomposed by strong hydrochloric especially Many silicates, separatingas a powder or, after evaporation,as a jelly acid,the silica (seep. 328). On charcoal in O.F. silver givesa brown Silver. coating. A globuleof metallic silver if soda is added. be obtained by heating on charcoal in O.F., especially generally may circumstances it is desirable to have recourse to cupellation. Under some down solution containing any salt of silver, the insoluble chloride is thrown From a acid is added. is insoluble in acid or water, but entirely when hydrochloric This precipitate It changes color on in ammonia. to the light. so exposure Strontium. Compounds of strontium are usuallyrecognized by the fine crimson-red which they give to the blowpipe flame; many yield an alkaline reaction after ignition.
" " " "
"

barium.) (Cf.

Compounds containingsodium in large amount give a strong yellow flame. Sulphur,Sulphides, Sulphates. In the closed tube some sulphidesgive off sulphur; in the open tube they yieldsulphur dioxide,which has a characteristic odor and reddens a In small quantities, in sulphates, strip of moistened litmus paper. or sulphur is best detected by fusion on charcoal with soda and charcoal dust. The fused mass, when sodium sulphidehas thus been formed, is placed on a -clean silver coin and moistened; a distinct black stain on the silver is thus obtained (the precaution mentioned be on p. 336 must exercised). A solution of a sulphatein hydrochloric acid giveswith barium chloride a white insoluble of barium sulphate. precipitate Tellurium. Tellurides heated in the open tube give a white or grayish sublimate, fusible to colorless drops (p. 334). On charcoal they give a white coating and color the
Sodium.
"
" "

R.F.

when heated on charcoal with soda or containingtin (e.g., cassiterite), potassium cyanide,yield metallic tin in minute globules; these are malleable, but harder than silver. Dissolved in nitric acid,white insoluble stannic oxide separates out. Titanium. Titanium gives in the R.F. with salt of phosphorus a bead which is violet when cold. Fused with sodium carbonate and dissolved with hydrochloric acid, and heated with a piece of metallic tin,the liquidtakes a violet color, after partial especially evaporation. Tungsten. Tungsten oxide gives a blue color to the salt of phosphorus bead (R.F.). Fused and treated as titanium (see above) with the addition of zinc instead of tin,gives a
" " "

green. Tin. Minerals

fine blue color. Uranium. Uranium compounds give to the salt of phosphorus bead (O.F.) a greenish yellow bead when cool; also (R.F.) a fine green on cooling (p. 337). Vanadium. With borax (O.F.)vanadates give a bead yellow (hot)changing to yellowish green and nearly colorless (cold) fine green (cold). With ; also (R.F.) dirty (hot), green from chromium); also "r"i PhosPhorus (O.F.) a yellow to amber color (thus differing (R.F.) fine green (cold). Zinc. On charcoal in the reducingflame compounds of zinc give a coating which is yellow while hot and white on cooling, and moistened by the cobalt solution and again
" " "

heated when

becomes heated

fine green.

after

Note, however,that the zinc silicate (calamine) becomes moistening with cobalt solution.

blue

CHEMICAL

EXAMINATION

OF

MINERALS

341
an

Zirconium.

"

dilute

acid solution, hydrochloric containing zirconium, imparts

paper,

orange-yellow color

to turmeric

moistened

by the solution. MINERALOGY

DETERMINATIVE

505. Determinative be properly considered under the Mineralogy may general head of Chemical Mineralogy, since the determination of minerals and all the physidepends mostly upon chemical tests. But crystallographic cal observed. characters have also to be carefully in which There is but one exhaustive way the identity of an unknown and that is by the use mineral may of a in all cases be fixed beyond question,
of such tables the mineral in set of determinative tables. By means is referred successively from a generalgroup into a more special one, until at last all other species have been eliminated, and the identity of the one given is beyond doubt. A careful preliminary examination of the unknown mineral should,however, is had to the tables. This examination always be made before final recourse will often suffice to show what the mineral in hand and in is, it is not it should be since in this that a case omitted, only any way with the appearance and characters of minerals can be familiarity practical

complete

hand

gained.
The student will naturally take note firstof those characters which are at to obvious the that is: crystalline ture, struconce form, if distinct; general senses, color if the specimen is (and streak), cleavage, fracture, luster, feel;also, not too small,the apparent weight will suggest something as to the specific of very unequal importance. Structure, are gravity. The characters named if crystals not present, and fracture are unessential except in are generally but essential with metallic, color and luster are distinguishing varieties; is with minerals. Streak of tance imporgenerally nonmetallic, very unimportant only with colored minerals and those of metallic luster (p.247) Crystalline form and cleavageare of the highestimportance, but may requirecareful
.

study.
which end firsttrial should be the determination of the hardness (for the pocket-knife is often sufficient in experiencedhands). The second trial of the specific of the powshould be the determination gravity. Treatment dered mineral with acids may come (seepp. 328,329) a next; by this means is readily Then should carbonate and also other results obtained. identified, the color given to the flame, to ascertain the fusibility; follow blowpipe trials, if any; the character of the sublimate given off in the tubes and on charcoal; and other points the reactions with the fluxes, the metal reduced on the latter; The
as

explainedin the precedingpages.

How much the observer

learns in the above way, in regard to the nature his knowledge of the characters of minerals in of his mineral,depends upon and upon his familiarity with the chemical behavior of the various general, elementarysubstances with reagents and before the blowpipe (pp.338 to 341). definite to If the results of such a preliminaryexamination are sufficiently of of reference in is the hand small number that mineral one a species, suggest for the final this work i n of be Part. IV their full to made. description may decision. included are arrangedaccording added in the Appendix. They and physical to their crystalline are characters,
A number of

in which tables,

the minerals

342

CHEMICAL

MINERALOGY

will

In

many in first

cases

aid

the

observer

in

reaching

conclusion

in

regard

to

specimen
The
to

hand. of these tables basic

gives
elements

lists and

of

minerals

arranged

primarily
to

ing accordtheir acid

their

principle

secondarily

according

radicals.
The

second

of

these
to

tables

is

intended

to
to

include which

all

well-defined

species,
and

grouped
under added

according
each
in each

the
the The

crystalline
order relative of

system
their

they

belong
the

arranged
is also

system
case.

in

specific
of minor

gravities;
the

hardness

importance
this
are

individual tables

species enumerating

is shown

by

the

type

employed. by
in of
some one

Following
of the

species is, those give

of

characterized

prominent

crystalline
etc.

forms;
Other

that

crystallizing
the
names

cubes, species

octahedrons,

rhombohedrons,
because of their

tables
structure

prominent luster;
use

cleavage;
etc.

different recommended identification

types;
to

hardness;
make

the
of

various these

colors, tables,
not

The for

student aid him in in

is the the

frequent
but the

simply
will

of

specimens, learning

rather

because characters

they
of

help
more

difficult
minerals.

task

of

prominent

the

important

344
In

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

be stated that, in general, regardto the various classes of salts it may and basic hydrous sections;the into acid, anhydrous, they are separated the different in cases. called for,however, vary subdivisions special
For
an

of explanation

the abbreviations

used

in the

see descriptionof species,

p. 5.

SCHEME
I. NATIVE ELEMENTS.

OF

CLASSIFICATION

II. SULPHIDES, III.

SELENIDES,
"

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES. SULPHO-

Sulpho-salts.
Haloids.
OXIDES.
"

SULPHARSENITES,
BISMUTHITES.

SULPHANTIMONITES,
IODIDES J FLUORIDES.

IV.
V.

CHLORIDES,

BROMIDES,

VI.

Oxygen
1. 2. 3. 4.

Salts.
CARBONATES.

SILICATES, TITANATES. NIOBATES, PHOSPHATES,

NITRATES. BORATES. TANTALATES.

ARSENATES,
URANATES.

VANADATES;

ANTIMONATES.

6. 6. 7.

SULPHATES, TUNGSTATES,

CHROMATES,
MOLYBDATES.

TELLURATES.

VII. VIII.

Salts

of Organic

Acids:

etc. Oxalates,Mellates,

HYDROCARBON

COMPOUNDS.
I. NATIVE

ELEMENTS

divided into the two distinct sections of the The NATIVE ELEMENTS are Metals and the Non-metals,and these are connected by the transition class of The distinction between them as regardsphysical characters the Semi-metals. and chemical relations has alreadybeen given (Art.453) The minerals are only non-metals present among carbon, sulphur,and in of its the is related to the one last, allotropic selenium; closely forms, semi-metal tellurium. The native semi-metals form a distinct group by themselves,since all in the rhombohedral mental class of the hexagonal system with a fundacrystallize anglediffering only a few degreesfrom 90", as shown in the following list: rrr 93" 3'. 94" 54'. Tellurium, Arsenic,rr' 92" 53'. 92" 20'. Antimony, rr' Bismuth, rr'
.

of selenium is known with metallic luster and rhombohedral rr' with 93". Zinc dral crystallization, (also only artif.)is rhomboheand connects the semi-metals to the true metals. (rr' 93" 46') Metallic tantalum has been described in cubic crystals. is prominent,including Among the metals the isometric GOLD GROUP gold,
in
= =

An

artificial form

silver, copper, mercury,

amalgam (AgHg), and lead.

NATIVE

ELEMENTS

345

includes the metals platinum,iridium, related isometric group An allot iron. and ropic form of palladium and also iridosmine palladium, rhombohedral. both (IrOs)are Another
DIAMOND.

but with the + and forms usually oped develtetrahedral, Isometric, equally from each other. and not to be distinguished dral, octaheCommonly showing and other forms ; faces frequently rounded or striated and hexoctahedral, Twins with tw. pi.0(111). with triangular common (on o(lll)). depressions In distorted. massive. spherical forms; Crystalsoften
"

627

628

Cleavage: o(111)highlyperfect. Fracture conchoidal.

G.
=

Brittle.

H.

10.

to greasy. Color white or crystals. Luster adamantine various pale shades of yellow, occasionally colorless; red, orange, green, blue, sometimes black. brown; rarelydeeply colored; Usually transparent; also Refractive and dispersive 2-4195. translucent, opaque. power high; index n
=

3-516-3-525

(SeeArt. 328.)
1 Ordinary. In crystalsusuallywith rounded faces and varying from those colorless and free from flaws (first faint shades of color, water) through many often full of flaws and hence of value only for cuttingpuryellowbeing the most common; poses. Var.
-.

which

are

2.

Bort

or

Boort; rounded

forms

with rough exterior and

radiated

or

confused

line crystal-

structure. 3. Carbonado

without Brazil.

or Carbon; black diamond. granular to compact, Massive, crystalline, from Bahia, cleavage. Color black or grayish black. Opaque. Obtained chiefly

combustion a slight on yields ash. Unaffected by heat except at very high temperatures, when Pyr.,etc. (inan oxygen atmosphere) it burns to carbon dioxide (CO2) ; out of contact with the air transformed into of coke. Not acted upon a kind by acids or alkalies. Diff. from quartz crystal) hardness and brilliant Distinguished (e.g., by its extreme adamantine the form, cleavage, and high specific ters; luster; gravity are also distinctive characit is optically isotropic ; transparent to X-rays. Artif. Minute diamonds have been formed in several ways. Moissan artificially carbon in molten iron and then coolingthe mass firstproduced them by dissolving suddenly under they have been formed by dissolving pressure; graphitein fused olivine or artificial magnesium silicate melts; they have been formed when an electric current was passed in carbon while under high pressure in an atmosphere of embedded through an iron spiral hydrogen. Obs. in alluvial depositsof gravel,sand, or clay,assoThe diamond occurs chiefly ciated with quartz, gold,platinum, zircon, brookite, octahedrite, rutile, ilmenite, hematite, and also andalusite, chrysoberyl, topaz, corundum, tourmaline,garnet, etc.; the associated minerals being those common in granitic rocks or granitic Also found in quartzose veins.
"

Comp.

Pure

carbon; the varietycarbonado

"

"

"

"

346
conglomerates, and
further

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

with the laminated granular quartz rock or less flexible. This or in thin slabs is more lina, at the mines of Brazil and the Ural Mts.; and also in Georgia and North Carorock occurs have been found. where a few diamonds It has been reported as occurring in situ in a pegmatite vein in gneiss at Bellaryin in South Africa and in a further in connection with an eruptiveperidotite It occurs India. It has been noted as grayishparticles forming one similar formation in Pike County, Ark. the meteorite which fellat Novo-Urei, Russia, Sept. 22, 1886; also in the form per cent of 9) in the meteorite of Carcote, Chile; in the meteoric iron of of black diamond (H.
in

connection

which itacolumite, quartzose hydromica schist,

Canon Diablo, Ariz. down from very early times to the discovery of of diamonds the chief source India was in that southern the small. Of the is mines localities, India,in the now Brazilian yield the ; The diamond mines." "Golconda deposits of Madras presidency, included the famous since the early part of the 18th century, and have yielded very Brazil have been worked The most important obtained is small. although at the present time the amount largely, in the province of Minas Geraes; also from Bahia, etc. region was that near Diamantina firstfound in in South Africa dates from 1867. They were The discovery of diamonds from Potchefstroom down to the junction with the Vaal the of occur river;they the gravel More recentlythey have been Orange river,and along the latter as far as Hope Town. German South in the Somabula found in gravels Forest,Rhodesia and at Liideritzbucht, of much less importance than the dry diggings, river diggings Africa. These are now West discovered in 1871. in Griqualand-West, south of the Vaal river, the border of the The latter are chiefly on of limited areas Kimberley a number mately approxiOrange Free State. There are here near 200 to 300 yards, of oval in form, with an average diameter of some or spherical mines are the most important. which the Kimberley,De Beer's, Dutoitspan and Bultfpntein mines. The general structure is A circle 3" miles in diameter encloses these four principal shale with upturned edges enclosing similar: a wall of nearly horizontal black carbonaceous The upper portion of the deposit consists of a friable mass of the diamantiferous area. the reach of littlecoherence of a pale yellow color,called the "yellow ground." Below firm and of a bluish green or greenishcolor; it is the rock is more atmospheric influences, of a serpentinous This consists essentially called the "blue ground" or simply "the blue." breccia: a base of hydrated magnesian silicatepenetrated by calcite and opaline silica and also garnet, magnetite, and ilmenite, and less enclosingfragments of bronzite,diallage, The diamonds rather abundantly dissemietc. nated are commonly smaragdite,pyrite,zircon, claims to the amount of 4 to 6 carats per cubic yard. The through the mass, in some rock seems to have been a peculiartype of peridotite. These areas believed original are to be volcanic pipes,and the occurrence of the diamonds is obviouslyconnected with the eruptiveoutflow,they having probably been brought up from underlyingrocks. Other important mines, similar in character to those near Kimberley, are the Jagersfonteinmine in Orange Free State and the Premier, near Pretoria,Transvaal. The South African mines up to the beginningof 1914 are estimated to have yielded about 120 million carats valued at nearly 900 million dollars. (26 tons) of diamonds Diamonds also obtained in Borneo, associated with platinum, etc.; in Australia, are and the Ural Mts. In the United States a few stones have been found in gravelsin N. C., Ga., Va,, Col., Cal. and Wis. Reported from Idaho and from Oregon with platinum. In 1906 diamonds found in Pike County, Ark., both loose in the soil and enclosed in a peridotite were rock. Considerable explorationwork has been done at this locality and probably between two and three thousand stones found. The stones have been of good color but usually small. Some of the famous diamonds of the world with their weights are as follows: the Kohiwhich weighed when brought to England 186 carats, and as recut as a brilliant, noor, 106 194 carats; the Regent or Pitt, 137 carats; the Florentine or Grand carats; the Orloff, of Tuscany, 133 carats. Duke The "Star of the South" found in Brazil weighed before and after cutting respectively 254 and 125 carats. Also famous because of the rarity of their color are the green diamond of Dresden, 40 carats,and the deep blue Hope diamond
from

India,weighing 44

carats.

at

the Premier
to

mine.

Assembly
li Ibs.

King Edward
since

It has

and was presented by the Transvaal found it weighed 3,025 carats or over been cut into 105 separate the two largest stones, weighing516 and 309
was

It

named
of

VII

England.

the Cullinan When

NATIVE

ELEMENTS

347
The of history the above

cut stones carats, respectively, being the largest stones and

"

in existence.

of others is given in many works on gems. In addition to its use as a gem, the diamond is extensively Use. used as an abrasive. Crystal fragments are used to cut glass. The fine powder is employed in grinding and the carbonado, are The noncrystalline, polishinggem stones. varieties, especially opaque drills. The used in the bits of diamond is also used in wire drawing and in the diamond of tungsten filaments for electric lights. in minute CLIFTONITE. Carbon cubic and cubo-octahedral crystals. H. G. Color and streak black; from the Youndegin, West Australia, 2' 12. meteoric found in 1884, and other meteoric irons.

making
=

"

2'5.

iron,

GRAPHITE.

Plumbago.

Black

Lead.

In six-sided tabular crystals.Commonly Rhombohedral. embedded in foliated masses, also columnar or radiated;scalyor slaty;granular to con"

pact; earthy.
inelastic. Feel greasy. Cleavage: basal,perfect. Thin laminae flexible, H. 1-2. 2'09-2'23. Luster metallic, G sometimes dull, earthy. Color iron-black to dark steel-gray.Opaque. A conductor of electricity. Comp. Carbon, like the diamond; often impure from the presence of ferric oxide, clay,etc.
= =
"

Pyr., etc. At a high temperature some graphite burns more easily than diamond, B.B. infusible. Unaltered other varieties less so. by acids. Diff. softness (soapy feel);iron-black color; metallic Characterized by its extreme Cf. molybdenite, luster;low specific gravity; also by infusibility. p. 360. Artif. It is a common furnace product being formed from the fuel. It is produced extensively by heating coke in the electric furnace. Obs. ceous Graphite is most commonly formed through the metamorphism of carbonadepositsand is most frequently found in metamorphic rocks, contact metamorphic Coal beds may be largely etc. converted into graphiteby intense metamorphism deposits, It is not always of organic origin, in meteorites, in however, as is shown by its occurrence pegmatite depositsand as a magmatic separationin various igneous rocks. Frequentlyits Found laminae or scales in granite, beds and embedded originis obscure. as as masses, mica schist, limestone. The depositsof crystalline gneiss, quartzite, crystalline graphite which are of the greatest commercial importance have formed as veins along rock fractures. Island of Ceylon from which the largestpart of the world's Important localities are: Passau district in Bavaria; southern supply comes; Bohemia; Korea; Madagascar; Sonora in Mexico ; eastern Ontario and adjacent portionsof Quebec in Canada. The most productive localityin the United States is in the eastern and southeastern Adirondack It occurs here in region in Essex, Warren, Saratoga and Washington Counties, N. Y. with quartz in small veins running through gneissand in pegmatite graphiticquartzites, veins. Also found in metamorphosed Carboniferous rocks near Providence and Tiverton, R. I.; in granite and schists in Clay, Chilton and Coqsa Counties, Ala.; as amorphous veins near graphite near Raton, N. M.; in irregular Mon.; near Turret, Chaff ee Dillon, Co., Col. in lubrifor making crucibles and other refractory Use. Its chief uses cants, are products, paint,"tove polish,"lead" pencilsand for foundry facings. black lead,applied to this species, The name is inappropriate, it contains no lead. as The name to write, alluding to its use for graphite,of Werner, is derived from ypa"t"cu",
" " " "

pencils. QUISQUEITE.
the vanadium SULPHUR.

"

ores

A black lustrous material composed of Minasragra, Peru.

of chiefly

carbon

and

sulphur from

Orthorhombic.

Axes

: c

0'8131

1-9034.

pyramidal; sometimes thick tabular ||c(001). Also massive,in reniform shapes,incrusting, stalactitic and stalagmitic; in powder. conchoidal to Cleavage: c(001), m(110), 'p(lll)imperfect. Fracture 1/5-2 -5. sectile. H. G. 2 '05Rather brittle to imperfectly uneven.
Crystals commonly See also Fig.79, p. 47.
acute
= =

348
2-09.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Luster
629

resinous.

Color
630

and strawhoney-yellow, sulphur-yellow, reddish to greenish, brown, yellowish Streak white. parent Transyellowish gray.
A ductor non-conto translucent. friction of electricity; by atively negelectrified. A poor conductor Double refraction of heat. Optically +
.

strong.
Bx 2
a

Ax.

_L V
= =

c(001).
69"5'.
=

6(010). plane || Dispersion p " v. Refractive indices,

=

2 -245. 2-038, 7 1-958, j8 Pure Comp. sulphur; often

-

contaminated and
form

with

clay, bitumen,
a

ofher
is common.
"

impurities.
also be obtained in the in laboratory other allotropic forms; monoclinic

Sulphurmay
Pyr., etc.
"

dioxide.

sulphur Melts at 108" C., and at 270" burns with a bluish flame yielding but soluble in carbon disulphide. Insoluble in water, and not acted on by the acids, and combustibility. by the color, fusibility Diff. Readily distinguished of sulphur are either beds of gypsum and the associate The great repositories Obs. rocks, or the regions of active and extinct volcanoes. Sulphur may have several different modes of origin. At times it is a volcanic sublimate quently freIt occurs sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide gases. formed by reactions between around mineral springswhere it has been formed by the incomplete oxidation of and sulphur hydrogen sulphide. Where such waters act upon limestone rocks both gypsum in small elsewhere it is formed coal and In be formed. a deposits by way many may the slow decomposition of pyriteand other sulphides. the Island of Sicily, often in fine crystalsand associated in large amounts Found on and barite. with celestite, aragonite,gypsum, calcite, Important deposits are found in In the South America. the volcanic districts of Japan, Hawaii, Mexico, and western In Calcasieu United States the most productive deposits are in Louisiana and Texas. 300 Parish,Louisiana,a bed of sulphur 100 ft. in thickness is found at a depth of between and salt. A similar deposit occurs and 400 ft. It is underlain by beds of gypsum near It is found in numerous other Western localities; Utah, Freeport in Brazoria Co., Texas. at Sulphurdale,Beaver Co., in a rhyolitic tuff;Wy., in limestones near Cody and TherCo. near mopolis and about the fumeroles of the Yellowstone Park; Nev., in Esmeralda and at Eureka, Rosebud, Humbolt Luning and Cuprite, near Co., sometimes in crystals Eureka Co.; Cal.,in Colusa, Lake, San Bernadino and other Counties, at the geysers of Co., on Lassen Peak, Tehema Napa Valley,Sonoma Co.; Col.,at Vulcan, Gunnison Co., and in Mineral Co. Use. In manufacture of sulphuric acid, in the process of making paper from wood for vulcanizingrubber, for pulp, in making matches, gun powder, fireworks, insecticides, medicinal purposes, etc. Sulphuric acid is now derived from the oxidation of largely
" "

pyrite. Selensulphur.
"

Contains
and

the islands Vulcano

sulphur and Lipari.

selenium, orange-red or

reddish

brown;

from

ARSENIC.

Rhombohedral. sometimes Generally granular massive; reticulated, stalactitic. reniform, Cleavage: c(0001) highly perfect. Fracture uneven and fine granular. Brittle. H. 3'5. G. 5'63-573. Luster Color and metallic. nearly streak tin-white, to dark gray. tarnishing often with some Comp. Arsenic, antimony, and traces of iron,silver,
= =
"

gold, or bismuth.
"

tnoxide,
flame

cnarcoal Pyf' *:i'B"".on and affords

~~

blue.

In the

volatilizes without fusing,coats the coal with white arsenic garlicodor; the coating treated in R.F. volatilizes, tingeing the closed tube givesa volatile sublimate of arsenic.
a

NATIVE

ELEMENTS

349

In polished section shows white color similar to galena. Smooth surface. with Feds. Changes color in same turning dark. slowly effervesces, way Unaffected and HC1. by KCN Obs. rocks and the older schists, often accompanied by Occurs in veins in crystalline and other metallic minerals. of antimony, the ruby silvers, Thus sphalerite, ores realgar, of Saxony; also Andreasberg, Harz in the silver mines Mts., Germany; Joachimstal and Pfibram, Bohemia; in Hungary; Norway; Zmeov, Siberia; Prov. Echizen, Japan, etc. In the United States sparinglyat Haverhill and Jackson, Abundant Chile. at Chanarcjllo, N. H.; near at Leadville,Col.; Washington Camp, Santa Cruz Co., Ariz. In Canada Watson Creek, British Columbia; Montreal, Quebec.

Micro. With HNOs

"

"

Use.

"

An

ore
"

of arsenic. In reniform masses. 6'203. Arsenical Antimony, SbAs3. G. Luster From tin-white or reddish gray. Allemont, France; Pfibram, Bohemia,
=

Allemontite.

metallic.
etc.

Color

In prismatic crystals; Rhombohedral. Tellurium. commonly columnar to fine-granular 2-2'5. 6'2. Perfect prismatic cleavage. H. G. massive. Luster metallic. B.B. wholly volatile. In warm Color and streak tin-white. concentrated sulphuric acid From and of places in a number Australia, Transylvania, West gives red solution. Colorado.
= =

ANTIMONY.

Rhombohedral. Generally also radiated;granular. brittle. H tin-white.

=

massive, lamellar and

distinctly cleavable;
uneven;

also other cleavages. Fracture Cleavage: c(0001)highlyperfect;

3-3'5.

G.

6'65-672.

Luster

metallic.

Color

and

streak

Comp.
"

"

Antimony, containingsometimes

iron,or arsenic. silver,

charcoal fuses very easily and is wholly volatile giving a white coating. on Pyr. from fusion. The white coating tingesthe R.F. bluish green. Crystallizes readily Obs. Sala in Sweden; Andreasberg in the Harz mont, Occurs near Mts., Germany; AlleIn the United Dauphine, France; Pfibram, Bohemia; Mexico; Chile; Borneo. at Warren, N. J.,rare; in Kern States, Co., and at South Riverside,Cal. At South Ham, Quebec; Prince William parish,York Co., New Brunswick. An ore of antimony. Use.
B.B.
" "

BISMUTH.

Rhombohedral. malleable.
color H.

foliated or granular. Usuallyreticulated, arborescent; but when heated somewhat Cleavage: c(0001)perfect. Sectile. Brittle,
=

2-2*5.

with silver-white,
"

Comp.

Bismuth,
"

970-9-83. Luster metallic. Streak G. to tarnish. reddish hue; subject Opaque. with traces of arsenic, etc. sulphur,tellurium,
=

and

B.B. on charcoal fuses very easilyand entirely volatilizes, giving a coating Pyr., etc. orange-yellow while hot, lemon-yellow on cooling. With potassium iodide and sulphur B.B. on charcoal gives a brilliant red coating. Dissolves in nitric acid; subsequent dilution causes a white precipitate. Crystallizes readilyfrom fusion. Micro. In polished section shows creamy and white color with pink tinge. Smooth metallic surface. HC1 vescence With slowly darkens and dissolves. Rapidly darkens with efferand aqua with HNO3 regia. Obs. rocks and clay slate, Occurs in veins in gneiss and other crystalline panying accomvarious ores of silver, cobalt,lead and zinc. Thus at the mines of Saxony and Also at Modum, Bohemia, etc.; Meymac, Correze, France. Norway; at Falun,Sweden. In Cornwall and Devonshire; near Copiapo,Chile; Bolivia. Cummins S. C.; near Occurs at Monroe, Conn.; Brewer's mine, Chesterfield district, with silver ores at Cobalt, Ontario. City, and elsewhere in Col. Abundant
" "

Use.
Zinc.

"

An
"

ore

of bismuth.

In the laboratoryit is obtained in the native state. Probably does not occur in hexagonal prisms with tapering pyramids; also in complex crystalline aggregates. It in the isometric system, at least in various alloys. also appears to crystallize In cubic crystals and Tantalum. fine grains. Color Isometric. grayish yellow.

350
Found
Mis.

DESCRIPTIVE of niobium

MINERALOGY
in the

containingsmall amounts

gold washings

of the Ural

and

Altai

Gold
GOLD.

Group
common,

d(110) and axis, giving often elongatedin direction of an ra(311);crystals also in plates arborescent and shapes; to'rhombohedral-like forms, rise either to the edges or diagonals and branching at 60" parallel o(lll), flattened || Skeleton Twins: o. tw. crystals plane face 173). of an o (seepp. 172,
Isometric. Distinct crystals rare, 0(111)most
also octahedral
633
634

dendritic shapes. in filiform, reticulated, in flattened often or in thin Also massive and grains scales. laminae; malleable and ductile. Fracture none. hackly. Very Cleavage metallic. Color Luster 2*5-3. G. H. 15-6-19-3, 19'33 when pure. to silver-white and sometimes and streak gold-yellow, inclining rarelyto
common;

edges salient or rounded;

orange-red. Opaque. Comp. Gold, but usuallyalloyedwith silver in varying amounts also traces of copper or iron. sometimes containing
"

and

Var. 1. Ordinary. Containing up to 16 p. c. of silver. and specific from deep gold-yellow to pale yellow, gravity from gold to silver of 3 : 1 corresponds to 15'1 p. c. silver. For
"

Color
=

varying accordingly
=

The ratio of 9 p. c.; G. 17'6,Ag 38'4. The purest gold which has been described G. 13'2; G. 16'9,Ag 14'6,Ag is that from Mount Morgan, in Queensland, which has yielded 99'7 to 99'8 of gold, the with a littleiron; silver is present only as a minute trace. remainder being copper Color pale yellow to yellowish 15'5-12'5. 2. Argentiferous; Electrum. white; G Ratio for the gold and silver of 1 : 1 corresponds to 36 p. c. of silver;1| : 1, to 26 p. c.; 2 : 1, to 21 p. c.; 1\ : 1, to 18 p. c. The word in Greek means also amber; and its use for from the pale yellow color it has as compared with gold. this alloyprobably arose Varieties have also been described containing copper up to 20 p. c. from the Ural Mts.; from Porpez, Brazil;bismuth, includingthe black gold of palladium to 10 p c. (porpezite), Australia (maldonite); also rhodium (?). B.B. fuses easily (at 1100" C.). Not acted on Pyr.,etc. by fluxes. Insoluble in the separationnot complete if more than 20 p. c. acid; soluble in aqua regia, any single
19'3 to 15'5.
= =

"

Ag

from other metallic minerals,also from scales of yelrecognized (e.g., low and high specific mica) by its malleability which last makes it possible to sepagravity, rate it from the gangue from chalcopyrite by washing ; distinguished and pyrite since both sulphidesare brittle and soluble in nitric acid. Micro. In polishedsection shows a golden yellow color with a smooth, metallic surface. Unaffected by reagents except KCN, with which it quicklydarkens and its surface becomes rough. Obs. Gold is widely distributed in the earth's crust. It has been found in various rocks, more igneous commonly in the acid types, and sometimes in visible particles. It occurs in sedimentaryrocks and quite frequently in connection with metamorphic rocks.
"

is present. Diff. Readily

"

"

352
Africa. Gold

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Some isfound in Egypt in the section between the Nile and the Red Sea. worked in very earlydays. Gold has been produced for a long time Important deposits are found in district on the Gulf of Guinea. The most Rhodesia. in Southern important gold district and Mashonaland Matabeleland The mines occur in an east in the Transvaal. in the world is that of the Witwatersrand and west belt, some sixtymiles in length,near Johannesburg. The gold is found scattered
of these deposits were the Gold Coast from

in small amounts through a series of steeplydipping quartz conglomerate rocks. of gold. The chief Colonlbiahas in the past produced largeamounts South America. Comparatively small amounts districts today are in the states of Antioquia and Cauca. are produced at the present time in the other northern countries. The important deposits Geraes along the Sierra do of Brazil lie 200 miles to the north of Rio de Janeiro in Minas in the northern and in the coast in Chile lie The chiefly ranges deposits gold Espinhaco. central parts of the country. siderable While Mexico is chiefly Mexico. noteworthy for its silver output it produces also congold. Important districtsare as follows: Altar,Magdalena and Arizpe in Sonora; and the Dolores mine on the western about Parral, various placesin Chihuahua, especially in the state of Mexico; the Pachuca district in border of the state; the El pro mines Hidalgo; also various places in Guanajuato and Zacatecas. in Yukon the Klondike The three important placer districts of Canada are Canada. The most productive vein Territory and the Atlin and Cariboo in British Columbia. depositsare found in British Columbia in the West Kootenay and Yale districts. Gold is Scotia. also found in Ontario and Nova in the United States chiefly in Gold occurs United States. along the mountain ranges Smaller amounts have been found along the Appalachians in the the western states. North and South Carolina and Georgia. The more states of Virginia, important localities in the western states are given below, the states being arranged approximately in the order put of their importance. California. At the present time about two thirds of the state's outfrom the lode mines and one third from placerdeposits. The quartz veins are comes in what is known found the Mother-Lode belt that lies on the western as chiefly slope of the Sierra Nevada and stretches from Mariposa County for more than 100 miles toward the north. The veins occur in a belt of slates. The lode mines are found chiefly chiefly in Amador, Calaveras, Counties. The Kern, Nevada, Shasta, Sierra and Tuolumne About and Yuba Counties. 90 important placermines are located in Butte, Sacramento in Gold is mined per cent of the placergold is obtained by the use of dredges. Colorado. various districts in Gilpin County, from the Leadville district and others in Lake County, in the region of the San Juan mountains in the Sneffels, Silverton and Telluride districts, CrippleCreek district (telluride ores)in Teller County, placerdepositsin the Breckenridge district in Summit The most important lode mines are in the Juneau County. Alaska. while the chief placerdepositsare those of Fairbanks and Iditarod in the Yukon district, basin and the Nome district on the Seward Peninsula. Nevada. The most important districtsare those of Goldfield in Esmeralda County and Tonapah in Nye County. South Dakota. The output is chiefly from the Homestake mine at Lead in Lawrence County. Montana. There are various producing districts, the more important being in Madison Deer Lodge and Silver Bow Counties. placers), (largely Arizona. The important counties Mohave are and Cochise. Utah. Gold is produced chiefly from the Bingham and Tintic districts in Salt Lake County and from Juab County. Use. The chief ore of gold.
-

"

SILVER.

Isometric. Crystals in acicular forms,reticulated or commonly distorted, arborescent shapes; coarse to fine filiform; also massive,in plates or flattened scales. Ductile and malleable. Cleavage none. 2'5-3. Fracture hackly. H. G. 10-1-11 -1,pure 10*5. Luster metallic. Color and streak silver-white, often gray to black by tarnish. with some Comp. Silver, and sometimes gold (up to 10 p. c.),
= =
"

copper,

platinum, antimony, bismuth, mercury.

1050" C. Soluble in nitric acid, and deposited again by a plate of Precipitatedfrom its copper. solutions by hydrochloric acid in white curdy forms of silver chloride.
a
r

~B-B?y5'?iet,C*
red

on

charcoal fuses easily to

silver-white globule, which

in O.F.

gives

faint dark

coating of silver oxide; crystallizes about on cooling;fusibility

NATIVE

ELEMENTS

353
specific

Diff.

"

color (on the fresh surface),and Distinguished by its malleability,

"

gravity.
In polished section shows white color with a metallic,smooth Micro. a creamy With surface. regia and FeCl3 tarnishes quickly with bright iridescent color-s aqua Blackens with HNO?. in arborescent and filiform shapes, in masses, Obs. Native silver occurs or in veins Also occurs but usually porphyry, and other rocks. schist, traversing gneiss, disseminated, It is commonly in native copper, of secondaryorigin etc. galena, chalcocite, invisibly, having been derived from the reduction of sulphidesand other compounds of silver. of the most Native silver is found at a great many some famous of which localities, follow: Kongsberg, Norway, in magnificentspecimens and in very largemasses; Freiberg Schneeberg, etc., in Saxony; Pribram and Joachimstal in Bohemia; Andreasberg in the Harz Mts., Germany; Allemont in Dauphine, France; at various points in Cornwall at England. At Chanarcillo and other localities in Chile; in large masses at Batopilas in Chihuahua; in Zacatecas and In many Peru. places in Mexico, especially in Guanajuato. A very important district is at Cobalt,Ontario,where native silver occurs there associated with various cobalt and to 1000 masses pounds in weight; it occurs up nickel minerals. in the Lake Superior copper In the United States it has been found with native copper Lake at Silver Islet, Superior; at Butte and the Elkhorn mine in Mon.; at the district; Poor Man's Lode in Idaho; in Col.,with various sulphide deposits, at Aspen. especially An ore of silver. Use.
" "

Huantaya'

COPPER.

form (Fig. The tetrahexahedron a common hedral 635); also in octaDistinct rare. crystals Frequently plates. distorted and passing into twisted and irregularly wirelike forms; filiform and arborescent. Massive; Twins: tw. sand. as pi. o (111), very common, often flattened or elongated to spear-shapedforms. Isometric. Cf. p. 173.
Fracture hackly. Highly ductile Luster 8'8-8'9. H. G. 2-5-3. malleable. metallic. Color copper-red. Streak metallic shining. for heat and An excellent conductor Opaque.

Cleavage none.

and

(410).

electricity. Pure Comp.

"

copper,

often

containingsome

bismuth, mercury, silver,

etc.
B.B. fuses readily; on cooling becomes covered with a coating of black Pyr., etc. Dissolves readilyin nitric acid,giving off red nitrous fumes, and produces a deep oxide. 780" C. of ammonia. azure-blue solution with excess Fusibility In polished section shows Micro. pink color with smooth, metallic surface. With cone. HNp3 dissolves and shows iridescent tarnish. With FeCl3 blackens and shows a
" "

solution pit.
Obs. Copper is usually,if not always,secondary in its origin. It has either been reducing agent which is commonly a compound of iron deposited from solution by some solid compound. prite, Pseudomorphs of copper after cuor by the gradual reduction of some It is associated with other copper ores, chalcocite, azurite, etc., are well known. of copper veins; also with the cuprite,malachite and azurite in the upper zone especially in the vicinity of dikes of igneous etc.; often abundant chalcocite, sulphides, chalcopyrite, rocks; also in clay slate and sandstone. In Occurs in crystalsat Bogoslovsk, Nijni Tagilsk and elsewhere in the Ural Mts. and Peru. in Cornwall, England. Occurs in Brazil,Chile, Nassau, Germany. Common Bolivia. in pseudomorphs after the pseudo-hexagonal twins of aragoniteat Corocoro, Found South Wales. Occurs Hill,New Abundant at Wallaroo, South Australia and at Broken at various places in Mexico. Occurs native throughout the red sandstone region of the eastern United States, ingly sparin Mass., Conn., and more Haven, Conn., a mass abundantly in N. J. Near New have also been found in the drift weighing nearly 200 pounds; smaller isolated masses was in minor amounts at Bisbee,Ariz, (inbranching crystal groups); at Georgefound. Found
"

354
town N

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

lin Pa.; and Frank; Ducktown, Tenn.; Cornwall, M (pseudomorphs after azurite) native copper is the Lake Superior J. The most important region in the world for The rocks of this district consist northern Mich. peninsula, district on the Keweenaw copper and conglomerates which dip steeply of a series of interbedded lava flows,sandst9nes all in the native m state, sometimes is obtained practically The to the northwest. copper the sandstone and the interstices in filling It occurs as (1) a cement immense masses. and pebbles themselves, (2) filling conglomerate, sometimes replacingin largepart the grains all kinds of rock. that traverse cavities in the diabase and (3)in veins the amygdaloidal The was probably brought into the district by the igneous rocks. It is associated
N copper etc. analcite, datolite, with native silver, prehnite, calcite, Use.
"

An

ore

of copper.

MERCURY.

Quicksilver.
scattered through its gangue. globules
a

In small fluid

13 '6.

Luster

brilliant. Color tin-white. Opaque. metallic, Pure mercury (Hg) ; with sometimes Comp.
"

littlesilver.
Becomes
=

B.B. entirelyvolatile, vaporizing at 350" C. Pyr.,etc. with cubic cleavage; G. in regular octahedrons crystallizing
" "

14 '4.

solid at Dissolves

"

40" C.,
in nitric

Obs. Mercury in the metallic state is a rare mineral, and is usually associated with is obtained. The rocks affording the sulphidecinnabar,from which the supply of commerce Also the metal and its ores are chiefly clay shales or schists of different geological ages. found in connection with hot springs. See cinnabar.

LEAD.

Usually in thin plates and small globular Crystals rare. 11*4. G. ductile. H 1-5. masses. Very malleable, and somewhat Luster metallic. Color lead-gray. Opaque. also contains a little silver, Nearly pure lead; sometimes Comp. antimony.
Isometric.
= =
"

bility fuses easily, coating the charcoal with a yellow to white oxide. Fusiin dilute nitric acid. Dissolves easily Found at Pajsberg, Harstig, and rare occurrence. Langban in Sweden; also in the gold washings of the Ural Mts.; reported elsewhere, at Nordmark; similarly In the United States, but localitiesoften doubtful. at Breckinridge and Gunnison, occurs N. J. Col.; Wood River district, Idaho; Franklin,

Pyr.

"

B.B.

330" C. Obs. Of
"

AMALGAM.

Isometric. Common habit dodecahedral. often highlymodified. Crystals Also massive in plates, a nd embedded coatings, grains. Cleavage: dodecahedral in traces. Fracture conchoidal, Rather uneven. brittle to malleable. H. 3-3'5. G, 1375-14-1. Luster liant. brilmetallic, and streak silver-white. Opaque. ^Color Comp. (Ag,Hg), silver and mercury, varying from Ag2Hg3 to Ag36Hg.
= =
"

Var. Ordinary amalgam, Ag2Hg3 (silver26'4 p. c.) or AgHg (silver35-0); also Ag5Hg3, etc. Arquerite, 86 "6); G. Agi2Hg (silver 10'8; malleable and soft. KongsberAgasHg or Ag36Hg. gite, B.B. on charcoal the mercury Pvr.,etc. volatilizes and a globule of silver is left. In
"

"

the closed tube the mercury

sublimes
in

globules. Dissolves in nitric acid.

Obs.
"

and condenses on Rubbed on copper

From

Germany

the

the cold part of the tube in minute it gives a silveryluster. Rhine-Palatinate at Moschel-Landsberg and at

Nassau; Jriednchssegen,

Sala, Sweden; Kongsberg,Norwav; Allemont, Dauphine", France; Almaden, Spain; Chile; Vitalle Creek, British Columbia (arquerite).
has been reported from several localities. The only occurrence is that from the washings at the headwaters of the Clarence river, near bouth "ban, New Wales. It has been found here in grayish white rounded grains,with platinum, mdosmine, gold, cassiterite, and corundum
. .

from

Tm'~

fairlyabove

Native doubt

tin

NATIVE

ELEMENTS

355

Platinum-Iron Group
PLATINUM.

in grainsand scales. Crystals rare; usually Fracture 4-4-5. Cleavage hackly. Malleable and ductile. H. G. Luster metallic. 14-19 native; 21-22 chem. pure. Color and streak whitish steel-gray; shows shining. Sometimes magnetic and occasionally polarity. Platinum alloyed with iron, iridium, rhodium, palladium, Comp.

Isometric.

none.

"

osmium, and other metals.

Most
1 to 3 p. of copper. Var. 2.

platinum yieldsfrom
c.

8 to 15

or

even

each of rhodium

and

iridium,a

18 per cent trace of osmium

of iron,0*5 to 2 p.
and 0'5 finally
=

c.

palladium,
c. or more

to 2 p.

1. Ordinary. 16'5-18'0 mostly. Non-magnetic or only slightly magnetic. G. it has polarity. Magnetic. G. about 14. Much platinum is magnetic, and occasionally The magnetic property seems to be connected with high percentage of iron (iron-platinum), although this distinction does not hold without exception. B.B. infusible. Not affected by borax or salt of phosphorus, Pyr.,etc. except in the reactions for iron and copper may state of fine dust, when be obtained. Soluble only in heated aqua regia. Diff. and Distinguished by its color,malleability, high specific gravity,infusibility in ordinary acids. insolubility The platinum of commerce from placerdeposits. Its Obs. almost exclusively comes original source, however, is in the basic igneous rocks,usually peridotites. The associated Platinum minerals are firstfound in was commonly chrysolite, serpentineand chromite. posits pebbles and small grains,associated with iridium,gold,chromite, etc.,in the alluvial deof the river Pinto,in the district of El Choco, Colombia ; South America, where it received its name silver. The greater part of the platina (platinadel Pinto) from plala, in alluvial material in 1822) where it occurs world's supply comes from Russia (discovered in the Ural Mts. at Nijni Tagilsk, and with chromite in a serpentineprobably derived from a peridotite;also in the Goroblagodat and Bisersk districts. Also found in Borneo; in New rock with serpentine; in New Zealand, from a region characterized by a chrysolite South Wales, at the Broken Hill district, and in gold washings at various points. In Cal. in small amounts in the gold placers, in Trinity Co.; at Port Orfqrd in chiefly At various points in Canada, the most Ore. District in important being the Tulameen British Columbia Use. the only ore of platinum. Practically Iridium. Platin-iridium. Iridium alloyed with platinum and other allied metals. Occurs 6-7. G. 22 '6-22 '8. usually in angular grains of a silver-white color. H. With the platinum of the Ural Mts. and Brazil.
" " " " "

IRIDOSMINE.

Osmiridium.

flattened grains. Usually in irregular Cleavage: c(0001)perfect. Slightlymalleable to nearly brittle. H. 6-7. G. 19-3-21 -12. Luster metallic. Color tin-white to light steelOpaque. gray. in different proportions. Some Iridium and osmium rhodium, Comp. platinum,ruthenium, and other metals are usuallypresent.
= =
"

Rhombohedral.

Var.

"

1.
c.

Nevyanskite.
of iridium.
=

Over

40 p.

2.

G. steel-gray.
Diff.
"

20-21'2.

In flat scales; color tin-white. 18'8-19'5. 7; G. color grayishwhite, Siserskite. In flat scales, often six-sided, than the lightLess common 30 p. c. of iridium. .Not over H.
= =

colored variety. Obs. in New

"

color. Distinguishedfrom platinum by greater hardness and by its lighter Occurs with platinum in South America; in the Ural Mts.; in auriferous drift Rather abundant
in the auriferous

South Wales. and Oregon.

"

beach-sands little

of northern and

fornia Cali-

Palladium.

Isometric.

Palladium, alloyed with

platinum

iridium.

356
=

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Occurs 11 '3-11 '8. Color whitish steel-gray. G. 4'5-5. Mostly in grains. H. platinum in Brazil; also from the Ural Mts. class (?). From under the hexagonal-rhombohedral Allopalladium. Palladium kerode in the Harz Mts. in small hexagonaltables with gold.
=
"

with
Til-

IRON.

in crystals. Usually massive, rarely lamellar structure also a a( perfect; 100), Cleavage: Isometric.

and || || 0(111) d(110).

Luster

hackly. Malleable. to iron-black. Color steel-gray

Fracture
Var.
"

H.

4-5.

G.

7-3-7-8.

metallic.

Stronglymagnetic.

in small embedded

in masses, Found occasionallyof great size,as well as Terrestrial Iron. in basalt at Blaafjeld, particles, Oyifak(or Uifak), Disko Island,West This iron contains 1 to 2 p. c. of Ni. In coast. Greenland; also elsewhere on the same In Kassel, Hesse Nassau, Germany. small grains with pyrrhotite in basalt from near Some minute Township, Nipissing Dist.,Ontario. spherules in feldspar from Cameron be in fact terrestrial. other occurrences, usually classed as meteoric,may in the drift of the Gorge A nickeliferous metallic iron (FeNi2)called awaruite occurs land; Zeawhich empties into Awarua Bay on the west coast of the south island of New river, associated with gold, platinum, cassiterite, chromite; probably derived from a is a nickel-iron (FeNia) from Oregon, occurring peridotite. Josephinite serpentinized partially in stream British Columbia, gravel. Similar material from near Lillooet on the Fraser river, in some Native iron also occurs has been called soucsite. basalts;reported sparingly from gold or platinum washings at various points. in most meteorites, 2. Meteoric Iron. Native iron also occurs forming in some cases cellular matrix in which are (a) the entire mass (ironmeteorites) ; also (6) as a spongy, other silicates (siderolites)} embedded nated or grainsof chrysolite (c)in grainsor scales dissemiless freelythroughout a stony matrix more or 636 (meteoric stones). Rarely a meteorite consists of a individual with numerous singlecrystalline twinning lamellse !(o(lll).Cubic cleavage sometimes observed: also an octahedral, less often dodecahedral, lamellar structure. Etching with dilute nitric acid (or iodine) 1.
" "

commonly

develops

crystallinestructure

(called

r"i

"

4. loneta

iv/r"u AT Mt., New

Mexico

TV/T

Widmanstdtten figures)(Fig. 636); usually consisting of lines or bands crossing at various angles according the direction of the section, to at 60" if || 0(111), 90" |! a(100),etc. They are formed by the edges of crystalline usually 1 plates, 1o, of the nickeliferous iron of different composition (kamacite, as tcenite, plessite), shown by the fact that they are differently attacked and with by the acid. Irons with cubic structure twinning lamellse have a series of fine lines correspondto those developed by etching (Neumann m" lines) A damascene luster is also produced in some cases, due to quadrilateraldepressions. Some irons show no
.

distinct

structure crystalline
masses

The exterior of

etching. upon of meteoric iron is usually more

or

less deeplypittedwith rounded

thumblike and the surface at the time of fallis covered with depressions, a film of iron oxide in fane ridges showing lines of flow due to the melting caused by the heat developed by the resistance of the air; this film disappears when the iron is to the Meteoric
rom iron is

always alloyedwith nickel, which

much
more; small

5 to

10 p. c., sometimes

weather. exposed is usuallypresent in amounts varying of other metals, as cobalt,manamounts

rare.

sometimes Cohenite,

is (Fe,Ni,Co)3C identified, in

tin-white crystals.

Moissanite. CSi. This material, originally produced artificially as carborundum, has found occurring naturally as small green hexagonal plates in the meteoric iron of Canon Ariz Diablo,
"

been

SULPHIDES,

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

357

II.

SULPHIDES,

SELENIDES,
ANTIMONIDES

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

fallinto sulphides, etc., element. positive

I. II.

The

two

Groups accordingto the character

of the

Sulphides, Selenides, Tellurides of the Semi-metals. Sulphides, Selenides, Tellurides, Arsenides, Antimonides
Metals.

of

the

I. This

etc., of Sulphides,

the

Semi-Metals

orpiment is related
REALGAR.

section includes one distinct group, the Stibnite included stand alone. ; the other species

Group,

to which
637

Monoclinic.
mm'",
110 A

Axes
HO

a
=

: c

1-4403

:1

0*9729; 0
012
=

66" 5'.

105" 34'.'

rr',012

47" 57'. ular, gran-

Also Crystals short prismatic; striated vertically. or coarse fine;compact; as an incrustation. small Cleavage: 6(010) rather perfect. Fracture
= =

con-

Sectile. H. 1-5-2. G. Luster choidal. resinous. 3 '56. Color aurora-red or orange-yellow. Streak varying from translucent. orange-red to aurora-red. Transparent Arsenic monosulphide,AsS Sulphur 29*9,arsenic 70*1 Comp.
" "

100.

In the closed tube melts and gives a dark red liquidwhen hot and a reddish Pyr., etc. heated very slowly)sulphurous fumes, and yellow solid when cold; in the open tube (if sublimate of arsenic trioxide. B.B. on charcoal burns with a blue flame, a white crystalline Soluble in caustic alkalies. emitting arsenical and sulphurous odors. Artif Realgar is frequently noted as a sublimation product from furnaces roasting of arsenic. arsenic sulphide is heated in a sealed tube ores Crystals are produced when
" "

with

solution of sodium
"

bicarbonate.

It has usually in veins associated with silver and lead ores. regionsas a sublimation product. It has also been noted as a deposit It is often associated from hot spring waters. at Felsobdnya, with orpiment. It occurs in dolomite. Binnental,Switzerland, Kapnik and Nagy^g, Hungary; Allchar,Macedonia. In the United States, at Mercur, Utah; in the Norris Geyser Basin, Yellowstone Park, as a Cristo mining district, Found at the Monte Snohomish depositionfrom the hot waters. Co., Washington; the name realgar is from the Arabic, Rahj al ghar,powder of the
Obs. been found

Realgar

occurs

in volcanic

mine. Was used in fireworks to give a brilliant white lightwhen Use. material is now used for this purpose. and ignited. The artificial
"

mixed

with saltpeter

ORPIMENT.

90"41'. :b :c 0'596 : 1 : 0;665, 0 columnar distinct. in foliated or Usually Crystalssmall, rarely masses; sometimes with reniform surface. striated; a(100) cleavageface vertically Cleavage: 6(010)highlyperfect, in traces; gliding-plane inelastic. Sectile. c (001). Cleavage laminae flexible, Luster b H. 3'4-3'5. T5-2. G. (cleavage); elsewhere pearly on but paler. resinous. Color lemon-yellowof several shades; streak the same, sub translucent. Subtransparent Arsenic trisulphide, 100. A^Sa Sulphur 39*0,arsenic 61*0 Comp.
Monoclinic. Axes
a
= = = =
" "

358
Pyr.,etc.
Diff. when
" "

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

"

Same

as

and flexibility pearly luster, color, easy cleavage, plates. nium Artif by heating solutions of arsenic with ammoOrpiment has been synthesized under pressure of arsenic acid sulphocyanate in a sealed tube; also by the treatment with hydrogen sulphide. associated. conditions as realgarwith which it is commonly Occurs under same ObSc in foliated and fibrous masses at MolIt is found in Hungary at Tajowa in small crystals, dowa, in metalliferous veins at Kapnik and Felsob"nya; with realgarat Allchar,Macedonia. in Kurdistan. at Mercur, Occurs in fine crystals Julamerk A largedeposit occurred near Utah. Springs, Nevada; also with realgar in the Among the 'depositsof the Steamboat

by Distinguished
in

for realgar, p. 357. its fine yellow

"

Yellowstone
The
name

Park.

orpiment is a corruption of its Latin name auripigmentum, "golden paint," and also because the substance was supposed to contain gold. given in allusion to the color, For a pigment, in dyeing and in a preparation for the removal of hair from skins. Use. material is largelyused as a substitute for the mineral. The artificial
"

Stibnite Stibnite
Bismuthinite

Group
a

:
: :

b 1 1

: c

Sb2S3

0*9926

:
:

1-0179
0'9850

Guanajuatite

Bi2S3 Bi2Se3

0-9679
1
:

1 approx.

The species of the Stibnite Group crystallize in the orthorhombic system and have perfect flexiblelaminae. brachypinacoidal cleavage, yielding
The

speciesorpiment is in physical properties somewhat

notes

in crystallization. Groth mpnoclinic

that in

similar way,

clinic in claudetite, while the correspondingcompound,

STIBNITE.

related to stibnite, but is the oxide,As2O3, is monoSb2O3 (valentinite), is orthorhombic.

Antimonite, Antimony
Axes
A A A A 110 111 113 113
=

Glance.
=

Orthorhombic. mm'", ppf, ss', ss'",

110 111 113 113

: c

0'9926

1-0179.
A A A A 121 353 343 111
=

89" 34'.
71"

24|'.

35" 52"'. 35" 36'.

bv, 010 010 br,, br, 010 bp, 010

35

40" 46" 33' 54" 36'

striated or furrowed vertically; Crystals prismatic; often curved or twisted in confused aggregates or radiating (cf. p. 188). Common groups of acicular fine crystals; massive, coarse or 640 columnar, commonly bladed,less often granular to impalpable. Cleavage : b (010) highly perfect. Slightly sectile. Fracture
=

2.

small G.

sub-conchoidal.
=

4-52^-62.

H. Luster

metallic,highly splendent on cleavageor fresh crystalline faces. surColor

gray,
to blackish iridescent.

and

streak

lead-

to steel-gray: inclining subject

sometimes tarnish,

California

Hungary
71'4
=

Japan

Comp.

Antimony

trisul-

antimony
p~

100.

Sometimes

auriferou^also

fc

Ife^^

360
From Color bluish gray. from Salmon, Idaho.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

the Santa

Catarina

mine,

near

Guanajuato, Mexico.

Noted

TETRAD

YMITE.

Rhombohedral.
foliated to

Crystalssmall,indistinct.

Commonly

in bladed

forms

granularmassive. not very sectile. H. 1-5-2; perfect. Laminse flexible; Cleavage: basal, 7-2-7-6. Luster metallic, G. splendent. Color palesteel-gray. soilspaper. and tellurium, with sometimes Consists of bismuth sulphur Comp. most afford the the for the part general of trace and a analyses selenium; formula Bi2(Te, S)8.
= =
"

Var.
from

"

1. Free 59'0

Dahlonega.
=

bismuth
"

51*9. G. 48' 1, bismuth Tellurium 7'642 from sulphur. Bi2Te3 Tellurium 36 '4, sulphur 4 '6, 2. Sulphurous. 2Bi2Te3 Bi2S3 in common This is the more variety and includes the tetradymite 100.
=

Var.

from Schubkau. crystals B.B. fuses to In the open tube a white sublimate of tellurium dioxide,which Pyr. volatilizes; tingesthe colorless drops. On charcoal fuses, gives white fumes, and entirely coats the coal at firstwhite (TeO2), and finally orange-yellow (Bi2O3); R.F. bluish green; varieties give sulphurous and selenous odors. some Schemnitz at Rezbanya and Orawitza; Obs. near Occurs in Hungary at Schubkau at Carrock Cumberland, England. Occurs on Liddell Creek, Kaslo river,West Fells, in Va., at the Whitehall In the United gold mines, States, Kootenay, British Columbia. and SpottsylvaniaCo.; in Davidson Co., N. C., and in the gold washings of Burke At the Montgomery mine McDowell Dahlonega, Ga.; in Mon. counties,etc.; near in allusion to complex twin and near from TeTp'dvuos, fourfold, Bradshaw, Ariz. Named observed. sometimes crystals 7'321. One distinct cleavage. Color, G. Griinlingite. Bi4TeS3. Massive. gray. From Cumberland, England. Oruetite is a similar mineral,Bi8TeS4,from Serrania de Ronda, Spain. 7'9. San Jose, Joseite. A bismuth telluride (Te 80 p. c., also S and Se). G.
" "

"

Brazil.
Wehrlite.
"

foliated bismuth

telluride (Te 30 p. c.)of doubtful

formula.

G.

8'4.

Deutsch-Pilsen, Hungary.
MOLYBDENITE.

short prisms slightly or Crystals hexagonalin form, tabular, taperingand s triated. m assive in horizontally or Commonly foliated, scales; also fine granular. Laminse very flexible, but not elastic. Sectile. Cleavage: basal eminent. H. 1-1-5. G. 4-7-4-8. Luster metallic. Color lead-gray; a pure bluish gray trace on paper. Opaque. Feel greasy. Comp. Molybdenum disulphide, MoS2 Sulphur 40 -0, molybdenum
= =
"

60-0

100.
"

In the open tube sulphurous fumes and a pale yellow crystalline etc. Pyr., sublimate molybdenum trioxide (MoOg). B.B. in the forceps imparts a yellowish green infusible, color to the flame; on charcoal the pulverizedmineral gives in O.F. a strong odor of sulphur dioxide and coats the coal with crystals of molybdic oxide,yellow while hot, white on cooling; near the assay the coating is copper-red, and if the white coating be touched with an intermittent R.F., it assumes a beautiful azure-blue color. Decomposed by nitric acid, leaving a white or grayishresidue. Diff. Much resembles graphite in softness and structure (see p. 347), but has a bluer trace on paper and readilyyieldssulphur fumes on charcoal. Artif. Molybdenite has been made artificially by adding molybdic oxide to a fused of potassium carbonate and mixture sulphur;also by heating a mixture of molybdates and lime in an atmosphere of hydrochloricacid and hydrogen sulphide. Micro. In polished section shows surface. affected Ungrayish white color with smooth by reagents. of
" " "

SULPHIDES,
"

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

361

Obs. embedded Generally occurs in,or disseminated through,granite, zircongneiss, rocks. and At Arendal Laurvik syenite,granular limestone, and other crystalline in Norway; Altenberg, Saxony; Zinnwald and Schlaggenwald, Bohemia; near Miask, Ural island of Sardinia; in Cumberland; at Carrock Fells, on Mts.; Chessy in France; in Italy, In largecrystals at Kingsgate, Glen Innes,N. S. W. several of the Cornish mines. in gneiss; in Ver., at Newport; in In Me. at Blue Hill Bay; in Conn., at Haddam, N. H., at Westmoreland; in N. Y., two miles southeast of Warwick; in N. J.,at Franklin; in Pa., in Chester,near Reading and at Frankford; near Concord,Cabarrus Co., N. C.; in Molybdenite has been mined in various places in Point, Wash. quartz vein at Crown Ariz., Col.,Nev., Mon., Tex., Utah. etc. In Canada, at St. Jer6me,Quebec; in largecrystals in Renfrew Pontiac Co.,Quebec. county, Ontario; also in Aldfield township, Named from tSoXvpdos, substances containing lead, lead; the name, first given to some later included graphite and molybdenite, and even some compounds of antimony. The distinction between graphite and molybdenite was established by Scheele in 1778-79. Use. An important ore of molybdenum. Tungstenite. Probably WS2. Earthy or foliated. Color and streak, dark leadH. 2'5. 7'4. G. Found at Emma mine, Salt Lake Co., Utah. gray. Patronite. of a Rizopatronite. Complex composition, containing large amounts vanadium Color black. Occurs in a complex mixture sulphide,perhaps "84. Amorphous. of mineral substances among which are quisqueite and bravoite, at Minasragra, Peru.
" "

"

II.

Sulphides, Selenides, Tellurides, Arsenides, Antimonides

Metals

of the

The sulphidesof this second section fall into four divisions depending the proportionof the negativeelement present. These divisions with upon the groups belongingto them are as follows : A. B.
1. 2. 3. 4.

Basic

Division
ii

Monosulphides, Monotellurides,etc., RjjS,RS,

etc.

Galena Isometric-normal. Group. Orthorhombic. Chalcocite Group. Isometric-tetrahedral. Sphalerite Group. Cinnabar hedral.
"

Wurtzite

"

Millerite Intermediate

Group.
Division

Hexagonal and

rhombo-

C. Embraces

"08.00283; Melonite, Te2S3; Bornite,5Cu2S.Fe2S3;Linnaeite, etc. Chalcopyrite, Cu2S.Fe2S3;

[D. Disulphides,Diarsenides, etc., RS2, RAs2, etc.

1. 2.

Marcasite

Isometric-pyritohedral. Pyrite Group. Orthorhombic. Group.

A.

Basic

Division

The basic division embraces several rare basic compounds of silver, copper of nickel chiefly with antimony and arsenic. Of these the crystallization or and maucherite dyscrasite only is known.
DYSCRASITE.

Orthorhombic. massive. Fracture

Axes
uneven.

0-5J75 :
A

dohexagonal in angles (mm'",

110

110 H.

Sectile.

1 : (V6718. 60" 1')and G. 3'5-4.

Crystals rare, pseuby twinning. Also

=

9 '44-9 '85.

Luster

362
metallic. tarnished Color

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

to tin-white;sometimes and streak silver-white, inclining blackish. Opaque. yellowor Antimony 27' 1, silver Ag3Sb A silver antimonide, including Comp. 84 -3 silver 100, and perhaps other Antimony 157, 72 '9 100,and AgeSb
=
"

compounds.
Analyses
vary

widely, S9me

conforming also

to

etc. Ag4(Sb,As)3, Agj"Sb,

By

some

authors classed with chalcocite. mony Pyr., etc. B.B. on charcoal fuses (1'5)to a globule,coating the coal with white antiin silver. Soluble nitric almost of acid, a trioxide and finally globule giving pure leavingantimony trioxide. Obs. Occurs near Wolfach, Baden; Andreasberg in the Harz Mts., Germany; AlleNamed Also from Mexico arid Chile. Noted at Cobalt, Ontario,Canada. mont, France.
"

from

a bad alloy. dvffKpacrts,

Lake Superior,apparently contain The ores from Silver Islet, ANIMIKITE. Ag9Sb?), (animikite, silverarsenide (huntilite, Ag3As?) and perhaps also a silverantimonide the latter probablya mixture.

HENTILITE,

G.

A silver-white, Horsfordite. massive Asia Minor, near 8'8. Mytilene.

=

copper

antimonide, probablyCu6Sb (Sb

24 p.

c.).

inated. also massive, dissemReniform and botryoidal; Cu3As. Copper arsenide, Luster metallic. Color tin-white to steel-gray, G. 7'2-775. readilytarnished. In North From several Chilian mines; also Zwickau, Saxony. America, with niccolite Lake at MichipicotenIsland, Superior. Microscopic examination shows this mineral to be intimate mixture of two unknown constituents. an Usually identical with algodonite.

Domeykite.
=

"

Co. Mohawkite. Like domeykite, Cu3As, with Ni and Massive, fine granular to Brittle. 3'5. Color gray with faint yellowtinge; tarnishes to dull purple. H. G. From 8 '07. Microscopic examination, shows it to be a mixture. mine, Mohawk Keweenaw mine"said to be Cu4As has been shown Ledouxite from the Mohawk Co., Mich. to be a mixture.
"

compact.
=

Resembles 7'62. Algodonite. Copper arsenide, Cu6As (As 16'5 p. c.);G. domeykite. From Chile;also Lake Superior. Microscopic examination shows this mineral to be of two constituents. a mixture
=

dish Color pale red8'4-8'6. Whitneyite. Copper arsenide,Cu9As (As 11'6 p. e). G. white. From Houghton Co., Mich.; Sonora, Lower California. Chilenite. Perhaps Ag6Bi. Copiapo,Chile. COCINERITE. Color silver-gray, ing tarnishCopper, silver sulphide,Ci^AgS. Massive. 2'5. From G. black,H 6*1. Cocinera mine, Ramos, San Luis Potosi,Mexico. Stiitzite. A rare silver telluride (Ag4Te?). Probably from Nagyag, Transylvania. Rickardite. H. Cu4Te3. Massive. 3'5. G. 7'5. Color deep purple, dullingon Fusible. at Vulcan, Col. Found exposure. Maucherite. Ni3As2. Tetragonal. Habit, square tabular. H. =5. G. 7'83. Color reddish silver-white tarnishing to gray copper-red. Streak blackish gray. Easily fusible. From Eisleben, Thuringia. The furnace product, placodine,is identical wfth maucherite.
=
= = = =

B.

Monosulphides,Monotellurides,* etc.,R2S, RS,

1.

ETC.

Galena
PbS

Group.

Isometric.

Galena

Also,
Altaite

(Pb,Cu2)S,(Cu2,Pb)S
PbTe PbSe

Argentite Jalpaite
Hessite

Clausthalite Naumannite
The known following,

Aguilarite

Ag2S (Ag,Cu)2S Ag2Te Ag2Se

(Ag2,Pb)Se only in massive form, probably also belong here: Cu2Se Zorgite (Pb,Cu2,Ag2)Se? t Crookesite (Pb,Hg2)Se (Cu,Tl,Ag)2Se Cu2Se.Ag2Se

Berzelianite Lehrbachite Eucairite

SULPHIDES,

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

363

The GALENA GROUP embraces number a of monosulphides,etc.,of the related metals, silver, and lead, These crystallize in the copper, mercury. normal class of the isometric system, and several show perfectcubic cleavage. These characters are most distinctly exhibited in the type species, galena.
GALENA.

GALENITE.

Lead

glance. in

Isometric. Commonly less often octacubes, or cubo-octahedrons, hedral. Also in skeleton crystals, tabular. Twins: reticulated, tw. pi. both contact- and penetration-twins o(lll), (Figs. 401,404, p. 165),sometimes often tabular || Also other tw. planes givingpolyo. repeated; twin crystals synthetic tw. lamellae. Massive cleavable, fine granular, coarse or to impalpable; fibrous or plumose. occasionally
641
642

643

644

! !
a

p(221),w
Fracture flatsubCleavage: cubic, highlyperfect;less often octahedral. H. conchoidal or even. 2-5-275. G. 7*4-7 '6. Luster metallic. Color and streak pure lead-gray. Opaque. Lead sulphide, PbS 100. Often Comp. Sulphur 13'4,lead 86'6 contains silver, and occasionally selenium, zinc, cadmium, antimony, bismuth, sometimes silver and gold. also, nativ,e copper, as sulphides;besides,
= =
"

1. Ordinary, (a) Crystallized; fibrous and plumose; (c) cleavable, (6) somewhat The varietywith octahedral cleavage or fine; (d) crypto -crystalline. granular coarse is rare; in it the usual cubic cleavage is obtained readilyafter heating to 200" or 300"; the peculiar cleavagemay be connected with the bismuth usuallypresent. One varietyshowing octahedral cleavage contained a small amount of tellurium. 2. less argentiferous, and no external characters or Argentiferous. All galena is more from those that are not. The silver is the kinds that are much to distinguish serve so of one detected by cupellation, from a few thousandths and may amount per cent to one Var.
"

when mined for silver it ranks as a silver ore. per cent or more; of these metals,as 3. Containing arsenic, or a compound or antimony , from belong bleischweif Claustal,Harz'Mts.,with 0'22 Sb, and steinmannite
"

impurity.
from

Here

PHbram,

Bohemia, with both arsenic and antimony. B.B. on charcoal fuses,emits sulphurous In the open tube gives sulphurous fumes. Pyr. fumes, coats the coal yellow near the assay (PbO) and white with a bluish border and yields at a distance (PbSO3, chiefly), a globuleof metallic lead. Decomposed by strong nitric acid with the separationof some sulphur and the formation of lead sulphate. Diff. by its cubic cleavage;the Distinguished, except in very fine granular varieties, also the blowpipe reactions. color and the high specific gravity are characteristic; surface usually showing white color with smooth In polished section shows Micro. iridescent. triangular pits. With HNO3 blackens; with FeCl3 becomes bright, In nature it is apparArtif. Crystallized galena has been formed in numerous ways. ently laboratory reactions perhaps similar to the following commonly formed by hydrochemical sodium bonate bicarmethods : galena was produced by allowing a mixture of lead chloride, and a solution of hydrogen sulphide to remain in a sealed tube for several months.
" " "

364

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

lead chloride will produce galena; a solution of or marcasite heated with a solution of Pyrite quently will yield galena. Galena is fresulphydrate lead nitrate when heated with ammonium observed in furnace slags. One of the most widely distributed of the metallic sulphides. Occurs in beds Obs. rocks. Very commonly found togetherwith and uncrystalline both in crystalline and veins, It is often associated with pyrite, marcasite, zinc ores in connection with limestone rocks. barite of quartz, calcite, in or fluorite, a a rsenopyrite, e tc., gangue chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and other salts of lead,which are frequent results of its anglesite, etc.; also with cerussite, with gold,and in veins of silver ores. alteration. It is also common at which galena has been found are as follows: A few of the notable localities in the Harz Mts., At Freibergin Saxony in veins in gneiss;at Claustal and Neudorf, etc., in Styria; in limestone and at Pribram in Bohemia, it forms veins in clay slate;similarly near Laasphe, Westphalia; at Prussia;at Gonderbach at Bleiberg, Carinthia;in Silesia, Schemnitz, Kapnik, etc.,Hungary; Joachimstal,Bohemia; at Poullaouen and Huelgoet, in district in Belgium; in province of Cagliari, Sardinia; Brittany,France; in Moresnet also in Catalonia, at Linares, Grenada, and elsewhere; in veins through the Spain,in granite of Cornwall; filling and the contact hornstones cavities in Scotland, graywacke of Leadhill, the limestone of Derbyshire,Cumberland, and the northern districts of England, associated in many calamine and sphalerite; with calcite, placesin witherite, barite, fluorite, dolomite,
"

Chile,Bolivia, Peru, etc. Australia, Extensive depositsof this ore in the United States exist in Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, The ore occurs cavities or chambers"in stratified limestone, and Wisconsin. usuallyfilling from Silurian to Carboniferous. It isassociated with sphalerite, of different periods, smithThe Missouri mines are situated in three districtsin the southern etc. calcite, pyrite, sonite, in St. Francis, chiefly Washington and Madison counties, part of the state,(1) Southeastern, the latter producing chiefly zinc. Other (2) Central,(3) Southwestern or Joplindistrict, districts in the upper Mississippi Valley are found in southwestern Wis., eastern Iowa and in N. Y., at Rossie, St. Lawrence northwestern 111. Also occurs with calcite Co., in crystals in Pa., at Phcenixyille and elsewhere. In Col.,at Leadville and Aspen, and chalcopyrite; there are productivemines of argentiferous trict galena,also at Georgetown, the San Juan disand elsewhere. Mined for silver in the Cceur d'Alene region in Idaho; at the Park City and Tintic districtsin Utah. The name galena is from the Latin galena (ya\i)t"rj), a name 'givento lead ore or the
dross from
Use.
"

melted lead. The most important

ore

of lead and

a frequently

valuable

ore

of silver.

A massive mineral,from Chile,varying in characters from galena to CUPROPLUMBITE. those of chalcocite and covellite; composition,Cu2S.2PbS(?). Material classed here from Alisonite is massive, deep indigo-blue Butte, Mon., gave formula, 5Cu2S.PbS. quickly Mina tarnishing; correspondsto 3(?u2S.PbS. From these and Grande, Chile. Whether similar minerals represent definite homogeneous compounds, or only ill-definedalterationis uncertain, and if so it is not clear whether they should be classed with isometric products, galena or with orthorhombic chalcocite. Altaite.

Lead

PbTe. telluride,
=

Rarely in cubic

or

octahedral

crystals, usuallymassive

with

cubic

cleavage. G.

From bronze-yellow.

Color the Altai Mts., with

8 '16.

with yellowish tinge tarnishing to tin-white, hessite; Coquimbo, Chile; Cal.,Col.,British

(

Columbia. Clausthalite.

Lead selenide, PbSe. Commonly in fine granular masses resembling 7 '6-8 -8. galena. Cleavage: cubic. G. Color lead-gray, somewhat From bluish. Claustal, Harz Mts., Germany; Cacheuta mine, Mendoza River, Argentina. Tilkerodite is a cobaltiferous variety.
=

Naumannite. Silver-lead telluride (Ag2,Pb)Se. In granular,in thin plates. Cleavage: cubic. G. 8'0.
"

cubic Color

crystals;also massive,
and streak iron-black.

From

Tilkerode

in

the Harz

Mts
,

Germany.

ARGENTITE.

Silver Glance.

Crystals often octahedral, also cubic; often distorted, frequently arborescent forms; also filiform. Massive; or embedded; as a coating. Cleavage: a(100), d(110)in traces. Fracture small subconchoidal. fectly Pergrouped in reticulated
sectile. H.
streak blackish
=

Isometric.

2-2-5.

G.

7'20-7'36.
=

Luster

metallic.
=

Color
100.

and

Comp.

"

streak shining. Opaque. lead-gray; Silver sulphide, AgaS Sulphur 12-9,silver 871

SULPHIDES, Pyr., etc.

intumescence
Diff.
"

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

365

B.B. on charcoal fuses with tube gives off sulphurous fumes. O.F., emitting sulphurous fumes, and yieldinga globuleof silver. from other sulphidesby being readilycut with a knife; also by Distinguished In the open in silver
on

yieldingmetallic
Micro.
"

charcoal.

shows surface which is grayish white color with a smooth and FeCl3; with cone. HC1 brown with HNO3,KCN Turns tarnished easily scratched. iridescent by fumes and blackened by acid. and in numerous Artif. Argentite is very easilyprepared artificially ways. Sulphur, sulphur dioxide or hydrogen sulphide will act upon metallic silver or any of its common to.produce silver sulphide. compounds, either in solution or as solids, Found at Freiberg, Obs. etc.,Saxony; Andreasberg, Harz Mts., Germany; Schemnitz, ver Bohemia; Kongsberg, Norway; Sardinia. In South America at silHungary: Joachimstal, in the states of Chihuahua, Guanajuato, In Mexico mines in Chile,Peru and Bolivia. etc. Lode, Tonapah, etc., Nev.; Aspen, Leadville,etc. Col. Important ore at Comstock Found at Port Arthur on north shore of Lake Superior. An important ore of silver. Use. JALPAITE is a cupriferous argentitefrom Jalpa, Mexico. Silver telluride, grained. Hessite. Usually massive, compact or fineAg2Te. Isometric. sectile. H. G. 2*5-3. Color 8 '31-8 '45. Cleavage indistinct. Somewhat between lead-grayand steel-gray. From the Altai Mts.; at Nagyag, Botes and Rezbdnya In Mexico at San Sebastian, Jalisco. in Transylvania; Chile near Arqueros, Coquimbo. This speciesalso In the United States,Calaveras Co., Cal.; Boulder Co., Col.; Utah. often contains gold and thus graduates toward petzite. 3 : 1. Petzite. Massive; granularto compact. Slightly (Ag,Au)2Te with Ag : Au Color steel-gray to iron-black ; tarnishing. G. 2*5-3. 8 '7-9 '02. sectile to brittle H. West British Columbia; From Australia;Yale District, Nagyag, Transylvania; Kalgoorlie, Cal. Tuolumne Co., and elsewhere, Col.; Poverty Hill, crystals. Ag2S and Ag2(S,Se). In skeleton dodecahedral Aguilarite. Silver selenide, From 7'586. Color iron-black. Sectile. G. Guanajuato, Mexico. Berzelianite. Copper selenide,Cu2Se. In thin dendritic crusts and disseminated. 671. Color silver-white, G. Skrikerum, Sweden; Lehrbach, in the tarnishing. From Harz Mts., Germany. PbSe with HgSe. Selenide of lead amd Lehrbachite. Massive, granular. mercury, From Color lead-grayto iron-black. 7'8. G. Lehrbach, in the Harz Mts., Germany. silverColor between 7-50. Eucairite. granular. G. Cu2Se.Ag2Se. Massive, the Skirkerum white and lead-gray. From mine, Sweden; also Chile. copper sive, MasPerhaps a mixture. Zorgite. Selenide of lead and copper in varying amounts. the Harz Mts.,Germany; 7-7 '5. Color dark or lightlead-gray. From granular G. Cacheuta, Argentina. and thallium, also silver (1-5 p. c.),(Cu,Tl,Ag)2Se. Selenide of copper Crookesite. of the mine Color lead-gray. From metallic. Luster G. 6*9. Massive, compact. Skirkerum, Sweden. G. 5-620. H. =3. to compact. Massive, fine-granular Umangite. CuSe.Cu2Se. La Rioja,Argentina. Color dark cherry-red. From In

polished section

"

"

"

"

"

"

2.

Chalcocite

Group
a

:b
: : : : :

: c

Chalcocite

Cu2S

0'5822 0'5822 0-5832 0-5970

1 1 1 1 1

0'9701 0.9668 0.8391 0-7352

Stromeyerite Sternbergite
Frieseite
Acanthite

Ag2S.Cu2S Ag2S.Fe4S5 Ag2S

0-6886

0-9944

in the orthorhombic GROUP crystallize speciesof the CHALCOCITE hence pseudoto are they a prismatic angle approximating 60"; to the is The twinned. w hen in parallel form, especially group hexagonal and in in form isometric Ag2S cuproplumbite since Galena Group, Cu2S appears h ere include authors Some (see 361). in also dyscrasite p. argentite.

The

system with

366
CHALC0CITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Copper
Axes
A 110

Glance.
a
=

Redruthite.
: c
=

Orthorhombic.
dd'f(021) A
645

0'5822

0-9701.
p, 001

"

110
021

60" 25'. 125" 28'.

646

A A

111 111

pp"r, 111

62" 35*'. =53"647

Often massive, structure

in angle,also by twinning (tw. pi.w(110)). Crystalspseudo-hexagonal granularto compact and impalpable. ages developscleavetchingof orientated crystals Cleavage: m(110) indistinct; Rather sectile. conchoidal. to the three pinacoids. Fracture parallel
=

H.

2-5-3.

G.

5-5-5-8.

often tarnished lead-gray,

Luster metallic. Color and blue or green, dull. Opaque.

=

streak

blackish
=

Comp.
Sometimes

"

Cuprous sulphide,Cu2S
iron in small amount
"

Sulphur 20*2,

copper

79'8

100.

silver. is present,also,

charcoal melts to a B.B. In the open tube gives sulphurous fumes. on Pyr.,etc. which boils with spirting; the fine powder roasted at a low temperature on charcoal, globule, Soluble in'nitricacid. then heated in R.F.,yields a globuleof metallic copper. Resembles Diff. but much more argentite brittle;bornite has a different color on the fresh fracture and becomes magnetic B.B. In polishedsection shows grayish or bluish white color with smooth surface. Micro. tions; With HNO3 effervesces and etches, less blue,and develops cleavage direcor turning more
"
"

wibh KCN blackens and etches. Chalcocite has been prepared artificially by heating the vapors of cuprous chloride and hydrogen sulphideor by the treatment of cupricoxide with hydrogen sulphide; also by the heating of cupric solutions with ammonium sulphocyanate in a sealed tube. Obs. Chalcocite is an important ore of copper. It is usuallysecondary in its origin, being found in the upper, enriched portionsof copper veins. It is commonly associated with
Artif
"

"

chalcopyrite, etc. bornite, pyrite, azurite, cuprite, malachite, Cornwall affords splendidcrystals, the districts of Saint Just,Camborne, and especially Redruth Occurs at Joachimstal,Bohemia; Tellemarken, Norway; compact (redruthite). and massive varieties in Siberia;Saxony; Mte. Catini mines in Tuscany; Mexico; South
America. In the United States, Bristol, Conn., has afforded largeand brilliant crystals ; also found at Simsbury and Cheshire;at Schuyler'smines, *N. J.; in Nev., in Washoe, Humboldt, Churchill and Nye counties;at Clifton, Ariz.;in Mon., massive at Butte in great amounts. Notable deposit at Kennecott, Copper River District, in Canada, with Alaska. Found and bornite at the Acton mines and elsewhere in the province of Quebec. chalcopyrite An important ore of Use. copper.
"

often Ag2S.Cu2S. Rarely in orthorhombic crystals, H. 2 '5-3. 6'15-6'3. massive, compact. G. Luster metallic. From the Zmeinogorsk mine, Siberia;Silesia; also Chile, steel-gray. Zacatecas, Mexico; Cobalt,Ontario;the Heintzelman mine in Ariz.; Col. Chalmersite. Cu2S.Fe4S5. Orthorhombic. Axial ratio near that of chalcocite. In thin elongated prisms vertically striated. Twins with ra(110) as tw. pi.resemcdmmon bling twinned. Commonly Color and streak dark
=
=

Stromeyerite. (Ag,Cu)?S, or

chalcocite. H. From the Morro

3'5. G. 47. Color Velho gold mine, Minas

=

brass- to bronze-yellow.Stronglymagnetic. Geraes,Brazil.

368
and
may

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

tin. Also sometimes and be argentiferous

"

contains traces auriferous.

of

indium, gallium and thallium;

iron; from colorless white to yellowish Var. 1. Ordinary. Containing little or no transparent crystallizec 4-0-4 '1. The red or reddish brown brown, sometimes green; G. The massive cleavable forms are the called ruby blende or ruby zinc. kinds are sometimes Schalenblende also cryptocrystalline. to fine granular; most common, vary ing from coarse reniform concentric with in layers liver-brown of color, is a closely a pale variety, compact surface; galena and marcasite are often interstratified. The fibrous forms are chiefly in Cherokee Co., Kan. A soft white amorphous form of zinc sulphideoccurs wurtzite. of iron; dark-brown to black; Marmatite. 2. Ferriferous: Containing 10 p. c. or more The proportionof FeS to ZnS varies from 1 : 5 to 1 : 2, and the last ratio is S'9-4'05. G. from St. Christophe mine, of Breithaupt,a brilliant black sphalerite that of the christophitc 3 '91-3 '923. at Breitenbrunn, having G. of cadmium The amount present in any 3. Cadmiferous: Pribramite,Przibramite. thus far analyzed is less than 5 per cent. sphalerite tube sulphurous fumes, and generally fusible. In the open Difficultly Pyr., etc. which is yellow while in R.F.,givesa coatingof zinc oxide, changes color. B.B. on charcoal, is present a reddish brown hot and white after cooling. If cadmium coating of cadmium oxide will form first. With cobalt solution the zinc oxide coatinggives a green color when after roasting, Most heated in O.F. givewith borax a reaction for iron. Dissolves varieties, in hydrochloric acid with evolution of hydrogen sulphide. but distinguished Diff. Varies widely in color and appearance, by the resinous luster in all but deep black varieties; usually exhibits distinct cleavage; nearly infusible B.B.; yieldsa zinc oxide coatingon charcoal. In polished section shows Micro. a grav'colorwith smooth surface. Transparent, becomes with oblique illumination. /HiVith HNOs slowly brown, often yellow to brown showing crystal structure; with aqua regiaeffervesces and blackens. Arttf formed by heating zinc solutions in hydrogen Sphaleritehas been artificially heated zinc sulphide inclosed in a sealed tube; also by passing hydrogen sulphide over
= =
=
" " " "

chloride.
in both crystalline It occurs and as limestones,where it often occurs beds of considerable size. It is frequently associated with galena,also with chalcopyrite, barite. fluorite, Of the two forms etc. pyrite, siderite, Commonly found with silver ores. of zinc sulphide,sphalerite is the form which crystallizes below 1020" while wurtzite is depositedat higher temperatures. Zinc sulphide is deposited from alkaline solutions as from acid solutions both forms are deposited, sphalerite; the amount of sphalerite ing increaswith the temperature while that of wurtzite increases with the acidity of the solution. Some of the chief localitiesfor crystallized in Cumberland Alston Moor are: sphalerite and at St. Agnes and elsewhere in Cornwall, England; Andreasberg and Neudorf in the Harz and other localities in Saxony; Pfibram, and Schlackenwald in BoheMts., Freiberg, mia; Kapnik, Schemnitz and Felsobanya, in Hungary; in Transylvania; Nagyag and Rodna the Binnental in Switzerland, isolated crystals of great beauty, yellow to brown, in cavities of dolomite. A beautiful transparent variety yieldinglarge cleavage masses is brought from Picos de Europa, Santander,Spain,where it occurs in a brown limestone. A similar varietywith golden brown to green colors from Chivera mine, Cannanea, Mexico. from Ani copper Large crystals mines,Ugo, Japan. Fibrous varieties (seewurtzite)are obtained at Pribram; Geroldseck in The original Baden; Raibl,Carinthia; also in Cornwall. is from Marmato marmatite near Popayan, Italy. The important zinc ore districts of the United States in which sphalerite is the chief mineral zinc found in Missouri, are Colorado,Montana, Wisconsin, Idaho and Kansas, borne localities noteworthy for the specimens they have produced are as follows: In Conn., N* J-'a white variety In Pa., at the at Franklin Furance. (cleiophane) ?in, y'j lead mines,in crystals; Wheatley and Perkiomen near Friedensville, Lehigh Co., a grayish variety. In 111., waxy near with galena and calcite; Rosiclare, at Marsden' diggings,near Galena, m stalacites, with crystallized In Wis., at marcasite,and galena; at Warsaw. Mineral Point, in fine crystals. In Ohio, at Tiffin. In Mo., in beautiful crystallizations with and calcite at Joplinand other galena, marcasite pointsin the southwestern part of the state; deposits here occur in limestone and are of great extent and value; also in adjoining In Col.,at parts of Kan. places. many
"

Obs. is the most important Sphalerite sedimentary rocks,being especially common

ore

of zinc.

in the

Named
German
use.
"

blende
meaning
ine

while because, blind

or

often resembling galena, it yielded no lead, the word deceiving.Sphalerite is from cr0aXepds, treacherous.
ore

in

most

important

of zinc.

SULPHIDES,
Metacinnabarite. in black tetrahedral

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

369

mine, Lake
Co. Found

Mercuric sulphide,HgS. In composition like cinnabar, but occurs G. 77. In Cal., from the Reddington crystals;also massive. county, with cinnabar, quartz and marcasite; and from San Joaquin, Orange
=

also at Idria in Austria.

Guadalcazarite. Near Probably cazar, Mexico.

Tiemannite.

metacinnabarite,but contains zinc (up

a

to 4 p.

c.). Guadal-

mixture.

selenide, HgSe. Isometric-tetrahedral. Commonly massive' Claustal. Luster metallic. Color steel-gray Utah; 8'30-8'47 to blackish lead-gray. Streak nearly black. Occurs at Claustal in the Harz in Mts.; Cal., the vicinity of Clear lake; MarysVale, Piute Co., Utah. Onofrite. 4'5 to 6'5 p. c. San Onofre,Mexico; Marysvale,Utah. Hg(S,Se) with Se Coloradoite. Mercuric Massive. Conchoidal telluride, fracture. H. HgTe. 2'5. G. 8'07 found (Kalgoorlie). Color iron-black. Originally sparingly in Colorado. Rather abundant at the Kalgoorlie district, West Australia. Material called kalgoorlite is a mixture of coloradoite and petzite. Alabandite. sulphide, MnS. Manganese Isometric-tetrahedral; usually granular 3 '95-4 '04. massive. Luster submetallic. Cleavage: cubic, perfect. G. Color ironblack. Streak Occurs at Nagyag, Transylvania; Kapnik, Hungary; Mexico; green. and massive on Snake River, Summit Peru; crystallized county, Col.; Tombstone, Ariz. In pale brown Oldhamite. Calcium sulphide,CaS. spheruleswith cubic cleavagein the Busti meteorite. Also noted in Allegan meteorite.
compact.
G.
=

Mercuric

8'19

PENTLANDITE.

Isometric. Fracture uneven. Massive,granular. Cleavage:octahedral. H. 5-0. Brittle. 3*5^. G. Luster metallic. Color light bronzebronze-brown. yellow. Streak light Opaque. Not magnetic. A sulphide of iron and nickel,(Fe,Ni)S. In part, 2FeS.NiS Comp. 100. Sulphur 36-0,iron 42-0,nickel 22-0
= =
"

Occurs with chalcopyrite near Also from Lillehammer, Norway. Ontario, where it is intimately associated with nickeliferous pyrrhotite. It can from the latter by its cleavage.
Obs.
"

Sudbury,

be distinguished

4.

Cinnabar-Wurtzite-Millerite

Group.

Rhombohedral
c

or

Hexagonal

Cinnabar
Covellite

HgS
CuS CdS ZnS NiS NiAs NiSb

Rhombohedral-Trapezohedral

1*1453 1-1466
c c or

Greenockite
Wurtzite Millerite

Hexagonal-Hemimorphic
"

0*8109 0*8175

0*9364 0*9440

Rhombohedral
"

0*9883
0*8194 0'8586 0*9462 0*9915 1*0047

Niccolite

Breithauptite
Arite

Pyrrhotite
Troilite

Ni(Sb,As) FenSw, etc.

FeS

Hexagonal

0*8701

the monosulphides includes several subdivisions, This fourth group among not in all are in the scheme shown above, and the relations of the species as of mercury and zinc, clear. It is to be noted that the sulphides cases perfectly here again. in the sphalerite group, appear already represented
etc.,be If,as suggested by Groth, the prominent pyramids of wurtzite,greenockite, x 1122, instead of 1011), then the values of c pyramids of the second series (e.g., in the second column are obtained,which correspond to millerite. The form of several of form for greenockite A rhombohedral known. these species, however, is only imperfectly has been suggested.
made
=

370
CINNABAR.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Axis Rhombohedral-trapezohedral.
rr' 1011

c
=

11453.
87" 23'. 78" 0"'. 52" 54'.

u', 4045
cr, 0001

A A A
or

1011 4045 1C11

habit,rarelyshowing also acicular prismatic. faces; trapezohedral as an granular,massive; sometimes incrustations, In crystalline earthy coating. what Somesubconchoidal, uneven. Cleavage: ra(1010) perfect. Fracture to Luster 8-0-8-2. adamantine, inclining G..= sectile. H. 2-2;5. Crystalsusuallyrhombohedral
in rhombohedral

thick tabular in

twins; penetration

and to dull in friable varieties. metallic when dark-colored, red and lead-gray. Streak to brownish red, often inclining 2 -82,er Indices: o"r + Optically to opaque.
=
.

Color cochinealparent scarlet. Trans3 '14. See Art.

394.
or pact; com(b) massive,granular embedded 1. Ordinary: either (a) crystallized; brightred to reddish brown in color; (c) earthyand bright red. 2. Hepatic. Of a in structure, though occasionally fiver-brown slaty a brownish streak, with sometimes color, or compact. commonly granular

Var.

"

Mercuric sulphide, Sulphur 13'8,mercury HgS Comp. iron oxide,bitumen. Usually impure from the admixture of clay,
"

86'2

100.

but with sodium In the closed tube alone a black sublimate of mercuric sulphide, Pyr. Carefully heated in the open tube gives sulphurous of metallic mercury. carbonate one which condenses in minute globuleson the cold walls of the fumes and metallic mercury, but only when quite free from gangue. B.B. on charcoal wholly volatile, tube. Characterized gravity (reduced, Diff. by its color and vermilion streak,high specific in softness;also by the blowpipe characters (e.g., however, by the gangue usuallypresent), varieties of hematite and cuprite. Resembles some the closed tube) which are, however, has been produced artificially Artif. by several methods Cinnabar the black mercury phide sulin generalmodifications of the two following types: (1) When and sulphur is sublimed,cinnabar is the prodformed byjthe direct union of mercury uct; (2) the black sulphidewhen treated with solutions of alkaline sulphides is converted cinnabar is formed under alkaline conditions and metacinnabarite In general into cinnabar. under acidic conditions. mineral of mercury and with rare is the only common Obs. Cinnabar exceptions in veins filling fissures and cavities in rocks which It occurs constitutes the ore of the metal. sandstones or limestones. being often slates, shales, are commonly sedimentary in character, While infrequently by and are occurring in igneous rocks such rocks are commonly near of the metal. Cinnabar is deposited from hot alkaline thought to have been the source solutions or as the result of solfataric action. Pyrite and marcasite,sulphidesof copper, realgar, gold, etc.,are associated minerals; calcite, stibnite, quartz or opal, also barite, are fluorite, minerals; a bituminous mineral is common. gangue in Spain, and at Idria in CarThe most important European depositsare at Almaden where it is usuallymassive; also at Bakmut.in southern Russia. at niola, Crystallized Moschellandsberg and Wolf stein in the Palatinate and at the mines of Mt. Avala, near chinsk Belgrade,Servia; at Ripa in Tuscany; at Als6sajo, Hungary; in the Ural Mts., the Nerfrom Province of Kweiregion in Transbaikalia;in large twinned rhombohedrons chow, China; Japan; Mexico; Huancavelica,Peru; Chile. In the United States forms extensive mines in Cal., Almaden the most important at New in Santa Clara Co.; also at Altoona, Trinity Co.; it is now and the vicinity, forming by solfataric action at Sulphur Bank, Cal.,and Steamboat Springs,Nev.; has been found in southern Utah; important depositsoccur in Brewster Co., Texas; also mined in Nev. and
" "

"

"

Ariz.

The name cinnabar is supposed to come from India,where itis applied to the red resin, dragon's blood. The native cinnabar of Theophrastus is true cinnabar; he speaks of its of cinnabar,minium, is now affordingquicksilver. The Latin name a given to red lead, substance which was early used for adulterating cinnabar,and so got at last the name. Only comparativelyfew localitieshave furnished the mineral in quantity. Use.
"

The

most

importantore

of mercury.

SULPHIDES,
COVELLITE.

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

371

Monoclinic ? Pseudohexagonal through twinning. Crystals thin usually hexagonal plates. Often massive. T5-2. G. 4'6. Luster submetallic to CleaVage: basal,perfect. H. Often shows fine purple color when darker. resinous. Color indigo-blue or to black. Streak lead-gray moistened with water. Opaque. CuS 100. Sulphur 33'6,copper 66'4 Cupric sulphide, Comp.
= =
"

Fusible at 2'5 yieldingsulphurous fumes. After roasting and moistening Pyr., etc. Much acid givesazure-blue flame. with hydrochloric sulphur in C.T. In polished section shows blue color with smooth surface. With KCN Macro. comes beleavinga yellowcoating and rough surface. instantly deep violet which rubs off, Covellite has been prepared artificially Artif. by heating in sealed tubes a cupric in a solution of copper solution with ammonium sulphocyanate and by heating sphalerite
" " "

sulphate.
found in the enriched portionsof copper Covellite is a mineral of secondary origin Obs. in small amounts Found in many bornite,etc. sulphide veins,associated with chalcocite, places. Noteworthy localities are as follows: various places in Germany; in exceptional at Bor in Timoker crystals Kreis,Servia; on the lavas of Vesuvius; in Chile; Province of Rikuchu, Japan. In the United States at the Butte district, Mon.; Summitville, Col.; La Sal district, Utah; Kennecott, Alaska, etc.
"

GREENOCKITE.

Hexagonal-hemimorphic. Rarely in hemimorphic crystals;also as a coating. c(0001) imperfect. Fracture conchoidal. Cleavage: a(1120) distinct,
Brittle.
H.
=

3-3'5.

G.

4'9-5*0.

Luster

adamantine

to resinous.

Color

or orange-yellow. Streak between honey-, citron-, Nearly transparent. orange-yellow and brick-red. 2*529. + co 2-506,e Optically CdS Cadmium Sulphur 22'3, sulphide, Comp.
= =
.
"

cadmium

77-7
"

100.

white

carmine-red color In the closed tube assumes a Pyr., etc. hot, fading to the originalyellow on cooling. In the B.B. on charcoal, either open*tube gives sulphurous fumes. alone or with soda, gives in R.F. a reddish brown coating. Soluble in hydrochloricacid,affordinghydrogen sulphide. in sevhas been prepared artificially Artif. Greenockite eral fused with sulphide when Precipitated cadmium ways. cadmium potassium carbonate and sulphur produced greenockite crystals; also when fused together. Greenockite is sulphide were sulphate,calcium fluoride and barium oxide is heated in sulphur vapor. formed when cadmium Obs. Occurs with prehnite at Bishopton, Renfrewshire, and elsewhere in Scotland. at other points; so too in the At Pfibram in Bohemia, as a coating on sphalerite; similarly United States near Mo.; in Friedensville, Pa., and in the zinc region of southwestern common Marion Co., Ark., it colors smithsonite bright yellow; noted at Franklin, N. J. Not unas a furnace product.
" "

Use.

"

An

ore

of cadmium.

but in hemimorphic hexagonal crystals; Wurtzite. Zinc sulphide, ZnS, like sphalerite, See under sphalerite, Color brownish black. also fibrous and massive. 3 '98. G. p. 368, Oruro in Bolivia; Portugal; for the conditions of its formation. From a silver-mine near and quartz at the "Original Butte" with sphalerite at Mies, Bohemia; Peru. In crystals from Joplin,Mo.; from near In crystals Frisco,Beaver Co.,Utah. mine, Butte, Mon. at Pfibram, Bohemia; Liskeard, The massive fibrous forms of "Schalenblende" occur Cornwall,etc. Other forms, from Stolberg,Wiesloch, Altenberg, Germany, are in part
=

wurtzite,in part sphalerite.

372
MILLERITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

often in crystals, capillary hair. like wad of Also in a delicate radiatinggroups; The rhomboheradiated. a nd columnar tufted coatings, partlysemi-globular be formed. twins may is a gliding dron (0112) plane and artificial slender to sometimes
interwoven to (1011)and (0112). Fracture parallel Cleavage perfect
uneven.

Pyrites. Capillary Rhombohedral. Usually in very

Brittle;
metallic. iridescent
100.

capillarycrystalselastic. with often to bronze-yellow, Color brass-yellow, .inclining black. tarnish. Streak greenish NiS Nickel sulphide, Sulphur 35'3, nickel Comp.
= =
"

H.

3-3 '5.

G.

5 '3-5 '65.

Luster
a

gray
=

64-7

charcoal fuses to a globule. bead in O.F., becoming nickel. On charcoal in R.F. the roasted mineral gives metallic from reduced R.F. in gray Most varieties also show traces of attractable by the magnet. metallic mass, a coherent and iron with the fluxes. copper, cobalt, Artif by treatingunder pressure a Crystalsof millerite have been formed artificially solution of nickel sulphate with hydrogen sulphide. in Bohemia; in Germany and Pfibram at JohannFound Obs. at Joachimstal Saxony; Wissen, Prussia; in Cornwall, England. georgenstadtand Freiberg, In the United States, at Antwerp, N. Y., in cavities in hematite; in Lancaster Co., Pa., With calci'te, at the Gap mine, in thin velvety coatings of a radiated fibrous structure. in geodes in limestone,often dolomite and fluorite, forming delicate tangled hair-like tufts, At at St. Louis, Mo.; similarly near the calcite crystals, Milwaukee, Wis. penetrating When

Pyr., etc. In the open roasted,gives with

tube

borax

B.B. sulphurous fumes. and salt of phosphorus a

on

violet

"

"

Orford,Quebec.
Use.
"

An

ore

of nickel.

but with lower specific NiS like millerite, siders gravity(4'7). Laspeyres conin Westerwald, all millerite as formed by paramorphism from beyrichite. Found Rhine-Prussia.
BEYRICHITE. HAUCHECORNITE.

Perhaps

Ni(Bi,Sb,S). In
Hamm

G.

6*4.

From Color lightbronze-yellow.

tabular tetragonal crystals.H. a. d. Sieg,Germany.

5.

NICCOLITE.

Copper

Nickel.

Usually massive, structure nearly impalpable; Hexagonal. Crystals rare. Fracture also reniform, arborescent. uneven. columnar; reticulated, 7'33-7'67. Luster 5-5'5. G. Brittle. H. metallic. Color pale copper-red. Streak pale brownish black. Opaque. Nickel Arsenic 100. arsenide, NiAs Comp. 56'1, nickel 43*9 contains also sulphur; sometimes a littleiron and Usually cobalt, part of the arsenic is replaced by antimony, and then it graduatestoward breithauptite.
= =
"

The

intermediate Pyr., etc.

"

varieties have
on

been

called write.

intense ignitiongives a faint sublimate of arsenic. In the open with a trace of sulphurous fumes, the arsenictrioxide, On charcoal gives arsenical fumes and fuses to a globule, assay becoming yellowishgreen. reactions for iron,cobalt, which, treated with borax glass, affords, by successive oxidation, and nickel;the antimonial varieties give also reactions for antimony. Soluble in aqua

In the closed tube tube a sublimate of

regia.
Obs. silver and copper ores in Germany in the Saxon mines of Accompanies cobalt, Annaberg, Schneeberg, Mansfield,etc.; also in Thuringia,Hesse, and in Styria; at Allemont, Dauphine, at Balen in the Basses Pyrenees, France (arite) ; at the Ko mines in Nordin Cornwall, Chile: abundant mark, Sweden; occasionally de la Rioja, at Mina Oriocha, Argentina. In the United States, at Franklin Furnace, N. J.,Silver Cliff, Col. sparingly In Canada, at Cobalt, Ontario.
"

Use.

"

An

ore

of nickel.

Described as ture having composition Ni4As3,has been shown to be a mixmaucherite and a little niccolite, cobaltite. Breithauptite. Nickel antimonide, NiSb. Rarely in hexagonal crystals; usually disseminated. massive, arborescent, G. 7'54. Color lightcopper-fed. From Andreasberg in the Harz Mts., Germany.
of
=

TEMISKAMITE.

SULPHIDES,
PYRRHOTITE.

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

373

Magnetic Pyrites.
c
=

Hexagonal,

0'8701.
A A A 1011 4041
_

652
=

cs, 0001 cu, 0001

45"

8'. 0'.

=76"
=

XC~

cy, 0001

(20-0-20-3)

81" 30*'.
axes

gg

to subconchoidal. uneven metallic. Color between bronze-yellow and copper-red, and subject to speedy tarnish. Streak dark sometimes grayishblack. Magnetic, but varying much in intensity; ing possess-

with pi.s(10ll), rightangles(Fig.418, p. 167). commonly tabular; also acute striated horizontally. Usually sometimes Parting: c(0001), Twins:
tw. H.
=

nearly at \" crystals rare, pyramidal with faces massive, with granular structure.
Distinct distinct. Fracture
Luster 4-58-4-64.

vertical

Brittle.

3 -5-4-5.

G.

polarity. of dissolved Ferrous sulphide containing variable amounts Comp. variation show from Often also contains to FeieSi?. FesSe sulphur. Analyses iron nickel. 60'4 100. Art. Fe7S8 (Cf. 473, p. 323.) Sulphur 39'6,
"

less of dissolved sulphur, while or Pyrrhotite differs from troilite in containing more form the pure of iron,may troilite, occurringin meteorites where there is always an excess monosulphide. In the open tube gives sulphurousfumes. Pyr., etc. Unchanged in the closed tube. in O.F. is converted On charcoal in R.F. fuses to a black magnetic mass; into red oxide, which with fluxes gives only an iron reaction when but many varieties yield small pure, of nickel and cobalt. amounts acid,with evolution of hydroDecomposed by hydrochloric gen sulphide. Diff. Distinguishedby its peculiar reddish bronze color; also by its magnetic properties.
" "

In polished section shows color with a shiny and pitted surface. Micro. cream a with aqua With hot HC1 tarnishes quickly,giving bright colors, then blackens and dissolves; becomes iridescent in center of drop and brown at the edge. regiaeffervesces, of iron and sulphur and has been synthesized by the direct union Artif. Pyrrhptite also when Pyrrhotite pyrite is heated in an atmosphere of hydrogen sulphide at 550". exists in two crystalline hexagonal at ordinary temperatures and orthomodifications, rhombic-above 138". Obs. Occurs at Kongsberg, Modum, etc., in Norway; Falun, Sweden; Kristiania, Andreasberg in the Harz Mts., Germany; Schneeberg, Saxony; Leoben and Lavantal, wall. Carinthia; Minas Geraes in Brazil,in large tabular crystals; the lavas of Vesuvius; Corn" " "

In North America, in Me., at Standish with andalusite; in Ver., at Stafford,etc. In In Pa., at the N. Y., near Diana, Lewis Co.; Orange Co.; at Tilly Foster mine, Brewsters. In In Tenn abundant. Ducktown at mines, Gap mine, Lancaster Co., nickeliferous. ., Ontario; largedeposit mined for nickel Canada, in largeveins at St. Jerome, Elizabethtown , at Sudbury, Ontario. Named
Use.
"

from irvpporw, Often becomes

reddish.
a

valuable

ore

of nickel.
masses

Troilite. Ferrous sulphide,FeS, occurring in nodular iron meteorites. Color tombac-brown. G. 4 -75-4*82. many member of the pyrrhotite series. See above.
=

and in thin veins in Considered to be the end

C.

Intermediate

Division

twinned.

sulphide, perhaps Ni4S8. In octahedral crystals;frequently From Color gray. Griinau, Westphalia, Germany. Sychnodymite. Essentially (Co,Cu)4S6. Isometric, in small steel-gray octahedrons. From the Siegendistrict, Germany.

Polydymite.
G.
=

A nickel 4'54-4'81.

374
The

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

speciesare following etc. Sulpho-ferrites,

BORNITE. Peacock Ore.

sometimes

regarded as
Ore.

namely, Sulpho-salts,
Ore. Erubescite.

PurpleCopper

Copper Variegated
or

Isometric.

often o(lll), granularor compact. Cleavage : o (11 1) H.

=

cubic,faces often rough Crystalsrare. penetration-twins.

Habit
in traces. Fracture
,

curved.

Twins:

tw.

pi.

Usually

massive,structure

3.

G.

4-9-5-4.

on pinchbeck-brown

Brittle. small conchoidal, uneven. metallic. Color between copper-red and Streak iridescent from tarnish. fresh fracture, speedily
Luster

palegrayishblack. Opaque. A sulphide of copper Comp. 11-1,sulphur25-6=100.

"

and

iron.

Cu5FeS4.

Copper 63-3,iron

and therefore shows considerable of chalcocite, mineral often contains small amounts etc., and variation in its percentage composition,givingfrom 50 to 70 p. c. of copper 15 to 6*5 p. c. of iron. of sulphur. In the open tube In the closed tube gives a faint sublimate Pyr., etc. B.B. on charcoal fuses in R.F. to a brittle magnetic globule. sulphurous fumes. yields The roasted mineral gives with the fluxes the reactions of iron and copper, and with soda of sulphur. a metallic globule. Soluble in nitric acid with separation from Diff. chalcocite) by the peculiarreddish color on the fresh Distinguished(e.g., fracture and by its brilliant tarnish; B.B. becomes stronglymagnetic. With surface. In polishedsection shows a pinkish brown Micro. color with smooth becomes HNO3 quickly golden-brown with effervescence. Artif. Bornite has been obtained by fusingpyrite,copper and sulphur together; by heating a mixture of cuprous, cupric and ferric oxides in hydrogen sulphide at 100" to 200". Obs. Bornite is often a primary mineral of magmatic origin, being frequentlyfound in igneous rocks. It is also often a secondary mineral,occurring with chalcocite, etc.,in It is usually associated with other copper the enriched portionsof copper sulphideveins. of copper. varieties are found in Cornwall, called by Crystalline ores, and is a valuable ore the miners "horse-flesh ore." Occurs massive at Ross Island, Killarney,Ireland; Monte Silesia, Catini,Tuscany; the Mansfeld district, Germany; in Norway, Sweden, Siberia, and Hungary. It is the principal in Peru, Chilian mines; also common copper ore at some and Mexico. Bolivia, In the United States, found at the copper mine in Bristol, Conn.; massive at Mahoopeny, near in Canada, at Wilkesbarre, ore Pa.; in western Idaho; Butte, Mon., etc. A common the Acton and other mines. Named after the mineralogist Ignatiusvon Born (1742-1791). The
" " "

"

"

Use.

"

An

ore

of copper.
=

Linnaeite. A sulphide of cobalt, Co3S4 analogous to the spinel group. CqS.Co2S3, Also contains nickel (var. siegenite). Commonly in octahedrons; also massive. H. 5 '5. G. 4*8-5. Color pale steel-gray, tarnishing copper-red. Occurs at Bastnaes, etc., Sweden; Mtisen, near in octahedrons. In the Siegen,Prussia; at Siegen (siegenite), United States at Mine la Motte, Mo.; Mineral Hill,Md.
=

meteoric

Daubreelite. irons.

An iron-chromium Color black. G.

sulphide,FeS.Cr2S3, occurring with troilite in

=

some

5 '01.
=

CUBANITE. Described as an CuS.Fe2S3. iron-coppersulphide, perhaps CuFe2S4 of specimens from several localitiesshow it to be a mixture of pyriteor pyrrhoExamination tite with chalcopyrite. CARROLITE. A copper-c9balt CuCo2S4 CuS.Co2S3. sulphide, Isometric; rarely in octahedrons. G. 4*85. Usually massive. Color lightsteel-gray, with a faint reddish hue. From Carroll Co.,Md., near Finksburg. Probably linnseitewith intergrown bornite
=
=

and

chalcopyrite.
Badenite.

Color

steel-gray. Fusible.

Massive (Co,Ni,Fe)2(As,Bi)3. 7'1. Metallic. granular to fibrous. G. From near Roumania. Neguletzul valley, Badeni-Ungureni,
=

Copper Pyrites. Yellow Copper Ore. Axis c Tetragpnal-sphenoidal. 0-98525. 108" 40'. ppf, 111 A 111 70" 7i'. PPl, 111 A 111
=
=

CHALCOPYRITE.

ce, 001

101

44"

34|'.

376

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

with nickel and cobalt ores in the Kupferschiefer forms a bed in argillaceous schist;occurs at Freiberg affords well-defined crystals; the Kurprinz mine In Germany of Mansfield. elsewhere as at Mte. Catini in Common also Horhausen, Dillenburg,Neudorf, Musen. in South Tin New. Rio Chile; Wales; Japan, etc. Spain; to, Tuscany; associated with quartz at Ellenville, In the United States it is found in largecrystals at the French Creek mines, Chester Co., Pa., associated with N. Y.; in exceptional crystals localities in Gilpin at Joplin; at various pyrite,magnetite, etc.; in Mo., with sphalerite in many The most important sulphide deposits of copper of and other counties in Col. which chalcopyriteis the chief ore are found in the states of Arizona, Montana, Utah, and Tennessee. Alaska, Nevada, New Mexico, California, in British Columbia,Ontario arid Quebec, In Canada there are important copper deposits The Use. most important ore of copper. and pyrites, Named from XO\KOS, brass, by Henckel (1725).
"

D.

Diarsenides, etc. Bisulphides,

distinct groups. two The diarsenides, disulphides, etc., embrace in the included viz. metals cobalt are same and nickel. : both, iron, prominent several cases of isodimorphism, The groups present,therefore, is shown in as These sulphides all relatively below. the listsof species are hard,H. 5-6; this has strike firewith a nd hence the familiar a steel, given name they pyrites The color varies between and appliedto most of them. pale brass-yellow The
=

tin-white.

Pyrite Group. Pyrite

Arsenoferrite
Hauerite

RS^RAs^RSb^

Isometric-pyritohedral
NiS2.NiAs2

FeS2 FeAs2 MnS2

Gersdorffite

Corynite
Ullmannite

NiS2.Ni(As,Sb)j
NiS2.NiSb2 (isometric-

(Co,Ni,Fe)S2 Cobaltnickelpyrite
[Smaltite Chloanthite | Cobaltite

tetartohedral)
PtAs2 RuS2?

CoAs2,also (Co,Ni)As2 Sperrylite NiAs2,also (Ni,Co)As2 Laurite

CoS2.CoAs2

Marcasite Marcasite

Group.

RS2, RAS2,
a

etc.
c

Orthorhombic
110 A 110

101AI01

0-6689 Lollingite Fe3 As4 Leucopyrite Arsenopyrite FeS2.FeAs2 0-6773 Danaite (Fe,Co)S2. (Fe,Co) As2 Safflorite

FeS2 FeAs2

07662

1-2342 1-2331 1

74" 55' 67" 33' 68" 13'

116" 20' 123" 3' 120" 38'

1-1882

CoAs2
0-6942
:

Rammelsbergite NiAs2 Glaucodot As2 (Co,Fe)S2. (Co,Fe) Alloclasite (Co,Fe) (As,Bi)S

Wolfachite

1-1925

69" 32'

119" 35'

NiS2.Ni(As,Sb)2

The PYRITE GROUP besides the compounds of Fe, Co, Ni, also includes, others of the related metals Mn and Pt. The crystallization is isometric-

pyntohedral. The species of the MARCASITE GROUP system with prismaticanglesof about 70"
dome
of about
common

60" and 120". Hence with several species, in the one case the macrodome named being the twinning-plane.

in the orthorhombic crystallize 110" and a prominent macrofivefold and sixfold repeated twins are
and

prism and in the other the

SULPHIDES,

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

377

Pyrite Group
PYRITE.
Iron

Pyrites. of both

and pyritohedron e(210) the common often with striations || due to edge a(100)/e(210), and these forms to of c ombination rounded tending produce oscillatory faces; faces also striated J_ to this edge; octahedron also common. pyritohedral Twins: tw. ax.= See Figs.657-662, also Figs.133-138, pp. 65, 66. a crystal with a xes parallel (Fig.407, p. 166); rarely axis,usuallypenetration-twins subfibrous contact-twins. Frequently massive, fine granular; sometimes stalactitic. radiated; reniform, globular,

Cube Isometric-pyritohedral.

forms, the faces

657

658

660

661

Cleavage: a(100), o(lll),indistinct.

Brittle.
H.
=

Fracture

conchoidal

to

uneven.

6-6-5.

G.

5-027 Elba. 4-95-5-10; 4-967 Traversella,

-

ter Lus-

form. metallic, splendentto glistening.Color a pale brass-yellow, nearly uniStreak greenish black or brownish black. Opaque. Iron disulphide, FeS2 100. Sulphur 53'4, iron 46*6 Comp.
"

in small quantities, and also copper sometimes Nickel,cobalt,and thallium, replacepart of the iron, or else occur Gold is as mixtures; selenium is sometimes present in traces. auriferous pyritebeing an sometimes distributed invisibly of through it, important source gold. Arsenic is1rarely present, as in octahedral crystalsfrom French Creek, Pa. (0'2 p. c. As). (2'5-3). Becomes magnetic on heating and yieldssulphur Easily fusible, Pyr.,etc. sublimate of sulphur in the closed tube. dioxide. Gives nn abundant Insoluble in hydrochloric The fine powder is completely soluble in strong nitric acid acid. Diff. Distinguished from chalcopyriteby its greater hardness and paler color; in form and specific gravity different from marcasite,which has also a whiter color. color with a scratched and dull surface. In polished section shows Micro. cream a brown. With effervesces slowly becoming faintly HNOa Alteration. Pyrite readily changes by oxidation to an iron sulphate or to the hydrated oxide,limonite, with sulphuric acid set free. Crystals of pyrite which have been This change may continue until tho changed on their surfaces to limonite are common. of pyritelying near mineral has completely disappeared. Large masses the surface original
"

"

"

"

may

be altered to
set

sulphuricacid

the unaltered hematite is formed. Gbs. Experiments show

"

tHe iron gossan of the miners of limonite while the a cellular mass and enters into various important reactions with free travels downward be continued until The alteration of pyriteto limonite may minerals below.
" "

high temperatures.

Marcasite, on

that pyriteis formed in neutral or alkaline solutions and at the other hand, is deposited from acid solutions and

378
is stable

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

be formed through the only at temperatures below 450" C. These sulphidescan although the reducingaction of carbonaceous materials may also action of hydrogen sulphide, in rocks of all ages and types, being most common occurs at times be of importance. Pyrite found as a minor accesbut it is also frequently sory in the metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, in disseminated in the rocks it usually occurs constituent of igneous rocks. When in crystals but in veins it may occur etc., small crystals, cubes,octahedrons,pyritohedrons, At times it is in nodular or tionary concreor radiatingmassive structure. with a
or

granular

forms. sulphide mineral. being the most common Pyrite is very widespreadin its occurrence, is mined for its sulphur content or because and amounts in is it found large At times very It is frequently valuable metal, like copper, gold,etc. of some it contains small amounts for of notable localities its occurrence Some more fine luster. ^the with in a found

crystals

given below. deposits of pyrite are found in Norway, Germany, France, Important commercial noteworthy. Italy,Spain and Portugal. The mines at Rio Tinto, Spain, are especially The mineral has been mined in the United States in Louisa and Prince William Cos.,Va.; localities furnish exceptionally in St: Lawrence Co., N. Y.; at Davis, Mass., etc. The following fine crystallized specimens: Cornwall, England; Traversella and Brosso, Piedmont Italy; Island of Elba; Ardennes, France, in distorted cubes; Minden, Prussia,in interpenetrationtwins; in various localitiesin Bohemia, Hungary, Germany, Sweden, etc.; at Firmeza, Cuba; at French Creek, Pa., in pyramids with apparently tetragonalor orthoat Rossie and Scoharie,N. Y.; Roxbury, Conn.; Franklin, N. J.; rhombic symmetry; Col.; Bin^hamCanyon, Utah. Gilpin Co. and at Leadville, and alludes to the sparks formed when the The name pyriteis derived from irvp, fire, mineral is struck with a hammer; hence the earlyname pyrites, p. 376. of copper Use. or gold and becomes an important Pyrite often carries small amounts It is also mined for its sulphur content which is used in the form of of these metals. ore phuric sulphur dioxide (used in the preparationof wood pulp for manufacture into paper), as sulin the purification of kerosene and in the acid (used for many especially purposes, and as the ferrous sulphate, (used in dyeing, in preparationof mineral fertilizers), copperas and as a disinfectant). inks,as a wood preservative, Bravdite (Fe,Ni)S2. Contains nearly 20 per cent nickel. In small grainsand crystal seminated fragments,apparently octahedral. Pale yellowwith a faint reddish tarnish. Occurs disat Minasragra, Peru. ores through the vanadium Iron cobalt and sulphide with about 20 per cent Cobaltnickelpyrite.l nickel, (Co,Ni,Fe)S2. In minute pyritohedralcrystals. Steel-graycolor. Gray-black streak. H. 4-716. Found. at Musen, Germany. 5. G. Iron arsenide, probably FeAs2. Arsenoferrite. In small Isometric-pyritohedral. Fine splinters crystals. Color dark brown. the transparent with ruby-red color. From Binnental,Switzerland. Hauerite. In octahedral Manganese disulphide,MnS2. or pyritohedral crystals;
are
"

"

also massive.

G.

3'46.

Color

reddish

brown

or

brownish

black.

From

Kalinka,

Hungary; Raddusa, Catania,Sicily.

SMALTITE-CHLOANTHITE.

imitative
uneven.

Isometric-pyritohedral. Commonly massive; in reticulated and other shapes. Cleavage: o(lll) distinct; a (100) in traces. Fracture granular and
Brittle.
H.
=

5'5-6.
.

G.

6*4 to

6-6.

Luster

metallic.

Color

when tin-white, inclining, sometimes massive, to steel-gray, or iridescent, from tarnish. Streak grayish grayish black. Opaque. SMALTITE is essentially Comp. cobalt diarsenide, Arsenic CoAs2
"

71;8,cobalt 28-2 71-9,nickel 28'1

other, and
no

100. 100.

CHLOANTHITE

is nickel diarsenide, NiAs2

Arsenic

are usuallyboth present,and thus these two species graduate into each sharp line can be drawn between them. Iron is also present in varying amount ; the variety of chloanthite containing much iron has been called chathamite. ther Fursulphuris usually present,but only in small quantities. Many analysesdo not conform even approximately to the formula RAs2, the ratio rising from less than 1 : 2 to 1 : 2 '5 and nearly 1 : 3, thus showing a tendency toward skutterudite (RAs3), perhaps due to either molecular or mechanical mixture. examination Microscopic of polishedspecimens shows

Cobalt and nickel

SULPHIDES,

SELENJDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

379

of the group. Material known as keweenawite is a probable zoning of different members niccolite and domeykite. mixture of smaltite, by the high specific Much that has been called smaltite is shown gravityto belongto the safRorite. orthorhombic species In the closed tube gives a sublimate of metallic arsenic; in the open Pyr., etc. and sometimes traces of sulphur dioxide. tube a white sublimate of arsenic trioxide, B.B. charcoal gives a coating of As2O3, the arsenical odor, and fuses to a globule, on which, affords reactions for iron, treated with successive portionsof borax-glass, and nickel. cobalt, in veins,accompanying ores of cobalt or nickel,and ores Obs. of Usually occurs with niccolite and arsenopyrite. Found silver and copper; at the instances, also,in some Saxon Sparnon, Cornwall; Riechelsdorf, mines; Joachimstal,Bohemia; Wheal Hesse, In the Germany; Tunaberg, Sweden; Allemont, Dauphine, France; Cobalt, Ontario. in mica slate, occurs with arsenopyrite United States,at Chatham, Conn., the chathamite and niccolite; at Franklin Furnace, N. J.
" "

Use.

"

Ores of cobalt and

nickel.

COBALTITE.
or Commonly in cubes,or pyritohedrons, Isometric-pyrithohedral. binations comforms of pyrite. Also granular massive to resembling common

compact.

Cleavage: cubic,rather
G.
=

6-6 -3.
a

gray, with
"

Brittle. H. 5-5. perfect. Fracture uneven. inclined to red; also steelColor silver-white, black when containing violet tinge, much iron. Streak or grayish
=

Luster

metallic.

grayishblack. of cobalt, CoAsS Sulpharsenide Comp.

arsenic 45'2,cobalt 35'5
Iron
"

or

CoS2.CoAs2

Sulphur 19'3,

100.

is present, and in the varietyferrocobaltite in large amount. In the open in the closed tube. tube gives sulphurous fumes, Unaltered Pyr., etc. and sublimate of arsenic trioxide. B.B. on charcoal gives off sulphur and a crystalline and fuses to a magnetic globule; with borax a cobalt-blue color. Soluble in arsenic oxides, nitric acid,with the separationof sulphur. warm in Sweden; at the Nordmark Obs. Occurs at Tunaberg and Hakansbo mines; also at Skutterud in Norway; at Schladming, Styria; Siegen in Westphalia;Botallack mine, near St. Just,in Cornwall; Khetri mines, Rajputana, India; Cobalt,Ontario,Canada.
"

Use.

"

An

ore

of cobalt.

NiS2.NiAs2. Iron, and sometimes or less of the nickel. Isometric-pyritohedral; usually massive. H. Color silver-white to steel-gray. From 5*5. 5'6-6'2. G. Loos, Sweden; the Harz Germany; Schladming, Styria;Sudbury and Mts., and Lobenstein, Reuss-Schleiz, Ontario; Rossland, British Columbia. Algoma districts,
Gersdorffite.

Sulpharsenide of nickel,NiAsS
or

cobalt, replace
= =

more

is near but contains also antimony. Probably represents a mixture. gersdorffite, Olsa,Carinthia. Cleavage cubic. Color tin-white to steel-gr.ay. Willyamite. CoS2.NiS2.CoSb2.NiSb2. Broken South Wales. Hill mines, New Villamaninite. of Co,Fe. H 4'5. Sulphide of Cu,Ni with smaller amounts In irregular 4-4-4-5. G. Color, iron-black. and in crystals groups of cubo-octahedral In dolomite from Carmenes near district, radiating nodular masses. Villamanm, Prov. Leon, Spain. NiSbS UUmannite. or NiS2.NiSb2; arsenic is usually Sulphantimonide of nickel, both pyritohedral and tetrahedral forms Isometric-tetartohedral; present in small amount. 5-5 '5. G. Color steel-gray 6 '2-6 7. to occur. Usually massive, granular. H. silver-white. Occurs in the mines of Siegen, Prussia; Lolling,Carinthia (tetrahedral); Monte Narba, Sarrabus, Sardinia (pyritohedral). From KALLILITE. Ni(Sb,Bi)S or NiS2.Ni(Sb,Bi)2. Massive,color lightbluish gray. the Friedrich mine near Schonstein a. d. Sieg,Germany. PtAs2. In minute cubes, or cubo-octahedrons with Sperrylite. Platinum diarsenide, G. 10*6. 6-7. Luster metallic. at times small pyritohedral or diploid faces. H. Found Color tin-white. Streak black. at the Vermillion mine, 22 miles west of Sudbury, Co., N. C. Found associated with covellite at the Rambler Ontario,Canada; also in Macon This is the only known native compound of platinum. mine, Medicine Bow Mts., Wy.

CORYNITE
From

"

"

380

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Laurite. Sulphideof ruthenium and 7 '5. G. in grains. H. octahedrons; From the platinum washings of Borneo.
=

RuS2. osmium, probably essentially

=

Color 6 '99. Luster metallic. Also reported from Oregon.

^

In minute dark iron-black. massive

Skutterudite.

Cobalt

CoAs3. arsenide,
=

Also Isometric-pyritohedral.
=

lar. granu-

between Color tin-white 672-6 '86. G. 6. Cleavage: a(100),distinct. H. and pale lead-gray. From Skutterud,Norway; the Turtmanntal, Switzerland. From near NICKEL-SKUTTERUDITE. (Ni,Co,Fe)As3.Massive, granular. Color gray. Silver City, N. M. Color tinBISMUTO-SMALTITE. Co(As,Bi)3. A skutterudite containing bismuth. 6 '92. G. white. Zschorlau,near Schneeberg,Saxony.
=

Group and their relations, see For the listof species

MARCASITE.
=

Marcasite

p. 376.

White iron pyrites. Axes a : b : c 07662 Orthorhombic. : 1 : 1*2342. 101" 58'. Oil A Oil 74" 55'. II', mm"', 110 A 110 111 63" 46'. 116" 20'. 001 A ee', 101 A 101 cs, in stellate fivelings Twins: tw. pi.m(110), sometimes (Fig.436, p. 169, cf. Fig. 664); also tw. less common, pi.e(101), the crystals crossingat angles of nearly 60".
= =

Folkestone

Crystals commonly ||c(001), also pyramidal;- the brastriated chydomes ten /c(001).Ofedge6(010) tites massive; in stalacren; also globular, tative iform, and other imishapes. Cleavage: m(110)
tabular
=

rather distinct; 6-6*5. Brittle. H. Z(Oll)in traces. Fracture uneven. G 4-85-4-90. Luster metallic. Color pale bronze-yellow, deepening on Streak brownish black. or grayish exposure. Opaque. Iron disulphide, like pyrite,FeS2 Comp. Sulphur 53'4, iron 46'6 100. Arsenic is sometimes present in small amount.
=
"

Radiated: depend mainly on state of crystallization. Pyrite: Aggregationsof flattened twin crystals in crest-likeforms. with re-entering Spear Pyrite: Twin crystals, angles a littlelike the head of a spear in form. (Fig.664.) Capillary:In capillary crystallizations. Like pyrite. Very liable to decomposition, Pyr.,etc. than pyrite. more so Diff. Resembles pyrite,but has a lower specific gravity,and the color when fresh (e. with acid)is paler:when crystallized e.g., after treatment easily distinguished by the forms. M ore subjectto tarnish and final decomposition than pyrite. Marcasite can be distinguished from pyriteby the following methods. When chemically both minerals are finely powdered and treated with a littleconcentrated nitric acid,first in the cold and after vigorous action has ceased,by warming, it will be found that in later, the case of pyrite the greater part of the sulphur of the mineral has been oxidized and taken into solution as sulphuric while in the case of marcasite most of the sulphur has sepacid, arated in a free state. The Stokes method, which can be used quantitatively to determine the amounts of the two minerals in a mixture,depends the difference in their behavior upon when boiled with a standard solution of ferric sulphate. In the case of pyriteabout 52 per cent pjthe sulphur is oxidized to sulphuricacid,while with marcasite only about 12 per cent
"

Var-

The

varieties named

Radiated;also the simplecrystals. Cockscomb

"

"

is

oxidized.

tfr~^ With

polished sections shows

turns slowly

cream

color with

scratched

and

dull surface.

HNO3

brown

to black with effervescence.

SULPHIDES,
"

SELENIDES,

TELLURIDES,

ARSENIDES,

ANTIMONIDES

381

Marcasite unstable is easilyaltered. Specimens often Alteration. being relatively with the formation of ferrous sulphate and sulphuricacid. It also alters to disintegrate etc. limonite, pyrite, Obs. unstable compound than pyriteand is formed under Marcasite is a much more that it is deposited at temperatures comparatively limited conditions. Experiments have shown below 450" C. and in acid solutions. The higher the temperature the more acid At ordinary temperatures marcasite be deposited from the solution contain. must may while in nearly neutral solutions. Marcasite is formed in general under surface conditions, alkaline waters deep veins where the minerals are depositedfrom ascending hot and usually only pyriteis found. Marcasite occurs Found Carlsbad, Bohemia. at several abundantly at Littmitz near In itscockscomb form occurs at Tavistock in Devonlocalitiesin the Harz Mts., Germany. shire Folkestone and Dover, England. In and as Spear Pyritesin the chalk-marl between in stalactites with where it occurs the United States a notable locality is at Galena, 111., and galena. In fine crystalsat Mineral Point, Wis.; in concentric layers of sphalerite altered to limonite from Richland Frequently associated with galena, Co., Wis. crystals Mo. and dolomite from the Joplindistrict, sphalerite The word for marcasite, of Arabic or Moorish origin(and variouslyused by old writers, of common miners and mineralogists pyrite among bismuth, antimony), was the name crystallized first given to this in later centuries, until near the close of the eighteenth. It was speciesby Haidinger in 1845. Essentiallyiron diarsenide, FeAs2, but passing into FesAs4 (leucopyrite) Lb'llingite. ; also tending toward arsenopyrite (FeAsS) and safflorite (CoAs2). Bismuth and antimony T'0-7'4 sometimes H. G. 5-5*5. also 6*8. are chiefly, present. Usually masswe. Luster Color silver-white and metallic. between steel-gray. Streak grayish black. also sparinglyin a number Found Occurs in the Lolling-Huttenberg district in Carinthia.
"

of other districts. GEYERITE is near but contains sulphur; from Geyer, Saxony. lollingite,
or

ARSENOPYRITE, Orthorhombic.

MISPICKEL.
a :

Axes

: c

0'6773
A A A A A 110 101 014 012 Oil
=

1-1882.
13'. 38'. 5'. 26'. 50'.

mm'",
uu', nnf,
665

110 101 014 012 Oil

68" 120" 33" 61" 99"

667 and sometimes pi.ra(110), repeated like marcasite (Figs. 437, p. 109); e(101) cruciform twins,also trillings 432, 433, p. 169). (Figs. tion combinaCrystals prismatic m(110) or flattened vertically by the oscillatory of brachydomes. Also columnar, straight, and divergent;granular, or tw.

Twins:

compact.

Cleavage: ra(110) rather

uneven.

Brittle.

Comp.

"

faint traces. Fracture metallic. Color silver-white to steel-gray.Streak dark grayishblack. inclining Opaque. Arsenic 46 '0, sulof iron, FeAsS or FeS2.FeAs2 Sulpharsenide

distinct;c(001)
G.
=

in

H.

5*5-6.

5'9-6'2.

Luster

382
=

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Part of the iron is sometimes 100. phur 197, iron 34 -3 danaite in the variety as (3 to 9 p. c. Co).
"

replacedby cobalt,

In the closed tube may give at firsta littleyellowsulphide of arsenic and Pyr.,etc. the then a conspicuoussublimate of metallic arsenic which is of bright gray crystalsnear In the open tube gives heated end and of a brilliantblack amorphous depositfarther away. sulphurousfumes and a white sublimate of arsenic trioxide. B.B. on charcoal givesarsenical fumes and a magnetic globule. Decomposed by nitric acid with the separationof sulphur. of Diff. Characterized color; closelyresembles some by its hardness and "tin-white in most but identified, and arsenides of cobalt and nickel, the sulphides cases easily, by its does not give a decided sulphur reaction. blowpipe characters. Lollingite white color with scratched and dull surface. In polished sections shows Micro. a darkens quickly through iridescent colors to brown, showing rough surface. With HNO3 in crystalline Found Obs. rocks,its usual mineral associates being ores of principally and sphalerite. Abundant also pyrite, at Freiberg,etc., silver,lead,and tin, chalcopyrite,
" " "

in

Saxony;

at

Andreasberg, Harz

Mts., Germany;

Sala,Sweden; Skutterud,Norway;

at

in the Binnental,Switzerland. In crystals several pointsin Cornwall. Crystalsof danaite from Sulitjelma, Finland. In the United States,in N. H., in gneiss, at Franconia (danaite). In Conn., at Mine at Canton, Ga.; Leadville, In twin crysCol. Hill, Roxbury, with siderite. In crystals tals in quartz ore veins at Deloro,Hastings Co., Ontario. The name term of doubtful origin. Danaite is from J. Freeman mispickelis an old German Dana of Boston (1793-1827),who made known the Franconia locality. Use. An ore of arsenic.
"

cobalt diarsenide, Form CoAs2. that of smaltite,essentially near H. 4'5-5. G. Color tin-white, 6'9-7*3. arsenopyrite. Usually massive. nishing. tarsoon From Germany at Schneeberg, Saxony; Bieber, Hesse; Wittichen, Baden; from Tunaberg, Sweden. Rammelsbergite. Essentially nickel diarsenide, NiAs2, like chloanthite. Crystals G. 6'9-7'2. Color tin-white with tinge of red. resemblingarsenopyrite;also massive. Occurs at Schneeberg, Saxony, and at Riechelsdorf, Hesse, Germany. Glaucodot. Sulpharsenide of cobalt and iron, (Co,Fe)AsS. In orthorhombic crystals H. 5. (axes,etc., p. 376). Also massive. G. Luster metallic. $-90-6'01. Color grayish tin-white. Occurs in the province of Huasco, Chile; at Hakansbo, Sweden. Named from yXavnos, blue, because used for making smalt. ALLOCLASITE. Probably glaucodot containing bismuth and other impurities. Commonly in columnar to hemispherical aggregates. H. 4'5. G. =6'6. Color steel-gray. From Orawitza, Hungary. Wolfachite. near Probably Ni(As,Sb)S, corynite. In small crystals nopyrite; resemblingarse= = =

Safflorite. Like

white.
Color
m

also columnar H. radiated. From Wolfach,Baden, Germany.

=

4 '5-5.

G.

6 "372.

Color

silver-white to tin-

Melonite. A nickel telluride, In indistinct granular and foliated particles. NiTe2. reddish white,with metallic luster. From the Stanislaus mine, Cal.; probably also Boulder Co.,Col. Found at Worturpa, New South Wales.

The

following speciesare
=

tellurides of

etc. gold,silver,

SYLVANITE.

Graphic Tellurium.
=

a : b : c 1-6339 : 1 : M265; 0 89" 35'. Often in branching arborescent forms resemblingwritten characters; also bladed and imperiectly columnar to granular.
_

Monoclinic.

Cleavage: 6(010) perfect.

~'
~

Fracture

uneven.

Brittle.

H.

1-5-2.

brilliant. Color and streak pure steel-erav metallic, to silver-white, to yellow. inclining Comp. Telluride of gold and silver (Au,Ag)Te2 with Au : 1 : 1: Ag this requires: Tellurium 62-1, gold 24-5,silver 134 100.
"

7 '9-8 -3.

Luster

,Pyr*' ej?~

da

When of the powdered mineral is heated in concentrated a little sulphuric violet color is given to the solution. When treated with nitric acid is decom1 leavingresidue of rusty colored gold. A few drops of hydrochloric acid added to this
reddish

384

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

and a series and the meta-acids,H2AsS2, etc.; but H4As2S5,etc., H3AsS3, etc., bases The metals included. are chiefly are present as copper, silver, in small amount. others (asnickel, cobalt} lead; also zinc,mercury, iron,rarely
of others

of the acids whose salts are here character of many hypothetical there is a certain advantage,for the sake of comparison,in writi ig represented, the compositionafter the dualistic method, RS.As2S3,2RS.As2S3,etc. here included are rare As a largepart of the species and hence to be mentioned but briefly, the classification can be only partially developed. The divisions under the first and more important section of sulpharsenites, etc., with the prominent species under each,are as follows:
In view of the A.

Acidic

Division.

RS RS

(As,Sb,Bi)2S3
= =

3, 1

2, 2

3, 3

4, 4

5.

B.

MetaDivision. General formula:

(As,Sb,Bi)2S3 1:1. RAs2S4,RSb2S4,RBi2S4.

:

Zinkenite

Group Emplectite
Chalcostibite Lorandite

Zinkenite Sartorite Also

PbS.Sb2S3 PbS.As2S3

CuoS.Bi2S3

Cu2S.Sb2S3,etc.
Tl2S.As2S3

Miargyrite
C.

Ag2S.Sb2S3
Division. RS
:

Intermediate Here

(As,Sb,Bi)2S3
=

4, 3

2, 2

1, 5

belong Plagionite
Schirmerite

5PbS.4Sb2S3.

3(Ag2,Pb)S.2Bi2S3
Jamesonite

Klaprotholite 3Cu2S.2Bi2S3, etc.

Group
Cosalite

Jamesonite Dufrenoysite
Also Freieslebenite D. OrthoDivision.

2PbS.Sb2S3 2PbS.As2S3

2PbS.Bi2S3,etc.

5(Ag2,Pb)S.2Sb2S3 Boulangerite 5PbS.2Sb2S3

RS
:

(As,Sb,Bi)2S3 =3:1

General

formula:

R3AsS3,R3SbS3; etc. R3As2S6,R3Sb2S6,

Bournonite

Group
Wittichenite
LiUianite

Bournonite

Seligmannite
Aikmite

3(Cu2,Pb)S.Sb2S3 3(Cu2,Pb)S.As2S3 3(Pb,Cu2)S.Bi2S3

3Cu2S.Bi2S3
etc. 3PbS.Bi2S3,

Pyrargyrite Group Pyrargyrite

E. Basic

3Ag2S.Sb2S3
RS
:

Proustite
=

3Ag2S.As2S3
:

Division.

(As,Sb,Bi)2S34
Group

1, 5

1, 6

1, 9

1, 12

Tetrahedrite Tetrahedrite

4Cu2S.Sb2S3

Tennantite

SULPHO-SALTS

385

Jordanite

Group Meneghinite Stephanite

Beegerite 4PbS.Sb2S3

Jordanite
Also Geocronite Kilbrickenite

4PbS.As2S3 5PbS.Sb2S3
6PbS.Sb2S3

5Ag2S.Sb2S3
6PbS.Bi2S3

Polybasite Group Polybasite Polyargyrite 9Ag2S.Sb2S3 12Ag2S.Sb2S3

Pearceite

A.

Acidic

Division
=

Color iron-gray. H. " 6. G. Eichbergite. (Cu,Fe)2S.3(Bi,Sb)2S8. 5*36. From Austria. Eichberg, Semmering district, stibnite in form. Color Livingstonite. HgS.2Sb2S3. Resembles lead-gray;streak H. =2. red. From 4'81. G. Huitzuco, Mexico. In radiatinggroups Histrixite. 5CuFeS2.2Sb2S3.7Bi2S3. Orthorhombic. of prismatic Color and streak steel-gray. Found 2. Tasmania. at Ringville, crystals. H. Chiviatite. 2PbS.3Bi2S3. Foliated massive. Color lead-gray. From Peru. Chiviato, bismuthCuprobismutite. Probably 3Cu2S.4Bi2S3,in part argentiferous. Resembles From inite. G. 6*3-67. Hall valley, Park Co., Col. Color lead-gray. G. 6' 1-6*4. Rezbanyite. 4PbS.5Bi2S3. Fine-granular,massive. From Rezbanya, Hungary.
= = =

B.

Meta-

Division.

RS.As2S3,RS.Sb2S3,etc.
Orthorhombic

Zinkenite
ZINKENITE. Zinckenite.

Group.

Axes a : b : c 0'5575 : 1 : 0*6353. Orthorhombic. seldom distinct Crystals in nearlyhexagonalforms through twinning. Lateral faces ; sometimes striated. Also columnar, fibrous, massive. longitudinally H. 3-3*5. G. uneven. Cleavage not distinct. Fracture slightly Luster metallic. 5*30-5*35Color and streak steel-gray.Opaque. PbSb2S4 or PbS.Sb2S3 Sulphur 22*3, antimony 41*8, lead Comp. Arsenic sometimes replaces 35*9 100. part of the antimony.
= = =
"

mate Decrepitatesand fuses very easily;in the closed tube gives a faint subliPyr., etc. of sulphur, and antimony trisulphide. In the open tube sulphurous fumes and a also arsenical fumes. white sublimate of oxide of antimony; the arsenical varietygives On charcoal is almost entirely volatilized, giving a coating which on the outer edge is white, and near the assay dark yellow; with soda in R.F. yieldsglobulesof lead. Soluble in hot hydrochloricacid with evolution of hydrogen sulphide and separationof lead chloride on cooling. Obs. Occurs at Wolfsberg in the Harz Mts.; Kinzigtal, Baden; Val Sugana,Tyrol; Oruro, Bolivia; Sevier County, Ark.; San Juan Co., Col. Andorite. 3-3'5. prismatic, Orthorhombic crystals. H. Ag2S.2PbS.3Sb2S3. In From black. to G. 5*5. Color dark gray Felsobanya, Hungary; Oruro, Bolivia.
" "

Webnerite

and Sundtite PbS.

are

identical with andorite.

=

G. 5'4. Color dark lead-gray. Occurs in the dolomite of the Binnental. Basal and rhombohedral cleavages. H. Platynite. PbS.Bi2Se3. Rhombohedral. 7'98. Color like graphite. Streak shining. In small lamellae in quartz at 2-3. G. Falun,Sweden.
Sartorite.
=
=

striated crystals, As2S3. In slender, probably monoclinic.

386
Emplectite. Cu2S.Bi2S3.
Occurs

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

6'3-6'5. Color grayishwhite prisms. G. Schwarzenberg and Annaberg, Saxony. In small Chalcostibite. Wolfsbergite. Cu2S.Sb2S3. aggregated prisms; also fine 475-5 '0. Color between G. massive. lead-grayand iron-gray. From Wolfsgranular, from Spain is the same Guejarite species. berg in the Harz Mts.; from Huanchaca, Bolivia. to compact. also with Galenobismutite. Ag,Cu. Crystallinecolumnar PbS.Bi2S3; G. From b'9. to tin-white. Color lead-gray Nordmark, Sweden; Poughkeepsie Gulch, Col. (alaskaite, argentiferous) ; material from Falun, Sweden, containingselenium has been weibulliteand given the formula, 2PbS.Bi4S3Se3. named 4'0. Color dark Berthierite. steelFeS.Sb2S3. Fibrous massive, granular. G. From Chazelles and Martouret, Auvergne, France; Charbes, Val de Ville, Alsace; gray. Braunsdorf,Saxony, etc. Matildite. 6-9. Color Ag2S.Bi2S3. In slender, prismatic crystals. G. gray. From Morochoca, Peru; Lake] City, Col. PLENARGYRITE, from Schapbach, Baden, has been shown to be a mixture. similar in composition,
In thin striated
=

to tin-white.

in quartz at

G.

In complex monoclinic also massive. H. 2-2-5. crystals, metallic-adamantine. Color iron-black to steel-gray, in thin splinters deep blood-red. Streak cherry-red. From Braunsdorf, Saxony; Felsobanya and Nagybanya, Hungary; Pfibram,Bohemia; Zacatecas,Mexico; Bolivia.

Miargyrite. Ag2S.Sb2S3.
=

5'1-5'30.

Luster

Smithite. red

on

Ag2S.Sb2S3. Monoclinic. Crystals resemble a flattened hexagonal pyramid. One perfect 4'9. Color lightred changing to orangecleavage. H. T5^2. G. to light. Streak vermilion. From the Binnental,Switzerland. exposure
= = =

Trechmanite. Ag2S.As2S3. Rhombohedral, tetartohedral. Crystalsminute with prismatic habit. Good rhombohedral T5-2. Color and streak scarletcleavage. H. the Binnental,Switzerland. From vermilion. Lorandite.
From A sulpharsenideof thallium,TlAsS2. Monoclinic. Allchar, Macedonia; Rambler mine, Encampment, Wy.
= =

Color

cochineal-red.

Vrbaite. H. TlAs2SbS5. Orthorhombic. 3'5. G. 5'3. Color dark red in thin splinters.Streak light red. From Macedonia. Allchar,

gray-black

to

Hutchinsonite.

Orthorhombic. (Tl,Ag,Cu)2S.As2S3+PbS.As2S3(?). H.
=

prisms. Cleavage o(100) good. the Binnental, Switzerland.

1-5-2.

G.

4'6.

In flattened rhombic Color scarlet to red. From

C.
Baumhauerite. One the

Intermediate

Division

In complex crystalswith varied habit 4PbS.3As2S3. Monoclinic. perfectcleavage. H. 3. G. 3 -3. Metallic. Color lead to steel-gray. From
=

Switzerland. Binnental, G.
=

Schirmerite. 3(Ag2,Pb)S.2Bi2S3. Massive,granular. Treasurylode,Park Co.,Col.

674.

Color

lead-gray.

KLAPROTHOLITE. 3Cu2S.Bi2S3. In furrowed prismatic crystals. G. 4'6. Color steel-gray.Wittichen, Baden. Probably a mixture and not a definite species. Rathite. 3PbS.2As2S3. Orthorhombic, in prismatic crystals. Cleavage, 6(010). H. 3. G. 5'41. From the Binnental, Switzerland. Wiltshireite is the same species.
= = =

Jamesonite Group.
JAMESONITE.

etc. 2RS.As2S3, 2RS.Sb2S3,

Monoclinic

88" 36'. mm'" 0 in capillary common crystals; forms; also fibrous massive, or parallel divergent; compact massive. Cleavage: basal, perfect. Fracture uneven to conchoidal. Brittle. 2-3G. 5-5-6-0. Luster metallic. Color steel-gray leadto dark Streak grayish black. gray. Opaque.
a : : c
=

Monoclinic.
A

110

110

79" 28'.

QAxes:

0'8316

0-4260.

In acicular

Comp.

"

Pb2Sb2S5or

2PbS.Sb2S3

Sulphur 197, antimony 29'5, lead

SULPHO-SALTS

387

50-8 also

100.

Most

varieties show
and zinc.

little iron

(1 to

3 p.

and c.),

some

contain

silver, copper,

It has been suggested that the iron shown is an by the analyses integral part of the mineral and that the formula should be 4PbS.FeS.3Sb2S3 and that the usual jamesoniteformula, 2PbS.Sb2S3,belongs to the material commonly called plumosite. Same as for zinkenite, Pyr. p. 385. in Cornwall; also in Siberia; Obs. Occurs principally cantara Hungary; at Valentia d*Alin Spain; at the antimony mines in Sevier Co.,Ark.; from Bolivia. Named after
" "

Prof. Robert

Jameson

of

Edinburgh (1774-1854).

in the Harz The feather at Wolfsberg,etc., ore occurs Mts.; Freiberg, Germany; Schemnitz,Hungary; in Tuscany, near Bottino,Italy. These so-called feather ores may be divided into flexibleand brittle, all the latter being referred to jamesonite and the former to either zinkenite, or plumosite,boulangerite, meneghinite. Warrenite has been shown to probably be a mixture of jamesonite and zinkenite.

Dufrenoysite. 2PbS.As2S3. In highly modified crystals;also massive. Cleavage5'55-5'57. Color blackish lead-gray.From G. 6(010) perfect. H. =3. the Binin dolomite. nental,Switzerland, Cosalite. 2PbS.Bi2S3. Usually massive, fibrous or radiated. G. 6'39-675. Color lead- or steel-gray.Cosala, Province of Sinaloa,Mexico; Bjelke mine (bjelkite), Nordmark, Sweden; Deer Park, Wash.; Col.
= =

G. 6'3. 2PbS.(Bi,Sb)2S3. Fibrous radiated or granular massive. Color Hvena, Sweden; Ouray, Col. BRONGNIARDITE. in some Lead, silver, antimony sulphide. Shown cases to be a mixture. A doubtful species. Plagionite. Heteromorphite. Semseyite. Lead, antimony sulphides ranging from 5PbS4.Sb2S3 to 9PbS.4Sb2S3. Perhaps a morphotropic series with the vertical crystallographic axis increasingin length with increase in the percentage of lead. Monoclinio. G. 5'4-5'9. from Arnsberg, Plagionite from Wolfsberg, Harz Mts.; heteromorphite from the Westphalia; semseyite from Felsobanya, Hungary and Wolfsberg. Liveingite is said to have the same Switzerland, composition as plagionite. BismutoBinnental, From Wickes, Jefferson a plagionite, variety containing bismuth instead of antimony. Co., Mon. A lead, SCHAPBACHITE. bismuth sulphide. From Shown silver, to Schapbach,Baden.
=

Kobellite.

to steel-gray. From lead-gray

be

mixture.

FREIESLEBENITE.

Monoclinic. 87" 46'. Habit Axes a : b : c 0-5871 : 1 : 0-9277; ft Luster 6-2-6-4. metallic. Color and streak lightsteelprismatic. G. to silver-white, also to blackish lead-gray. gray inclining or Comp. (Pb,Ag2)5Sb4Sii 5(Pb,Ag2)S.2Sb2S3.
= = =
"

Freiberg,Saxony; Kapnik and Felsobanya, Hungary; Hiendelencina, Spain; also from the Augusta Mt., Gunnison Co., Col. in form. G. 5'9. Diaphorite. Like freieslebenite in composition but orthorhombic From Wash. Pfibram, Bohemia; Lake Chelan district,
Obs.
"

From

BOULANGERITE.

In prismatic lar tabu: 0*7478. or H. 2*5-3. compact. granular, masses; G. 6-18. Luster metallic. Color bluish lead-gray; often covered with yellow spots from oxidation. Opaque. Pb5Sb4Sn or 5PbS.2Sh"S3 Sulphur 18'9, antimony 25*7,lead Comp.

Orthorhombic.

Axes

: c

0*5527

or plumose crystals crystalline

"

55-4

100.
"

as for zinkenite, p. 385. from Sala,Sweden; Molieres,Depart, du Gard, France; at good crystals cany, Nerchinsk, Siberia;Wolfsberg in the Harz Mts. Pfibram,Bohemia; near Bottino,TusUnion county, Nev. Italy. Echo District, to 10PbS.3Sb2Sj, Embrithite and plumbostibare from Nerchinsk; they correspond nearly

Pyr.
Obs.

Same
In

"

but the material

analyzedmay

not have

been

quitepure.

388
Mullanite.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

5PbS.2Sb2S3.

In slender orthorhombic

(?)prisms. Cleavage, c(001) and

=

H. black 6(010). Color, steel-gray. Streak, brownish Mullan, Idaho, and at Iron Mountain Gold Hunter mine, near

3'5. mine,

6'35.

Found

at

near

Mon. Superior,

D.

Ortho-

Division.

3RS.As2S3,3RS.Sb2S3,etc.
Prismatic

Bournonite
BOURNONITE.

Group.
Wheel Ore.
a
=

Orthorhombic.

angle 86"

to 87"

Orthorhombic.
mm"'
co,

Axes:
110 001 A A 110 101

: c

0-9380

0-8969.
A
A

86" 20' 43C 43' 669

en, 001 cu, 001

Oil 112

41" 53' 33" 15'

Twins: tw. pi. ra(110), often repeated, forming cruciform and wheel shaped crystals.Also massive;

compact. granular, fect; Cleavage: 6(010)impera(100), c(001) less

Fracture subdistinct. conchoidal to uneven. 2-5-3. Rather brittle. H. Kapnik 5-7-5-9. LustermetalG. streak steel-gray, incliningto blackish lead= = =

Harz

lie,brilliant. Color
gray
=

and

or

iron-black.
"

Comp.

2:1)

Opaque. or 3(Pb,Cu2)S.Sb2S3 PbCuSbS3 (Pb,Cu2)3Sb2S6 Sulphur 19'8,antimony 247, lead 42*5, copper 13*0

(ifPb
=

Cu2

100.

open

In the In the closed tube decrepitates, and gives a dark red sublimate. Pyr., etc. B.B. on charcoal and a white sublimate of oxide of antimony. tube givessulphurdioxide, and at firstcoats the coal white; continued blowing givesa yellow coating fuses easily, posed Decomtreated with soda in R.F., gives a globule of copper. of lead oxide; the residue, and leaving a residue of sulphur,and a white a blue solution, by nitric acid,affording powder containingantimony and lead. From Neudorf in the Harz Mts.; also Wolfsberg, Claustal, and Andreasberg; Obs. Pfibram, Bohemia; Kapnik and Nagybanya, Hungary; Horhausen, Prussia; Liskeard,
"

"

Cornwall.
In the United States at the Boggs mine, Yavapai Co., Ariz.; also Montgomery Co.,Ark.; reportedfrom San Juan Co., Col; Austin, Ney. In Canada, in the township of Marmora, Hastings Co., and Darling,Lanark Co., Ontario. Orthorhombic. : b : c a Seligmannite. (Pb,Cu2)3As2S6 isomorphous with bournonite. In small complex crystals. Commonly 0*9233 : 1 : 0'8734. twinned with m(110) as H. tw. pi. Color lead-gray. Chocolate streak. 3. Found at Lengenbach quarry, Binnental,Switzerland;reportedfrom Emery, Mon. Aikinite. Acicular crystals; also massive. 2PbS.Cu2S.Bi2S3. G. Color 6'l-6'8. blackish lead-gray. From Berezov near Ural Mts. Ekaterinburg, Wittichenite. 3Cu2S.Bi2S3. Rarely in crystalsresembling bournonite; also massive. Color steel-gray 4*5. G. tin-white. or Wittichen,Baden, etc. in cruciform twins like Stylotypite.3(Cu2,Ag2,Fe)S.Sb2S3. In orthorhombic crystals, bournonite. G. Color iron-black. 47-5'2. Copiapo, Chile; Peru.
=
= =

Lfflianite. 3PbS.BiSbS3 and Color steel-gray.Gladhammar, Guitermanite.

gray. Zufii

3PbS.Bi2S3.

Orthorhombic.

Crystallineand
=

massive. bluish

Col. (argentiferous). Sweden; Leadville, Perhaps 3PbS.As2S3. Massive, compact. G. 5-94.

Color

Col. mine, Silvertqn, Lengenbachite. 7[Pb,(Ag,Cu)2]S.2As2S3.Probably triclinic. In thin blade-shaped crystals. One 5*8. perfect cleavage. Soft. G. Color Streak black. steel-gray. From the Lengenbach quarry, Binnental, Switzerland.
=

SULPHO-SALTS

389

of bismuth A sulpho-telluride and silver, TAPALPITE. perhaps 3Ag2(S,Te).Bii(S,Te)8. of polishedspecimen shows it to be a mixture of unknown components. Massive, 7 '80. Sierra de Tapalpa, Jalisco, Mexico. granular. G.

Study

Pyrargyrite Group.
PYRARGYRITE.

Rhombohedral-hemimorphic
Dark Red
c
=

Ruby Silver Ore.

A A 1012 1101
=

Silver Ore.

Rhombohedral-hemimorphic.
0112 ee', 1011 rrf, 42"

Axis:

07892;
tw',2131
yyv, 2131 670
A A

0001
2311 3121

A
= =

1011

42"20J.'

5'

74" 25'

71" 22'

35" 12'
671

Crystals commonly prismatic. tw. Twins: mon, pi. a(1120), very comthe c axes parallel; also common. Also massive, compact. Cleavage: r(1011)distinct; e(0112) conchoidal to imperfect. Fracture
Brittle. H. 2-5. G. 577Luster metallic5*86; 5-85 if pure. adamantine. Color black to grayish black, by transmitted lightdeep red. Streak purplishred. Nearly opaque, but transparent in very thin splinters. Refractive indices, co Optically 3'084,e
uneven.
= =
-

'"cd^r=J'
=

2-881.

Comp.
59'9
=

"

Ag3SbS3
Some
"

or

3Ag2S.Sb?S3 Sulphur
=

17'8,antimony 22'3,silver
of arsenic.

100.

varieties contain small amounts

Pyr.,etc. phide; in the

gives a reddish sublimate of antimony oxysultube sulphurous fumes and a white sublimate of oxide of antimony. B.B. on charcoal fuses with spirting to a globule,coats the coal white, and the assay is into silver sulphide, which, treated in O.F., or with soda in R.F.. gives a globule conyerted of silver. In case arsenic is present it may be detected by fusing the pulverized mineral with soda on charcoal in R.F. Decomposed by nitric acid with the separationof sulphur and of antimony trioxide. Occurs at Andreasberg in the Harz Obs. Mts.; Freiberg, Saxony; Pfibram and and Nagybanya, Hungary; Kongsberg, Norway; Joachimstal, Bohemia; Schemnitz In Mexico it is worked at Guanajuato and elsewhere as Gaudalcanal, Spain; in Cornwall. at Chanarcillo near of silver. In Chile with proustite an ore Copiapo. thus in Ruby district, Gunnison In Col., not uncommon; Co.; with sphaleritein in Daney Sneffle's district, Mine; about Austin, Ouray Co., etc. In Nev., at Washoe In N. M., Utah, and with cerargyrite. Reese river; at Poorman lode, Idaho, in masses Ariz, with silver ores at various points. At Cobalt, Ontario. in allusion to the color. and apyvpos, Named from wvp, fire, silver,
In the closed tube fuses and open
"

PROUSTITE.

Ruby
0112 ee', 1011 rr', A A

Silver Ore.

Light Red
Axis
c
=

Silver Ore.

Rhombuhedral-hemimorphic.
1012 1101
=

0001 _A 0'8039;_

1011
=

42" 52'.

42" 46' 72" 12'

w', 2131
Wv, 2131

A A

2311 3121

74" 39'
=

35" 18'

Twins: scalenohedral. rhombohedral tw. pi. or Also and massive, compact. r(10HX w(1014) conchoidal Brittle. to uneven. Cleavage: r(1011) distinct. Fracture admantine. Color scarletLuster H. 2-2-5. G. 5-57-5*64;5'57ifpure.

Crystals often

acute

lucent. vermilion;streak same, also inclined to aurora-red. Transparent to trans3'084. 2-881. e negative, co Optically AgsAsSa or 3Ag2S.As2S3 Sulphur 19'4, arsenic 15'2, silver Comp.
= =
"

65*4

100.
"

and gives a faint sublimate of arsenic triIn the closed tube fuses easily, Pyr., etc. sublimate of arsenic sulphide; in the open tube sulphurous fumes and a white crystalline

390
trioxide.
B.B.
a

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

with soda in charcoal fuses and emits odors of sulphur and arsenic; on of with nitric of separation acid, silver. sulphur. by Decomposed globule gives mia; BoheOccurs at Freiberg,Johanngeorgenstadt, etc.,in Saxony; Joachimstal, Obs. in Spain; in Dauphine and Markirch, Alsace; Guadalcanal at Chalanches in France Sarrabus,Sardinia; in Mexico; Peru; Chile,at Chanarcillo in magnificentcrystallizations. Girl Gunnison In Col.,Ruby Co.; Sheridan mine, San Miguel Co.; Yankee distr., at various points. In Ariz., with silver ores Co. Summit mine, Ouray Co.; Montezuma, lode. In Nev., in the Daney mine, and in Comstock lode,rare; Idaho, at the Poorman after the French chemist, J. L. Proust (1755-1826). Named scales, hexagonal or rhomSanguinite. Near proustitein composition. In glittering Chile. From bohedral. Chanarcillo, tal, FALKENHAYNITE. Perhaps 3Cu2S.Sb2S3. Massive, resembling galena. From JoachimsBohemia. Perhaps identical with stylotypite. Pyrostilpnite.Like pyrargyrite,3Ag2S.Sb2S3. In tufts of slender (monoclinic)crystals. 4'25. Color hyacinth-red. From Andreasberg in the Harz Mts.; Freiberg, G. Saxony; Pribram, Bohemia; Heazlewood, Tasmania. Habit prismatic. Color,steel-black, red Samsonite. 2Ag2S.MnS.Sb2S3. Monoclinic. vein of Andreasberg silver mines, Harz in -transmitted light. Occurs in Samson Mts., Germany.
R.F.
"

E. Tetrahedrite
TETRAHEDRITE.

Basic

Division

Group.

Isometric-tetrahedral

Fahlerz. Gray Copper Ore. Habit Isometric-tetrahedral. tetrahedral.

axes parallel or

with
coarse

Twins: tw. pi. .0(111);also (Fig. 392, p. 163, Fig.408, p. 166). Also massive; granular,

fine;compact.
672 673 674

Fracture subconchoidal none. to uneven. Rather brittle. 4-4-5'L G. Luster metallic, often splendent. Color between and iron-black. Streak like color, flint-gray sometimes to brown inclining and cherry-red. Opaque; sometimes subtranslucent (cherry-red) in very thin
H=

Cleavage
3-4.

splinters. Comp.
"

EssentiallyCu8Sb2S7
52'1
are
=

or

4Cu2S.Sb2S3

mony Sulphur 23-1, anti-

24-8,copper
Antimony

100.
both present usually and thus tetrahedrite graduates into the

and arsenic

allied species tennantite. There are also varieties containingbismuth, chiefly at the arsenical end of the series, rarelyselenium. Further the copper be replaced by iron,zinc, may silver, and rarelycobalt and nickel. lead,manganese, mercury,
.

\ar.
"

Ordinary.
G.
=

Contains

little or

no

silver.
c.

Color

steel-grayto dark

iron-black.

gray

and

4 '75-4*9. 3 to 30 p. of silver.

Argentiferous; Freibergite.Contains
4 oo-o'O.
'

,r.

the ordinaryvarieties; sometimes r.teJ^han

streak iron-black;

Color usually steel-gray, often reddish. G.

=

392
STEPHANITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Brittle Silver Ore.

Orthorhombic.
mm"' c8,
110 001 001

Axes
A A A

a
=

: c

0*6292

0'6851.
001 001 001 A A
A

110 101 Oil

ck,
675

64" 21' 47" 26' 34" 25'

cd, ch, cP,

021 112 111

53" 52'
32" 45'

52"

9'

tabular || or usuallyshort prismatic Crystals c(001). Twins: tw. pi. w(110),often repeated, pseudo-hexagonal. Also massive,compact and disseminated. Cleavage: 6(010), d(021) imperfect. Fracture subBrittle. H. 2-2'5. conchoidal to uneven. G. 6'2 Color and metallic. Luster streak iron-black. -6*3.
= =

Comp.
68'5
=

"

Ag5SbS4
.

Opaque. or 5Ag2S.Sb2S3
=

Sulphur 16*3, antimony 15'2, silver

100.
"

and after long heating gives a faint In the closed tube decrepitates, fuses, tube fuses,giving off antimonial of antimony oxysulphide. In the open and of small particles, B.B. on charcoal fuses with projection coats the coal sulphurous fumes. with oxide of antimony, which after long blowing is colored red from oxidized silver, and Soluble in dilute heated nitric acid,sulphur and a globule of metallic silver is obtained. antimony trioxide being deposited. Obs. In veins,with other silver ores, at Freiberg,Schneeberg, etc.,in Saxony; Pribram, Bohemia; Schemnitz, Hungary; Andreasberg in the Harz Mts., Germany; KongsSonora and elsewhere, berg,Norway; Sarrabus,Sardinia; Wheal Newton, Cornwall; Arispe, Chile. Mexico; Peru; Chanarcillo, In Nev., in the Comstock etc. In Idaho,at the silver mines at Yankee lode,Reese" river, Fork, Queen's River district. Named after the Archduke Stephen, Mining Director of Austria.

Pyr.

sublimate

"

Geocronite. 5PbS.Sb2S3. Rarely in orthorhombic crystalsclosely resemblingthose of stephanite; usually massive, granular. G. 6 '4. Color lead-gray. From Sala, Kilbrickenite from Kilbricken, Co. Clare, is the Sweden; Val Castello, Tuscany. Ireland,
=

same

species.
'

to dark

Beegerite. 6PbS.Bi2S3. Massive, indistinctly crystallized. G. Park From Co., Col. gray.

7'27.

Color light

Ultrabasite. HAg2S.28PbS.2Sb2S3.3GeS2 Orthorhombic. black. H. 5. G. 6. From Freiberg,Germany.

= =

Color

and

streak

gray-

Polybasite Group.
POLYBASITE.

9RS2As2S3,9RS.Sb2S3.
rhombohedral

Monoclinic, pseudo-

Monoclinic. Axes 17309 a : b : c : 1 : 1'5796,0 90" 0'. Prismatic 60" 2'. In short six-sided tabular angle prisms,with beveled edges; c(001) faces with triangular in part repeated twins,tw. pi.m (110). striations; Cleavage: c(001)imperfect. Fracture uneven. H. 2-3. G. 6'06'2. Luster metallic. Color iron-black, in thin splinters cherry-red. Streak black. Nearly opaque.
= = = =

Comp.
75-6
=

"

Ag9SbS6
Part

or

9Ag2S.Sb2S3

Sulphur 15'0, antimony 9'4,silver

also the antimony

100.

of the silver is replacedby copper;

by

arsenic.
In the open tube fuses, Pry.,etc. givessulphurous and antimonial fumes, the latter forming a white sublimate, sometimes mixed with crystalline arsenic trioxide. B.B. fuses
"

SULPHO-SALTS

393

to a globule, with spirting gives off sulphurous (sometimes arsenical) fumes, and coats the with long-continuedblowing some varieties givea faint yellowcoal with antimony trioxide; ish which with salt of phosphorus reacts white coating of zinc oxide,and a metallic globule, for copper, and cupelledwith lead gives pure silver. Decomposed by nitric acid. Occurs in the mines of Guanajuato, from Las Chipas and Arispe, Sonora, Obs. Mexico; at Tres Puntos, desert of Atacama, Chile; At Freiberg,Saxony; and Pvibram, Lode. Bohemia; at Sarrabus,Sardinia. In Nev., at the Reese mines and at the Comstock In Col, at the Terrible Lode, Clear Creek Co., at Ouray. In Ariz.,at the Silver King
"

mine;

at

Neihart, Mon.
from

Named

iro\vs, many,

and

base,in allusion to the basic character /3e*"ns,

of the

compound.
Pearceite.

of polybasite. From

9Ag2S.As2S3. Monoclinic, pseudo-rhombohedral. The arsenical variety Aspen, Col.; Marysville,Lewis and Clarke Co., Mon.
isometric

iron-black.

Polyargyrite. 12Ag2S.Sb2S3. In indistinct Wolfach, Baden, Germany.

crystals. G.

6'97.

Color

II. Here ates.

ENARGITE.
are

etc. Sulphantimonates; Sulpho-stannates, Sulpharsenates,

included

arsenic and

antimony;

of quintivalent few minerals,chiefly a sulpho-salts and rare also several sulpho-stannates sulpho-german-

0*8711 : 1 : 0'8248. faces striated. Twins: tw. pi. vertically usually small; prismatic Crystals in A lso columnar. or trillings. massive,granular, star-shaped #(320) Cleavage :m(l 10) perfect; a(100), 6(010) distinct;c(001) indistinct. 3. G. 4'43-^'45. Brittle. H. Luster metallic. Color Fracture uneven. iron-black. Streak black. to grayish Opaque. grayishblack Cu3AsS4 or 3Cu2S.As2S5 Sulphur 32'6, arsenic 19*1, copper Comp. 100. 48*3 Antimony is often present, cf. famatinite.
a : : c
= = =
"

Orthorhombic.

Axes:

and gives a sublimate of sulphur; at a higher In the closed tube decrepitates, of sulphide of arsenic. In the open tube, heated the powdered mineral givesoff sulphurous and arsenical fumes, the latter condensing gently, antimony oxide. B.B. on charcoal fuses,and gives a to a sublimate containing some faint coating of the oxides of arsenic, antimony, and zinc; the roasted mineral with the Soluble in aqua regia. fluxes gives a globule of metallic copper. In polishedsections shows a white color with a smooth surface. With KCN Micro. with aqua regia. turns black quickly and surface is etched; quickly brown From Obs. Morococha, and Caudalosa, Peru; in Chile and Argentina; Mexico; Tyrol,Austria; Mancayan, island of Luzon; Kinkwaseki, Formosa. Matzenkopfl, Brixlegg, S. C. ; in Col.,at mines In the United States, at Brewer's gold mine, Chesterfield dist., Central City, Gilpi'n Co.; in Park Co., at the Missouri mine; from Red Mountain near district. In southern Utah; also in the Tintic district; Butte, Mon. from the Clara Mine, Schapback, Baden, and luzonite from the island of Luzon, Clarite, identical with enargite. are Philippines, Use. Serves as an ore of copper and arsenic.

Pyr.

"

and givesa sublimate temperature fuses,

"

"

"

4*57. Color gray with 3Cu2S.Sb2S5,isomorphous with enargite. G. Nev. the Sierra de Famatina, Argentina; Goldfield, tinge of copper-red. From H. 3'5. G. 4'0. Color bronze-yellow. Streak Sulvanite. 3Cu2S.V2S5. Massive. nearly black. From near Burra, South Australia. Famatinite.
.=
=

Xanthoconite.

"

reniform.
same

G.

5.

Color

crystals;also massive, 3Ag2S.As2Ss. In thin tabular rhombohedral is the orange-yellow. From Freiberg,Germany. Rittingerite

species.

394
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

prismatic needles and granular. G. Altenberg, Saxony, Germany. In short prisms resembling arsenopyrite. Epigenite. Perhaps 4Cu2S.3FeS.As2S5. Wittichen, Baden, Germany. Color steel-gray. From Epiboulangerite. 3PbS.Sb2S3.
Color dark
"

In

striated
From

6-31.

bluish gray

to

black.

STANNITE.

Tin

Pyrites. Bell-metal

Ore.

Pseudo Tetragonal-sphenoidal.

isometric-tetrahedral

through twinning.

with e(101)as tw. pi., (2)interpenetrant Twinning, (1) always interpenetrant disseminated, and Also to massive,granular, with twin axis J_ ^.-i p(lll). Brittle. H. =4. G. indistinct. Fracture uneven. Cleavage: cubic, Streak blackish. Color steelLuster metallic. 4 -3-4 -522; 4 -506 Zinnwald. when sometimes bluish the former a to iron-black, tarnish; often pure; gray from the presence of chalcopyrite. Opaque. yellowish iron and sometimes A zinc, sulpho-stannate of copper, Comp.
=
"

Cu2FeSnS4
=

or

Cu2S.FeS.SnS2

Sulphur 29-9, tin 27-5, copper

29'5, iron

131

100.
"

and gives a faint sublimate; in the open In the closed tube decrepitates, Pyr.,etc. charcoal fuses to a globule,which in O.F. gives off sulB.B. on phur sulphurous fumes. dioxide and coats the coal with tin dioxide; the roasted mineral treated with borax Decomposed by nitric acid,affordinga blue solution, gives reactions for iron and copper. with separationof sulphur and tin dioxide. In Cornwall Obs. formerly found at Wheal Rock; and at Carn Brea; more recently in graniteat St. Michael's Mount; also at Stenna Gwynn, etc.; at the Cronebane mine, Co. at Oruro, Wicklow, in Ireland; Zinnwald, in the Erzgebirge, Germany. Crystallized From Bolivia. the Black Hills, S. D. Argyrodite. A silver sulpho-germanate, Ag8GeS6 or 4Ag2S.GeS2. Isometric, crystals at times they show octahedral and dodecahedral forms with frequent usually indistinct; H. 2'5. G. 6 '085twinning according to the Spinel Law; also massive, compact. 6*266. Luster Color steel-gray metallic. with a tinge of red turning on a fresh fracture, to violet. From the Himmelsfurst mine, Freiberg, Saxony; from Colquechaca and Aullagas,Bolivia. tube
"

Canfieldite.

in octahedrons

metallic.
H. 1-2.

or metric, Iso4Ag2S.SnS2,the tin in part replaced by germanium. with d(l10). Twins according to Spinel Law. G. 6 '28. Luster Color black. Colquechaca,Bolivia.
=

AggSnSe

Teallite.
=

PbSnS2.
=

exact

G. 6-4. unknown. locality

to

Orthorhombic? Color blackish

In
gray.

thin flexible folia. Streak black.

Perfect

Probably
G.

basal from

cleavage.
Boh' via, Color
5'42.

Franckeite.

Pb5Sn3FeSb2S14
black.
Las

or

3PbSnS2

Pb2FeSb2S8.
+

Massive. H.

5'55. G.

blackish gray

Animas, Bolivia. Cylindrite. Pb3Sn4FeSb2S14 or 3PbSnS2

SnFeSb2S8.

2'5-3.

Luster metallic. Color blackish lead-gray. In into distinct shells or folia. Poopo, Bolivia.

forms separating under cylindrical

pressure

IV.

HALOIDS.

"

CHLORIDES,
FLUORIDES

BROMIDES,

IODIDES;

Anhydrous Chlorides,Bromides, Iodides; Fluorides. Oxy chloride s ; Oxyfluorides. m. Hydrous Chlorides; Hydrous Fluorides. The Fourth Class includes the haloids, that is,the compounds with the halogen elements,chlorine, and also the less closely bromine, iodine, related
II.

I.

fluorine.

HALOIDS.

"

CHLORIDES,

BROMIDES,

IODIDES;

FLUORIDES

395

I.
CALOMEL.

Anhydrous Chlorides, Bromides, Iodides; Fluorides

Horn

Quicksilver.
= =

59" 52'. Crystals sometimes c Tetragonal. 17234; 001 A 101 tabular || c(001); also pyramidal; often highlycomplex. also r(lll). Fracture conchoidal. Cleavage: a (100) rather distinct; 6*482. Luster adamantine. 1-2. G. Sectile. H. Color white, ish yellowalso and brown. Streak or grayish, yellowish ash-gray, white, pale gray, Translucent subtranslucent. T970. +. o" yellowishwhite. Optically
Axis
= =
"

2-650.

Comp.

"

Mercurous
"

chloride, HgCl

Chlorine

15

-1, mercury

84 -9

100.

fusion, condensing in the cold part of Pyr.,etc. B.B. on the tube as a white sublimate; with soda gives a sublimate of metallic mercury. Insoluble in water, but dissolved by aqua charcoal volatilizes, coating the coal white. regia; blackens when treated with alkalies. Obs. Thus at Moschellandsberg in the Palatinate, Usually associated with cinnabar. in Spain; at Mt. Avala near Germany; at Idria in Carniola,Austria; Almaden Belgrade In crystals with many forms from Terlingua,Tex. in Servia. Calomel is an old term of uncertain originand meaning, perhaps from KO\OS, beautiful, and /zeXi, dulcis of early honey, the taste being sweet, and the compound the Mercurius black. chemistry; or from /caXos and /xeXas,
"

In the closed tube volatilizes without

A mercury Mercurammonite. ammonium chloride of uncertain composition. 3*5. G. 8'0. Color Crystals short prismatic. Basal cleavage. H. Tex. Volatile. From Terlingua, yellowto orange, darkening on exposure. Nantokite. H. Granular, massive. Cuprous chloride,CuCl. Cleavage cubic. Kleinite.

Hexagonal.

Luster adamantine. 3*93. G. Chile; Broken Hill,New South Wales. 2-2*5.

=

Colorless to white

or

grayish. From

Nantoko,

Marshite. H.
=

Cuprous

2'5.

G.=5'59.

iodide, Cul. Color oil-brown..

Isometric- tetrahedral. Cleavage 2'346. Hill mines, New Broken

=

dodecahedral. South Wales.

Halite Halite

Group.
NaCl KC1

RC1, RBr, RI.

Embolite

Isometric

Sylvite
Sal Ammoniac

Bromyrite
lodobromite

Cerargyrite
The
HALITE

(NH4)C1 AgCl

Miersite

Ag(Cl,Br) AgBr Ag(Cl,Br,I) Agl

related includes the halogencompounds of the closely GROUP also ammonium and silver, (NH4). They lize crystalpotassium, sodium, metals, common. in the isometric system, the cubic form being the most Sylvite and others. of the true the be same are and sal-ammoniac plagiohedral, may
HALITE.

COMMON

or

ROCK

SALT.
or with distorted, ous cavern-

sometimes Isometric. Usuallyin cubes;crystals faces. Also massive, granular 676 to compact; less often columnar.
ture Cleavage: cubic,perfect. Frac-

H.

2-5.

conchoidal. G.
or

Rather
=

brittle.
pure

2-1-2-6;
Luster

crystals 2-135.
Colorless white

vitreous.

also

yellowish,

Transparreddish,bluish, purplish.ent to translucent. Soluble; taste

saline, n thermanous.
=

1-5442.

Highly dia-

396

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

39 -4 Chlorine 60 -6, sodium 100. NaCl Sodium chloride, ride, calcium chloride, magnesium chlomixed with calcium sulphate, which render it liable to deliquesce. and sometimes magnesium sulphate, fused on the In the closed tube fuses,often with decrepitation;when Pyr., etc. the residue intense After ignition flame gives an the colors wire yellow. deep platinum Nitric acid solution gives precipitate of moistened test paper. alkaline reaction upon Dissolves readilyin three parts of water. addition of silver nitrate. silver chloride upon perfectcubic cleavage. softness, Diff. (taste), Distinguished by its solubility beds in rocks of various ages, in extensive but irregular salt occurs Common Obs. carnallite, clay, sandstone, and calcite; associated with gypsum, anhydrite, polyhalite, of the ocean in the water and salt seas. also in solution forming salt springs' similarly of salt have been formed by the gradual evaporation and ultimate drying up The deposits Salt beds formed in this way are subsequently covered of enclosed bodies of salt water. and graduallyburied beneath the rock strata thus formed. by other sedimentary deposits

Comp. Commonly

"

"

"

than one hundred feet in thickness and from a few feet up to more salt strata range beneath the earth's surface. feet and more have been found at depths of two thousand The principal salt mines of Europe are at Stassfurt, near Magdeburg, Saxony; Wiein Galicia; at Hall,in Tyrol, Austria; and along the range through Reichental in liczka, and Ebensee, in Upper Austria,and Aussee Ischl, Bavaria, Hallein in Salzburg,Hallstadt, and elsewhere; Transylvania; Wallachia, in Styria; in Hungary, at Marmoros Galicia, The

Upper Silesia;in southern and southeastern Russia; Vic and Dieuze in France; and Northwich in Cheshire, Valleyof Cardona and elsewhere in Spain; Bex in Switzerland; England. Salt also occurs, forming hills and covering extended plains, Lake Urumia, the near Caspian Sea, etc. In Algeria; in Abyssinia. In India in enormous depositsin the Salt Range of the Punjab. In China and Asiatic Russia; in South America, in Peru, and at Zipaquera and Nemocon, the former a large mine long explored in the Cordilleras of Colombia; clear salt is obtained from the Cerro de Sal,San Domingo. In the United States, salt has been found in largeamount in central and western N. Y. in this region, but rock salt is now Salt wells had long been worked known to exist over a large area from Ithaca at the head of Cayuga Lake, Tompkins Co., and Canandaigua Lake, Ontario Co., through LivingstonCo., also Genesee, Wyoming, and Erie Cos. The salt is found in beds with an average thickness of 75 feet, but sometimes much thicker (in and at varying depths from 1000 to 2000 feet and more; instance 325 feet), one the depth increases southward with the dip of the strata. The rocks belong to the Salina period of the Upper Silurian. Extensive depositsof salt occur in Mich., chiefly in Saginaw, Bay, Counties. Midland, Isabella, Salt has also been Detroit,Wayne, Manistee and Mason found near in Kan.; in La., extensive beds Cleveland,Ohio, associated with gypsum; in the southern portionof the state at and in the neighborhood of Petite Anse island. occur Salt has also been obtained from Nev., Utah, Ariz, and Cal. In Utah and Cal. salt is obtained by the evaporationof the waters of Great Salt Lake and the ocean. chiefly Brine springs in the Middle and Western are States. Vast lakes of salt very numerous
and exist in many The Great Salt Lake in Utah is 2000 square miles parts of the world. L. Gale found in this water 20 '196 per cent of sodium chloride. The Dead and and the waters of the former contain 20 to 26 parts of solid matter in Caspian seas are salt, 100 parts. Sodium chloride is the prominent salt present in the ocean. Use. The chief uses of salt are for culinaryand preservative Soda ash is purposes. also made from it, being employed in the manufacture of glass, soap, bleaching, preparation of other sodium compounds, etc.
water

in area;

"

Villiaumite. NaF. Isometric. In small carmine colored grains. Soft. Refractive index 1'33. Found in nepheline-syenite from the Islands of Los.
=

G.

2'8.

Wot

Huantajayite. 20NaCl.AgCl. In cubic crystalsand as an sectile. Color white. From Huantajaya,Tarapaca, Chile.
SYLVITE.

incrustation.

H.

2.

Also in granular crystalline Isometric-plagiohedral. masses;

compact.
= =

Brittle. H. 2. G. 1-97-1-99. Luster vitreous. Colorless, bluish red from or white, yellowish inclusions. Soluble; taste resembling that of common salt, but bitter. n 1'490. Potassium Comp. KC1 Chlorine 47-6, potassium 52'4 chloride, 100. Sometimes contains sodium chloride.
uneven.
=
"

Cleavage:cubic,perfect. Fracture

HALOIDS.

"

CHLORIDES,

BROMIDES,

IODIDES;

FLUORIDES

397

B.B. in the platinum loop fuses, Pyr.,etc. and gives a violet color to the outer flame completely in water (salinetaste). After ignitionresidue reacts alkaline upon moistened test paper. Solution in nitric acid givesprecipitate of silver chloride with silver
"

Dissolves

nitrate. Obs. Use.

Sal
"

"

Occurs
A
source

at

Stassfurt, Saxony;
Ammoniac.

and of

Vesuvius, about the fumaroles of the volcano. Also in Germany at Leopoldshall (leopoldite) Anhalt; at Kalusz in Galicia. potash compounds used as fertilizers.
,

at

Ammonium

NH4C1. chloride,
at

1'642.

Observed

as

white

crustatio in-

about

volcanoes,as

Etna, Vesuvius, etc. Isometric-Normal

Cerargyrite Group.
and

An isomorphous series of silver haloids in which silver chloride, bromide mix in varying proportions. The suggestion iodide may has been made that the name be kept as the group name and that the different cerargyrite named be follows: chlorargyrite, sub-species as AgCl; bromargyrite, AgBr:

embolite, Ag(Cl,Br); iodembolite, Ag(Cl,Br,I).

CERARGYRITE. Horn Silver.

Isometric. Habit cubic. Twins: tw. pi.o(lll). Usually massive and resemblingwax; sometimes columnar; often in crusts. Fracture somewhat conchoidal. Cleavage none. Highly sectile. H. 1-1*5. Luster G. 5 -552. resinous to adamantine. Color pearl-gray, grayish green, whitish to colorless, to the on rarelyviolet-blue; exposure turns violet-brown. 2-0611. light Transparent to translucent, n Silver chloride, 100. Some Comp. AgCl Chlorine, 24-7,silver 75-3
= = =
"

varieties contain mercury. In the closed tube fuses without decomposition. B.B. on charcoal gives a Pyr., etc. to a bead of salt of phosphorus,previously saturated globule of metallic silver. Added with oxide of copper and heated in O.F., imparts an intense azure-blue to the flame. Insoluble in nitric acid,but soluble in ammonia. Obs. Cerargyrite and the related minerals are products of secondary action and are commonly found in the upper parts of silver deposits. Descending waters containing bromine iodine act upon the oxidation products of the primary silver minerals or chlorine, and these relatively insoluble compounds. so associated with precipitate' Commonly other silver minerals, with lead,copper and zinc ores and their usual alteration products. The largest masses are brought from Peru, Chile,Bolivia,and Mexico, where it occurs with native silver. Also once obtained from Johanngeorgenstadt and Freiberg,Saxony; in the Altai Mts.; at Kongsberg in Norway. occurs In the United States, in Col.,near Lake Co.; near Leadville, Breckenridge,Summit Co., and elsewhere. In Nev. near Austin, Lander Co.; at mines of Comstock lode; Tonapah. In Idaho, at the Poorrnan In Utah, in mine, in crystals; also at various other mines. and Salt Lake counties. At Tombstone, Ariz. Beaver, Summit Named from /cepas, horn, and apyvpos, silver.
" "

Use.

"

An

ore

of silver.

Silver chloro-bromide Ag(Br,Cl), the ratio of chlorine to bromine varying Resembles but color grayish green to yellowish widely. Usuallymassive. cerargyrite, Abundant in Chile. and also at Broken 2*15. Found Hill, New yellow, n green Yuma South Wales; Tonapah, Nev.; Leadville, Col.,; County, Ariz.; Georgetown, N. M. 5*8-6. Color bright yellow to amber-yellow; Bromyrite. Silver bromide, AgBr. G. From 2'25. slightly greenish, n Mexico; Chile. Color sulphur-yellow, Isometric. G. lodobromite. 5713. 2AgCl.2AgBr.AgI. From 2'2. near greenish, n Dernbach, Nassau; Broken Hill,New South Wales.
Embolite.
= = =

Miersite. iodide,4AgI.CuI. Isometric; tetrahedral. G. 5'64. In Silver, copper South Wales. Hill Silver Mines, New Cuprobright yellow crystalsfrom the Broken from Huantajaya, Peru, belongs here also. iodargyrite Hexagonal-hemimorphic; usually in thin plates; pale lodyrite. Silver iodide,Agl.
=

398
=

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

5'5-57. G. yellow or green. Lake Valley, Sierra Co., N. M. Tonapah, Nev.

In

Optically + crystalsfrom
.

co

2 '182.

From

Broken

Hill,New

Mexico, Chile, etc. South Wales, and

ii

ii

Fluorite The

Group.

RF2,RC12
rare

CaCl2.

Fluoritel CaF2T and the here included are species V^ "4 habit cubic. Both are isometric,
or

Hydrophilite,

FLUORITE

FLUOR

SPAR.

Habit cubic; less frequently octahedral or dodecahedral ; also the vicinal form f (321-0?), /(310),e(210) (fluoroids) common; hexoctahedron also common striations on 2(421) a(100)(Fig. 682) producing ; sometimes with the cube (Fig.681). Cubic in parallel grouped crystals Twins: tw. t hus a composition, pi. 0(111), forming pseudo-octahedron. Isometric.
forms
678 679

monly penetration-twins(Fig.682). Also massive; granular,coarse fineor rarelycolumnar; compact. Cleavage: o(lll) perfect. Fracture flat-conchoidal; of compact kinds

splintery. Brittle.
681

H. 318

682

G. Luster
=

3-01-3-25;
vitreous.

cryst.

Color

white,

yellow, and crimsongreen, rosered, violet-blue, sky-blue,and

brown; wine-yellow, greenish blue, violet-blue, most common;

red, rare. Transparent
Streak
-

white.

subtranslucent.
a bluish fluorescence. varieties phosphoresce

A
Comp. -"-.Oniorme
is

Sometimes

shows

Some
n
-

when 1-4339.

heated

(p. 251)
=

Calcium fluoride, CaF2 Fluorine 3 nuorme 48'9,calcium 511 sometimes present in minute quantities

100.

and sometimes ipitates

on

phosphoresces. B.

B. in the

test

"ne

flame
i

Fused

closed

with certain treated with sulphuric

compared

for fluorine. octahedral cleavage, relative softness (as i, also with the feldspars); etchingpower when effervesce with acid like calcite
"rm,

orange, to an enamel which reacts alkaline "otassmm bisulphategivesreaction

400

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

black. reddish or brownish to brick-red or even sometimes Transparent to Mean 1-364. translucent. +. index, Optically p_ A fluoride of sodium and aluminium^ Na3AlF6 lor 3NaF.AlF3 Comp. !D6"----rAr-nttle 32*8 iron sesquiFluorine 54*4, aluminium 12'8, sodium oxide is sometimes present as impurity.
"

in C. T. with Fusible in small fragments in the flame of a candle. Heated Pyr.,etc. coloring potassium bisulphate gives fluorine reaction. In the forceps fuses very easily, the flame yellow. On charcoal fuses easilyto a clear bead, which on cooling becomes after long blowing, the assay spreads out, the fluoride of sodium is absorbed by opaque; odor of fluorine is given off, and a crust of alumina remains, which, the coal,a suffocating with cobalt solution in O.F., gives a blue color. Soluble in sulphuric acid, when heated acid. with evolution of hydrofluoric Diff. Distinguishedby its extreme fusibility.Because of its low index of refraction almost invisible when Its planes of partthe powdered mineral becomes placed in water. ing (resemblingcubic cleavage) and softness are characteristic. Obs. Occurs in a bay in Arksukfiord,in West Greenland, at Ivigtut (or Evigtok), about 12 m. from the Danish settlement of Arksuk, where it constitutes a large bed in vein in a gray gneiss. Cryolite and its alteration products, pachnolite,thoma granitic in limited quantity at the southern base of Pike's Peak, prosopite, senolite, etc.,also occur El Paso county, Col.,north and west of Saint Peter's Dome. from Kpvos, frost, Named in allusion to the transX"9os, stone, hence meaning ice-stone, lucency of the white masses. In the manufacture Use. of sodium certain kinds of glass and porcelain, and salts, for the production of aluminum. as a flux in the electrolytic process is a variety of cryolite with half the sodium replaced by lithium. Cryolithionite G. 278. Refractive index T34. Associated with cryolite at Ivigtut. In small pyramidal crystals Chiolite. 5NaF.3AlF3. also massive granu(tetragonal); lar. 3'5-4. Cleavages, c(001) perfect, p(lll) distinct. H. G. Color 2'84-2'90. snow-white. 1*349.. From Miask Optically in the Ilmen co near Mts., Russia; also with the Greenland cryolite.
" " " "

"

Hieratite.

isometric.

From

fluoride of potassium and the fumaroles of the crater

silicon.
of

In

grayish stalactitic concretions;

Vulcano, Lipari Islands.

II.
ATACAMITE.

Oxychlorides, Oxyfluorides
:b
110 Oil
: c
=

Orthorhombic.
684

Axes
" mm", ee',

0-6613
51'.

07515.

110 Oil

A A

66" 57'.
73"

rr'"t111
mr, 110

A A

111 111

52" 48'. 36" 16*'.

in slender Commonly prismatic crystals,vertically striated. Twins accordingto a complex law. (Paratacamite is twinned atacamite.) In confused crystalline aggregates; also massive,fibrous or granularto as sand.

compact;

conchoidal. 3-3-5. G. 375-377. Luster adamantine Color of various bright green shades, dark emerald-green to blackish green. Streak apple-green. Transparent to translucent. Optically T831 a Brittle. H. to vitreous.
= =
"

Cleavage: 6(010) highly perfect. Fracture

T861.
or

1-880.
=

Comp.
cupnc
on

"

Cu2ClH303
55-8,water

CuCl2.3Cu(OH)2
=

Chlorine

oxide

16'6,copper

14'9,

12-7

100.

charcoal
_

owmsn

w.u^

Viiv,

UIMI^I

gioijriBii

wince,

uuiiuiiueu

uiowuig

yieias

gioouie

oi

met

sflv

touched C?aujngs'

^h

the

the R.F.,volatilize, coloring

flame

azure-blue.

In

HALOIDS.

"

CHLORIDES,

BROMIDES,

IODIDES;

FLUORIDES

401

in the northern part of Chile; also found at Collafrom Atacama Obs. Originally hurasi, Tarapaca and elsewhere in Chile and Bolivia; at Wallaroo and Bimbowrie, in In the United South Australia; at Gloncurry, Queensland; at St. Just in Cornwall. with cuprite, etc.,at the United Verde mine, Jerome, Ariz. States, In sky-blue cubes. perhaps PbCl2.CuO.H2O. Percylite. A lead-copperoxychloride, From etc. Sonora, Mexico; Atacama, Chile; Bolivia, Boleite. to 9PbCl2.8CuO.3AgC1.9H2O. Tetragonal, pseudo-isometric. Twinned form Pseudo-boleite. 5PbCl2.4CuO.6H2O. pseudo cubes. Tetragonal. Cumengite. in parallel 4PbCl2.4CuO.5H2O. Tetragonal. Pseudo-boleite and cumengite occur growth of boleite. Boleite and pseudo-boleite have pearly luster on cleavage, while crystals upon the firsttwo showing a greenishtinge in cumengite has not. All three deep blue in color, powder. Found at Boleo, near Santa Rosalia,Lower California. Matlockite. Lead oxychloride, Pb2OCl2. In tabular tetragonalcrystals. G. 7-21. Luster adamantine to " pearly. Color yellowish or slightlygreenish. Optically =2 '15. From co Cromford, near Matlock, Derbyshire. In fibrous or columnar often radiated. Mendipite. Pb2O2Cl2 or PbCl2.2PbO. masses; H. =2-5-3. 7-7'l. G. Color white. the Mendip Hills, setshire, SomerIndex, 1'93. From England; near Brilon,Westphalia. Lorettoite. 6PbO.PbCl2. Tetragonal? Coarse fibers or blades. Perfect basal cleavage. H. 7-6. G. 3. Fusible at 1. Color honey-yellow. Uniaxial, 2'37Indices, From 2-40. Loretto,Tenn. Laurionite. PbClOH or PbCl2.Pb(OH)2. In minute prismaticcolorless crystals (ortho2-116. Pararhombic), in ancient lead slags at Laurion, Greece. Optically /3 From Same laurionite. Laurion. composition as laurionite but monoclinic. Rafaelite from Chile is the same mineral. as Suggested that laurionite is the same paralaurionite but owing to submicroscopictwinning has apparentlyorthorhombic Fiedlerite, symmetry. associated with laurionite, is probably also a lead oxychloride; in colorless monoclinic crystals. In white hexagonal crystals. Laurion, Penfieldite. Pb3OCl2 or PbO.2PbCl2. Greece. Daviesite. A lead oxychloride of uncertain composition. In minute colorless prismatic Sierra Gorda, Atacama, Chile. crystals (orthorhombic)from the Mina Beatriz, Schwartzembergite. Probably Pb(I,Cl)2.2PbO. In druses of small crystals;also in crusts. Color honey-yellow. Desert of Atacama, Chile. G. 6"2. Nocerite. In white hexagonal acicular crystals Perhaps 2(Ca,Mg)F2(Ca,Mg)O(?). in the tufa of Nocera, Italy. from bombs An oxychlorideof aluminium Koenenite. Rhombohedral. and magnesium. Perfect 2'0. Color red,due to included hematite. cleavageyieldingflexible folia. Very soft. G. From near Volpriehausenin the Soiling, Germany. An earthy yellowishoxychlorideof bismuth. From Daubreeite. Bolivia.
"

"

-.

"

The
Texas.

from the mercury oxychloridesof mercury depositsat Terlingua, are montroydite,calomel,native mercury and calcite. of dodecahedral habit. Eglestonite. Hg4Cl2O. Isometric in minute crystals Many

followingare
Associated

minerals
2-3.

forms

observed.

H.

G.

8'3.

Luster
=

adamantine

to resinous.

Color brownish

Volatile. 2*49. yellow darkening on exposure to black, n In Monoclinic. small striated prismaticcrystals Terlinguaite. Hg2ClO. elongated to the 6-axis. Many forms observed. 2-3. 87. G parallel Cleavage perfect. H. Luster adamantine. Color sulphur-yellow on changing to olive-green exposure.
=

III.
CARNALLITE.

Hydrous Chlorides, Hydrous Fluorides, etc.

Orthorhombic. rare. Crystals Commonly massive, granular. No distinct cleavage. Fracture conchoidal. 1. G Brittle. H. 1-60. Luster often reddish. Transparent to Color milk-white, shining, greasy. translucent. Stronglyphosphorescent.Optically 2 V 70". a + 1 -466. 1-475. Taste bitter. Deliquescent. 1-494, 0 T Chlorine 38'3, potasor Comp. KMgCl3.6H2O KCl.MgCl2.6H2O sium
= = = =
"

"

14-1,magnesium

87,

water

39'0

100.

402
Obs. kieserite.
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Use.

"

with thinner beds of common in beds,alternating Occurs at Stassfurt, Silesia. from Konigshiitte, near Beienrode, In large crystals of potash compounds used in fertilizers. Carnallite is a source colorless MgCl2.6H2O. Crystalline-granular; Prussia. and Stassfurt, From Leopoldshall is said to be 2KCl.FeCl2.2H2O. associated with carnallite, white. to

salt and

DOUGLASITE,
Bischofite. /3
=

Optically +.
and Mt.

1-507.

Kremersite.

KCl.NH4Cl.FeCl2.H2O.

In

red octahedrons.

From

Vesuvius

Etna, Sicily. containing chlorine, sulphur trioxide and A mercury-ammonium compound Mosesite. octahedrons. Minute Spinel twins. kleinite in composition. Isometric. Near water. Found at ordinary temperatures. Color yellow. Doubly refracting sparingly H. = 3+ at Terlingua,Texas.
.

In 2KCl.FeCl3.H2O. Erythrosiderite. CaCl2.2MgCl2.12H2O. Tachhydrite.

red tabular
In
wax-

to

crystals. Vesuvius. honey-yellow masses.

From

furt, Stass-

Germany.

In colorless or white rhombic, pyramids. A1F3.H2O. Index, 1'47. From ' Gwyn, Cornwall. H. 4'5. or granular massive. Prosopite. CaF2.2Al(F,OH)3. In monoclinic crystals, From 1'502. 2-88. Altenberg, Saxony; St. Peter's G. Colorless, white, grayish. 0 Dome Pike's Peak, Col.; Utah. near in Greenland, Col.,and Ural Mts., Pachnolite and Thomsenolite, occurringwith cryolite in monoclinic Both have the same occur composition, NaF.CaF2.AlF3.H2O. prismatic 98" 36', crystal in aspect. twins, orthorhombic crystals;prismatic angle for pachnolite, often For 1-413. resembling cubes, also prismatic; thomsenolite, 89" 46', crystals /3 T414. /3 distinguished by its basal cleavage; also massive. Gearksutite. Occurs with Earthy, clay-like. CaF2.Al(F,OH)3.H2O. Index, T448. cryolite. In colorless to white,isometric, Ralstonite. hedrons. octa(Na2,Mg)F2.3Al(F,OH)3.2H2O. H. With the Greenland 4-5. G. 2-56-2-62. 1'43. n cryolite. Creedite. Monoclinic. In grains,prismatic crys2CaF2.2Al(F,OH)3.CaSO4.2H2O. tals and radiating 3'5. G. masses. 2*71. Perfect Usually colorless, rarelypurple. H. Y b axis. 2 V 64". Fusible with intumescence. cleavage. Indices, 1-46-1-49. Soluble in acids. Found near Wagon Wheel Gap, Creed Quadrangle,Col. Tallingite.A hydrated copper chloride from the Botallack mine, Cornwall; in blue globularcrusts. Yttrocerite. Massive-eleavable to granular and (Y,Er,Ce)F3.5CaF2.H2O. earthy. H. 4-5. G. 3'4. Color From reddish brown. violet-blue,gray, near Falun, Sweden, etc. Fluellite.

Stenna

V. I.

OXIDES

n.

Oxides Oxides
also

of Silicon, of the Semi-Metals

Molybdenum,
of the

: Tellurium,Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth Tungsten.

III. Oxides

Metals.

The

Fifth

according to
silicon are

Class,that of the OXIDES, is subdivided into three sections, positiveelement present. The oxides of the non-metal but it will be noted that the compounds of placedby themselves,
the

titanium are included with those of the metals proper. This last is made necessary by the fact that in one of its forms Ti02 is isomorphous with MnO2 and Pb02. A series of compounds which are properlyto be viewed as salts, oxygen of the SpinelGroup and a few others, e.g., the species for convenience also are included in this class.

the related element

OXIDES

403
of Silicon

I. Oxides

QUARTZ.

Rhombohedral-trapezohedral. Axis:
rrf,1011
rz,

1-09997.
1010 1010 A A 0111 1121
=

A
A

TlOl
0111 1011

85" 46'.
46"

mz, ms, mx,

66" 52'. 37" 58'. 12" 1'. 688

1011 1010

16'. 13'.

mr, 685

38"
686

1010 A. 5161
687

Crystals commonly prismauc, with the m(10TO) faces horizontally striated;terminated commonly by the two rhombohedrons, r(1011) and in nearlyequal development, giving the appearance of a hexagonal 2(0111), it is in almost all cases r. pyramid; when one rhombohedron predominates Often in double six-sided pyramids or quartzoids through the equal development of r and 2; when r is relatively largethe form then has a cubic aspect when the correct orientation distorted, (rrf 85" 46'). Crystalsfrequently be obscure except as shown by the striations on m. often elongated Crystals may to acicular 'forms,and taperingthrough the oscillatory of combination successive rhombohedrons with the prism. Occasionally twisted or bent. with a surface of pyramids,or in druses. Frequentlyin radiated masses
=

Simple crystalsare either right-or left-handed. On a right-handed (Fig.690) crystal the right trigonalpyramid, s(1121),if present, lies to the right of the m face,which is below the predominating positive rhombohedron with this belong the positive r, and right trapezohedrons, as "(5161). On a left-handed crystal (Fig.691), s lies to the left of the m below r. The right-and left-handed forms occur togetheronly in twins. In the absence of trapezohedral faces the striations on s (|| tinguish to disserve edge r/m), if distinct, the faces r and z, and hence show the rightand left-handed character of the crystals. The right-and left-handed character is also revealed by etching (Art.286) and
by pyro-electricity (Art.438). Thermal known as study of quartz shows that it exists in two modifications, aand and is /3-quartz. a-quartz is apparently hexagonal,trapezohedral-tetartohedral formed at temperatures below 575" while /3-quartzis hexagonal,trapezohedral-hemihedral and forms at temperatures ranging from 575" to 800". is formed. Above 800" tridymite The crystalangles of a-quartz change with increase of temperature up to? sion 575", the inverIn a similar while beyond this point they remain nearly constant. point to /3-quartz,

404
manner

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

gence, marked lowering of the refractive indices and birefrinwhile the /3modification geodes and large pegmatites is found in graphitegranite, granite pegmatites, and porphyries. Tridymite when heated into cristobalite. Quartz, tridymite and cristobalite are probto about 1470" passes over ably SiO2. to be considered as polymers of the fundamental molecule,
at this point there is a sudden in veins and a-quartz occurs

Twins: (1) tw. axis c, all axes parallel.(2) Tw. pi.a, sometimes called the Brazil law, usually as penetration-twins (Fig. 692). (3) Tw. pi. irregular 84" of at with a prism the axes crossing angles 33'_and " (1122),contact-twins, Tw. individuals. face in common to the two (4) pi.r(1011). See further forms and 427^429. Massive and in great variety, 168 common Figs. ing passp. and from the coarse kinds to those which are fine granular or crystalline Sometimes and flint-like or cryptocrystalline. in mammillary, stalactitic, concretionary forms; as sand. Cleavage not Distinctly observed; sometimes fracture surfaces (|| r(1011), and m(1010),developedby sudden cooling after being heated (see Art. 2(0111) 279). Fracture conchoidal to subconchoidal in crystallized to uneven forms, in some massive kinds. Brittle to tough. H. 7. G. 2-653splintery 2-660 in crystals; forms somewhat lower (to 2 -60)if pure, cryptocrystalline but impure massive forms (e.g., Luster vitreous," sometimes jasper)higher. to dull. Colorless when pure; often various shades splendent nearly greasy; of yellow, if red, brown, green, blue,black. Streak white,of pure varieties; but much as the color, impure,often the same paler. Transparent to opaque. Double refraction weak. +. Polarization Optically circular; righthanded the optical character or left-handed,
= =

692

Basal section in polarized mg showlight, of rightinterpenetration and left-handed portions. Des Cloi-

left-handed corresponding to right- and character of crystals, defined as above; in twins both and left forms (law2), right sometimes then often united, sections showing Airy's spirals in the polariscope (cf.Art. 394, p. 270, and Fig. 692). Rotatory proportionalto thickness of power plate. Refractive indices for the D line, co 1-55328; also rotatory 1-54418, e for section of lmm thickness, 21 71 power a (D line). Pyroelectric; also electric by See Arts. 438, or piezo-electric.pressure 439. On etching-figures, Arts. 286, 287. see silicon Comp. Silica, or dioxide, 100. Oxygen 53'3, silicon 467
= = =
"

In massive varieties often mixed with a littleopal silica. Impure varieties contain- iron oxide, calcium carbonate,clay,sand, and various minerals as inclusions. Artif. Quartz has been produced artificially in numerous Recently crystals ways. have been obtained at temperatures below 760" from melts containing dissolved silica which were composed of (1) a mixture of potassium and lithium chlorides,(2) vanadic acid, (3) sodium tungstate. At higher temperatures tridymite formed. crystals
"

PHENOCRYSTALLINE: Var"~A-, Flint-like, massive.

The

vitreous Crystallized,

in luster.

B.

LINE: CRYPTOCRYSTAL-

firstdivision includes all vitreous quartz, whether having crystalline ordinary faces 1 he varieties under the second in general acted are somewhat more upon by rition and by chemical agents, as hydrofluoricacid, than those of the first. In all kinds made of as layers, up agate, successive layers are unequallyeroded.

OXIDES

405
VITREOUS VARIETIES

A.

PHENOCRYSTALLINE
"

OR

Rock tinct Ordinary Crystallized; Crystal. Colorless quarts, or nearly so, whether in disHere belong the Bristol diamonds, Lake George diamonds, Brazilian not. or crystals Some variations from the common etc. pebbles, type are : (a) cavernous crystals;(6) cap(c) drusy quartz, a crust of small or minute quartz made up of separable layers or caps; quartz crystals;(d) radiated quartz, often separableinto radiated parts, having pyramidal terminations; (e) fibrous,rarely delicately so, as a kind from Griqualand West, South Africa,altered from crocidolite (seecat's-eye below, also crocidolite, p. 493). Asteriated;Star-quartz. Containingwithin the crystalwhitish or colored radiations exhibits distinct asterism. along the diametral planes. Occasionally Clear purple, or bluish violet. Color perhaps due to manganese. Amethystine; Amethyst.
" "

Rose. Rose-red or pink, but becoming paler on exposure. Commonly massive. sometimes Color perhaps due to titanium. a littlegreasy. Yellow and pellucid;resembling yellow topaz. Yellow; False Topaz or Citrine. parent; Smoky; Cairngorm Stone. Smoky yellow to dark smoky brown, and often transvarying to brownish black. Color is probably due to some organic compound of Banff, in at Cairngorm, southwest (Forster). Called cairngorms from the locality Scotland. The name is given to nearly black varieties. morion and nearly opaque. Milk-white Luster often greasy. Milky. or Siderite, Sapphire-quartz. Of indigo or Berlin-blue color;a rare variety. of rutile. Other included minerals in acicular Sagenitic. Inclosingacicular crystals forms are: black tourmaline; gothite;stibnite; hornblende; epidote. asbestus; actinolite; exhibits opalescence, but without prismatic colors, cut en when Cat's-eye caespecially bochon,an effect sometimes due to fibers of asbestus. Also present in the siliceous pseudocalled tiger-eye (see crocidolite). The Oriental morphs, after crocidolite, highly-prized is a variety of chrysoberyl. cat's-eye Aventurine. other mineral. or Spangled with scales of mica, hematite, Impure from the presence of distinct minerals distributed densely through the mass. The more kinds are those .in which the impuritiesare: either red common (a)ferruginous, kind of from some or yellow, from anhydrous or hydrous iron sesquioxide; (6) chloritic, sand. or chlorite;(c) actinolitic; (d) micaceous; (e) arenaceous, in cavities. The liquid, usually water (pure, or a mineral solution), Containing liquids or some petroleum-likecompound. smoky quartz, also often contains Quartz, especially inclusions of both liquidand gaseous carbon dioxide.
"

Luster

"

"

"

"

"

"

B.
"

CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE

VARIETIES

Having the luster nearly of wax, and either transparent or translucent. Chalcedony. Also of to dark brown, black. Color white, grayish,blue, pale brown 2'6-2'64. G. Often other shades, and then having other names. stalactitic, mammillary, botryoidal, disseminated opalIt often contains some cavities in rocks. and occurringliningor filling be silica. The thermal study of chalcedony shows that it differs from quartz and may therefore a distinct species. The name taining enhydros is given to nodules of chalcedonyconunder the generalname in large amount. Embraced chalcedony water, sometimes form of silica which forms concretionarymasses with radial-fibrous and is the crystalline unlike true concentric structure, and which, as shown by Rosenbusch, is optically negative, Often in spherulites, 2'59-2'64. showing the spheru1*537; G. quartz. It has n liticinterference-figureLussatite of Mallard has a like structure, but is optically+ and has the specific gravity and refractive index of opal. It may be a fibrous form of tridymite. See also quartzine, p. 407. red Carnelian. Sard. A clear red chalcedony, pale to deep in shade; also brownish
= = =
.
"

to brown.

apple-greenchalcedony, the color due to nickel oxide. and dull leek-green. Rather and also sometimes Plasma. nearly emerald-green, bright green to leek-green, is the same stone and subtranslucent or Blood-stone, or feebly translucent. Heliotrope, with small spots of red jasper, looking like drops of blood. essentially, colors are either (a) banded; or (6) irreguA variegated chalcedony. The larly Agate. in moss moss-like clouded ; or (c) due to visible impurities as agate, which has brown The bands are dendritic forms, as of manganese or oxide,distributed through the mass. of white, pale and dark brown, bluish and other shades; they are delicate parallel lines, often waving or zigzag, and occasionallyconcentric circular. sometimes straight,more Chrysoprase.
"

An

Prase.

"

Translucent

"

"

406
The bandsare

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

the agate having been formed by a deposit the edges of layersof deposition, cavities in rocks,and deriving supplied,in irregular solutions intermittently of the walls of the cavity. The from the irregularities their concentric waving courses be varied in color by artificial means, and therefore agates may layersdiffer in porosity, There is also with the agates cut for ornament. to a large extent and this is done now w ith clouded wood agate. petrified wood; agatized white and black,white and of different colors, of layers Like agate in consisting Onyx. and hence its use for in and the straight, banding but the even planes, layers red, etc.,
of silica from
"

cameos.

in structure, but includes layersof carnelian (sard)along with whitish,and brown, and sometimes black colors. of jasper with veiningsof chalcedony. Agate-jasper. An agate consisting cellular quartz, formed by depositionfrom waters taining conSiliceous -sinter. Irregularly silica or soluble silicates in solution. See also under opal, p. 408. and of dull colors, Somewhat Flint. allied to chalcedony, but more usually opaque, The exterior is often whitish, from mixture with black. brownish and smoky, brown, gray, Luster subvitreous. Breaks barely glistening, lime or chalk,in which it is embedded. and a sharp cuttingedge. The flintof the chalk formation with a deeply conchoidal fracture, and other marine productions. consists largelyof the remains of diatoms, sponges, Flint implements kind is mostly carbonaceous matter. of the common matter The coloring the relics of early man. play an important part among the fracture more Resembles but is more Hornstone. flint, brittle, splintery.Chert is a term often applied to hornstone,and to any impure flinty rock, including the jaspers. A velvet-black siliceous stone or flinty Basanite; Lydian Stone,or Touchstone. jasper, used on account of its hardness and black color for trying the purity of the preciousmetals. The color left on the stone after rubbing the metal across it indicates to the experienced of alloy. It is not splintery like hornstone. eye the amount Jasper. Impure opaque. colored quartz; commonly red, also yellow, dark green and grayish blue. Stripedor riband jasper has the colors in broad stripes. Porcelain jasper is nothing but .baked clay,and differs from true jasper in being B.B. fusible on the edges.

Sardonyx.

"

Like onyx
"

others

of white

or

"

"

"

"

"

C. Granular
"

Besides the above

"

there

are

also:

of quartz grains very or Quartz,Quartz-rock, Quartzite. A rock consisting firmly compacted; the grains often hardly distinct. Quartzose Sandstone, Quartz-con* The pebbles sometimes glomerate. A rock made of pebbles of quartz with sand. are jasperand chalcedony,and make a beautiful stone when polished. Itacolumite, Flexible or Sandstone. A friable sand-rock,consisting mainly of quartz-sand,but containing a little mica, and possessing when in thin laminae. a degree of flexibility Buhrstone,or Burrstone. A cellular, flinty rock,having the nature in part of coarse chalcedony. also under the forms of many PseudomorphousQuartz. of the mineral Quartz appears which it has taken through either the alteration or replacement of crystals species, of those species. The most common quartz pseudomorphs are those of calcite, and barite, fluorite, siderite. Silicified wood is quartz pseudomorph after wood (p.326). B.B. unaltered; with borax dissolves slowly to a clear glass; with soda Pyr., etc. dissolves with effervescence; unacted upon by salt of phosphorus. Insoluble in hydrochloric acted upon acid,and only slightly the cryptoby solutions of fixed caustic alkalies, varieties to the greater extent. crystalline Soluble only in hydrofluoric acid. When fused and cooled it becomes opal-silica 2'2. having G. Diff. Characterized in crystals and absence of cleavage; by the form, glassyluster, also in generalby hardness and infusibility. Micro. Easilyrecognizedin rock sections by its low refraction (" low relief," p. 212) and low birefringence (e co 0'009); the interference colors in good sections not rising above yellow of the firstorder; also by its limpidity and the positive uniaxial cross yielded by basal sections (p.270, note),which remain dark when revolved between crossed nicols. Commonly in formless grains (granite), also with crystaloutline (porphyry, etc.). Obs. Quartz is an essential component of certain igneous rocks,as granite, graniteporphyry quartz-porphyry and rhyolitein the granite group; in such rocks it is comnonly in tormless grains or masses the interstices between filling the feldspar, the last as product of crystallization. Further it is an essential constituent in quartz-diorite, quartzdiorite porphyry and dacites in the diorite in the porphyries frequently in distinct group; crystals. It occurs also as an accessory in other feldspathic igneous rocks,such as syenite and trachyte. Among the metamorphic rocks it is an essential component of certain varieties of gneiss, of quartzite, etc. It forms the mass of common sandstone. It occurs as the vein-stone m various rocks,and forms a largepart of mineral veins; as a foreignmin" "
" "

"

"

"

408

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Comp.

"

Pure

SiO2, like quartz. silica,

Tridymite is formed above 800" C. See further under Quartz, p. 403. sodium carbonate. Like quartz, but soluble in boiling Pyr., etc. in acidic volcanic rocks,rhyolite, Obs. Occurs chiefly trachyte,andesite,liparite, often associated with sanidine, also hornblende, less often in dolerite;usually in cavities, hematite; sometimes in opal. First observed in crevices and druses in an augiteaugite, near Pachuca, Mexico; later proved to be rather andesite from the Cerro San Cristobal, of Euganean Thus in trachyteof the Siebengebirge,Germany; distributed. generally In the ejected Hills in northern Italy;Puy Capucin (Mont-Dore) in Central France, etc. In the lavas of Mt. Etna, Sicily, and of sanidine. from Vesuvius consisting chiefly masses Mt. Kibosan, Prov. Higo, Japan. With quartz, feldspar, Pelee, Martinique. From In the andesite of Mt. Rainier, Park. Yellowstone of Obsidian cliff, in lithophyses fayalite Washington. in allusion to the common in trillings. occurrence Named from rpiSu/zos, threefold, in the meteoric iron of Breitenbach,in. A form of silicafound ASMANITE. very minute referred to the orthorhombic probablyidentical with tridymite;by some grains, system. Silica in white octahedrons Christobalite. CRISTOBALITE. (pseudo-isometric?).G. 2'27. 1*486. With tridymitein andesite of the Cerro S. Cristobal, n Pachuca, Mexico, For thermal relations to quartz Also noted in lava at May en, Germany, and in meteorites. and tridymitesee under quartz, p. 403. In minute cubes and spherical MELANOPHLOGITE. aggregates. Occurring with calcite the sulphur crystals and celestite implanted upon an incrustation of opaline silica over of Sicily. Consists of SiO2 with 5 to 7 p. c. of S03, perhaps SiO2 with SiS2. The Girgenti,
" "

mineral
OPAL.

turns

black

when superficially

heated

B.B.

Amorphous.
tuberose.

Massive; sometimes
G.
=

small
pure

or reniform, stalactitic, large

Also earthy.
5-5-6-5.

Luster vitreous, quently freand sometimes to pearly. resinous, Color white,yellow, red,brown, green, gray, blue,generally pale; dark colors arise from foreignadmixtures; sometimes rich play of colors, different a or colors by refracted and reflected light. Streak white. Transparent to nearly
=

H.

1-9-2-3; when

2-1-2-2.

subvitreous;often

to inclining

opaque,

1-44-1-45.

Often shows double refraction similar to that observed in colloidal substances due to tension. The cause of the play of color in the preciousopal was investigated by Brewster, who ascribed it to the presence of microscopic cavities. Behrends,however, has given a monograph on the subject (Ber.Ak. Wien, 64 (1),1871),and has shown that this explanation is incorrect; he refers the colors to thin curved lamellae of opal whose refractive power differ by O'l from that of the mass. These are may conceived to have been originally formed in parallel but have been changed, bent, and finally position, cracked and broken in the solidificationof the groundmass.

Comp.
The
water
The

"

like quartz, with a varying amount Silica, is sometimes regarded as non-essential.

of water, Si02.nH20.

opal condition is one of lower degrees of hardness and specific and, as gravity, of incapability of crystallization. generally believed, The water present varies from 2 to 13 Small quantities p. c. or more, but mostly from 3 to 9 p. c. of ferric oxide,alumina,lime
magnesia,

Var.
insed

alkalies are usuallypresent as impurities. Precious Opal Exhibits a play of delicate colors. Fire-opal Hyacinth-red to honey-yellowcolors, with fire-like reflections, somewhat
"
" "

and

on

turning.
" "

Bluish white,translucent, with reddish reflections in a bright light. In part translucent; Opal milk-white to greenish, (a) milk-opal, yellowish, bluish; (6) Resin-opal, with a resinous luster; (c) dull olivewax-, honey- to ocher-yellow, and mountain-green; (d) brick-red. green Includes Semiopal; (e)Hydrophane, a variety
Common
which becomes
"

Gir'asol.

more

translucent

or

transparent in water.
reddish.

Cacholong. Opaque, bluish white, porcelain-white, pale yellowishor

Upal-agate.
Memlite.
" "

in structure, Agate-like but consisting of opal of differentshades of color. In concretionary forms; opaque, dull grayish.

OXIDES

409 impurities,

and

J asp-opal. Opal-jasper. Opal containing some yellowiron oxide and other with the luster of common having the color of yellow jasper, opal.
" " "

Wood petrified by opal. Wood-opal. Clear as glass and colorless, Hyalite. Muller's Glass. constituting tions, globular concreand crusts with a globularor botryoidalsurface; also passing into translucent, and Less readilydissolved in caustic alkalies than other varieties. whitish. A porous German East Africa. varietyfrom the Virunga district, Schaumopal. Siliceous Sinter. Includes translucent to opaque, whitish or brownish grayish, Fiorite, fibrous-like or filamentous, incrustations, and, when porous, to firm in texture; sometimes deposited from the siliceous.waters of hot so, pearly in luster (then called Pearl-sinter)', springs. about the geysers of the Yellowstone Geyserite. Constitutes concretionary deposits white or grayish, porous, mentous, filaPark, Iceland, and New stalactitic, Zealand,s_presenting cauliflower-like forms, often of great beauty: also compact-massive, and scaly" " "

massive. Float-stone.
cavernous,
"

white In light porous or concretionary masses, grayish,sometimes rough in fracture. from and the siliceous shells of diatoms (hence called diatomite) Tripolite. Formed other microscopicspecies, and occurringin extensive deposits. Includes Infusorial Earth, earth looking often like an earthy chalk,or a clay, or a very Earthy Tripolite, fine-grained and scratchingglasswhen but harsh to the feel, rubbed on it. B.B. Yields water. but becomes Some eties, infusible, Pyr., etc. yellow variopaque. acid somewhat more containingiron oxide,turn red. Soluble in hydrofluoric readily than quartz; also soluble in caustic alkalies, in some but more varieties than in readily
" "

others. in igneous rocks,as trachyte,porOccurs filling cavities and fissures or seams phyry, where it has probably resulted from the action of hot,magmatic waters upon the silicatesof the rocks,the liberated silica being deposited in the cavities in the form of opal. Also in some metallic veins. Also embedded, like flint, in limestone, and sometimes, in argillaceous like other quartz concretions, beds; formed from the siliceous waters of from the mere hot springs; often resulting some accumulation,or accumulation and partial solution and solidification, of sponge spicules, of the siliceous shells of infusoria, etc.,which consist essentially of opal-silica. The last mentioned is the probable source of the opal of limestones and argillaceous beds (as it is of flint in the same rocks),and of part of that in igneous rocks. It exists in most chalcedony and flint. in porphyry at Czerwenitza, near Precious opal occurs Kashau in Hungary; at Gracias in Honduras; Queretaro in Mexico; a beautiful blue opal on Bulla Creek, Queensa Dios land; from White New South Wales, as filling openings in sandstone,in fossilwood, Cliffs, in the material of various fossil shells and bones and in aggregates of radiatingpseudoSan at Zimapan in Mexico; the Faroe Islands; near morphic crystals. Fire-opaloccurs from Humboldt Gem Co., Antonio, Honduras. opal, often of "black opal" type, comes Nev. Common at Telkebanya in Hungary; near Pernstein,etc., in opal is abundant Moravia; in Bohemia; Stenzelberg in Siebengebirge,Germany; in Iceland. Hyalite in amygdaloid at Schemnitz, Hungary; in clinkstone at Waltsch, Bohemia; at San occurs Luis Potosi,Mexico; Kamloops, British Columbia. In the United States,hyalite occurs sparinglyin connection with the trap rock of N. J. and Conn. A water-worn has been found on the John Davis river, specimen of fire-opal in Crook Co., Ore. Idaho Common Co., Pa.; at Aquas Calientes, opal is found at Cornwall, Lebanon Hill,Calaveras Co., Cal., and on the Mt. Springs,Col.; a white variety at Mokelumne in great abundance Diablo range. and varietyin the Yellowstone region Geyseriteoccurs Springs,Nev. (cf. above); also siliceous sinter at Steamboat In the colored varieties as a highly prized Use. gem-stone.
Obs.
"

"

II.

Oxides

of the

Semi-Metals; also Molybdenum,

n
=

Tungsten
earthy.

Arsenolite.

Colorless

or

Arsenic white. G.

As2Os. trioxide,
=

37.

In isometric octahedrons;in crusts and Occurs with arsenical ores. 1755.

In thin plates. but monoclinic in form. Also As2O3, Antimony trioxide. Sb2O3. In isometric octahedrons;hi crusts and Occurs with ores 2P087. of antimony. G. grayish, n granular massive. 5;3. Colorless,
Claudetite.
Senarmontite. From
= =

Algeria;South

Ham,

Quebec.

410
Valentinite.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

orthorhombic Sb2O3, in prismatic Bismuth

"

crystals. Index

2-34.

From

South

Ham, Quebec.
Bismite.

trioxide,Bi2O3. Pulverulent,earthy; color straw-yellow. From silverywhite, pearly scales that are hexagonal, rhombomuth of so-called bismites show them to be bisAnalyses of a number other or compounds. hydroxide In white to yellowslender prismatic crystals. TeO2. Tellurite. Tellurium dioxide, In capillary tufted forms and MoO3. earthy. trioxide, Molybdite. Molybdenum Color straw-yellow. Analyses of molybdic ocher from various localitiesshow it to be not the oxide but a hydrous ferric molybdate, Fe2O3.3MO3.7H2O. Indices,178-1 '90. WO3. Pulverulent,earthy; color yellow or yellowish Tungstite. Tungsten trioxide, Analysis of tungstic ocher from Salmo, B. C., prove it to Indices,2'09-2'26. green. have the composition WO3.H2O; perhaps identical with meymacite (a hydrated tungstic oxide from Meymac, Correze,France). Cervantite. Sb2O3.Sb2O6. In yellow to white acicular crystals; also massive, pulverulent Nevada, Goldfield, hedral; optically
in minute
.

Stibiconite.

H2Sb2O6.

Massive, compact.

Color

pale yellow

to

yellowish white.

Index, 1-83.

HI. A.
I. H. m. IV.

Oxides

of the

Metals

ANHYDROUS

OXIDES

Protoxides, R2O and RO. Sesquioxides,R^Oa.

ii

in

Intermediate, RR-A Dioxides, RO2.

or

RO.RgOg,

etc.

the
to

as shown Anhydrous Oxides include, above, three distinct divisions, the the mediate and Dioxides. The remaining InterProtoxides, Sesquioxides division embraces a number of oxygen compounds which are properly be regardedchemically salts of certain acids (aluminates, as ferrates, etc.) ;

The

SPINEL GROUP. the Protoxides the only distinct group is the PERICLASE GROUP, which includes the rare speciesPericlase, MgO, Manganosite, MnO, and NiO. All of these are isometric in crystallization. Bunsenite, The Sesquioxides include the well-characterized HEMATITE GROUP, R2O3, The Dioxides include the prominent RUTILE Both of these GROUP, R02. groups are further defined later.

here is included the well-characterized

Among

I.
CUPRITE. Red

'Protoxides, RaO and RO

Copper

Ore.

Isometric-plagiohedral. Commonly in octahedrons; also in cubes and often highly modified. dodecahedrons, faces sometimes distinct Plagiohedral (see p. 71). At times in capillary crystals. Also massive,granular; sometimes earthy. Cleavage: o(lll) interrupted.Fracture conchoidal, Brittle. uneven. H. 3*5-4. G. 5'85-6*15. Luster adamantine submetallic to earthy. or Color red, of various shades, particularly sometimes almost cochineal-red, crimson-red by transmitted light. Streak several shades black; occasionally of brownish red, shining. Subtransparent to subtranslucent. Refractive 2*849. index,n
= = =

OXIDES

411

in octahedrons,dodecahedrons, often with a crust of malachite; (6) massive. forms; the crystals In cap2. Capillary; Chalcotrichite. Plush Copper Ore. illary which sometimes cubes acicular crystallizations, or are elongated in the direction of the cubic axis. reddish 3. Earthy; Tile Ore. Brick-red brown and or earthy, often mixed with red oxide of iron; sometimes nearly
"

Var.

1.

commonly Ordinary, (a) Crystallized;

cubes,and

intermediate

black.

Comp.
copper

"

Cuprous oxide, Cu2O

=

Oxygen
B.B.

11*2,
hi

88'8
"

100.
Unaltered in the closed tube. the

Pyr.,etc.

coal charforceps fuses and colors the flame emerald-green. On first blackens, then fuses,and to is reduced metallic With the fluxes gives reactions for copper. Soluble copper. in concentrated Arizona hydrochloricacid,and a strong solution when cooled and diluted with cold water yields a heavy, white of cuprous chloride. precipitate Diff Distinguishedfrom hematite by inferior hardness, but is harder than cinnabar and proustite and differsfrom them in the color of "the streak; reactions for copper, B.B.,
"

are

white with shiningsurface, usuallypitted. With HNO3 oblique illumination, transparent deep red. With instantlyplated with metallic remains. With HC1 copper which blackens and dissolves. On drying a thin film of copper darkens and is coated with white, seen by oblique light. Obs. Cuprite is a mineral of secondary origin. It is often formed as a furnace product and has been rioted as a coating upon ancient copper bronze objects. Occurs at or in Thuringia; in Cornwall, in fine crystals, Gorland and other mines; at Wheal Kamsdorf in Devonshire less altered to malachite, at near more or Tavistock; in isolated crystals, Chessy, near Lyons, France; in the Ural Mts.; South Australia;also abundant in Chile, Peru, Bolivia. In the United States observed at Somerville,etc.,N. J.; at Cornwall, Lebanon Co., Ariz, with malachite,limonite, Lake Superior region. From per Pa.; in the. etc.,at the Copin fine crystals;beautiful chalcotrichite at Morenci; Queen mine, Bisbee, sometimes Graham and massive. at Clifton, Co., in crystals,
" "

conclusive. In polished sections shows Micro.

Use.
Ice.

"

An

ore

of copper.

in six-rayed snow Hexagonal. Familiarlyknown and icebergs. ponds in whiter,further as glaciers

H2O.

crystals;also coating

Periclase

Group
"

In cubes or octahedrons, and in grains. Cleavagecubic'. Periclase. Magnesia, MgO. Artif. from a melt containingmagne3'67-3'90. 174. H. =6. G. Crystallized n sium chloride and silica. Occurs in white limestone at Mte. Somma, Vesuvius; at the Kitteln manganese mine, Nordmark, Sweden.
= =

Manganosite
cubic.
H.
=

Manganese
G.
=

protoxide,MnO.
n
=

In

isometric

5-o.

5'18.

2'18.

Color

emerald-green, becoming
Franklin octahedrons.
From

From Bunsenite.

Langban
Nickel

and Nordmark, Sweden; NiO. In green protoxide,

octahedrons. Cleavage black on exposure. Furnace, N. J.

Johanngeorgen-

stadt,Germany.
Cadmium

color and

In minute octahedrons. Forms Isometric. oxide. a thin coating of black brilliant metallic luster upon calamine from Monte Poni, Sardinia. Also formed

artificially.

ZINCITE.

Red

Oxide

of Zinc.
c
=

Axis Hexagonal-hemimprphic.

1*5870.
coarse

foliated massive, or in 44, p. 22); usually

Natural crystalsrare (Fig. and grains;also with particles

granularstructure.

412

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

sometimes Cleavage: c(0001)perfect;prismatic,

conchoidal.

Brittle.

H.

4-4'5.

Streak orange-yellow. Color +. subtranslucent. Optically Zinc oxide, ZnO Oxygen Comp. protoxideis sometimes present.
"

distinct. Fracture subLuster subadamantine. also Translucent to orange-yellow. deep red, G.

=

5-43-57.

197,

zinc

80*3

100.

nese Manga-

the platinum wire,gives reactions for on infusible;with the fluxes, charcoal in R.F. gives a coating of zinc oxide, yellow while hot, and sumes cooling. The coating,moistened with cobalt solution and treated in O.F., ascolor. Soluble in acids. a green that of the streak; by cleavage; by Characterized Diff. by its color,particularly reactions B.B. Zincite is often formed a furnace as product. It is also produced when zinc Artif. lime at red heat. act upon chloride and water vapor Hill near at Sterling Obs. Occurs with franklinite and willemite, Ogdensburg, and at in -lamellar in pink Mine masses Hill,Franklin Furnace, Sussex Co., N. J., sometimes A not uncommon furnace product. calcite. Has been reported from Poland. An ore of zinc. Use.'

Pyr., etc.

"

B.B.
on

manganese, white on

and

"

"

"

"

"

Lead monoxide, PbO. Massive, scaly or earthy. Color yellow, reddish. Index, 1735. Optically". Probably orthorhombic. In minute black scales with metallic luster; from Tenorite. Cupric oxide, CuO. Also black earthy massive Vesuvius. of copper at (melaconite) ores as ; occurring with Point, Lake Superior. Pitchy black material Ducktown, Tenn., and Keweenaw ciated assowith cuprite, and malachite from Bisbee, chrysocolla Ariz.,has been called melanoMassicot. chaldte.

referred to the tetragonalsystem.

essentially cupric oxide, CuO, occurring in black pyramidal crystals From the Copper Queen mine, Bisbee, Ariz. Orthorhombic. In minute HgO. highly modified crystals. H. Montroydite. Color and streak orange-red. Index, 2'55. T5-2. Volatile. Found at Terlingua, Tex.
Paramelaconite is
=

Hematite

Group.

R203.

Rhombohedral
rr'
c

Corundum Hematite
Ilmenite

A1203

93" 94" 94" 94"

56' 0' 29'

1*3630
1*3656 1*3846 1'3692

Fe2O3

(Fe,Mg)O.Ti02 Tri-rhombohedral
MnO.Ti02
"

Pyrophanite

5J'

The HEMATITE GROUP embraces the sesquioxides of aluminium and iron. These compounds in the rhombohedral crystallize class, hexagonal system, with a fundamental rhombohedron but littlein angle from a cube. differing Both the minerals belonginghere,Hematite and Corundum, are hard. To these speciesthe titanates of iron (and magnesium) and manganese, Ilmenite and Pyrophanite,are closely related in form though belongingto the tri-rhombohedral class (phenacite type) ; in other words, the relation between hematite and ilmenite may be regarded as analogous to that between calcite and dolomite. It is to be noted, further, that hematite often contains titanium, and an artificialisomorphouscompound, Ti203, has been described. Hence the ground for writing the formula of ilmenite (Fe,Ti)2O3, is done by as authors. It isshown by Penfield, some however, that the formula (Fe,Mg)Ti02
is

more

correct.

OXIDES

413

CORUNDUM.

Rhombohedral.
694

Axisc

1-3630.
697

695

cr, en, rr'

0001 0001 1011

A A
A

1011 2243 1101 2423 4843 2421

57" 34'

6l" 11'
93" 51" 57" 58"
56'

nn', 2243 w', 4483 zz', 2241 Twins: thus rounded.

and tw.

A A A

58' 38' 55'

sometimes often polysynthetic, r(10ll), pi. penetration-twins; producing a laminated structure. Crystals usually rough and Also massive,with nearlyrectangular partingor pseudo-cleavage;

fine. or coarse granular, sometimes but interrupted;also r(1011) due Parting: c(0001), perfect, to twinning, often prominent; a(1120) less distinct. Fracture to uneven conchoidal. when G. 3-95-4-10. Brittle, compact very tough. H. =9. Luster adamantine to vitreous;on c sometimes ing showpearly. Occasionally asterism. Color blue,red,yellow,brown, gray, and nearlywhite; streak uncolored. Pleochroic in deeply colored varieties. Transparent to translucent. 17676 to 1*7682 and Normally uniaxial, negative;for sapphireco 17594 to 17598. Often abnormally biaxial. e
= = =

Var. There are three subdivisions of the speciesprominently recognized in the arts, but differing structure. or only in purity and state of crystallization VAR. 1. SAPPHIRE, RUBY. Includes the purer kinds of fine colors,transparent to Stones named useful as gems. are translucent, according to their colors: Sapphire blue; true Ruby, or Oriental Ruby, red; Oriental Topaz, yellow; Oriental Emerald, green; Oriental Amethyst,purple. The term sapphireis also often used as a generalterm to indicate corundum of any color except red. A varietyhaving a stellate opalescencewhen viewed in gems the direction of the vertical axis of the crystal is the Asteriated Sapphire or Star Sapphire. 2. CORUNDUM. Includes the kinds of dark or dull colors and not transparent, colors adamantine lightblue to gray, brown, and black. The original spar from India has a dark when translucent. but greenishor bluish by transmitted light, grayish smoky brown tint, 3. EMERY. Includes granularcorundum, of black or grayish black color, and contains Sometimes associated with iron spinelor hercymagnetite or hematite intimatelymixed. nite. Feels and looks much like a black fine-grained iron ore, which it was long considered to kinds in which the corunto be. There are gradationsfrom the evenly fine-grained dum emery is in distinct crystals.
" " " "

Oxygen 47' 1, aluminium Comp. Alumina, A12O3 of emery varieties are crystallized essentially pure; analyses impurity,chiefly magnetite.
"

52'9

100.
more or

show

The less

Artif
ways.

"

corundum Crystallized Alumina

dissolved
or

and

potassiumcarbonate

of differin a number ent has been produced artificially in a fused mixture of a fluoride sodium sulphide, in fused lead oxide, will separateout as crystallized corundum. in molten

414
Gem material

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

blue or salt, has been produced in this way, colored red, with a chromium in an electric also be produced by fusing alumina material can Crystallized in an by heating bauxite to 5000"-6000" The artificialabrasive, alundum, is made arc. by fusing together small electric furnace. Pear-shaped drops of gem material are made known structed "reconare as. Gems cut from them fragments of natural or artificialstones. and other physical propertiesof the natural and have the crystalline stones

by cobalt.

"

mineral. B.B. unaltered; slowly dissolved in borax and salt of phosphorus to a Pyr., etc. The free from iron; not acted upon by soda. finely which is colorless when glass, gives a beautiful blue color. mineral, after long heating with cobalt solution, pulverized but converted into a soluble compound by fusion with potassium Not acted upon by acids, bisulphate. tine Characterized Diff. quartz and topaz), by its adamanby its hardness (scratching The massive variety with rhombohedral gravity and infusibility. high specific luster, partingresembles cleavable feldsparbut is much harder and denser. ence In thin sections appears Micro, nearly colorless with high relief and low interfer"

clear

"

"

colors.
in crystalline Obs. rocks, as granular limestone or dolomite, gneiss, Usually occurs mica slate,chlorite slate. The associated minerals often include some speciesof granite, the chlorite group, as corundophilite,margarite, also tourmaline, spinel, prochlorite, and a series of aluminous minerals,in part produced from its alteration. cyanite, diaspore, found as an original constituent of igneous rocks containinghigh percentages Occasionally of alumina. In the Ural Mts. are found an anorthite rock containingnearly 60 per cent of corundum, a corundum syenite with 18 per cent, and a pegmatite with 35 per cent. A corundum anorthosite and corundum Important deposits syenitesare found in Canada. of corundum in North Carolina and Georgia are associated with dunite rocks. Rarely from the beds of observed as a contact-mineral. The fine sapphiresare usuallyobtained rivers,either in modified hexagonal prisms or in rolled masses, accompanied by grains of in of Asia Minor occurs The emery etc. magnetite,and several kinds of gems, as spinel, granularlimestone. The best rubies come from the mines in Upper Burma, north of Mandalay, in an area of which The rubies occur in situ in covering25 to 30 square miles, Mogok is the center. also in the soil of the hillsidesand in gem-bearing gravelsof the Irracrystalline limestone, waddy River. Blue sapphires are brought from Ceylon from the Ratnapura and Rakwena often as rolled pebbles,also as well-preserved in the districts, occurs crystals.Corundum Carnatic on the Malabar hillsin Siam, and elsewhere in the East coast, on the Chantibun Indies; also near Canton, China; from Naegi, Mino, Japan. At St. Gothard, Switzerland, it occurs of a red or blue tinge in dolomite,and near Mozzo in white in Piedmont, Italy, with in large,coarse, hexagonal pyramids in compact feldspar. Adamantine spar is met Sweden. Other localities are in Bohemia, near Gellivara, Petschau, in Russia,in the Ilmen mountains, not far from Miask and in the gold-washings northeast of Zlatoust. and less often rubies occur Corundum, sapphires, in rolled pebbles in the diamond gravels the Cudgegong river, at Mudgee and other points in New on South Wales. Emery is found in largebowlders at Naxos, Nicaria, and Samos of the Grecian islands ; also in Asia Minor, E. of Ephesus, near 12 m. Gumuchdagh and near Smyrna, associated with margarite, chloritoid, pyrite. -" In North America, in Mass., at Chester, with magnetite, diaspore,ripidolite, garite, 'marIn Conn, near etc.,was mined for use as emery. Litchfield. In N. Y., at Warwick, bluish and pink, with spinel; Amity, in granular with magnetite and limestone; emery in Westchester spinel (hercynite) green In Co., near Cruger's Station, and elsewhere. N. J.,at Newton, blue crystals in granular limestone; at Vernon, at Sparta and elsewhere In Pa.,in Delaware in Sussex Co. Co., in Aston, near VillageGreen, in largecrystals;at Mineral in loose crystals; in Chester Co., at Unionville, Hill, abundant in crystals; in large crystalsloose m the soil at Shimersville, In Va., in the mica schists of Bull Mt., Lehigh Co.
"

Patrick Co. Common at many South Carolina and

pointsalong a belt extending from Virginiaacross

western

North

and

Haywood,
most

work

Georgia to Dudleyville, in Madison, Buncombe, Alabama; especially Jackson, Macon, Clay, and Gaston counties in N. C. The localities at which has been done are the Culsagee Macon mine, Corundum hill, near Co., Franklin,
miles S
E. of at Laurel Creek, Ga. this,

ik chrysolite(and and hornblendic gneiss, serpentine) associated with a species of the chlorite group, also spinel,etc.,and here as elsewhere with many minerals resulting from its alteration.

26 U'1!md

The

corundum

occurs

in beds in

Some

fine rubies have

been

found.

Fine

of pink crystals

corundum

occur

at Hia-

416

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

often long radiating;luster submetallic The masses or fibrous. 2. Compact Columnar; to contrast it called red hematite, metallic;color brownish red to iron-black. Sometimes called kidney ore. with smooth fracture, with limonite and turgite. Often in reniform masses Red and earthy. Reddle and red chalk are red ocher, mixed with 3. Red Ocherous. less clay. or more hematite. Hard, brownish black to reddish brown, 4. Clay Iron-stone; Argillaceous like all the often in part deep red; of submetallic to nonmetallic luster; and affording, other It consists of oxide of iron with clay or sand, and sometimes a red streak. preceding, to

impurities.

Comp.
p. 417.

100. times SomeFe203 Iron sesquioxide, Oxygen 30, iron 70 r elated is thus closely to ilmenite, contains titanium and magnesium, and
"

charcoal in R.F. becomes B.B. infusible; magnetic; with borax gives on Pyr., etc. With soda on charcoal in R.F. is reduced to a gray magnetic powder. the iron reactions. Slowly soluble in hydrochloricacid. also from limonite by the same Diff. Distinguishedfrom magnetite by its red streak, its greater hardness and by from its well water: turgiteby not as as containing by means, varieties (henceeasily distinguished micaceous B.B. It is hard in all but some not decrepitating and B.B. becomes also infusible, strongly magnetic. from the black sulphides); affected UnIn polished sections shows white color with a shining,pitted surface. Micro.
"

"

"

by reagents. Artif Crystals of hematite have been made by decomposing ferric chloride by steam iron. at a high temperature; also by the action of heated air and hydrochloricacid upon which must contain little from various artificialmagmas, has been crystallized Hematite
"

or

no

ferrous iron.
"

in rocks of all ages. This ore The specularvariety is mostly confined occurs canoes, volor metamorphic rocks,but is also a result of igneous action about some crystalline formations contain the argillaceous variety as at Vesuvius. Many of the geological the bottom of which is mostly a marsh-formation, or a deposit over or clay iron-stone, shallow,stagnant water; but this kind of clay iron-stone (that giving a red powder) is The in metamorphic beds that occur than the correspondingvariety of limonite. less common of very rocks are sometimes and, like those of magnetite in the great thickness, have resulted from the alteration of stratified beds of ore, originally of same situation, which marsh formed at the same time with the enclosingrocks,and underwent were origin, time. at the same metamorphism, or a change to the crystalline condition, of this species Beautiful crystallizations are brought from the island of Elba, which has often present an irised afforded it from a very remote period; the surfaces of the crystals in Switzerland tarnish and brilliant luster. St. Gothard affords beautiful specimens, composed of crystallized tables grouped in the form of rosettes; near Limoges, France, in large fine crystals the result of volcanic action at Etna and Vesuvius. Arendal in are crystals; in Sweden; Dognacska, Hungary; Framont in Lorraine, Norway, Langban and Nordmark land, Dauphine, France; Binnental and Tavetsch, Switzerland;also Cleator Moor in Cumberand Minas Geraes,Brazil, afford splendidspecimens. Crystalsfrom Ascension Island Obs. to and

from Cernero do Campo, Brazil. concentric structure, near Ulverstone

Red
in

hematite

occurs

in reniform

masses

of and

Lancashire, in Saxony, Bohemia,

a fibrous the Harz

Mts., Germany. In North America, widelydistributed, and sometimes in beds of vast thickness in rocks of the Archaean age. Very extensive and important hematite depositsare found along the southern and northwestern shores of Lake Superior. The various districts are known as and are located as follows : The Marquette and Menominee ranges Ranges in northern Mich., the Penokee-Gogebic Range in Northern Wis.,the Mesabi, Vermilion and Cuyuna Ranges Another district, in Minn. the Michipico en, is farther north in Canada. The ore bodies the results of the concentration in favorable localitiesof the iron content of the original are sedimentaryrocks. These rocks contained cherty iron carbonates,pyrite-bearmg iron carbonates and ferrous silicates. The ore bodies of them lying vary widely in form, many in structures formed by the deformation trough-like of an impervious rock strata. The character of the ores varies from hard specularhematites to soft earthy ores. The latter often mined by the use are of steam shovels. Hematite is found in Wyoming in schist
formations
In N.

in Lararnie and Carbon

Counties.

Y., in Oneida,Herkimer, Madison, Wayne Cos., a lenticular argillaceous variety, constituting one or two beds in the Clinton group of the Upper Silurian;the same in Pa., and as far south as Ala., and in Canada, and Wis., to the west; in Ala. there are extensive

OXIDES

417

beds; prominent mines

there
are numerous

Besides these regions of enormous Birmingham. beds, value, either crystallized or argillaceous.Some of in northern N. Y., at Gouverneur, for their specimens, are these localities, interesting and Aroostoqk, Me.; at Antwerp, Hermon, Edwards, Fowler, Canton, etc.; Woodstock Hawley, Mass., a micaceous variety; in N. and S. C. a micaceou varietyin schistose rocks, itabirite. Hematite is mined in Nova the so-called specularschist, or Scotia constituting
are near

others of workable

and

Newfoundland.
Named Use. hematite
"

from

cu^a,

blood.

Used also in red paints, as important iron ore. polishing rouge, etc. isometric form, occurring in octahedrons Iron sesquioxide under an MARTITE. or like magnetite,and believed to be pseudomorphous after magnetite; perhaps dodecahedrons in part also after pyrite. Parting octahedral like magnetite. Fracture conchoidal. H. Color iron-black, sometimes with a bronzed tarnish. Luster submetallic. 4 '8-5*3. 6^7. G. Not The Streak reddish brown so. or magnetic, or only feebly purplishbrown. in the massive sesquioxide. They are distinguished embedded from sometimes are crystals if any, action on the magnetic needle. Found and very feeble, magnetite by the red streak, in the Marquette iron regionsouth of Lake Superior, where crystals in the ore; are common Monroe, N. Y.; Twin Peaks, Milliard Co., Utah; Digby Co., N. S.; at the Cerro de Mercado, Durango, Mexico, in largeoctahedrons; in the schists of Minas Gera s, Brazil; near Saxony. Rittersgriin, The
most
= =

ILMENITE

or

MENACCANITE.
c
=

Titanic Iron Ore.

Axis Tri-rhombohedral;

1'3846.
0001 0001 A A
A

cr,
en,

1011

rr',1011

TlOl
2243

57" 58*'. 94" 29'. 61" 33'.

Crystalsusuallythick tabular; also platesor laminae. Massive, grains, compact ; in embedded

also loose
as

acute
704

rhombohedral.

Often
705

in thin

sand.

H. Fracture conchoidal. Luster 5-6. 4-5-5. G. submetallic. Color iron-black. Streak submetallic,powder red. black brownish to
=

the

Opaque. Influences slightly magnetic needle. If normal, FeTi03 Comp.

"

or

FeO,Ti02

Oxygen 31-6,titanium

31-6,
,

but probably to be regarded written (Fe,Ti)2O3, iron 36 *8 Sometimes 100. contains also iron titanate. Sometimes magnesium (picrotitanite) an as the ferrous iron; hence the generalformula (Fe,Mg)O.Ti02 (Penreplacing
=

field).(Compare geikielite, p. 586.)

With the edges in R.F. rounded on B.B. infusible in O.F., although slightly salt of phosphorus reacts for iron in O.F., and with the latter flux assumes red color in R.F.; this treated with tin on charcoal changes a more or less intense brownish The pulverizedmineral, of titanium is not too small. to a violet-red color when the amount which, filtered from heated with hydrochloricacid,is slowly dissolved to a yellow solution, a beautiful blue assumes the undecomposed mineral and boiled with the addition of tin-foil, violet color. Decomposed by fusion with bisulphateof sodium or potassium. or nearly black,streak; not magnetic Diff. Resembles hematite, but has a submetallic, like magnetite. Obs. Occurs,as an accessory component, in many igneous rocks in grams, assuming it is often in gabbros and diorites. In these occurrences, the place of magnetite, especially the borders of the igneous rock where it is near found in veins or largesegregated masses in the molten supposed to have formed by local differentiation or fractional crystallization Some principal European localities It is also found at tunes in metamorphic rocks. mass. in in the Ilmen Mts. (ilmenite)} St. Cristophe, are ; Miask Dauphine, France (cricktonite)

Pyr., etc.
borax

"

and

"

"

418
th'e form

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

(menaccanite) ; Gastein in Tyrol (kibdelophane) ; it remarkable is at Kragero, Norway, where afford crystals 16 pounds. which sometimes in veins or bed 3 in diorite, weighing over occurs in Norway; etc. St. Gothard, Switzerland, Others are Egersund,Arendal, Snarum in Warwick, Amity, and Monroe, inch in diameter, occur sometimes an Fine crystals, from Chester and Quincy, Conn, N. Crystals (washingtonite) Litchfield, Y.; Co., Orange in Quebec, Canada, in at Bay St. Paul Vast depositsor beds of titanic ore occur Mass. Grains are found in the gold sand tyenite;also in the Seignory of St. Francis,Beauce Co.
of sand
at

Menaccan,
One

Cornwall

Binnental, Switzerland.

of the

most

of California. The titanic iron of massive

called leucoxene

by Gumbel.

This

altered to a dull white opaque rocks is extensively substance, for the most part is to be identified with titanite.
=

H. =6. G. 5'3. Color black. Senaite. (Fe,Mn,Pb)O.TiO2. Tri-rhombohedral. in the diamond-bearing sands of Diamantina, Brazil. Found Streak brownish, black. Arizonite.

Color
Found

Monoclinic? 5'5. G. 4'25. Fe2O3.3TiO2. Crystal faces rough. H. dark steel-gray. Streak brown. Decomposed by hot concentrated sulphuric acid. 25 miles southeast of Hackberry, Ariz. with gadolinite,
= =

Pyrophanite. Manganese

ilmenite in form and scales, near metallic. Color deep blood-red. Sweden.

In thin tabular rhombohedral titanate,MnTiOa. crystals 4'537. Luster vitreous to sub(p.417). H. =t 5. G. Streak ocher-yellow. From the Harstig mine, Pajsberg,
=

9Mn2O3.4Fe2O3.MnO2.3CaO. SITAPARITE. Streak black. Color deep bronze. 5*0. G. District Chhindwara, India.
=
= =

Notary stallized.
Weakly

Good

magnetic.

Found

7. cleavage. H. at Sitapdr,
="=

VREDENBURGITE. 3Mn3O4.2Fe2O3. Cleavage parallel to octahedron or tetragonal G. 6-5. 4 '8. Color bronze to dark Streak dark brown. pyramid. H. steel-gray. at Beldongri, District Ndgpur Strongly magnetic. Completely soluble in acids. Found and at Gravidi,District Vizagapatam, India.

III. Intermediate

Oxides

here included are retained among The species the oxides, ically although chemconsidered they are properlyoxygen-salts, aluminates, ferrates, manganates, etc.,and hence in a strict classificationto be placed in section 5 of the Oxygen-salts. The one well-characterized group is the SpinelGroup.
ii in ii in

Spinel Group. Spinel Ceylomte Chlorospinel

Picotite

RR204

or

RO.R2O3.

Isometric

MgO.Al2O3 (Mg,Fe)O.Al2O3 MgO. (Al,Fe)2O3

(Mg,Fe)0.(Al,Cr)203
FeO.Al2O3 ZnO.Al2O3

Hercynite Gahnite (Automolite) Dysluite

Kreittonite

(Zn,Fe,Mn)0.(Al,Fe)2O3 (Zn,Fe,Mg)0.(Al,Fe)2O3
FeO.Fe2O3

Magnetite Magnesioferrite
Franklinite

(Fe,Mg)O.Fe203 MgO.Fe2O3

Jacobsite
Chromite

(Fe,Zn,Mn)O.(Fe,Mn)2O3 (Mn,Mg)O.(Fe,Mn)2O3
FeO.Cr203

(Fe,Mg)0.(Cr,Fe)203

OXIDES

419

The

of the SpinelGroup species

are

characterized by isometric crystallisation,

the octahedron is throughout the common form. All of and, further, the species are hard; those with nonmetallic luster up to 7*5-8, the others from
5*5 to 6*5.

SPINEL.

sometimes with dodecahedral truncaUsually in octahedrons, tions, tw. cubic. Twins: and face .rarely pi. o(lll) common (Fig. comp. 707),hence often called spinel-twins;also repeated and polysynthetic, ducing protw. lamellae. Isometric.

Cleavage: o(lll) imperfect. Fracture Luster 3'5-4'L vitreous; to Color splendent nearlydull. red of various shades,passinginto and blue, green, yellow, brown white. a lmost black; occasionally
G.
=

conchoidal.
706

Brittle.
707

H.

8.

Streak
n=

white.

Transparent

to
:

nearly opaque.
17155.
"

Refractive index

aluminMagnesium Comp. ate, MgAl2O4 or MgO.Al2O3 Alumina 71*8, magnesia 28*2 100. The magnesium may be in part replaced by ferrous iron and the aluminium by ferric iron and chromium.
= = "" .

or

ganese, man-

SPINEL RUBY or Magnesia Spinel. Clear red or reddish; transparent to 3 '63-3 71. subtranslucent. G. Compo ition normal, with translucent; sometimes littleor no iron,and sometimes chromium oxide to which the red color has been ascribed. The varieties are: (a) Spinel-Ruby, deep red; b) Balas-Ruby, rose-red; (c) Rubicette, yellow or orange^red; (d) Almandine, violet. to black, CEYLONITE or Pleonaste, Iron-Magnesia Spinel. Color dark green, brown G. 3 '5-3 '6. Contains iron replacingthe magnesium and or mostly opaque nearly so. or (Mg,Fe)O.(Al,Fe)2O3. perhaps also the aluminium, hence the formula (Mg,Fe)O.Al2C"3 CHLOROSPINEL or Magnesia-Iron Spinel. Color grass green, owing to the presence of the aluminium, MgO.(Al,Fe 3O3. 3'591-3*594. Contains iron replacing G. copper. and also has the magnesium largely Contains chromium PICOTITE or Chrome-Spinel. and chromite. hence lying be ween spinel repla ed by iron (Mg,Fe)O.(Al,Cr)2O3, prope brown Translucent to nearlyopaque. G. 4 '08. brown or greenish Color dark yellowish B.B. alone infusible. Slowly soluble in borax, more readily in salt of Pyr., etc. phosphorus, with which it gives a reddish bead while hot, becoming faint chrome-green on cooling. Black varieties give reactions for iron with the fluxes. Soluble with difficulty in concentrated sulphuricacid. Decomposed by fusion with potassium bisulphate. Diff. ; zircon Jiasa Distinguishedby its octahedral form, hardness, and infusibility optically; higher specific gravity; the true ruby (p. 413) is harder and is distinguished garnet is softer and fusible. Micro. In thin section shows lightcolor and high relief. Isotropic. from the be obtained by direct crystallization Artif Artificial spinel crystalsmay They also form from melts of the oxides or fluorides of pure melt fused in the electric arc. and iron dissolved in boric acid. The addition of chromium magnesium and aluminium oxides will produce various colors. in granular limestone, Obs. and with calcite hi serpentine, embedded Spinel occurs and allied rocks. associate of the true ruby. Common gneiss, Ruby spinelis a common It also occupies the cavities of masses ejected spinelis often associated with chondrodite. from and as an also picotite volcanoes. chromite,occurs some spinel, Spinel (common those of the peridotite basic igneous rocks especially constituent in many group; accessory taining it is the result of the crystallization of a magma high in magnesia and convery low in silica, of the peridotites alkalies are absent,feldsparscannot alumina; since, as in many dum). Fe2O3 perhaps) are compelled to form spinel (orcorunform, and the A12O3 and Cr2Os (also altered peridotites. The serpentines which yieldspinel are Var.
" "

"

"

"=

"

"

"

"

"

"

420

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

with beautiful colors, rolled occurs In Ceylon, in Siam, and other eastern countries, as is found at Candy, in with the ruby (cf. pebbles; in upper Burma p. 414)* Plepnaste variety in limestone;small black Ceylon; at Aker, in Sweden, a pale blue and pearl-gray Monte in the of ancient masses Somma, Vesuvius; also at o ccur ejected splendentcrystals Pargas, Finland, with chondrodite,etc.; in compact gehleniteat Monzoni, in the Fassa valley,Austria. From Amity, N. Y., to Andover, N. J.,a distance of about 30 miles,is a region of granular in which localities of spinelabound; colors, limestone and serpentine, green, black, Localities brown, and less commonly red, along with chondrodite and other minerals. and Cornwall; Gouverneur, 2 m. N. and about Warwick, and also at Monroe are numerous red varieties occur St. Lawrence Co.; green, blue,and occasionally f m. W. of Somerville, of various shades of Mass. at Bolton, Franklin,N. J.,affords crystals Boxborough, etc., Sparta, Hamburgh and Vernon, N. J., are black,blue,green, and red: Newton, Sterling, of N. C. as at the Culsagee mine, near other localities. With the corundum Franklin, Ala. at Dudleyville, Macon Spinelruby at Gold Bluff,Humboldt Co., Cal. Co.; similarly is found in Burgess, Ontario; a bluish spinelhaving a rough cubic Good black spinel form occurs at Wakefield, Ottawa Co.; blue with clintonite at Daillebout,Joliette Co., Quebec.
0

Use.
.

"

The

colored transparent varieties

Iron

are

used

as

gems.
=

7-5-8. Isometric; massive, fine granular. H. From 3 '91-3 '95. Color black. G. Ronsberg, at the eastern foot of the Bohmerwald, with about 9 p. c. MgO, occurs A related iron-alumina spinel, with magnetite Bohemia. in Cortlandt the tin drift, and corundum township, Westchester Co., N. Y. From Moorina, Tasmania.

Hercynite.

Spinel, FeAl2O4.

Zinc-Spinel. Isometric. Habit octahedral, often with faces striated ||edge between dodecahedron and octahedron; also less commonly in dodecahedrons and modified cubes.- Twins: tw. pi.0(111). Brittle. Cleavage: o(lll) indistinct. Fracture conchoidal to uneven. H. 7-5-8. G. 4-0-4-6. ngr 1'82 (Finland). Luster vitreous, or what someColor dark green, grayish green, deep leek-green, greenish greasy. or black,bluish black,yellowish, grayishbrown; streak grayish. SubtransGAHNITE.
= = =

nearlyopaque. Zinc aluminate, ZnAl204 Alumina 55-7, zinc oxide 44-3 The 100. zinc is sometimes ferrous iron,the or replacedby manganese aluminium by ferric iron.
parent
to

Comp.

"

Var.
4-1-4 '6.

"

AUTOMOLITE,
Colors
as

or

Zinc Gahnite.

"

ZnAl2O4,with
"

sometimes

littleiron.

G.

given. DYSLUITE, or Zinc-Manganese-Iron Gahnite. brown G. 4-4*6. or grayishbrown.

=

above

Color yellow(Zn,Fe,Mn)O.(Al,Fe)2O3. ish

and crystals,

KREITTONITE,

or

Zinc-Iron
=

Gahnite.
=

"

In (Zn,Fe,Mg)O.(Al,Fe)2O3.

H. 4 '48-4 '89. 7-8. G. Color velvet-black to greenish black; granular massive. powder grayishgreen. Opaque. Gives a coating of zinc oxide when treated with a mixture of borax and Pyr., etc. soda on charcoal;otherwise like spinel. Obs. Occurs at Falun and Farila parish,Helsingland, Sweden (automolite) ; Traskbole,Finland; at Tiriola, Calabria,Italy; at Bodenmais, Bavaria (kreittonite) Minas Geraes,Brazil; Ambatofisikely, at Franklin Madagascar. In the United States, Furnace, N. J.,with franklinite and willemite;also at Sterling with pyriteat Hill,N. J. (dysluite); in Delaware Rowe, Mass.; at a feldspar Co., Pa.; sparingly at the Deake mica quarry mine, Mitchell Co.,N. C.; at the Canton Mine, Ga.; with galena,chalcopyrite, pyrite at the Cotopaxi mine, Chaffee Co., Col. In Canada at Raglan, Renfrew Co., Ontario.
" "

',

Named
,

after the Swedish

a

chemist

Gahn.

The

name

of Ekeberg, is Automolite,
an

from

deserter, alludingto the fact of the zinc occurringin

unexpected place.

Magnetic Iron Ore. Isometric. Most commonly in octahedrons, also in dodecahedrons with faces striated ||edge between dodecahedron and octahedron (Fig. 710); in dendrites between plates of mica; crystals sometimes highlymodified; cubic

MAGNETITE.

OXIDES

421

forms

Twins: tw. pi.o(lll),sometimes rare. as striations octahedral face lamellae, on an producing

708 709

and

polysynthetictwinning often a pseudo-cleav710

age
or

(Fig.474, p. 176). Massive with laminated structure;granular,coarse fine;impalpable. often highlydeveloped. FracCleavage not distinct; partingoctahedral, ture
subconchoidal
to
uneven.
= =

Brittle. H. 5 '5-6*5. metallic and 5-168-5-180, crystals. Luster splendent to submetallic and rather dull. Color ironblack. Streak black. Opaque, but in thin dendrites in mica nearly transparent and pale brown to black. Strongly magnetic; sometimes possessing polarity G.

711

(lodestone)
.

ii

in

Iron sesquioxide Oxygen 27-6, iron or, The 72 '4 100. ferrous iron sometimes replacedby contains magnesium, and rarelynickel;also sometimes titanium (up to 6 p. c. TiO2).

Comp.
=

"

FeFe2O4

or

FeO.Fe2O3
=

69.0, iron protoxide 31 '0

100;

also granular, Ordinary. (a) In crystals. (") Massive,with pseudo-cleavage, fine, (c) As loose sand, a black earthy kind. Ordinary magne(d) Ocherous: tite 6f attractingparticles of iron itself. The is attracted by a magnet but has no power the lodestone (less properly written loadstone) is property of polaritywhich distinguishes Var.
" "

coarse

or

exceptional. G. 4-41-4*42; luster submetallic; weak magnetic; in crystalsfrom Magnesian. Sparta, N. J.,and elsewhere. Containing 3'8 to 6 '3 p. c. manganese (Manganmagnetite). From Manganesian. Sweden. Vester Silfberg, B.B. very difficultly fusible. In O.F. loses its influence on the magnet. Pyr., etc. Soluble in hydrochloricacid and solution reacts for With the fluxes reacts like hematite.
"

"

"

both

ferrous and
"

ferric iron.

also from garnet, by of the spinelgroup, as Distinguishedfrom other members its being attracted by the magnet, as well as by its high specific gravity; franklinite and chromite and have a brown blackish brown at all), or are streak; only feeblymagnetic (if also,when massive, by its black streak from hematite and limonite; much harder than Diff.

tetrahedrite. In polished sections shows Micro.

"

white

color with

shining,pitted surface..

With

cone.

a furnace product. It is easilyformed in artificialmagmas percentage of silica. It is formed by the lar minerals in processes simibreaking down of various minerals or by interreactions among to those of contact metamorphism. in Obs. rocks, and is most abundant Magnetite is mostly confined to crystalline It is found metamorphic rocks,though widely distributed also in grainyin eruptiverocks. most abundantly in the ferro-magnesian rocks, occurring at times in large segregated
" "

HC1 Artif.

slowly turns Magnetite

brown. is frequently formed as when they are low in the

422
masses.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

mense often highly titaniferous. In the Archaean rocks the beds are of imIt is an ingreunder the same conditions as those of hematite. dient The called emery. in most of the massive variety of corundum earthy magnetite and forms the crust of meteoric Occurs in meteorites, is found in bogs like bog-iron ore.irons. in the mica of many localitiesfollowing the direction of in dendrite-like forms Present alterationand perhaps of secondary origin. A common the lines of the percussion-figure, product of minerals containing iron protoxide, e.g., present in veins in the serpentine from altered chrysolite. resulting The beds of ore at Arendal, Norway, and nearly all the celebrated iron mines of Sweden, and the Taberg in Smaland. consist of massive magnetite, as at Dannemora Falun, in chlorite slate. Splendid embedded in Sweden, and Corsica,afford octahedral crystals, in Wermland. The most dodecahedral at Nordmark crystals occur powerful native and in the Harz Mts., Germany; they are also obtained on magnets are found in Siberia, for the crystallized mineral are Traversella in Piedmont, the island of Elba. Other localities near Predazzo, at Rothenkopf and WildItaly; Achmatoysk in the Ural Mts.; Scalotta, kreuzjoch,Austrian Tyrol; the Binnental,Switzerland; Sannatake, Bufen, Japan. In North America, it constitutes vast beds in the Archaean, in the Adirondack region, Co. the iron Warren, Essex, and Clinton Cos., in Northern N. Y., while in St. Lawrence is mainly hematite; fine crystals and masses ore showing"broad parting surfaces and yielding obtained at Port Henry, Essex Co.; similarly in N J.; in are large pseudo-crystals It Canada, in Hull, Greenville, Madoc, etc.; at Cornwall in Pa., and Magnet Cove, Ark. also in N. Y., in Saratoga,Herkimer, Orange, and Putnam occurs Foster Cos.; at the Tilly iron mine, Brewster, Putnam and massive accompanied by chondrodite, Co., in crystals etc. In N. J.,at Hamburg, near Franklin Furnace and elsewhere. In Pa., at Goshen, Chester Co., and at the French Creek mines; delineations forming hexagonal figuresin mica at In Cal., in Sierra Co., Pennsbury. Good lodestones are obtained at Magnet Cove, Ark. in Plumas In Wash., in large abundant, massive, and in crystals; Co.; and elsewhere. Fine crystals from Millard Co., Utah. deposits. In crystals from Fiqrmeza, Cuba. from the loc. Magnesia bordering on Macedonia. Named But Plinyfavors Nicander's derivation from Magnes, who firstdiscovered it, as the fable runs, by finding, on takinghis herds to pasture, that the nails of his shoes and the iron ferrule of his staff adhered to the These
are

extent, and

occur

ground.
Use.
"

An

important

ore

of iron.

FRANKLINITE.

Habit octahedral;edges often rounded, and crystals passing fine to compact. grains. Massive,granular, or coarse or Pseudo-cleavage, in magnetite. Fracture conparting, as octahedral, choidal to uneven. Brittle. H. 5'5-6'5. G. 5-07-5-22. Luster metallic, sometimes dull. Color iron-black. Streak reddish brown or black. Opaque. Slightly magnetic. Comp. but varying rather widely in the (Fe,Zn,Mn)O.(Fe,Mn)2O3,
= =
"

Isometric. into rounded

relative quantitiesof the different metals general formula of the spinel group.

present, while

conforming to

the

evolution of a small amount of chlorine. Diff. Resembles magnetite, but is only slightly attracted dark brown streak; it also reacts for zinc on charcoal B.B. "bs" in cubic occurs
"

Pyr., etc." B.B. infusible. With borax in O.F. gives a reddish amethystine bead (manganese), and in R.F. this becomes bottle-green (iron). With soda gives a bluish green manganate, and on charcoal a faint coating of zinc oxide,which is much marked more when a mixture with borax and soda is used. Soluble in hydrochloric acid, sometimes
with

by the magnet, and

in Nassau;

has

T"*1^ (^ermany
Altenberg, near
wulemite
An
ore

crystalsnear

Eibach

masses JN.

at

in amorphous

J., with Use.

"

and

associated distant,

Abundant Aix-la-Chapelle. at Mine Hill, Franklin Furnace in granular limestone;also at Sterling zmcite Hill,two miles

with willemite. of zinc.

*;'
about
at

H4t"54.

H. 6-6'5 G. MgFe?O4. In octahedrons. streak as in magnetite. Strongly magnetic. Formed the fumaroles of Vesuvius-, and especially those of the eruption of 1855; also found
=

Magnofernte.

Luster

color, and

iviont

jJor

424
.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

tabular 1 1a(100) Face generally 395, p. 164) Crystals (Fig. angles striation 713). (Fig. in twins a feather-like vertically, a(100) more 6(010)imperfect; quitedistinct; Cleavage: ""(QH)
.

striated ture FracLuster

so.

uneven

to

conchoidal.

Brittle.

H.

8-5.

G.

3'5-3'84.

grass-green, emerald-green, greenishwhite, vitreous. Color asparagus-green, bine-red columor yellow;sometimes raspberrybrown; greenish and yellowish green; to lucent. transuncolored. Streak Transparent transmitted light. by asteriated. and or bluish chatoyancy, Sometimes a opalescence Z (= c axis)emeraldvibrations ||Y (= b axis) orange-yellow, Pleochroic, Ax. +. columbine-red. 6(010). Bx. _L pi.|| Optically X ( a axis) green, 43'. 84" 2E 1'757. 1748. 1747. 0 7 c(001). a
= = = = =

Var. 2.

1.

Ordinary.
"

Color
a

pale green, being colored by iron; also yellow and

parent trans-

and then used

Alexandrite.
=
"

as

gem.

but columbine-red by transmitted light;valued Color emerald-green, be colored to Crystals results, by chromium. of 3 G. mean ^upposed '644, as a gem. and in twins,like Fig. 395, either six-sided or six-rayed. often very large, from Ceylon. a fine chatoyant effect; 3. Cat's-eye. Color greenishand exhibiting
"

Beryllium aluminate,BeAl2O4 Comp. 100. glucina19 '8

"

or

BeO.Al203

Alumina

80'2,

With

dull. B.B. alone unaltered; with soda, the surface is merely rendered tion, salt of phosphorus fuses with great difficulty. Ignited with cobalt soluthe powdered mineral gives a bluish color. Not attacked by acids. Diff. Distinguishedby its extreme hardness, greater than that of topaz; by its inin contrast with beryl. also characterized by its tabular crystallization, fusibility; In Minas in rolled pebbles; from Ceylon in pebbles and crystals; Obs. Geraes,Brazil, in Moravia; in the Ural Mts., 85 yersts from Ekaterinburg, in mica slate at Marschendorf southern Ural in the Orenburg district, with beryl and phenacite,the varietyalexandrite; Mts., yellow; in the Mourne Mts., Ireland. In the United States at Haddam, with tourmaline, Conn., in granitetraversinggneiss, near Saratoga, N. Y., with tourmaline,garnet, and apatite; garnet, beryl; at Greenfield, in the rocks of New has been found in crystals York City; in Me. at Norway, in granite with garnet and at Stoneham, with fibrolite, at Topsham, Buckfield and Greenwood. Chrysoberylis from xpvvos, golden,ftrjpvXXos, beryl. Cymophane, from Kv/j.a, wave, and sometimes exhibit. Alexandrite "f"aij"a), opalescencethe crystals appear, alludes to a peculiar is after the Czar of Russia,Alexander I. Use. As a gem stone; see under Var. above.

Pyr., etc.
borax
"

"

or

"

"

Hausmannite.

E. uster

167);

also

In tetragonal Mn3O4 or MnO. octahedrons Mn2O3. H. granular massive, particles strongly coherent.
=

and

twins

(Fig. 414,
=

brownish black. Streak chestnut-brown. in Thuringia, Germany; .Ilefeld in the Harz nau Mts., Germany; Nordmark, in Sweden; from Brazil.
=

submetallic.

Color

5-5'5. Occurs

G.
near

4'856.

Ilme-

Filipstad, Langban,
=

Coronadite. Massive H. with delicate fibrous structure. (Mn,Pb)Mn3O7. 4. G. 5'2. Color black. Streak brownish black. vein of the CliftonOccurs in Coronado Morenci district, Arizona. Hollandite is a similar manganate of manganese, barium 'and ferric iron from the Kaljlidongri mine, Central India. manganese Cesllrolite. H2PbMn3O8. In cellular masses. From Sidi-Amer-bers-Salem, Tunis. Minium.
vivid H. Color,steel-gray.
=

4'5.

G.

5'29.

Pb304
with

or

red, mixed

2PbO.PbO2. scales. G. 4'6. Color as crystalline Pulverulent, yellow; streak orange-yellow. Occurs in Germany at Bleialf in the
=

Badenweiler Jjjifel;

in

Baden, etc.
= =

Crednerite. Cu3Mn4O9 or 3CuO.2Mn2O3. Foliated crystalline. H. 4'5. G. 5*1. Luster metallic. Color iron-black to steel-gray. Streak black, brownish.

4'9From

Fnednchroda,Germany. Pseudobrookite. Probably Fe4(TiO4)3. Usually in minute orthorhombic crystals, tabular || a(100) and often prismatic|| the macro-axis. G. 4-4-4'98. Color dark brown to black, btreak ocher-yellow. Found with hypersthene in cavities of the andesite (szaboite) ot Aranyer Berg, Transylvania, and recent lava (1872) from Vesuvius; at on elsewhere; Havredal, Bamle, Norway, embedded in kjerulfine altered to apatite. (wagnerite)
=

OXIDES

425

BRAUNITE.

metric nearly isoTetragonal. Axis c 0;9850. Commonly in octahedrons, 70" 7'). Also massive. in angle (ppf 111 A 111 to subconchoidal. Brittle. Cleavage : p(lll) perfect. Fracture uneven Luster submetallic. 4-75-4-82. H. Color and streak, G. dark 6-6-5. black to steel-gray. brownish Silica lO'O,manganese 3Mn203.MnSiO3 ganese manprotoxide11 '7, Comp. 78 -3 100. sesquioxide
= = = =
"

B.B. infusible. With borax and salt of phosphorus gives an amethystine Pyr., etc. in O.F., becoming colorless in R.F. With soda gives a bluish green bead. Dissolves silica. Marceline gelatinizes in hydrochloric acid leavinga residue of gelatinous with acids. Obs. Occurs in veins traversingporphyry, at Oehrenstock, near Ilmenau, Thuringia, and near Ilefeld in the Harz Mts., Germany; St. Marcel in Piedmont, Italy; at Elba; at the manganese mines of Jakobsberg, also at at Botnedal, Upper Tellemark, in Norway; from Marceline (heterocline) Langban, and at the Sjo mine, Grythyttan, Orebro, Sweden. St. Marcel, Ptedmont, is impure braunite. In black isometric crystals. H. G. 6-6'5. Bixbyite. EssentiallyFeO.MnO2.
"

bead

"

4'945.

Occurs

with topaz in cavities in

from rhyolite;

Utah.

IV. Rutile
c

Dioxides, RO2. Group.

Tetragonal
c

Cassiterite Polianite
'

SnO2 MnO2

0-6723 0'6647

Rutile Plattnerite

TiO2 PbO2

0-6442

0'6764

titanium,and

includes the dioxides of the elements tin,manganese, GROUP in the tetragonal lead. These compounds crystallize system similar anglesand axial ratio;furthermore in habit and method with closely between the two best known of twinning there is much species similarity considered as salts here. minerals sometimes these included are Chemically of their respective as stannyl metastannate, (SnO)SnO3, for cassiterite acids, and titanyl (TiO)TiO3,for rutile. metatitanate,
The RUTILE
In this

included Zircon. 0'6404. the Rutile Group is also sometimes ZrO2SiO2; c the silicates, with the allied speciesThorite, work, however, Zircon is classed among 0-6402. ThO2.SiO2, c A tetragonalform, approximating closelyto that of the speciesof the Rutile Group, of other species, as Xenotime, YPO4; Sellaite, MgF2; Tapiolite, belongs also to a number With
=
=

Fe(Ta,Nb)2O6.
It may be

added

that

ZrO2,

as

in the monoclinic the speciesBaddeleyite, crystallizes

system.
CASSITERITE.

Tin-stone,Tin Ore
c
=

Tetragonal. Axis
ee', 101 ee", 101 ""', 111 ss", 111
A A A A

0-6723.
=

Oil 101

46" 28'. 67" 50'. 58" 19'. 87" 7'

ms,

110

A A A

111 231 321

111
111

zz', 321 zzv",321

46" 27'. 20" 53"' 61" 42'.

tw. pi.e(101);both contact- and penetration-twins Twins common: (Fig. 717); often repeated. Crystalslow pyramidal; also prismaticand acutely sive, Often in reniform shapes, structure fibrous divergent;also masterminated. in rolled or grains. granular impalpable;

426

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Cleavage: a(100) imperfect;8(111) more

Brittle. H.
=

so;

m(110) hardly distinct.

G.
=

Fracture subconchoidal to uneven. usuallysplendent. Color adamantine, and crystals

714 715 716

6-7.

6-8-71.
or

Luster
some-

brown

black;
717

times red, gray, white, or

transparent
Var.
"

to opaque.

brownish. Nearly yellow. Streak white,grayish, 2-0934. Indices: e co 1-9966, + Optically

= =
.

In crystals and massive. Ordinary. Tin-stone. and reniform shapes, concentric in structure, and radiated In botryoidal Wood-tin. fibrous internally, although very compact, with the color brownish, of mixed shades,looking tin is the same, on a smaller scale. Streamlike dry wood in its colors. Toad's-eye somewhat along the beds of streams or in gravel. tin is the ore in the state of sand, as it occurs

Comp.

"

Tin

Sn02 dioxide,

Oxygen

21'4, tin 78'6

100.

little

Ta2O5 is sometimes
"

present,also Fe2O3.
to

B.B. alone unaltered. On charcoal with soda reduced Pyr.,etc. gives a white coating. With the fluxes sometimes gives reactions for acted upon by acids. Only slightly

metallic tin,and
manganese.

iron and

Artif Cassiterite has been artificially prepared by the action of aqueous upon vapor tin tetrachloride in a heated tube and by other similar methods employing heated vapors. Obs. Cassiterite has been noted as an original constituent of igneous rocks but usually in veins traversing mica it occurs granite, rhyolite, quartz porphyry, pegmatite, gneiss, chlorite or clay schist; also in finelyreticulated veins forming the ore-deposits schist, called stockworks, or simply impregnating the enclosing rock. It is most commonly found in quartz veins traversinggranite, accompanied by minerals containing boron and fluorine which indicates a pneumatolytic origin. The commonly associated minerals are quartz, wolframite, scheelite;also mica, topaz, tourmaline, apatite,fluorite;further native bismuth, etc. pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite; molybdenite, less so, in Cornwall, in fine crystals, and also as wood-tin Formerly very abundant, now and and Tavistock stream-tin; in Devonshire, near elsewhere; in pseudomorphs after St. Agnes, Cornwall; in fine crystals, feldspar at Wheal Coates, near often twins, at Schlackenwald, Graupen, Joachimstal, Zinnwald, etc.,in Bohemia, and at Ehrenfriedersdorf, Altenberg, etc.,in Saxony; at Limoges, France, in splendid crystals;Sweden, at Fmbo; Finland,at Pitkaranta. In the East Indies,on the Malay peninsula of Malacca and the neighboring islands, Banca, and Bilitong In New Borneo. near South Wales abundant of 8500 sq. over an area miles,also in Victoria, In Bolivia in veins containing silver, Queensland and Tasmania. lead,and bismuth; Mexico, in Durango, Guanajuato,Zacatecas,Jalisco. In the United States, in Me., sparinglyat Paris, Hebron, etc. In Mass., at Chesterfield and Goshen, rare. In N. H., at Jackson. In Va.. on Irish Creek, Rockbridge Co., with In N. C. and S. C. etc. wolframite, In Ala.,in Coosa Co. In S. D., near Harney Peak and near Custer City in the Black Hills, where it has been mined. In Wy., in Crook Co.; in Dillon. In Cal.,in San Bernardino Mon., near Has been mined in Co., at Temescal. the York district, Seward Peninsula,Alaska. Use. The most important ore of tin.
"

"

"

OXIDES

427

In composite parallelgroupings of minute Polianite. Manganese dioxide, MnO2. also forming the outer shell of crystals 6-6'5. having the form of manganite. H. crystals; Color lightsteel-gray Luster metallic. 4'992. G. or iron-gray.Streak black. From from pyrolusiteby its hardness and its anhydrous It is distinguished Flatten, Bohemia. it is often a pseudomorph after manganite. Like pyrolusite character.
= =

RUTILE.

Tetragonal. Axis_c
=

0-64415.
=*
=

"vu, 310 ee't 101 ee", 101

718

A A
A

310 Oil 101

36" 54'. 45" 2'. 65" 34*'.

719

ss', 111 """, 111 it', 313

A A
A

111 111 133

56

25|'.

84" 40'. 29" 6'. 720

Twins:

tw.

pi.(1)e(101);often geniculated 720, (Figs.

721

also contact-twins of very varied habit, sometimes and eightlings sixlings (Fig. 399, p. 164; Fig.413, p. 166).

721) ;

(2)v(301) rare, contact-twins (Fig.415, p. 167). Crystals striated or rowed; furcommonly prismatic, vertically often slender acicular. Occasionallycompact,
massive.

Cleavage: a(100) and w(110) distinct; s(lll) in

conchoidal
Luster

traces.

Fracture

subto 5'2.

times passing into red; someyellowish, bluish, violet, black,rarelygrass-green; by transmitted light deep red. Streak pale brown. +. Optically Transparent to opaque. Refractive indices high: co 2-9029. 2-6158, e Birefringence very high. Sometimes abnormally biaxial. Titanium 100. Comp. Ti02 dioxide, Oxygen 40'0, titanium 60'0 A little iron is usually sometimes to 10 iron While the present, present up p. c. is often reported as ferric the probability is that in the unaltered mineral it
= =
"

Brittle. H. 6y6'5.G. metallic-adamantine. Color reddish brown,

to
uneven.
=

4'18-4'25; also

existed in the ferrous state.

The formula for rutile may be written as a titanylmetatitanate (TiO)TiO3 With this the ferrous titanate FeTiO3 may be considered isomorphous and so account for the iron frequentlypresent. It has been suggested that the tapiolite molecule, FeO.Ta2O5 is also rutile and cassiterite, isomorphous and that tapiolite belongs in the same as see group below. ilmenorutile, Var. G. 4* lS-4'25. parent TransOrdinary. Brownish red and other shades, not black. is sometimes quartz (sagenite) penetrated thicklywith acicular or capillary crystals. Dark smoky quartz penetrated with the acicular rutile or "rutilated quartz," is the Filches d'amour Fr. (or Venus often implanted in parallel hair-stone). Acicular crystals position tabular crystals of hematite; also somewhat on on magnetite. similarly whence the name; contains up to 30 p. c. of Ferriferous, (a) Nigrine is black in color, ferrous titanate. ing (b) Ilmenorutile is a black varietyfrom the Ilmen Mts., Russia; containiron in the form of ferrous titanate, niobate and tantalate. 5'14. G. Struverite is the same mineral with greater amounts of the niobate present, (c) Iserine from Iserweise, Bohemia, formerly considered to be a varietyof ilmenite is probably also a ferriferous rutile.
"

428
pyr
etc.
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

B.B. infusible. With salt of phosphorus gives a colorless bead, which in varieties contain iron,and give a brownish violet color on cooling. Most of the bead with after treatment in violet the bead red only appearing R.F., or yellow alkali or soluble by fusion with an Insoluble in acids; made metallic tin on charcoal. foil, of acid,with the addition of tinThe solution containing an excess alkaline carbonate. gives a beautiful violet color when concentrated. red color. luster and brownish Characterized by its peculiar sub-adamantine Diff. alone heated unaltered when in augite being entirely Differs from tourmaline,vesuvianite, R.F.
assumes
a
"

about 4, of cassiterite 6'5. B.B. Specific gravity In thin sections shows red-brown to Micro. order of interference color.
" "

yellow color,very

high relief and

high

with

Rutile has been formed artificially by heating titanic oxide with boric oxide, Artif ing octahedrite and brookite have all been formed by heatsodium tungstate, etc. Rutile, potassiumtitanate and calcium chloride in a current of hydrochloricacid gas and air. RutUe is formed at the highesttemperature, brookite at lower temperatures, and octahedrite at the lowest of all. in granite, mica and syemineral Obs. Rutile occurs schist, as an gneiss, accessory in granular limestone and dolomite; common, nitic rocks,and sometimes a secondary as slates. A dike rock from Nelson Co.,Va., consists product,in the form of microlites in many found in embedded often in of rutile and apatite. It is generally essentially crystals, of quartz or feldspar, and frequentlyin acicular crystals penetrating quartz ; also masses It has also been met with in in phlqgopite and has been observed in diamond. (which see), It is common in grains or fragments in many hematite and limenite, rarelyin chromite. auriferous sands. localitiesare: Arendal and Kragero in Norway; Horrsjoberg,Sweden, with Prominent in the Ural Mts.; in the Tyrol, Austria; at St. lazulite and cyanite; Saualpe, Carinthia; Gothard and Binnental,Switzerland; at Yrieux, near Limoges in France; at Ohlapian in in Perthshire, Transylvania,nigrine in pebbles;in largecrystals Scotland;in Donegal Co., Ireland. In Ver., at Waterbury; In Me., at Warren. in middle also in loose bowlders and northern Vermont, acicular, some specimens of great beauty in transparent quartz. In In N. Y., in Orange Co., at Chester. Mass.,at Barre,in gneiss;at Shelburne,in mica slate, Edenville;Warwick; east of Amity. In Pa., at Sudsbury,Chester Co., and the adjoining districtin Lancaster Co.; at Parksburg, Concord,West Bradford, and Newlin, Chester Co.; House at the Poor In N. J.,at Newton, with spinel. In N. C., at quarry, Chester Co. Crowder's Mountain; at Stony Point,Alexander Co., in splendent crystals. In Ga., in Habersham Co.; in Lincoln Co., at Graves' Mountain, with lazulite in largeand splendent crystals. In Ark.,at Magnet Cove, commonly in twins,with brookite and perovskite, also
.
"

as

paramorphs after brqokite. Fine specimens of "rutilated

Use.
"

quartz," from

Minas

Tavetch

and A

West Hartford,Ver.; elsewhere, Switzerland;

source

Alexander

Geraes, Brazil; Madagascar; Co., N. C.

of titanium.

Plattnerite. H.
=

Lead G.
=

dioxide, PbO2.
Luster

Rarely

submetallic. From Leadhill and Wanlockhead, Scotland. Cceur d'Alene Mts., Idaho.
5-5-6-0.

5-5*5.

8'5.

in prismatic crystals,usually massive. Color iron-black. Streak chestnut-brown. Also at the "As You Like" mine, Mullan,

Baddeleyite. Zirconium dioxide, ZrO2. In tabular monoclinic crystals. 6'5. "t. H. Colorless to yellow,brown and black. From Index,174. Ceylon; from Brazil near Caldas, Minas Geraes and Jacupiranga, where it is associated with zirkelite, (brazilite) Noted at Mte. (Ca,Fe)0.2(Zr,Ti,Th)O2. Also near Somma, Vesuvius. Boseman, Mon. Various minerals occurringas rolled pebbles in the diamond sands of Brazil are known as favas (beans). Some of them consist of nearlypure TiO2 others of nearly ZrO2, while pure others are various phosphates. Paredrite is a "fava," composed of TiO2 with a little
= =

water.

and

Uhligite. Ca(Ti Zr)05.Al(Ti,Al)06. Isometric. Octahedral. Color black. Brown transparent on thin edges. Found in a nephelinesyeniteon the shore of Lake Magad, ri.QQt. A
TT1OQ

OCTAHEDRITE.

Anatase.
=

Tetragonal. Axis c Commonly octahedral

17771.
in

habit,either

acute

(p,111),or obtuse (v,117);

OXIDES

429

also tabular,c(001) predominating;rarely prismaticcrystals; frequently highlymodified.

101 ee',. ee", 101 ppf, 111 pp",Ul zz', 113 A A
A A A

Oil 101 111 111 113 117

c

76"
121"

5' 16'

722

723

82"
136"

9' 36'

vv'

117

1' 54" 27" 39'

Cleavage:
=

(001)

and

(111)

subconchoidal. perfect. Brittle. H. 5-5-6. G. 3-82-3-95; sometimes 4-11-4-16 after heating. Luster adamantine amantine. metallic-ador Color various shades of and brown, passing into indigo-blue, black; greenishyellowby transmitted light. Streak uncolored. Transparent to nearly opaque. Optically 2-493. Sometimes rather high. Indices: o" mally abnorBirefringence 2-554,e biaxial. Titanium 100. Comp. TiO2 Oxygen 40'0, titanium 60*0 dioxide, Fracture
=
"

"

Same as for rutile. See under rutile. Obs. Most abundant at Bpurgd'Oisans, in Dauphine, France, with feldspar, axinite, and ilmenite; Hof in the Fichtelgebirge, near zerland; SwitGermany; at Selva and Naderanertal, Norway; the Ural Mts.; in chlorite in Devonshire, near Tavistock; with brookite at Tremadoc, in North Liskeard and at Tintagel Cliffs; in Brazil Wales ; in Cornwall, near in quartz, and in detached crystals. In Switzerland in the Binnental the variety wiserine, in the Eastern long supposed to be xenotime; also Cavradi, Tavetsch; Rauris, Salzburg, Alps; also at Pfitsch Joch. In the United States, R. L, in dolomite; from granite at the Dexter lime rock,Smithfield, pegmatite, Quincy, and from Somerville,Mass.; in the washings at Brindletown,Burke from Co.,N. C.,in transparent tabular crystals; at Magnet Cove, Ark.; in unusual crystals Beaver Creek, Gunnison Co., Col.

Pyr.,etc.
Artif.
"

"

"

BROOKITE.

Orthorhombic. mm'", zz',

zz"'
725 110 112 112

Axes
A A A

a
=

: c

0-8416

0-9444.
A A
A

lIO
112 112

80" 10'. 53" 48'. 44" 46'.

726

ee', 122 ee'", 122

me,

122 122 122

44" 23'. 78" 57'. 45" 42'.

727

110

of varied habit. Only in crystals, Cleavage: w(110) indistinct; c(001) still more
to uneven.
= =

adamantine

to

Fracture choidal subconso. 5-5-6. Luster metallicG. Brittle. H. 3-87-4-08. Color hair-brown,yellowish; submetallic. reddish,reddish

430
brown
to

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

and translucent;also brown

=

to

iron-black, opaque.
0
= =

a yellowish, or grayish

2-583.

2*586.

2741.

Streak uncolored Other optical

60'0
==

characters,

see
"

p. 298.

Comp.
Pyr.
"

Titanium
as

TiO2 dioxide,

Oxygen 40*0, titanium

100.

Same

for rutile.

at Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphine, France; in Switzerland at St. Gothard, near Miask, and albite quartz, and Maderanertal; in the Ural Mts.; district of Zlatoust, with river and elsewhere; at Fronolen, near Tremadoc, in the Sanarka and in the gold-washings From Companhia, Lencoes, Bahia, Brazil. Wales. at Magnet Cove, Ozark Mts., (arkansite) In the United States in thick black crystals from the goldrutile, black garnet, schorlomite, etc.; in small crystals Ark. with elaeolite, Ulster Co., N. Y., on quartz, with chalof N. C.; at the lead mine at Ellenville,

Obs.'"Occurs

washings copyriteand galena;

Named after the

at

Mass. Paris,Me., Somerville,

H. Englishmineralogist,

J. Brooke

(1771-1857).

PYROLUSITE.

Orthorhombic, but perhapsonly pseudomorphous.

=

Commonly
=

columnar,

in reniform coats. also granularmassive,and frequently often divergent; Luster H. 473-4-86. the 2-2-5. G. often fingers. soiling Soft, black Streak sometimes bluish. dark metallic. Color iron-black, steel-gray, submetallic. Opaque. or bluish black, sometimes MnO2, like polianite (p.427). Commonly Manganese dioxide, Comp. it having had usually a pseudomorphous contains a little water (2 p. c.),
"

manganite). (after origin

is an independent species, form of with a crystalline It is uncertain whether pyrolusite from the dehydration of manganite; its own, or only a secondary mineral derived chiefly of the form also from Pseudomorphous crystalshaving distinctly polianite (Breith.).

manganite
Diff.
"

are
"

common.

in the closed tube. but most varieties yieldsome Like polianite, water in its reaction Hardness less than that of psilomelane. Differs from iron ores B.B. from for manganese Easilydistinguished psilomelane by its inferior hardness, and less brown. or usuallyby being crystalline.Its streak is black; that of manganite is more Obs. content
"

etc. I^r.,

Manganese

ore

deposits in general

are

secondary

in

origin,the

manganese

of the rocks having been concentrated in favorable places. They often occur as bodies in residual clays. Pyrolusiteis extensivelyworked at Elgersberg near irregular Ilmenau, and other places in Thuringia, Germany; at Vorderehrensdorf in Moravia; at Flatten in Bohemia, and elsewhere; near phalia, at Hirschberg in WestJohanngeorgenstadt,

Germany; Matzka, Transylvania; in Australia; in India. Occurs in the United States' with psilomelane, abundantly in Ver., at Brandon, etc.; at Plainfield and West Stockbridge,Mass.; Augusta Co.,Va.; Pope, Pulaski,Montgomery Cos.,Ark. In New Negaunee, Mich.; Lake Co., N. M. Brunswick, 7 m. from Bathurst.
In Nova

The
and

at Teny Cape; at Walton, etc. Scotia, is from -nvp, fire, and \oveiv,to wash, because used to discharge the brown (FeO) tints of glass;and for the same green it is whimsically entitled by the reason
name
"

French le savon de verriers. An ore Use. of manganese; as an mine brooxidizingagent in manufacture of chlorine, and oxygen; as a drier in paints, a decolorizer in glass and in electric batteries, ing as colormaterial in bricks, etc. pottery, glass,

B. HYDROUS

OXIDES.

Here

ddes the DIASPORE Among the hydrous oxides Gi GROUP is well characterized. belongthe hydroxides 3 of aluminium, iron and an The general manganese.
in

formula

is

properlywritten RO(OH).

The

three

specieshere included

are

432
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

In thin scale-like or tabular crystals, usually attached by one edge. Also in Var. slender prisms,often radiately grouped: the or acicular or capillary crystals, (not flexible) (SammetIt passes into a varietywith a velvetysurface;the Przibramite Needle-Ironstone. Also columnar, fibrous, etc.,as above. blende) of Pfibram,Bohemia, is of this kind.

Comp.
=

"

100, or
Pyr., etc.

Iron
"

FeO(OH) or Fe203.H2O 89*9,water sesquioxide

Oxygen 27'0, iron 62'9, water

10*1
=

101

100.

and is converted into red iron sesquiIn the closed tube gives off water oxide. and some, reaction, With the fluxes like hematite; most varieties give a manganese treated in the forceps in O.F., after moistening in sulphuricacid, impart a bluish green acid. color to the flame (phosphoric acid). Soluble in hydrochloric Diff. Distinguishedfrom hematite by its yellow streak; from limonite by crystalline nature; it also contains less water than limonite. hematite or limonite. Occurs with the other oxides of iron,^ Obs. Found especially at Eiserfeld near near Bristol, Siegen,in Nassau, Germany; Pfibram, Bohemia; at Clifton, Iron mine, Negaunee, Lake In the United States, at the Jackson England; in Cornwall. Easton; in the Pike's Peak region and at Superior; in Conn., at Salisbury;in Pa., near Gothite (Goethite) Goethe (1749-1832) after the poet-philosopher CrystalPeak, Col. Named A colloidal form of iron hydroxide having the composition of goethite and occurring as pseudomorphs after pyritehas been called ehrenwerthite. Use. An ore of iron.
"

"

"

axial ratio.

but Lepidocrocite. A dimorphous form of goethite. Orthorhombic 4'09. 2*20. Strongly pleochroic. Scaly,fibrous. G "
= =

with

different

MANGANITE.

Orthorhombic.
729

Axes

: c

0*8441

0-5448.
410 110 205 Oil 111 A A A A A

730

hh'", mm'", ee', ee', ppf,

410
110 205 Oil

Til

23" 80" 28" 57" 59"

50'. 20'. 57'. 10'.

5|'.

Crystals commonly prismatic,the faces deeply striated vertically; often in bundles. Twins: tw. pi. grouped e(011). Also columnar; stalactitic. Cleavage:6(010)very perfect; w(110) Brittle. perfect. Fracture uneven.
H. 4. G. 4-2-4-4. Luster submetallic. Color dark to iron-black. Streak reddish steel-gray brown, sometimes nearly black. Opaque; in minute splinters sometimes brown by transmitted light.
= =

Comp.
water

"

10'3
"

MnO(OH) or Mn2O3.H20 Oxygen 27'3, manganese 100, or Manganese sesquioxide 100. 897, water 10-3
= =

62'4,

closed tube yieldswater; manganese reactions with the fluxes, p. 339, Obs. Occurs in Germany at Ilefeld in the Harz Mts.; Ilmenau in Thuringia; Langban and Bolet, Sweden; Cornwall,at various places; also in Cumberland, etc. In the Lake Superior mining region at the Jackson Devil's
"

Pyr.,etc.

In the

mine, Negaunee;
Walton. from

Col.

Scotia, at Cheverie, Hants ody mountain, Albert Co., etc.

In Nova

Co., and

In New

Head, Douglas Co., Brunswick, at Shep-

is a variety Sphenomanganite of manganite

forms.

Langban, Sweden, showing sphenoidal

Use.

"

An

ore

of manganese.

LIMONITE.

Brown

Hematite.

crystallized.Usually in stalactitic and botryoidalor mammillary torms, having a fibrous or subfibrous structure; also concretionary,massiveand

Not

occasionally earthy.

OXIDES

433

Luster G. 3'6-4-0. often submetallic; silky, sometimes Color of surface of fracture various shades of brown, comearthy. monly dark, and none bright; sometimes with a nearly black varnish-like yellow, ocher-yellow. Streak yellowish exterior;when earthy, brownish brown. Opaque.

H. dull and
=

5-5*5.

Var. often stalactitic, (1) Compact, Submetallic to silkyin luster; etc. botryoidal, often impure from the presence of (2) Ocherous or earthy,brownish yellow to ocher-yellow, The ore from marshy places, loose or porous in clay,sand, etc. (3) Bog ore. generally in compact wood, nuts, etc. (4) Brown texture, often petrifyingleaves, clay-ironstone,
"

masses,

often
"

in

nodules. concretionary
=

Approximately 2Fe203.3H2O Oxygen 257, iron 59'8, water 85 '5, water 14*5 100. The water content 100, or Iron sesquioxide varies widely and it is probable that limonite is essentially an amorphous form of goethite with adsorbed and capillary In the bog ores water. and and humic other ochers,sand, clay,phosphates,oxides of manganese, or acids of organicorigin are impurities. very common
14'5
= =

Comp.

Like gpthite. Some varieties leave a siliceous skeleton in the salt of phosPyr., etc. phorus bead, and a siliceous residue when dissolved in acids. Diff and its Distinguishedfrom hematite by its yellowishstreak,inferior hardness, reaction for water. Does not decrepitate like gothite B.B., like turgite. Not crystallized and yieldsmore water.
"
"

result of the alteration of other ores, or minerals containing moisture, air,and carbonic or organic acids; derived largely from the change of pyrite, ferriferous dolomite,etc.; also various magnetite, siderite, which contain iron in the ferrous state (FeO). species(asmica, pyroxene, hornblende,etc.), Waters containing iron in solution when brought into marshy places deposit the metal usually in the form of limonite. The evaporation of the carbonic acid in the water which held the iron in solution is one for the separationof the iron oxide. This separation cause is also aided by the so-called "iron bacteria" which absorb the iron from the water and later deposit it again as ferric hydroxide. Limonite consequentlyoccupies, as a bog ore, It is marshy places,into which it has been borne by streamlets from the hills around. also found in depositsassociated with iron-bearing limestones where the original iron content of the rock has been largely dissolved and redepositedlater in some favorable spot. Limonite forms the capping or gossan, iron hat,of many metallic veins. It is often associated with manganese Limonite is a common in Bavaria, the Harz Mts., Germany, ores. ore
"

Obs.

In

all

cases

iron,through

exposure

to

Luxemburg, Scotland, Sweden,

etc.

Abundant in the United States. Extensive beds exist at Salisbury and Kent, Conn., also in the neighboring towns of N. Y., and in a similar situation in Berkshire Co., Mass., and in Ver.; in Pa., widely distributed;also in Tenn., Ala.,Ohio, etc. Named Limonite from Xei/icoi", meadow. Use. An ore of iron; as a yellow pigment.
"

TURGITE. Probably to be considered Hydrohematite. Approximately 2Fe2O3.H2O. as a solid solution of goethitewith hematite together with enclosed and adsorbed water. Resembles the limonite but has a red streak. From 4'14-4'6. G. DecrepitatesB.B. Intermediate Conn. between Turginsk mine in the Ural Mts., etc.; also from Salisbury, hematite and limonite.
=

37.

as ores

G. HYDRO GOETHITE. 3Fe203.4H20. Orthorhombic, radiating fibrous. H. =4. Color and streak brick-red. With limonite at various localities in Tula, Russia. stellate and concentric; also In fine needles or fibers, Xanthosiderite. Fe2O3.2H2O. ocher. red. Associated with manganese Color golden yellowish, brown to brownish an
=

at

Ilmenau,Thuringia, Germany,
Fe203.4H2O.
H.
=

etc.

Esmeraldaite. choidal fracture. Esmeralda Co., BAUXITE.

In small
=

pod-shapedmasses
Color coal black.

2'5.

G.

2 '58.

enclosed in limonite. streak. Yellow-brown

ConFrom

Beauxite.

Also massive,oolitic; and disseminated grains. concretionary t o Color G . 2'55. ocher-yeHow, brown, earthy, grayish, whitish, clay-like.
In round
=

and

red.

434
Var. purer
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

1. In

kind

2 Clay-like,wocheinite;the bauxite. concretionarygrains,or oolitic; containing very little iron oxide; also red from the iron grayish,clay-like,

oxide present.

some

A1203.2H2O Essentially Comp. however, give A12O3.H2O analyses,

"

Alumina
like

73'9, diaspore.

water

26'1

100;

of Bauxite is probably a mixture of varying character but containinglarge amounts This substance has been called sporogelite or colloidal form of Al2Os.H2O. diasporogelite, cliachite and alumogel. in large amount, in part replacing sometimes Iron sesquioxideis usually present, has been suggested for this hematogelite alumina, in part only an impurity. The name colloidal form of ferric oxide. Silica, phosphoricacid, carbonic acid,lime, magnesia are
'

common

impurities.
"

those Bauxite is a product of the decomposition of certain rocks,particularly The laterites and has been found under various conditions. feldspars, plagioclase of India,etc., are probably similar in originand might be considered as iron-rich bauxites. not definite mineral speciesbut consists of a mixture of several Bauxite is certainly a From Baux different materials. nated (orBeaux), near Aries,and elsewhere in France, dissemiin grains in compact limestone,and also oolitic. Wocheinite occurs in Carniola, The purest bauxite is used for the manuFeistritz and Lake Wochein. facture Austria,between In the United of aluminium ore. (aluminum), and is called aluminum States, in Saline and Pulaski Cos.,Ark.; also in Cherokee bauxite occurs and Calhoun Cos.,Ala., and Walker and in Floyd, Barton Cos.,Ga.
Obs. rich in

Use.

"

As

an

aluminum

ore.

Brucite
BRUCITE.

Group.
c
=

R(OH)2. Rhombohedral
A

Jlhombohedral. Axis
A

1-5208; cr 0001
Also

1011

60"

20i',rr' 1011

37J'. broad tabular. Crystals usually fibers separable and elastic.

1101
=

97"

commonly foliated massive; fibrous,

Folia separable

H. and

2-5.

G.

2-38-2-4.

Cleavage:c(0001)eminent.
Sectile. Luster
or blue,
=

flexible, nearly as

in gypsum.

||c pearly,elsewhere
green.

to vitreous. Color white, to gray, waxy inclining to translucent. Indices: o"r + Optically
=
.

Transparent
=

1-559,er
or

1-5795.

Comp. --Magnesium
69*0,
Varwater

hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
Iron and
manganese

31*0

100.

MgO.H2O protoxide are

Magnesia
sometimes

present.
to pale greenish in color; strong pearly cleavage surface. Nemalite is a fibrous varietycontaining 4 to 5 p. c. iron 2 "44. Manganbrucite contains protoxide, with G. occurs granular; color manganese;
"

in plates, Ordinary, white occurring

=

luster

on

the

brownish red. Ferrobrucitecontains iron. In the closed tube givesoff water, Pyr.,etc. becoming opaque and friable, sometimes the manganesian varietybecomes turning gray to brown; dark brown. B.B. infusible, glows with a bright light, and the ignited mineral reacts slightly alkaline to test-paper. ignited with cobalt solution gives the pale pink color of The pure mineral is magnesia. soluble in acids without effervescence.
"

to honey-yellow

i,

harder

by -its. infusibility, and D/SitingUiS^ P^vT softness, cleavage, than talc and
differs in separate it from gypsum,
its

in acids; the magnesia solubility

foliated structure. Is test and opticalacters char-

is also somewhat softer. other magnesian minerals in serpentine, Swmaness in Unst, Shetland Isles;at the iron mine of Cogne Aosta Italy;near Fihpstadt in Sweden. At Hoboken, N. J, in serpentine; at the Tilly Foster iron N. Y, well crystallized; nime, Brewster Richmond Co , N. Y.; at Wood's e *' m "r several inches across, m-asses'and often crystallizations ? 5 From rom Riverside Crestmore, verse resmore, a. Co., Nemalite, o., Cal. fibrvHHp variety, occurs the fibrous at Hoboken, N. J.,and at Xettes in the ur Vosges Mts. Mangos

which

dary mm"f a.1 accompanying Arsecon "l"n f^'r^also found m limestone. At

hydjomagnesite

OXIDES

435

with hausmannite and other manganese minerals in the granular limestone occurs Jakobsberg, Nordmark, Sweden. Named after the early American A. Bruce (1777-1818). mineralogist, like brucite. Luster Pyrochroite. Manganese hydroxide, Mn(OH)2. Usually foliated, 1723. In 1'681. pearly. Color white, but growing dark on exposure, e in magnetite at Pajsberg, also at Nordmark Sweden and occurs Langban; in N. J. at brucite
of
"

to

Franklin

Furnace.

Backstromite. Sweden.

Manganese

hydroxide, Mn(OH)2.

Orthorhombic.

From

Langban,

GIBBSITE.

Hydrargillite.
= =

Monoclinic. Axes a : b : c 17089 85" 29'. Crystals: 1 : 1-9184; 0 tabular |c(001), in spheroidal concretions. hexagonalin aspect. Occasionally Also stalactitic, small mammillary, incrusting, with smooth and or surface, often a faint fibrous structure within. 2-5-3 -5. G. 2-3-2-4. Cleavage: c(001) eminent. Tough. H. Color white,grayish, reddish white. Luster of c(001)pearly;ot or greenish, other faces vitreous; of surface of stalactites faint. Translucent;sometimes in A strong argillaceous odor crystals.Indices,1-535-1-558. transparent when breathed on. Aluminium Alumina Comp. hydroxide, A1(OH)3 or A1203.3H20
= =
"

water 65-4,

34-6
"

100.
becomes B.B. inand yieldswater. white and opaque, color to the flame. Ignited with cobalt in concentrated sulphuricacid. aluminate are slowlydecomposed by carbon dioxide
green

Pyr.,etc.
Artif
.

In the closed tube

''usible, whitens, and does not impart a solution gives a deep blue color. Soluble
"

When

solutions of sodium

is precipitated. gibbsite The crystallized Obs. in the Shishimsk mountains near occurs gibbsite (hydrargillite) Zlatoust in the Ural Mts. ; also in crystals cavities in natrolite at Langesundfiord, filling Norway; Ouro Preto, Minas Geraes, Brazil. Occurs in nodular platesat Kodikanal, Palni in stalactiticform Hills, Madras, and at Talevadi, Bombay, India. In the United States, at Richmond, Mass., in a bed of limonite ; at the Clove Mine, Union Vale, Dutchess Co., N. Y., on limonite;in Orange Co., N. Y. Named after Col. George Gibbs. Sassolite. Boric acid,B(OH)3. tabular || Usually small, c(001) (triclinic). Crystals 1'48. the waters of the Tuscan lagoons white, pearly scales. G. Index, 1*46. From of Monte Rotondo and Castelnuovo,Italy. Exists also in other natural waters, as at isles. Clear Lake, in Lake Co., Cal. Occurs also abundantly in the crater of Vulcano, Lipari what someor foliated, Hydrotalcite. Perhaps Al(OH)3.3Mg(OH)2.3H2O. Lamellar-massive, fibroiR. H. =2. Luster G. 2 -04-2 '09. Color white. pearly. Uniaxial, 1'47. Occurs at the mines Ural Mts.; at Snarum, of Shishimsk, district of Zlatoust, w Norway, in serpentine. Thin tabular crystals. Pyroaurite. Perhaps Fe(OH)3.3Mg(OH)2.3H2O. Rhombohedral. G. H. 2-07. 2-3. Luster pearly to greasy. Color yellow to yellow-brown. subOccurs at the Langban iron-mine,Wermland, Sweden, in gold-like Optically of a silvery metallic scales (pyroaurite) From the Moss mine, Norway. In thin seams white color in serpentinein the island Haaf-Grunay, Scotland (igelstromite). In druses of minute Chalcophanite. Hydrofranklinite. (Mn,Zn)O.2MnO2.2H2O. tabular rhombohedral gates; crystals;sometimes octahedral in aspect. Also in foliated aggrestalactitic and 3 '907. brilliant. Color oluish Luster metallic, plumose. G. Streak chocolate-brown, black to iron-black. Ogdensdull. Occurs at Sterling near Hill, Col. burg, Sussex Co., N. J. From Leadville, BrownHetserolite. In radiating botryoidal masses. Black. 2ZnO.2Mn2O3.lH2O. 4 '85. Col. (Wolfblack streak. H. =5. G. From Franklin,N. J., and Leadville, tonite).
"

-.

"

436
ALAITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

V^Oe.H^O.

Rare.

Found

in dark

bluish red moss-like

masses

in Alai Mts., in

Turkestan.

near

A12O8.4H2O. SHANYAVSKWE. Moscow, Russia.

PSILOMELANE.

Amorphous,

transparent material

found

dolomite,

5-6. G. 37-4-7. reniform;stalactitic. H. botryoidal; dull. Streak brownish black, shining. Color iron-black, Luster submetallic, passinginto dark steel-gray.Opaque. ganese A hydrous manganese manganate in wjrichpart of the manComp. or is often replaced by barium potassium, perhaps conforming to The material is generally H4Mn06. very impure, and the compositionhence

Massive

and

"

doubtful.
varieties yield water, and all lose oxygen In the closed tube most on tion; igniSoluble in hydrochloricacid,with evolution with the fluxes reacts for manganese. of chlorine. A common but impure ore of manganese; Obs. frequentlyin alternating layerswith In Germany and Cornwall. at Ilefeld in the Harz Devonshire Mts., pyrolusite. From From the Crimea, Russia; also various localities in India. at Ilmenau, Siegen, etc. In Independence Co., and elsewhere in at Brandon, etc.,Vt. Forms mammillary masses Scotia. Named from ^i\6s,smooth Ark. With pyrolusite at Douglas, Hants Co., Nova

Pyr., etc.

"

"

or

naked, and ne\as, black.

Use.
"

An

ore

of manganese.

followingmineral substances here included are mixtures of various oxides, chiefly of manganese and from 10 to 20 p. c. (MnO2, also MnO), cobalt,copper, with also iron, These results of the decomposition of other ores water. are phides, partlyof oxides and sulpartly of manganesian carbonates, and can hardly be regarded as representing distinct mineral species. WAD. In amorphous and reniform masses, either earthy or compact; also in crusting the fingers;less often hard to H. =6. or as stains. G. 3'0Usually soiling very soft, Color dull black, 4-26; often looselyaggregated, and feelingvery light to the hand.
The
"

bluish or brownish black. BOG MANGANESE consists mainly of oxide of manganese and water, with iron,and often silica, alumina, baryta. ASBOLITE, or Earthy Cobalt,contains oxide of cobalt,which sometimes
32 p.
c. or

some

oxide of
to

amounts

LAMPADITE,

Cupreous Manganese, is a wad

containing4

to 18 p.

c.

of oxide of copper,
=

and often oxide of cobalt also. SKEMMATITE. Color black. Streak dark 3MnO2.2Fe2O3.6H2q. Fusible to magnetic globule. Alteration product of pyroxmangite. Co.,S. C. BELDONGRITE. 6Mn306.Fe2O3.8H20. District Ndgpur, India. Luster
H. brown. 5'5-6. From Iva, Anderson

pitchy.

Color

black.

From

Beldongri,

VI.

OXYGEN-SALTS
These fall

The Sixth Class includes the salts of the various acids. oxygen into the following sections: 1. Carbonates;2. Silicates and seven 3. Niobates and Tantalates;4. Phosphates, Arsenates,
5. Borates and Uranates; Nitrates; 6. Sulphates, Chromates 7. Tungstatesand Molybdates.

Titanates; Tellurates;

etc.; also the

and

1. CARBONATES
A.

Anhydrous Carbonates

the

The Anhydrous Carbonates include two distinct isomorphous groups, CALCITE GROUP and the ARAGONITE GROUP. The metallic elements

CARBONATES

437
zinc

present

in

the

former

are

cobalt;
The

in the

latter,they
are

are

calcium, magnesium, iron, calcium, barium, strontium

as

manganese, and lead.

and

species included
1. Calcite

follows:

Group.
CaC03

RCO3.

Rhombohedral
rr'
c

Calcite Dolomite Normal Ankerite Dolomite

74"

55' 45'

0-8543
0-8322

(Ca,Mg)C03 CaC03.MgC03

Tri-rhombohedral

73"

CaC03.(Mg,Fe)C03
MgC03 (Mg,Fe)C03 2MgC03.FeC03 MgCO3.FeCO3
FeCO3

73" 72"

48' 36'

0-8332 0-8112

Magnesite
Breunnerite Mesitite Pistomesite Siderite

72" 72" 73"

46'
42'

0 -8141 0-8129 0-8184

0'

Oligonite
Rhodochrosite

(Fe,Mn)C03
MnCO3 pt.
73" 0'
0-8184

Manganosiderite Manganocalcite
Smithsonite Monheimite

(Mn,Fe)C03 (Mn,Ca)CO3
ZnCO3
72" 20' 0-8063

(Zn,Fe)C03
CoCO3
prominent species of this
group,

Sphaerocobaltite

This list gives not only the compounds. phous intermediate

but

also

some

of the

isomor-

The All

CALCITE

GROUP

is characterized when

the species show, cleavage, the angle varying

This

by rhombohedral crystallization. distinctly crystallized, perfect rhombohedral 75" (and 105") in calcite to 73" (and 107") from
in the

in siderite.

is exhibited

table

above.

2.

Aragonite

Group.

RC03.
mm'"

Orthorhombic
a

:
:

b
1

: c

Aragonite
Bromlite Witherite Strontianite Cerussite The

CaCO3

63"

48'

0-6224

07206

(Ca,Ba)CO,
BaCO3
62" 62" 62" GROUP 12' 41' 46'
0-6032 0-6090 0-6100
: :
:

1 1 1

07302 0*7239 07230

SrC03
PbC03
the ARAGONITE
to

:
:

crystallize in the orthorhombic close by more Group is made system, 60" (and 120") the fact that the prismatic angle varies a few degrees only from with the fundamental forms and the twinned prism as twinning-plane are species of
the but relation those of the Calcite

pseudo-hexagonal

in character.

438
1.
CALCITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Calcite

Group.
c
=

RC03.
Spar.

Rhombohedral

Calc Spar; Calcareous

Rhombohedral.
731

Axis

0*8543.
733

732

734

735

cr* ce, me,

0001 0001

1011 0112 0112 1101 4401 1012 5054 2021

rr'.

MM',
ff',

A 1010 A 1011 A 4041 A 0112 0554 A A A

44" 36"'. 26" 15'. 63" 45'. 74" 55'. 114" 10'. 45" 3'
84" 101" 324'. 9'.

w',
wv,

2131 2131 2131 3251 3251 3251

A A
A A

2311 3121 1231 3521 5231 2351 3124 4135

75" 22'. 35" 36'.

47" 45"

wvi, yy't
yyv,

1|'.
32'.

70" 59'. 29" 16'. 20" 36f '. 16" 0'.

A
A A

yy*,

0221
*

v, 2134 wv, 3145

See the stereographic projection, Fig. 269, p. 108.

440

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

or less undulating; color white, the lamellae more Argentineis a pearlylamellar calcite, variety,is a foliated white sparry yellowish.Aphrite, in its harder and more grayish, it approaches chalk, though lighter, in kinds its softer n ear argentine; calcite, pearly

or

soft and greasy to the touch, and more white or yellowishin color, silvery pearly in luster, less scaly in structure. Aphrite has been thought to be aragonite pseudomorphous

usuallythey are clouded and give a handsome reddish, as white,yellow, green; various, fit for polishing, such limestones are for or the material is polished. When have special called marbles. Many varieties architectural or ornamental use, they are is a dark or fire-marble Shell-marble consists largelyof fossil shells;Lumachelle names. with brilliant fire-like or brown chatoyant internal reflections. Ruin-marble shell-marble, blance resembearing some figures showing, when polished, is a kind of a yellow to brown color, due to infiltrationof iron oxide,etc. to fortifications, temples,etc.,in ruins, of buff or drab color;as stone is a very even-grainedcompact limestone, Lithographic Bavaria. tion that of Solenhofen, Hydraulic limestone is an impure limestone which after ignitakes a solid form under water, due to the formation of a silicate. The sets, i.e., French varieties contain 2 or 3 p. c. of magnesia, and 10 to 20 of silica and alumina (or clay). The varieties in the United States contain 20 to 40 p. c. of magnesia, and 12 to 30 Hard compact limestone varies from nearly pure white,through p. c. of silicaand alumina. and reddish shades,to bluish gray, dark brownish gray, and drab, buff, yellowish, grayish, beautiful marble when ished. polblack, and sometimes variouslyveined. Many kinds make Shades of green are due to Red oxide of iron produces red of different shades. chromium iron protoxide, oxide,iron silicate. and soft enough to leave a trace on a board. Chalk is white,grayishwhite, or yellowish, It is composed of the shells of minute sea organisms. Calcareous marl is a soft earthy with or without distinct fragments of shells; it generally contains much deposit, clay,and graduatesinto a calcareous clay. Oolite is a granularlimestone, its grainsminute concretions, like the somewhat looking of fish, the name Pisolite consists of concretions as largeoften roe coming from u6i", egg. or larger, as a small pea, having usuallya distinct concentric structure. careous Depositedfrom calcareous springs,streams, or in caverns, etc. (a) Stalactites are calthat hang from the roofs of limestone caverns, and which are or cones cylinders formed from the waters that drip through the roof; these waters hold some calcium bicarbonate in solution, and leave calcium carbonate to form the stalactite when evaporation takes place. Stalactites vary from transparent to nearly opaque; from a crystalline structure with singlecleavage directions to coarse ating fine granular cleavable and to radior fibrous;from a white color and colorless to yellowishgray and brown. mite (6) Stalagis the same material from the waters covering the floors of caverns, it being made that drop from the roofs, from sources or the bottom or sides; cones of it sometimes over rise from the floor to meet the stalactites above. It consists of layers, curved, irregularly or bent. or a solid kind of travertine (seebelow) when Stalagmite, is the on a largescale, alabaster stone of ancient writers, that is, the stone of which ointment vases, of a certain form called alabasters, made. A locality were well known, was near Thebes, now largely and the material has often been hence called Egyptian alabaster. exploredby the ancients, It was also formerly called onyx and onychites because of its beautiful banded structure. In the arts it is often now called Oriental alabaster or onyx marble. Very beautiful marble of this kind is obtained in Algeria. Mexican is a similar material obtained from onyx lecah, Puebla,Mexico; also in a beautiful brecciated form from the extinct crater of Zempoaltepecin southern Mexico. Similar kinds occur in Missouri, Arizona, San Luis Obispo Co., California, (c) Calc-sinter, Calc Tufa. Travertine is of essentially the Travertine, same but is distinctively origin with stalagmite, a depositfrom especially springsor rivers, where m largedeposits, as along the river Anio, at Tivoli, near Rome, where the depositis ot feet in thickness. icores Similar material is being deposited at the Mammoth Hot Yellowstone Park, Springs, (d) Agaric mineral; Rock-milk is a very soft white material, breaking easilym the fingers, deposited sometimes in caverns, or about sources holding lime in solution, (e) Rock-meal is white and light, like cotton, becoming a powder on the slightest pressure.
are

after gypsum. kinds: Limestone, Marble, Chalk. 3. Granular massive to cryptocrystalline because like loaf sugar in fracture, named so Granular limestone or Saccharoidal limestone, hence to compact limestone; colors to varying from coarse very fine granular,and

effect when

B.

VARIETIES

BASED

UPON

COMPOSITION

These
toward

include: Dolomitic
dolomite. Also

true

calcite. Contains magnesium baricalcite (which contains some

carbonate, thus graduating stronBaCO3); similarly,

CARBONATES

441

(SrCO3), ferrocalcite (FeCO3), manganocalcite (MnCOa) (see under agnolite, 582), zincocalcite (ZnCO3), plumbocalcite (PbCOs), cobal'ocalcite (CoCO3). B.B. infusible, Pyr., etc. glows, and colors the flame reddish yellow; after ignition the assay reacts with alkaline; moistened hydrochloric acid imparts the characteristic
p.
"

tianocalcite

lime color to the flame. In the solid mass effervesces when moistened in cold acid. acid,and fragments dissolve with brisk effervescence even aragonite, p. 447.
"

with hydrochloric See further under

Diff. Distinguishing characters: perfect rhombohedral be cleavage; softness, can scratched with a knife; effervescence in cold dilute acid; infusibility. Less hard and of lower specific in its different varieties the gravity than aragonite (which see). Resembles other rhombohedral carbonates, but is less hard, of lower specificgravity, and more varieties of barite,but has lower specific readily attacked by acid. Also resembles some gravity; it is less hard than feldsparand harder than gypsum. Micro. Recognized in thin sections by its low refraction and very high birefringence, the polarizationcolors in the thinnest sections attaining white of the highest order. The colored rings,is also characteristic. negative interference figure,with many closelycrowded The rhombohedral cleavage is often shown in the fine fracture lines;systems of twinned lamellae often conspicuous (Fig.750), especially in crystalline limestone.
"

Crystals of calcite are formed when a solution of calcium carbonate in dilute acid is evaporated slowly at ordinary temperatures. Calcite is formed when aragonite is heated, the transformation being complete at 470".
Artif
"

carbonic

of the most widely distributed of from organic remains, shells, crinoids, limestone or corals,etc., yield on metamorphism crystalline marble, and in connection calcite and also depositsin caves with these crystallized of stalactites and stalagmitesoften Common with the zeolites in cavities and veins of igneous rocks as a result of occur. A frequent and similarlythough less abundant with granite, syenite, etc. alteration, mineral in metalliferous deposits,with lead, copper, silver,etc. Deposited from limein connection with hot springs as bearing waters as calc sinter, travertine, etc.,especially Hot at the Mammoth Springs in the Yellowstone region. localities for crystallized calcite are the following: Andreas^Some of the best known berg in the Harz Mts.; the mines of Freiberg, Schneeberg, etc., in Saxony; Kapnik in Hungary; Aussig in Bohemia; Bleiberg in Carinthia; Traversella in Piedmont, Italy; and Elba. In England at Alston Moor Matlock, Derbyshire; Egremont in Cumberland; in Durham; Beer Alston in Devonshire; at numerous points in Cornwall; Weardale Stank mine, Lancashire, In twin crystalsof great variety and beauty at Guanajuato, The Iceland spar has been obtained from Iceland near Mexico. Helgustadir on the Eskein a largecavity in basalt. The crystals, fiord. It occurs usuallyshowing the fundamental rhombohedron, are often coated with tufts of stilbite. in N. Y., in St. Lawrence calcite occurs In the United States,crystallized Co., especially at the Rossie lead mine; in Jefferson Co., near dog-tooth Oxbow; spar, in Niagara Co., nd Lowville, and near Lockport, with pearlspar, celestite, etc.; in Lewis Co., at Leyden of the Hudson, formerly groups at Anthony's Nose at the Martinsburg lead mine; on In N. J.,at Bergen, yellow large tabular crystals;twins from Union Springs, Cayuga Co In Va., at Wier's cave, stalactitesof great beauty; also in calcite with datolite, etc. In pyramidal crystalsfrom of Ky. the large caves Kelly's Island, Lake Erie. At the Lake mines, complex crystalsoften containing scales of native copper. Superior Copper Obs. minerals.
"

Calcite, in
of

Beds

its various forms, is one formed sedimentarylimestone,

in great variety of form, lininggeodes and implanted on quartz crystals; Warsaw, 111., at Joplin and other Quincy. In Mo., with dolomite,near St. Louis; also with sphalerite usually scalenopoints in the zinc region in the south-western part of the state,the crystals the Bad From Hazel Green. Lands, of a wine-yellow color. Wis., from hedral and and other interesting S. p. In Nova Scotia,at Partridge Island, a wine-colored calcite,
At
at

varieties.
Use.
"

In

the

manufacture

of mortars

and

cements;

as

building and
to

ornamental

material; as a flux in metallurgicaloperations; Iceland in whitewash, etc. prisms; chalk as a fertilizer,

THINOLITE.

spar

is used

make

polarizing

north-western

scale in carbonate A tufa deposit of calc um occurring on an enormous Mono about Lake, Cal. It forms layers of interlaced Nev.; also occurs color and often skeleton structure of a pale yellow or light brown except when crystals covered by subsequent deposit of calcium carbonate.

442
DOLOMITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Pearl Spar pt.

Tri-rhombohedral.
or

Axis
= =

0-8322. MM',
4041 A 4401
=

0001

lOll rr\ Habit

751

10T1 A Ilt)l

43" 52'. 73" 45'.

113"

53'.

or M(4041); rhombohedral,usuallyr(10ll)

752

the presence of rhomthe second or third of bohedrons series after the phenacitetype very faces comcharacteristic. The monly r curved or made up of suband thus passing into individuals,

(Fig. 752). saddle-shaped forms or Also granular, coarse fine, marble. resemblingordinary r(1011)perfect. Cleavage:
H.
=

gray
e
=

Brittle. subconchoidal. eties. varito pearlyin some Luster vitreous, 2-8-2-9. inclining G. 3-5-4. green, brown, Color white, reddish,or greenishwhite; also rose-red, 1-68174. w and black. Transparent to translucent. Optically
Fracture
=
"

1-50256.

Comp.

"

Carbonate

of calcium
or

and

magnesium
=

(Ca,Mg)CO3;

dolomite

CaMgC2O6
=

CaC03MgCO3

Carbon

for normal dioxide 47-9,lime 30-4,

magnesia 21'7
=

45*65 carbonate 54-35,magnesium carbonate from carbonates of varies the two in which the ratio Varieties occur 100. enter replacing also frequently The carbonates of iron and manganese 1:1. the magnesium carbonate and grading to ankerite ; rarelycobalt and zinc

100,or Calcium

carbonates.
for iron. The
B.B. acts like calcite. In solution gives tests for magnesium and usually Pyr.tetc. are only very slowly acted upon, Fragments thrown into cold acid,unlike calcite, acid the mineral is readilydissolved with effervescence. while in powder in warm if at all,
"

brown on ferriferous dolomites become exposure. in that it does calcite (seep. 441), but generallyto be distinguished Resembles in the mass in cold acid. not effervesce readily The results of many periments exArtif. Artificialdolomite has been formed in several ways. Sea favorable for its formation. would indicate that heat and pressure are heated in a sealed tube produced dolomite. water in contact with calcium carbonate when observed that such reactions take place more It has been readily with aragonite than of coral deposits (aragonite)being transformed with calcite, indicatingthe possibility into dolomite. Micro. often shows Similar to calcite in thin sections except that it more crystal outlines and less commonly polysynthetic twinning. Obs. Massive dolomite constitutes extensive strata,called limestone strata,in various and compact varieties as in the dolomite regions, regionof the southern Tyrol. Crystalline often associated with serpentine and other magnesian rocks,and with ordinary limestones. are Dolomite, as a rock,is of secondary origin, having been transformed from ordinary limestone by the action of solutions containingmagnesium. This change, called dolomititake place in various ways. involve The more favorable conditions would zaiion,may heat,pressure, high magnesium content of waters and long periodsof time. Consequently the older and more of a limestone deeply buried in the earth's crust the greater is the probability Dolomite is also commonly a vein mineral, being converted into dolomite. frequently with various metallic ores. Some occurring prominent localitiesare: Leogang in Salzburg, In Switzerland, Austria; Schemnitz and Kapnik in Hungary; Freibergin Saxony, Germany. at Bex, in crystals; also in the Binnental; Traversella in Piedmont and Campolongo, Italy. In unusual dark colored crystals from Teruel,Spain. In the United States, in Ver.,at Roxbury. In N. J.,at Hoboken. In N. Y. at Lockport, Niagara Falls, etc.; at the TillyFoster iron mine, Brewster, Putnam Co., with magnetite, chondrodite. In Pa. at Phoenixville. In saddle-shapedcrystals with the sphalerite
Diff.
" " " "

CARBONATES

443

In fine crystals In N. C. at Stony Point, Alexander Co. Mo. of Joplin, from Alamosa, Alaska. who announced of the marked Named after Dolomieu (1750-1801), some characteristics with acids,while burning like its not effervescing of the rock in 1791 and limestone, after heating in acids. solubility Use. of certain cements; As a building and ornamental stone; for the manufacture for the production of magnesia used in the preparationof refractory in metallurgical linings furnaces
"

"

CaCO3.(Mg,Fe,Mn)CO3,_or for normal ankerite 2CaCO3.MgCO3.FeCO3. 48' also crystalline rhombohedral crys als; rr' 1011 A 1101 =73" massive, granular, Color white,gray, reddish. Occurs with siderite at the Styrian 2 -95-31. G. compact. From mines. Traversella, Italy. With the hematite of northern New York/
Ankerite. In
=

MAGNESITE.

rr' 1011 A TlOl Axis: c 0-8112. 72" 36'. Crystals usuallyrhombohedral, also prismatic. Commonly massive; granular cleavable to very compact; earthy. 3-5Cleavage: r(1011)perfect. Fracture flat conchoidal. Brittle. H. 4-5. G. 3-0-3-12, cryst. Luster vitreous; fibrous varieties sometimes or grayish white, brown. silky. Color white, yellowish, Transparentto 1*717. 1*515. c co Optically opaque. Carbon dioxide 52'4,magMagnesium carbonate,MgC03 Comp. nesia Rhombohedral
= =

rare,

"

"

47-6

100.

Iron

carbonate

is often present.
=

Breunnerite contains several p. c. of FeO; G. 3-3 '2; white, yellowish, brownish, rarelyblack and bituminous; often becoming brown on exposure, and hence called Brown Spar. B.B. resembles calcite and dolomite,and like the latter is but slightly etc. acted Pyr., dissolved with effervescence in warm cold in powder is readily by acids; upon chloric hydroacid. In solution gives strong test for magnesium with littleor no calcium. Obs. formed Found as a secondary mineral by the alteration of various magnesian veins serpentineand other magnesian rocks, also gypsum; minerals;in talcose schist, as in serpentine, mixed with it so as to form a variety of verd-antique marble. Occurs or and Maria-ZeU, Styria; Greiner in the Zillertal, at Hrubschiitz in Moravia; at Kraubat Tyrol, Austria; Snarum, Norway. In the United States, in Mass., at Bolton; at Roxbury, veining serpentine; in Md., atat West near Barehills, Goshen, Chester Co., near Baltimore; in Pa., in crystals, Texas, Lancaster Co.; in Cal. it is mined in Tulare, Kern, Santa Clara,Sonoma Cos. and elsewhere. A white saccharqidal magnesite resembling statuary marble has been found as loose blocks on an island in the St. Lawrence Island Park. River, near the Thousand In Nova Scotia. small prismaticcrystals from Orangedale, of metallurgical Use. In the preparationof magnesite brick for the linings furnaces; in the manufacture of various chemical compounds, as epsom salts, magnesia, etc. Intermediate between magnesite and siderite are: MESITITE. 72" 46'. G. rr' lOll A TlOl 3-35-3-36. 2MgCO3.FeCO3. Usually in flatrhombohedrons 0112) with rounded faces. Traversella, Piedmont, Italy. (e, iron carbonate 58'0 PISTOMESITE. 100. Magnesium carbonate 42'0, MgCOs.FeCOs rr' 1011 A TlOl 3 '42. 72" 42'. G. Thurnberg, Salzburg, Austria; also Traversella, Italy.
" " "

SIDERITE.

Chalybite,SpathicIron. Axis
A A A A
c
=

Rhombohedral.
"cr,

0-8184.
43" 23'. 75" 11'. 78" 3'. 82" 28'.

0001 0001 0001 0001

lOTl
4041 0551

cM,
cs,

cd,

0881

rr', 1011 MM', 4041 ss', 0551 dd', 0881

r

A A A A

1101
4401 5051 8081

73" 0'. 113" 42'. 115" 50'. 118" 18"'.

Crystals commonly
curved and

rhombohedral

(1011) or

e(0112) the

built up of sub-individuals like dolomite.

faces,often Often cleavable massive

444
to
coarse or

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

and globular forms,subfibrous granular. Also in botryoidal and earthy. compact fibrous; silky occasionally within, subconchoidal. Brittle. or Cleavage: r(1011)perfect. Fracture uneven to Luster G. 3-83-3-88. vitreous,inclining pearly. Color 3'5-4. H. and brownish red,rarely gray, also brown yellowish gray, greenish ash-gray, fine
= =

green;

and sometimes
-.

white.
"
=

Streak white.
1-633.
=

Translucent

to subtranslucent.

Optically
Comp.
"

"

1'873.

dioxide 37-9, iron proCarbon FeC03 toxide protocarbonate, be present (as in 48'2 p. c.). Manganese may 100 (Fe 62-1 also magnesium and calcium. manganospherite) oligonite,
Iron
= =

decrepitates, gives off CO2, blackens and becomes magnetic. With the fluxes reacts for iron,and with soda and fuses at 4 '5-5. reaction. Only slowlyacted upon and niter on platinum foil generallygives a manganese in effervescence acid. Exposure to hot brisk with but dissolves hydrochloric cold acid, by rendering it often of a blackish brown or brownish red the atmosphere darkens its color, color. form and cleavage. Specificgravity higher Characterized Diff. by rhombohedral Resembles dolomite and ankerite. some than that of calcite, sphaleritebut lacks the differs in cleavageangle and yieldsCOa (not H^S) with hydrochloric acid. resinous luster, of form as Obs. bog ore by the action,out of contact with the air, ,Siderite may organic matter in a bicarbonate solution. It may also be formed by the action of ferrous in many It frequently It occurs also as a vein mineral. limestones. solutions upon occurs mica slate, and as clay iron-stone in connection with of the rock strata,in gneiss, clay slate, and many other stratified deposits. It is often associated with metallic the Coal formation in silver mines. In Cornwall At Freiberg, it accompanies tin. It ores. Saxony, it occurs is also found accompanying copper and iron pyrites, tetrahedrite. sionally Occagalena,chalcocite, it is to be met with in trap rocks as spherosiderite in globularconcretions. sive Extenin the Eastern depositsoccur Alps, in Styria and Carinthia at Tavetsch, Switzerland. At Harzgerode and elsewhere in the Harz in fine crystals in gray-wacke; Mts., it occurs also in Cornwall of varied habit at many and Tavistock, Devonshire. at Alston-Moor, localities; In largerhombohedrons from Allevard,France. with Fine cleavage masses occur in Greenland. cryolite In the United in Ver.,at Plymouth. In Mass., at Sterling. In Conn., at RoxStates, bury,an extensive vein in quartz, traversinggneiss. In N. Y., a series of depositsoccur in Columbia In N. C., at Fentress lem Co.; at the Rbssie iron mines, St. Lawrence Co. and Harmines. The argillaceous is abundant carbonate,in nodules and beds (clay ironstone), in the coal regionsof Pa., Ohio, and many parts of the country. In a clay-bed under the Tertiaryalong the west side of Chesapeake Bay for 50 m. Use. An ore of iron. Pyr., etc.
B.B.
"

In the closed tube

blackens

"

"

"

"

"

Dialogite. Axis c 0-8184, rr' 1011 A TlOl =_73" 0'. Distinct crystals not common; usually the rhombohedron r(1011); also e(0112), with rounded striated faces. Cleavable,massive to granular-massive and Also globular and botryoidal, compact. with columnar sometimes structure, Rhombohedral.
=

RHODOCHROSITE.

indistinct; incrusting. Cleavage: r(10Tl) perfect. Fracture uneven. 3-5-4-5. Brittle. H. G. 3-45-3*60 and higher. Luster vitreous, to pearly. Color inclining shades of rose-red; yellowish gray, fawn-colored, dark red, brown. Streak white. Translucent to subtranslucent. 1-820. 1*600. e Optically co Comp. Manganese protocarbonate, Carbon dioxide 38'3, MnCO3 100. manganese protoxide61-7 Iron carbonate is usually present even up to 40 p. c in manganosiderite; sometimes as the carbonate of calcium,as in also magnesium, zinc, manganocalcite, and rarely cobalt.
= =

-.

"

green

manganate.

CARBONATES

445
exposure to the air

effervescence in
some

warm

acid. hydrochloric

On

changes to brown,

and

bright rose-red
"

Diff. in acids.
Obs.

varieties become Characterized by its pink

paler. rhombohedral color,

form

effervescence and cleavage,

Occurs commonly in veins along with ores of silver, lead and copper, and with and Kapnik in Hungary ; Nagyag in Tranof manganese. sylvania; Found at Schemnitz ony; ponite is a ferriferous varietyfrom Roumania; in Germany at Freiberg in Saxin Nassau; at Daaden, Rheinprovinz ; in Belgium at Oberneisen at Diez near in the Ardennes. A varietycontaining 45 per cent of zinc carbonate Moet-Fontaine from Rosseto, Elba, has been called zincorodochrosite. In the United States at Branchville,
"

other

ores

In Col., at the John Conn.; in N. J.,with franklinite at Mine Hill,Franklin Furnace. Reed mine, Alicante, Lake Co., in beautiful clear rhombohedrons ; also at the Oulay mine, In Mon., at Butte Lake City and Alma, Park Co.; in Chaff ee, Gilpinand Ouray Cos. near At Placentia Bay, Newfoundland. at the silver mines of Austin, Nev. City. Abundant rhodochrosite from podov, a rose, and xpoxris, color;and dialogite, Named from 5ux\oyrj, doubt.

Use.

"

minor

ore

of manganese. Calamine

SMITHSONITE.

pt.
=

Dry-bone

ore

Miners.
=

72" 20'. Rarely Rhombohedral. Axis c 0-8063. rrf lOll A IlOl well crystallized; faces r(1011)generally curved and rough. Usually renialso granular, and in crystalline or form,botryoidal, stalactitic, incrustations; and sometimes impalpable, friable. and occasionally earthy conchoidal. Cleavable: r(1011)perfect. Fracture to imperfectly uneven
to pearly. Brittle. H. Luster 5. G. 4*30-4 '45. vitreous, inclining Streak white. brownish Color white, often grayish, times white, somegreenish, to translucent. Optically Subtransparent green, blue and brown.
=
"

"

co

1-818.

e
"

1-618.
=

64-8

dioxide 35-2, zinc protoxide Zinc carbonate,ZnCO3 Carbon Iron carbonate is often present (asin monheimite) also manganese and cobalt carbonates; further calcium and magnesium carbonates in and indium. traces; rarelycadmium

Comp.
=

100.

',

In the closed tube loses carbon dioxide,and, if pure, is yellow while hot Pyr., etc. balt and white on cooling. B.B. infusible, giving characteristic zinc flame; moistened with cosolution and heated in O.F. gives a green color on cooling. With soda on charcoal coats the coal with the oxide,which is yellow while hot and white on cooling; this coating, Soluble in moistened with cobalt solution,gives a green color after heating in O.F. hydrochloricacid with effervescence. cence Diff. resembles,by its effervesDistinguishedfrom calamine, which it often closely in acids. Obs. with galena and sphalerite; Found both in veins and beds,especially in company also with copper and iron ores. and is generally ciated assoIt usuallyoccurs in calcareous rocks, with calamine,and sometimes It frequently with limonite. limestone, pseureplaces Commonly a secondary mineral and domorphs after calcite crystals being often observed. is often produced by the action of carbonated waters zinc sulphide. Often is in a upon
"
" "

known honey-comb-like material, commonly as "dry-bone" ore. at Nerchinsk in Siberia; at Dognaczka in Hungary; Bleiberg and Raibel in in Belgium and Moresnet and at AJtenberg, Germany. Carinthia; Wiesloch in Baden Viesgo. In England, at Altenberg. In the province of Santander, Spain, at Puente and elsewhere; in Ireland, Alston Moor, near Roughten Gill, Matlock, in the Mendip Hills, From Broken from Sardinia. at Donegal. At Laurion, Greece, varieties of many colors; New South Wales. Hill, In the United States, in Pa., at Lancaster abundant, the varietycalled "dry-bone"; at the Ueberroth In Wis., at Mineral Point, mine, near Bethlehem, in scalenohedrons. and calcite. In la.,at Swing's diggings, Shullsburg,etc.,pseudomorphs after sphalerite and calamine. N. W. of Dubuque, etc. In south-western Mo., associated with sphalerite In Ark., at Calamine, Lawrence A pink cobaltiferous variety occurs Co. Co.; in Marion at Boleo, Lower California. In N. M. from Socorro Co. and in translucent green botryoidal from Kelly. In Tooele Co., Utah. masses
porous,

Found

446
Named

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY founded the Smithsonian

in

who after James Smithson (1754-1829), used is frequently calamine The name Washington. zinc. of An ore Use.
"

England, cf. calamme,

In

Institution in p. 539.

Sphserocobaltite.Cobalt

masSs with

Rhombohedral CoCO3. protocarbonate, 4 '02-4-13. rarelyin crystals.G. surface, crystalline

=

small spherical Color rose-red.

From

Schneeberg, Saxony.

From

Boleo, Lower

California.

2.

Aragonite Group.
For listof

RC03.

Orthorhombic

see species,

p. 437.

ARAGONITE.

Orthorhombic.

Axes

: c

0'62244
A A A A 110 Oil 111 111
= =

072056.

mm"',
kk'

110 Oil 111 111

pp'

pp"',

63" 71" 86" 50"

48'. 33'.

24"'.
27'.

or

and characterized by the presence of acute domes often acicular, Crystals producing pseudocommonly repeated, tw. Twins: pi.ra(110) pyramids.
763
'

754

755

756

757

reniform, and coralloidal 755-757) Also globular, hexagonalforms (seeFigs. sometimes columnar,straight incrusting. or divergent; alsostalactitic; shapes; also ra(110);fc(Oll)imperfect. Fracture Cleavage: 6(010) distinct; Luster 2*93-2-95. 3'5^. Brittle. H. G. subconchoidal. vitreous, Color white; also gray, yelsurfaces of fracture. to resinous on low, inclining translucent. and streak to uncolored. tically OpTransparent violet; green Ax. pi.|| a(100). Bx J_ c(001). Dispersionp " v small. 2 E
.

-.

30" 54'.
"

1-531.

1-682.

1-686.
=

dioxide 44'0, lime 56*0 Calcium Carbon Comp. carbonate,CaCO3 zinc. 100. and rarely Some varieties contain a little others lead, strontium,
Var.
"

Aragonite changes to calcite at 470". the the latter much in simple or compound crystals, Ordinary, (a) Crystallized most often in radiatinggroups of acicular crystals. Columnar; also fine fibrous common; with silky luster, (c)Massive. Stalactitic Either compact or fibrous in structure,as with calcite; or Sprustalagmitic: delstein is stalactitic from Carlsbad, lacing Bohemia. Coralloidal: In groupings of delicate interand coalescing and lookinga little like coral; often called stems, of a snow-white color, from Flosferri.Tarnowitzite is a kind containinglead carbonate (4 to 8 p. c.), Tarnowitz in Silesia; with G. 2 '99. is a calcareous sinter, Zeyringite probably aragonite,colored greenish white or sky-bluewith nickel,from Zeyring, Styria. Nicholsonite is aragonite
=

zinc containing

from

and Leadville, Col.,

the Tintic

Utah. District,

448 resinous

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Color pale asparagus-green, also faces of fracture. apple-green; Streak white. brown. and Transparent to yellowish white, gray, yellow, Bx Ax. _L Z"("10). c(001). Dispersion pi.|| translucent. Optically T667. T667. 12" 17'. a t'52f6. 2Er (3 y p " v small. diozide Carbon Strontium carbonate, SrCOs 29*9, strontia Comp.
on
-.
= = = =
"

70-1

100.
"

A littlecalcium

is sometimes

present.

B.B. swells up, throws out minute sprouts, fuses only on the thin edges, and Pyr.,etc. with colors the flame strontia-red;the assay reacts alkaline after ignition. Moistened hydrochloricacid and treated either B.B. or in the naked lamp gives an intense red color. Soluble in hydrochloric acid; the mediumly dilute solution when treated with sulphuric acid gives a white precipitate. with acids; has a Differs from related minerals,not carbonates,in effervescing Diff. gravity than aragonite and lower than witherite; colors the flame red B.B. higher specific and in Yorkshire, England; Claustal in the Obs. Occurs at Strontian in Argyllshire
" "

Freiberg,Saxony; Leogang in Salzburg, Austria; Mts., Germany; Braunsdorf, near in fine crystals near Tyrol, Austria (calciostrontianite) Brixlegg, ; in Westphalia, Germany near Hamm, and at the Wilhelmine mine near Altahlen. in N. Y. at Schoharie,at Muscalonge Lake, Chaumont In the United States, occurs Bay and Theresa, in Jefferson Co.; Mifflin Co., Pa. A minor source Use. of strontium compounds.
Harz
"

CERUSSITE.

White

Lead
a

Ore.
:

Orthorhombic.
758

Axes
759

: c

0-60997
760

072300.

mm'", J*', ii',

cp,

110 oil 021 001 111 111

A A A A A A

110
Oil 021 111 111

pp'j pp'",

111

62" 46'. 71" 44'. 110" 40'. 54" 14'. 87" 42'. 49" 59"'.

Simple crystals often || 6(010), prismatic || caxis; also pyramidal. Twins: tw. pi. m(110) very common,
tabular and penetrationoften twins, repeated yielding six-rayed stellate groups. Crystals grouped in clusters, and aggregates. Rarely fibrous, often granular massive and compactearthv Sometimes stalactitic.
contact-

Cleavage: m(110) and {(021) distinct; 6(010) and z(012) in traces. conchoidal. 3-3-5. Very brittle. H. G. 6-46-6-574. Luster to vitreous, adamantine, inclining or resinous, pearly;sometimes submetallic. Color white gray, grayish black,sometimes tingedblue or green (copper); streak uncolored. Transparent to subtranslucent. Optically-. Ax. nil 6(010). Bx _L c(001). Dispersion v large. 2 V 8" 14'. a p " 1-804
Fracture
= = = =

p
Q

2*076.

2-078.
=

Lead carbonate"pbC03 rF"miPnVT~

=

Carbon

dioxide 16-5, lead

oxide

oo.o

1UU-

at
-

loses carbon "ecrepitates,

n

turns dioxide,

yellow on
Soluble

coolin^ B'B'

d'

firstyellow, and cha"al on in dilute nitric acid with

Aiding

CAEBONATES

449

Artif Cerussite has been produced artificially by the slow diffusion of a carbonate solution into a lead solution through a porous membrane; by the action of a carbonate solution upon a lead plate. Obs. A secondary mineral occurring in connection with other lead minerals, and is formed from galena,which, as it passes to a sulphate,may be changed to carbonate by of solutions of calcium bicarbonate. It is tound in Germany at Johanngeorgenstadt means in beautiful crystals;Friedrichssegen, Nassau; Badenweiler, Baden; at Claustal in the Harz Other important localitiesare Mts. Monte Poni,Sardinia; at Bleibergin Carinthia; at Mies and Pfibram,Bohemia; in England, in Cornwall; at East Tamar mine, Devonshire; and Matlock near Wirksworth, Derbyshire; at Leadhill and Wanlockhead, Scotland. from Broken New Fine crystals South Wales. Hill, In Va.,at Austin's mines,Wythe Co. In N. C.,in King's Found in Pa.,at Phenixyille. In lead mines of Wis. but rarelyin crystals; at Hazelgreen,crystals mine. coatinggalena. In Col.,at Leadyille, In Ariz., and elsewhere. at the Flux mine, Pima Co.,in largecrystalline in crystals In Utah Cloud mine, Yuma Co. at the Red from Flagstaff masses; and Kingston. mine; in Idaho at Wardner Use. An ore of lead.
"

"

"

BARYTOCALCITE.

Axes Monoclinic. also massive.

: c

07717

0-6254; /3

73" 52'.

In

tals; crys-

Fracture uneven to subconCleavage: ra( 110) perfect;c(001)less so. 4. 3 -64-3 '66. Luster choidal. Brittle. H. G. to inclining vitreous, parent TransStreak resinous. Color white,grayish, white. or greenish yellowish. 1'684. 1-686. 1-525. to translucent. a 0 Optically 7 Carbon Carbonate of barium and calcium, BaCO3.CaCO3 Comp. 100. dioxide 29'6,baryta 51 '5, lime 18'9
= =

-.

"

B.B. colors the flame yellowishgreen, and at a high temperature fuses on Pyr., etc. the thin edges and assumes a pale green color; the assay reacts alkaline after ignition. Soluble in dilute hydrochloricacid with effervescence. Dilute solution gives an abundant precipitate, BaSO4, with a few drops of sulphuricacid. Obs. Occurs at Alston Moor in Cumberland, England, in limestone with barite and fluorite.
" "

ROSASITE. 2CuO.3CuC03.5ZnC03?. Mammillary blue color. From Sardinia. Rosas mine at Sulcis, G.
=

fibrous of

bright

green

to

sky-

with radiated structure. Bismutospharite. Bi2(CO3)3.2Bi2O3. In spherical forms 7 '42. Color yellow to gray or blackish brown. From Schneeberg, Saxony. Also sparinglyat Willimantic and Portland, Conn., as a result of the alteration of bismuthinite. From the Stewart mine, Pala,San Diego Co.,Cal. from alteration Rutherfordine. A yellow ocher resulting Uranyl carbonate,UO2CO3. 4*8. G. of uraninite. From Uruguru Mts., German East Africa. Rhomboof the cerium metals, [(Ce,La,Di)F]2Ca(C03)2. Parisite. A fluocarbonate hedral. Crystalssmall and slender. Habit pyramidal or prismatic. Crystalshorizontally 4*358. Color brownish 4'5. combination of faces. H. G. grooved due to oscillatory bia; 1*676. 1757. From the emerald mines, Muso, Colomyellow. Optically+ co e Ravalli, Mon.; Quincy, Mass.; Montorfano, Italy; Narsarsuk, Greenland (syn= = = =

chisite)
.

Other parisitecontaining barium from Narsarsuk, South Greenland. is parisite. and named thought to be a new species synchisite 4 '5H. A fluocarbonate of the cerium metals (RF)COs. Bastnasite. Hamartite. G. 4 '948. Color wax-yellow to reddish brown. Strong birefringence. Uniaxial,+. the Bastnas Also in parallel 1715. From growth with mine, Riddarhyttan, Sweden. cc to the east of AmboFound tysonitein the graniteof the Pike's Peak region in Colorado. sitra, Madagascar. In small pyramids with curved Orthorhombic. Ancylite. 4Ce(OH)CO3.3SrCO3.3H2O. sible. Infufaces and 3 '9. Color lightyellow, orange, G. brown, gray. edges. H. =4'5. From Narsarsuk, Greenland. WeibyeUe is a related mineral.

Cordyliteis

material from

Narsarsuk

Ambatoarinite.

carbonate

of strontium

and

the
groups.

rare

earths.

Orthorhombic?
1'66. From

with crystals parallel forming skeleton-like axes, near toarina, Ambositra, Madagascar.

Index,

"

In Arnba-

450
PHOSGENITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Tetragonal. Axis
"

1-0876.

sometimes Crystals prismatic;

tabular

sectile. H. Rather Cleavage: m(110), a(100) distinct;also c(001). Color white, adamantine. Luster gray, and yellow. 6-0-6-3. G. 275-3.
= =

Streak white.

Transparent

to translucent.

+. Optically
or

2-114.

Comp."
carbonate

of lead, (PbCl)2CO3 Chlorocarbonate 100. 49'0,lead chloride 51*0

=
"

PbCO3.PbCl2

Lead

white which on cooling becomes melts readily to a yellow globule, of lead white with coating metallic a in R.F. lead, On charcoal gives and crystalline. chloride. Dissolves with effervescence in dilute nitric acid and solution reacts for chlorine with silver nitrate. Pom and MonteMatlock in Derbyshire; at Gibbas, Monte At Cromford Obs. near South Wales; Dundas, Tasmania. New Broken Hill, From vecchio in Sardinia.

Pyr., etc.

B.B.

"

G. H. 3'5-4. octahedrons. In isometric Northupite. MgCO3.Na2CO3.NaCl. Borax From T514. Co.,Cal. Lake, San Bernardino White to yellow or gray, n H. G. 3'5. habit. Octahedral Tychite. 2MgCO3.2Na2CO3.Na2SO4. Isometric. associated San Bernardino Borax Co., Cal., From Lake, rare. 2'5. n l;51. Very with northupite.
= =

2'38.

B.
Teschemacherite.

ACID, BASIC,
Acid
=

AND

HYDROUS

CARBONATES
Orthorhombic.
From guano In yellowish deposits of

ammonium 1'45. to 'white crystals. G. Africa,Patagonia, the Chincha Islands.

carbonate, HNH4CO3. Indices, 1'423-1'536.

MALACHITE.

61" 50'. : 0-4012; $ acicular prisms (mm"' 110 A 110 Crystals rarely distinct, usuallyslender, 75" 40'), grouped in tufts and rosettes. Twins: tw. pi.a(100) common. and with surface botryoidal, or stalactitic, Commonly massive or incrusting, and banded in color; structure divergent; often delicately compact fibrous, Monoclinic. Axes
a :

: c

0-8809

frequently granularor earthy. Cleavage: c(001) perfect;6(010) less

Brittle.
H.
=

so.

Fracture

even. subconchoidal,un-

Luster of crystals 3-9-4-03. G. admantine, to vitreous;of fibrous varieties more less silky;often dull and inclining or subStreak Translucent to earthy. Color bright green. paler green. translucent to opaque. 1'88. /3 Optically Basic cupric carbonate, CuC03.Cu(OH)2 Carbon dioxide Comp. 100. 19-9,cupric oxide 71-9,water 8'2 3-5-4.
=
"

"

flame

B.B. fuses at 2, coloring the blackens and yields water. with the fluxes reacts like is reduced to metallic copper; cuprite. Soluble in acids with effervescence. Diff. Characterized by green color and -copper reactions B.B.; differs from other of a green color in its effervescence with acids. copper ores Artif. Malachite has been formed artificially ate carbonby heating precipitated copper with a solution of ammonium carbonate for several days. Obs. Common with other ores of copper and as a product of their alteration ; thus as a pseudomorph after cuprite and azurite. Occurs abundantly in the Ural Mts.; at Chessy in France; in Cornwall and in Cumberland, England; in Germany at Rheinbreitbach; Dillenburg, Nassau; Betzdorf near Siegen. At the copper mines of Nizhni Tagilsk, Russia; with the copper ores of Cuba; Chile; at the Cobar mines and elsewhere in New bouth Wales; South Australia; Rhodesia. In crystals from Katanga, Congo, and Mindouh, French Congo.
" " " "

In the closed tube etc. Pyr., charcoal on emerald-green;

CARBONATES

451

In Pa.,at Cornwall, Occurs in N. J., at Schuyler's Brunswick. mines, and at New In Wis., at the copper mines, Lebanon Co.; at the Perkiomen and Phenixville lead-mines. of Mineral and acicular crystals, with Abundantly in fine masses Point, and elsewhere. calcite at the Copper Queen mine, Bisbee, Cochise Co., Ariz.; also in Graham Co., at in stalactitic forms of malachite and azurite in concentric Morenci (6 m. from Clifton), bands. At the Santa Rita mines, Grant Tintic district, Co., and elsewhere in N. M. In pseudomorphs from Good Named Utah. from naXaxi), mallows, in Springs, Nev. allusion to the green color. An ore of copper; at times as an ornamental Use. stone.
"

AZURITE.

Monoclinic.
761

Axes

: c

0-8501
762

0-8805; 0

87" 36'.
763

mm'",
ac,

110 100 001 023

110 001 101 023

A
A

ca,

II',

80" 41'. 87" 36'. 44" 46'. 60" 47'.

ppf,
cm,

021 001 001 221

A
A

021 110 243 221

cd, hhf,

A A

120" 88" 54" 73"

47'. 10'. 29'. 56'.

in habit and highlymodified. Also massive, and presenting imitative shapes, having a columnar composition;also dull and earthy. but interrupted; a(100) less perfect;ra(HO) in Cleavage: p(021)perfect ter Lus3-77-3-83. 3-5-4. conchoidal. Brittle. H. G. Fracture traces. Color shades of adamantine. various a lmost p assing azure-blue, vitreous, than the color. Transparent to subStreak blue, lighter into Berlin-blue.

varied Crystals

translucent,
"

1730.

0-=

1-758.

1-838.
=

Basic cupric carbonate, 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Comp. 100. 25-6,cupricoxide 69-2,water 5 -2

=

Carbon

dioxide

Pyr., etc.
Diff. B.B. Artif
"

Same as in malachite. Characterized by its blue

"

color; effervescence

in nitric

acid;

copper

reactions

Azurite tact has been formed by allowing a solution of copper nitrate to lie in conwith fragments of calcite for several years. in France at Chessy, near Occurs in splendid crystallizations Obs. Lyons, whence it in in Siberia; Moldawa Also in fine crystals derived the name Chessy Copper or chessylite. Redruth in Cornwall; in Devonshire and Derbythe Banat, Hungary; at Wheal Buller, shire, near England; at Broken Hill and elsewhere in New South Wales; South Australia. In Wis., New Brunswick. in crystals. In N. J.,near Occurs in Pa., at Phenixville, in Graham In Ariz.,at the Longfellow and other mines Mineral Point. Co.; with near In Grant at the Copper Queen mine, Bisbee; at Morenci. malachite in beautiful crystals In mine in the Tintic district and in Tooele Co., Utah. At the Mammoth Co., N. M.
"

"

Cal.,Calaveras
Use.
"

Co., at Hughes's mine, in crystals.

ore

of copper. of zinc and copper, basic carbonate 2(Zn,Cu)CO3,.3(Zn,Cu)(OH)2. Luster In drusy incrustations. G. 3'54-3'64. Orthorhombic? pearly. Color pale From the Altai Mts., Mongolia; Chessy, near to sky-blue. Indices,1 '634^1 '682. green In Lyons, France; Rezbdnya, Hungary; Ondarroa, Vizcaya, Spain; Chihuahua, Mexico. the United States, at Lancaster,Pa.; Salida, Col.; the Santa Caterina Mts., Ariz.; Beaver
An Aurichalcite.

Co., Utah; Kelly, N. M. Hydrozincite. A basic zinc carbonate, perhaps ZnCO3.2Zn(pH)2. Massive, fibrous, 3'58-3'8. Color white, grayish or yellowish. earthy or compact, as incrustations. G.
=

452
Index,
Dolores
Mo. 1-695.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Occurs

at

mines

of zinc, as
From

mine, Santander, Spain.

In the United

fidano,Sardinia.

States at

In great quantitiesat the result of alteration. Chihuahua, Mexico; Bleyberg, Belgium; MalFriedensville, Pa.; at Linden, in Wis.; Granby,
a

ute carbonate of uncertain composition. In crusts showing minA basic cadmium OTAVITE. the Otavi district, German rhombohedral crystals. Color white to reddish. From Africa. Southwest

less Hydrocerussite. A basic lead carbonate, probably2PbCO3.Pb(pH)2.In thin colorhexagonal plates. Index, 2 '07. Occurs as a coating on native lead, at Langban, Sweden; with galena at Wanlockhead, Scotland. In of lead and aluminium, Pb(AlO)2(CO3)2.4H2O. A basic carbonate Dundasite. From Dundas and small spherical aggregates of radiatingacicular crystals. Color white. Mt. Read, Tasmania, and from near Trefriw,Carnarvonshire,Wales; Wensley, Derbyshire; near Maam, County Gal way, Ireland. and of aluminium A Dawsonite. basic carbonate sodium, Na3Al(CO3)3.2Al(OH)3. In thin incrustations of white radiatingbladed crystals. Perfect cleavage, Orthorhombic. Found 2-40. McGill on a feldspathic dike near Indices, 1-466-1-596. ra(110). G. From the province of Siena,Pian Castagnaio, Tuscany, Italy Montreal. College,
=

G. Occurs m l'S-1'6. carbonate, Na2CO3.H2O. the soil in many dry regions. In radiating groups Nesquehonite. Hydrous magnesium carbonate, MgCO3.3H2O. of prismaticcrystals. G. Colorless to white. 1 '83-1-85. Biaxial, Indices,1-4951'526. From See lansfordite, at Nesquehoning, Schuylkill a coal mine Co., Pa. p. 453. Natron. in carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O. Hydrous sodium nature Occurring only in in the soda lakes of Egypt, and elsewhere, mixed with the other sodium as or solution, Thermonatrite. various lakes, and

Hydrous sodium
an

as

efflorescence

over

=""

"

carbonates.
Pirssonite.

CaCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O.
=

In

H.

=3.

G.

Lake, San

Colorless to white. Bernardino, Cal.

2'35.

prismatic crystals, orthorhombic-hemimorphic. Optically +. I'504-r575. Borax Indices,

GAY-LUSSITE.

Monoclinic.
764

Axes

: c

1 -4897

1-4442;0
mm'", ee',
me, 110 Oil 110 112 A A A A

27'. _78"
UO Oil Oil 112
=

111"

765

rrf,

10'. 109" 30'. 42" 21'. 69" 29'.

often elongated|| Crystals also a axis; wedge-shaped. Cleavage: m (110)perfect; c (001)rather difficult. Fracture conchoidal. Very brittle. flattened
H. 2-3. G. vitreous. Color Streak uncolored
= =

1-93-1-95.
to
" .

Luster

white,yellowish white.
cent. grayish. Translua
=

Optically
T517.,
Comp.
"

1*444

1-518.

Hydrous
"

Calcium

carbonate of calcium and carbonate 33-8,sodium carbonate

in
a

sodium, CaCO3.Na2CO3. 100. 35-8, water 30-4

=

Pyr.,etc.
"

Dissolve! ^^'l ""Vu^ briskyeffervesoene brisk paper. in Venezuela, in crystals disseminated "a^Merida" at the botton" of r^ll aVLa?Un^ "f day' trona. Also abundant in Little Salt covermg So" iM ' 'SV1 ^ Desert Lake Ragtown, Nev, deposited upon the evaporath%Carsfm 'Fn tion of the t"tPr Sweetwater
"
or

closed tube decrepitates and becomes the flame inten^ly yellow. effervescence; partly soluble in water, and reddens turmeric

Heated

B.B. fuses opaque. in acids with a

near

cms

VaUey'

Wv'

Named

after

1850)

Gay Lussac,the

French

CARBONATES

453
orthorhombic

Lanthanite.

La2(CO3)3.9H2O.
2 '605.

In thin tabular
ores

crystals;also granular,
"

earthy. G.

Color

white, pink, yellowish. Optically grayish

of the Saucon

Found

cerite at Bastnas, Sweden; with zinc Sandford iron-ore bed, Moriah, N. Y.

valley, Lehigh Co., Pa.;

ing coatat the

TRONA.'

Urao.

Monoclinic.

Axes
ca, co, 001 001 111

: c
=

2-8460: 1:

2-9700;0

77" 23'.
766

A A A

100

77" 23'. 75" 53^. 47" 35|'.

Til
111

oo", Often fibrous Fracture uneven 2-11-2-14. G.

=

or

columnar
to

massive.
H.

in traces. o (111) Cleavage:a (100)perfect; ; c (001) subconchoidal.

=

2*5-3.

Luster

Color vitreous, glistening.

gray

Translucent. alkaline. Optically". Taste or yellowish white. Index, 1-507. Carbon ide dioxNa2CO3.HNaCO3.2H2O or 3Na2O.4CO3.5H20 Comp.
"

38-9,soda 41-2,water

19-9

100.

established the above composition for urao, and showed that trona, sometimes Chatard called sesquicarbonateof soda," is an impure form of the same compound. In the closed tube yields and carbon dioxide. B.B. imparts an water Pyr., etc. intenselyyellowcolor to the flame. Soluble in water, and effervesces with acids. Reacts alkaline with moistened test-paper. in the province of Fezzan, Africa, Obs. Found forming thin superficial crusts; Natroun lakes,Egypt; from Vesuvius; at the bottom of a lake at Lagunilla,Venezuela. An extensive Efflorescences of trona occur the Sweetwater near river, Rocky Mountains. In fine crystals bed in Churchill Co., Nev. at Borax lake,San Bernardino Co., Cal.,with
"
" "

etc. thenardite, hanksite,glauberite, Basic magnesium Crystals Hydromagnesite. carbonate, 3MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.3H2O. small,tufted. Also amorphous; as chalky crusts. Color and streak white. Index, 1 '530. with serpentine; thus at Hrubschiitz,in Moravia; at Kraubat, Styria,etc. Often occurs similar from saline crusts Also similarly near Texas, Pa.; Hoboken, N. J. Material closely has been called giorgiosite. lava at Alpharoessa,Santorin Island, on In lightgray From forms. the Hydrogiobertite. MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.2H2O. spherical neighborhood of Pollena,Italy. Deposited from Phillips Springs,Napa Co., Cal. H. Artinite. 2'0. Orthorhombic. MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.3H2O. Radiating fibrous. 1'54. From White, Val Laterna 2-0. and Emarede, Val Aosta, Piedmont, G. ft Italy. Occurs as Lansfordite. Biaxial 3MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.21H2O. Indices,1'42-1-503. small stalactites in the anthracite mine at Nesquehoning near Co., Lansford, Schuylkill Pa.; changed on exposure to nesquehonite. age. Brugnatellite.MgCO3.5Mg(OH)2.Fe(OH)3.4H2O. Micaceous/lamellar. Perfect cleavSanta T53. Found at Torre Color flesh-pink, in an old asbestos mine Maria, Val Malenco, Lombardy, Italy. A basic hydrous calcium, GAJITE. cleavage. magnesium carbonate. Rhombqhedral H. G. 3'5. 2'62. Granular structure. Color,white. Strong birefringence. Found near Plesce,in the district Gorskikotar,Croatia.
=
= =

-.

co

Stichtite.

2MgCO3.5Mg(OH)2.2Cr(OH)3.
or

Micaceous.
"

In scales.
.

G.=

2'16.

Color

feebly biaxial. Optically Index, 1'54. An alteration Dundas, Tasmania. Zaratite. also Emerald Nickel. NiCO3.2Ni(OH)2.4H2O. Inmammillary incrustations; at Texas, Lancaster Color emerald-green. Occurs on chromite Co., massive, compact. Pa.; at Swinaness, Unst, Shetland; Igdlokunguak, Greenland. A rose-colored incrustation, soft and Remingtonite. A hydrous cobalt carbonate. earthy. From a copper mine near Finksburg, Carroll Co., Md.; Boleo, Lower California.
lilac. Optically uniaxial from product of serpentine

454
Tengerite. Co., Tex.
A

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

supposedyttrium carbonate.
A

In white

coatings. pulverulent
with

linite at Ytterby, Sweden. Bismutite.

A

similar mineral

is associated

On gadoof Llano the gadolinite

or earthy carbonate,perhaps Bi2O3.CO2.H2O. Incrusting, low 6'86-6'9 Breith.; 7 '67 Rg. Color white,green, yelin Germany, at Schneeberg and Johanngeorgenstadt, and gray. Index, 2'25. In the United States, in S. C., at with native bismuth, and at Joachimstal,Bohemia. Brewer's mine; hi Gaston Co., N. C. In scaly or granular crystalline aggregates. Uranothallite. 2CaCO3.U(CO3)2.10H2O. Color siskin-green.Occurs on uraninite at Joachimstal,Bohemia. In mammillary concretions, Liebigite. A hydrous carbonate of uranium and calcium. uraninite Occurs near Adrianople,Turkey; also on Color thin apple-green. or coatings. Germany, and Joachimstal,Bohemia. Johanngeorgenstadt, In aggregations of Voglite. A hydrous carbonate of uranium, calcium and copper. From Elias mine, near the to Color scales. bright emerald-green grass-green. crystalline Bohemia. on uraninite, Joachimstal,

basic bismuth

and

amorphous. pulverulent;

G. Occurs

Oxygen
2.

Salts

SILICATES

anhydrous,in part hydrous,as the zeolites part strictly etc. number of the silicates a large clays, -Furthermore, and in many it is known that they or less water cases more ignition, yield upon The to be basic silicates. as therefore, regarded (oracid) line, however, are, and between the strictly silicates be cannot anhydrous hydrous sharplydrawn, since with many which yieldwater the part played by species ignition upon the elements formingthe water is as yet uncertain. Furthermore,in the cases the several strict arrangement must of be deviated from, since the groups, relation of the species is best exhibited by introducing the related hydrous immediatelyafter the others. species This chaptercloses with a section including the Titanates, Silico-titanates, the Silicates with the Niobates and etc., which connect Titano-niobates, Tantalates. Some Titanates have alreadybeen included among the Oxides.
The Silicates are and the amorphous
in

Section

A. I.

ChieflyAnhydrous Silicates Disilicates, Polysilicates

Orthosilicates Subsilicates salts of disilicic and have an acid,H2Si2O5, as when the seen formula is written 1,

II. Metasilicates III. IV.

The

DISILICATES, RSi205,are

ratio of siliconto bases of 4 : oxygen after the dualistic method, RO.2Si02. The

have

salts of polysilicic acid,H4Si3O8,and : 1, as seen in 2R0.3Si02. oxygen The METASILICATES, RSiO3, are salts of metasilicic acid, H2SiO3,and have an ratio of 2 : 1. They have hence been called bisilicates. oxygen The ORTHOSILICATES, R2Si04,are salts of orthosilicic acid,H4Si04, and have an oxygen ratio of 1 : 1. They have hence been called unisilicates. The majorityof the silicatesfall into one of the last two groups.
an

POLYSILICATES,R2Si308, are
ratio of 3

456

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Feldspar Group
a.

Monoclinic

Section
a

Orthoclase

Soda-Orthoclase

KAlSi3O8 {(K,Na) AlSi3O8

0-6585

0'5554

116"

3'

Hyalophane
Celsian

\(Na,K)AlSi3O8 (K2,Ba)Al2Si4Oi2
BaAl2Si208
j8. Triclinie Section

0*6584 0-657

0'5512
0'554

115" 35' 115" 2'

Microcline

KAlSi3O8

Soda-microcline
Anorthoclase

(K,Na)AlSi3O8 (Na,K)AlSi3O8
Albite-anorthite Series.

Feldspars Plagioclase 116" 29' 116" 23' 116" 29' 116" 3' 88" 90" 9' 5'

Albite

NaAlSi308

0'6335

94"* 0*5577 :'l: 3'

93" 4'
:

Oligoclasej ^ 0'6357 (n"faf!?J?9v8 Andesine

Labradorite Anorthite The
are
as

0'6321: 1:0'5524
1 : 0'5521

93" 23' 93" 31' 93" 13'

89" 59'

0-6377:1:0-5547
J

89"54J'
91" 12' GROUP

CaAl2Si208

0-6347:1:0-5501

115" 55'
FELDSPAR

belongingin the generalcharacters of the species

follows
: or

in the monoclinic 1, Crystallization in methods

tricliniesystems, the

in different species resemblingeach other closely

angle,in

of the crystals generalhabit,and

differs but a few of twinning. The prismaticangle in all cases from 60" and 120". degrees to the base c (001)and clinoin two similar directions parallel 2, Cleavage 6 (010), inclined at an angleof 90" or nearly90". (orbrachypinacoid) pinacoid 2"5 and Gravityvarying between 3, Hardness between 6 and 6'5. 4, Specific shades of 275. Color white 2-55 and between and or pale 2'9, 5, mostly of dark. In red minium alusilicates less or composition 6, yellow, commonly green, with either potassium,sodium, or calcium,and rarelybarium, while magnesium and iron are always absent. Furthermore, besides the several distinct species there are intermediate compounds having a certain many independenceof character and yet connected with each other by insensible allthe members of the series showing a close relationship not only gradations; in composition but also in crystalline form and optical characters. The species of the FeldsparGroup are classified, firstas regards form, and second with reference to composition. The monoclinic speciesinclude (see above): ORTHOCLASE, potassiumfeldspar, and SODA-ORTHOCLASE, potassiumsodium feldspar; also HYALOPHANE and CELSIAN, barium feldspars. The triclinie i nclude and ANORTHOCLASE, potassium: MICROCLINE species sodium feldspars; ALBITE, sodium feldspar; ANORTHITE, calcium feldspar. Also intermediate between albite and anorthite the isomorphous subspecies, sodium-calcium calcium-sodium or feldspars: OLIGOCLASE, ANDESINE, LABRADORITE.

SILICATES

457
Section

a.

Monoclinic

ORTHOCLASE.

Monoclinic.
767

Axes

: c

0*6585

0-5554;
769

63" 57'.
770

768

m m

mm'", 110 zz', 130

ex, cy, 001 001

A A A A

110 130 101 201

61" 58" 50" 80"

13'. 48'.

cn, cm, co,

001 001 001

A A A A

021 021

nn', 021

16|'.
18'.

110

Til

44" 89" 53 67" 47 55" 14

Carlsbad twins, Twins: tw. pi. (1) a (100),or tw. axis c, the common either of irregular penetratipm(Fig.772) or contact type; the latter usually often then (Fig.773) with c (001) and with b (010) as composition-face, be to in but etc. a x distinguished plane, by luster, cleavage, (101)nearly the Baveno ..twins forming nearlysquare prisms (Fig.774),since (2) n (021), 89" 53'; often repeated as fourlings hence cc 44" SGJ'^and cn (Fig. 447, axis. Manebach the a in*square p risms, c || elongated (3) (001), /also p. 171),
= =

771

772

773

774

776

twins laws.

(Fig. 775),usuallycontact-twins with

c as

comp.-face. Also other

rarer

in aspect (Fig. orthorhombic often prismatic || c axis; sometimes Crystals since at and inclined c 770) x (101)are nearlyequalanglesto the vertical (001) axis ; also elongated|| b (010)and c (001)nearlyequally with a axis (Fig. 771) a 6 also (100),a face not thin tabular developed; || (010):rarelytabular || often observed. cleavable to granular; sometimes Often massive, coarsely lamellar. and flint-likeor jasper-like. Also compact crypto-crystalline, m less so; prismatic somewhat 6 (110) Cleavage: c (001)perfect; (010) face than the to t o but one distinct parallel prismatic imperfect, usuallymore hemi-orthoalso other. to a t o distinct Parting sometimes parallel a (100), this may produce a satindome, inclined a few degreesto the orthopinacoid; like luster or schiller (p.251),the latter also often present when the parting

458
is not 2'57.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

distinct.
Luster

Fracture

conchoidal
c

to

uneven.

Brittle. uncolored.

H.

=6.

G.

vitreous; on

(001)often

white,pale yellow pearly. Colorless,

Streak green. gray; rarely (Fig.776). Ax. pi. usually J_ b (010), Opticallynegative in all cases from the former to the latter on increase of tem11 6, also changing sometimes and flesh-red common,

perature (see p
776

297). For
c

,*m"-,\

?i

"__"_ .7. adularia

T-"__

Bxa.r
"69"

Ac

axis
Hence

"!r"o 69"

11',Bxa.w

i -i r

ID,,

axis direction
=

37'.

to

(Fig.776) axis, or the edge b/c; thus +3" to +7" to +10" +12" in varieties rich or or usually, up also horizontal, in Na20. Dispersion p "v\ marked, or inclined, accordingto position strongly of ax. pi. Axial angles variable. Birefringence
a

Bxa and the.extinctioninclined a few degrees only

low, 7
/.

0-007

0-005.
=

For

adularia
=

ay

2Vy
"

1-5237, yy 1-5190, fty 121" 6'. 69" 43', 2Ey=

1'5260.

and potasA silicate of aluminium sium, Silica K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2 or KAlSi308 16'9 100. Sodium alumina 18-4, potash 647,

Comp.

exceeds it and sometimes is often also present, replacing part of the potassium, soda-orthoclase the under embraced name these varieties are in amount; as a barbieritehas been proposed for this material whose existence, (thename to have been proven). distinct though rare mineral, seems
habit and method of occurrence crystalline prominent varieties depend upon difference of composition. upon like The 1. Adularia. pure or nearly pure potassium silicate. Usually in crystals, parent TransG. 2 '565. twins common. Fig.770 inhabit; often with vicinal planes; Baveno Often with a pearly opalescentreflection or schiller or a delicate play or nearly so. of colors;some is here included,but the remainder moonstone belongs to albite or other of the triclinicfeldspars. The original adularia (Adular) is from the St. Gothard region in Switzerland. from the silver mine of Valencia,Mexico, is adularia. Valencianite, in crystals,often transparent and 2. Sanidine or glassy, glassy feldspar. Occurs in rhyolite, Habit embedded Germany), phonolite,etc. trachyte (as of the Siebengebirge, often tabular || 6 (010) (hence named from (ravls, board) ; also in square a tablet, or prisms Most varieties contain sodium as a prominent constituent, (6, c); Carlsbad twins common. and hence belong to the soda-orthoclase. is a sanidine-like soda-orthoNatronsanidine clase from a soda liparite from Mitrowitza,Servia. from pva", at Monte Rhyacolite. Occurs in glassy crystals Somma, Vesuvius; named stream (lavastream). 3. Isothose is said to be a variety having a different optical orientation than normal Var.
"

The

more

than

orthoclase.
4. Ordinary. In crystals, Carlsbad and other twins common; also massive or cleavable, varying in color from white to pale yellow,red or green, translucent;sometimes avent urine. Here belongs the common of granitoid rocks or granite veins. Usually contains a feldspar greater or less percentage of soda (soda-orthoclase).Compact cryptocrystalline orthoclase makes up the mass of much felsite, but to a greater or less degree admixed with quartz; of various colors, from white and brown of what to deep red. Much has been called orthoclase, or common has proved to belong to the related triclinic species, potash feldspar, microcline. Cf. p. 461 on the relations of the two species. Chesterlite and Amazon stone
are

also most microcline;

aventurine

orthoclase.

Loxoclase

contains sodium

in considerable

(7'6 Na2O); from Hammond, St. Lawrence Murchisonite is a fleshCo., N. Y. red feldspar similar to perthite(p.460),with gold-yellow reflections in a direction _|_b (010) and nearlyparallel to 701 or 801 (p.457) from Dawlish and Exeter,England. ; The spherulities noted in some volcanic rocks,as in the rhyolite of Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone Park, are believed to consist essentially of orthoclase needles with quartz.
amount

SILICATES

459
magnified)

(from Iddings; much

777

778

fuses at 5; varieties containing much soda are acted upon by acids. Mixed with powdered B. B. gives violet potassium flame visible through blue glass.

Pyr.,

etc.

"

B.B.

more

fusible.
and

clase fuses
"

at

4.

Not

gypsum

Loxoheated

Diff Characterized form and the two cleavages at rightangles to by its crystalline each other; harder than barite and calcite; not attacked by acids; difficultly fusible. Massive is much corundum harder and has a higher specific gravity.
.

low'interhence lower than those by the distinct cleavages. It is colorless in ordinary lightand may be limpid, but is frequently turbid and brownish of very minute from the presence scales of kaolin due to alteration from weathering; this in the older granularrocks,as graniteand gneiss. common change is especially Artif. Orthoclase has not been produced artificially by the methods of dry fusion. It can, however, be crystallized from a dry melt when certain other substances, like tungstic The function of these additions in the reactions acid,alkaline phosphates, etc.,are added. is not clear. Orthoclase is more It has been methods. easilyformed by hydrochemical produced by heating gelatinoussilica, alumina, caustic potash and water in a sealed tube. has also been formed Orthoclase by heating potassium silicate and water together with muscovite. Obs. in its several varieties belongs especially Orthoclase to the crystalline rocks, also porphyry, further (var., occurringas an essential constituent of granite, gneiss, syenite, sanidine) trachyte,phonolite,etc. In the massive granitoidrocks it is seldom in distinct, well-formed,separable crystals, except in veins and cavities;such crystals are more mon, comhowever, in volcanic rocks like trachyte. Adularia in the crystalline rocks of the central and eastern Alps, associated with occurs also titanite, smoky quartz and albite, apatite,etc.; the crystalsare often coated with of orthoclase, also ^n Elba. Fine crystals often twins, are obtained from Baveno, chlorite;
"
" " "

Micro. Distinguished in rock sections by its low refraction f erence-colors, which last scarcelyrise to white of the first order of quartz; also by its biaxial character in convergent lightand

and (low relief)

Lago Maggiore, Italy; the Fleimstal, Tyrol, Austria, a red variety; Bodenmais, Carlsbad, and Elbogen in Bohemia; Striegau,etc.,in Silesia. Also Arendal in Norway, and near Shaitansk in the Ural Mts.; Land's End and St. Agnes in Cornwall; the Mourne Mts., Ireland,with beryl and topaz. From Tamagama Yama, Japan, with topaz and smoky is brought from quartz. Moonstone Ceylon. Crystalsof gem quality from Itrongahy, Valencianite from Guanajuato, Mexico. Madagascar Crystals from Eganville,Ontario. In the United States, in the crystalline orthoclase is common rocks of New England,also of States south, further Colorado, California, Thus etc. at the Paris tourmaline locality, Me. In N. H., at Acworth. In Mass., at South In Conn., at Royalston and Barre. Haddam and crystals. In N. Y., in St. Lawrence Middletown, in large coarse Co., at in Lewis Co., in white limestone near Natural Bridge; at Rossie; at Hammond (loxoclase)', at Leiperville, In Pa.,in crystals Mineral Hill, Delaware Amity and Edenville. Co.; sunIn N. C., at Washington Mine, Davidson Co. In Col.,at the stone in Kennett Township. of Mt. Antero, Chaffee Co., in fine crystals, summit often twins; at Gunnison; Black

460
Hawk;

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

in Nev. and Kokomp, Summit Co., Robinson, also at other points. Also similarly Llano from Barringer Hill, Co., Texas. Large twin crystals Orthoclase is frequentlyaltered, through the action of carbonated or Alter. especially of the potash and the formation of alkaline waters; the final result is often the removal kaolin. as pseudomorphs after leucite, mica, laumontite, occur talc,chlorite, Steatite, tion by some process of soluorthoclase;and cassiterite and calcite often replacethese feldspars Cal.
"

on

substitution. In the manufacture its surface.

and Use.
"

both of porcelain,

in the

body

of the

ware

and

in the

glaze

first described,a flesh-red aventurine feldspar from Perth, Ontario, but shown clase soda-orthoclase, by Gerhard to consist of interlaminated orthosince been have and albite. Many similar occurrences noted, as also those in which the latter called microcline-perthite, microcline and albite are similarlyinterlaminated, or this is true in part of the original the structure perthite. When microcline-albite-perthite; is discernible only with the help of the microscope it is called microperthite. Brogger has of Norway, but also other feldsparscharacterized not only the microperthites investigated he assumes the existence of an extremelyfine interlamination of albite by a marked schiller; and and orthoclase || connected 801, not discernible by the microscope (cryptoperthite), with secondary planes of parting || 100 or || 801, which is probably to be explained as due to alteration. incipient PERTHITE.
As

Canada, called

Silica 51 '6, alumina K2O.BaO.2Al2O3.8SiO2. or Hyalophane. (K2,Ba)Al2(SiO3)4 21'9, In crystals, like adularia in habit (Fig.770, p. 457); also 100. baryta 16*4,potash 101 massive. less so. H. 6-6*5. G. =2*805. Cleavage: c (001)perfect;b (010)somewhat 1-547. 1*542. 1*545. Occurs in a granular dolomite in the Optically ft a. 7 mine of Jakobsberg, Sweden. Binnental,Switzerland; also at the manganese Some other feldspars containing7 to 15 p. c. BaO have been described. Celsian. BaAl2Si2Og,similar in composition to anorthite,but containingbarium instead In crystals of calcium. Monoclinic. of forms; twinned according showing a number to Carlsbad, Manebach and Baveno laws. H. Usually cleavable massive. 6-6*5. G. 3'37. Extinction on 6 (010) 28" 3'. Colorless. 1*584. Optically+ a ft 1*589. From 1*594. Name Jakobsberg, Sweden. 7 baryta-orthoclase given to mixtures of celsian and orthoclase. Paracelsian from Candoglia, is the same Piedmont, Italy, species.
= =

-.

ft. Triclinic Section MICROCLINE.

Triclinic.

Near
779

orthoclase in

angles and habit,but the angle be (010 A about 89" 30'. 001) Twins: like also polysynthetic twinning orthoclase, according to the albite and pericline laws (p. 464), common, producing two series of fine lamellae nearly at right angles to each other, hence the characteristic gratingstructure of a basal section in polarized light(Fig.779). Also massive cleavable
=

to

granular compact.

easy.

Fracture

Cleavage: c(001) perfect; 6(010) somewhat less so; M (1TO) sometimes distinct; (110) also sometimes but less distinct,
=

vitreous,on c Color white to pale cream-yellow also red, green Transparent to translucent. Ax. pi.nearly Optically-. perpendicular (82"-83") to 6 (010). Bx0 inclined 15" 26' to a normal to 6
" *'

Brittle. H. (001) sometimes pearly.

uneven.

6-6'5.

2'54-2*57

Luster

Bx"-

Extinction-angle on

c
.

+15" (001),
"=

1-522.

SILICATES The

461

essential identity of orthoclase and microcline has been urged by Mallard and the ground that the properties of the former would belong to an aggregate of submicroscopictwinning lamellae of the latter, laws. accordingto the albite and pericline

Michel-Levy on

Comp.
alumina

"

Like

KAlSi3O8 orthoclase,
=

18

potash 16*9 -4, prominent,as

sometimes
Pyr.
Diff.
structure
" "

Silica 647, or K2O.Al2O3.6Sip2 Sodium is usually present in small amount: in soda-microcline.

=

100.

"

for orthoclase. Resembles orthoclase but distinguished the grating by opticalcharacters (e.g., in polarizedlight, Fig. 779); also often shows fine twinning-striations on a basal As
"

surface (albite law). In thin sections like orthoclase but usuallyto be distinguished Micro. by the gratingin polarized like structure lightdue to triclinictwinning. conditions as much Obs. Occurs under the same orthoclase. The beautiful common from the Ural Mts., also that occurringin fine groups of largecrystals of deep amazonstone Greenland. color in the graniteof Pike's Peak, Col.,is microcline. Crystals from Ivigtut, From Antsongombato and Antoboko (amazonstone), Madagascar. Chesterlite from Poorof Mineral Hill, house quarry, Chester Co.,Pa.,and the aventurine feldspar Pa.,belong here. at Magnet Cove, Ark. at many A pure varietyoccurs Ordinary microcline is common points. Same for orthoclase;sometimes Use. ornamental material (amazonstone). as as an
" "

A triclinic Anorthoclase. Soda-microcline. with a cleavage-angle, 010 A 001, feldspar be, like that of the ordinary feldspars. Twinning as varying but little from 90". Form with orthoclase;also polysynthetic accordingto the albite and pericline laws; but in many and hence not distinct. Rhombic section (seep. the twinning laminae very narrow cases 2 '57-2 "60. Cleavage,hardness,luster, 462) inclined on 6 (010)4" to 6" to edge b/c. G.
=

of the group. c (001) on Optically ._ Extinction-angle izontal +5" 45' to +2"; on b (010)6" to 9.8". Bxa nearly _L y (201). Dispersionp " v; hor1'523. perature, 1'529. 1'531. Axial angle variable with temdistinct, a /3 7 becoming in part monoclinic in optical symmetry between 86" and 264" C., but again triclinicon cooling;this is true of those containinglittlecalcium. Chiefly a soda-potash,feldsparNaAlSisOs and KAlSi3p8, the sodium silicate usuallyin of albite and orthoclase molecules. cium Calas if consisting largerproportion(2 : 1, 3 : 1,etc.), small amount. is also present in relatively very (CaAl2Si2p8) from the andesitic lavas of These triclinic soda-potash feldsparsare chieflyknown from a rock,called pantellerite. Most Also prominent of these feldspars Pantelleria. come of southern Chrisfrom the augite-syenite near Norway and from the " Rhomben-porphyr in crystals, and twinned according tabular j| tiania. Here is referred also a feldspar c (001), and less often Baveno of the rhyolite of laws occurringin the lithophyses to the Manebach Park. It shows the blue opalescence in a direction parallel Obsidian Cliff.Yellowstone with a steep orthodome (cf. p. 457).
and

color

as

with other
=

members

"

"

Albite-Anorthite

Series.

Plagioclase Feldspars*

Between

the

isomorphous species
NaAlSisOg
CaAl2Si208
Ab
An

ALBITE

ANORTHITE there
are

of intermediate subspecies, as a number regarded, urged by Tscherand defined according to the isomorphous mixtures of these molecules, ratio in which they enter; their compositionis expressedin generalby the formula AbnAnm. They are:

mak,

as

OLIGOCLASE ANDESINE
LABRADORITE

Ab6Ani Ab3Ani AbiAni

AbiAn3

to to
to

Ab3Ani

and

Bytownite

to

AbiAn6

albite through the successive intermediate compounds to anorthite From with the progressive gravity, melting change in composition (also specific
* The triclinic in which the two cleavages6 (010)and c (001)are of this series, feldspars often called in generalplagioclase oblique). (from Tr\ayios, are oblique to each other,

462

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

form, and change in crystallographic there is also a corresponding etc.), points, properties. in certain fundamental optical ratios and anglesgiven on p. 456 show that axial The Form. Crystalline triclinic feldspars these 781 780 ly approach orthoclase closein

form, the
difference

most

vious ob-

being in 6c010 the cleavage-angle

is 90" in A 001, which 86" 24' in albite, orthoclase, 50' in anorthite. a change in the axial angle 7, which is about 90" in 88" in albite, oligoclaseand andesine, This and 91" in anorthite. still transition appears c with twinning lamellae. Fig. 780 section || Plagioclase the in more strikingly ary ordinFig. 784), (001)showing vibration-directions(cf. of the rhombic in position section polarizedlight. light;Fig. 781 the section,"by which law united below. the to are as twins according pericline explained often twinned in accordance are feldspars Twinning. The plagioclase laws with orthoclase and Manebach common with the Carlsbad, Baveno, is also almost universal according to the albite law (p.457). Twinning i.e., twinning plane the brachypinacoid; this is usually polysynthetic, in the form of thin lamellae, givingrise to fine striations on the basal repeated surface (Figs. 780, 781). Twinning is also common accordingto the cleavage axis the axis law when twinning macrodiagonal polysynthetic 6; pericline this givesanother series of fine striations seen the brachypinacoid. on and 85"
There is also
"
" "

in this pericline in The composition-plane twinningis a plane passingthrough the crystal such a direction that its intersections with the prismaticfaces and the brachypinacoid make The position of this rhombic section and the consequent equalplaneangleswith each other. direction of the striations on the brachypinacoid change rapidly with a small variation in be said to be approximatelyparallel it may the angle 7. In general to the base, but in albite it is inclined backward (+, Figs. 782 and 784) and in anorthite to the front (" , Fig. with the composition. 783); for the intermediate speciesits positionvaries progressively 782 783
784

Fig.782, Rhombic
Thus

section in albite. 783, Same in anorthite. 784, Typicalform + and extinction-directions on c (001) and 6 (010).
"

showing

for the angle between the trace of this plane on the brachypinacoid and the edge have for Albite +22" to +20"; for Oligoclase+9" to +1" +3""; for Andesine to -2"; for Labradorite -9" to -10"; for Anorthite -15" to -17".
we 6/c,

464 that is Z itive,

the

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Bx; for certain Bx, while anorthite is negative or X 90". is andesines sensibly angle Iddings)shows the variation in the extinction angleson Fig. 786 (after for the different mixtures of the albite b (010), c (001) and the cleavage faces,
=
"

axial

and

anorthite molecule.
"

In rock sections the plagioclase Micro. feldsparsare distinguishedby their lack of and low interference-colors, which in good sections are mainly low refractive relief, color, dark gray and scarcelyrise into white of the first order; also by their biaxial character in told by the parallel bands or fine converging light. In the majority of cases they are easily due to the multiple twinning according to the albite lamellae which pass through them law; one set of bands or twin lamellae exhibits in general a different interference-color not only from quartz and from the other (cf. Figs.780, 781). They are thus distinguished but from all the common with which they are often associated, orthoclase, rock-making the different speciesand sub-species To distinguish from one minerals. another, as albite difficult. In sections having a definite orientation from laboradorite or andesine,is more 6 (010)) this can be done by determining the extinction angles (cf generally c (001)and || (|| are required;these are p. 462 and Fig. 784). In general in rock sections specialmethods discussed in the various texts devoted to this subject.
.

ALBITE.

Triclinic. 88" 9'.

787

Axed

: c

0*6335

0-5577; a

94"
010 110 010 001 001 001
as

3',(3
A A A A A A 001 110 110 110 110 101

116"

29',

788

be, mM, bm,

cm,

59" 60" 65" 69"

86" 24'. 14'.

26'.

cM,
ex,

17'. 10'. 52" 16'.

orthoclase; the tw. pi. common, b (010),albite law (p. 462), usually contact-twins, and

Twins also very

with

polysynthetic, consistingof
and with sequent confine striations on c(001) (Fig. 790); tw. axis b axis, peridine law,contact-twins whose composition-face is the rhombic section (Figs. 782 and 792); often polysynthetic and showing fine striations which 6 (010) on inclined backward are +22" to the edge b/c. Crystals often tabular || b (010); also 6 axis as in the variety pericline. elongated|| Also massive, either lamellar or granular;the laminae often curved, sometimes divergent; granular varieties occasionally quite fine to

thin

lamellae

impalpable. Cleavage: c(001)perfect; 6(010)somewhat less so; m (110)imperfect. Fracture uneven

conchoidal. Brittle. H. 6-6*5. G. 2-62-2-65. Luster vitreous; on a cleavage surface often pearly. Color white; also occasionally
to
= =

bluish,gray,
green;

reddish,greenish,and Transparent
to

sometimes having a bluish opalescence or play of colors on c (001). Streak uncolored. translucent.

sub-

SILICATES

465

30' to 2" on c, Optically-!-. Extinction-anglewith edge b/c =4-4" +20" to 15" on b (Fig. 782). Dispersion for Bxa, p " v; also clined, and inhorizontal; for Bx0, ^91 ^92 " inclined, crossed. v, p
=

a=l-531. 1-540.

J3

l'"

2V=
"

77".
y
"

fringence weak,
0-009.

Comp.
aluminium

silicate of

and

sodium,
19'5, soda

Pericline

NaAlSi3O8 or NaaO.Al20". Silica 687, alumina 6SiO2 present in small amount,

=

11 -8 =100. Calcium is usually creases this inas (CaAl2Si2O8),and sium it graduatesthrough oligoclase-albite to oligoclase (cf. p. 466). Potasas

anorthite

may

also be

present, and

it is then

connected

with

anorthoclase

and

microcline.
b (010). The often tabular || Var. and massive. The crystals Ordinary. In crystals Permassive forms are usually curved laminae. or nearly pure white, and often show wavy named from Trepto-repa, pigeon. isterite is a whitish adularia-like albite,slightlyiridescent, Pericline from the chloritic schists of the Aventurine and moonstone varieties also occur. with characteristic elongation in the direction white crystals, Alps is in rather large opaque in Figs.791 and 792, and commonly twinned of the 6 axis, with this as the twinning as shown axis (pericline law). B.B. fuses at 4 to a colorless or white glass, imparting an intense yellow to Pyr., etc. the flame. Not acted upon by acids. Diff. Resembles barite in some gravity; forms, but is harder and of lower specific does not effervesce with acid (likecalcite). Distinguished opticallyand by the common twinning striations on c (001) from orthoclase; from the other triclinic feldsparspartially by specific gravity and better by opticalmeans (seep. 463). which see. Artif. Albite acts, in regard to its artificialformation, like orthoclase, Obs. Albite is a constituent of many those of alkaline type, igneous rocks,especially In as granite,elaeolite-syenite, diorite, etc.; also in the corresponding feldspathiclavas. with orthoclase or microcline,and similar aggregaperthite(p. 460) it is interlaminated tions, in many Albite is common also often on a microscopic scale,are rocks. common in gneiss, and sometimes in the crystalline often schists. Veins of albitic granite are maline, of the rarer minerals and of fine crystallizations of gems, includingberyl,tourrepositories in granular limestone. allanite, columbite, etc. It is found in disseminated crystals Some of the most prominent European localities are in cavities and veins in the granite or granitoidrocks of the Swiss and Austrian Alps, associated with adularia,smoky quartz, : it is often implanted in parallel position rarer chlorite, titanite, apatite,and many species the orthoclase. Thus in the Alps the St. Gothard near Modane, region; Roc Tourne upon Greiner, Tyrol; Savoie; on Mt. Skopi (pericline); Tavetschtal; in Austria at Schmirnand also Pfitsch, Tyrol, in simple crystals. Rauris, the Zillertal, Krimml, Schneeberg in Passeir, Also Hirschberg in Silesia; Also in DaupLine, France, in similar association;Elba. Penig in the Ilmen in Saxony; with topaz at Mursinka Miask in the Ural Mts. and near Mts.; from Greenland. Mts. in Ireland. Fine crystals Cornwall, England; Mourne In the United States,in Me., at Paris,with red and blue tourmalines,also at Topsham. In Mass., at Chesterfield, in lamellar masses bluish,also fine granu(cleavelandite) slightly lar. spar feldIn N. H., at Acworth In Conn., at Haddam; at the Middletown and Alstead. In N. Y., at Moriah, Essex quarries,at Branchville,in fine crystalsand massive. In Pa., at Co., of a greenish color;at Diana, Lewis Co., and Macomb, St. Laurence Co. in splendid Amelia Court-House In Va., at the mica mines Chester Co. Union ville, near In Col.,in the Pike's Peak region with smoky quartz and amazonstone. crystallizations. color. The albite is derived from name albus,white, in allusion to its common varieties which Use. Same orthoclase but not as so commonly employed; some material known show an opalescent play of colors when as polished form the ornamental
"
"

"

"

"

"

moonstone.

466 Oligoclase.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

86" 32'. Twins observed be, 010 A 001 laws. a nd Crystalsnot common. pericline Carlsbad,albite, cleavable to compact. Usuallymassive, Fracture conchoidal less so. 6 (010)somewhat Cleavage: c (001)perfect; Triclinic.

Axes,

see

p. 456.

accordingto the

to

21-65-2 '67. Luster vitreous to some6-6 -5. G. what of faint with Color a tinge grayish usuallywhitish, pearly or waxy. reddish;sometimes aventurine. white, reddish white,greenish, green, grayish see Opticalcharacters, Transparent, subtranslucent. p. 463. albite and anorthite and corresponding Intermediate between Comp.
uneven.

Brittle. H.

"

to

Ab6Ani
"

to

to Ab3Ani, Ab2Ani, but chiefly

p. 461.

1. Ordinary. In crystals Var. or more commonly massive, cleavable. The varieties 2. Aventurine or sunoligoclase, containingsoda up to 10 p. c. are called oligoclase-albite. with internal yellowish usually the latter, stone,is of a grayish white to reddish gray color, of probably either reddish fire-likereflections proceeding from disseminated or crystals hematite or gothite. B.B. fuses at 3-5 to a clear or enamel-like glass. Not materially acted Pyr., etc. by acids. upon Diff. See orthoclase (p.459) and albite (p.465); also pp. 456, 463. Obs. Occurs in porphyry, granite,syenite,and also in different effusive rocks,as It is sometimes andesite. associated with orthoclase in granite or other granite-like rock. Among its localitiesare Danviks-Zoll near Stockholm, Sweden; Pargas in Finland; Shaitansk,Ural Mts.; in syeniteof the Vosges Mts., France; at Albula in Orisons,Switzerland; Marienbad, Bohemia; in France at Chalanches in Allemont, and Bourg d'Oisans, Dauphine; at Hittero,Norway; Lake at Tvedestrand, Norway; as sunstone Baikal,Siberia. In the United States, St. Lawrence at Fine and Macomb, Co., N. Y., in good crystals; at Danbury, Conn., with orthoclase and danburite;Haddam, Conn.; at the emery mine, Chester,Mass., granular; at Unionville, and corundum; Mineral Hill, Pa., with euphyllite Delaware N. C., in clear glassy masses, showing cleavage but no Co., Pa.; at Bakersville, in 1826 by Breithaupt from 0X1705,little, and /cXao-is, twinning. Named fracture.
" " "

Andesine.

86" 14'. Twins with be, 010 A 001 as p. 456. Usuallymassive,cleavable or granular. Cleavage: c (001) perfect; b (010) less so; also M (110) sometimes observed. H. 5-6. G. 2'68-2'69. Color white,gray, greenish, ish, yellowflesh-red. Luster subvitreous to pearly. Opticalcharacters, see p. 463. Intermediate between albite and anorthite, Comp. corresponding to
see
= = =
"

Triclinic. Axes, albite. Crystals rare.

Ab

An

in the ratio of 3
"

2, 4

3 to 1

1,see

p. 461.

Fuses in thin splinters before the blowpipe. Imperfectly soluble in acids: Observed in many granular and volcanic rocks; thus occurs in the Andes, at Marmato, Colombia, as an ingredient of the rock called andesite; in the porphyry of 1 JLsterel, Dept. du Var, France; in the syeniteof Alsace in the Vosges Mts.; at Vapnefiord, Iceland; Bodenmais, Bavaria; Frankenstein, Silesia. Sanford, Me., with vesuvianite Common in the igneous rocks of the from Sardinia and Greenland. Rocky Mts. Crystals
r., etc.
"
_

Obs.

Labradorite.

Labrador

Feldspar.
=

Triclinic. Axes, see 86" 4'. p. 456. Cleavage angle be 010 A 001 Forms and twinning similar to the other plagioclase species. Crystalsoften very thin tabular 1 1b (010) ; and rhombic in outline bounded by cy or ex (Fig. 455, p. 172). Also massive,cleavable or granular; sometimes crvptocrvstalhne or hornstone-like.

Cleavage:c (001)perfect; b (010)less so;

*T
~~

(110)sometimes

distinct.

5~b"

G"

270-272.

vitreous

or

Duster on c pearly, where passinginto vitreous;elsesubresinous. Color gray, brown, or greenish;sometimes

SILICATES

467

colorless and glassy; rarelyporcelainwhite; usuallya beautiful 6 (010). Streak uncolored. colors in cleavable varieties, || especially subtranslucent. to see Opticalcharacters, p. 463. Play of colors
Blue and
a common

change of
lucent Trans-

colorless cryscharacter,but sometimes wanting as in some tals. and pearl-gray the predominant colors; but yellow,fire-red, also blue color of labradorite as an interference-phenomoccur. Vogelsang regards the common enon due to its lamellar structure, while the golden or reddish schiller, with the other colors, is due to the presence of black acicular microlites and yellowishred microscopic lamellae, or effect of these with the blue reflections. Schrauf has examined to the combined the inclusions,
green
are

their of them.

position, etc.,and (See references on

"

p.

given the 181.)

between

names

and microplakite

to microphyllite

two

groups

Comp. to chiefly

Intermediate
:

albite and
1
:

anorthite
:

and

corresponding

Ab

An

in

ratio of from

1 to 1

3, p. 461.

labradorite proper and anorthite have been embraced The feldsparswhich lie between under the name by Tschermak bytownite. The originalbytownite of Thomson was a mineral found in a boulder near rio, greenishwhite feldspathic Bytown (now Ottawa) in OntaCanada.
B.B. fuses at 3 to a colorless glass. Decomposed with difficulty by hydrochloric acid,generallyleaving a portion of undecomposed mineral. but not universal character. Diff. The beautiful play of colors is a common wise Otherthe other feldspars(pp. 459, 465). as are distinguished Obs. Labradorite is an essential constituent of various igneous rocks,especially of the basic kinds, and usually associated with some member of the pyroxene or amphibole Thus with hypersthene in norite,with diallagein gabbro, with some form of groups. in diabase,basalt,dolerite, also andesite, etc. Labradorite also occurs tephrite, pyroxene in other kinds of lava,and is sometimes found in them in glassycrystals, as in those of Etna, Islands. Vesuvius, at Kilauea, Hawaiian
etc. Pyr.,
" " "

labradoritic massive rocks are most the formations of the Archaean common among Such are part of those of British America, northern New sas; York, Pennsylvania, Arkanthose of Greenland, Norway, Finland, Sweden, and probablyof the Vosges Mts. On the coast of Labrador, labradorite is associated with hornblende, hypersthene, and placesin Quebec. Occurs abundantly through the cenmagnetite. It is met with in many tral Adirondack region in northern N. Y.; in the Wichita Mts., Ark. the Isle of Paul, on the coast of Labrador,by Mr. first brought from Labradorite was missionary,about the year 1770. Wolfe, a Moravian Use. The varieties showing a play of colors are used as ornamental material.
The
era.
"

MASKELYNITE.

In colorless isotropic grainsin

meteorites; composition near

labradorite.

ANORTHITE.

Indianite.

Triclinic.
7
=

Axes

: c

0-6347

0-5501;

93"

13', ft

115"

55|',

91" 12'. be, mM, bm,

cm, 010 110 010 001 001 001
as

A A A A A A

001 110 110 110 110 201

cM,
cy,

85" 59" 58" 65" 69" 81"

50'. 29'.
4'.

793

794

53'. 20'.
14'.

(p. 462 and 464). Crystals usually p. axis (Fig. c 793, also prismatic || gated Fig. 364, p. 146),less often elon1 like pericline (Fig. 1 b axis,
Twins with

albite

794).
with
structure.

Also

massive, cleavable,
coarse

granular or

lamellar less so. Fracture conchoidal

b (010)somewhat Cleavage: c (001)perfect;

468
to

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

uneven.

reddish.

H. Brittle. uncolored. Streak

-.

6-6'5.

G.

2-74-276.

Color

white, grayish,
60"

Transparent

to translucent.

inclined to the Ax. pi.nearly _L e (021),and its trace Optically below. in front Extinction-angles to behind right edge c/e from left above to -43" b (010), -35" (Fig. with edge 6/c; on to -42" on c (001),-34" V 78". 2 inclined. 1'576. a 784, p. 462). Dispersion p " v, also 1*588. 1*584. Birefringencestronger than with albite. j8 7
= = = =

Comp.
2SiO2
=

"

silicate of aluminium

and

calcium, CaAl2Si2O8
=

or

CaO.Al203.

Soda 100. (as NaAlSi3O8) is Silica 43'2, alumina 367, lime 20-1 there is a gradual transition increases it and in small as amount, usually present labradorite. to bytownite through Vesuvius; and described from the glassy crystalsof Mte. Somma, is the same from Iceland. Thiorsauite Inmineral. the same as the dianite is a white, grayish, granular anorthite from India, where it occurs or reddish in small, Bournon. of corundum, first described in 1802 by Count Cyclopiteoccurs gangue b (010),coating cavities in the dolerite of the tabular ||transparent, and glassy crystals, latrobite also belong to Etna. Trezza Amphodelite, lepolite, on Cyclopean Islands and near
Var.
"

Anorthite

was

christianite

and

biotine

are

anorthite. from Mte. B.B. fuses at 5 to a colorless glass. Anorthite etc. Somma, and from the Carnatic, India, are decomposed by hydrochloric acid,with separation.of gelatinoussilica. Unlike is the easiest of the feldspars to be formed the Artif. Anorthite artificially. in a dry fusion of its constituents. be easilyformed This method alkalic feldsparsit can is added to the composition. difficult as the albite molecule becomes progressively more in artificial magmas. in slags and is easilyproduced Anorthite is frequently observed It further is often produced when more complex silicates are broken down by fusion. Obs. Occurs in some diorites;occasionallyin connection with gabbro and serpentine volcanic rocks, andesites,basalts, cases rocks; in some along with corundum; in many etc.;

Pyr.,

"

indianite

"

"

( Juvenas, Stannern) Vesuvius in isolated blocks among at Mount occurs biotine) the old lavas in the ravines of Monte in the Albani Somma; Mts.; on the Pesmeda Alp, land; Monzoni, Tyrol, as a contact mineral; Aranyer Berg, Transylvania, in andesite; in IceIn the Cyclopean Islands (cyclopite). In the lava near Bogoslovsk in the Ural Mts. of the island of Miyake, Japan. In crystals from Franklin, N. J.; from Phippsburg, Me. Anorthite named in 1823 was by Rose from avopdos, oblique, the crystallization being
as a some
.

constituent

of

meteorites

Anorthite

and (christianite

triclinic.
A feldspar having the composition,Na2O.2CaO.3Al2O3.9SiO2. This does with of the albite-anorthite series. possible member This is explained by any agree of a sodium-anorthite assuming the presence in small amount molecule, Na2O.Al2O3.2SiO2, to which the name carnegieite has been 85" 59'. given. Cleavage angle G. 2 '68. 1-555. 1-559. 1'563. 2 V 82" 48'. a j8 Found loose crystals on Mte. as 7 Name derived from the ancient Greek Rosso, Island of Linosa. of the island. name negieite Caris named in honor of Andrew Carnegie. Anemousite.
not
= = =

;H. Metasilicates.

RSiO3

Salts of Metasilicic Acid, H^SiOs;characterized by an oxygen ratio of 2 : 1 for silicon to bases. The Division closes with a number of species, in part of somewhat doubtful composition,forming a transition to the Orthosilicates. The metasilicates include two and well-characterized prominent the Pyroxene Group and the Amphibole viz., less important.
groups,

Group.

There

are

also others

SILICATES

469

Leucite
In several

Group.

Isometric GROUP,
which diately imme-

respects leucite is allied to the speciesof the FELDSPAR

precede.
Leucite

Pseudo-isometric Pollucite
LEUCITE.

Isometric KAl(SiO3)2 at ordinary temperatures. Isometric H2Cs4Al4(Si03)9

at 500"

Amphigene.
at 500"

under ordinary conditions (seep. C.; pseudo-isometric crystals varying in angle but the tetragonaltrisoctahedron little from n (211), with a (100),and d (110)as subordinate sometimes forms. Faces often showing fine striations due to twinning (Fig.795). Also in disseminated grains; rarelymassive granular. Cleavage: d (110) very imperfect. Fracture Isometric

302). Commonly

in

conchoidal. Brittle. H. 5'5-6. G. 2-45-2-50. Luster vitreous. Color white,ash-gray or smokeuncolored. Translucent to Streak gray. opaque. Usually shows very feeble double refraction: co
= = =

1-508,6

1-509
"

(p.302).
or

Comp. potash 21'5

KAl(Si03)2
=

K2O.Al2O3.4Si02

Silica 55*0, alumina

23'5.

100.

unless as introduced by alteration; traces of Soda is present only in small quantities, have been detected. Leucite and analcite are closely lithium,also of rubidium and caesium, related chemically as is shown by the fact that the two speciescan be converted into each other when heated with sodium or potassium chlorides or carbonates. with cobalt solution gives a blue color (aluminium). DeB.B. infusible; composed Pyr., etc. by hydrochloricacid without gelatinization. and infusibility.It Diff Characterized by its trapezohedralform, absence of color, the latter yieldswater and fuses. is softer than garnet and harder than analcite; ter, characMicro. isotropic Recognized in thin sections by its extremely low refraction, and the symmetrical arrangement of inclusions (Fig.796; also Fig.485,p. 180). Larger
" "

"

796

from the leucitite of the Bearpaw Mts., Montana Leucite crystals (Pirsson). These show with glassinclusions the progressivegrowth from skeleton forms to complete crystals
.

complicated systems of are commonly not wholly isotropicand, further,show crystals is,however, very low, and the colors scarcely twinning-lines (Fig.795); the birefringence rise above dark gray; they are best seen by introduction of the quartz or gypsum plate which lack this twinning or the inclusions, yieldingred of the firstorder. The smaller leucites, from sodalite or analcite by chemical tests. are only to be distinguished Artif Leucite is easilyprepared artificially ents by simply fusing together its constituin proper slowly. The addition of proportion and allowing the melt to crystallize produces largercrystals. Leucite has been formed when microcline potassium vanadate fused alone. muscovite was fused together and also when and biotite were in recent lavas, of Obs. Leucite occurs as one only in igneous rocks, and especially of magmas rich in potash and low in silica (forwhich reason the products of crystallization The largerembedded rather than orthoclase is formed) this species are crystals commonly anisotropicand show twinning lamellae;the smaller ones, forming the groundmass, are in leucitites and leucite-basalts, twinning. Found isotropicand without leucitophyres, also in certain rocks occurringin dikes. Very rare and leucite-tephrites; leucite-phonolites
"

"

470
in intruded under such

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

two instances being known; but its former presence or conditions is indicated by pseudomorphs, often of large size (pseudoleucite) of neph elite and orthoclase, also of anal cite. consisting The prominent localitiesare, firstof all, Vesuvius and Mte. Somma, where it is thickly disseminated through the lava in grains,and in large perfectcrystals; also in ejected also near Rome, at Capo di Bove, Rocca Monfina, etc. Further in leucite-tephrite masses; Lake at Proceno near Bolsena in central Italy; in Germany about the Laacher See and at several pointsin the Eifel;at Riedennear in Andernach; at Meichesin the Vogelsgebirge; Occurs in Brazil, the Kaiserstuhlgebirge; at Pinhalzinho. From the Wiesental,Bohemia. Cerro de las Virgines, Lower California. In the United States it is present in a rock in the Green River Basin at the Leucite Hills, western Wy. ; also in the Absaroka range, in northWy.; in the Highwood and Bearpaw Mts., Mon. (inpart pseudoleucite). On the shores of Vancouver where Island, magnificentgroups of crystalshave been found as drift boulders. Pseudoleucite (seeabove) occurs of the Serra de Tingua, in the phonolite(tinguaite) Brazil; at Magnet Cove, Ark.; near Hamburg, N.J.; Mon.; also in the Cariboo District, British Columbia. Named from Xewcos, in allusion to its color. white,

igneousrocks,only one

Pollucite. Essentially often in cubes; also masH2O.2Cs2O.2Al2O3.9SiO2. Isometric; sive. H. 6'5. G. 2-901. Occurs Colorless, n 1-525. in the island very sparingly of Elba,with petalite also at Hebron and Rumford, Me. (castorite);
=

reddish
in

Triclinic. Three cleavages. G. violet. Indices, 1-50-1 '55. Easily fusible. Soluble in rolled masses from pegmatite at Kangerdluarsuk, Greenland.

Ussingite.HNa2Al(Si03)3.

2-5.

H.

6-7.

acid. hydrochloric

Color Found

Pyroxene Group
Triclinic Orthorhombic, Monoclinic,

Composition for the

most

part that of
Further

metasilicate, RSiO3, with R

also Mn,Zn. Ca,Mg,Fe chiefly,

RSiO3 with R(Fe,Al)2SiO6, less often

alkalies (Na,K),and then RSiO3 with RAl(Si03)2. containing ing Rarely includzirconium and titanium, also fluorine.
".

Orthorhombic
a

Section
: :

b
1 1

: c :

or

b
1'0307

Enstatite

_,

: a
"

Bronzite

MgSi03 (Mg,Fe)Si03

0'9702

0'5710 0'5704

1 1

"

0'5885

Hypersthene

(Fe,Mg)SiO3

0'9713

T0319

0'5872
to

ut the

of similarity

the form

the

0. Monoclinic Section

Pyroxene
I. NON-ALUMINOUS
1. DIOPSIDE
Ayr
.

.1-0921

11

':

0-5893

74" 10'

VARIETIES:

{CaMg(Si03)2 iCa(Mg,Fe)(Si03)2

2.

3.

, r, Malacohte, Sahte, etc. Diallage, HEDENBERGITE CaFe(SiO3)2 Manganhedenbergite Ca(Fe,Mn) (SiO3)2 SCHEFFERITE (Ca,Mg)(Fe,Mn)(SiO3)2 Jeffersomte (Ca,Mg)(Fe,Mn,Zn) (Si03)2

472

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

797

etc. I,Enstatite,

Ill,Diopside, etc. II,Spodumene. V, Augite. VI, Acmite.

IV, Hedenbergite, Augite.

a.

Orthorhombic

Section

ENSTATITE.

Orthorhombic. mm'", qqf, Twins twins

rare:

Axes
110 023 A A 110 023

a
=

: c

0'9702

0'5710.
A A 223 223
=
=

88" 16'. 241" 41'.

rr', 223 XT'",223

40" 16^. 39" H'.

h (014)as twinninglamellae; tw. pi. also tw. pi.(101)as -stellate at angles of nearly 60", sometimes cros'sing six-rayed. Distinct or lamellar. crystals rare, habit prismatic. Usuallymassive,fibrous, 6 (010); also a (100). Fracture Cleavage: m (110)rather easy. Parting ||
798
uneven.

Brittle.

H.

5*5.

G.

31-3-3.

Bamle

to vitreous; cleavage-surfaces in the often metalloidal bronzite variety. Color grayish,yellowish or greenish white, to olive-green and brown. Streak uncolored,grayish. Translucent to nearlyopaque. in Pleochroism weak, more marked varieties relatively rich in iron. Optically Ax. +. 1 b (010) Bxa J_ c (001) Dispersion pi. 1 v weak. p " Axial angle large and with the variable, increasing amount of iron, for 90" 10 p. c. FeO usually about
. .

Luster, a littlepearly on

j8

1-669; 7

a
=

0'009.

Comp. MgSiO3 (Mg,Fe)SiO3with Mg

"

or :

MgO.SiO2
Fe

Silica 60,
799

magnesia

40
800

100.

Also

1, 6
"

1, 3
With

1, etc.
littleor
no

Var.

1.

001 001

iron; Enstatite.

Color

white,
100

yellowish, grayish, or greenish white; luster vitreous to G. pearly; 3'10-3'13. Chladnite (Shepardite of Rose),
=

which here

makes and

up

90 p.

c.

of the
kind.

100

Bishopvillemeteorite,belongs
is the

x^-H"

*K

h-

purest

Victorite, in the Deesa occurring

meteoric iron in rosettes of acicular crystals, is similar. 2. Ferriferous; Bronzite. Color

grayishgreen
and brown.

to

olive-green
on

t
,-,

Luster

cleav-

^nstatite (Bronzite) Hypersthene age-surfaceoften adamantinepearly to submetallic or bronze-like; is this, of however, usually secondary origin and

.,

.-"

is

SILICATES

473

With the increase 9f iron (above 12 to 14 p. c.) bronzite passes to hypernot essential. Bxa _L " (100). This is sthene,the optic axial angle changing so that in the latter X illustrated by Figs.799, 800. the thin edges; B.B. almost infusible, being only slightlyrounded on Pyr., etc.
=
"

acid. Insoluble in hydrochloric Enstatite is formed from a melt having the proper composition at temperatures under 1100". At higher temperatures the monoclinic pyroxenes Enstatite slightly appear. has also been formed by fusing olivine with silica. When serpentineis melted it breaks into enstatite and olivine. down Micro. In thin sections is colorless or light yellow or green; marked relief; prominent extinction;littlepleochroism but becoming stronger with increase of cleavage with parallel to brachypinacoid,producing characteristic schiller iron; inclusions common lyingparallel of mineral. Obs. constituent of peridotites and the Enstatite (including bronzite)is a common in crystalline schists. It is often associated derived from them; it also occurs serpentines in parallel mineral in meteoric growth with a monoclinic pyroxene, e.g., diallage. A common often occurringin chondrules with eccentric radiated structure. stones Occurs near Aloystalin Moravia, in serpentine;at Kupferberg in Bavaria; at Baste in the Harz of the Dreiser Weiher Mts., Germany (protobastite) ; in the so-called olivine bombs in immense in part altered, in the Eifel,Germany; at the apatite deposits of crystals, associated with the diamond depositsof Kjorrestad near Bamle, Norway; in the peridotite South Africa. In. the United States, in N. Y. at the TillyFoster magnetite mine, Brewster, Putnam Co., with chondrodite and at Edwards; Texas, Pa.; bronzite from Webster, N. C.; Bare Hills, F.
=

6. Artif

"

"

"

Baltimore, Md.
Named but priority,

The from opponent, because so refractory. evaaTT-rjs, an luster is not essential, and is far from universal. a bronze

name

bronzite has

HYPERSTHENE.

Orthorhombic.
mm

Axes
110 014
A

a
=

: c

0-9713

0-5704.
A A 111 232
=

110 014

hh',

88" 20'. 16" 14'.

oo'", 111 uu'"t 232

52' 23'. 72" 50'.

less often || b (010). often tabular || a Crystals (100), rare, habit prismatic, in foliated massive sometimes embedded f orms. spherical Usually ; Cleavage: b (010)perfect; m (110) and a (100) distinct but interrupted.
Luster 5-6. G. 3 '40-3 '50. somewhat and sometimes Color metalloidal. dark ish brownpearlyon a Cleavage-surface, grayishblack,greenishblack,pinchbeck-brown. Streak grayish, green,

Fracture

uneven.

Brittle.

H.

801

802

803

Laacher Figs.801, Amblystegite,

6 (010)showing incluSee. sions; 802, Malnas. 803, Section || from Lacroix. to actinolite; the exterior transformed

Pleochroism often strong, Translucent to nearly opaque. gray. in the kinds with high iron percentage; thus 1 1X or a axis brownish especially Z or c axis green. Ax. pi. || Optically red, Y or b axis reddish yellow, brownish
"

(010). Bxa

J_

(100). Dispersionp

"

v.

Axial

angle rather large and

474

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

cf enstatite, 799, p. 472, and Figs. diminishingwith increase of iron, variable, 0-013. a 1702; y 800, p. 472. 0
.

tabular scales, encloses minute usuallyof a brown color,arranged vertical or inclined 30" to basal plane (Fig.803),also less frequently They be brookite (gothite, hematite),but their true nature is doubtful. c axis;they may and are often of secondary origin, metalloidal luster or schiller, the of the peculiar cause are " (p. 189)'. being developed along the so-called solution-planes"

Hypersthene often to the mostly parallel

167 2 1 : 3(FeO (Fe,Mg)SiO3 with Fe : Mg p. c.),1 is Alumina sometimes '0 31 1 to c.). : l(FeO nearly p. (FeO p. c.) minous present (up to 10 p. c.)and the compositionthen approximates to the alu-

Comp.
=

"

217

pyroxenes.
those with FeO " 12 to 15p. c. are Of the orthorhombic magnesium-iron metasilicates, which characterized by being optically with is further be to classed hypersthene, usually
v. negative and having dispersion p " B.B. fuses to a black enamel, and on "Pyr.,etc. of iron. fuses more easily with increasing amount
"

charcoal yields a magnetic mass; chloric Partially decomposed by hydro-

acid.
In thin sections similar,to enstatite except shows distinct reddish or greenish color with stronger pleochroism and is optically Similar to enstatite, Artif which see. in Obs. is common Hypersthene, associated with a triclinic feldspar (labradorite), certain granulareruptiverocks,as norite, andesites (hyperhyperite, gabbro,also in some rather to occur sthene-andesite)a rock shown extensivelyin widely separated regions. It occurs way; at Isle St. Paul, Labrador; in Greenland; at Farsund and elsewhere in NorElfdalen in Sweden; Penig in Saxony; Ronsberg in Bohemia; the Tyrol; Neurode in Silesia; Szais from the Laacher Bodenmais, Bavaria. Amblystegite See, Germany. boite occurs with pseudobrookite in cavities in the andesite of the Aranyer and tridymite, Berg, Transylvania,and elsewhere. Occurs in the norites of the Cortlandt region on the Hudson N.' Y.; also common river, in with labradorite in the Adirondack Archa3an region of northern N. Y. and northward In the hypersthene-andesites Canada.of Mt Shasta, Cal.; Buffalo Peaks, Col.,and other points. Hyperstheneis named from virep and "r0ei"os, very strong,or tough. Micro.
"
"

"

"

An altered enstatite (or BASTITE, or SCHILLER SPAR. having approximately brqnzite) the composition of serpentine. It occurs in foliated form in certain granular eruptive rocks and is characterized by a bronze-like metalioidal 'lusteror schiller on the chief 6 (010), which "schillerization" (p.251) isof secondary origin. H. cleavage-face 3'5-4. G. 2 '5-2 '7. Color leek-green to olive- and and pistachio-green, pinchbeck-brown. Pleochroism not marked. Ax. pi. || Double refraction weak. a (010) Optically to that of enstatite).Bxa " b (010). Dispersion p " v. (hence normal The original bastite was from Baste near Harzburg in the Harz Mts., Germany; also from Todtmoos in the Schwarzwald, Germany.
= =

-.

of

PECKHAMITE, 2(Mg,Fe)SiO3.(Mg,Fe)SiO4. Occurs Emmet Estherville, Co., Iowa, May 10, 1879. G.
)8. Monoclinic PYROXENE.

in rounded
=

3 '23.

nodules hi the meteorite Color lightgreenishyellow.

Section

Monoclinic. mm'",
co, cp,
"

: b Axes_a

: c

1-0921

1
'

0-5893; J3
001 001 001 A
A

74" 10'.
=
=

110 A 001 A 001 Oil 021 001 A A

A A

110 100 101 Oil 021 111

ee', 22',
cu,

92" 50'. 74" 10'. 31" 20'. 59" 6'. 97" 11'. 33" 49*'.

"",
en, a,

221 110

uu', 111 SSf,111 oo', 221

A A

Til ill A TTl

A 221

49" 54'. 79" 9"'. 42" 2'. 48" 29'/ 59" 11'. 84" 11'.

Twins: tw. pi. (1)a (100), common contact-twins, (Fig.810),sometimes polysynthetic. (2) c (001), as lamellae twinning producing striations on the
vertical faces and
or pseudocleavage c (Fig.811); very parting ||

common,

SILICATES

475

often (4) W

not common secondary. (3)y (101)cruciform-twins, (Fig. 451, p. 171). at anglesof nearly60"; sometimes (122) the vertical axes crossing peated restar (Fig. as a six-rayed 450, p. 171). Crystalsusuallyprismaticin
805
806 807 808

804

100

and either a square 6 (010)promoften short and thick, habit, prism (a (100), inent), or 87") with m (110)predominating; sometimes a nearlysquare (93", nearly symmetrical 8-sided prism with a, 6, m (Fig.811). Often coarsely a coarse c (001) or or (100). Also granular, || lamellar, fine;rarely fibrous
or

columnar.

observed

but m (110) sometimes rather perfect, in thin sections J_ caxis (Fig. 812). due to twinning, often c (001), Parting || in largecrystals and prominent,especially lamellar masses a (100) (Fig. 811); also ||

Cleavage:

often only interrupted,

813

Fracture less distinct and not so common. 5-6. Brittle. H. to conchoidal. uneven G. 3*2-3*6, varying with the composition. to Luster vitreous inclining inous; resoften dull; sometimes pearly || c(001) in kinds showing parting. Color usuallygreen of various dull shades,varying
= =

white

white, or grayish nearly colorless, and black; rarelybright to brown X in kinds containing as chromium; green, also blue. Streak white to gray and grayish PleoTransparent to opaque. green. chroism usually in dark-colored weak, even in violet-brown kinds containing marked, especially varieties; sometimes is name titanium. (Violaite given to a highly pleochroic varietyfrom the Caucasus Mts.)
from

476

DESCRIPTIVE
v,"

MINERALOGY

0'02 0'03. Ax. pi. || a) Birefringencestrong, (7 Optically+. in t o in axis Z augite diopside, A c (which b (010). Bxa or =^4-36" -j-52" with amount the anglein general 20" to gg", increasing Z A c (001) or see), 1-680. 1702. 1-673. 59-". a 2 V 0 of iron. For diopside 7 normal For the most metasilicate, RSiO3, chieflyof Comp. g^rt a and zinc. The often calcium and magnesium, also iron, less manganese sodium alkali metals potassium anc^ except in very small present rarely, trivalent the metals aluminium, Also in certain varietiescontaining amount. be most These last varieties may and manganese. sidered ferric iron, simply conas molecular compounds of Ca(Mg,Fe)Si2O6 and (Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe)2Si06, is sometimes Chromium Tschermak. present in small as suggested by
"

"

"

amount;

also titanium

silicon. "replacing

The name stranger,and records Haiiy's idea that Pyroxene is from iryp,fire and "evps, of fire," the mineral was, as he expresses it,"a stranger in the domain whereas, in fact,it Tmiversal constituent of igneous rocks. most next to the feldspars, is, tjje variations in composition chiefly; and depend upon The varieties are numerous the rank as sub-species more prominent of the varieties p*"perly from a melt having the Artif. The monoclinic pyroxene, MgSiOs, can be crystallized 1500" or at a lower temperature from solutheoretical composition at temperatures about tion in molten It is the most calcium or magnesium vanadate. stable form of MgSiO?. into forsterite and silica. It has no true meltingpoint but af about 1550" breaks down
.
"

"

I. 1. DIOPSIDE.

or Containinglittle

no

Aluminium

mula ForCalcium-magnesium pyroxene. Silica 55-6, lime 25-9, magnesia 18-5 100. Color to dark green and white,yellowish, grayishwhite to pale green, and finally also rarely In nearlyblack; sometimes transparent and colorless, a fine blue. often slender; also granularand columnar to lamellar masprismatic crystals, sive. G. 3-2-3-38. Bxa A c axis 0-03. + 36" and upwards. a 7 Iron is present usuallyin small amount noted below, and the amount as increases as it graduatestoward true hedenbergite.

Alalite. Malacolite,
=

CaM"g(Si03)2

The
often

followingbelong here: Chrome-diopside, contains chromium (1 to 2'8 p. c. C^Oa), bright green. as Malacolite, originally described,was a pale-coloredtranslucent variety from Sala,
a occurs

Sweden. in broad right-angled prisms,colorless to faint greenish or clear green, in the Ala valley, Piedmont, Italy. from Trayersella, Traversellite, Piedmont, Italy,is similar. Violan is a fine blue diopsidefrom St. Marcel, Piedmont, Italy;occurring in prismatic and massive. crystals Canaanite is a grayish-whiteor bluish-white rock occurring with dolomite at pyroxene Canaan, Conn. Lavrovite is a pyroxene, colored green by vanadium, from the neighborhood of Lake Baikal,in eastern Siberia. Diopside is named from 6is, twice or double, and o^is, appearance. Malacolite is from because softer than feldspar, na\otKos, soft, with which it was associated. from the Mussa
Alalite

Alp

2. HEDENBERGITE. Calcium-iron pyroxene. Formula CaFe(Si03)2 Silica 48'4,iron protoxide 29'4, lime 22'2 100. Color black. In crystals, and also lamellar massive. G. 3-5-3-58. Bxa A c axis ganese Man+ 48". is present in manganhedenbergite to 6 -5 p. c. Color grayish green. G. 3'55.
= = = = =

Between
langes

jonformmg 3-6,and

the two extremes, diopside and hedenbergite, there are numerous transitions to the formula Ca(Mg,Fe)Si2O6. As the amount of iron increases the color irom light to dark green to nearly black, the specific gravity increases from 3 -2 to the angle Bxa A c axis also from 36" to 48".

SILICATES

477

based in part upon coming under these two sub-species, varieties, of composition. peculiarities and black; sometimes to deep green color grayish green Salite (Sahlite), grayish and and granularmassive; from c (001)), white; in crystals;also lamellar (parting|| yellowish in crystals, with parting j| Sala in Sweden. a dark dingy green variety, c (001), Baikalite, from Lake Baikal, in Siberia. in calcite, also forming loosely coherent to Coccolite is a granular variety,embedded taining compact aggregates; color varying from white to pale green to dark green, and then confrom KOKKOS, a grain. coccolite. Named considerable iron; the latter the original thin-foliated pyroxene, DIALLAGE. A lamellar or characterized by a fine lamellar 6 (010), and less often || with also parting |j structure and parting || a (100), c (001). Also a often polysynthetic fibrous structure a (100), c axis. Twinning || || ; interlamination with Color grayish green to bright grass-green, and deep orthorhombic common. an pyroxene of surface a (100) often pearly, sometimes also brown. Luster metalloidal or green; from the presence of microscopic inclusions of exhibitingschiller and resembling bronzite, to 40"; 0 a +39 4; secondary origin. Bxa A c axis 1-681; y 0;024. H. In composition near G. 3'2-3'35. times diopside,but often containing alumina and somein considerable amount, then properly to be classed with the augites. Often changed Named from to amphibole, see smaragdite, and uralite, difference, p. 490. dta^Xayrj, of in allusion to the dissimilar planes of fracture. This is the characteristic pyroxene gabbro, and other related rocks. Omphacite. The granular to foliated pyroxenic constituent of the garnet-rock called Contains often interlaminated with amphibole (smaragdite); color grass-green. eclogite, The
are following on

structure, in part

some

A^Os. 3. A SCHEFFERITE. iron. Color brown manganese

to black.

pyroxene,

sometimes

also

containing

much

In crystals, often elongated sometimes tabular || also with p (101)prominent, more c (00_1), in the direction of the zone b (010) : p (101), c axis. Twins, with a (100) rarelyprismatic,|| massive. tw. Also crystalline, as Cleavage prismatic,very distinct. pi. very common.

also black .^Optically +. (iron-schefferite} iron-schefferite from.Pajsberg, Sweden, is black in in the same color and + 49" to 59" for different zones crystal. The c axis 69" 3'. It brown iron-schefferite (urbanite)from Langban, Sweden, has Z A c axis resembles garnet in appearance. Franklin Furnace, N. J. (but the zinc from is a manganese-zinc pyroxene Jeffersonite be due to impurity). In large, with edges rounded and faces uneven. coarse crystals may Color greenishblack,on the exposed surface chocolate-brown. and iron. Stronglypleosodium, manganese Blanfordite. A pyroxene containingsome in the Central Provinces, with manganese chroic (rose-pinkto sky-blue). Found ores India. for the monoclinic magnesium pyroxene. Clinoenstatite has been suggested as the name Color

yellowish brown
Z A c axis has Z A
=

to

reddish

brown;

Bxa

or

44"

25"'. The

II. Aluminous
4. AUGITE. Aluminous CaMgSi2Oe with Composition chiefly pyroxene. alkalies and then graduand occasionally also containing (Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe)2SiO6, ating is also sometimes toward acmite. Titanium present. Here belong:
a.

and

Color white or grayish. Contains alumina,with lime and magnesia, LEUC AUGITE. 3*19. Named from Xeu/cos, little or no iron. Looks like diopside. H. 6'5; G.
=
=

white. b. FASSAITE. green Named

Includes the pale to dark, sometimes or deep-green crystals, pistachioalso belong here. kinds of diallage and then resembling epidote. The aluminous in the Fassatal, from the locality Tyrol. Pyrgom is from irvpyu/jia, a tower. Includes the greenishor brownish black and black kinds,occurringmostly c. AUGITE. thick and stout, or tabular It is usually in short prismatic crystals, in eruptive rocks. twins (Figs.809, 810). Ferric iron is here present, in a relatively large a (100); often '= 0'022. +50" to 52". 0 a 1717; y amount, and the angle Bxa A c axis becomes
=
"

||

from avyij, luster. kinds, which are then pleochroic. Named d. ALKALI- AUGITE. Here belong varieties of augite characterized by the presence of to acmite and alkalies, soda; they approximate in composition and optically especially (cf. 60",Fig.814),and are sometimes called aegirite-augite Fig. ajgirite 818, (Bxa A c axis

TiO2 is present in

some

478
p.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

480). -Known
Pyr.
etc.
"

from chiefly

rocks

as rich in alkalies,

leuelseolite-syenite, phonolite,

Varying widely,owing
814

to

ent the wide variations in composition in the differoften and by insensible gradations. varieties,
in

3*75 Fusibility,

and

omphacite;

3 in

baikalite, diopside; 3 '5 in salite, and augite; 2 '5 in jeffersonite

hedenbergite. Varieties rich in iron afford a magnetic and in general fused on charcoal, globule when of iron. varies with the amount the fusibility Many ganese. varieties give with the fluxes reactions for manvarieties are unacted Most by acids. upon Characterized by monoclinic crystallization Diff. ing and the prismatic angle of 87" and 93", hence yieldnearly square prisms; these may be mistaken for scapoliteif terminal faces are wanting or indistinct fuses easilyB. B. with intumescence). (but scapolite The oblique parting (|| c (001), Fig. 811) often dull green to gray and also the common distinctive, colors. brown Amphibole differs in prismatic angle mon (55^" and 124|") and cleavage,and in having comwhich to fibrous varieties, columnar are rare with pyroxene. (See also p. 486.) The Micro. common rock-forming pyroxenes in thin sections by their high relief; usuallygreenish to olive tones of are distinguished crossingone another at nearly right color; distinct system of interruptedcleavage-cracks general lack of pleoangles in sections _L c axis (Fig.812); high interference-colors; b (010). The last35" to 50" and higher,for sections || chroism; large extinction-angle, named sections are easily recognizedby showing the highest interference colors; yielding the latter in no cleavage-cracks, opticalfiguresin convergent light and having parallel See also segirite, the direction of the vertical axis. p. 480. A zonal banding is common, the successive laminae sometimes differingin extinctionstructure occasionallydistinct angle and pleochroism; also thje hour-glass (Fig.815, from Lacroix). mineral in igneous rocks,being the Obs. Pyroxene is a very common Some rocks consist almost most important of the ferromagnesianminerals. of pyroxene. in volcanic rocks but is It most entirely commonly occurs found also,but less abundantly, in connection with graniticrocks. It is mineral in crystalline limestone and dolomite,in serpentine and a common in forms large beds or veins,especially metamorphic schists; sometimes
" "

"

Archaean
is

rocks.

It

occurs

also in meteorites.

The

pyroxene

of limestone

mostly white and light green or gray in color, fallingunder diopside other metamorphic rocks is (malacoh'te, salite, coccolite);that of most sometimes white or colorless, but usually green of different shades, from pale green to greenishblack, and occasionally black; that of serpentineis in fine crystals, sometimes but often of the foliated green kind called that of eruptiverocks is usually the black to greenishblack augite. diallage; In limestone the associations are often amphibole, scapolite, clase, garnet, orthovesuvianite, and sometimes titanite, brown tourmaline,chlorite, apatite, talc,zircon, phlogopite, In eruptive rocks it spinel, rutile, etc.; and in other metamorphic rocks mostly the same. be in distinct embedded in grains without external crystalline or may form; it crystals, often occurs with similarly disseminated chrysolite crystalsof orthoclase (sani(olivine), dine), labradorite, leucite, amphibole, etc. etc.; also with a rhombic pyroxene, essential rock-making mineral,is especially as in basic eruptive an Pyroxene, common rocks. Thus, as augite,with a triclinic feldspar (usuallylabradorite), magnetite, often in basalt, basaltic lavas and diabase; in andesite; also in trachyte; in peridotite chrysolite, and pikrite; with nephelite in phonolite. Further with elseolite, orthoclase,etc., in and augite-syenite; elaeohte-syenite and the also as diallage in gabbro; in many peridotites formed from them; as diopside (malacolite) serpentines in crystalline schists. In limburgand pyroxenite, ite,augitite spar is present as the prominent constituent, while feldpyroxene it may is absent; also form rock masses alone nearly free from associated minerals. Diopside (alalite, in fine crystals mussite) occurs the Mussa on Alp in the Ala valley in associated with garnets (hessonite) Piedmont,Italy, and talc in veins traversing serpentine; in fine crystals at Traversella, Piedmont; at Zermatt in Switzerland; Schwarzenstein in the and elsewhere in Tyrol and in the Salzburg Alps; Reichenstein, Zillertal, Ober-Sulzbachtal,

480
brown, Z brownish
brown With some
to

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

yellow;the yellowish.

latter has X
=

deep

grass-green,

lighter grass-green,
=
"

lowish yel-

authors

2" to 6", as in (Oil) and X A c axis (vom Rath, etc.)s orientation according to Brogger. Fig.818 shows the optical Fig.819.
Ill

EssentiallyNaFe(SiO3)2 or Comp. iron Silica 52'0, 34'6, soda sesquioxide iron is also present.
"

Na2O.Fe2O3.4Si02
13'4
=

100.

Ferrous

fuses at 2 to a lustrous black magnetic flame deep yellow; with the fluxes reacts for iron and sometimes Slightly manganese. acted upon by acids. is characterized in thin sections by Micro. ^Egirite of green its grass-green color; strong pleochroism in tones in sections || and yellow; the small extinction-angle "(010). with which Distinguishedfrom common hornblende, green it might be confounded, by the fact that in such sections the cleavage is negthe direction of extinction lying near ative direction in hornblende is pos(X), while the same itive

Pyr.. etc.

"

B.B.

coloring the globule,

"

(Z).
Acmite be produced artificially can by fusing such together its constituent oxides but usually under of magnetite is formed. conditions only a glasscontainingcrystals in a pegmatite vein; at Rundemyr, The original acmite occurs Obs. east of the littlelake called Rokebergskjern, in the parish of Eker, near Acmite sometimes foot long, Kongsberg, Norway. It is in slender crystals, a and quartz. in feldspar embedded in igneous rocks rich in soda and containingiron,commonly in occurs especially jEgirite rocks containingleucite or. nephelite;thus in aegirite-granite, and some nephelite-syenite, varieties of phonolite; often in such cases iron-ore grains are wanting in the rock, their placebeingtaken by aegirite crystals. In the sub-variety of phonolite 818 called tinguaite, the rock has often a deep greenish color due to the of minute abundance crystals of aegirite. Large crystalsare found in the pegmatite facies of nephelitein West syenites as Greenland, Southern Norway, the peninsula Kola in Russian Lapland, Ditro in
"

^Egirite

Artif

"

Transylvania.
Prominent American occurrences the following: Magnet Cove, Ark. (large crystals);Salem and N. J. Quincy, Mass.; Libertyville, (dike); Trans Pecos district in S. D.; Cripple Texas; Black Hills, Creek, Col.; Bearpaw Mts., Judith Mts. and the Crazy Mts. in Mon.; also vanadium-bearing from aegirites Libby,Mon., also at Montreal, Canada. Acmite is named from "KM, point, in allusion to the pointed extremities of the the Icelandic god of the sea. Mginte is from ^Egir,
" '

are

crystals;

SPODUMENE.

Triphane. Axes
= =

a : b : c 1-1238 : 1 : 0*6355; 0 69" 40'. Twins: tw. pi.a (100). Crystalsprismatic(mm'" 110 A HO often flattened || a (100); the vertical planesstriated and

Monoclinic.

93" 0'), furrowed;' crystals

=

sometimes

very

Cleavagem

Also massive,cleavable. lar,ge. (110)perfect. A lamellar structure

a (100)sometimes ||

very

SILICATES

481
uneven

prominent,
on

crystalthen

separatinginto thin plates. Fracture

=

to subconchoidal.

pearly. thystine yellow, ameyellowish green, emerald-green, Streak white. Transparent purple. Pleochroism to translucent. strong in deep Ax. varieties. + pi. || Optically green 26". b (010). Bxa A c axis + Dispersion
.

Brittle. H. cleavagesurfaces somewhat

6'5-7.

G. Color

vitreous, greenish white,grayishwhite,

3-13-3-20. Luster
820

"
=

v, horizontal.

2 V

58".

1-651.

j8

1-669.
Hiddenite

7 has

1-677.

yellow-greento emerald-green color; In small (" to 2 the latter variety is used as a gem. inches long) slender prismatic crystals,faces often
a

etched.
is a clear lilac-colored variety found near Kunzite and also at Vanakarata, Pala,San Diego Co.,California, The unaltered material from Branch ville, Madagascar color. Used as a gem stone. Conn., shows the same
.
"

Norwich,

Mass

Hiduenite

or Li2O.Al2O3.4SiO2 Comp. LiAl(SiO8)2 100. Silica 64-5, alumina 27-4, lithia 8*4 Generally contains a little sodium; the variety hiddenite also chromium, to which the color may
= =

be due.
B.B. swells up, imparts a purple-red color becomes white and opaque, Pyr., etc. to the flame (sometimes obscured by sodium), and fuses at 3 '5 to a clear or white (lithia) glass. Not acted upon by acids. Kunzite shows strong phosphorescence with an orangeelectric discharge, by ultra violet rays, X-rays, or pink color when excited by an oscillating
"

radium Diff.

well as a as parting || varieties) (100) (insome by its perfect pearly luster than feldspar gravity and more by prismatic cleavage; has a higher specific Less fusible than amblygonite. or scapolite. Gives a red flame B.B. tions Alter. Spodumene undergoes very commonly alteration. First by the action of soluNaAl LiAlSiO4, and albite, containing soda it is changed to a mixture of eucryptite, SisOg. Later through the influence of potash salts the eucryptiteis changed to muscovite. is known This resulting mixture of albite and muscovite as having a wavy cymatolite, These alteration products are well shown in the specimens luster fibrous structure and silky Conn. from Branch ville, An Artif artificial spodumene has been obtained together with other silicates by however, fusing together lithium carbonate, alumina and silica. This spodumene differs, from The the natural mineral in its opticalpropertiesand has been called ^-spodumene. into the /3modification on heating to 1000". natural mineral,or spodumene, is transformed in pegmatite veins,sometimes in crystals of very great size. Obs. Spodumene occurs Crystalsfrom the Etta tin mine, S. D., with faces up to 40 feet in length have been reported. in small transparent crystals Occurs on the island of Uto, Sweden; at KillineyBay, Ireland; of a pale yellow in Brazil, province of Minas Geraes. Variously colored spodumene from Madagascar. In the United States,in graniteat Goshen, Mass.; also at Chesterfield, Chester, HuntMass.; at Windham, Me., with garnet and stauington (formerlyNorwich), and Sterling, the crystals rolite and at Peru, with beryl,triphylite, petalite. In Conn., at Branchville, in S. D. at the often of immense size; near Stony Point, Alexander Co., N. C. (hiddenite)', Etta tin mine in Pennington Co. Kunzite from Pala, Cal. Hiddenite is named for W. E. The name spodumene is from awodios, ash-colored.
" "

emanations. Characterized

"

"

Hidden
Use.

and
"

Kunzite

The

for Dr. G. F. Kunz. colored transparent varieties

are

used

as

gem

stones;

see

above.

471. Cleavage and opticalcharacters like with crystalline structure, sometimes Usually massive, granular, pyroxene. also obscurelycolumnar, fibrous foliated to closely compact.

JADEITE. Monoclinic.

Axes,

see

p.

482

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

at anglesof Cleavage: prismatic,

about

93" and
H.
=

cult. a 87"; also || (100)diffi=

6'5-7. G. 3-33-3-35. splintery.Extremely tough. Color of cleavage. apple-greento Luster subvitreous,pearly on surfaces greenishwhite, and nearly nearly emerald-green, bluish green, leek-green, + Bxa A Optically white; sometimes white with spots of bright green. Fracture
.

axis

30" to 40". 2 V to subtranslucent.

=
"

72".

0=1-654.

Streak
and

uncolored.

lucent Trans-

Comp.
alumina
25

to

metasilicate a Essentially NaAl(SiO3)2 spodumene,

15 -4
=

of sodium
or

Na2O.Al2O3.4SiO2

aluminium sponding correSilica 59*4,

=

-2,soda

100.

ing Chloromelanite is a dark green to nearly black kind of jadeite(hence the name), containiron sesquioxide and not conforming exactlyto the above formula. attacked by acids B.B. fuses readilyto a transparent blebby glass. Not Pyr.,etc. from saussurite. and thus differing after fusion, in eastern Obs. Occurs chiefly Asia, thus in the Mogoung district in Upper Burma, in a reddish clay; in Yungin a valley25 miles southwest of Meinkhoom, in rolled masses in Thibet. ever, howMuch of southern China; uncertaintyprevails, province Yunnan, chang, and nephrite have usually been confused with since jadeite to the exact as localities, also on the American each other. continent,in Mexico and South America ; May occur
" "

perhapsalso
into ornaments

in

Europe. highlyprized in
the in China, where East, especially It is also found with it is worked the relics of and

Jadeite has long been

utensils of great varietyand beauty. early man, thus in the remains of the lake-dwellers of France, in Mexico, Greece,Egypt, and Asia Minor.

Switzerland,at various points in

A pyroxene, of the molecules of jadeite, resemblingjadeitein structure and consisting and acmite in nearly equal proportions, at the manganese mines of St. occurs diopside, Marcel, Italy. Use. As the material jade,is used as an ornamental See below. stone. JADE is a general term used to include various mineral substances of tough, compact texture and nearly white to dark green color used by earlyman for utensils and ornaments, and stillhighly valued in the East, especially It includes properly two in China. species a varietyof amphibole (p.489), either tremolite only; nephrite, with G. or actinolite, 2 '95-3-0. and jadeite, of the pyroxene and in composition a soda-spodumene, with group G. fusible. 3-3-3-35;easily The jade of China belongs to both species, and so also that of the Swiss lake-habitations of Mexico. Of the two, however, the former, nephrite, is the more and makes the common jade (ax stone or Punamu stone) of the Maoris of New Zealand; also found in Alaska. The name used to embrace jade is also sometimes loosely other minerals of more less or similar characters, and which have been or might be similarly used thus sillimanite, pectolite, serpentine;also vesuvianite, garnet. Bowenite is a jade-like variety of serpentine. The "jade tenace" of de Saussure is now called saussurite.
"

"

WOLLASTONITE.

Tabular

Spar
: c
=

Monoclinic.
822

Axes

1-0531

0*9676; 0
110 540 Oil 001 001 001 A A A A A A 110 540 Oil 101 301 101
= =

84" 30'.
92" 79" 87" 40" 74"
45"

mm"', hhf", gg't

co, cr,

42'. 58'.
51'.

3'.
59'. 5'.

ct,

Diana,
tabular

N.

Y.
c

||a (100)or

Twins: tw. pi. a (100). Crystals commonly (001); also short prismatic. Usually cleavable massive

to

fibers parallel fibrous, or reticulated; also compact.

= =

Cleavage: a (100)perfect; also c (001);t (101)less so. Fracture uneven, brittle. H. 4-5-5. G. 2-8-2-9. Luster vitreous, on cleavagesurfaces pearly. Color white,inclining to gray, yellow, Streak white, red, or brown.
bubtransparent to translucent.

Optically
-.

Bxa

axis

32".

Dis-

SILICATES

483
2E
=

persion p
ft
=

"

v, inclined distinct.
7
=

Ax.

b (010). pi.||
or

70"; a

T621.

1-633.
""

1*635.

Calcium Comp. 48-3, 100.

=

CaSi03 metasilicate,

CaO.SiO2

Silica 51*7, lime

When

wollastonite is heated above

nearly uniaxial optically positive, hexagonal,

"

1190" C. it develops a basal cleavage, becomes pseudobut probably monoclinic. This material has

been called pseudowollastonite. B.B. fuses quietly to a white, almost glassy globule. With hydrochloric Pyr., etc. from the presacid decomposed with separationof silica; most varieties effervesce slightly ence of calcite. Often phosphoresces. Micro. In thin sections wollastonite is colorless with a moderate relief and medium to the elongation of the is usually normal birefringence. The plane of the optic axes
"

crystals.
CaSiOs
Wollastonite may be obtained artificially by heating a glassof the composition At higher temperatures the pseudowollastonite fication modi800" and 1000". is obtained. in granularlimestone, Obs. Wollastonite is found especially and in regionsof granite, a contact formation; it is very rare in eruptive rocks. It is often associated with a lime
Artif
"

to between

"

as

etc. garnet, diopside,

Occurs in Hungary in the copper mines of Cziklowa in the Banat; at Pargas in Finland; stone; Harzburg in the Harz Mts., Germany; at Auerbach, Hesse, Germany, in granular limeat Vesuvius, rarelyin fine crystals;on the islands of Elba and Santorin. in N. Y., at Willsborough ; Diana, Lewis Co.; Bonaparte Lake, In the United States, In Pa., Bucks Co., 3m. In Canada, Lewis Co. west of Attleboro; in Cal.,at Crestmore. and Morin, Quebec, with apatite. at Grenville; at St. Jerome Named after the English chemist, W. H. Wollaston (1766-1828). Alamosite. Lead metasilicate,PbSiOs. Closely related to wollastonite in crystal In radiating fibrous aggregates. 6 (010). G. Monoclinic. forms. 6'5. Cleavage ||
at
=

H.

4'5.

Colorless

or

white.

Refractive

index about

T96.

Found

near

Alamos, Sonora,

Mexico.
PECTOLITE.

Moneclinic.

Axes

: c

1-1140

0-9864; ft

84" 40'.

of acicular crystals; b axis, Commonly in close aggregations elongated || but rarely terminated. Fibrous massive,radiated to stellate. Brittle. H. 5. Cleavage: a (100)and c (001)perfect. Fracture uneven. 2 '68-2 -78. Luster of the surface of fracture silky or subvitreous. G. to opaque. Color whitish or grayish. Subtranslucent Ax. pi. +. Optically and Bxa _L b (010); Bx0 nearly _L a (100). 2 V 1-61. 60". ft Silica 54-2, lime HNaCa2(SiO3)3 or H2O.Na2O.4CaO.6Si02 Comp.
= = = =
"

33-8, soda 9 -3,water

Pyr., etc.
-

27

100.

classed with the hydrous speciesallied to the zeolites. Pectolite is sometimes In the closed tube yieldswater. B.B. fuses at 2 to a white enamel. composed Dein part by hydrochloricacid with separationof silica as a jelly. Often gives out lightwhen broken in the dark. A secondary mineral,occurring like the zeolites mostly in basic eruptiverocks, Obs. in cavities or seams; in metamorphic rocks. in Scotland near Found burgh; Edinoccasionally at Kilsyth,Corstorphine Hill (walkerite); Island Skye. Also at Mt. Baldo and Mt. Monzoni in the Tyrol; at Niederkirchen,Bavaria (osmelite). Paterson and Great Notch, N. J.; Lehigh Co., Pa.; compact Occurs also at Bergen Hill, at Isle Royale, Lake Superior; at Magnet Cove, Ark., in elseqlite-syenite (manganpectolite with 4 p. c. MnO); compact, massive in Alaska, where used, like jade,for implements.
"

Schizolite. Like manganpectolite, HNa(Ca,Mn)2(SiOs)3, but triclinic. In prismatic 5-5 '5. G. 3'0-3'1. Color lightred to brown. From crystals. Two cleavages. H. the nephelinesyeniteof Julianehaab, southern Greenland. Near pectolite, but contains zirconium. Rosenbuschite. Index, 1-65. From Norway. In nephelite-syenite-porphyry, Red Hill, Moultonboro, N. H.
= =

484
Wohlerite.
A

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY of Ca, Na, etc. Occurs in

In

zirconium-silicateand
brown.

niobate
726.

tabular prismatic,
on

N. H. In syenite from Red Hill, near Brevik, in Norway. islands of the Langesund fiord, also F, Ti, Ta. etc. A complex zirconuim-silieate of Mn, Ca, etc.,containing Lavenite. in the the island Laven Found on crystals. Index, 1750. In yellow to brown prismatic in eheolite-syemte. elsewhere also southern Norway; .Langesund fiord,

crystals, yellow to

Indices,1700-1

several elseolite-syenite^

7.

Triclinic Section

RHODONITE.

Triclinic. Axes 81" 39'. 44'- y

=

: c

1*07285

0-6213;

103"

18'; ]8

108"

usually largeand rough with rounded edges. Commonly tabular Crystals 1|c (001);sometimes resemblingpyroxene in habit. Commonly massive, embedded grains. cleavable to compact; also in_ M (110)perfect;c (001)less perfect. Fracture conCleavage: m (110), 3-4G. 5-5-6-5. choidal to uneven; tough when compact. H. very Color somewhat light surfaces pearly. Luster vitreous; on cleavage 3-68. when greenishor yellowish, brownish red,flesh-red, rose-pink;sometimes
= =

impure;

often black outside from

exposure.

Streak

white.

Transparent
=

to

translucent.

Optically
"

.0
=

173.

Comp.
manganese

"

Manganese

zinc

54-1 protoxide 'fowlerite) replace part of the (in

824

Silica 45-9, MnO.SiO2 MnSiOa or metasilicate, ally and occasion100. Iron, calcium (inbustamite),
manganese.
825

823

Franklin

Furnace,

N.

J.
110 001 001 221
A

db,
ac,

100 100 010 100

A A A A

be,
am,
"

010 001 001 110

94" 72" 78" 48"

26'.

mM,
en,

110 221 221 221

36*'.
42i'.

A
A A

92" 28|'. 73" 52'.

62" 23'.

33'.

ck, kn,

86"

5'.

B.B. blackens and fuses with slight at 2'5; with the fluxes intumescence Pyr., etc. fowlerite gives with soda on charcoal a reaction for zinc. gives reactions for manganese; acted upon Slightly by acids. The calciferous varieties often effervesce from mechanical of calcium admixture carbonate. In powder, partly dissolves in hydrochloric acid, and the insoluble part becomes of a white color. Darkens to the air,and times someon exposure becomes nearly black. Diff. Characterized by its pink color; distinct cleavages; hardness; fusibility and
"

manganese Obs.

reactions B.B. Occurs in Sweden at Langban, Wermland; in iron-ore beds, in broad cleavageand also granularmassive,and at the Pajsberg iron mines near plates, Filipstad(paisbergite) sometimes in small brilliant crystals; in the district of Ekaterinburg in the Ural Mts., massive like marble, whence it is obtained for ornamental with tetrahedrite at Kappurposes; nik and Rezbanya, Hungary; St. Marcel, Piedmont, containing Italy; Mexico (bustamite, CaO). In crystals from Broken Hill, New South Wales. Occurs in Cummington, Mass.; on Osgood's farm, Blue Hill Bay, Me.; fowlerite (con"

SILICATES

485 Ogdensburgh, N. J.,

tainingZnO) at Mine Hill,Franklin Furnace, and SterlingHill,near in fine crystals. in calcite and sometimes usually embedded

Named from podov,a rose, in allusion to the color. is often altered chiefly Rhodonite by oxidation of the MnO (as in marceline, dyssnite); also by hydration (stratopeite, neotocite, etc.); further by introduction of CO2 (allagite,

photidte, etc.).
Use.
"

Rhodonite
A

at

times is used

as

an

ornamental

stone.

In cleavage masses. triclinic, manganese-iron pyroxene. Indices, 175-1 H. -76. 5-5-6. G. 3'8. Color,amber to dark brown. Easily fusible to black Found near magnetic globule. Alters to skemmatite. Iva, Anderson Co., South Carolina. near Babingtonite. (Ca,Fe,Mn)SiO3with Fe2(SiO3)a. In small black tricliniccrystals, rhodonite in angle (axes on 5'5-6. 3'35-3'37. G. From Index, 172. p. 471). H. Arendal,Norway; at Herbornseelbach,Nassau, Germany; at Baveno, Italy. From Somerville and Athol, Mass.; in the zeolite depositsof Passaic Co., N. J. Hiortdahlite. with also fluorine. In pale yellow tabular Essentially(Na2,Ca)(Si,Zr)Oa, Occurs sparingly on an island in the Langesund Index, 1'695. crystals(triclinic). southern Norway. fiord,

Pyroxmangite.
=

Sobralite.

triclinic pyroxene.

+ Optically

Colorless.

From

rock eulysite

at

Sodermanland, Sweden. 3.

Amphibole

Group

Triclinic Orthorhombic,Monoclinic,

RSi03, with R Composition for the most part that of a metasilicate, Further aluminium often also containing Mn,Na2,K2,H2. Ca,Mg,Fe chiefly, and ferric iron,in part with alkalies as NaAl(Si03)2or NaFe(SiO3)2; perhaps
=

ii

in

also

RR2SiOe. containing
a.

Orthorhombic

Section
a

:b
:

Anthophyllite
GEDRITE

(Mg,Fe)SiO3 (Mg,Fe)Si03 with (Mg,Fe)Al2Si06

0. Monoclinic
Section
a :

0-5138

b
1

: c
:

Amphibole
I. NONALUMINOUS
1. 2. TREMOLITE

0-5511
.

0-2938

/3 73" 58'

VARIETIES.

ACTINOLITE

CaMg3(SiO3)4 Ca(Mg,Fe)3(SiO3)4 Smaragdite,etc. Nephrite,Asbestus, (Fe,Mg)SiO3 Cummingtonite Dannemorite (Fe,Mn,Mg)SiO3

Grtinerite

FeSiO3

3.

RICHTERITE

(K2,Na2Mg,Ca,Mn)4(SiO3)4

II. ALUMINOUS
4.

VARIETIES-

HORNBLENDE Edenite and Pargasite Common Hornblende

with ChieflyCa(Mg,Fe)3(SiO3)4 a nd (Mg,Fe)2(Al,Fe)4Si2Oi2 Na2Al2(SiO3)4

486

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Glaucophane
Riebeckite Crocidolite Arfvedsonite

NaAl(Si03)2.(Fe,Mg)Si03
a : :

b 1

: c :

/3
=

2NaFe(SiO3)2.FeSiO3 NaFe(Si03)2.FeSi03

0'5475

0'2925

76" 10'

Na8(Ca,Mg)3(Fe,Mn)14(Al,Fe)2Si21045
0-5509
7. :

0*2378

73" 2'

Triclinic Section

^Enigmatite. and imperfectl included under the triclinic section is the rare The only species known (cossyrite). aenigmatite of species GROUP embraces a number The AMPHIBOLE which, while falling in the common related in form as shown in different systems, are yet closely in characters and 56" also chemical com54" to of position. optical prismatic cleavage of this group form chemically As alreadynoted (seep. 471), the species allied Pyroxene Group, and between to that of the closely a series parallel i n form and other characters. is close them there a relationship crystalline is less The Amphibole Group, however, fullydeveloped, includingfewer show less varietyin form. and those known species,
" -"

and amphibole proper are the following: The chief distinctions between pyroxene 87" and 93"; with amphibole 56" and 124"; the prismatic Prismatic angle with pyroxene distinct in the latter. cleavagebeing much more With pyroxene, crystals usuallyshort prismaticand often complex, structure of massive kinds mostly lamellar or granular; with amphibole, crystalschieflylong prismatic and simple,columnar and fibrous massive kinds the rule. The specific varieties is higher than of the like varieties gravityof most of the pyroxene of amphibole. In composition of corresponding kinds, magnesium is present in larger in amphibole (Ca : Mg 1 : 1 in diopside, 1 : 3 in tremolite) amount ; alkalies more play a prominent part in amphibole. frequently
= =

the

relations of the prominent members of the group, as regards optical of the exhibited i s the position ether-axes, by following figures (Cross) ; for the corresponding Fig. 797, p. 472, for a similar representation compare of the pyroxene
group.

The

members

I.

Anthophyllite.

II. Glaucophane. V. Arfvedsonite.

III.

Tremolite, etc.
Riebeckite.

IV.

Hornblende.

VI.

a.

Orthorhombic

Section

ANTHOPHYLLITE.

Orthorhombic.

(mm"'

110

fibres often very

Axial ratio a : b 0*5137 : 1. Crystalsrare, habit prismatic 110 54" 23). Commonly lamellar, fibrous massive; or in aggregations slender; of prisms.
=

488

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

prismatic;usuallyterminated by the low clinodome, r (Oil),sometimes by rhombohedral forms (as equallydeveloped and then suggesting r and p (101) fibres often like flax; Also columnar coarse or fine, or fibrous, of tourmaline). and or also coarse fine, usuallystrongly granularmassive, rarelylamellar; friable. but sometimes coherent, Cleavage: m (110) highly perfect;a (100),b (010)sometimes distinct.
5-6. G. Brittle. H. 2-9-3-4,varying faces ; fibrous to vitreous pearlyon cleavage with the composition. black and white, through various shades varieties often silky. Color between also dark brown; rarelyyellow,pink, to blackish green; of green, inclining parent; rose-red. Streak uncolored, or paler than color. Sometimes nearly transFracture

subconchoidal, uneven.

Luster

subtranslucent to opaque. usually marked in all the deeplycolored varieties, as described strongly Z " Y " X. Ax. pi. Optically rarely-f beyond. Absorptionusually b (010), b (010). Extinction-angle + 15" to 18" in most or Z A c axis on || 1" up to 37"; hence also Bxa A c axis 75" cases, but varyingfrom about to 72",etc. See Fig.832. Dispersionp " v. Axial anglesvariable;see beyond. Pleochroism
"

"

"

and extinction angles indices of refraction, birefringence Opticalcharacters, particularly with change in composition,particularly with the total amount of iron present. In generalthe indices and extinction angles increase with increase of iron content while the decreases. birefringence
vary

In 'part a normal metasilicate of calcium and magnesium, Comp. with iron, also manganese, and thus in generalanalogous to the RSi03,usually The alkali metals, sodium and potassium,also present,and more pyroxenes. In part also aluminous,corresponding to commonly so than with pyroxene. the aluminous sometimes Titanium is also and rarely pyroxenes. present
"

fluorine in small amount.

The aluminium is in part present as NaAl(SiO3)2, but many amphiboles containing aluminium or ferriciron are basic than a normal metasilicate; more they may sometimes be
n m

explained as
doubtful.

but the containing R(Al,Fe)2SiO6, The amphibole formulas are in many

832

exact
cases

nature

double

of the compound is often the corresponding ones for 833

pyroxene

Thus, for most

tremolite and

kte

is

CaMgaSuOw, while diopside is CaMgSi206, etc.

Ca actinolite,

Mg(Fe)

3,and hence

tremo-

SILICATES

489

Rammelsberg has shown that the composition of most aluminous amphiboles may be expressed in the general form mRSiO3.nAl2O3; while Scharizer, modifying this view, proposes to regard the amphiboles as molecular compounds of Ca(Mg,Fe)3Si4Oi2 (actinolite),
i ii in

for which he uses orthosilicate (R2,R)3R2Si3Oi2, name Breithaupt's syntagmatite, originally given to the Vesuvian hornblende. Penfield concludes that (1) amphibole is a metasilicate, (2) that fluorine and hydroxyl are isomorphous with the protoxidesand (3) that the presence of sesquioxides is explained by their introduction into the molecule in the form of various bivalent radicals. The crystallographic positionhere adopted is that suggested by Tschermak, which best exhibits the relation between amphibole and_pyroxeme. Some authors retain the former r according to which p position, (001), (111),etc. Fig. 833 shows the corresponding opticalorientation. and the
= =

I. 1. TEEMOLITE.

or Containinglittle

no

Aluminium

Grammatite, nephrite in part. Calcium-magnesium Silica 577, magnesia 28*9,lime 13'4 amphibole. CaMg3(SiO4)3 Ferrous 100. the magnesium, present only sparingly, iron,replacing up to 3 p. c. Colors white to dark gray. In distinct crystals, either long-bladed or short and stout.. In aggregates long and thin columnar,or fibrous; also compact 2'9-3'l. Sometimes parent transgranular massive (nephrite, below). G. and colorless. Optically b (010),or Z A on Extinction-angle axis 74" to 72". 2V +16" to 18",hence Bxa A c axis 80" to c
Formula
= = =
" .

88".

1-609.

(3

1-623.

1'635.

Tremolite was named by Pini from the Tremola Gothard. Winchite is the name given to a blue amphibole near of Central India.

valley on

the

south

side of the St. mines

tremolite from the manganese

Formula Ca(Mg,Fe)3 Calcium-magnesium-iron amphibole. and In either shortxbright green grayish green. crystals, or or long-bladed,as in tremolite; columnar fibrous;granular massive. 3-3 '2. Sometimes G. transparent. The variety in long bright-green the crystals is called glassy break easily the prism. actinolite; across crystals fibrous and radiated kinds are often called asbestiform The actinolite and

2. ACTINOLITE.

(Si03)4.Color
=

radiated

actinolite. Actinolite

owes

its green

Pleochroism distinct, the as increasing

the color becomes

amount

color to the ferrous iron present. of iron increases, and hence

"

AbsorptionZ
Z A c 1-611.
Named

"

axis

Y yellow-green, X greenish darker;Z emerald-green, yellow. b (010), " X, Zillertal. Optically on Extinction-angle 75". 2V + 15" and Bxa A c axis 78"; p " v, a Y
.

(3

1-627.

1-636.

atfinolite from a/cris, a ray, and XZ0os,stone, a translation of the German Name Strahlslein or radiated stone. changed to actinote by Haiiy, without reason. tremolite (or actinolite). NEPHRITE. Jade in part. A tough, compact, fine-grained 2'96-3'l. G. (M5'5. breaking with a splintery fracture and glisteningluster. H. in diseases of the kidney, from ""e"/"p6s, Named from a supposed efficacy kidney. It varies to dark green (actinolite), iron protoxidebeing in color from white (tremolite) in the latter, The latter kind sometimes of encloses distinct prismaticcrystals present up to 6 or 7 p. c. actinolite. A derivation from an original pyroxenic mineral has been suggested in some from Mexico or Peru cases. Nephrite or jade was brought in the form of carved ornaments A similar stone comes from Eastern land after the discovery of America. Asia, New Zeasoon and Alaska. See jadeite, p. 481; jade,p. 482. from Central Asia. is an amphibole occurringwith jadeite Szechenyiite ASBESTUS. and other varieties of amphibole, exceptAsbestos. Tremolite,actinolite, ing the fibers of which are somethose containingmuch times alumina, pass into fibrous varieties, and easily and look like flax. These separableby the fingers, flexible, very long,fijie, kinds are called asbestus (from the Greek for incombustible) The colors vary from white to
= =
.

490

DESCRIPTIVE

MINEEALOGY

usuallyto the finer and more The name amianthus is applied silky green and wood-brown. or fibrous serpentine, containing called asbestus is chrysotile, that is popularly kinds. Much is a stiff fibrous variety. 12 to 14 p. c. of water. Byssolite cork of interlaced fibers;and mountain made leather is in thin flexible sheets, Mountain as to ftoat on water, and they are often hydrous, in thicker pieces;both are so light the same and gray to brown in wood is compact fibrous, color white to gray or yellowish.Mountain like wood. little a dry color, looking actinolite in composition but A thin-foliated variety of amphibole, near SMARAGDITE. common It has a lightgrass-green resembling much color, alumina. green some
It below. see derived from pyroxene (diallage) by uralitization, cases many of the original and also often encloses remnants retains much of the structure of the diallage rock called saussuritea It forms, along with whitish or greenish saussurite, mineral. mineral is from Corsica, and the rock is gabbro, the euphotide of the Alps. The original the verde di Corsica duro of the arts. when retain the URALITE. distinct, Pyroxene altered to amphibole. The crystals, form of the original mineral, but have the cleavage of amphibole. The change usually the surface,transforming the outer layer into an aggregation of slender on commences in positionto each other and to the parent pyroxene (cf Fig. amphibole prisms,parallel of the change is complete the entire crystalis made up of a bundle 803, p. 473). When to pale or deep green, amphibole needles or fibers. The color varies from white (tremolite) In compositionuralite appears to conform nearly to actinolite, the latter the more common. The most also in optical characters. prominent change in composition in passing from as is that correspondingto the difference existing the original between the two species pyroxene in calcium. in general, that is,an increase in the magnesium and decrease The change,
.

carrying diallage. In

of paramorphism, although usually so designated. Uralite is not strictly a case therefore, It has since been observed described by Rose in a rock from the Ural Mts. originally from many of "uralitizalocalities. The microscopicstudy of rocks has shown the process tion" authors' and some to be very common, hornblendic rocks and schists to regard many represent altered pyroxenic rocks on a largescale. CUMMINGTONITE. Amphibole-Anthophyllite. Iron-Magnesium Amphibole. Here belong certain varieties of amphibole resembling anthophyllite and essentially identical with but optically it in composition, From monoclinic. The Kongsberg, Norway; Greenland. in color; usually fibrous or fibre-lamellar, original cummingtonite is gray to brown often
was

radiated.

G. 3'l-3'32; from Cummington, Mass. DANNEMORITE. Iron-Manganese Amphibole. Color yellowishbrown to greenish gray. Columnar like tremolite and asbestus. or Contains iron and manganese. fibrous, From Juddite is a manganese Sweden. amphibole found at Kacharwahi, India. Iron- Amphibole. Asbestiform GRUNERITE. lamellar-fibrous. or Luster silky; color 3713. Formula brown; G. FeSiO3.
=

3. RICHTERITE.

Sodium-Magnesium-Manganese Amphibole. (K2,Na2,M2;,

=

Ca,Mn)4(Si03)4.
In elongatedcrystals, seldom terminated. 3 '09. G. Color brown, yellow, rose-red. Z A c axis Transparent to^ranslucent. + 17"-20"; /3 0'024. From 1-63; 7 a Pajsberg and Langban, Sweden. Characterized by the presence of manganese and alkalies in relatively largeamount. Imerinite is a soda-amphibole, related to soda-richterite from the province Imerina, Madagascar. Breislakite occurs in wool-like forms at Vesuvius and Capo di Bove, Italy. Color dark brown to black,pleochroism stronglymarked. Inferred to belong near richterite.
=

II. Aluminous. 4.

ALUMINOUS

AMPHIBOLE.

Hornblende.

Contains

alumina

or

ferric

iron, and

usually both,with ferrous iron (sometimes manganese), magnesium, calcium,and alkalies. The kinds here included range from the light-colored edemte containingbut littleiron, through the lightto dark green pargasite, to the dark-colored or black the color growing darker with increase hornblende, in amount of iron. Extinction-angle from 0" to 37", see variable, below. Pleochroism strong. Absorptionusually Z " Y " X.
EDENTTE. Aluminous

Magnesium-Calcium Amphibole.

Color

white

to gray

and

pale

SILICATES

491

3'0-3'059. Resembles and colorless; G. tremolite. anthophyllite To this varietybelong various pale-colored at Edenville,N. Y. locality amphiboles, having less than 5 p. c. of iron oxides. is a varietyfrom the neighborhood of Lake Baikal,Siberia, Koksharovite named after the Koksharov. Russian von mineralogist, Soretite is an aluminous amphibole from the anorthite-diorite rocks of Koswinsky in the green,

and

also
the

Named

from

northern Ural Mts. COMMON Colors bright or dark green, and bluish green to HORNBLENDE, PARGASITE. 3'05-3'47. Pargasiteis usuallymade to include green and grayish black and black. G. bluish green blende hornor kinds, occurring in stout lustrous crystals, granular; and Common
=

the greenishblack and black kinds, whether in stout crystals nar, columor long-bladed, The extinctionor massive granular. But no line can be drawn between them. fibrous, + 15" to 25" chiefly. Absorption Z " Y " X. angle on 6 (010),or Z A c axis at Pargas, Finland, in bluish green and grayish black crystals. Z A c Pargasiteoccurs 59". Pleochroism: Z greenish blue; Y axis + 18"; 0 a 1'64; y 0'019; 2V emerald-green; X greenishyellow. from basaltic and other igneous rocks vary someto black hornblendes The dark brown what The angle Z A c axis 0" to + 10" chiefly; characters. widely in optical 0 1725; Z brown, Y 0'072 Pleochroism: but (maximum). a yellow,X yellow-green, y
= =

"

variable.
X from Traversella, Italy,is an iron amphibole with strong pleochroism; Speziaite, Z Z A c axis 23". Y azure-blue, yellow-brown, green, The Kataforite 30" to 60"; absorption Y " Z " X; of Norway (Brogger)has Z A c axis X arfvedsonite yellow-brown; it approximates toward pleochroism: Z yellow,Z violet, (p.494). from a graphite mine in the Tunkinsk Lake Baikal, Siberia, is a Mts., near Kupfferite, deep green amphibole (aluminous) formerly referred to anthophyllite. Syntagmatiteis the black hornblende of Vesuvius. Bergamaskiteis an iron-amphibolecontainingalmost no magnesia. From Monte Altino, Province of Bergamo, Italy. North Greenland. Kaersutite is a titaniferpus amphibole from Kaersut, Umanaks fiord, is an amphibole low in silicaand high in iron and soda, from the nepheliteHastingsite syeniteof Dungannon, Hastings Co., Ontario. from Philipstad, Sweden, is an iron-magnesium amphibole showing unusual Philipstadite pleochroism. for the corresponding varieties of pyroxene, the same as see Essentially Pyr. p. 478. Diff. age, Distinguished from pyroxene (and tourmaline) by its distinct prismatic cleavcommon yielding anglesof 56" and 124". Fibrous and columnar forms are much more
=
= = = =
"

"

than

with

pyroxene, pp. Differs

lamellar
from

and

foliated forms

rare

(see also
or

478, 486).

Crystals often long, slender,

the
fibrous

bladed.

zeolites in not

with acids. Epidote has a peculiargreen gelatinizing is more and shows a different cleavage. color, fusible, In sections amphibole generally rock Micro. olive or brown, shows distinct colors, green, sometimes and is strongly pleochroic. Also recognized by its high relief;generallyrather high interference-colors; crossing by the very perfectsystem of cleavage-cracks 124" in sections _L c axis (Fig. at angles of 56" and in convergent light, b (010) (recognizedby yieldingno axial figure by 834). In sections || and by having parallel c axis), cleavage-cracks, || showing the highestinterference-colors, hornblendes makes small angle (12"-15")with the the extinction-direction for common a from comthis direction is positive Z (different with c axis);further, mon cleavage-cracks (i.e., and 813 cf. and 818). Figs. aegirite, pyroxene Artif Experiments on the artificialproduction of the amphiboles have shown that in generalthey are unstable at high temperatures and that their formation in igneous rocks unusual is due either to the rapid coolingof the magma, to the presence of water or to some In generalwhen the amphiboles are fused they are transformed conditions of pressure, etc. into the corresponding pyroxenes. Obs. only sparinglyin volcanic rocks but is found in many Amphibole occurs talline crysthe magnesia-lime variety, Tremolite, limestones, and graniticand schistose rocks. is especially in limestones, common particularly magnesian or dolomitic;actinolite (also in the crystalline schists, in steatitic rocks and the magnesia-lime-iron variety, nephrite), in both igneous and metawith serpentine; and dark green and black hornblende, occurs
"
"

"

492

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

varieties of peridotite, in diorites and some syenites, morphic rocks. It is found in granites, schists. hornblende and the gneisses hornblende ot a dark greenish black consists of massive or amphibolite, Hornblende-rock, the hornblende, or actinotexture. Occasionally has and green granular a black color, or Hornblende-schist has the same in rock-masses, as at St. Francis,in Canada. occurs lite, It often contains a little but is schistose or slatyin structure. composition as amphibolite, needles. Granite and varieties of it the hornblende is in part in minute feldspar. In some constituent. it is This is diorite with and a common contain hornblende, often syenite it is usually present in small, forms of gneiss. In these cases also true of the corresponding often fibrous in structure; also as rough bladed crystals. irregular masses, Prominent foreignlocalities of amphibole are the following: Tremolite (grammatite) Gulsjo, in dolomite at Campolongo, Switzerland; also at Orawitza, Rezbanya, Hungary; schists of the Central and Eastern Actinolite in the crystalline Alps, Wermland, Sweden. Tyrol; at Zoblitz in Saxony; Arendal, Norway. at Greiner in the Zillertal, especially and elsewhere in Tyrol; in Savoie,France; also in the island Asbestus at Sterzing, Zillertal, Hornblende at Arendal, at Pargas, Finland; Saualpe in Carinthia. of Corsica. Pargasite Kongsberg and Kargero, Norway; in Sweden and Finland; at Vesuvius; Aussig and Tepand utensils is widely which in the form of jade" ornaments Bohemia; etc. Nephrite, litz, the relics of earlyman distributed among (seejade,p. 482), is obtained at various points in Lun is that in the Karakash The most important source Central Asia. valley in the Kuen In New Mts., on the southern borders of Turkestan; also other localitiesin Central Asia. at Schwemmsal Zealand. near Leipzig; Nephrite has been found in Europe as a rolled mass in Swiss Lake habitations and similarly elsewhere. in Me., black crystalsat Thomaston; In the United States, occur pargasiteat PhippsFane. In Mass., and New burg. In Ver.,actinolite in the steatite quarriesof Windham at Chester; asbestus at Pelham; tremolite at Lee; black crystals cummingtonite at Cummington. In Conn., in large flattened white crystalsand in bladed and fibrous forms In N. Y., Warwick, Orange Co.; near in dolomite, Eden ville; at Canaan. near (tremolite) Amity; at the Stirling mines, Orange Co.; in short green crystalsat Gouverneur, St. Lawrence PitCo.; with pyroxene at Russell; a black varietyat Pierrepont; at Macomb; cairn; tremolite at Fine; in Rossie, 2 miles north of Oxbow; in large white crystalsat Hudsonite from Greenwood Furnace. Diana, Lewis Co.; asbestus near Cornwall, N. Y., formerlyclassed as a pyroxene has been shown to be an amphibole. In N. J.,tremolite or at Bryam, and other varieties of the species at Franklin and gray amphibole in good crystals Co. ; at Unionin Delaware Newton, radiated actinolite. In Pa.,actinolite at Mineral Hill, at Kennett, Chester Co. In Md., actinolite and asbestus at the Bare Hills in serpenvllle; tine; asbestus is mined at Pylesville, In Va., actinolite at Willis's Mt., in Harford Co. in Alaska. Buckingham Co.; asbestus at Barnet's Mills,Fauquier Co. Nephrite occurs In Canada, tremolite is abundant in the Laurentian at Calumet LitchFalls, limestones, Pontiac Co., Quebec; also at Blythfield, field, Renfrew Co., and Dalhousie, Lanark Co. Black hornblende at various localities in Quebec and Ontario with pyroxene, apatite, Co. as in Renfrew Asbestus and mountain titanite, cork at Buckingham, Ottawa etc., Co., Quebec; a bed of actinolite at St. Francis,Beauce Co.,Quebec; nephrite has been found in British Columbia and Northwest Territory.
"

GLAUCOPHANE.

in habit, Crystals prismatic usually columnar to granular. commonly massive,fibrous, or Cleavage: m (110) perfect. Fracture conchoidal to uneven. Brittle. "L 6-6-5. G. 3-103-3-113. Luster vitreous to pearly. Color azure-blue, bluish black, grayish. Streak grayish blue. lavender-blue, Translucent. marked : Z sky-blueto ultramarine-blue, strongly Y reddish or Plepchroism bluish violet, X yellowishgreen to colorless. Absorption Z " Y " X. cally OptiAx. pi. + 1 16 (010) Z A c axis 4" to 6",rarely highervalues. 2V indistinct;
= =
. .

near amphibole in form. Mpnoclinic;

45".

1-621.
"

18

1-638.

1-638.
=

Comp.
formula soda 9-9
"

Essentially If Mg : Fe 2 : 1,the NaAl(SiO")s.(Fe,Mg)SiQ,. Silica 57'6, alumina 16'3,iron protoxide 77, magnesia 8-5, requires:
=

100.
Occurs
as

Obs.

the

hornblendic constituent
more or

or icophane-schuts, also glaucophanite;

of certain crystalline schists,called less prominent in mica schists, am-

SILICATES

493

It is often associated with mica, garnet, diallageand First described from the island of Syra, one etc. omphacite, epidote and zoisite, of the the southern as on Cyclades; since shown to be rather widely distributed, slope of the Alps is a fibrous variety from the Island Rhodus Corsica,Japan, etc. Rhodusite (gastaldite) and Asskys river, Minassinsk, Siberia. Holmquistiteis a lithium-bearing from the variety etc. eclogites, gneiss, phibolites,
,

Island of Uto. In the United

of
as California, Glaucophane

at

States,glaucophane schists have been described Sulphur Bank, Lake Co.

from

from

the Coast

Ranges

is named

yXavKos, bluish green, and

to appear. ^atj/eo-tfm,

in composition between amphibole intermediate glaucophane and more nearly related to the latter. Occurs in lath shaped crystals. being optically riebeckite, in the crystalline Color blue. schists of the Coast Ranges of Strongly pleochroic. Found California. Crossite. An

RIEBECKITE.

Monoclinic.

Axes

: c

: 0;5475

0-2925; 0

76" 10'.

In

bedded em-

striated. Cleavage: prismatic prismatic crystals, longitudinally (56") Luster black. vitreous. Color Pleochroism marked : perfect. very strongly X (nearly1 b axis) Z green, Y ( dark blue. deep blue, 1 c axis) Optically X axis 4"-5" A c small, Extinction-angle (=b?). Axial angle large. 0
=
"

1-687.
in

Silica 50-5, iron sesquiEssentially2NaFe(Si03)2.FeSiO3 oxide 26-9, iron protoxide12-1, soda 10*5 It corresponds closely 100. to the acmite (segirite) among pyroxenes.

Comp.

"

described from the graniteand syeniteof the island of Socotra in the Originally in Ocean, 120 m. N. E. of Cape Guardafui. the eastern extremity of Africa; occurs often radiating and closelyresembling tourmaline; also in of prismatic crystals, groups lar granophyre blocks found at Ailsa Crag and at other points in Scotland and Ireland. A simiat Mynydd Also another Wales. in granuMawr, Carnarvonshire, amphihqleoccurs Found Greenland. at Narsarsuk. lite in Corsica. From A pegmatite at Quincy, Mass. so-called arfvedsonite from St. Peter's Dome, Pike's Peak region,Col.,occurringwith astroriebeckite. phylliteand zircon,is shown by Lacroix to be near Extinction-angleon 6, 3" to 4". A soda from Bababudan X A c axis amphibole, related to riebeckite, Hills, bababudanite. Mysore, India,has been named
Obs.
"

Indian

CROCIDOLITE.

Blue

Asbestus.

asbestus-like ; fibers long but delicate, and easily Fibrous, separable. Also 56". H. 4. G. or 3-20-3-30. earthy. Cleavage: prismatic, Luster silky;dull. Color and streak lavender-blue or leek-green. Opaque. Fibers somewhat Z green, Y violet, X blue. elastic. Pleochroism: Optically b inclined 18" 20" to 2E with 95" on + c axis. (010) Extinction-angle massive
= = =
.

approx.

7
"

"

0'025.
=

in

Comp.
22-0,iron
sodium.
flame

NaFe(SiO3)2.FeSiO3 (nearly) 100. protoxide19'8,soda 8'6

=

Silica 49-6, iron

sesquioxide

Magnesium
"

and

calcium

replace part of the ferrous iron, and

hydrogen part of the

with intumescence B.B. fuses easily to a black magnetic glass, coloringthe Pyr., etc. yellow (soda). With the fluxes gives reactions for iron. Unacted upon by acids. Obs. Occurs in South Africa,in Griqualand-West, north of the Orange river,in a
"

range

of quartzose schists called the Asbestos In a micaceous Mountains. porphyry near At Golling in Salzburg, Austria. In the United States,at Framont, in the Vosges Mts. Beacon Pole Hill, near Cumberland, R. I. Emerald Mine, Buckingham, and Perkin's Mill, Abriachanite

Templeton, Ottawa
Loch

is an Ness, Scotland.

Co., Ontario, Canada. earthy amorphous

Crocidolite

form

is named

from

occurring in the Abriachan KOOK'IS, woof, in allusion

near district,

to

its fibrous

structure.

494

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

oxidation of the iron and infiltration The South African mineral is largelyaltered by both of delicate fibrous structure, chatoyant in a compact siliceous stone of silica, resulting color,popularlycalled tiger-eye(alsocat's-eye). Many and bright yellow to brown luster, blue mineral to the final product; also varieties occur forming transitions from the original mineral has penetrated the quartz. the extent to which the original varieties depending
upon

ARFVEDSONITE.

Monoclinic.

Axes

: c

0-5569

0*2978; 0

73" 2'.

terminated; but seldom b (010), distinctly Crystalslong prisms,often tabular || Twins: in also prismatic those aggregates. of amphibole; near angles tw.

pi.a (100). Cleavage: prismatic,perfect; b (010) less perfect. Fracture

= =

uneven.

Opaque except in thin gray. Y lavender, Z marked: greenishblue, deep strongly Z Y sections are a " " (100) deep || X palegreenish X; yellow. Absorption Axial a b angle,large, greenishblue, || (010)olive-green. Optically with 14". b axis 1708. c 1707. o n (010), 1'687. Extinction-angle 0 7 ferrous of and metasilicate A basic sodium, calcium, slightly Comp. iron chiefly.
Streak

6. G. Brittle. H. thin scales deep green. splinters.Pleochroism

3 -44-3 -45

Luster

vitreous.

Color

pure

black;

in

deep bluish

"

has been that from to be segirite; shown supposed arfvedsonite from Greenland Peak, Col.,has been referred to riebeckite. to a black magnetic globule; colors the B.B. fuses at 2 with intumescence Pyr., etc. Not acted flame" yellow (soda) manganese. ; with the fluxes gives reactions for iron and by acids. upon brownIn thin sections shows Micro. or or gray-green gray- violet colors; strongly pleochroicin blue and green tints;negative elongation? iron and and Obs. Arfvedsonite amphiboles of similar character, containing much as nephelite-syenite, soda,are constituents of certain igneous rocks which are rich in alkalies, certain porphyries,etc. Large and distinct crystalsare found only in the pegmatite veins in such rocks, as at Kangerdluarsuk, Narsarsuk, Greenland, where the associated minerals Arfvedsonite and etc. also in the nephelite-syenites are occurs eudialyte, feldspar, sodalite, of the Christiania related rocks the Kola on region in southern Norway; peninsula in The Russian Lapland; Dungannon Texas. lated retownship, Ontario; Trans Pecos district, in similar rocks at Montreal, brownish pleochroicamphiboles (cf. barkevikite) occur Canada; Red Hill, N. H.; Salem, Mass.; Magnet Cove, Ark.; Black Hills,S. D.; Square St. Peter's Dome, Col.,etc. Butte, Mon. Osannite from from an amphibole-gneiss at Cevadaes, Portugal, and Tschernichewite a arfvedsonite. magnetite bearing quartzitein the northern Ural Mts., are near BARKEVIKITE. An arfvedsonite In prismatic crysbut more basic. amphibole near tals. 3*428. Color deep velvet-black. Cleavage: prismatic (55" 44f')- G. ism Pleochromarked, colors brownish. Extinction-anglewith c axis on b (010) 12|". Occurs at the wohlerite locality near Barkevik, on the Langesund fiord,and elsewhere in southern In largecrystals at Lugar, Ayrshire, Scotland. Norway. The Pike's
" " "

JEnigmatite. Cossyrite. Essentiallya titano-silicate of ferrous iron and sodium, but and ferric iron. containing also aluminium In prismatic triclinic crystals. Cleavage: 3 74-3 "80. prismatic,distinct (66"). G. Color black, ^nigmatite is from the sodalitesyemte of Tunugdliarfik and in minute Kangerdluarsuk, Greenland. Cossyrite occurs in the liparite embedded lavas of the island Pantellaria (ancient name crystals Cossyra) ; also widespread in the rocks of East Africa. Rhonite is like senigmatitebut contains much less ferrous oxide and alkalies with increase in alumina, ferric oxide, etc. From basaltic
=

rocks in the Rhon WEINBERGERITE.

of

district and Black

elsewhere color.
From

in

Germany
a

and

Bohemia.

'

Perhaps NaAlSiO4.3FeSiO3.

radiating fibers.

Orthorhombic. In spherical aggregates meteoric iron at Codai Canal, Palni Hills,

Madras, India.

496

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

at Transparent berylsare found in Siberia,India and Brazil. In Siberia they occur Miask with topaz; in the mountains of Ekaterinburg; near and Shaitanka, near Mursinka A clear aquamarine crystalweighing 110'5 kg. with topaz, in E. Siberia. Adun-Chalon at Elba; Minas Geraes, Brazil. Beautiful crystalsalso occur found at Marambaya, was in Bohemia. in Saxony, and Schlackenwald Other localities the tin mines of Ehrenfriedersdorf the Mourne Aberdeen, Scotland Mts., Ireland; yellowish green at Rubislaw, near are in Sweden; Tamela and Broddbo in Finland; (davidsonite); Limoges in France; Finbo in in New Rabenstein South Wales. and Bodenmais Bavaria; Pink, Tyrol; Pfitsch-Joch, alkali-rich berylsare found in Madagascar. dimensions have been found in N. H., at Acworth In the United States, berylsof gigantic

Bethel; at Grafton, and in Mass., at Royalston. In Me., at Albany; Norway; Hebron, a ca3sium beryl (Cs2O, 3*60 p. c.),associated with pollucite;in Paris, with black In Mass., at and Stoneham. at Stowe tourmaline; at Topsham, pale green or yellowish; and at the MidIn Conn., at Haddam, and at Chesterfield. Barre; at Goshen (goshenite), dletown and Portland feldspar Milford, of a clear golden yellow to dark quarries; at New Hill. In ya., amber and Chester; at Mineral In Pa., at Leiperville color; Branchville. at Amelia white. In N. C., in Alexander Court House, sometimes Co., near Stony Point, fine emeralds; in Mitchell Co.; Morganton, Burke In Ala., Cposa Co., and elsewhere. of Mt. Antero, beautiful aquamarines. Co., of a lightyellow color. In Col.,near the summit In S. D., in the Black Hills in largecrystals. Rose-pink crystals, often showing prominent from San Diego Co., Cal.,also colorless and aquamarine. pyramid faces,
and Use.
"

The

transparent mineral

is used

as

gem

stone;
=

see

above

under

Varieties.

Eudialyte. Essentially a metasilicate of Zr,Fe(Mn),Ca,Na, etc. In red to brown tabular or rhombohedral G. H. 2'9-3'0. 5-5'5. crystals;also massive. Optically 1'606. -J-. o" 1'611. From 6 Kangerdluarsuk, West Greenland, etc., with arfvedsonite and sodalite;at Lujaor on the Kola peninsula,Russian Lapland, in elseolite-syenite, there forming a main constituent of the rock-mass. from islands of the Langesund Eucolite, fiord in Norway, is similar (but optically ). Eudialyte and eucolite also occur at Magnet Cove, in Ark., of a rich crimson to peach-blossom red color,in feldspar,with elseolite and
= = =
"

aegirite.
H. Elpidite. Na2O.ZrO2.6SiO2.3H2O. 7. G. Color 2'54. Massive, fibrous. white to brick-red. Indices Southern Greenland. 1 '560-1 '574. Biaxial,+. ASTROLITE. In with (Na,K)2Fe(Al,Fe)2(SiO3)5.H2O?. globular forms radiating
"

structure.
near

H.

3'5.

G.

2'8.

Color

green.

Fusible, 3'5.

Found

in

diabase

tuff

Neumark, The

Germany.

following are

fiord
2-8.

of complex composition,all from the Langerare species sund regionof southern Norway.
=

Catapleiite. H4(Na2)Ca)ZrSi3pii. In thin tabular hexagonal prisms. H. 6. G. Color lightyellow to yellowishbrown. Biaxial,+. Indices, 1 '591-1 '627. Natronor catapleiite, contains only sodium; color blue to gray and white; on heatsoda-catapleiite, ing the blue color disappears. Cappelenite. A boro-silicate of yttrium and barium. In greenish brown hexagonal crystals.
=

Melanocerite. A fluo-silicate of the cerium and yttrium metals and (also B, Ta, etc.). In brown to black tabular rhombohedral crystals.

calcium

chiefly

Caryocerite. Near
H.

melanocerite, ThO2. containing

to the
to

Steenstrupine (from Greenland) is allied

=4. A G.
=

two

last-named

species. Rhombohe"

3'4.

Color

dark

brown

nearly black.

Optically

Tritomite.
with

boron.

fluo-silicate of thorium, the cerium and yttrium metals In dark brown crystalsof acute triangularpyramidal form.

and

calcium,

The

are following

also from
=

the

same

region:
-.

Leucophanite. Na(BeF)Ca(SiO3)2. In glassygreenish tabular crystals(orthorhombicsphenoidal). H. =4. G. 2'96. Optically Indices, 1'571-1'598. Meliphanite.
low square
A

fluo-silicate of

beryllium, calcium,and
H.
=

pyramids
'612.

(tetragonal). Color yellow.

5-5'5.

sodium G.

near
=

leucophanite. In
3*01.

Optically

Indices,1 '593-1

SILICATES

497

In fine granular masses. Monoclinic. Cleavages parallel prism, all making nearly 90" with each other. Twinning plane c (001), twin lamellae. H. =5. G. 2 -91. Color greenish gray. Transparent. Bxa nearlyperpendicular toe +. 1 '58-1 '60. Optically (001). Indices, fusible. Difficultly Decomposed by hydrochloricacid. Found in limestone contact zone at the Empire mine, Custer Co., Idaho. Monoclinic. In small twinned crystals. H. Didymolite. 2CaO.3Al2O3.9SiO2. 4-5. Color dark gray. 271. G. fusible. Insoluble. Found Opaque. Index 1 '5. Difficultly mineral in limestone from Tatarka River, Yenisei District, as contact Siberia. base showing in
to

Custerite.

Ca2(OH,F)SiO3.

and

IOLITE.

Cordierite.

Dichroite.
=

Orthorhombic. Axes a : b : c 0-5871 d Twins: tw. pi. also m both (110), (130), Habit short prismatic (mm 60" 50')(Fig.838). As embedded grains; also massive, compact.

0;5585.
839

forms. yielding pseudo-hexagonal

Cleavage: b (010) distinct; indistinct. Crysa(100)and c(001) tals

often show
a

lamellar structure

when c (001),especially || altered. Brittle.

2*66.

slightly
=

Fracture
H.
=

Luster shades

subconchoidal. 7-7 '5. 2-60G. vitreous. Color various

or dark, blue,light

of

lucent. smoky blue. Transparent to transPleochroism strongly marked except in thin sections. Axial colors variable. Thus: Bodenmais
Z

(=

axis)dark
"

Berlin-blue.

Berlin-blue. axis) light

axis)

yellowishwhite. X. Pleochroic halos common, often brightyellow; axis. Exhibits seen ||c idiophanousfigures.Optically Ax. pi.|| 2V 70" 23' v. a (100). Bx. J_ c (001). Dispersion feeble, p " Indices 1'534 40" to 84"). to 1-599. from (also variable,

Absorption Z

"

best

in sections

"

H2(Mg,Fe)4Al8Siio037or H2O.4(Mg,Fe)O.4Al2O3.10SiO2. 7 : 2, the percentage compositionis: Silica 49*4, alumina 100. Ferrous iron replaces 33'6, iron protoxide5*3, magnesia 10-2, water 1-5 part of the magnesium. Calcium is also present in small amount. Comp. If Mg
"

Fe

fuses at 5-5'5. Only partially decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates. Diff. Characterized by its vitreous luster, color and pleochroism; fusible on the edges unlike quartz; less hard than sapphire. Micro. ference-color Recognized in thin sections by lack of color; low refraction and low interit is very similar to quartz, but distinguished by its biaxial character; in volcanic rocks commonly shows distinct crystal outlines and a twinning of three individuals like aragonite. In the gneisses, of but the common occurrence etc.,it is in formless grains, of sillimanite needles, the pleochroic halos of a yellow color around small inclusions, especially and the constant tendency to alteration to micaceous pinite inclusions, particularly zircons, seen it. along cleavages, help to distinguish Obs. Occurs in granite,gneiss (cordierite-gneiss) hornblendic,chloritic and talcose , and allied rocks,with quartz, orthoclase or albite, schist, tourmaline,hornblende, andalusite, sillimanite, ous garnet, and sometimes beryl. Less commonly in or connected with ignemasses from the magma, rocks,thus formed directly as in andesite, etc.; also in ejected
"

acids.

B.B. Pyr.,etc. Decomposed

"

loses transparency and

on

"

"

498

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

(infragments of older rocks); further formed as a contact-mineral in connection with eruptive dikes,as in slates adjoininggranite. in Finland Occurs at Bodenmais, Bavaria, in granite,with pyrrhotite,etc.; Orijarvi, Tunaberg, in Sweden; from Switzerland; in colorless crystalsfrom Brazil; (steinheilite)-; from Ibity, Ceylon affords a transparent variety,the saphir d'eau of jewelers; Madagascar;
from

Greenland.
vein Conn., associated with tourmaline in a granitic Conn. Litchfield, Mass.; at Richmond AtBrimfield, in

In the United States, at Haddam, from gneiss. In largealtered crystals N. H. Named its

I elite from 'lov, and (from dixpoos, violet, stone; Dichroite X10os, two-colored), after Cordier, the French geologist(1777-1861). dichroism; Cordierite, The Alteration. alteration of iolite takes place so readilyby ordinary exposure, that the mineral is most commonly found in an altered state, or enclosed in the altered iolite. be a simple hydration; or a removal of part of the protoxide bases by carThis change may bon dioxide; or the introduction of oxide of iron; or of alkalies, forming pinite and mica. The first step in the change consists in a division of the prisms of ioliteinto platesparallel to the base, and a pearly foliation of the surfaces of these plates;with a change of color to As the alteration proceeds, grayishgreen and greenishgray, and sometimes brownish gray. the foliation becomes more complete; afterward it may be lost. The mineral in this altered

from

condition has many and auralite) names : as hydrous iolite ( including bonsdorffite from Abo, from Helsingfors; Finland; fahlunitefrom Falun, Sweden, also pyrargillite esmarkite and from near praseolite Brevik, Norway, also raumite from Raumo, Finland,and peplolite from from Ramsberg-, Sweden; chlorophyllite Unity, Me.; aspasioliteand polychroilite from Kragero. There are further alkaline kinds, as pinite, cataspilite, gigantolite, iberite, ing belongto the Mica Group.
Use.
"

Iolite is sometimes

used

as

gem.

G.

Jurupaite. H2(Ca,Mg)2Si2O7. Monoclinic? 275. 1-57. n Crestmore, Cal.

=

Radiating fibrous.

White.

The
structure.

are following

rare

and barium lead,zinc,

silicates:

In Barysilite. Pb3Si2O7. Rhombohedral. embedded with masses curved lamellar 3. Cleavage: basal. H. G. 611-6-55. Color white; tarnishing on From the Harstig mine, Pajsberg, and Langban, Sweden. exposure. Molybdophyllite. (Pb,Mg)SiO4.H2O. Hexagonal. In irregular foliated masses with 3-4. perfect basal cleavage. H. G. 47. Colorless to pale green, 1-81 co fusible. From Difficultly Langban, Sweden.
= = = = =

Ganomalite.

Pb4(PbOH)2Ca4(Si2O7)3. In prismatic crystals (tetragonal);also

=3 also

sive mas-

granular. H Langban, Sweden;

Nasonite.

G.

=574.

Colorless

to

gray.

Indices, 1'83-1'93.

From

H.

Massive,granularcleavable. H. =4. G. 5'4. White. Fusible. From Franklin^N. J. Margarosanite. Pb(Ca,Mn)2(SiO3)3. Triclinic. Slender prismatic crystalsand cleavable granular. Three cleavages, one perfect. Colorless and transparent with pearly lus2-5-3. G. 3-99. Easily fusible. From N. J., and Langban, Sweden. Franklin, Hardystonite. CasZnSisOr. Tetragonal. In granular masses. Three cleavages.
= = = =

Jakobsberg. related to ganomalite. Pb4(PbCl)2Ca4(Si2O7)3. Closely Probably tetragonal.

3-4.

G.

3'4.

Hydotekite.
U.
=

Color white. From N. J. Franklin, Approximately (Pb,Ba,Ca)B2(SiO3)i2. Massive; coarselycrystalline.

3-81.

5 -5-5.

G.

Color In

white
groups

to

pearly gray.
of ft
=

From

Langban, Sweden.
Occurs with

Barylite. Ba^SiAt
' "

colorless prismatic orthorhombic

1-685.

crystals.

in

nlimestone crystalline
r

'

greasy?' LustTer
at
ii

Optically +.
Sweden.

Langban,

hedyphane

in

Taramellite.

Ba4FeFe4Si10O31. Orthorhombic?

K^t

^^

Fibrous. "** tO ^^

Color

n.

Candoglia Italy Roeblingite. ,H2CaSiO4).2(CaPbSO4).In dense, white,compact, crystalline masses. 6.

"

reddish brown. F"Und ln lime-

u.

6 433.

From

Franklin

Furnace

N. J.

SILICATES

499

III.

Orthosilicates.

R2SiO4
an

Salts of Orthosilicic Acid, H4SiO4; characterized by 1 : 1 for silicon to bases. list includes the more The following prominent groups silicates.

oxygen among

ratio of the Ortho-

of basic orthosilicates are A number here included, which yieldwater ignition; upon less basic than also others which are normal more or but which are of a orthosilicate, introduced here in the classification, because of their relationship to other normal necessity MICA GROUP is so closely salts. The related to many Hydrous Silicates that (with also and some Talc,Kaolinite, others)it is described later with them.

Hexagonal. Nephelite Group. Isometric. Soda lite Group. Helvite Isometric-tetraheGroup.

Isometric. Group. Orthorhombic. Chrysolite Group. Tri-rhombohePhenacite Group.
dral. draL Garnet

Scapolite Group. Tetragonalpyramidal. Zircon Group. Tetragonal. Danburite OrthorhomGroup.

bic.
Datolite

Group.

Epidote Group.

Monoclinic. Monoclinic.

Nephelite Group.
i

Hexagonal

Typical formula RAlSiO4

K^NaeA^C^ Nephelite NaAlSi04 (artif.) Soda-nephelite LiAlSiO4 Eucryptite
Cancrinite Microsommite The have
c
=

0-8389

Kaliophilite
2c 2c
=

KAlSi04
0'8448

H6Na6Ca(NaC03)2Al8(SiO4)9 (Na,K)ioCa4Ali2Sii2052SCl4
GROUP
are
i

0'8367

of the NEPHELITE species

and hexagonal in crystallization

in part the typical orthosilicate formula RAlSi04. From this formula artificial soda-nephelite, nephelite itself deviates somewhat, though an NaAlSiO4, conforms to it. The speciesCancrinite and Microsommite are related in form and also in composition, in latter the what somethough respect to connect this group with the sodalite group complex. They serve

following.
NEPHELITE.

Nepheline.

Elseolite.
=

0-83893. Hexagonal-hemimorphic (p. 101). Axis c In thick six- or twelve-sided prisms with plane or modified summits. Also massive compact, and in embedded thin grains; structure sometimes

columnar.

Cleavage:
Brittle.
H.
=

subconchoidal. c (001)imperfect. Fracture (110)distinct;

5'5-6.
=

2-55-2-65. Luster vitreous to greasy; G. little a varieties. Colorless, when masalso, white,or yellowish; sive, dark green, greenish parent or bluish gray, brownish red and brick-red. Transto opaque. Indices: o" 1-538. Optically 1-542,e Var. 1. Nephelite. Glassy. Usually in small glassycrystals or grains, transparent with vitreous luster, first found on Mte. Somma, Vesuvius. Characteristic particularly of

opalescentin

some

"

"

"

500
younger

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

or more monly comcrystals, eruptive rocks and lavas. 2. Elceolite. In large coarse brownish color. or in and reddish, greenish, gray massive, with a greasy luster, rocks,syenite, inclusions. Characteristic of granularcrystalline clouded by minute Usually
"

etc.

This is the composition of the artificial mineral. NaAlSiO4. Comp. and also small Natural nephelitealways contains silica in varying excess to NaeK^AlgSigCV The approximates usually composition of potash. amounts
"

like nephelitewith the composition NaAlSiO4, Synthetic experiments,yieldingcrystals would be an orthosilicate with this lead to the conclusion that a natural soda-nephelite formula, while the higher silica in the potash varieties may be explainedby the presence, in hexagonal modification). and NaAlSi3O8 (albite in molecular combination, of KAlSiO4 be more lite, simply explainedby consideringnormal nepheThe variation in composition may The other NaAlSiO4, to take up in solid solution silica or other silicate molecules. viz., eucryptiteLiAlSiO4. and kaliophilite, speciesof the group are normal orthosilicates, B.B. fuses etc. Pyr.? Gelatinizes with acids.
" "

at quietly

3 '5 to

colorless glass,coloring the flame

yellow.

with acids from scapoliteand feldspar,as Diff. Distinguishedby its gelatinizing Massive varieties have from which it differs too in its greater hardness. also from apatite, luster. a characteristic greasy Micro. Recognized in thin sections by its low refraction; very low interferencein crystals; faint negative extinction when which scarcelyrise to gray; parallel colors, uniaxial cross yieldedby basal sections in converging light. The negative character is best told by aid of the gypsum nonplate(seep. 266). Micro-chemical tests serve to distinguish of alkali feldspar;the section is treated with dilute from similar ones characteristic particles stained with which coats the nepheliteparticles, silica, acid,and the resultant gelatinous
"

dye. Nephelite is easilyprepared artificially by fusing its constituents together in the proper proportions. Obs. Nephelite is rather widely distributed (as shown by the microscopic study of rich in soda and at the of a magma rocks) in igneous rocks as the product of crystallization time low in silica (which last prevents the soda from being used up in the formation same of albite). It is thus an essential component of the nephelite-syenites and phonoliteswhere it is associated with alkali feldspars basic augitic chiefly. It is also a constituent of more of rocks such as nephelinite, theralite, nephelite-basalts, nephelite-tephrites, etc., most which are volcanic in origin. The variety elceolite is associated with the granular plutonic used for the fresh glassy crystalsof the rocks, while the name was nephelite originally modern lavas; the terms have in this sense orthoclase and relative significance the same as sanidine. elceolite. Modern usage, however,tends to drop the name The original in crystals in the older lavas of Mte. Somma, Vesuvius, with occurs nephelite mica, vesuvianite, etc.; at Capo di Bove, near Rome; in the basalt of Katzenbuckel, near Heidelberg, Germany; Aussig in Bohemia; Lobau in Saxony. Occurs also in massive forms
or

cosine

other

Artif.

"

"

foyaite); Ditro,Hungary

(inthe rock ditroite) ; Pousac, France; Brazil; South Africa. Elaeolite occurs massive and crystallized at Litchfield, Me., with cancrinite;Salem, Mass.; Red Hill,N. H.; in the Ozark Bits., near Magnet Cove, Ark.; elseolite-syenite is also found near northern N. J.; near Beemersville, Montreal, Canada; at Dungannon
_

township,Ontario,in enormous at various points,as crystals. Nephelite rocks also occur the Transpecos district, North America, as in Texas; Pilot Butte, Texas; also in western Col. at Cripple Creek; in Mon., in the Crazy Mts., the Highwood, Bearpaw and Judith Black Hills in S. D.; Ice River, British Columbia. |Cts.; Named from i/e^eXrj, in allusion to its becoming cloudy when immersed nephelite a cloud, in strong acid; elceolite is from eXaiov, in allusion to its greasy luster. oil, Gieseckite is a pseudomorph after nephelite. It occurs in six-sided greenin Greenland ish from luster; also at Diana in Lewis Co., N. Y. gray prisms of greasy Dysyntribite Diana is similar to gieseckite, is also liebenerite, as from the valleyof Fleims, in Tyrol, Austria. See further FINITE under the MICA GROUP. Eucryptite. LiAlSi04.
in

In

albite and

derived
=

from

p.

181). G.

2-667.

the alteration of spodumene Colorless or white.

symmetrically arranged crystals (hexagonal), embedded, at Branchville, Conn, (seeFig.488,

SILICATES

501

Phacellite. Phacelite. In bundles of slender Facellite. Kaliophilite. KAlSiO4. acicular crystals(hexagonal), also in fine threads, cobweb-like. H. =6. G. 2*493Colorless. Occurs in ejectedmasses 2'602. at Mte. Somma, Vesuvius.
=

CANCRINITE.

_Hexagonal.
0111

Axis

04224;
in

and

mp

1010

1011
a

64",ppf 1011

25" 58'. Usually massive.

= =

Rarely

prismaticcrystalswith

low terminal

pyramid.
=

H. m 5-6. (1010) perfect;a (1120) less so. Cleavage: prismatic, 2 -42-2 -5. Color white, gray, G. yellow, green, blue, reddish. Streak Luster subvitreous, uncolored. of a littlepearlyor greasy. Transparent to 1-524. 1-496. translucent. e co Optically
-.
= =

Comp.

"

H6Na6Ca(NaC03)2Al8(SiO4)9
= =

or

Silica 387, carbon 9Si02.2C02 100. 17-8,water 3-9 Pyr., etc.

intumescence
"

dioxide 6-3, alumina

3H2O.4Na2O.CaO.4Al2O3. 29-3, lime 4-0, soda

=

nephelite.
before.
"

In the closed tube gives water. B.B. loses color, and fuses (F. 2) with the very easy fusibility it readilyfrom to a white blebby glass, distinguishing Effervesces with hydrochloric acid, and forms a jellyon heating, but not

Micro. Recognized in thin sections by its low refraction;quite high interferenceIts common association with nephelite, colors and negative uniaxial character. socialite, valuable characteristics. Evolution of CO2 with acid distinguishes it from all other are etc., minerals except the carbonates,which show much higher interference-colors. Cancrinite has been prepared artificially Artif a mixture by heating under pressure of nepheliteand alumina and sodium carbonate; also by the treatment of sodium silicate, labradorite by sodium carbonate at high temperatures. and related Cancrinite occurs Obs. only in igneous rocks of the nephelite-syenite formed from the molten magIt is in part believed to be original, rock groups. i.e., directly ma; of nepheliteby infiltrating in part held to be secondary and formed at the expense waters holding calcium carbonate in solution. Prominent localitiesare Miask in the Ilmen and other localities at Barkevik similarly nephelite-syenite; Mte.,Russia, in coarse-grained the Langesund fiord in southern on Norway; in the parishof Knolajarvi in northern Finland it composes of cancriniteand nephelite, a mass segirite (where, associated with orthoclase, of Sarna and Alno in Sweden, syenite); at Ditro,Transylvania, etc.; in nephelite-syenite occasional accessory component of many and in Brazil; also in small amount as an phonoliticrocks at various localities. In the United States at Litchfield and West Gardiner, Me., with ela3oliteand blue sodaafter Count Cancrin, Russian Minister of Finance. lite. Named with nearly one-half the CO2 replaced by SO3 is found in an SULPHATIC CANCRINITE fringence Co., Col. Has lower refractive indices and' birealtered rock on Beaver Creek, Gunnison
"

"

than

cancrinite.

In minute Near Microsommite. cancrinite;perhaps (Na,Et)i0Ca4Ali2Sii2O52SCl4). Vesuvius (Monte colorless prismatic crystals(hexagonal. See Fig. 30, p. 19). From 1-521. 1'529. 2'42-2'53. H. =6. G. co e Somma).
= = =

Davyne.
1-518.
e
=

Near 1'521.

microsommite.

From

Mte.

Somma;

Laacher

See, Germany.

o"

Sodalite Sodalite

Group.

Isometric

Na4(AlCl)Al2(SiO4)3

Haiiynite
Noselite Lazurite

(Na2,Ca)2(NaSO4.Al)Al2(Si04)3
Na4(NaSO4.Al)Al2(Si04)3 Na4(NaS3.Al)Al2(SiO4)3

and perof the Sodalite Group are isometric in crystallization The species haps In compositionthey are peculiar tetrahedral like the following group. radicals with Cl, S04 and cancrinite of the preceding group) in containing (like These are shown in the in silicates. absent the elements which are usually S,

502

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

formulas written above in the form this group and the one followingmay
group

composition.

who shows that with the included be garnets in a broad close resemblance and in characterized by isometric crystallization a GROUP proper, p. 505. See further under the GARNET

by Brogger, suggested

The formulas and chloride

etc. SODALITE.

are

also often written

"

as

if the

compound

consisted

of

cate sili-

sulphide) (sulphate,

thus for

3NaAlSiO4 + NaCl, sodalite,

Isometric, perhaps tetrahedral. Common

form

the

dodecahedron.

in the direction Twinsforminghexagonalprismsby elongation tw. pi. o (111), in embedded Also massive, grains;in 406, p. 165). of an octahedral axis (Fig. from elaeolite. formed concentric nodules resembling chalcedony, conchoidal to less distinct. Fracture or Cleavage: dodecahedral, more
uneven.

to greasy. inclining

sometimes Luster vitreous, 2'14-2'30. G. 5-5-6. white; sometimes blue, yellowish, Color gray, greenish, Streak uncolored. lavender-blue,lightred. Transparent to translucent.

Brittle.

H.

1-4827.

Comp.

"

Na4(AlCl)Al2(SiO4)3Silica 37'2,
= = =

alumina

31*6, soda

25'6,

2C1) chlorine 7'3 1017, deduct (0 The formula may small part of the sodium. NaCl.
Pyr.. etc.
fuses with
" "

17

Potassium replacesa also be written 3NaAlSiO4 +

100.

In

the closed tube

at

intumescence,

3 '5-4,to

B.B. white and opaque. the blue varieties become colorless glass. Soluble in hydrochloric acid and a

silicaupon evaporation. yieldsgelatinous leucite and haiiynite from much Diff. by chemical tests alone; analcite, Distinguished the mineral in dilute nitric acid and testing for chlorine is the simplest and dissolving
best.

character and Micro. isotropic Recognized in thin sections by its very low refraction, In uncovered rock sections in most lack of good cleavage; also, cases, by itslack of color. with a from each other by covering them the minerals of this group be distinguished may of sodium sodalite crystals to evaporate slowly. With littlenitric acid which is allowed of gypsum; with noselite crystalsof both compounds chloride will form; with haiiynite crystals lazurite will evolve hydrogen sulphide which after the addition of calcium chloride; will blacken silver. Aftif. .Sodalite can be obtained by fusingnephelite with sodium chloride;also by the It has been action of sodium carbonate and caustic soda upon muscovite at 500". duced proat temperatures below 700". also in various artificial magmas Obs. Sodalite occurs and related rock only in igneous rocks of the nephelite-syenite of a magma rich in soda; also as a product associated groups, as a product of the crystallization with enclosed masses and bombs in the form of lava,as at ejectedwith such magmas Often associated Vesuvius. with nephelite(or elseolite), cancrinite and eudialyte. With sanidine it forms a sodalite-trachyte at Scarrupata in Ischia,Italy,in crystals. In Sicily, Val di Noto, with nephelite and analcite. At Vesuvius,in bombs in white, Monte Somma on dodecahedral crystals; massive and of a gray color at the Kaiserstuhl and near translucent, A varietyfrom Monte Lake Laach, Germany. Somma num containing 2 per cent of molybdetrioxide has -been called molybdosodalite.At Ditro, Transylvania, in an elaeolitesyenite. In the foyaiteof southern Portugal. At Miask, in the Ilmen Mts., Russia; in the augite-syenite of the Langesund-fiordregion in Norway. Greenland Further in West in sodalite-syenite; the peninsulaof Kola, Russia. A blue massive variety occurs at Litchfield and West in the Occurs Gardiner,Me. theralite of the Crazy Mts., Mon., also at Square Butte, Highwood Mts., and in the BearMts., in tinguaite. Occurs also in the ela3olite-syenite of Brome, Brome paw Co., and of and Beloeil, Montreal province of Quebec; at Dungannon, Ontario, in large blue masses and in small palepink crystals. At KickingHorse Pass, Bristish Columbia. A sodalite containing Hackmanite. about 6 per cent of the molecule Na4[Al(NaS)]Al2 (biO4)3trom a rock called tawite from the Tawa valley the Kola peninsula, on Lapland.
" " " .

504

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

amount
n a

mineral undetermined'
_

orthoclase scapolite plagioclase,

easily(3)
"

result of contact which see. Similar to sodalite, Micro. moisture; the variety from Chile Heated in the closed tube gives off some etc Pvr blue on cooling Fuses but the color of the mineral remains light, clows with a beetle-green acid and yieldsgelatiSoluble in hydrochloric nous white glass. to a intumescence with
"

apatite,titanite, zircon, and (microperthite?), + and probably uniaxial. Regarded by Brogger as optically metamorphism in limestone.

evolves hydrogen sulphide. India,in the valleyof the Kokcha, a branch of the Oxus, Badakshan, Obs Baikal Siberia. Further, in at the south end of Lake Also miles above Firgamu. a few From at Monte Somma, Vesuvius, rare. masses In ejected Chile in the Andes of Ovalle. silicaupon and evaporation
in Occurs

Siberia and Persia.

Use
"

richlycolored varieties of lapislazuli are highly esteemed for costlyvases of mosaics; and when dered powThis has been replaced, constitutes the rich and durable paint called ultramarine. now an important commercial product. ultramarine, however, by artificial
The in the manufacture and ornamental furniture; also employed

Helvite "",

Group.

Isometric-tetrahedral

Helvite Danalite

Eulytite Zunyite
The HELVITE

(Mn,Fe)2(Mn2S)Be3(Si04)3 (Fe,Zn,Mn)2( (Zn,Fe)2S)Be3(Si04)3 Bi4(SiO4)3 (Al(OH,F,Cl)2)6Al2(SiO4)3

isometric-tetrahedral in includes several rare species, GROUP to related the of the SODALITE in and species composition crystallization which follows: GROUP the GARNET of to those also and GROUP
HELVITE.

Isometric-tetrahedral. Commonly
masses.

in tetrahedral

crystals cal ; also in spheri-

H.

in traces. Fracture uneven Brittle. to conchoidal. Luster vitreous, Color resinous. t o inclining and t o reddish brown. brown, siskin-green, inclining yellowish honey-yellow,

Cleavage: octahedral
=

6-6*5.

G.

3'16-3'36.

Streak uncolored.
"

Subtransparent.

1 739.

Pyroelectric.

This may be written (Mn,Fe)2(Mn2S)Be3 (Be,Mn,Fe)7Si3Oi2S. Comp. Garnet to the the bivalent Group, taking (SiO4)3 analogous group -Mn-S-Mn to 2A1, cf. p. 505. the placeof a bivalent element,R, and 3Be corresponding Composition also written 3(Be,Mn,Fe)2SiO4.(Mn,Fe)S.
Fuses at 3 in R.F. with intumescence to a yellowish brown Pyr.,etc. bead, opaque With the fluxes givesthe manganese Soluble in hydroreaction. becoming darker in R.F. chloric silicaupon evap9ration. acid, givinghydrogen sulphideand yieldinggelatinous Obs. Occurs at Schwarzenbergand Breitenbrunn, in Saxony; at Kapnik, Hungary; also in the pegmatite veins of the augite-syenite of the Langesund fiord, Norway; in the Ilmen Mts.,Russia,near Miask, in pegmatite. In the United States, at the with spessartite, mica mines near Amelia Court-House,Amelia Co.,Va.; etc. sion Named by Werner, in alluto its yellow color, from -Xios,the sun. Danalite. H. (Be,Fe,Zn,Mn)7Si3Oi2S. In octahedrons; usually massive. 5'5-6. G. 3-427. Color flesh-red to gray. Occurs in small grains in the Rockport granite, Cape Ann, Mass.; at the iron mine at Bartlett, N. H.; El Paso Co., Col. In England at
" "

Eulytite. Bi4Si3Oi2. Usually

H.
n
=

4'5.

2?'

in minute tetrahedral crystals;also in sphericalforms. G. 6'106. Color dark hair-brown to colorless. grayish, straw-yellow, or Found witn native bismuth near Schneeberg, Saxony; also at Johanngeorgen=

stadt, Germany,

on crystals

quartz.

SILICATES

505

Zunyite.
"

minute

transparent tetrahedrons.

verton, San Juan

In highly basic orthosilicate of aluminium, (Al(OH,F,Cl)2)6Al2Si3Oi2. 2*875. From H. =7. G. the Zuni mine, near SilCo., and on Red Mountain, Ouray Co., Col.
=

4.

Garnet
or

Group.

Isometric

3RO.R2O3.3Si02.
H III III Ill III

II

II
=

Ca,Mg,Fe,Mn.

Al,Fe,Cr,Ti.

Garnet
A. B. C. D.

GROSSULARITE
PYROPE ALMANDITE

SPESSARTITE Schorlomite

E. ANDRADITE Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 Ca3Fe2(SiO4); Also Mg3Al2(Si04)3 (Ca,Mg)3Fe2(SiO4)3, Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 Ca3Fe2((Si,Ti)04)3 F. UVAROVITE Mn3Al2(SiO4)3 Ca3Cr2(Si04)3, Ca3(Fe,Ti)2( (Si,Ti)O4)

includes a series of important sub-species GROUP included The GARNET in the normal class of under the same name. specific They all crystallize and trapezoalike in habit,the dodecahedron the isometric system and' are forms. hedron being the common They have also the same generalformula, intermediate and while the elements present differ widely, there are many and thus of the garnets include titanium,replacing varieties. Some silicon, w hich connected with the rare are schorlomite, species probably also has they formula. the same general Closelyrelated to the GARNET Groups (pp. 501, 504). All are
with orthosilicates,
Hill

similar

GROUP of the Sodalite and llelvite proper are the species characterized by isometric crystallization, and all are Thus the formula of the Garnet Group is chemical structure.

where Na4 and the R3R2(SiO4)3; to this Sodalite conforms if written Na4(AlCl)Al2(SiO4)3, for Noselite (Haliynite) if the presence bivalent radical A1C1 are equivalent to R3; similarly of the bivalent group is assumed. NaSO4-Al In the Helvite Group, which is characterized by the tetrahedral character of the species the chemical relation is less close but probably exists, (perhaps true also of the Sodalites), of Helvite (Mn,Fe)(Mn2S)Be3(SiO4)3,where the bivalent as exhibited by writingthe formula -S-Mn-Senters, and 3Be may be regarded as taking the place of 2A1. group
GARNET.

Isometric.
841

The

dodecahedron

and

the n trapezohedron, (211),

843

common

842

simpleforms; also these in combination,or with the hexoctahedron s (321). Cubic and octahedral faces rare. Often in irregular embedded grains. Also

506
coarse massive; granular,

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

or

thick and bent.

Sometimes

lamellae lamellar, fine,and sometimes friable; like nephrite. compact, cryptocrystalline

rather distinct.
845

Parting:
844

(110) sometimes

Fracture

subconchoidal
846

to

granularmassive; very tough when G. 3-15-4-3,varying with the compact Color vitreous resinous. to red,brown, yellow,white, composition. Luster red and green, colors often bright. Streak white. black; some apple-green, double refraction, Often exhibits anomalous Transparent to subtranslucent. 429. Refractive index Art. see etc.), topazolite, (also grossularite especially with the composition. The different pure rather high,and varying directly indices. the following molecules have approximately
uneven.

sometimes Brittle,

friable when
=

H. cryptocrystalline.

6'5-7'5.

I'SOO,Almandite Pyrope 1705, Grossularite 1-735,Spessartite

Andradite
1'895.

1'830,Uvarovite
II III

1'870,

orthosilicate having the generalformula or R3R2(SiO4)3, Comp. ferrous The bivalent element may be calcium, 3RO.R203.3Si02. magnesium, iron or manganese; the trivalent element, aluminium, ferric iron or chromium, is s ilicon also sometimes titanium. rarely titanium;further, replaced by The different garnet molecules are isomorphous with each other although there are apparently definite limits to their miscibility. The greatermajority willbe found to have two or three component molecules ; in the case, however, where three are present one is commonly in subordinate amount. The index of refraction and specific with the variation in composition. gravity vary directly Var. There are three prominent groups, and various subdivisions under each,many of these blendinginto each other.
"

An

"

I. Aluminium A. B.

Garnet, including
Garnet Aluminium Garnet MagnesiumIron- Aluminium Garnet Garnet Manganese- Aluminium Calcium- Aluminium

C.
D.

GROSSULARITE PYROPE ALMANDITE SPESSARTITE

Ca3Al2(Si04)3 Mg3Al2(SiO4)3 Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 Mn3Al2(SiO4)3

Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3

II. Iron
E.

Garnet, including
ANDRADITE

Calcium-Iron

Garnet

(1)Ordinary. (2)Magnesian. (3)Titaniferous.

III.

(4)Yttriferous, Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3

Chromium
F.

Garnet.

UVAROVITE

Calcium-Chromium

Garnet

Garnet is from the Latin granatus, meaning like a from grain, and directly pomegranate, the seeds of which are small,numerous, and red, in allusion to the aspect oi the crystals.
name

The

SILICATES

507

aluminium

Essonite or Hessonite. Cinnamon-stone. CalciumFormula Silica 40 -0,alumina 3CaO.Al2O3.3Si02 227, Often 100. the calcium,and lime 37 '3 containingferrous iron replacing aluminium, and hence graduatingtoward groups C and ferric iron replacing Color 3-53. E. G. (a) colorless to white; (6) pale green; (c) amberbrownish and honey-yellow; (d) wine-yellow, yellow,cinnamon-brown; (e) of chromium. Often rose-red;rarely (/) emerald-greenfrom the presence anomalies shows optical (Art.429).
A.

GROSSULARITE. Garnet.
=

in part) included the pale green from Siberia, and was The original (wiluite grossularite for the gooseberry; G. 3-42-372. from the botanical name named Cinnamon-stone, included a cinnamon-colored essonite (more properly hessonite), variety from Ceylon, or the yellowand yellowishred kinds are usually there called hyacinth; but under this name because of less hardness than the true hyacinth from inferior, fjvauv, included; named kind from the Ala valley,Piedmont, Succinite is an amber-colored which it resembles. is brown. Italy. Romanzovite and yellow-brown garnets are not invariably Pale green, yellowish, some grossularite; demantoid, etc.)belong to the group of Calcium-Iron Garnet, or (includingtopazolite, Andradite.
so
=

Precious garnet in part. Magnesium-aluminium Garnet. Silica 44-8, alumina 25*4, magnesia 29*8 3MgO.Al203.3Si02 100. Magnesia predominates,but calcium and iron are also present; the G. 3'51. also contained chromium. Color deep red to original pyrope The transparent and then prized as a gem. nearly black. Often perfectly
B. PYROPE.

Formula

name

pyrope

is from

TTUPCOTTOS, fire-like. and

of delicate shades of pale rose-red Rhodolite, correspondsin composition to two parts of pyrope

and

one

purple, brilliant by reflected light, of almandite; from Macon Co.,

N. C.

Precious garnet in part. Common garnet Silica 36 -2, Formula 3FeO.Al203.3SiO2 Ferric iron replaces 100. the aluminium also the ferrous to a greater or less extent. replaces Magnesium iron,and cf. rhodolite above. Color fine G. 4-25. thus it graduatestoward pyrope, deep red, transparent,in preciousgarnet; brownish red, translucent or subPart of common in common garnet belongs to translucent, garnet; black. Almandine. C. ALMANDITE. Garnet. in part. Iron-aluminium iron protoxide 43 '3 alumina 20 '5,
= = =

Andradite.
The Hence

called because Alabandic carbuncles of Pliny were so in use. almandine the name or almandite, now

cut

and polishedat Alabanda.

Spessartine.Manganese-aluminium Garnet. Formula Silica 36'4,alumina protoxide43'0 20'6,manganese to a greater or less extent, and iron replaces the manganese Ferrous 100. Color dark hyacinth-red, 4-18. G. sometimes ferric iron also the aluminium. to brownish red. with a tingeof violet,
D. SPESSARTITE.

3MnO.Al2O3.3SiO2

Calcium-iron Common Garnet, etc. Garnet, Black lime Silica 35'5,iron sesquioxide31 -5, Formula 3CaO.Fe2O3.3Si02 Aluminium 100. 33*0 replacesthe ferric iron; ferrous iron,manganese Colors various: 375. the calcium. G. and sometimes magnesium replace brownish wine-, topaz- and greenishyellow,apple-greento emerald-green; red,brownish yellow;grayishgreen, dark green; brown; grayishblack,black.
E. ANDRADITE.

Garnet.
=

and

Andradite after the Portuguese mineralogist, Named d'Andrada, who in 1800 described ing Allochroite. of the included subvarieties, named one Chemicallythere are the followvarieties:

508
1

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

are wholly or almost wholly Garnet, in which the protoxides having the color and transparency of topaz, and also (a) Topazolite, ! a grass-green Demantoid often showing a vicinal hexoctahedron. crystals sometimes green; used as a gem. (6)Colophonite, brilliant diamond-like luster, with variety emerald-green o in color resinous in luster, brown kind, brownish yellow to dark reddish granular a coarse after the resin (from colophony, (c) Melamte and usually with iridescent hues; named here included. but all black garnet is not dull or lustrous; either black] black, ueXas from some (d) Dark green garnet,not distinguishable black melanite. is grayish Pyreneite trials. chemical allochroite except by The a originalallochroite was (a) Rothoffite. Calcium-iron Garnet, Manganesian 2 massive of fine-grained brown and reddish color, brown of or manganesian iron-garnet to liver-brown. yellowish brown from Langban, Sweden, is similar, Rothoffite, structure. and dark, dusky green and black, are light iron-garnet of kinds manganesian Other common nace is a massive brownish yellow kind, from Franklin FurPolyadelphite and often in crystals. of magnesia. amount contains a large (6)Apfrom Sala,Sweden, J. N. Bredbergite, to the shorter diagonal, lome (properly haplome) has its dodecahedral faces striated parallel the cube; and as this form is simpler form was fundamental the that inferred whence Haiiy derived from airXoos, simple. Color of the original than the dodecahedron, he gave it a name and brownish also found yellowishgreen d ark unknown brown; locality) aplome (of in Siberia. at Schwarzenberg in Saxony, and on the Lena green hence 3. Titaniferous.Contains titanium and probably both TiO2 and Ti2O3; formula Color black. schorlomite. It thus graduates toward 3Ca6.(Fe,Ti,Al)2O3.3(Si,Ti)O2. Contains yttriain small amount; rare. Calcium-iron Garnet. 4. Yttriferous

Simple

Calcium-iron

lime' Includes-

Calcium-chromium Garnet. Uwarowit. Ouvarovite. chromium lime Silica 30*6, sesquioxide Formula 3CaO.Cr203.3SiO2 35'9, in H. the 7 '5. chromium of the takes Aluminium 100. 33-5 place part.
F. UVAROVITE.
= = =

G.

3-41-3-52.
etc.
"

Color

emerald-green.
=

3 brown black glass; F. to a light or varieties of garnet fuse easily Pyr. but uvarovite,the and grossularite; 3 '5 in andradite and pyrope; in almandite,spessartite, Andradite F. 6. and almandite fuse to a magnetic chrome-garnet,is almost infusible, Almost all kinds react for iron; globule. Reactions with the fluxes vary with the bases. in other varieties; and less marked reaction in spessartite, a chromium strong manganese Some varieties are partially decomposed by reaction in uvarovite,and in most pyrope. become soluble in hydrochloricacid,and generally acids; all except uvarovite after ignition silicaon evaporation. Decomposed on fusion with alkaline carbonates. yieldgelatinous Thus The density of garnets is largelydiminished by fusion. a Greenland garnet fell from 3'63 to 2'95. from 3'90 to 3'05 on fusion,and a Vilui grossularite Diff. Characterized by isometric crystallization, cahedrons dodeusually in isolated crystals, guished or trapezohedrons; massive forms rare, then usually granular. Also distinand in the common kinds the fusibility. Vesuvianite by hardness,vitreous luster, Fuses more the specific zircon and quartz are infusible; easily, gravity is higher than for tourmaline,from which it differs in form; it is much harder than sphalerite. Micro. lack of cleavage; isoDistinguishedin thin sections by its very high relief; of not readilytold from some tropiccharacter;usuallyshows a pale pink color; sometimes the spinels. Artif. While members of the garnet group their synthehave been formed artificially sis is difficult. Apparently they can be produced only under exact conditions of temperature and pressure that are difficult to reproduce. Natural fused break down garnets when into various other minerals. Obs. Grossularite is especially characteristic of metamorphosed impure calcareous rocks,whether altered by local igneous or generalmetamorphic processes; it is thus commonly found in the contact zone of intruded igneous rocks and in the crystalline schists. Almandite is characteristic of the mica schists and metamorphic rocks containing alumina and iron; it occurs also in some igneous rocks as the result of later dynamic and metamorphic it forms with the variety of amphibole called smaragdite the rock eclogite. processes; characteristic of such basic igneous rocks as are formed from magmas Pyrope is especially containing much magnesia and iron with littleor no alkalies, the peridotites, as dunites, etc.; also found in the serpentines formed from these rocks; then often associated with spinel, etc. in granitic chromite, Spessartite occurs in whetstone schists rocks,in quartzite, (Belgium) ; it has been noted with topaz in lithophyses in rhyolite(Colorado). The black variety of andradite, is common in eruptiverocks,especially melanite, with nephelite, leucite, Most
=
"

"

"

"

thus

in

phonohtes, leucitophyres, : in nephelinites

such

cases

often titaniferous

or

associated

SILICATES

509

in zonal intergrowth; it also occurs as a product of Demantoid in serpentine. Uvarovite belongs occurs metamorphism. particularly also in granular limestone. with chromite in serpentine; it occurs often contain inclusions of foreignmatter, but only in part due to alteraGarnet crystals tion; calcite, epidote,quartz (Fig.486, p. 180); at times the garnet is a as, vesuvianite, or mere shell, perimorph,surrounding a nucleus of another species. A black garnet from Arendal, Norway, contains both calcite and epidote; Tvedestrand, Norway, are wholly calcite crystals from within,there being but a thin crust of garnet. Crystals dodecahedrons with a from East Woodstock, Me., are others from thin shell of cinnamon-stone enclosing calcite; Raymond, Me., show successive layers of garnet and have been noted. calcite. Many such cases thus to chlorite, Garnets are often altered, serpentine; sometimes to limonite. Crystals of pyrope are even of Schrauf) surrounded (kelyphite by a chloritic zone in Fig. 847. not homogeneous, as shown Among prominent foreign localitiesof garnets, besides the following GROSSthose already mentioned, are

with

titaniferous garnet, sometimes

contact

"

ULARITE:

Fine

the

Mussa-Alp

cinnamon-stone comes in the Ala valleyin

and diopside; at at Kimito in Finland; honeypale yellow at Auerbach, Germany; brownish (romanzovite) in serpentine yellow octahedrons in Elba; pale greenishfrom the banks of the Vilui in Siberia, Cziklowa and Orawitza in the Banat, Hungary; with vesuwith vesuvianite; also from vianite in and wollastonite in ejected masses at Vesuvius; in white or colorless crystals Tellemark, in Norway; also dark brown at Mudgee, New South Wales; dark honey-yellow at Guadalcazar, and clear pink or rose-red dodecahedrons at Xalostoc, Morelos, Mexico, xalostocite and rosolite. called variously, landerite, In serpentine (from peridotite) PYROPE: Meronitz and the valley of Krems, in near Bohemia gings (used as a gem); at Zoblitz in Saxony; in the Vosges Mts.; in the diamond digin granite, of South Africa ("Cape rubies"). ALMANDITE: Common eclogite, gneiss, localitiesin Saxony, Silesia, etc.; at Eppenreuth near Hof, Bavaria; in large etc.,in many at Falun in Sweden; hyacinth-red or brown in the Zillertal, dodecahedrons Tyrol, Austria. in fine crystals land. from Ceylon,Pegu, British India,Brazil, and GreenPrecious garnet comes mont, From SPESSARTITE: Aschaffenburg in the Spessart, Bavaria; at St. Marcel, PiedItaly; near Chanteloube, Haute Vienne, France, etc. clinochlore
ANDRADITE: The

Ceylon; on with Piedmont, Italy, Zermatt, Switzerland;

from

beautiful green

demantoid

or

"Uralian

emerald"

occurs

in transparent

in the gold washings of Nizhni-Tagilskin the Ural greenishrolled pebbles,also in crystals, and at Morawitza at Schwarzenberg, occur to green Mts.; green crystals Saxony; brown Piedmont, Dognacska, Hungary; emerald-green at Dobschau, Hungary; in the Ala valley, at occurs Italy,the yellow to greenishtopazolite. apple-green and yellowish, Allochroite, also brown, at Vesuvius on Mte. Somma; Zermatt, Switzerland; black crystals(melanite), berg at Schwarzennear Bareges in the Hautes-Pyrenees, France, (pyreneite).Aplome occurs in Saxony, in brown to black crystals. Other localitiesare Tyrol, Austria; Pfitschtal, Found at SaraUVAROVITE: Langban, Sweden; Pitkaranta,Finland; Arendal, Norway. of Kyshtymsk, Ural Mts., in chromic iron; at Bisersk,also in the vicinity novskaya near Pic Posets near Jordansmuhl, Silesia; Venasque in the Pyrenees on chromite. In North America, in Me., beautiful crystals occur of cinnamon-stone (withvesuvianite) at Parsonsfield, In N. H., at Hanover, small Phippsburg,and Rumford, at Raymond. in gneiss; at Warren, cinnamon In Ver.,at New clear crystals Fane, garnets; at Graf ton. in chlorite slate. In Mass., in gneissat Brookfield; in fine dark red or nearly black trapein mica zohedral crystalsat Russell,sometimes very large. In Conn., trapezohedrons, at Reading and slate, at Southbury and Roxbury; at Haddam, Monroe; dodecahedrons of spessartite. In N. Y., brown at Crown crystals Point, Essex Co.; colophonite crystals Essex Co.; in Middletown, Delaware as a largevein at Willsboro, Co.,largebrown crystals; a cinnamon red, and green variety at Amity. In N. J.,at Franklin,black,brown, yellow, In Pa., in Chester dodecahedral the Franklin Furnace garnets; also near (polyadelphite] in at Chester, brown; Co., at Pennsbury, fine dark brown crystals;near Knauertown; in Leiperville, Concord, on Green's Creek, resembling pyrope; red; at Mineral Hill,fine brown; at Avondale quarry, fine hessonite; uvarovite at Woods' chrome mine, Lancaster In Va., beautiful transparent spessartite, Co. used as a gem, at the mica mines at Amelia ings red garnets in the gold washCourt-House. In N. C., fine cinnamon-stone at Bakers ville; of Burke, McDowell, and Alexander counties; rhodolite in Macon Co.; also mined near
.

510
and Morgantown Ky., fine pyrope

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

and as In garnet-paper." Co., to be used as "emery," Warlich, Burke In Ark., at Magnet Cove, a titaniferous the peridotite of Ellis Co. crystals altered to chlorite occur at the schorlomite. melanite with Large dodecahedral at Nathrop, In fine spessartite crystals Mich. Lake Col., iron Mt. Superior, mine, Spurr crystals at Ruby Mt., Salida, Chaff ee Co., in lithophyses in rhyolite; in large dodecahedral In Ariz.,.yellow-green crystals in the Gila canon; the exterior altered to chlorite. pyrope in the western river M., fine pyrope the part of the territory. N. the Colorado on on In Cal., with with chrysolite and a chrome-pyroxene. Navajo reservation green copper Idria. Fine Co.; uvarovite, in crystals on chromite, at New Valley, El Dorado ore, Hope
in in diameter in the mica occur schists at crystals of a rich red color and an inch or more of the Stickeen river, in Alaska. Wrangell, mouth dark In Canada, at Marmora, red; at Grenville, a cinnamon-stone; an emerald-green millerite and calcite; fine colorless to pale olivechrome-garnet, at Orford, Quebec, with brownish Co., Quebec, with white pyroxene, crystals, at Wakefield, Ottawa or honeygreen, dark red carrying chromium; yellow vesuvianite, etc., also others bright green garnet in the townships of Villeneuve at Hull, Quebec. (spessartite) and Templeton; Use. and The various colored used are transparent garnets as semiprecious gem Fort
"

"

s'ones.

At

times

the

mineral

is also

used
to

as

an

abrasive.

Schorlomite.

Probably Cove,

analogous
fracture
in

garnet,
and

3CaO.(Fe,Ti)2O3.3(Si,Ti)O2.
luster.
on

Usually
=

massive,
3*88.

black, with From Magnet

conchoidal

vitreous

H.

7"7 '5.

G.

3'81"

Ark.;

nepheline-syenite

Ice

River, British

Columbia.

Partschinite. H.
=

6-5-7.

G.

(Mn,Fe)3Al2Si3Oi2 like spessartite. 4-006. Color yellowish, reddish,

for

In

small the

dull

crystals (monoclinic).
sands of Oldh-

From

auriferous

pian, Transylvania.
Agricolite. globular forms.
Same From
as

eulytite, Bi4Si3Oi2, but

monoclinic.

In

globular

or

semi-

Johanngeorgenstadt,

Germany.

Chrysolite

Group.

R2Si04.

Orthorhombic

Monticellite
Forsterite

Chrysolite
Hortonolite

GaMgSiO4 Mg2SiO4 (Mg,Fe)2SiO4

(Fe,Mg,Mn)2SiO4
Fe2SiO4

Fayalite
Knebelite

(Fe,Mn)2SiO4
Mn2Si04
GROUP

Tephroite
The

CHRYSOLITE
and

includes

series .of orthosilicates

of magnesium

calcium, iron
with hat twms

They all crystallize in the orthorhombic manganese. but little variation in axial ratio. The prismatic angle is about of the unit brachydome about 60"; corresponding to the latter observed. are The type species is chrysolite (or olivine),which

system 50"
and

threefold
contains

t^^ the

comparatively

/"V

Varylng Pr"Porti"ns
rare

and

is hence silicates

intermediate

magnesium

and

iron

512
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

of occurrence: (a) in igneous has two distinct methods Obs. (olivine) Chrysolite of basalt,diabase and gabbro, formed by the crystallization norite, rocks, as peridotite,
magmas

low in silica and

rich in

magnesia; from

an

accessory

component

in

such

rocks

852

853

rock constituent as in the dunites; until it is the mam increase in amount the olivine may also (6) as the product of metamorphism of certain sedimentaryrocks containingmagnesia of igneous origin the In the dunites and peridotites in impure dolomites. and silica, as is commonly associated with chromite,spinel, etc.,which are valuable chrysolite pyrope, from olivine. In the metamorphic indications also of the originof serpentinesderived rocks the above are wanting, and carbonates,as dolomite, breunnerite, magnesite, etc., rocks of this latter kind may the common also occur altered are associations; chrysolitic to in some embedded in grains,rarely crystals, meteoric irons. occurs Also present in meteoric in sphericalforms, or chondrules, sometimes stones, frequently made up of a multitude of grains with like (or unlike)opticalorientation enclosingglass between. Vesuvius in lava and on Monte Somma in Among the more prominent localities are: ejectedmasses, with augite,mica, etc. In Germany observed in the so called sanidine bombs at the Laacher of See; at Forstberg near May en in the Eifel and forming the mass "olivine bombs" Daun in the Dreiser Weiher near in the same region; at Sasbach in the In crystals Baden of gem-quality from Egypt. Kaiserstuhl, In Sweden, (hyalosiderite) with ore-deposits, at Langban, Pajsberg,Persberg,etc. In serpentineat Snarum, Noras way, in largecrystals, themselves altered to the same mineral. Common in the volcanic rocks of Sicily, the Hawaiian the Azores, etc. Islands, In the United States, in Thetford and Norwich, Ver.,in boulders of coarselycrystallized the crystals several inches through. In olivine-gabbro basalt, or masses of Waterville, in the White Mts., N. H.; at Webster, in Jackson Co., N. C., with serpentineand chromite; with chromite in Loudon Co., Va.; in Lancaster Co.,Pa. In small clear olive-green grains with garnet at some In basalt in Canada, near points in Ariz, and N. M. Montreal, at Rougemont and Mounts Royal and Montarville, and in eruptive rocks at other points. Alteration of chrysolite often takes placethrough the oxidation of the iron; the mineral becomes brownish or reddish brown and iridescent. The end in leaving the process may cavity of the crystalfilledwith limonite or red oxide of iron. A very common kind of alteration is to the hydrous magnesium of the with the partialremoval silicate, serpentine, iron its separation in the form or of grains of magnetite, also as iron sesquioxide; this change has often taken place on a large scale. See further under serpentine, p. 573. Chrysolite is named from xpvris,gold,and Al0os. The from hyalosiderite, oaXos, iron. glass, and o-iSrjpos, The chrysolithus of Pliny was probably our topaz ; and his topaz
.

serpentine. Chrysolite also

our

Use.

chrysolite. The clear, fine

"

green

varieties

are

used

as

T^Y-*

Fr"m

exact chrysolite,

*the

r"ck

of ?armeloite

Carmelo

composition undetermined.

stone; usually caUed peridot. gem Bay, Cal.; a silicate resembling an Has been noted as a pseudomorph

cleavable^G

h*

Bohemia. Mittelgebirge'

Orthorhombic,foliated

and

SILICATES

513
are

The
p.

510.

of the ChrysoliteGroup axial ratios of the other members characterized as follows: The speciesare briefly

given in the table

on

Occurs in colorless to gray crystals Mte. Somma, vius; Vesuon CaMgSiO4. Mt. stone on or Monzoni, Tyrol, Italy; in crystals (batrachite) grains in lime3'03-3'25. at Magnet Cove, Ark. G. Optically Indices,1 '651-1 '668. In embedded Glaucochroite. CaMnSiO4. prismatic crystals. Crystal constants and those of ChrysoliteGroup. Found Color, delicate bluish green. opticalpropertiesnear at Franklin 3 '4. G. Furnace, N. J. H. =6. Forsterite. Mg2SiO4. Occurs in white crystalsat Vesuvius; in greenish or yellowish 3'21-3'33. G. 1'659. embedded Optically +. grains at Bolton, Mass, (boltonite). ft In Hortonolite. Occurs at masses. or (Fe,Mg,Mn)2SiO4. rough dark-colored crystals the iron mine of Monroe, Orange Co., N. Y. ; Iron Mine Hill, 3'91. Cumberland, R. I. G. Optically Indices, 1768-1 '803. the Mourne Mts., Ireland; the Azores; the Yellowstone Fayalite. Fe2SiO4. From From Cuddia Mida, Island of Pantelleria, Park; Rockport, Mass., etc. Italy. Crystals and massive, brown G. 4'1 Optically to black on 1 '824-1 '874. Indices, exposure. variety found at Sodermanland, Sweden. Manganfayalite is a manganese 4-1. Knebelite. G. (Fe,Mn)2SiO4. From Dannemora, and elsewhere in Sweden. in the From with Hill and also zinc, varietyroeppetite. Sterling Tephroite. MnoSiO4; Franklin Furnace, N. J.; also from Sweden; from Benderneer, New Color South Wales. flesh-red to ash-gray. G. 41. Index about T80. Optically
Monticellite. in masses
=

-.

-.

"

"

Phenacite

Group.
Zn2SiO4

R2Si04.

Tri-rhombohedral rr' 64" 30' 63" 24'

c

Willemite Troostite
Phenacite

0-6775
0-6611

(Zn,Mn)2SiO4
Be2SiO4

includes the above orthosilicates of zinc (manGROUP PHENACITE ganese) class of the and beryllium. Both belong to the tri-rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system, and have nearlythe same rhombotrigonal hedral angle. The rare MnSiO4.BeSiO4, which is pseudospecies trimerite, is probably to be regarded as connectingthis group with hexagonal (triclinic) the precedingChrysolite Group. The The
rare following are species

related: Tri-rhombohedral rr' 54" 5' 56" 17' 53" 49'

c

Dioptase
Friedelite

H2CuSiO4

0'5342 0'5624 0'5308

H7(MnCl)Mn4(SiO4)4 Pyrosmalite H7( (Fe,Mn)Cl)(Fe,Mn)4(SiO4)4

These in the above axial ratios; to each other in form, as shown speciesare very near They are also they further approximate to the speciesof the Phenacite Group proper. and themselves in composition,since they are all acid orthosilicates, related among closely for Friedelite) in the latter have the general formula H2RSiO4 H8R4(SiO4)4,where (e.g. form the place of one hydrogen atom is taken by the univalent radical (MnCl).
=

WILLEMITE.

Axis c 0*6775; rr' (1011) A (IlOl) 64" 30'; eer (0112) A (1012) 36" 47'. In hexagonal prisms,sometimes again short and stout; long and slender, rarely showing subordinate faces distributed accordingto the phenacite type. Also massive and in disseminated grains;fibrous. N. J.-; a (1120)easy, N. J. Cleavage: c (0001) easy, Moresnet; difficult, 3 -89-4 -18. Luster Brittle. H. 5'5. G. Fracture conchoidal to uneven. Tri-rhombohedral.
= = =

514

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

when purest; Color white or greenishyellow, rather weak. vitreo-resinous, dark brown often brownflesh-red, grayishwhite, yellowish apple-green,
854 855 856

Figs.854-857, New when

"o
=

Jersey,

x (2ll3), (3121). u s (1123), (0112),

impure. Streak uncolored.

1-693.
e
"

Transparent

to

opaque.
=

+ Optically

1712.

Comp.
oxide 73*0

Zinc
=

100.

Silica 27-0, zinc Zn2Si04 or 2ZnO.Si02 orthosilicate, a considerable part of the zinc Manganese often replaces
in small amount.

and iron is also present (introostite), Pyr.,etc.

"

in the forcepsglows and fuses with difficulty to a white enamel; the Jersey fuse from 3 '5 to 4. The powdered mineral on charcoal in R.F. yellow while hot and white on cooling, givesa coating, which, moistened with solution of and treated in O.F., is colored bright green. With soda the coating is more cobalt, readily Soluble in hydrochloricacid and yieldsgelatinoussilica upon obtained. evaporation. Obs. From Altenberg near Aix-la-Chapelle. Moresnet, Belgium; at Stolberg,near From In N. J. Musartut, Greenland; Mindouli, French Congo; Kristiania, Norway. at Mine Franklin Furnace, and at Sterling Occurs with zincite two miles distant. Hill, Hill, and franklinite, and lightgreen varying in color from white to pale honey-yellow to dark sometimes Rare at the Merritt in largereddish crystals ash-grayand flesh-red; (troostite). mine, Socorro Co., N. M.; also at the Sedalia mine, Salida,Col. Named by Levy after William I.,Kinfc of the Netherlands. B.B.

varieties from

New

"

Use.

"

An

ore

of zinc.

PHENACITE.

Tri-rhombohedral.

Axis

0-6611; rr' (1011) A

in
859

Crystalscommonly rhombohedral
858

(1101) 63" 24'. habit,often lenticular in form, the

=

860

Miask.

Florissant. Col.

Mt.

Antero, Col.,Pfd.

prismswanting; also prismatic, sometimes terminated of the third series, x (see further, pp. 110-112).

by the rhombohedron

SILICATES

515

r (1011) imperfect. Fracture conchoidal. (1120) distinct; 2-97-3-00. G. Luster vitreous. Colorless; also brown. Transparent to subtranslucent brightwine-yellow,pale rose-red; 1'6697. co 1'6540; e + Optically Be2SiO4 or 2BeO.SiO2 Silica 54*45, Berylliumorthosilicate, Comp. glu-

Cleavage:
H.
=

Brittle.

7 '5-8.

"

cina 45-55

100.
Alone

fuses with extreme slowness,unless a white enamel; with more, intuinfusible. Dull blue with cobalt solution. and becomes mesces Occurs at the emerald and chrysoberylmine of Takovaya, 85 versts east of EkaObs. terinburg, Ural Mts.; also in the Ilmen in the Framont Mts., near Miask, Russia; near Vosges Mts.; Kragero, Norway; at the Cerro del Mercado, Durango, Mexico; crystals from San Miguel di Piracicaba,Minas Geraes, Brazil. In Col.,on amazon-stone, at Topaz Butte, near 16 miles from Pike's Peak; Florissant, also on quartz and beryl at Mt. Antero, Chaffee county. Occurs at Chatham, N. H. in allusion to its having been mistaken from Named for quartz. a deceiver, (j""va",

Pyr., etc. to pulverized,

" "

remains

unaltered;

with

borax

transparent glass. With

soda

affords

Trimerite. (Mn,Ca)2SiO4.Be2SiO4. In thick tabular prismatic crystals, pseudoand angle. H. 6-7. in form G. 3 '474. Color salmon-pink to hexagonal (triclinic) From the Harstig Indices,1715-1 725. nearly colorless in small crystals. Optically". mine, Wermland, Sweden.
= =

JDioptase. H2CuSiO4
A 2021

or

H2O.CuO.SiO2.
=

Commonly
=

in

Also in crystalline aggregates; massive. H. 5. conchoidal to uneven. G. Fracture vitreous. Color emerald-green. Opti3 '28-3 '35. Luster cally 1-707. 1-654. +. e co in druses of well-defined crystals Occurs on quartz, in a compact limestone west of the hill occupying seams of Altyn-Tiibe in the Kirghiz Steppe, Russia; in the gold washings at several points in Siberia; atRezbanya, =84"

33$')
"

(ssr0221 prismatic crystals Cleavage: r (lOTl)perfect.

861

Hungary.
copper
at
ores.

From

Copiapo, Chile, on

quartz with
Mine

other

leagues east

In fine crystals at the of Comba, in the French mines

near

Mindouli, two

the copper Metcalfe and

Plancheite.

Congo State. Also Co., and from Clifton,Graham Florence,Ariz. H2Cu7(Cu.OH)8(SiO3)i2. Fibrous, often
of
=

Found associated with dioptase, 3'4. etc.,at Mindouli, mammillary. Blue color. G, French Congo. c (0001) ; also massive, Friedelite. H7(MnCl)Mn4Si4Oi6. Crystalscommonly tabular \\ the manganese Color rose-red. From H. 3'07. 4-5. G. cleavable to closelycompact. of Adervielle, mine vallee du Louron, Hautes Pyrenees, France; from Sjo mine, Wermland, Sweden; from Franklin Furnace, N. J. Crystals thick hexagonal prisms or H7((Fe,Mn)Cl)(Fe,Mn)4Si4Oi6. Pyrosmalite. 3*06-3'19. Color blackish green to 4-4'5. G. tabular; also massive, foliated. H. land in Wermpale liver-brown or gray. Index about 1'66. From the iron mines of Nordmark and at Dannemora, Sweden.
= = = =

Scapolite Group.
Meionite Wernerite The
c c
=

Tetragonal-pyramidal
Mizzonite, Dipyre
Marialite
c c
= =

0-4393 0-4384

0-4424 0-4417

in the pyramidalclass of of the SCAPOLITE GROUP crystallize species axial ratio. They are white or the tetragonal system with nearly the same grayish white in color, except when impure, and then rarelyof dark color.

516 Hardness aluminium

often

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

5-6*5; G.
with

2-5-2-8. and

calcium

sodium

only in present, sometimes of inclusions or of alteration. Carbon dioxide and present unless by reason sulphur trioxide have been noted in certain analyses. It has been suggested
that these radicals enter

composition they are silicates of varying amounts; chlorine is also traces. Iron, magnesia, potash are not
In in

into the

composition in

the

same

manner

as

the

chlorine.
are analogousto the Feldsparsin that they form a series Scapolites the amount of silica increasing with gradualvariation in composition, the increase of the alkali, soda, being40 p. c. in meionite and 64 p. c. in mariincrease is observed also in the amount of chlorine alite. A corresponding is also in Furthermore there a in gradual present. change specific gravity, and in resistance to acids, the strength of the double refraction, from the easily with G. which is only slightly 2-72, to marialite, decomposed meionite,

The
a

with

has G. be composition may compounds, viz.:

and

attacked

has shown that the variation in Tschermak of two fundamental end explainedby the assumption
=

2-63.

Meionite
Marialite

Ca4Al6Si6025
NaiAlgSigC^Cl

Me

Ma

By the isomorphous combination of these compounds the compositionof the speciesmentioned above may be explained;no sharp line can, however, be drawn between them.
the series is characterized by the decrease in the strength of the double Optically tion in passing from meionite to marialite. Thus (Lacroix)for meionite " e for typical wernerite 0'03-0-02; for dipyre 0'015.
"

refrac0'036'
'

The

tetragonalspecies melilite and

more common

are gehlenite

near

the

in Sca*polites

angle. The

vesuvianite is also related.

MEIONITE.

either clear and

0-43925. In prismatic crystals Tetragonal. Axis c (Fig.201,"p. 86), or glassy milky white; also in crystalline grainsand massive. Cleavage: a (100)rather perfect, m less so. Fracture con(110)somewhat
=

choidal. Brittle. H. 5-5-6 to white. Transparentto

=

G.

2-70-2-74.

Luster

vitreous.

less Color-

often cracked within. translucent;

=

Opticallv

-.

co

1-597; e
"

1-560.

Comp.
hme
25' 1
=

Ca4Al6Si6025or4CaO.3Al2O3.6Si02 Silica 40-5, alumina

100.

34-4,

varieties included here from nearly pure meionite to those consisting: range of and marialite in the ratio of 3 : Me 3 : 1. No : Ma 1, i.e., sharp line can be drawn between meionite and the following species. Obs. Occurs in small crystals in cavities, usually in limestone blocks, on Monte bomma Vesuvius. Also in ejectedmasses at the Laacher See,Germany. A mineral in
rneiomte
=
"

The

h"^11 "\neiSu basal cleavagehas been

WERNERITE.

*h"lBlack Foi"est, Germany,

called pseudomeionite.

which

is like meionite

except for

COMMON

SCAPOLITE.
c
=

Tetragonal-pyramidal. Axis
f the

0-4384.
uneven

Crystals prismatic, usually coarse, with

pyramidal class sometimes

shown

faces and often large. The in the development of the

SILICATES

517
a

faces

(311) and
eer, rr',
mr,

zx

(131). Also massive,granular, with or

columnar.
Oil
=

faint fibrous

appearance;

sometimes
101 111 110 A

32" 59'. 43" 45'. 58" 12'. 29" 43'.

A 111
A

111 311

zz'", 311

tinct, Cleavage: a (100) and m (110) rather disbut interrupted.Fracture subconchoidal. Brittle. vitreous
H.
to
=

5-6.

G.

2-66-273.

Luster

to resinous; pearly externally, inclining cross-fracture surface cleavage and Color white, gray, bluish, vitreous. greenish, streak uncolored. and reddish, usually light; 1-570. Transparent to faintlysubtranslucent. Optically", co 1-549. e Intermediate between meionite and marialite and correspondComp. ing
= =
"

of these in a ratio 3 : 1 to 1 : 2. combination to a molecular The silica varies from 46 to 54 p.c., and as its amount increases the soda and chlorine with silicafrom 54 p. c. to 60 p. c. are classed with also increase. Scapolites mizzonite;they correspond to Me : Ma from 1 : 2 to 1 : 3 and upwards. The percentage compositionfor a common compound is as follows:
Me
:

Ma

1
"

SiO2 46*10
B.B.

A12O3 30'48

CaO

19'10

Na2O

3'54

Cl 1 -01 =100*23

fuses easilywith intumescence to a white blebby glassgiving a strong flame color. Imperfectly decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Diff Characterized by its square form and prismatic cleavage (90") resembles : the cleavage feldsparwhen massive, but has a characteristic fibrous appearance on surface; and has a higher specific it is also more fusible, gravity; also distinguished by fusibility from with intumescence (which see, p. 478). pyroxene Micro. Recognized in thin sections by its low refraction;lack of color; rather high interference-colors reaching the yellows and reds of the firstorder,sections showing which to the cleavage; by the distinct negative axial cross of basal sections extinguishparallel which show the cleavage-crackscrossingat rightangles.

Pyr., etc.
"

sodium

"

in metamorphic rocks, crystalline Occurs gneisses, schists, amphibolites and its junction with the associated graniticor abundantly in granular limestone near in beds of magnetite accompanying limestone. allied rocks; sometimes It is often associated with a light-colored amphibole, garnet, and also with apatite,titanite, pyroxene, associate than pyroxene, but in some has resulted zircon; amphibole is a less common cases from the alteration of pyroxene. also to be frequently. Scapolitehas been^sjjown a ponent comof basic igneous rocks, especially those rich in plaglOuLiuLj much uiwitaining lime; it is regarded as a secondary product through a certain kind of. alteration. The scapolites of mica, more are easily altered; pseudormorphs rarely other minerals, are mon. comObs.
"

most

localities are at Pargas, Finland, where it occurs in limestone; Arendal in with magnetite in limestone. Malsjo in Wermland, Sweden, where it occurs The pale blue or gray scapolite Passauite is from Obernzell, near from Passau, in Bavaria. Lake is called glaucolite.In the United States,occurs in Ver., at MarlBaikal, Siberia, In Mass., at Bolton; at Chelmsford. In N. Y. in Orange Co., Essex borough, massive. In N. J.,at Co., Lewis Co.; Grasse Lake, Jefferson Co.; at Gouverneur, in limestone. In Pa., at the Elizabeth mine, French Franklin and Newton. Creek, Chester Co. In Canada, at Calumet Ottawa Island,massive; at Grenville; .Templeton; Wakefield, at several points. Co.; at Bedford and Bathurst, Ont : Scapoliterocks occur Mizzonite. with 54 to 57 p. c. SiO2,correspondDipyre. Here are included scapolites ing

Prominent

Norway, and

Me 1:3. : Ma Mizzonite Vesuvius. in elongated square sometimes prisms, often slender, Dipyre occurs large and coarse, in limestone and crystalline from the Pyrenees; also in diorite at Bamle, Norway; chiefly schists, less Saint-Nazaire,France; Algeria. Couseranite from the Pyrenees is a more or altered form of dipyre.
to
:
=

occurs

from molecular combination a in clear crystals in ejectedmasses

Me

on

Ma Mte.

to

Somma,

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY
516. p. It occurs

Marialite actual
near

to iinerkl corresponds

Theoretically Na4Al3Si9O24Cl, see

Me
:

Indices,
in a

Ma

4.

1-541-1- 554. The basalt tuff,at Pianura,

Naples. crystals.H. tetragonal

From Monte

In small (Ca,Na,)3Al2(SiO4)3. Sarcolite. Color flesh-red. Indices,1 '640-1 '656. 2-932.

Somma,

G. 6. Vesuvius.
=

2-545-

MELILITE.

0-4548. Usually in short square prisms (a (100)) Tetragonal. Axis c tables. in tetragonal also octagonalprisms (a,m (110)), or to Fracture conchoidal indistinct. Cleavage: c (001) distinct;a (100) Luster 2-9-3-10. vitreous, incliningto G. 5. Brittle. H. uneven. Pleochroism reddish, brown. greenish, resinous. Color white, pale yellow, anomalies. exhibits optical cally Optidistinct in yellow varieties. Sometimes
= = =

-.

co

1-634.

"

1-629.

for melilite. Perhaps R12R4Si9036 or Na2(Ca,Mg)i1(Al,Fe)4(Si04)9 the Fe 1 Al : 1, : percentage compositionis: If Ca : Mg 8:3, and lime iron sesquioxide 31-3,magnesia 8'4,soda 4'3 11-2, Silica 37-7,alumina 7'1, Potassium is also present. 100.

Comp.

"

tures be explained as isomorphous mixcan group composition of the melilite-gehlenite 3CaO.Al2O3.3SiO2 or soda-sarcolite 3Na2O.Al2O3. three compounds, sarcolite, The last is noted in 2CaO.Al2O3.SiO2. 3SiO2; dkermanite, 8CaO.4MgO.9SiO2; velardeiiite, Mexico. from Velardena the in mining district, amount gehlenite large formed Melilite has been artificially by fusing together its constituent Artif. in slagsand has been produced in various artificialmagmas. It is found oxides. B.B. fuses at 3 to a yellowish or greenishglass. With the fluxes reacts for Pyr.,etc. acid and yieldsgelatinoussilica upon evaporation. iron. Soluble in hydrochloric ence-colors, Micro. Distinguishedin thin sections by its moderate refraction;very low interferextinction;negative showing often the "ultra blue" (Capo di Bove); parallel to the base and ture" "peg struccharacter; usual development in tables parallel very common rod-like inclusions penetrating the crystal from the basal planes due to parallel inward: this, however, is not always easilyseen. Melilite is a component of certain igneous rocks formed from magmas Obs. very low and In in silica, rather deficient in alkalies, containing considerable lime and alumina. in the place of the more melilite appears to crystallize acid plagioclase. such cases Melilite of yellow and brownish colors is found at Capo di Bove, near Rome, in leucitoaugite,hornblende; at Vesuvius in dull yellow crystals(somervillite) phyre with nephelite, in certain basic eruptiverocks,as the melilite-basalts of Hochbohl not uncommon Owen near in Wurttemberg, of the Swabian also in the Alp, of Gorlitz,the Erzgebirge, Germany; nephelitebasalts of the Hegau, of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands,etc.; perovskite is a common associate. Occurs as chief constituent of rock on Beaver mon Creek, Gunnison Co., Col. Comin furnace slags. Melilite is named from nf"\t, honey, in allusion to the color. Humboldtilite occurs in cavernous blocks on Monte Somma, Vesuvius,with greenishmica, also apatite, often rather large, and covered with a calcareous coating; augite; the crystals are less common in transparent lustrous crystalswith nephelite,sarcolite, etc., in an augiticrock. Zurlite is impure humboldtilite. Deeckeite is a pseudomorph after melilite with the composition (H,K,Na)2(Mg,Ca)(Al,Fe)2(Si2O6)5.9H2O, found in a melilite basalt from the Kaiserstuhl, Baden, Germany. Cebollite. H2Ca5Al""Si3Oi6. Orthorhombic H. =5. G. 2'96. Color (?). Fibrous. white to greenish gray. Indices,1 '59-1 '63. Fusible at 5. Soluble in acids. Found as alteration product of melilite near an Cebolla Creek, Gunnison Co., Col. Gehlenite. Ca3Al2Si2Oi0. Crystals usually short square 0-4001. prisms. Axis c 2 -9-3 '07. Different shades of grayish to liver-brown. From Mount ygreen Monzoni, the Fassatal, m in Tyrol, Austria. From Velardena mining district, Mexico. FUGGERITE to a member of the gehlenite-akermanite Corresponds 3 ak : 10 geh. series, The

of the

"

"

"

"

',

From

Monzonite

of

Monzonital, Tyrol,Austria.

520
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Micro. Recognizedin thin sections by its high refraction producing a very strong * and relief and its extremely low birefringence; also in generalby its color, pleochroism, of the low birefringence, account uniaxial negativecharacter; the latter, on being difficult it from epidote, The low birefringence, with however, aids in distinguishing to determine. be confounded. which at times it may the ancient ejections of Vesuvius first found and Obs. Vesuvianite was the among It commonly its name. occurs as dolomitic blocks of Monte contact a Somma, whence associated with lime garnet then usually mineral from the alteration of impure limestones, chlorite wollastonite;also epidote; also in serpentine, diopside, (grossularite), phlogopite, schist, gneissand related rocks. Prominent localitiesare Vesuvius; the Albani Mts.; in Switzerland at Zermatt, etc.;
"

in the Fassatal, in Piedmont, Italy; Mt. Monzoni valley, Austria; near Eger in Bohemia Dognaczka, Hungary; Haslau (egeran); near Lake the Vilui river, near Baikal,Siberia (sometimes called wiluite on Jordansmiihl, Silesia; the same like the grossulargarnet from or region); Achmatovsk, Ural Mts.; in viluite, Christiansand; at Morelos, Mexico. Norway; at Arendal, colophonite" ; at Egg, near In North In N. H., at America, in Me. at Phippsburg and Rumford; at Sandford. Warren with cinnamon-stone. In N. Y., near In Lewis Amity. In N. J.,at Newton. and Clark Co., Mon. San Carlos in Inyo Co.; at Crestmore, Riverside Co. In Cal. near In Canada, at Calumet Pontiac Co.; at Grenville in calcite; at Templeton, Falls, Litchfield, Ottawa Co., Quebec. A lavender-colored variety,known as mangan-vesuvianite comes from near Black Lake, Quebec. is a closelycompact variety of an to a grass-green Californite color from olive-green Fresno and Tulare Cos., Cal. Siskiyou, the Mussa

Alp

in the Ala

at

Orawitza

and

"

Zircon

Group.
ZrSi04

Tetragonal
c c
=

Zircon Thorite

Q'6404
0-6402

ThSiO4

This group includes the orthosilicates of zirconium and thorium, both alike in tetragonalcrystallization, axial ratio and crystalline habit.
.These species sometimes regarded as oxides and then included in the RUTILE are GROUP (p.425), to which they approximate closelyin form. A similar form belongs also to the and to the phosphate, tantalate, Tapiolite, Xenotime; further, compound groups consisting of crystals of Xenotime and Zircon in parallel not uncommon are position (Fig. 462, p. 173)
.

ZIRCON.

Tetragonal. Axis
ee',101 ee",101 pp', 111
uu'
871 331 A A
A

0-64037.
=

Oil 101 111 331

44" 50' 65"

mp mu,

110 110 311 100 873

A
A

111 331 311 311

16'. 56" 40"'. 83" 9' 872

xx",
ax,

A A

47" 20" 32" 31"

50'.
12"' 57'.

43'.

but

minerals which,like Frequently melilite and zoisite, vesuvianite, ing are doubly refractof extremely low and possibly(where they are positive birefringence for one color

SILICATES

521

Twins:

tw.

Commonly in and grains.

875

twins like rutile (Fig.412, p. 166). pi.e (101),geniculated sometimes forms prisms, pyramidal. Also in irregular square
876
877
c

'Pi

Colorado

Brittle.

Fracture conchoidal. G. 4-68-470 but varyingwidelyto 4 '2 most common, and 4 '86. Luster adamantine. pale yellowish, Colorless, grayish, yellowish reddish brownish Streak uncolored. brown. yellow, Transparent to green, subtranslucent and opaque. +. Optically Birefringence high, co 1-9239, e 1*9682,Ceylon. Sometimes abnormally biaxial.
H.
=

Cleavage: m

(110)imperfect;p (111)less distinct.

=

7*5.

Hyacinth is the orange, reddish and brownish transparent kind used for gems. Jargon name given to the colorless jor smoky zircons of Ceylon, in allusion to the fact that in luster, while resembling the diamond they are comparativelyworthless;thence came
is
a

the

name

zircon.

Silica 32-8, zirconia Zr02.SiO2 is usuallypresent. littleiron (Fe2O3)

Comp.

"

ZrSi04

or

67-2

100.

are unaltered,the red become colorless, made varieties glow and increase in density white; some by ignition. Not perceptiblyacted upon by salt of phosphorus. In powder decomposed fused with soda on the platinum wire,and if the product is dissolved in dilute hydrowhen chloric tested with turmeric color characteristic of zirconia when acid it gives the orange acted upon Not by acids except in fine powder with concentrated sulphuric acid. paper. and bisulphates. Decomposed by fusion with alkaline carbonates Diff. Characterized by the prevailingsquare pyramid or square prism;also by its and infusibility; the diamond is optically adamantine hardness,high specific gravity, luster,

Pyr., etc.

"

Infusible; the colorless varieties

varieties
are

while dark-colored

"

isotropic. Recognized in thin sections by its very high relief; very high interferenceapproach white of the higher order except in very thin sections; positive It is distinguished from cassiterite and rutile only by its lack of color, uniaxial character. the 1-itteralso in many and from cases by method of occurrence. has been prepared artificially Zircon oxide with quartz Artif by heating zirconium
Micro.
"

which colors,

"

in gaseous Obs. acid

silicon fluoride.
"

A common constituent of igneous rocks,especially those of the more accessory and particularly the kinds derived from magmas containing much feldspathic groups It is one of the earliest minerals to crystallize from a etc. diorite, syenite, soda, as granite, but in pegmatitic facies often in Is generallypresent in minute crystals, coolingmagma. rarely elsewhere,as in granular limestone, large and well-formed crystals. Occurs more in iron-ore beds. in chloritic and other schists;gneiss; sometimes Crystals are common found in volcanic rocks,probably in part as inclusions Sometimes auriferous sands. most

derived from older rocks. is so Zircon in distinct crystals

but

common

in the

pegmatitic forms

of the

nephelite-syenite

negative for another),do not show a blue,at times an intense Berlin blue,which
scale and
is known
as

crossed nicols but a curious gray color between is quite distinct from the other blues of the color

the "ultra blue."

522
and

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

of southern augite-syenite

Norway
"

etc.)that this rock there and (with segirite,

where else-

zircon-syenite." been called a has sometimes in alluvial sands in Ceylon; in the gold regions of the Ural Mts.; in Norway, at Found and in veins in the augite-syenite Laurvik, at Arendal, in the iron mines, at Fredriksyarn, of the Langesund fiord;Pfitschtal, Tyrol,Austria; in Germany in lava at Niedermendig in
from Madagascar; from Minas Geraes, Brazil. red crystals; the Eifel, in N. Y., in Moriah, Essex Co., cinnamonIn North America, in Me., at Litchfield; with scapolite, and titantite; Two of the outlet Co., at Ponds, Orange near pyroxene red; Co.. in the town of Hammond; Amity; in St. Lawrence Warwick, chocolate-brown,near in the gold sands of In Pa., near Reading. In N. C., abundant at Rossie,Fine, Pitcairn. In Col.,with astroBurke, McDowell, Polk, Rutherford, Henderson, and other counties. In CaL, in auri in the Pike's Peak region in El Paso Co.; at Cheyenne Mt. phyllite, etc., ferous gravels. In

Ottawa
source

Canada, at Grenville,Argenteuil Co.; Co.,Quebec; in Renfrew Co., sometimes

"

in

very

Zircon in its transparent varieties serves Use. of the incandescent of zirconium oxide used in the manufacture

Templeton and adjoining townships in large; in North Burgess, Lanark Co. frequently as a gem stone; also as a
gas

mantles.

is related but contains uranium, yttrium and Malacon is an altered zircon. Cyrtolite other rare elements. Naegite is apparently zircon with yttrium, niobium-tantalum,thorium, and uranium oxides. brown. Occurs
H.
=

in 7'5.

spheroidalaggregates
G.
=

near

Takoyama,

Mino, Japan.

Color green, gray

4'1.

Thorium Thorite. silicate, ThSiO4, like zircon in form; usually hydrated, black in 4 '5-5; also orange-yellow and- with G. and then with G. color, 5 '19-5 -40 (orangite). the Brevik From region and Arendal, Norway. Auerlite. Like zircon in form; supposed to be a silico-phosphate of thorium. son Hender= =

Co.,N.

C.

Danburite-Topaz Group.
Danburite

Orthorhombic.
a a

or RR2(Si04)2 (RO)RSi04 : :

Topaz
Andalusite

CaB2(Si04)2 [Al(F,OH)2]AlSiO4 (A10)AlSiO4

b b
:

c c

G'5444 0-5285

J
or

: a a :

: c

0'5070 0'9861

0-4807 0-4770 0-4749 0-7025

Sillimanite

Cyanite
a :

Al2SiO5 Al2Si05
0-8994
:

Orthorhombic
-

:b

0-970

: c

07090;

Triclinic 90" 5J',ft

101" 2'

105"

44J'.

DANBURITE.

Orthorhombic.
878

Axes

: c

: 1 =_0'5444

0-4807. dd', 101 ww', 041

A A 101 041
=
=

mm'", II', Habit embedded

110 120

A
A

110
120

57" 8'. 85" 8'.

82" 53' 3'.' 125"

prismatic, resemblingtopaz. Also in indistinct and disseminated masses. crystals, Cleavage: c (001) very indistinct. Fracture uneven
=

in

to subconchoidal. Brittle. H. 3-02. Color pale wine-yellow to dark greasy,

a
=

7-7-25.

G.

2*97-

colorless, yellowish white,

wine-yellow, yellowish brown.

on

crystal surfaces
Streak white.
.

translucent.
1-632.
i

Luster vitreous to brilliant. Transparent to

Optically

2V

88"

ft

1-634.

7
=

or

CaO.B2O3.2SiO2

28-4

1-636. Silica 48'8, boron

trioxide

SILICATES

523

and imparts a green B.B. fuses at 3'5 to a colorless glass, color to the O. F. Pyr., etc. attacked for the solution (boron). Not decomposed by hydrochloricacid,but sufficiently When to give the reaction of boric acid with turmeric paper. previouslyignitedgelatinizes with hydrochloricacid. Phosphoresces on heating,giving a reddish light. Occurs Obs. at Danbury, Conn., with microcline in dolomite. and oligoclase At Russell,N. Y., in fine crystals. On the Piz Valatscha, the northern spur of Mt. Skopi south of Dissentis in eastern Switzerland, in slender prismatic crystalsand elsewhere in from Takachio, Hinga, and from Obira, In crystals Switzerland. Bungo, Japan. From Mt. Bity and Maharitra, Madagascar. This doubtful BARSOWITE. in the Ural Mts., is occurring with blue corundum species, authors classed with danburite; composition CaAl2Si2Q8 like anorthite. by some
" "

TOPAZ.

Orthorhombic.
879

Axes

: c

0-52854

047698.
882

880

881

Brazil

Japan yy',041 ci, 001

A A A
A

Durango
041 223 111 221
=

Ural

mm'", II, dd', XX', //',

110 120 201 043 021

A A
A

1TO
120 201 043 021

55" 43'.

124"

41'.

89" 49'.
122" 1'. 64" 55'.

^cu, 001
co,

A
A

001

"=

34" 14'. 45" 35'. 63" 54'.

uu', 111 uu'", 111 oo', 221

oo'" 221

Til
111 221 221

78"
39"

A
A

105"
49"

20'. 0'. 7'.

37*'.

87" 18'.
883 884

Crystals m commonly prismatic, (110) predominating; or I (120)and the form then a nearly square prism resembling andalusite. Faces in the prismatic zone often vertically and often ing showstriated, vicinal planes. Also firm columnar;
granular,coarse
or c

fine.

Cleavage:
=

(001) highly perfect.

=

Fracture subconchoidal to uneven. Brittle. H. 8. G. 3 -4-3 -6. Luster vitreous. Color straw-yellow, wine-

yellow,white, grayish,greenish, bluish,

Streak uncolored. parent Transto subtranslucent. +. Optically Axial angles variable. 2V 49" to 66".
=

Ural

Japan

reddish.

Ax.

Refractive
7
=

6 (010). Bx J_ pi.|| Brazil: indices,

.'.

(001).

For Var.
"

1-62936

ft

1 "63077

1 '63747

2V

49" 31'

Ordinary. In prismatic crystalsusually colorless or pale yellow, less often is changed by heating to a pale pale blue,pink, etc. The yellow of the Brazilian crystals rose-pink. Often contains inclusions of liquidCCV is a coarse Physalite, or pyrophysalite, nearly opaque variety, from Finbo, Sweden; intumesces when from ""waXis, bubble, and heated, hence its name irvp, fire. Pycnite has a columnar, Rose made out that 'the cleavage was the same, and very compact structure.

524
the form

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY Cloizeaux showed that the opticalcharacters

probablythe

same;

and

Des

were

those of topaz.

and then [A1(F,OH)]2 usuallycontaining hydroxyl (AlF)2SiO4; Silica 32 '6,alumina 55 '4, former 522. The requires on SiO4 or as given p. 100. 87 deduct (O fluorine 207 2F) 1087,

Comp.

"

in the closed tube, with potassium bisulphategives B.B. infusible. Fused etc. Pyr., gives a fluorine reactions. With cobalt solution the pulverizedmineral the characteristic attacked by sulphuricacid. A variety of topaz from fine blue on heating. Only partially when heated,assumes a pink or red hue, resembling the Balas ruby. Brazil, with angles of 56" (124") or 87" (93"); Diff. Characterized by its prismaticcrystals basal cleavage;hardness; infusibility; yieldsfluorine B.B. also by the perfect Artif. by heating a mixture of silica and aluminium Topaz has been made artificially this mixture in silicon fluoride gas. fluoride and then igniting in the highly acid igneous rocks of the granitefamily, Obs. especially Topaz occurs where and rhyolite, it appears to be the result of fumarole in veins and cavities, as granite sometimes also in the surrounding schists, of the magma; action after the crystallization In these occurrences often accompanied by fluorgneisses, etc.,as a result of such action. tourmaline. in tin-bearingpegmatites. Topaz alters tie,cassiterite, Frequently occurs of muscovite. into a compact mass aesily Fine topaz comes from Russia from the Ural Mts., from Alabashka, in the region of Ekaterinburg; from Miask in the Ilmen Mts.; also the gold-washingson the River Sanarka in Govt. Orenburg; in Nerchinsk,beyond Lake Baikal,in the Adun-Chalon Mts., etc.; in the provinceof Minas Geraes,Brazil, at Ouro Preto and Villa Rica, of deep yellow color; in and and smaller crystalsat Germany at the tin mines of Zinnwald Ehrenfriedersdorf, and Altenberg;sky-blue crystals Schneckenstein in Cairngorm, Aberdeenshire,Scotland; the Mourne in crystals of mountains, Ireland; on the island of Elba. Physaliteoccurs at Fossum, Norway; great size, Finbo, Sweden. Pycniteis from the tin mine of Altenberg in Saxony; also of Schlackenwald, at Durango, Mexico, Zinnwald, etc. Fine crystals occur with tin ore; at San Luis Potosi in rhyolite. Mt. Bischoff, Tasmania, with tin ores; in New South Wales. In Japan in pegmatite from Otani-yama, Province similarly of Omi, Kioto. near In the United States, in Me., at Stoneham, in albitic granite. In Conn., at Trumbull, with fluorite; at Willimantic. In N. C., at Crowder's In Col.,in fine crystals Mountain. colorlessor pale blue from the Pike's Peak region; at Nathrop, Chaff ee Co., in wine-colored with spessartite in lithophyses in rhyolite;similarly crystals in the rhyolite of Chalk Mt. In Texas in fine crystals at Streeter. In Utah, in fine transparent colorless crystals with of the Thomas quartz and sanidine in the rhyolite Range, 40 miles north of Sevier Lake. In Col. in Ramona Co. The name topaz is from ro-n-a^os, island in the Red an Sea, as stated by Pliny. But
" " " "

the topaz of by Pliny and

Use.
"

Pliny was
earlier
a

not the true

as well writers,

topaz,as it yieldedto the file." Topaz was included as under the name by many later, chrysolite.

"

As

gem

stone.

ANDALUSITE.

Orthorhombic.
885

Axes
886

: c

0-9861

070245.
110 Oil A
A

mm'",
88'

110 Oil

89" 12'.
70" 10'.

Usually in coarse prismaticforms, the in form. prisms nearly square Massive, imperfectly columnar; sometimes radiated
and granular.

Cleavage:
b

perfect (Brazil);

sometimes (110)distinct, a (100) less perfect;

= =

Fracture uneven, sub(010) in traces. conchoidal. Brittle. H. 7-5. 3'16 G -3 '20. Luster vitreous; often weak. Color whitish, rose-red, flesh-red, reddish brown, olive-green. violet, pearl-gray,

SILICATES

525

to opaque, Pleousually sub translucent. colored varieties. some Absorption strong, X " Y " Z. an optic axis are idiophanous or show the polarizationbrushes Ax. pi. distinctly (p. 288). Optically b (010). Bx J_ c (001). 2V 85". T632. || a
" .

Streak uncolored. chroism strong in Sections normal to

Transparent

887

1*638.
"

1-643.

Var. Made is a variety in stout crystals Chiastolite, or having the axis and angles of a different color from the rest, of carbonaceous owing to a regular arrangement impurities and hence exhibitinga colored cross, or through the interior, in a transverse tesselated appearance section. a Fig. 888 shows sections of a crystal. Viridine is a green taining variety coniron and manganese from near many. some Darmstadt, Ger-

100

"

*z

Comp.
Silica sometimes Pyr., etc.
blue

"

Al2SiO5
present,
"

(A1O)AlSiO4
63*2 in
=

or

Al2O3.SiO2

36-8, alumina
as

Manganese manganandalusite.

100.

is

B.B. infusible. With cobalt solution gives a color after ignition. Not composed decomposed by acids. Defusion with caustic alkalies and alkaline carbonates. on Diff. Characterized by the nearly square prism, plepchroism, hardness, infusibility; B.B. reaction for alumina Micro. Distinguished in thin sections by its high relief;low interference-colors, which are only slightly above those of quartz; negative biaxial character; negative extension of the crystals(difffrom sillimanite) ; rather distinct prismatic cleavage and the constant extinction .(diff. from pyroxenes, which have also greater birefringence); parallel also these are by its characteristic arrangement of impurities when present (Fig.888). The when pleochroism, which is often lacking,is, present, strong and characteristic.
" "

888

Most Obs. common in argillaceous schist,or other scnists imperfectly crystalline; with serpentine. The also in gneiss,mica schist and related rocks; rarely in connection dikes. varietychiastolite is commonly a contact mineral in clay-slates, e.g., adjoininggranitic associated with sillimanite with parallel Sometimes axes. in Spain, in Andalusia; in Austria in the Tyrol, Lisens Alp; in Saxony, at BraunsFound In Brazil, dorf ; Bavaria, at Wunsiedel, etc. province of Minas Geraes, in fine crystals and rolled pebbles. Remarkable crystalsof chiastolite from Mt. Howden, near as Bimbowrie, South Australia. N. H., White Mtn. In North America, in Me., at Standish. Notch; Mass., at Westchiastolite. Conn., at Litchfield and Washingford; Lancaster, both varieties;Sterling, ton. largecrystals;Upper Providence. Co., near Leiperville, Pa., in Delaware from The made Named is from the Latin Andalusia, the first localitynoted. name macula, a spot. Chiastolite is from X"*O"TOS, arranged diagonally,and hence from chi, the Greek for the letter X. name Use. When clear and transparent may stone. serve as a gem
" "

Guarinite. In minute 2(K,Na)2O.8CaO.5(Al,Fe,Ce)2O3.10SiO2. Orthorhombic. thin b (010),nearly tetragonal in form. H. 6'5. G. 2 -9-3-3. tables,flattened || Color honey-yellow. Pleochroic,canary-yellow to colorless. Found in a grayish sulphur-yellow, Axial ratio and opticalproperties agree closely with trachyte on Mte. Somma, Vesuvius. those of danburite.
= =

526
SILLIMANITE.

DESCRIPTIVE Fibrolite.

MINERALOGY

110 A 110 88" 15', mm'" 0'970 : 1. in rounded. and striated Commonly faces 230 hh' 230 A in close often parallel terminated; n ot g roups, long slender crystals distinctly radiating. into fibrous and columnar massive forms; sometimes passing H. 6-7. G. Fracture uneven. Cleavage: b (010) very perfect. Color subadamantine. hair-brown, Luster vitreous, approaching 3-23-3-24. grayishbrown, grayish white, grayish green, pale olive-green.Streak unsometimes distinct. Pleochroism translucent. colored. Transparent to

Orthorhombic.
=

Axes a : b 69". Prismatic

+. Optically Dispersionp
a
=

b Double refraction strong. Ax. pi. || Axial angle and indices variable. " v.

(010).
2V
=

Bx

J_

20"

c (001). (approx.).

1-638.

0
"

1-642.
=

1*653.

Comp.
63'2
=

Al2SiO5

(A10)AlSi04, like andalusite.

Silica 36'8, alumina

100.

silicates. Both andalusite and Sillimanite is the most stable of the three aluminium when heated. into sillimanite converted strongly are cyanite Same andalusite. as Pyr. Characterized by its fibrous or columnar Diff. form; perfectcleavage; infusibility; reaction for alumina. In thin sections recognized by its form, usually with transverse Micro. fractures; parallel extinction; high interference-colors. Artif. Sillimanite has been made, artificially by fusing its oxides together. Both heated. andalusite and cyaniteare converted into sillimanite when strongly in very and sometimes Obs. Often present in the quartz of gneisses slender, granites minute prisms commonly aggregated together and sometimes intergrown with andalusite; with corundum. ioliteis also a common rarelyas a contact mineral; often occurs associate; Observed in many in Bohemia; at Fassa in Tyrol, Austria thus near Moldau localities, (bucholziie) (fibrolite} ; in the Carnatic,India, with corundum ; at Bodenmais, Bavaria; Freiberg, Saxony; in France,near Pontgibaud and other points in Auvergne; forms rolled in the diamantiferous sands of Minas masses Geraes, Brazil. In the United States, in Mass., at Worcester. In Conn.; near Norwich, with zircon, monazite and corundum; In N. Y., at Yorktown, Westchester at Willimantic. Co.; in Monroe, Orange Co., (monrolite). In Pa., at Chester on the Delaware, near Queensbury in N. C. forge; in Delaware Co.; Del., at Brandy wine Springs. With corundum Named from the fibrous massive variety; sillimanite. after Prof. Benjamin fibrolite Silliman of New Haven (1779-1864).
"

"

"

"

"

worthite probably belong Bamlite,xenolite,

to

the sillimanite;

last is altered.

CYANITE.

Kyanite.

Disthene.
= = =

Triclinic. Axes a : b : c 0-8994 105" 44i'. ac, 100 A 001 78"

=

889
",
^

90" 5|',0 101" 2', : 1 : 07090; a 86" 45'. 30'; be,010 A 001 in longbladed crystals, terminated. Also Usually rarely bladed columnar to subfibrous. coarsely Cleavage: a (100) lessperfect very perfect ; b (010) ; also H. 5-7 the c parting1 1 (001). -25; least, 4-5, on a (100) | caxis; 6-7 on a (100) ||edge a (100)/c (001); 7 on b (010). G. 3-56-3-67. Luster vitreous to pearly. Color blue,white; blue along the center of the blades or crystalswith white margins; also gray, black. green,
= = =

uncolored. Translucent to chroism transparent. Pleodistinct in colored varieties. Optically Ax. pi.nearly 1 a (100) and inclined to edge a/b on about a 30", and about 7i" on 6 (010),cf. Fig. 889. 2V 82". 1-717. 1722. B a 1'729. 7
"

Streak

528
H

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

=5-5-5.

fracture.

G. Color

2-9-3-0. Luster white; sometimes

subresinous rarely vitreous,

on

surface of
thystine, ame-

grayish,pale

green,

yellow,red,or
white.
891

rarelydirty olive-greenor
890

honey-yellow.Streak

Trans-

Bergen Hill

rarelyopaque parent to translucent;

1-625.

white.

Optically

-.

2V

74".

|8

1-653.

1*669.
893

Bergen Hill
Var.
"

Andreasberg

of varied habit,usually with a greenishtinge. Ordinary. In glassycrystals 64" 47, prismaticand clinodome zones g., 110 A 110 vary but little/e. 66" 37', White opaque 2. Compact massive. etc. cream-colored,pink; while Oil A Oil From the Lake Superiorregion. or Wedge wood ware. breakingwith the surface of porcelain and containing 3. Betryoidal; Botryolite.Radiated columnar, having a botryoidalsurface, but optically identical. water than the crystals, more
1. The

anglesin

the

Comp.
HCaBSiO5

"

A
or

basic

orthosilicate

of

boron

and be 5'6

H20.2CaO.B2O3.2SiO2; this

Silica 37-6,boron
"

may trioxide 21-8,lime 35-0,water

written
=

calcium; empirically Ca(BOH)Si04

=

100.

to

In the closed tube givesoff much B.B. fuses at 2 with intumescence water. Pyr.,etc. the flame bright green. clear glass, Gelatinizes with hydrochloricacid. coloring Diff. Characterized and by its glassy,greenish,complex crystals; easy fusibility
"

green

flame B. B.
"

Datolite is found chiefly Obs. in veins and cavities in basic as a secondary mineral eruptive rocks, often associated with calcite, prehnite and various zeolites;sometimes associated with danburite; also in gneiss, and serpentine; in metallic veins; sometimes diorite, in beds of iron ore. Found in Scotland, in trap, at the Kilpatrick Hills,etc.; in a bed of magnetite at Arendal in Norway (botryolite) ; at Uto in Sweden; at Andreasberg, Germany, in diabase and in veins of silver ores; in Rhenish Bavaria (the humboMtite) ; at the Seisser Alp,Tyrol,Austria, and at Theiss,near Claussen,Hungary; in geodes in amygda-

SILICATES

529
in serpentine,

in graniteat Baveno loid; in Italy, Catini in Tuscany. at Monte

the In the United States Rocky Hill quarry, In N. Mass. Westfield, not
uncommon

near

Lago Maggiore,at Toggiana in Modena,

with the diabase of Conn, and Mass.

Thus

at

son, Passaic Co. from Named

Hartford, Conn.; at Middlefield Falls and Roaring Brook, Conn.; J.,at Bergen Hill and Great Notch in splendidcrystals;at Paterand the opaque Both crystals in the Lake Superiorregion. compact variety, of a massive daTeurdai, to divide,alluding to the granular structure

variety. (Ca,Fe)3(BO)2(SiO4)2. Crystals often tabular || H. 3'38. 5. G. Color black,blackish brown. in the Langesund fiord, Stoko and other islands, Index about Found T68. on Norway. In 6 (010) Euclase. HBeAlSiO5 or Be(AlOH)SiO4. prismatic crystals. Cleavage || Luster vitreous. Colorless to pale green 7*5. 3'05-3'10. G. blue. or perfect. H. From 1'655. erous Brazil,in the province of Minas Geraes; in the aurif0 Optically +. Ural Mts., near sands of the Orenburg district, southern the river Sanarka; in the Bavaria. Glossglocknerregion of the Austrian Alps; from Epprechtstein,Fichtelgebirge, Gadolinite. Be2FeY2Si2Oi0 or Be2Fe(YO)2(SiO4)2. Crystals,often prismatic, rough Fracture and conchoidal or commonly in masses. Cleavage none. splintery. coarse; 4'24-4 '29 (isotropic Brittle. 6'5-7. H. G. normally 4'36-4 '47 (anisotropic), 4'0-4'5; Color black,greenishblack, and amorphous from alteration). Luster vitreous to greasy. Falun and Ytterby, Sweden; Hittero,Norway; also brown. From also in Llano Co., near and rough crystals, sometimes Texas, in nodular masses up to 40 or 60 pounds in weight. Crystals from Kumak, East Greenland. The gadolinite-earths (partlyreplaced by the oxides of cerium, yttrium earths or and lanthanum didymium) form a complex group which contains considerable erbium, of more less definite character. elements (ytterbium,scandium, etc.) also several new or A and the yttrium metals chiefly. Massive; amorYttrialite. silicate of thorium phous. 4-575. Color on the fresh fracture olive-green, G. changing to orange-yellow of Llano Associated with the gadolinite surface. Co., Texas. on Rowlandite. An occurring massive with gadoliniteof Llano Co., yttrium silicate, Texas; color drab-green. An Thalenite. yttrium silicate. In tabular or prismatic monoclinic crystals. H. 174. in Sweden Found at Osterby in Dale4'2. Color flesh-red. /3 6*5. G.
c

Homilite. (Ca,Fe)3B2Si2Oi0 or (001); anglesnear those of datolite.

"

"

carlia and

at

Askagen
A

in Wermland. In radiating
=

Thortveitite.
groups

of

silicateof the yttrium metals, (Sc,Y)2Si2O7. Orthorhombic. 6-7. G. cleavage. H. large tapering crystals.Prismatic
=

3*57.

Color
Found

grayish green in pegmatite Co., Texas.

to white in Iveland

when

altered.

Usually

translucent.

fusible. Difficultly Color black.

Norway. parish,Satersdalen,
Massive.

Mackintoshite.

Silicate of uranium, thorium, cerium, etc.

Llano

Epidote Group.
ii

Orthorhombic
in ii in

and

Monoclinic
in

HR^R3Si3O13 Basic Orthosilicates,

ii

or

R2(ROH)R2(SiO4)3
in
in
=

ii
=

in

R
a.

Ca,Fe;

Al,Fe,Mn,Ce, etc.
a

Orthorhombic

Section

Zoisite

Ca2(AlOH)Al2(SiO4)3
j8. Monoclinic
Section

0'6196

0'3429

mCa2(AlOH)Al2(SiO4)3
Piedmontite

1-8036 1-6100 1*5509 1-8326 1-7691

64" 37' 64" 39' 64" 59'

Allanite

Ca2(AlOH)(Al,Mn)2(SiO4)3 (Al,Ce,Fe)2 (Ca,Fe)2(A10H)

(SiO4)3

530
The EPIDOTE GROUP

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

includes the
in form. closely

above To

monoclinic

species agree

them

complex orthosilicates. The the orthprhombic species

corresponding to
cr,

its prismatic zone zoisite is also related in angle, have: Thus we clinic orthodomes, etc. 63" 34'. Epidote Zoisite mm'", 110 A 110
=
.

the

mono-

001 110

A A

101 110

63"

42'.

uu',
to

021

021

68" 54'.

mm',

70"

4',etc.

There

seems

position be, however, a monoclinic calcium compound, having the comwith ordinary and strictly isomorphous but monoclinic of zoisite,

it is called dinozoisite. epidote;

ZOISITE. J

Orthorhombic.
mm'", dd',
110 101

Axes
A A

a
=

: c

0'6196

0-34295.
^

HO 101

63" 34'. 57" 56'.

jf, Oil oo'",111

A A

Oil 111

37" 52'. 33" 24'.

and seldom deeply striated or furrowed vertically, Crystalsprismatic, Also massive; columnar to compact. terminated. distinctly to subconchoidal. uneven b (010) very perfect. Fracture Cleavage: the cleavageLuster on 3-25-3-37. vitreous; G. 6-6 -5. H. Brittle. brown, greenish Color yellowish white, grayish gray, pearly. face,b (010), Streak uncolored. rose-red. to apple-green;also peach-blossom-red gray,
= =

Transparent
i

to subtranslucent.

Pleochroism strong in c (001). Bx (010);also || Axial angle variable even

Ax. pi.usually|| b +. pink varieties. Optically also v. _L a (100). Dispersion strong, p " v; p " 1-700. 0"-60". in the same a crystal. 2V
= =

1-703.
"

1*706.
to

1. Ordinary. Colors gray Var. or columnar forms; also in prismatic

pleochroism strong. 3. Compact, zoisite. 2. Rose-red or very pure saussurite of the mineral material known as Includes the essential part of most massive. which has arisen from the alteration of feldspar. in saussurite-gabbro), (e.g., Silica 397, alumina HCa2Al3Si3013 or 4CaO.3Al2O3.6SiO2.H2O Comp. alumina is sometimes The 100. replaced 33-7,lime 24-6,water 2*0 mula. which has the same general forby iron,thus graduating toward epidote,
"

fibrous aggregates. Thulite. Fragile;

white and brown; also green. Usually in indistinct 3'226-3'381. Unionite is a G.

=

Not posed decomB.B. swells up and fuses at 3-3'5 to a white blebby mass. Pyr., etc. Gives off water with hydrochloricacid. ignited gelatinizes by acids;when previously when stronglyignited. Diff. with intumescence; reCharacterized sembles by the columnar structure; fusibility some amphibole. Micro. Distinguishedin thin sections by its high relief and very low interferencecolors;lack of color and biaxial character. From by its lack of epidote it is distinguished color and low birefringence; from vesuvianite by its color and biaxial character. Thin sections frequentlyshow the "ultra blue" (p.520) between crossed nicols. Obs. in those crystalline Occurs especially schists which have been formed by the rich in lime. dynamic metamorphism of basic igneous rocks containingplagioclase monly Comof the amphiboles (actinolite, one accompanies some smaragdite,glaucophane, etc.); thus in amphibolite, often associated with corundum. glaucophane schist, eclogite; The original zoisite is that of the eclogite of the Saualpe in Carinthia (saualpite] Other localitiesare: Kauris in Salzburg; Sterzing, in etc.,in Tyrol, Austria; the Fichtelgebirge Bavaria; Marschendorf in Moravia; Saastal in Switzerland; the island of Syra, one of the Cyclades,in glaucophane schist. In crystalsfrom Chester, Mass.. Thulite occurs at Kleppan in Tellemarken, Norway, and at Traversella in Piedmont, Italy.
"
" " "

SILICATES

531

EPIDOTE.

Pistacite.

Monoclinic.
mm' ca,
ce, cr,

Axes
110 001 001 001 100
A

b
=

: c

"

1-5787
56'. 37'. 43'.
42'. 41'.

1-8036;0_= 64" 37'.

001 001 001 A A A A A 201 Oil 111 111 111
=
=

110 100 101 101 101

A
A

A A

ar'. 894

109" 64" 34" 63" 51"

d,
co, en,

an"', 100 rm"', 111

89" 58" 75" 69" 70"

26' 28'
11' 2'

29'

897

tw. lamellae. Crystals often as embedded pi.a (100)common, b at terminated and the ortho-axis one only; .extremity usuallyprismatic|| in the into acicular the faces a zone (100) /c (001) deeply passing forms; of various striated. Also fibrous, granular,particles divergent or parallel; rock-masses. sometimes fine granular, and forming sizes, Brittle. uneven. a (100)imperfect. Fracture Cleavage: c (001)perfect; H. Luster vitreous; on c (001)inclining to pearly 6-7. 3-25-3-5. G. Color pistachio-green resinous. or or yellowishgreen to brownish green, greenishblack, and black; sometimes clear red and yellow; also gray and grayish white, rarelycolorless. Streak uncolored, grayish. Transparent to subtranslucent. generally opaque: Pleochroism strong : vibrations 1 absorbed, 1Z green, Y brown and strongly Z " Y " X in X yellow. Absorption usuallyY " Z " X] but sometimes in rocks. Often the variety of epidote common in sections exhibits idiophano-us best figures; normal to an opticaxis,but often to be observed if flattened in natural Crystals especially (Sulzbach), ||r(101). (See p. 288.) Optically-. 2" 56'. Ax. pi. ||b (010). Bx.a.r A c axis Z J_ a (100) nearly. Dispersion Hence inclined, feeble,p " v. strongly marked; of the axes 1'754. 1-729. Axial anglelarge, a /3 7

Twins:

tw.

1-768.
Var. a peculiar yellowish Epidotehas ordinarily green But color, seldom found in other minerals. (pistachio) black on one shades this color passes into dark and light side and brown the other; red,yellow and colorless on
" "

varieties also
Var. 1.

occur.

shade, as described, the )istachio tint rarely Ordinary. Color green of some absent, (d) "corza is epidotesand (c) Granular massive, (a) In crystals, (b) Fibrous, is from the gold washings in Transylvania. The Arendal, Norway, epidote (Arendalite) Delmostly in dark green crystals;that of Bourg d'Oisans,Dauphine, France, (Thallite,

532

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

in yellowish green phiniteOisanite) from the auriferous sands crystals from Achmatovsk, Ural Mts.

sometimes crystals,
of A

transparent.
Mts. Hoste

Ekaterinburg, Ural varietyfrom

Puschkinite includes is ordinary epiAchmatite dote

Garda,

Island,Terra

del

Fuego,

is colorless and resembles zoisite. 2. The Bucklandite from Achmatovsk, Ural Mts., described by Hermann, is black with nearlysymmetrical and differs from ordinary epidote in having the crystals a tingeof green, 3 '51. and not, like other epidote, lengthened in the direction of the ortho-axis. G. and Carmine-red to straw-yellow,strongly pleochroic; deep crimson 3. Withamite. From 3 '137; in small radiated Glencoe, in groups. 6-6'5; G. straw-yellow. H. but contains littleMnO. referred to piedmontite, Sometimes Scotland. Argyleshire, is a chromium-bearing epidotefrom Tawman, Kachin Hills, Upper Burma. 4. Tawmanite
= = =

Deep

green

color and
"

strong pleochroism,emerald-green to brightyellow.

Comp.

of aluminium

the ratio or H2O.4CaQ.3(Al"Fe8)2O8.6SiO2, HCa*(Al,Fe)8Si"Oi8 position: to iron varies commonly from 6 : 1 to 3 : 2. Percentagecom3 : 1 SiO2

For

Al

Fe

37'87,A12O3 24'13,Fe2O3 12'60,CaO

23'51, H2O

1'89

100

Clinozoisite is an epidote without iron,having the composition of zoisite; fouqueiteis is supposed to contain in Ceylon. Picroepidote from an anorthite-gneiss probably the same Mg in place of Ca. tumescence In the closed tube gives water on strong ignition. B.B. fuses with inPyr., etc. black mass which is generallymagnetic. Reacts at 3-3 '5 to a dark brown or for manganese for iron and sometimes with the fluxes. Partially decomposed by hydrochloric with acid. gelatinizes Decomposed on fusion acid,but when previouslyignited,
"

alkaline carbonates. often by its peculiaryellowishgreen Characterized color ; readily (pistachio) fusible and yieldsa magnetic globule B.B. Prismatic forms often longitudinally striated, but they have not the angle,cleavageor brittleness of tremolite;tourmaline has no distinct is less fusible (incommon cleavage, forms) and usuallyshows its hexagonal form. Micro. Recognized in thin sections by its high refraction;strong interference-colors into those of the third order in ordinarysections;decided color and striking rising ism; pleochroalso by the fact that the plane of the optic axes lies transversely to the elongationof the crystals. Obs. Epidote is commonly formed by the metamorphism (both local igneous and of generaldynamic character)of impure calcareous sedimentary rocks or igneous rocks containing much lime. It thus often occurs in gneissic rocks, mica schist, amphibole schist, sandstones and limestones altered by neighboring igneous serpentine;so also in quartzites, rocks. Often accompanies beds of magnetite or hematite in such rocks. Has also been found in granite(Maryland), and regarded as an original mineral. It is often associated with quartz, feldspar, It someetc. times actinolite, axinite, chlorite, forms with quartz an epidote rock, called epidosite.A similar rock exists at Melbourne in Canada. A gneissoidrock consistingof flesh-colored orthoclase,quartz and epidotefrom the Unaka Mts. (N. C. and Tenn.) has been called unakyte. Beautiful crystallizations from Bourg d'Oisans,Dauphine, France; the Ala valley come and in Piedmont, Italy; Elba; Zermatt, Switzerland; Zillertal in Tyrol, Traversella, Austria; also in fine crystals from the Knappenwand in the Untersulzbachtal,Pinzgau, associated with asbestus, Austria, further at Striegau, adularia, apatite, titanite, scheelite; Silesia;Zoptau, Moravia; Arendal, Norway; the Achmatovsk mine near Zlatoust, Ural Mts. In North America, in N. H., at Franconia and Warren. occurs In Mass., at Hadlyme and Chester in crystals in gneiss; at Athol, in syenitic in fine crystals; Newbury, gneiss, limestoneIn Conn., at Haddam, in largesplendid crystals. In N. Y., near Amity;
Diff
"

with

"

"

Monroe, Orange Co.; Warwick, pale yellowish green, with titanite and pyroxene. In C., at Hampton's, Yancey Co.; White's mill,Gaston Co.; Franklin, Macon Co.; in crystalsand crystalline in quartz at White Plains, masses In Mich., in the Alexander Co. Lake Superior region, at many of the mines. Crystals from Seven Devils mining district, Idaho; from Riverside, Cal.; from Sulzer, Prince of Wales Island, Alaska. Epidote was named by Haiiy, from the Greek e7ri5o"m, translated increase, by him,
N.
((

Sr

qui

base of the prism (rhomboidal prism) having one side from TriaraKux, the pistachio-nut, Pistacite, refers to the color. Similar in an8le to ordinary epidote,but contains 5 to 15 ?ie"d?10n?ite' p. c. Mn2O3.
un

recu

the accroissement,"

than

the other.

o'5.

G.

3'404.

Color

reddish

brown

and

reddish

black.

Pleochroism

strong.

SILICATES

533

Ax. pi. ||b (010). Bxa.r A c axis Optically +. + 82" 34', 173. 3". Occurs with manganese at St. Marcel, Pied0 mont, ores schists on lie de Groix, France; in glaucophane-schist in Japan. Italy. In crystalline Occasionally in quartz porphyry, as in the antique red porphyry of Egypt, also that of

Absorption
A

"

"

Z.
-

caxis

6" to

South

Mountain,

Pa.

Belongs in Epidote Group containing, PbO, MnO, CaO, SrO, MgO, Crystals which are very small and lath shaped show characteristic A12O3, Fe2O3, Mn2Os. H. red. 6-7. G. 4'0. Found epidote habit and closelyrelated angles. Brownish at Franklin, N. J.
Hancockite.
= =

ALLANITE.

Orthite.

lar angle near epidote. Crystals often tabulong and slender to acicular prismaticby elongation 1 1axis b. and in embedded Also massive grains. observed. Cleavage: a (100) and c (001) in traces; also m (110) sometimes

Monoclinic.

Axes,

p. 529.

In

1 1a (100);

also

Fracture Luster cent

to

uneven

or

subconchoidal.
or

Brittle. Color
Z

H.

5-5-6. to black.

G.

3-0-4-2.

submetallic,pitchy
opaque.

resinous.

brown

Subtranslu-

Pleochroism
1*682.

strong:
"

brownish
b pi. ||

Optically j8 Birefringencevariable. approx. by alteration analogous to gadolinite.

X

greenish

brown.

Ax.

yellow, Y reddish brown, (010). Bxa A caxis 32J" Also isotropic and amorphous
=

Var.-^
or

Allanite.

plates. Color

The black

original mineral
or

was

from G.
=

East

Greenland,

in

tabular

crystals

brownish

black.

3'50-3'95.

Bucklandite

is anhydrous

ite

allanite in small black crystals from a magnetite mine near Arendal, Norway. Bagrationin black of Achmatovsk occurs (epidote). crystalswhich are like the bucklandite Orthite included, in its originaluse, the slender or acicular prismatic crystals,containing But these graduate into massive Falun, Sweden. some forms, and water, from Finbo, near
some

orthites

are

anhydrous,

or

as

nearly
ii in

so

as

most

allanite.

The

name

is from

6p66s
ii

straight.

Comp.
=

"

Like

epidote HRR3Si3Oi3
m

or

H20.4R0.3R203.6Si02

with

Ca

and

Fe, and
those

R.

amounts

of the

Al,Fe, the cerium metals Ce, Di, La, and in smaller considerable Some varieties contain yttrium group.
give much
water in1 the

water, but probably by alteration.

closed tube, and all kinds yield a swells up 2 '5) to a dark, (F. for iron. the fluxes reacts Most varieties gelatinizewith blebby, magnetic glass. With hydrochloric acid, but if previously ignited are not decomposed by acid. Obs. Occurs in albitic and common feldspathicgranite,gneiss,syenite,zircon syenite, stone in Greenland; Thus Sweden; Striegau, Silesia. Also in white limeporphyry. Norway; of magnetic iron. Rather the Bergstrasse,Germany; often in mines at Auerbach on as

Pyr.,

etc.

"

Some

varieties

small

amount

on

strong ignition. B.B.

fuses

easily and

"

common

as

an

accessory
as a

constituent nucleus

the

tonalite of Mt. inclosed Sometimes

Adamello,

Austria,

dacite,rhyolite, rocks, as in andesite, diorite, scapolite rocks of Odegaarden, Norway, etc. in crystalsof the isomorphous species, epidote. From

in many the

Madagascar.
with sanidine, sodalite, nephelite,hornblende, etc. at the Laacher See, Germany (bucklandite). In Mass., at the Bolton In N. Y., Moriah, Essex Co., with magnetite and quarry. In N. J., at Franklin Furnace with feldspar and magapatite; at Monroe, Orange Co. netite. In Pa., at South Mountain, near Bethlehem, in large crystals;at East Bradford; in Amherst In Va., in large masses Eckhardt's Co.; near Co., abundant. furnace, Berks also in Bedford, Nelson, and Amelia counties. In N. C., at many points. At the Devil's
At

Vesuvius
in

Similarly

in ejected masses trachytic ejected masses

Head

Mt., Douglas Co., Col.

In Texas

in Llano

Co.

534
AXINITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Triclinic. Axes
T
=

: c

04921

0-4797;

82" 54',ft

91"

52',

131" 32'.
ftoa

900

901

Dauphine"
am,

Poloma
110 110 201

Bethlehem, P; Mr,
mr,
ras,

aM,
as,

100 A 100 A 100 A

15" 34'. 28" 55'. 21" 37'.

110 110 110

A A
A

111 111 201

45" 15'. 64" 22'. 27" 57'.

lamellae often curved; sometimes sive, lamellar,

=

Also masbut varied in habit, usuallybroad and acute-edged, Crystals granular. 6'5-' Brittle. H. Cleavage: b (010)distinct. Fracture conchoidal. Color 3-271-3-294. Luster G. plum-blue, clove-brown, highly glassy. and greenish yellow. Streak uncoloi pearl-gray; also honey-yellow, Ax. pi. Pleochroism strong. Optically Transparent to subtranslucent. 65"-70". 2V Axial variable. and Bxa approximately J_ x (111). angles 1-68 (approx.).Pyroelectric 0 (p.307). with catcium and A boro-silicate of aluminium varying Comp.
=
"

"

amounts

Calcium of iron and manganese. (SiOJs. R Formula, RyR^ in largeexcess, again in smaller amount and manganese sometimes chiefly, also magnesium and basic hydrogen. prominent; iron is present in small quantity,
=

B.B. fuses readilywith intumescence, imparts a pale green color to the Pyr., etc. O.F.,and fuses at 2 to a dark green to black glass;with borax in O.F. givesan amethystine bead (manganese), which in R.F. becomes yellow (iron). Fused with a mixture of bisulphate of potash and fluorite on the platinum loop colors the flame green (boricacid) Not acid. but when previously decomposed by acids, with hydrochloric ignited, gelatinizes Obs. Axinite occurs in clove-brown near crystals; Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphine, Mt. Skopi, in eastern France; at Andreasberg, Harz Mts., Germany; Striegau, on Silesia; Switzerland; Elba; at the silver mines of Kongsberg, Norway; Nordmark, Sweden; near Miask in the Ural Mts.; in Cornwall, at the Botallack mine near England,of a dark color, St. Just,etc. From Obira,Japan. In the United States, at Phippsburg, Me.; Franklin Furnace, N. J.,honey-yellow;at Bethlehem,Pa.; in Cal. at Bonsall,San Diego Co., at Riverside,Riverside Co., and at Consumers Co. Mine, Amador
" . "

Named

from

an a^lvij,

axe, in allusion to the form

of the crystals.

PREHNITE.

Axes a Orthprhombic-hemimorphic.

: c

0-8401

0-5549.

Distinct individual crystals rare;

mm7" prismatic,

(110)A

(HO)

usuallytabular ||c (001); sometimes 80" 4'; againacute pyramidal. Commonly

536

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Humite

Group
a

Prolectite Monoclmic [Mg(F,OH)]2Mg[SiO4]i?

:b
:

1-0803

T8861

90C 90C

Chondrodite
Monoclmic [Mg(F,OH)]2Mg3[Si04]2 Humite
1-0863 6 1
:

3-1447
c

[Mg(F,OH)]2Mg5[Si04]3 Orthorhombic
Clinohumite

1-0802

4-4033

[Mg(F,OH)]2Mg7[SiO4]4 Monoclinic
The

T0803

5'6588

90C

series both as regards cryshere included form a remarkable talline species they have sensibly form and chemical composition. In crystallization almost exactly are ratio for the lateral axes, while the vertical axes the same 3:5:7:9 (see also below). Furthermore, in the ratio of the numbers is orthorhombic,the others monoclinic,they here also though one species does not sensibly the axial angle0 in the latter cases since closely, correspond differ from
In three

90".

the shown by Penfield and Howe (also Sjogren), as composition, of the in which each univalent orthosilicates basic are g species present are in the rati"^; (MgF) or (MgOH) enters, while the Mg atoms The compositiongiven for Prolectite is theoretical only, 1 -i 3 : 5 : 7. In physr be that which would expected from its crystallization. and several of them characters these speciesare very similar, may o"|ij in pa even intercrystallized localityand together at the same

lamellae.
The

The speciesof the group in angle to chrysoliteand approximate closely axial ratios may be compared as follows: Prolectite Chondrodite. Humite Clinohumite
a a

chrysoi

b
a

Chrysolite

b b

Chrysoberyl
CHONDRODITE
"

HUMITE

"

CLINOHUMITE.

Axial ratios as given above. Habit varied, Figs. 902 to 910. Twins the twinningplanesinclined 60",also 30",to c (001)in the brachycommon, dome or clinodome zone, hence the axes at angles near crossing 60"; often and repeated as trillings with twins,
c as

(001)as

tw.

plane. Two

lamellae (cf. polysynthetic Fig.609, p. 299). Also of the three species often twinned are distinct.

together.
Fracture subconchoidal to uneven. Luster vitreous to resinous. Color white,light to chestnut-brown yellow, and garnet- or hyacinthhoney-yellow red. Pleochroism sometimes distinct. Optically .+ Brittle.
H.
=

Cleavage: c (001)sometimes
6-6-5.

G.

3-1-3-2.

Chondrodite.

Absorption
X A
c

"

"

Bx0 A
Somma.

axis

axis
-

+
=

25"

52'

Ax. Optically +. pi. and Bxa J_ b (010). Brewster; 28" 56' Kafveltorp;30" approx., Mte.
=

Y.

Brewster.

0'031. 1-619; 7 2V 80". a Humite. Ax. pi. || c (001). Bx J_ a (100). 0 Clinohumite. Ax. pi. and Bxa _L b (010). Bx0

1'643. A
c

7
=

0'035.
approx.,

axis

11"-12"; 7^"

2V

76".

1-670.

0'038.

SILICATES

537
904

903

Brewster, N. Y. Figs.902, 903, Chondrodite,

906

Sweden Chondrodite,

907 905
103

Projection

on

(001)

Projection Mte. Figs.905, 906, Chondrodite, Somma

on

(Olb) Humite, Sweden

910

908

Projection

on

(010)

Humite, Vesuvius

Clinohumite,Brewster

Clinohumite,Mte.

Somma

with related formulas Basic fluosilicates of magnesium as shown in the table above. and iron Hydroxyl replaces part of the fluorine, often takes the placeof magnesium.

Comp.

"

varieties blacken and B.B. infusible; some Pyr., etc. potassium bisulphate in the closed tube gives a reaction
"

a reaction for iron. fluoride.

Gelatinizes with

acids.

Heated

with

white. Fused with With the fluxes sulphuric acid gives off silicon
for fluorine.

then burn

538
Obs.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

in the ejected at Vesuvius -Chondrodite, humite, and elinohumite all occur Somma. associated Monte found are They on limestone of both or feldspathic type masses etc.; also less magnetite, spinel,vesuvianite,calcite, with chrysolite, biotite, pyroxene, humite is the rarest and often with sanidine,meionite, nephelite. Of the three species, together in the same They seldom all occur elinohumite of most frequent occurrence. and elinohumite) appear of the species (as humite together. and only rarely two mass, of humite, and parallel intergrowthswith elinohumite interpenetrates crystals Occasionally have also been observed. chrysolite at Mte. Somma, Vesuvius,as above noted; at Pargas, Finland,honeyChondrodite occurs yellow in limestone; at Kafveltorp,Nya-Kopparberg,Sweden, associated with chalcopyrite, galena,sphalerite. At Brewster, N. Y., at the Tilly Foster magnetic iron mine in deep of "chondrodite" Also probably at numerous points where the occurrence garnet-redcrystals. has been Humite

reported.

mine near at the Ladu Sweden, with magnetite in crysFilipstadt, also occurs talline with elinohumite in Andalusia, Spain. Also in limestone In crystalline limestone. Noted at the TillyFoster iron-mine at Brewster, N. Y. large, coarse, partlyaltered crystals
at

Franklin

Furnace,

N.

J.

limestone near Somma and in Andalusia; in crystalline at Mte. Clinohumite occurs but highly modified crystals. Lake Baikal in East Siberia;at Brewster, N. Y., in rare called titanolivine)from Ala Hydroclinohumite is a titaniferous variety (originally

Valley,Piedmont, Italy.
have been noted, chieflyin crystalline localities of "chondrodite" limestone; most of them are probably to be referred to the specieschondrodite, but the drodite" of massive "chonis yet to be proved. At Brewster in many largequantities cases identity and from its extensive associated with magnetite, enstatite, ripidolite, occur The granular mineral is common has been formed alteration serpentine on a large scale. and occain limestone in Sussex Co., N. J.,and Orange Co., N. Y., associated with spinel, sionally and Also in Mass., at Chelmsford, with scapolite; corundum. with pyroxene In Canada, in limestone at St. Jerome, Grenville, etc., at South Lee, in limestone. abundant. The name chondrodite is from xwSpos, a grain, alluding to the granular structure. is from Sir Abraham Humite Hume. Numerous Prolectite is from other the

Kq mine, Nordmark, Sweden;

very

rare;

imperfectlyknown.

Leucophcenicite. Mn5(MnOH)2(SiO4)3, similar to the humite type In striated crystals Monoclinic. Massive. to ortho-axis. elongated parallel G. Color lightpurplishred. From 3'8. Fusible. Franklin, N. J.
=
.

of
H.

formula.
=

5*5-6.

ILVAITE.

Lievrite.

Yenite.
a :

Orthorhombic.
oil

Axes
110 120

b
=

: c

0'6665

0*4427.
rr' 101 A A 101
=

mm'", as',

A lIO A 120

67" 22'. 73" 45'.

oo', 111

Til

67" 11'. 62" 33'.

Commonly
Columnar
or

in

with prismatic faces vertically striated. prisms,

compact
=

massive.
Fracture
uneven.

Cleavage: 6(010), c(001) rather distinct.

=

Brittle. H. Luster submetallic. 5-5-6. G. 3'99-4'05. Color iron-black or dark grayish black. Streak black,inclining to green or brown. Opaque.

Comp.
4SiO2
^ =

lime of the ferrous iron.

etc. Pyr.,
iron.
"

H2O.CaO.4FeO.Fe2O3. CaFe2(FeOH) (SiO4)2 or 19 -6, iron protoxide35 -2, sesquioxide 2-2 100. 137, water replace part Manganese may
-

Silica 29 -3,iron
=

lor

B.B. fuses quietlyat 2'5 to a black magnetic bead. With the fluxes reacts Some varieties give also a reaction for manganese. Gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid. Obs. Found on Elba in dolomite;on Mt. Mulatto near Predazzo, Tyrol, Austria,in granite; Schneeberg, In crystals from Siorarsiut, South Saxony; Fossum, in Norway. Lrreenland. Reported as formerly found at Cumberland, R. I.; also at Milk Row quarry,
"

SILICATES

539
mine, Owyhee Co.,Idaho.
and
=

Mass. Somerville, Ilvaite from Ardennite.

In fine
name

the Latin

from South Mountain crystals of the island (Elba).

Named

arsenic.
to

Dewalquite. A vanadio-silicate of aluminium In prismatic crystals resembling ilvaite. H.

Index
about 179. Found
at

brown. yellowish

Salm

also containing manganese; 6-7. G. 3*620. low YelChateau in the Ardennes,

=

RhomManganese silicate with ferrous antimonate; formula doubtful. In iron-black bohedral-tetartohedral. 6'5. hexagonal prismatic crystals. H. From Luster metallic. G. 4'918. Langban, Sweden.
= =

Belgium. Langbanite.

lead silicates. See also p. 498. In minute prismatic crystals; often in H. =5. G. =6'19. Color dark reddish brown; black sheaf -like forms; also massive. the surface. From southern Chile; Langban and Jakobsberg, Sweden; Bena Padru, on Sardinia. near Ozieri, Melanotekite. 3PbO.2Fe2O3.3SiO2 or (Fe4O8)Pb8(SiO4)s. Orthorhombic; prismatic. G. Luster 573. metallic to greasy. 6'5. Color black to Massive; cleavable. H. with native lead at Langban, Sweden. Occurs Also in crystals blackish gray. resembling N. M. kentrolite at Hillsboro,
The
are following rare

Kentrolite.

Probably 3PbO.2Mn2O3.3SiO2.

tabular

In small H2Be4Si?O9 or H2O.4BeO.2SiO2. Orthorhombic-hemimorphic. G. 6-7. 2'59-2'60. Colorless to pale yellow. prismatic crystals. H. in feldspathic T603. Usually occurs veins,often with other beryllium Optically 0 minerals as a result of the alteration of beryl. At the quarries of Barbin near Nantes, France; Pisek, Bohemia; Irkutka Mt., Altai Mts., Russia; Ireland, Southern Norway; Cornwall, England; Mt. Antero, Chaff ee Co.,Col.,with phenacite; Amelia Court-House, Va.; Oxford Co., Me. Bertrandite.
or
= =
"

CALAMINE.

Smithsonite.

Hemimorphite.
Axes
a :

Orthorhombic-hemimorphic.
mm'", ss', "', ee', w', w'",
110 101 301 Oil 031 121
A A A A

: c

07834
912

04778.
913

101
101 301 Oil 031 121

76"
122"

9'. 62" 46'.

41'.

A
A

51" 5'. 110" 12'. 78" 26'.

often tabular || b (010);also prismatic; Crystals striated. Usually faces 6 vertically implanted and showing one extremity only. ing Often grouped in sheaf -like forms and form-

drusy surfaces in cavities. Also stalacfibrous titic, mammillary, botryoidal,and forms; massive and granular. s(101) less so; Cleavage: m (110)perfect;
c

(001)in

traces.

Fracture

uneven

to
=

subconchoidal.

Brittle.

H.

4-5-5,

Luster 3 -40-3 -50. G. latter when vitreous; c (001) crystallized. sometimes with a delicate Color adamantine. sometimes white; subpearly, parent TransStreak white. bluish or greenish brown. also to yellowish shade; 1*617. 1-614. 46". 2V to translucent. +. a (3 Optically

the

1-636.

Strongly pyroelectric.
"

H2ZnSiO5 or zinc oxide 67 -5,water 7-5

Comp.

(ZnOH)2SiO3
=

or

H2O.2ZnO.SiO2
goes

100.

The

water

off

only

Silica 25-0, at a red heat;

=

unchanged
Pyr., etc.
"

at 340" C.
B.B. almost In the closed tube decrepitates, whitens, and givesoff water. On charcoal with soda gives a coating which is yellow while hot,and

infusible (F. =6).

540
white
a even

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

and heated in O.F., this coatingassumes cooling Moistened with cobalt solution, on blue. Gelatinizes with acids but the ignitedmineral itself becomes bright green color, when

ignited. previously

f)iQ
Resembles
Obs.
"

Characterized by its mfusibihty; reaction for zinc; gelatimzation with also prehnite. smithsonite (which effervesces with acid), some

,,..,.

.,,

acids.

.,

beds in or usually found associated in veins and smithsonite are Calamine iron and lead. of Thus at Aix-lazinc, sulphides accompanying rocks stratifiedcalcareous in Carinthia; Moresnet in Belgium; Rezbanya, Raibel and Bleiberg, Chapelle Germany; at Alston At Roughten Gill,in Cumberland; Moor, white; and Schemnitz, Hungary. Scotland; at Nerchinsk, m eastern Siberia. From Matlock, in Derbyshire; Leadhill,
near

Missouri, At the Emma mine, Col; from Organ Mts., N. M.; Elkhorn Mts., Mon. Leadville, Cottonwood Canon, Utah. ruption The name Calamine (with Galmei of the Germans) is commonly supposed to be a corof Cadmia. Agricola says it is from calamus, a reed,in allusion to the slender in the cadmia fornacum. common forms (stalactitic)
from Use.
"

Santa Chihuahua, Mexico. Eulalia, near Ogdensburg, N. J.,in fine clear crystalat Sterling line Hill, In the United States occurs and Phenixville lead mines; at Friedensville. In Pa., at the Perkiomen masses. With the zinc depositsof southwestern in Va., at Austin's mines in Wythe Co. Abundant and massive calamine. about Crystals Granby, both as crystallized especially

An

ore

of zinc.

Clinohedrite. H.
=

H2CaZnSiO5.
3'33.

5'5.

G.

Colorless 0

or

Monoclinic-clinohedral (see Figs. 352, 353, p. 138). white to amethystine. Index, 1 '67. From Franklin,N. J. Orthorhombic.
Roscommon From

Stokesite.

"

Perhaps H^aSnSisOn.
=

G.

3'2.

Colorless.

1*61.

Prismatic cleavage. St. Just, Cornwall. Cliff,

=

H.

6.

In radiated and stellated tufts. G. 2'935. Color Carpholite. H4MnAlsSi2O10. 1*63. Occurs at the tin mines of Schlaggenwald, to wax-yellow. Biaxial, 0 Bohemia; Wippra, in the Harz Mts., on quartz, etc. In prismatic orthorhombic Lawsonite. H4CaAl2Si2Oio. crystals;mm'", 110 A 110 Luster vitreous to greasy. 3*09. 67" 16'. G. Colorless, pale blue to grayish blue. 1'669. Occurs in crystalline schists of the Tiburn Optically-f-. /3 peninsula, Marin Caledonia. Co., Gal.; also in the schists of Pontgibaud, France, and New Hibschite. Same as for lawsonitc, H4CaAl2Si2Oio. In minute isometric crystals, usually octahedrons. H. 3'0. 6. G. Colorless or pale yellow. Refractive index, 1 '67. Infusible. From the phonolite of Marienberg, Bohemia. Associated with melanite. Cerite. A silicateof the cerium with water. metals chiefly, Crystals rare; commonly Color between clove-brown 5'5. 4*86. G. and massive; granular. H. cherry-red to gray. Indices,1 '83-1 '93. Occurs at Bastnas, near Riddarhyttan,Sweden. Toernebohmite. A silicateof the cerium metals, chiefly, R3(OH)(SiO4)2. Monoclinic? Color,green to olive. /3 1'81. Biaxial, +. Strong dispersion, rose Pleochroic, P " v. to blue-green. From Sweden. Bastnas, near Riddarhytta.n, Beckelite. Ca3(Ce,La,Di)4Si3O15. Isometric Crystalssmall,often microscopic. Cubic 5. G. 4*1. cleavage. H. Color yellow. Infusible. Occurs with nepheline syenite rocks near Mariupol, Russia. straw"

calcium. Found in

A basic silicatechiefly Hellandite. of the cerium Monoclinic. Prismatic habit. H. 5*5.

=

metals, aluminium,manganese
G.
=

37.

Color

brown.

and Fusible.

pegmatite near

Kragero, Norway.
= =

A silicateof scandium with other rare earth metals, iron and a littlesoda. In minute Hexagonal. prisms,often barrel shaped. H. 6*5. 2'8. G. Color azureTransparent in small individuals. Optically Refractive indices, 1'626. -. co
=

Bazzite.

i rb05.

Strongly dichroic,

co

acids. Found ordinary ANGARALITE In thin 2(Ca,Mg)0.5(Al,Fe)2O.,.6SiO2.

m

pale greenishyellow, e at Baveno, Italy.

azure-blue.

Infusible.

soluble In-

U.

2-b2.

Color

black

southern limestone,

tabular hexagonal(?)crystals. carbonaceous In contact impurities. Uniaxial,+. of zone part of Yenisei District, Siberia.
from

TOURMALINE.

Axis Rhombohedral-hemimorphic._
c
=

0-4477.

cr, 0001 co, 0001

lOll
0221

27" 20'.

rr'

45" 57'.

oilA oof,

1011

1101

"

20*1

# %\ %i, l|i ^ 1} I4626" gj/

A Q^91

4fi" W

im'

39^1

AA"

SILICATES

541

Crystals usually prismatic in habit, often slender to acicular;rarely the prism nearlywanting. Prismatic faces stronglystriated verflattened,
914 515 916 917

918

ma

and tically,

the crystals hence often much rounded to cross-section of the prism three-sided (m, Fig.921),sixnine-sided (m and a). Crystals sided (a), or commonly but more monly comhemimorphic. Sometimes isolated, in

barrel-shaped.The
921

or

Sometimes or sive masparallel radiating groups. also coarse or compact; columnar, fine,parallel divergent. Cleavage: a (1120) r (1011) difficult. Fracture sub,

often rather friable. vitreous to resinous. Colur black, brownish black, bluish black, most blue,green, red, and sometimes of rich common; white or colorless; and green shades; rarely some specimens red internally externally; and others red at one extremity,and green, blue or black at the other; the zonal arrangement of different colors widely various both as parent Transto the colors and to crystallographic directions. Streak uncolored.
uneven.

conchoidal to
=

Brittle and

H.

7-7-5.

G.

2-98-3-20.

Luster

to opaque.

axial colors varying in deep-colored Stronglydichroic, especially varieties; for mit widely. Absorption 1c axis transco much strongerthan for e, thus sections 1 in the tourthe extraordinary maline sensibly (e.g., ray only,and hence their use 243) ) for giving figures polarized light. Exhibits idiophanous tongs (p. OO2. Indices: rather high,co e (p.288). Optically Birefringence 1-6222 colorless blue1-6193 er 1-6366, 1*6435, variety; o"r =. coy ey
" "

542
green.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

abnormally biaxial. pyroelectric. strongly

Sometimes
"

Becomes

electric by

also friction;

the most common, In crystalsas above described; black much Var. Ordinary. (a) Rubellite; the red, sometimes transparent; the Siberian is mostly violet-red (siberite), the Brazilian rose-red; that of Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass., pale rose-red and opaque; the blue, or (6) Indicolite, indigolite; that of Paris,Me., fine ruby-red and transparent. from the indigo-bluecolor, (c)Brazilian Sapphire (in either pale or bluish black; named of jewelry); Berlin-blue and transparent, (d) Brazilian Emerald, Chrysolite(or.Peridot) less Brazil; green and transparent, (e)Peridot of Ceylon; honey-yellow. (/)Achroite; color(g) Aphrizite; black tourmaline, from Kragero, Norway. tourmaline, from Elba, somewhat Resembles columnar. common and black; coarse hornblende, (h) Columnar resinous fracture, and is without distinct cleavage or anything like a fibrous but has a more
appearance

in the texture; it often has the appearance

on

broken

surface of

some

kinds of

soft coal.

aluminium, with also either or prominent. A generalformula may be written as HgAlaCB.OH^Si^ip (Penfieldand Foote) in which the hyrogen be replacedby the alkalies and also the bivalent elements, Mg,Fe,Ca. may Fluorine is commonly present in small amounts. Comp. magnesium,
"

complex

silicate of boron

and

iron

the alkali metals

The varieties based upon composition fall into three prominent groups, between which there are many gradations: 1. ALKALI TOURMALINE. Contains sodium or lithium, or both; also potassium. G. 3-0-3-1. Color red to green; also colorless. From pegmatites. 2. IRON TOURMALINE. G. 3-1-3-2. Color usually deep black. Accessory mineral in siliceous igneous rocks and in mica schists, etc. 3. MAGNESIUM TOURMALINE. G. 3-0-3'09. Usually yellow-brown to brownish limestone or dolomite. black; also colorless. From A chromium tourmaline also occurs. G. 3*120. Color dark green. The magnesia varieties fuse rather easilyto a white blebby glass or slag; Pyr., etc. the iron-magnesia varieties fuse with a strong heat to a blebby slagor enamel; the iron varieties fuse with difficulty, only on the edges; the iron-magnesia-lithia or, in some, varieties fuse on the edges,and often with great difficulty, and some the lithia are infusible; varieties are infusible. With the fluxes many varieties give reactions for iron and manganese. Fused with a mixture of potassium bisulphate and fluor-spar action gives a distinct refor boric acid. Not decomposed by acids. Crystals, of the lighter colored especially show strong pyroelectricity. varieties,
= = = =
"

six-,

Characterized by its crystallization, prismatic forms usual, which are three-, and often with rhombohedral nine-sided, nar terminations; massive forms with columstructure;also by absence of cleavage(unlikeamphibole and epidote); in the common black kinds by the coal-like fracture; by hardness; by difficultfusibility (common kinds),
"

Diff.
or

The boron test is conclusive. thin sections by its somewhat high relief;rather erence~colors' uniaxial character;decided colors in ordinary lightin ne"gative u"nugin which basal i sections often exhibit zonal structure. a Also, especially, by its remarkable the direction of crystalelongationis _]_to the -bsorption when of the lower vibration-plane nicol; this with its lack of cleavage it from biotite and amphibole, which alone distinguishes among rock-making minerals show similar strong absorption. Ubs. found in graniteand gneisses Commonly action or of as a result of fumarole the fluid magma, legalizing m gases in the pegmatite veins associated with especially icn rocks; at the periphery of such masses altered limestones, or in the schists, or gneisses, !tc., immediately adjoining them. It marks especially of graniticmasses, the boundaries its associate minerals are those characteristic of such quartz, albite, occurrences; microcline muscovite etc. The varietyin granular limestone or dolomite is commonly
Micro.
"

compared

with

garnet and

vesuvianite.

in Readily distinguished

"

vn,

tne

bluish-black

kat?F mburg Pp"n-CUrQnear ^lr?:XOny;

A"
"

variety sometimes associated with the brown tin ores; with lithium variety is often associated with lepidolite. Red or green varieties, in the Ural Mts- Elba; Campolongo in Tessin, Switzer-" *he Province Minas from Geraes, Brazil; yellow and brown
"netles br?Tn Saxony; the "romEibenstock, Snarum and dal'0N".rway; Kragero, Norway;
i

Zillertal, Tyrol, Austria; at pale yellowish brown

at different iocaiities-

crystais "ccur

in c""n

544
y

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

ing Subvitreous,inclin3 '65-3 77. G. 7-7-5. Brittle. H. and brownish to brown yellowish black, Color dark reddish to resinous. Streak uncolored to grayish. Translucent to nearly or quite opaque. brown. distinct : Z ( c axis)hyacinth-red Pleochroism

twins (cf. 397, p. 164; 439, 440, 441, p. 170). Figs. (230) rare, also in repeated b axis; often with rough surfaces. flattened and || commonly prismatic Crystals Fracture m b ut (110)m traces. interrupted; Cleavage: b (010)distinct,
= =

subconchoidal.

**"*"

MI

red; or Z gold-yellow, yellowish Ax. colorless. +. Y light x Optically yellowto 88" 2V (appi. ||a (100). Bx _L c (001). 1*746. 1741. 1-736. ft 7 prox.). a
to

X, blood-red,

Comp.
010 010 "x

"

HFeAl5Si2Oi3, which
55

may

be

ten writ-

H2O.2Fe0.5Al2O3. or (A10)4(AlOH)Fe(SiO4)2 4SiO2

=

Silica 26*3, alumina

2'0
=

iron protoxide '9,

ganese) (alsomaniron;ferric

15-8,water

100.
a

Magnesium

replaces littleof the ferrous iron part of the aluminium.

Nordmarkite
in
"

from Nordmark, Sweden, contains manlarge amounts. B.B. infusible, excepting the manganesian \g Pyr., etc. variety, which fuses easily to a black magnetic glass. " With the fluxes gives reactions for iron, and sometimes Z for manganese. decomposed by sulphuricacid. Imperfectly which is nearly square); Diff. Characterized by the obtuse prism (unlikeandalusite, by the frequency of twinning forms; by hardness and infusibility. Micro. Under the microscope,sections show a decided color (yellowto red or brown) and strong pleochroism (yellow and red); also characterized by strong refraction (high extinction and biaxial character rather brightinterference-colors, (generally parallel relief), from rutile (p. 427) by its in the direction of elongation). Easily distinguished positive

/\
"

ganese

"

biaxial character and

Obs.
"

lower interference-colors.

mica schist,argillaceous as schist,and Usually found in crystalline schists, often associated with garnet, sillicontact metamorphism; as a result of regional or gneiss, aceous Sometimes encloses symmetricallyarranged carbonmanite, cyanite, and tourmaline. like andalusite (p.524) also often present, especially Other impurities impurities are sometimes silica, up to 30 to 40 p. c.; also garnet, mica, and perhaps magnetite, brookite. Occurs with cyanitein paragoniteschist, at Mt. Campione, Switzerland; in the Zillertal, in Tyrol,Austria; Goldenstein in Moravia; Aschaffenburg,Bavaria; in largetwin crystals the mica schists of Brittany and Scotland. In the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil. Abundant In throughout the mica schists of New England. In Me., at Windham. N. H., brown at Franconia; at Lisbon; on the shores of Mink Pond, loose in the soil. In in fine crystals. In Conn., at Bolton, Vernon, etc.; Southbury with Mass., at Chesterfield, black crystals. In N. C., near son garnets; at Litchfield, Franklin, Macon Co.; also in Madiand Clay counties. In Ga., in Fannin Co., loose in the soil in fine crystals. In large from Ducktown, Tenn. crystals
.

is cut for a gem. a transparent stone Occasionally In fibrous to columnar Kornerupine. Near MgAl2SiO6. aggregates, resembling sillimamte. H. 6'5. G. 3'273 kornerupine;3'341 prismatine. Colorless to white, or brown. Biaxial, Indices,1 '669-1 '682. at Fiskernas on the west coast of Greenland. Kornerupineoccurs Prismatine is from Waldheim, Saxony. Found in large,clear crystalsof a sea-green color and gem quality
"

Named Use.

from

(rravpos,

cross.

-.

trom

near Betroka, Madagascar. Sapphirine. Mg6Ali2Si2O27. In indistinct tabular crystals. Usually in disseminated of grains. H. grains, or aggregations 7'5. G. 3'42-3'48. Color pale to dark blue or green. Biaxial, Indices, 1705-1711. From Greenland. Fiskernas, southwestern Occurs near Betroka,Madagascar. From St. Urbain, Quebec.
=
=

-.

r\

A basic .p^didierite.

Orthornombic.

silicate of aluminium,ferric iron,magnesium, ferrous iron,etc. In elongated crystals. Two 3'0. Color bluish green. cleavages. G.
=

SILICATES

545
at

/3

1-64.

Strongly pleochroic.

Found

in

pegmatite

Andrahomana

in

southern

Madagascar.
Serendibite. thetic In irregular grains showing polysyn10(Ca,Mg)O.5Al2p3.B2O3.6SiO2.

twinning;

probably

Pleochroism

marked.

triclinic. H. monoclinic or Refractive Infusible. index, 17. of calcium

H.
near

6*7. From

G.

3*4.

Color
near

blue.
Am-

Gangapitiya

bakotte, Ceylon.
A fluosilicate Silicomagnesipfluorite. and
=

magnesium,
2'5. G.
=

Radiating fibrous in spherical forms. From Fusible. lightgreenish or bluish. Lupikko,

Grothine. A

Si2O7Fi0.

2'9.

perhaps, H2Ca4Mg3 Color ash-gray,

Pitkaranta, Finland.
=

silicate of calcium with aluminium and a little iron of uncertain sition. compoIn small tabular crystals. Colorless. Orthorhombic. G. 3'09. Transparent. Infusible. with microsommite Optically +. Decomposed by sulphuric acid. Found on Nocera limestone near and Sarno, Campagna, Italy. soda.

Luigite. A basic silicate containing ferrous oxide, lime, magnesia, Acts in a tuff found to violet. at cement as a Color, brown Amorphous. Portal, Uganda.
ALOISIITE. POCHITE. brown.

and Fort

Hi6Fe8Mn2Si3O29.
Found
in iron

Opaque.

H. 3'5-4. Amorphous. ore near Vares, Bosnia.

=

G.

370.

Color

reddish

SILICATES

Section
The

B.

Chiefly Hydrous
section include

Species

SILICATES

of this second contain

water

those which that is,

the true hydrous compounds, of crystallization, like the zeolites; also the

There etc. also included certain the clays, as are hydrous amorphous species, which, while they yieldwater upon species as the Micas, Talc, Kaolinite orthosiliwithout doubt to be taken as acid or basic metasilicates, are ignition, is close to other true Their etc. relation,however, so hydrous species cates, here than to have placed them natural to include them that it appears more other acid and basic salts. Finally, some in the preceding chapter with and about chemical constitution the part referred here whose species are much doubt. still The divisions there is the water present played by nized recog" "

are

as

follows:
I. 1. Zeolite Division 2. Zeolites

Introductory
II.

Subdivision. Mica Division

1.

Mica

Group.
III.

2.

Clintonite

Group.
Talc

3. Division

Chlorite

Group

Serpentine and

Chiefly Silicates of Magnesium.

IV.

Kaolin

Division for the most

Chiefly Silicates of Aluminium;

of the

part belonging to the

group

clays.
V.

Concluding

Division

Species not included in the preceding divisions;chieflysilicates of the etc. heavy metals, iron, manganese,

546

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

I. Zeolite 1.

Division Subdivision

Introductory

as Okenite, etc.,while not strictly Apophyllite, Of the specieshere included,several, of occurrence. related to them in composition and method Pectolite ZEOLITES, are closely "here. classed sometimes also Prehnite are and 483) (p.534) (p. radiated and prismatic;also fibrous, Inesite. small, H2(Mn,Ca)6Si6Oi9.3H2O. Crystals to flesh-red. Occurs at the manganese 3'029. Color roseH. 6. G. spherulitic. Rhodotilite is the same mines near species from the Harstig mine, Dillenburg,Germany. From Sweden. Jakobsberg and Langban, Sweden ; Villa Corona, Durango, Mexico. Pajsberg, G.= Hillebrandite. 5'5. Ca2SiO4.H2O. 27. Orthorhombic; radiating fibrous. H. Found in contact Refractive index Fusible with difficulty. 1*61. Color white. zone Mexico. between limestone and diorite in the Velardena mining district, Crestmoreite. H. 3. Compact. Color, snow-white. Probably 4H2CaSiO4.3H2O. An alteration product of Wilkeite. From G. 2'2. T59. Crestmore, Riverside Co., ft
= = = = =

Riversideite.

2CaSiO6.H2O.

In

compact

G.

1 "59-1 '60. Indices, Easily fusible. Ganophyllite. 7MnO.Al2O3.8SiO2.6H2O. 2-64.

micaceous.
From the

Color

brown.

H.

4~4'5.

G.

3. Silky luster. H. Crestmore, Riverside Co., Cal. In short prismatic crystals; also foliated, 2'84. Biaxial, Indices,17Q5-1730.
=

fibrous veinlets.
From

-.

Harstig mine, near Pajsberg,Sweden. Lotrite. 3(Ca,Mg)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.4SiO2.2H2O. 7'5. G.= grains and leaves. One cleavage. H.
=

1'67.
.

Found

in small

veins

in

in an aggregate of small Color green. Refractive index, chlorite schist in the valley of the Lotru, Transylvania.

Massive,

3'2.

Okenite. H2CaSi2O6.H2O. 4'5-5. G. Commonly fibrous;also compact. H. 2'282 '36. Color white,with a shade of yellow or blue. Occurs Biaxial, in Index, 1'556. basalt or related eruptiverocks; as in the Faroe Islands; Iceland; Disko, Niorkornat, etc.,
= =
"

Greenland; Poona,
Gyrolite.
lamellar-radiate also Nova
in

India.

From

Crestmore,Riverside Co., Cal.

Rhombohedral-tetartohedral.
In

H2Ca2Si3O9.H2O.

India, etc. With apophylliteof New Almaden, California; Scotia. Found also at various placesin Bohemia; from Scotland and the Faroe Islands;Sao Paulo, Brazil. Reyerite from Greenland is similar to gyrolite. Zeophyllite is similar specieswhich may a be identical with In spherical gyrolite. Rhombohedral. forms with radiating foliated structure. Perfect basal cleavage. H. 3. G. 2*8. Color white, 1'56. From various localitiesin Bohemia u and elsewhere.
= = =

structure. stilbite, laumontite, etc.; in

Optically

-.

co

1'56.

From

the

white concretions, Isle of Skye, with

APOPHYLLITE.

Tetragonal. Axis
926

1 -2515.
927 928 929

ay, 100 A cp, 001 A

310 111

18" 26'. 60" 32'.

op,

100 111

A A

111

pp',

Til

52" 0'. 76" 0'.

in scluare /"it Taried'

-)or by

and

Prisms (" (100))usually short and terminated by and then resemblinga cube or (111), cubo-octahedron;

SILICATES

547

pyramidal (p (111))with or without c and a; less often thin tabular c. c often rough; a brightbut II less vertically or striated; p more Also massive and lamellar; uneven. concentric radiated. rarely Fracture uneven. Cleavage: c (001) highly perfect;m (110) less so. 4-5-5. Brittle. H. 2-3-2-4. G. Luster of c pearly; of other faces vitreous. Color white,or grayish;occasionally with a greenish, or yellowish, rose-red tint, flesh-red. Transparent; rarelynearly opaque. Birefringence Often shows anomalous low; usually+, also opticalcharacters (Art. 429, Fig.617). Indices,1-535-1-537. Silica H7KCa4(SiO3)8.4fH20 or K20.8Ca0.16SiO2.16H20 Comp. lime 16*1 A small water 100. of fluorine 537, 25-0, potash 5-2, amount replaces part of the oxygen.
Faces
=
=
" .
"

also acute

The

above

formula

differs but

part of the basic hydrogen.

"

The

littlefrom H2CaSi2O6.H2O,in which potassium replaces form often accepted, H2(Ca,K)Si2O6.H2O, corresponds

less well with the analyses. In the closed tube exfoliates, and yieldswater, which reacts acid. Pyr., etc. whitens, B.B. colors the flame violet (potash),and fuses to a white vesicular enamel. exfoliates, F. 1*5. Decomposed by hydrochloricacid,with separationof slimy silica. Diff. Characterized by its tetragonalform, the square prism and pyramid the common habits; by the perfectbasal cleavage and pearly luster on this surface. Obs. Occurs commonly as a secondary mineral in basalt and related rocks,with various in cavities in granite, also datolite, zeolites, pectolite, calcite;also occasionally at Poonah, etc. and British India,especially Greenland, Iceland,the Faroe Islands, gneiss, afford fine specimens of apophyllitein amygdaloidal basalt or diabase. Occurs also at Andreasberg, Harz Mts., Germany, of a delicate pink; Radautal in the Harz Mts.; at Orawitza, Hungary, with wollastonite; Uto, Sweden; on the Seisser Alp in Tyrol, Austria; Guanajuato, Mexico, often of a beautiful pink upon amethyst. In the United States, at Bergen Hill,Paterson, West large crystalsoccur Paterson, and Great Notch, N. J.; in Pa., at the French Creek mines, Chester Co.; at the Cliff, Phoenix and other mines, Lake Superior region; Table Mt. near Golden, Col.; in Cal., at the mercury mines of.New Almaden often stained brown by bitumen; also from Nova Scotia at Cape Blomidon, and other points. Named by Haiiy in allusion to its tendency to exfoliate under the blowpipe, from airb and (f"v\\oi", a leaf. Its whitish pearly aspect, resembling the eye of a fish after boiling, gave rise to the earlier name from ixOvs, Ichthyophthalmite, fish, 6"f"da\iJi6s, eye,
=
" "

2.

Zeolites

ZEOLITES form a family of well-defined hydrous silicates, lated reclosely other in composition, in conditions of formation,and hence in mode of occurrence. They are often with rightspoken of as analogous to like which they are all silicatesof aluminium with sodium and the Feldspars, also rarely calcium chiefly, barium and strontium; magnesium, iron,etc.,are absent position or present only through impurity or alteration. Further, the comin a number to that of a hydratedfeldspar; while of cases corresponds fusion and slow recrystallization of them of result in the formation from some shown by Doelter. aiiorthite (CaAl2Si2Og) as or a calcium-albite (CaA^SieOie) of species related in crystalThe Zeolites do riot, lization, however, form a single group of independent groups like the Feldspars, but include a number these are widely diverse in form and distinct in composition; chief among rhombohedral CHABAZITE the monoclinic PHILLIPSITE the GROUP; GROUP, A transition in GROUP. and the orthorhombic (and monoclinic) NATROLITE less wellcertain end compounds has been more or composition between these with cium calestablished in certain cases, but, unlike the Feldspars, species another and an increase in alkali does not and sodium seem to replace one necessarily go with an increase in silica.
to each

The

548
Like other

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

hydrous silicatesthey are characterized by inferior hardness, sponding gravityis also lower than with correfrom 3-5 to 5-5, and the specific chiefly to these ters; charac2 -4. to 2 -0 Corresponding chiefly anhydrous species, of them' with geladecomposed by acids,many they are rather readily the to the family(from name B.B., which gives tinization. The intumescence of a largepart of the species. and \iBos, stone)is characteristic to boil, fefi", commonly in The Zeolites are all secondary minerals,occurringmost quently cavities and veins in basic igneous rocks,as basalt,diabase, etc.; less freand lime soda in the the In these cases etc. in granite, part gneiss,, the soda also by elseolite, sodalite, by the feldspar; have been chiefly yielded the of often The different are e tc. family ciated assospecies etc. ; potashby leucite, included with and also with (sometimes pectolite apophyllite together; calcite. of the zeolites Many and, further, the zeolites), datolite, prehnite have been produced synthetically by various hydrochemical reactions. In spar general they appear to have been formed in nature by reactions upon the feldminerals. or feldspathoid

Ptilolite.

RAl2SiioO24.5H2O.
in

Biaxial,+. Indices, bluish chalcedony in cavities in a vesicular augite-andesite 1 '480-1 '485. Occurs upon a found in fragments in the conglomerate beds of Green and Table mountains, Jefferson Co., and from Silver Cliff, Custer Co., Col.,also from Elba and Iceland. capillary needles,aggregated
Mordenite.
-

Here Ca R delicate tufts.

=

K2

Na2

1 approx.

In short

Colorless,white.

where R 3RAl2Si10p24.20H;.O,
in habit and H.
=

K2
=

Na2

Ca

1.

In

minute

crystals resembling heulandite

concretions with pinkish. Occurs
fibrous
near

angles; also
3-4.

structure.

Morden, King's Co., Nova Hoodoo near Mt., on the ridgeforming the divide between Clark's Fork of the Yellowstone river. Also from Seiseralpe, Tyrol, Austria and the

hemisphericalor reniform G. 215. Color white, yellowish or in trap; also in western Scotia, Wyoming
and Faroe

in small

the East Fork Islands.

HEULANDITE.

Stilbite some

authors.
: c
=

Monoclinic.

Axes mm'",
ct,

b
A A

0-4035
=

0-4293; 0
ex, 001

88"
A A 201 021

34J'.
=

110 001

1TO
201

43" 56'. 63" 40'.

cs, 001

66"

0'.

40" 38|'

v"
"

\
t

sometimes flattened 1 the surface of pearly Crystals 1b (010), luster (Fig. 930; also Fig.21, p. 12); form often suggestive of the orthorhombic since the and ct differ but system, angles cs little. Also in globular forms; granular.

Axial

Fracture subconchoidal to uneven. H. 3-5-4. 2-18-2-22. G. Luster of 6 strong pearly; of other faces vitreous. Color various shades of wmte, passing into red, and brown. Streak white. gray Transparent to subtranslucent. Ax. pi. and Optically+. Bxa _L b (010). Ax. pi.and Bx0 for some localities nearly || c also for others nearly_L c in white light. Bx0 A c axis + 57J" angle variable, from 0" to 92"; usually 2Er 52". 1-498. a Brittle.
= = = = =

Cleavage:b (010)perfect.

1-^:99.

1-505.

Comp.

"

H4CaAl2(Si03)6.3H20 or
14'8
=

alumina 16'8, lime 9'2,water

Pyr.
"

5H2O.CaO.Al2O3.6SiO2
100.
to 3 '6 p.
c.

Silica 59'2,

Strontia is usuaUy present, sometimes

As with

up

stilbite, p. 551.

SILICATES

549

in basaltic rocks,associated with chabazite, occurs principally stilbite and occasionally in metalliferous veins. also in gneiss, zeolites; from Berufiord, finest specimens of this speciescome The and elsewhere in Iceland; also in railroad cuttingsin the Bhor the Faroe Islands; in British India, near Bombay; Also occurs in the Kilpatrick Hills, and Thul Ghats. near Glasgow; on the Island of Tyrol, Austria; Andreasberg, Harz Mts., Germany; Viesch and elsewhere, Skye; Fassatal, Obs.
"

Heulandite

and

other

in diabase at Bergen Hill, West Paterson and Great Notch, N. J.; States, Superior; with haydenite at Jones's Falls near Baltimore (beauAt Peter's Point, Nova Md. Scotia; also at Cape Blomidon, and other points. montite), after the English mineralogicalcollector, H. Heuland, whose Named cabinet was the basis of the classical work (1837) of Levy. Brewsterite. H4(Sr,Ba,Ca)Al2(SiO3)6.3H2O. In prismaticcrystals. H. =5. G. 2-45. Color white, incliningto yellow and gray. +. Biaxial, Index, 1*45. From Strontian in Argyleshire, Scotland; near Freiburg in Breisgau, Germany. like heulandite,H4CaAl2(SiO3)6.3H2O. Crystals monoclinic, Epistilbite. Probably uniformly twins; habit prismatic. In radiated sphericalaggregations; also granular. Color white. 2-25. G. 1 '502-1 '512. Biaxial,-. Indices, Occurs with scolecite at the, garet Berufiord,Iceland; the Faroe Islands; Poona, India; in small reddish crystals, at MarNova ville, Scotia,etc. Reissite is from Santorin Island.
on

Switzerland. In the United

north shore

of Lake

Wellsite

Phillipsite
Harmotome

Stilbite
The

53" 27' 55" 37' 55" 10' 50" 50'

while crystallizing in the monoclinic system, are remarkable species, pseudo-symmetry exhibited by their twinned forms. Certain of these twins are pseudo-orthorhombic, others pseudo-tetragonal and more plex comtwins even pseudo-isometric. above
for the
of this group Fresenius has shown that the species be regarded as forming a series, may in which the ratio of RO : A12O3 is constant (= 1 : 1),and that of SiO2 : H2O also chiefly The 1:1. end compounds assumed by him are:

Here

R and be

Ca
are

in phillipsite and chiefly,

R2Al4Si4O16.6H2O. RAl2Si6Oi6.6H2O; Ba in harmotome, stilbite,

amounts

Ca,
may

K2

present; also in smaller

while in wellsite Ba, Na2, Sr2. The firstof the above compounds
931

regarded as a hydrated calcium albite, as a hydrated anorthite. Pratt that the anorthite and Foote, however, show mula end probably has the forcompound more The RAl2Si2O ;.2H2O (orthis doubled) formulas given beyond are those corresponding reliable analyses of certain typical to
the

second

932

occurrences.

Wellsite.

RAl2Si3Oio.3H2O with R
:

K2 in small
:

Ba

3;

Sr

and

Na

Ca : also present
=

amount.

Percentage composition:

SiO2 42-9, A12O3 24-3,BaO6'6, CaO 7'3,K2O 6' 1,H2O 12-8 100. Monoclinic (axesabove) ;
=

complex twins, analogous to those of and harmotome phillipsite (Figs.931, 932). 4-4'5. Brittle. No G. Luster vitreous. Colorless to 2'278-2'366. cleavage. H. Bx _L b (010). Birefringence weak. white. Optically +. Occurs at the Buck Creek (Cullakanee)corundum mine in Clay Co., N. C.; in isolated attached to feldspar, also to hornblende and corundum; intimately associated with crystals Also found at Kurzy near chabazite. Crimea, Russia. Simferopol,
=

in

550
PHILLIPSITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Monoclinic.
mm"'

Axes
A A

a
=

: c

07095

1-2563; ft
cm, 001
A A

55" 37'.
110 Oil
= =

a/,
933

110 100

HO 101

60" 42'. 34" 23'.

ee',Oil

60" 50'. 92" 4'.

but often Crystals uniformly penetration-twins, orthorhombic forms. Twins or tetragonal simulating tw. but with c rarely, simple(1) pi. (001) sometimes, and then cruciform so that diagonalparts on b (010) hence a fourfold striation, ||edge belong together, be often observed on b. (2)Double twins, b/m, may the simple twins just noted united with e (Oil) as tw. pi., and, since ee' varies but little from 90", the result is a prism, terminated nearly square by what appear to be pyramidal faces each with a
.

from the medial line. also Fig. 400, p. 164. Figs. 452-454, p. 172; but striations striated often sometimes as Faces 6 (010) just noted, finely with and in general not so distinct as absent harmotome; also m (110) either isolated, or striated || grouped in tufts or spheres, edge b/m. Crystals radiated within and bristled with anglesat surface. 6 (010), rather distinct. Fracture Brittle. uneven. Cleavage: c (001), Luster vitreous. Color white, sometimes 2-2. G. 4-4-5. reddish. H. Ax. pi. and Bx0 Translucent to opaque. +. Streak uncolored. Optically liesin the obtuse angleof the a-c axes, and is usually J_ b (010) The ax. pi. 75" to 70" to the normal to c (001) The inclined to a axis about 15" to 20", or is 71"-84". variable. 1-48-1-57. 2Ha.r however, Indices, position, In is the formula some cases Silica Al2Si4Oi2.4H2O Comp. (K2,Ca) 16-5 100. Ca Here : K2 48-8,alumina 207, lime 7-6, potash 6-4, water

double See

series of striations away

"

2:1.

B.B. crumbles and fuses at 3 to a white enamel. Gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid. Obs. In translucent crystals in basalt, at the Giant's Causeway. Ireland;at Capo di the lavas of Mte. Somma, Bove, near Rome; Aci Castello and elsewhere in Sicily;among

Pyr.,etc.
"

"

Vesuvius; in Germany at Stempel, near Marburg; Annerod, near Giessen; in the Kaiserwith faujasite, at Salesl, stuhl, Bohemia; in the ancient lavas of the Puy-de-D6me, France; from Richmond, Victoria. found near Pseudophillipsite, Rome, Italy,differs from phillipsite only in the manner in which it loses water on heating.
HARMOTOME.

Monoclinic. 55" 10'.

Axes

: c

0*7031

1-2310; ft

934

Crystals uniformlycruciform penetration-twins with c (001) as tw. pi; either (1) simpletwins (Fig. 934) or (2)
united

with tw. pi.e (Oil). These double as fourlings twins often have the aspect of a square prism with diagonal pyramid, the latter with characteristic feather-like striations from the medial line. Also in more complex
groups to those analogous

of

Fracture G. 2-442-50. Luster vitreous. Color into white; passing gray, yellow, red or brown. Streak white. Subtransparent to
uneven

Cleavage:b (010) easy,

phillipsite. c (001) less so.

=

to subconchoidal. Brittle. H.

4-5.

translucent,

552

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY
In

Monoclinic. Flokite. H8(Ca,Na2)Al2Si9026.2H20. 5. to (100) and (010). H. Perfect cleavages parallel intumescence. Fuses with '474. '472-1 1 Indices,
=

slender
=

prismatic crystals.
parent. trans-

G.

Colorless and 2 -10. From Iceland.

In pyramidal crystals, pseudo-tetragonal. Gismondite. Perhaps CaAl2Si2O8.4H2O. Biaxial. Colorless or white, bluish white, grayish,reddish. 2-265. G. 4'5 at Capo di Bove, Mt. near of Rome, Albano, in the Occurs leucitophyre 1-539. Index near Zermatt, Switzerland; Schlauroth near and elsewhere, etc.; on the Gorner glacier, etc. Bohemia, in Salesl, Gorlitz Silesia; H
=
=

-.

LAUMONTITE.

Leonhardite.
=

Caporcianite.
=

68" 46'. M451 : 1 : 0-5906; 0 Axes a : b : c Monoclinic. form the prism m (mm'" 110 A 110 tw. pi.a (100). Common Twins56" 55'). Also termination (ce 001 A 201 with oblique 93" 440 e, 201 a nd divergent. columnar, radiating a (100)imperfect. Fracture Cleavage: 6 (010)and m (110)very perfect; Luster vitreous, 2-25-2-36. -5-4. G. H. 3 brittle. Not very uneven. Color of faces the white, passing into cleavage. to pearly upon inclining uncolored. Streak lucent; Transparent to transyellow or gray, sometimes red. on Optically pulverulent exposure. becoming opaque and usually + 65" to 70". Dispersionlarge, p " v; b (010). Bxa A c axis Ax. pi.|| 1-513. 1'524. 1*525. 52" 24'. a 0 7 inclined,slight.2Er Silica 4H2O.CaO.Al2O3.4SiO2 H4CaAl2Si4Oi4.2H20 =. 51% Comp.
= = = =
"

"

alumina
Var.
"

217, lime 11-9,water

Leonhardite
same

15-3

100.

and the

of Monte

is a laumontite which has lost part of its water (to one molecule), from the serpentrue of caporcianite.Schneiderite is laumontite is probably tine which has undergone alteration through the action of magnesian Italy, Catini, B.B.

solutions.

Pyr., etc.
Obs.
"

"

swells up

and

fuses at 2'5-3

to

white enamel.

Gelatinizes

with

acid. hydrochloric Occurs in the cavities of basalt and similar eruptive rocks; also in porphyry in veins traversingclay slate with calcite. and occasionally syenite, Its principal localitiesare the Faroe Islands; Disko in Greenland; in Bohemia, at Eule in Switzerland; Baveno, Italy; Nagyag, Transylvania; the in clay slate; St. Gothard near Glasgow, Scotland; the Hebrides, and Fassatal, Tyrol,Austria; the Kilpatrickhills, the north of Ireland. In India,in the Deccan trap area, at Poona, etc. Peter's Point, Nova Scotia,affords fine specimens of this species. Found at PhippsAbundant in many placesin the copper veins of Lake Superior in trap, and on burg, Me. Isle Royale; on north shore of Lake du Lac. Superior,between Pigeon Bay and Fond Found N. J.; at the Tilly Foster iron mine, Brewster, N. Y. also at Bergen Hill,
and Laubanite.

CaaAUSuOu.GHjjO.
Occurs
upon

Resembles

snow-white.

in basalt phillipsite

at

4'5-5. stilbite. H. Lauban, Silesia.

=

G.

2'23.

Color

Chabazite

Group.

Rhombohedral
rr'.
c

Chabazite Gmelinite

(Ca,Na2)Al2Si4012.6H20 85" 14' 68" 8' (Na2Ca)Al2Si4Oi2.6H20

CaAl2Si3Oi0.5H20
73" 56'

1;0860
07345 0'8357
or

fc fc

1*1017 1-1143

Levynite
The

fundamental

Chabazite Group includes these three rhombohedral species. The rhombohedrons have different angles, in the axial shown as but, of of

ratios above, they are closely related, since,taking the rhombohedron Chabazite as_ the basis,that of Gmelinite has the symbol (2023) and

Levynite(3034).
The variation in composition often observed
in the firsttwo

has led species

to the rather

SILICATES

553 isomorphousmixtures
of the

that they plausible hypothesis compounds

are

to be viewed

as

feldspar-like

(Ca,Na2)Al2Si2O8.4H2O,
CHABAZITE.

(Ca,Na2)Al2Si6Oi6.8H2O.

Rhombohedral.
936

Axis

1-0860;0001
937

1011

51"

25f.
938

Phacolite
common. (1) tw. axis c axis, penetration-twins (2) Tw. pi. rhombohedron Form r(1011); contact-twins, rare. commonly the simple 85" 14');also r and 1101 1101 varying littlein angle from a cube (rrf A 54" 47'). Also in complex twins. e (0112),(eef Also amorphous. Brittle. H. Cleavage: r (1011) rather distinct. Fracture uneven. 4-5. G. 2-08-2-16. Luster vitreous. Color streak white, flesh-red; uncolored. Transparent to translucent. Optically ; also + (AndreasThe low. berg, also haydenite). Birefringence interference-figure usually confused; .sometimes distinctly biaxial;basal sections then divided into These anomalous orientation. sharply defined sectors with different optical characters probablysecondaryand chiefly conditioned by the variation optical
=
'

Twins:

"

in the amount
"

of water

present.

Mean

refractive index 1-5.

Var. 1. Ordinary. The most form is the fundamental common rhombohedron, in which the angle is so near 90" that the crystals for cubes. at first mistaken were Acadialite, from Nova Scotia (Acadia of the French of 18th century), is a reddish chabazite; sometimes from Jones's Falls, nearly colorless. Haydenite is a yellowishvarietyin small crystals near 2. Phacolite is a colorless variety occurring in twins of hexagonal form Baltimore, Md. (Fig.938), and lenticular in shape (whence the name, from 0a/c6s, a bean)',the original from Here from Richmond, was Leipa in Bohemia. belongs also herschelite (seebachite) Victoria; the composite twins of great variety and beauty. Probably also the original herschelite from Sicily. It occurs in flat, almost tabular,hexagonal prisms with rounded terminations divided into six sectors.

is often ratio of (Ca,Na2,K2): Al is nearly constant (= 1 : 1),but of A12 : Si varies from 1 : 3 to 1 : 5 ; the water also increases with the increase in silica. The composition usuallycorresponds to (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4Oi2.6H2O, which, if calcium alone is Silica 47 -4,alumina 20'2, lime 11-1,water 21 -3 100. If present, requires: Ca : Nao 1:1, the percentage compositionis: Silica 47*2, alumina 20*0, lime 5-5,soda 6-1,water 21-2 100.

Comp.

"

Somewhat
among

uncertain,since
from

rather
same

wide

variation

noted

even

specimens

the

locality.The

Potassium is present amount, also sometimes, barium and strontium. Streng of the explainsthe supposed facts most satisfactorily by the hypothesis that the members noted above. are as isomorphous mixtures analogous to the feldspars, group B.B. intumesces and fuses to a blebby glass, Pyr., etc. nearly opaque. Decomposed with separationof slimy silica. by hydrochloricacid,
in small
"

554
Diff

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

"Characterized

calcite and does not unlike analcite. with intumescence m schist, gneiss, syenite, mica Occurs mostly in basaltic rocks,and occasionally Obs. Greenland, and Iceland,associated with hornblendic schist. Occurs at the Faroe Islands,
"

a form cube). It is harder than (resembling by rhombohedral fluonte and in cleavage; fuses B.B. calcite unlike with effervesce acid;

chlorite and
and
etc at

at Oberstem, with harmotome, at Aussig in Bohemia; in Germany stilbite; and shire, RenfrewAnnerod, near Giessen; at the Giant's Causeway, Antrim, Ireland, at Richmond, near Melbourne, Australia (phacolite) In of etc. Isle Skye, Scotland;

Mass.; at Bergen Hill and West Paterson, in syeniteat Somerville, In the United States, Md. Scotia,wine (haydenite). In Nova Falls Baltimore, Jones's at near in crystals; N. J., analcite and calcite, associated with heulandite, yellow or flesh-red (thelast the acadialite), etc. Wasson's Bluff, Islands, Swan's Creek, Digby Neck, Two at Five Islands, of a stone. chabazite is from x"*/3"^os, an ancient name The name
GMELINITE.

Rhombohedral.

Axis

0*7345. in

Crystals usually hexagonal

939

aspect; sometimes
than

(0111) smaller
rhombo68" 8', 37" 44'.
1101
=

habit r(1011),_and
A

940

A hedral; rr' 10_11

rp

1011

0111

Cleavage: m sometimes (0001)

=

(1010)
=

easy;

G.

ture distinct. Frac4*5. Brittle. H. uneven. Luster vitreous. 2-04-2-17.

Colorless, white, greenyellowish ish white, reddish white, fleshred. Transparent to translucent.

Optically positive,also negative. often disturbed, and basal low. Interference-figure Birefringence very into sections analogousto chabazite. Mean tive refracsections divided optically
index, 1'47.

Comp.
p. 552.

"

In

this requires:Silica 46-9,alumina

part (Na2,Ca)Al2Si40i2.6H2O. If sodium 19-9,soda 12-1,water 21-1

=

alone
=

100.

is present See also

B.B. fuses easily(F. 2'5-3) to a white enamel. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separationof silica. Obs. Occurs in flesh-red crystalsin amygdaloidal rocks at Montecchio Maggiore, Germany; in Transylvania; Antrim, Ireland; Talisker in Isle of Italy;at Andreasberg, Victoria. Skye, in largecolorless crystals. In Australia at Flinders, In the United at Bergen Hill, States in fine white crystals and Great Notch Paterson, N. J. At Cape Blomidon, Nova Scotia (ledererite) Islands and Five Islands. ; also at Two Gmelinite after Prof. Gmelin Named of Tubingen (1792-1860).

Pyr.,etc.
"

"

In rhombohedral G. 4-4'5. 2'09-2'lG. Levynite. CaAl2Si3Oi0.5H.,p. crystals.H. at GlenColorless, T50. Found white, grayish,reddish, yellowish. Optically co and at Island Magee, Antrim, Ireland; at Dalsnypen, Faroe arm Islands, in Iceland; in East Greenland; in the basalt of Table Mountain near Golden, Col. Offretite. A potash zeolite, related to the speciesof the chabazite group. In basalt
= =
"

of Mont

France. Simiouse,

ANALCITE.

Analcime.

Isometric. Usually in trapezohedrons; also cubes with faces n (211); again the cubic faces replacedby a vicinal trisoctahedron. Sometimes in composite groups about a single nucleus (Fig.389, p. 161). -Also as crystal massive granular;compact with concentric structure.

SILICATES

555
=

Fracture subconchoidal. Brittle. H. vitreous. Colorless, white; occasionally or reddish white. greenish, yellowish, grayish, Transparentto nearlyopaque. weak Often shows double refraction, 942 is apparently conwhich nected with loss of water and consequent change in molecular
traces. Luster 5-5 -5.

Cleavage: cubic, in
G.
=

2-22-2-29.

structure

(Art.429).
"

1-4874.
=

Comp.

Na

AlSi2O6 H2 O
=

Silica Na20.Al2O3.4Si02.2H2O 54.5, alumina 23-2, soda 14-1,

water
excess

8-2
of

100.

Analyses show

always

varying

silica and water above It has amounts requiredby formula. that a molecule containing the acid H2Si2O6 is present in soild solution in been assumed small amounts. in the closed tube. Yields water B.B. fuses at 2'5 to a colorless glass. Pyr., etc. Gelatinizes with hydrochloricacid. Diff. Characterized by trapezohedral form, but is softer than garnet, and yieldswater to a clear glass fuses without intumescence B.B., unlike leucite (which is also infusible); From leucite and spdalite unlike chabazite. surely distinguished only by chemical tests, of much absence of chlorine in the nitric-acid test (seesodalite, i.e., potash p. 502),absence and abundance of soda in the solution, anol evolution of much water from the powder in a closed glasstube below a red heat. Micro. Recognized in thin sections by its very low relief and isotropic character; anomalies. often shows optical Occurs Obs. also prehnite, frequentlywith other zeolites., calcite, etc.,in cavities and in basic igneousrocks,as basalt, etc. seams diabase,etc.: also in granite, gneiss, Recently to be also a rather widespread component shown of the groundmass of various basic igneous rocks, at times being the only alkali-alumina silicate present, as in the so-called analcite-basalts. Has been held in such cases to be a primary mineral produced by the of a magma crystallization containingconsiderable soda and .water vapor held under pressure.
" " " "

The Cyclopean Islands, also the Fassatal afford pellucid near Sicily, crystals; Catania, Tyrol, Austria; other localities are, in Scotland, in the KilpatrickHills; Co. Antrim, etc.,in Ireland; the Faroe Islands; Iceland; near Aussig,Bohemia; at Arendal, Norway, in beds of iron ore; at Andreasberg, in the Harz Mts., Germany, in silver mines. In the United States, at Bergen Hill and West occurs Paterson, N. J.; in gneiss near with prehnite,datolite, and Yonkers, Westchester Co., N. Y.; abundant in fine crystals in the Lake Superior region; at Table Mt. near Golden, Col.,with other zeolites. calcite, Nova Scotia affords fine specimens. is from The analcime electric power name avaXms, weak, and alludes to its weak The correct derivative is analcite, when heated or rubbed. as here adopted for the species.
in

Faujasite. Perhaps
1'48. curs OcH. =5. 1'923. white, In isometric octahedrons. G. n Colorless, with augitein the limburgiteof Sasbach in the Kaiserstuhl, Baden, Germany, etc.
=

Edingtonite. Perhaps BaAl2Si3Oio.3H2O. Crystals pyramidal in habit (orthorhombic, H. 2*694. 4-4 -5. G. also massive. White, grayishwhite,pink. pseudo-tetragonal); land, near Glasgow, ScotOptically Indices, 1*538-1 '554. Occurs in the KilpatrickHills, From with harmotome. Bohlet,Sweden.
=

"

Natrolite Natrolite Scolecite Mesolite

Group.

Orthorhombic

and
a

Monoclinic
0-3536
c

0*9785
a

Ca(A10H)2(SiO3)3.2H2O
(Na2Al2Si3O10.2H2O

0-9764

0-3434

89"

18'

[2[CaAl2Si3Oio.3H2O]

556

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

though varying m in angle, GROUP of the NATROLITE agree closely The three species ; fecolecite is usually,also rarely monoclmic system; Natrolite is orthorhombic crystalline monoclmic and tnto be both seems Mesolite in also triclinic; part monoclinic,perhaps all these to common are species. or divergentgroups clinic. Fibrous,radiating with the empiricalformula Natrolite, The Natrolite Group includes the sodium silicate, also Mesolite CaAlaSigOio.SHaO; Scolecite, calcium silicate, Na2Al2Si3Oi0.2H2O; the
intermediate NATROLITE. between these and

correspondingto

\mNa2

Al2Si3Oio.2H2O nCaAl2Si3Oio.3H2O.

Orthorhombic.*
943

Axes
944

0-9785

0*3536.
A A
A

mm"',
mo,
oo

110 110 111 111

1TO
111 111 111

88' 63 11'.

oo'

37" 38'. 36" 47"'.

usuallyvery slender to Crystalsprismatic, in stellate or frequentlydivergent, acicular; Also radiating, fibrous, massive,granular, groups.
or

compact.

fect, Cleavage: m (110) perfect;b (010)imperture perhaps only a plane of parting. Fracuneven.

H.

="

5-5'5.

G.

2'20-2'25.

sometimes to pearly, inclining vitreous, to varieties. Color fibrous or grayish, in colorless; ish, yellowwhite, especially Ax. pi. || +. reddish to red. Optically Transparent to translucent. T482. 1'480. T493. 63". a 6 (010). Bx ft _L c (001). 2V 7
Luster
= = = =

Ordinary. Commonly either (") in groups of slender colorless prismatic crystals, gent or (6) in fibrous divervarying but littlein angle from square prisms, often acicular, vitreous in luster, or but slightly pearly (theseradiated forms often or radiated masses, solid amygdules, usuallyradiated resemble those of thomsonite and pectolite) ; often also (c) Galactite is and somewhat silky in luster within; (d) rarely compact massive. fibrous, in colorless needles from southern Scotland. natrolite, ordinarily which have been given to the natrolite names brevicite, are Bergmannite, spreustein, the Langesund fiord,in the "Brevik" of southern Norway, on from the augite-syenite and from fibrous, massive, and in long prismatic crystallizations, region,where it occurs, in part from sodalite. Iron-natrolite white to red in color. Derived in part from elaeolite, is a dark green opaque the Brevik region; the either crystalline or amorphous, from variety,
Var.
"

iron is due to inclusions.

Comp.

Na2Al2Si3Oio.2H20 or Na2O.Al203.3Si02.2H20 100. 26-8,NasO 16-3,water 9-5

"

Silica 474, alumina

to

In the closed tube whitens and becomes B.B. fuses quietly at 2 opaque. colorless glass. Fusible in the flame of an ordinary wax candle. Gelatinizes with acids. Diff. and Distinguishedfrom aragonite and pectoliteby its easy fusibility gelatinization with acid. Obs. Occurs in cavities in amygdaloidal basalt,and other related igneous rocks; in granite, sometimes in seams and syenite. Found at Aussig and Teplitz in Bohemia; gneiss, in Auvergne, France; Fassatal, in fine crystals In Tyrol,Austria; Kapnik, Hungary. red amygdules (crocalite) in amygdaloid of Ireland, Scotland and Tyrol; the amygdaloid of and at Glen Farg (fargite) in Fifeshire. in the Common Bishopton, Scotland (galactite) of the Langesund fiord, From augite-syenite various localnear ities Brevik, southern Norway. in Greenland. In North America, in the trap of Nova Scotia; at Bergen Hill and West Paterson,N. J.; at Copper Falls, Lake Superior; from benitoite locality, San Benito Co., Cal. Named Mesotype by Haiiy, from Me"n"s, middle, and TVTTOS, type, because the form of the crystal in his view a square prism intermediate between the forms of stilbite was

Pyr.,etc.
"

"

"

"

"

In

rare

cases

the crystals seem

to be monoclinic.

SILICATES

557 soda,

whence

of Klaproth, is from natron, soda; it alludes to the presence of and analcite. Natrolite, in contrast with scolecite, also the name or soda-mesotype, lime-mesotype.
SCOLECITE.

Monoclinic. Axes a : b : c 0-9764 89" 18'. : 1 : 0*3434; /3 88" 37%'), twins showing a Crystalsslender prismatic(mm'" 110 A 110 feather-like striation on b '(010), also as diverging upward; penetration-twins. Also massive, fibrous and radiated, and in Crystals in divergent groups. nodules.
= = =

G. 5-5-5. 2-16-2-4. Luster Cleavage: m (110)nearlyperfect. H. when fibrous. to or silky vitreous, Transparent subtranslucent. Optically 15"-16". Ax. pi. and Bx0 J_ b (010). Bxa A c axis 2V 36" (approx.).
= =
"

1-512.

|8
"

1-519.

1'519.
or
=

Comp.

CaAl2Si3O10.3H2O 26-0,lime 14-3,water 13*8

"

CaO.Al2O3.3SiO2.3H20
100.

Silica 45'9, alumina

B.B. sometimes curls up like a worm from o-KuXqg,a (whence the name and not scolesite or scolezite)', which gives scolecite, other varieties intumesce but and all fuse at 2-2*2 to a white blebby enamel. Gelatinizes with acids like natrolite. slightly, Obs. Occurs in the Berufiord,Iceland; in Scotland in amygdaloid at Staffa Island and in Isle of Skye, at Talisker; near in Eisenach,Saxony; in Auvergne, France; common fine crystallizations In crystals in the Deccan from Karsanantrap area, in British India. In the United in Col. at Table Mountain Golden near guit-Kakait,Greenland. States, In Canada, at Black Lake, Megantic Co., Quebec. in cavities in basalt.

Pyr., etc.

worm,

"

Mesolite. Intermediate between natrolite and scolecite (see p. 556). In acicular and delicate divergent tufts, G. 2 -29. White or colorless. Indices, etc. crystals; capillary In amygdaloidal basalt at numerous 1 '505-1 '506. points. Crystals from Faroe Islands to be triclinic, is name pseudomonoclinic through twinning. Pseudomesolite given appear Carlton Peak, Minn., like mesolite except for its opticalcharacters. to a zeolite from Gonnardite. (Ca,Na2)2Al2Si5Oi5.5"H2O. In spherules with radiating structure. G. 2-25-2-35. From basalt of Gignat, Puy-de-D6me, France.
= =

THOMSONITE.

Orthorhombic. Axes Distinct crystals rare;

: c

0-9932

1-0066.
=

6 (010)perfect;a (100) less so; c (001) in traces. Fracture H. Brittle. 5-5*5. G. 2-3-2-4. Luster subconchoidal. uneven less varieties more or pearly. Snow-white; reddish,green; impure vitreous, brown. Streak uncolored. Transparent to translucent. Pyroelectric.Optically Ax. 2V v strong. + 1c (001). Bx J_ 6 (010). Dispersion pi.1 p " 1-497. 1-503. 1'525. 54" (approx.). a ft 7
to
= = =
.

columnar, compact. Cleavage:

structure

89" 37'. Commonly prisms,mm'" 110 A ,110 also closely radiated;in radiated spherical concretions; in

less rectangularin outline, 1. Ordinary, (a) In regularcrystals, or usually more (c) Radiated prismatic in habit. (6) Prisms slender,often vesicular to radiated, of radiated fibers or slender crystals. Also fibrous, consisting concretions, (d) Spherical massive, granular to impalpable, and white to reddish brown, less often green as in Unionmassive forms also radiated with several centers and of varying colors, ite. The spherical sas. hence of much beauty when polished. Ozarkite is a white massive thomsonite from ArkanVar.
"

Comp.

"

or (Na2,Ca)O.Al2O3.2SiO2.2iH20.The (Na2,Ca)Al2Si2O8.2JH20 : :

Ca varies from 3 : 1 to 1 : 1. If Ca SiO2 37'0,A12O3 31-4,CaO compositionrequires: ratio of Na2

100.

Na^

3:1

12'9,NaaO

the percentage 4-8,H20 13'9

=

558
B.B. Pyr., etc. acid. hydrochloric
'

DESCRIPTIVE with
intumescence

MINERALOGY

fuses

at 2 to

white

enamel.

Gelatinizes

with

not to a clear glass. but fuses to an opaque, Resembles natrolite, some with in cavities in lava in amygdaloidal igneous rocks, sometimes Found Kilpatrick,Scotland; in the lavas of near elseoliteas a result of its alteration. Occurs many Vesuvius; in basalt at the Pflasterkaute in Saxe Weimar, GerMte Somma (comptonite) ,

Diff. Obs.

"

in

Bohemia,

in

the Cyclopeanislands, Sicily;near phonolite; Mt.

Faroe' straw-yellow);at Islands; Iceland (carphostilbite,

at

Brevik, Norway; the Monzoni, Fassatal, Tyrol,

at West In the United States, Scotia. Paterson, N. J.; Occurs at Peter's Point, Nova in the Ozark Mts,, Ark.; in the amygdaloid of Grand Marais, Magnet Cove (ozarkite) the water-worn pebblesresembling agate, in part green (lintonwhich yields Lake Superior, Col. Mt. near Table of Golden, basalt in the ite) ; An alteration product of thomsonite HYDROTHOMSONITE. (H2,Na2)Ca)Al2Si2O8.5H2O.
or

scolecite from
A

Tschakwa

near

Batum

on

the Black

Sea.

In radiating fibrous and soda. zeolite containing lime Arduinite. From Val dei Zuccanti,Venetia,Italy. Color red. 2-26. G.
=

aggregates.

Echellite.
=

H. 5. White. ft Northern Ontario.

In (Ca,Na2)O.2Al2O3.3SiO2,4H2O. Y. T533. Elongated |[

=

From

radiating,fibrous,spheroidal masses. Sextant Portage, Abitibi River,

three pinacoidsshowing. Bxa 1 '50. Index fusible with intumescence.

=

In minute crystals, as for stilbite. Orthorhombic. only the to both vertical pinacoids. Colorless to yellow. Cleavages parallel Easily perpendicular to c (001). Optically-. G. =2*16. Occurs as a crust on calcite from Schwarzenberg, Saxony. Stellerite. CaAl2Si7Oi8.7H2O. Orthorhombic. Crystals tabular parallelto b (010). 3 '5-4. to b (010), to a (100) and c (001). H. imperfectparallel Cleavage perfectparallel Found in cavity in a diabase tuff, mander 1 '48-1 '50. 2*12. G. Copper Island,ComIndices,

Epidesmine.

Comp.

same

Islands. Erionite.

H2CaK2Na2Al2Si6Oi7.5H2O.
=

Orthorhombic.

In

aggregates of

very

slender

1'997. White. Occurs in cavities in rhyolite from Durkee, resemblingwool. G. fibers, Oregon. Bavenite. Fibrous-radiated of prismatic Ca3Al2(SiO3)6.H2O. Monoclinic. groups 2*7. G. Color white. 5'5. 1'58. Occurs in pegcrystals. One cleavage. H. 0 matitic druses in the graniteof Baveno, Italy. of the Bityite. A hydrous silicate of calcium and aluminium, with small amounts alkalies. Pseudo-hexagonal. In minute hexagonal plateswhich in polarizedlight show division into six biaxial sectors. H. to base. 5*5. G. dices In3*0. Cleavage parallel 1 '62-1 '64. Found crusts in pegmatite veins at Maharitra, Madagascar. as crystal 4'5-6. G. 2'263. Hydronephelite. HNa2Al3Si3Oi2.3H2O. Massive, radiated. H. Color white; also dark gray. to be a Index, 1'50. From Me.; said however Litchfield, mixture of natrolite, and diaspore. Ranite from the Langesund fiord, hydrargillite Norway,
= = =

is similar.

II. Mica

Division

The species embraced under this Division fall into three groups: 1, the MICA GROUP, including the Micas proper; 2, the CLINTONITE GROUP, or the Brittle Micas; 3, the CHLORITE GROUP. Supplementary to these are the

Vermiculites, results of the alteration of hydrated compounds, chiefly

one

some

have the characteristic micaceous structure, that species is, they have highlyperfect basal cleavage and yield thin laminae. easily They belong to the monoclinic system, but the positionof the bisectrix in general deviates but little from the normal to the plane of cleavage;all of them show the basal section plane anglesof 60" or 120",marking the relative on position of the chief zones of forms present, and givingthem the of hexappearance

of the micas. All of the above

560

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

the belong those kinds for which the opticaxial plane is normal to b (010), is the axial class to in the second plane parallel 945) ; planeof symmetry (Fig. the fix to The crystallofigureserves the plane of symmetry. percussion
faces are wanting. A second series of graphicorientation when crystalline be more or less distinctly developed to those mentioned lines at right may angles the so-called elastic forming dull of surface, on an pressurea point by pressure and shows branches three often is sometimes only, more this six-rayed, figure; of the pressuresometimes only two are developed. In Fig.945 the position is indicated by the broken lines. These lines are connected with glidingfigure 67" to the plane of cleavage (seebeyond). planesinclined some also the class include : Muscovite,paragonite, The micas of lepidolite, first
some

rare

and most biotite,including and phlogopite. lepidomelane and in most orthosilithe micas are silicates, cases Chemicallyconsidered, with potassium and hydrogen, also often magnesium, cates, of aluminium and in certain cases rubidium ferrous iron, ferric iron,sodium, lithium (rarely and caesium);further, Fluorine chromium. is barium, manganese, rarely, in is Other titanium also sometimes a nd some prominent species, present. elements (boron, be present in traces. All micas yieldwater upon etc.) may in consequence of the hydrogen (orhydroxyl)which they contain. ignition The
second
MUSCOVITE. Common Mica.
a

varieties of biotite called anomite. Zinnwaldite class embraces:

Potash
=

Mica.
:

tw. pi. a plane in the zone accordingto the mica-law: cM 001 A 221 normal to c (001) the crystals often united by c. Crystals rhombic or hexagonal in outline with plane angles of 60" or 120". Habit less rough and tabular,passing into taperingforms with planes more or striated vicinal forms strongly Folia often very small horizontally; common. and aggregated in stellate, and scaly plumose,or globular forms; or in scales, and compact massive. massive; also cryptocrystalline eminent. Cleavage: basal, Also planesof secondarycleavage shown in as the percussion-figure (seepp. 559 and 189); natural plates hence often yield
"

Monoclinic. Twins common

Axes

: c

0*57735

3-3128; /3

89" 54'.

cM,
CM,

001 001 221 HI

A A A A

221 111 221 111

MM', MM',
narrow

85" 81" 59" 59"

36'. 30'. 48'.

16"'.

thin fibers less distinct in directions inclined 60" to this. Inin L laminae flexible and elastic when bent, very tough, harsh to the touch, passing into kinds which are less elastic and have a more less or unctuous or talc-likefeel. in symmetry Etching-figures on c (001) monoclinic axis b, and ||

stripsor

(rig.495, p. 190).
."~~'
dark

Iky.

^*' ^' ^ '76-3. Luster vitreous to more or less pearly or i Colorless, gray, brown, hair-brown, pale green, and violet, yellow, olive-green, rose-red. Streak uncolored. rarely lucent. Transparent to transT*
=

Pleochroism usuallyfeeble;distinct in
"eyond).
X
,

varieties (see some deep-colored Absorption in the direction normal to the cleavageplane (vibramuch aj strong, more so than transversely 1 (vibrations 1X) ; hence a

"

'i

SILICATES

561

unless thin is nearly or quite opaque in the first direction though crystal translucent through the prism. Optically Ax. pi. J_ b (010) and nearly 1" (behind) J_ c (001). Bxa (= X) inclined about to a normal to c (001). 2V about " but v. in kinds variable,usually Dispersionp 40", diminishing in 1*561. silica, T590. T594. a ft (phengite) relatively high 7
" . -"

above described, often tabular || as crystals c (001), striated;the basal plane often rough unless as commonly in plates without distinct outline,except as developed by cleavage. More but passing into fine developed by pressure (seeabove) ; the platessometimes very large, In normal scales arranged in plumose or other forms. muscovite "he thin laminae spring back with force when or less harsh to the touch, unless very bent, the scales are more small, and a pearly luster is seldom prominent. 2. DAMOURITE. and most Including margarodite,gilbertite, HYDROhydro-muscovite, in general. Folia less elastic; luster somewhat MICA pearly or silkyand feel unctuous like The scales are usuallysmall and it passes talc. into forms which are fine scaly or fibrous, and finally into the compact crypto-crystalline kinds called oncosine, as sericite, including much pinite. Often derived by alteration of cyanite,topaz, corundum, etc. Although that damourite and the allied varieties often spoken of as hydrous micas, it does not appear water contain more than ordinary muscovite; they may, necessarily however, give it off more readily. named, was the talc-like mica of Mt. Greiner in the Zillertal, Margarodite,as originally Tyrol,Austria; granularto scalyin structure,luster pearly,color grayishwhite. Gilbertite in whitish, Cornwall. Sericite is a fine occurs silkyforms from the tin mine of St. Austell, scalymuscovite united in fibrous aggregates and characterized by its silkyluster (hencethe from O-T/PIKOS,silky}. name
Var.
"

1.

Ordinary Muscovite.

In

also taperingwith vertical faces rough and

For the most and potaspart an orthosilicate of aluminium Comp. sium in H K the 2 this becomes common : 1, (H,K)AlSiO4. If,as kinds, : Silica 45-2,alumina 38*5,potash H2KAl3(SiO4)3 2H2O.K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2
"

11-8,water

4-5

100.

of silica (47 to 49 p. c.)than correspondsto a normal Some kinds give a larger amount and these acid musorthosilicate, they have been called phengite. As shown by Clarke, be most covites and can simply regarded as molecular mixtures of H^KA^SiO^s H2KAl3(Si308)3. Iron is usuallypresent in small amount only. Barium is rarelypresent, as in oellacherite. is also present in fuchsitefrom Chromium G. 2'88-2*99. Schwarzenstein, Zillertal, Tyrol, and elsewhere. B.B. whitens In the closed tube gives water. and fuses on the thin edges Pyr.,etc. 5'7) to a gray or yellow glass. With fluxes givesreactions for iron and sometimes (F. Not decomposed by acids. Decomposed on fusion with rarely chromium.* manganese,
=
"

alkaline carbonates.
Diff. Distinguishedin normal basal cleavageand micaceous perfect
"

kinds

from

all but

the species of this division by the

structure,the pale color separates it from most

those of phlogopiteand still more

biotite;

flexible and elastic than the laminae are more the brittle micas and the chlorites.
"

than those of

In thin sections recognized by want of color and by the perfectcleavage Micro. in a direction parallel to c. shown by fine lines (asin Fig.951, p. 564) in sections _1_c (001), mottled surface sections show a peculiar By reflected lightunder the microscope the same rather high,hence interference-colors bright. with satin-like luster;birefringence of the micas. It is an essential constituent of is the most Muscovite Obs. common of certain common varieties mica schist and related rocks,and is a prominent component of graniteand gneiss; also found at times in fragmental rocks and limestones;in volcanic and best developed and appears rocks it is rare only as a secondary product. The largest with granitic either directly in the pegmatite dikes associated intrusions, crystalsoccur in enormous platesfrom cuttingthe graniteor in its vicinity. Often in such occurrences
"

which

the

mica

or

of "isinglass"

commerce

is obtained.

It is then

often associated with

tourmaline,garnet, beryl,columbite, orthoclase, quartz, albite;also apatite, crystallized

often veins. Further, muscovite speciescharacteristic of granitic the of garnet, tourmaline, also quartz in thin plates between encloses flattened crystals tions in part the direcmagnetite in dendrite-like forms following sheets;further not infrequently of the percussion-figure.

etc.,and other mineral

562

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Austrian Tyrol; with Abiihl in the Sulzbachtal, are: localities, Some of the best known Tyrol; Soboth, Styria; St. Gothard, Binnental, and adularia; Rothenkopf in the Zillertal, Mts., Ireland; Cornwall; Uto, Falun, Sweden; Skutelsewhere in Switzerland; Mourne and the East Indies. Obtained in largeplatesfrom Greenland terud,and Bamble, Norway. in fine crystals. In N. H., at of Paris; at Buckfield, Mica in the town In Me., at Mount South Royalston; at Goshen, rose-red. In In Mass., at Chesterfield; Acworth, Graf ton. the Middletown at w ith at feldspar at Litchfield, cyanite; quarry; at Monroe; Conn., In N. Y., near with albite, Warwick; Edenetc.; New Milford. Haddam; at Branch ville, In Pa., at Pennsbury, Chester Co.; at Unionville,Delaware Co., and at Edwards. ville; In Va., at Amelia Baltimore. In Md., at Jones's Falls, Middletown. Court-Hquse. In mined at many N. C., extensively places in the western part of the state; the chief mines The mica in Mitchell, Cos.; crystalsfrom Lincoln Co. are Yancey, Jackson and Macon uranas columbite,samarskite,hatchettolite, rare mines have also afforded many species, Co. In S. C., there are also muscovite in Alexander deposits; inite, etc.; in good crystals also in Ga. and Ala. Mica mines have also been
at

in the Black Hills, S. D.; in Wash., extent to some worked Rockford, Spokane Co.; in Col. The important states for the production of mica are North Carolina,New Hampshire, Idaho, South Dakota, Virginia,Alabama, New York, is named from

Connecticut. Muscovite
name
"

Vitrum

Muscoviticum

or

Muscovy-glass,formerly a popular
parent trans-

of the mineral. As an insulating Use. material in electrical apparatus; as a non-inflammable divided form as a non-conductor material for furnace doors,etc.; in a finely and fireproofing etc. material; mixed with oil as a lubricant, of

of heat

A generalterm Finite. used to include a large number of alteration-products especially In composialso spodumene, nephelite, iolite, scapolite, feldsparand other minerals. tion and potassium corresponding more less a hydrous silicateof aluminium essentially or to muscovite, of which it is probably to be regarded as a massive, compact closely variety, of clay and other substances. lows: folCharacters usuallyvery impure from the admixture as Amorphous; granularto cryptocrystalline.Rarely a submicaceous cleavage. H. 2'5-3'5. Luster 2'6-2'85. G. Color grayish white, grayish green, peafeeble, waxy. reddish. dull to opaque. The Translucent of brownish, followingare some green, green, the minerals also classed as pinite:gigantolite, gieseckite (seep. 500),liebenerite, dysyntribite, killinite. rosite, par ophite, polyargite, wilsonite, is like ordinary massive pinite in its amorphous compact texture, Agalmatolite (pagodite) and other physical characters, but contains luster, which may be from free more silica, as quartz or feldspar impurity. The Chinese has H. 2785-2'815. Colors 2-2'5; G. usually grayish,grayish green, brownish, yellowish. Named from aja\na, an image; is from pagoda, the Chinese carving the soft stone into miniature pagodite pagodas, images, etc. Part of the so-called agalmatolite of China is true pinitein composition, another part is compact pyrophyllite, and stillanother steatite (seethese species). A sodium Paragonite. mica, corresponding to muscorite in composition; formula, HaNaAlsCSiCMs. In fine pearly scales; also compact. G. 278-2-90. Index, 1'60. Color yellowish, of the rock at Monte'Campione near grayish, greenish;constitutes the mass Faido in Canton Tessin,Switzerland, containingcyanite and staurolite; called paragoniteschist. Occurs associated with tourmaline and corundum at Unionville, Delaware Co., Pa. with an iridescent silver color and pearly luster. a mica Hallerite, ing Perhaps a lithium-bearparagonite. Found at Mesores,near Autun, France.
= = = = =

From

BADDECKITE, an iron mica related near Baddeck, Nova Scotia.

LithiaMica.

to muscovite.

In small scales with

copper-red color.

LEPIDOLITE.

In aggregates of short
sometimes

twins

or

prisms,often with rounded terminal faces. Crystals to the mica law. trillings Also in cleavable according

but commonly massive plates,

scaly-granular, coarse
H.
=

or

Cleavage: basal,highly eminent.

pearly
Color

2-5-4. b
to

fine. G. 2 -8-2 -9.

=

Luster

Translucent
irom

rose-red, or violet-gray lilac, yellowish, grayishwhite, white.

Optically
d' *nd
=

-.

7oJ in Si1 f ou iZ
"

pi. usually" 33*'"ellow to normal

Ax.

6. (010); rarely||
c

Bxa (X)

1'5975.

SILICATES

563

Comp.
The

"

In

or R3Al(SiO3)3 part a metasilicate, KLi[Al(OH,F)2]Al(Si03)3.

ratio of fluorine and

It has been

hydroxyl is variable.

molecule is representedby 3Li2O.2K2O. suggested that the puro lepidolite mixtures of this and the muscovite that most lepidolites are molecule. In the closed tube gives water and reaction for fluorine. B.B. fuses with Pyr., etc. at 2-2 '5 to a white or grayish glasssometimes intumescence magnetic, coloringthe flame of fusion (lithia) With the fluxes some varieties give reactions purplishred at the moment Attacked but not completelydecomposed by acids. After fusion, for iron and manganese. acid. with hydrochloric gelatinizes in granitic in graniteand gneiss, Occurs Obs. especially veins; often associated with also with amblygonite, spodumene, cassiterite, ated associetc.; sometimes lithia-tourmaline; in parallel with muscovite position. Found TJto in Sweden; Penig,Saxony; Rozena (orRozna), Moravia; Madagascar, near in the western In the United States, common etc. part of Me., in Hebron, Auburn, Paris, and Haddam Neck, Conn.; with rubellite near Mass.; Middletown etc.; at Chesterfield, San Diego, Cal. after the earlier German from XeTm, scale, name ing alludNamed lepidolite Schuppenstein, of the massive to the scaly structure varietyof Rozena. of lithium compounds. As a source Use. mineral occurring in rounded is a micaceous also COOKEITE aggregationson rubellite, An alteration of lepidolite or tourmaline. with lepidolite, tourmaline,etc.,at Hebron, Me. Composition Li[Al(OH)2l3(SiO3)2. biotite. Color pale violet, An iron-lithia mica in form Zinnwaldite. near yellow to and Altenberg, Germany; similarly in CornOccurs at Zinnwald wall, brown and dark gray. Alaska. England. From Narsarsuk, Greenland, and the York region, is a lithium is a related lithium mica from Rockport, Mass. Polylithionite Cryophyllite is an alkalie mica containinglithium from mica from Kangerdluarsuk, Greenland. Irvingite near Wausau, Wis. A Manandonite. basic boro-silicate of lithium and aluminium, H24Li4Ali4B4Si6O53. of hexagonal plates. Perfect In lamellar aggregates or mammillary crusts Micaceous. able. Axial angle small and variLuster basal cleavage. Color white. pearly. Optically+. in pegmatite at Anby acids. Found Easilyfusible giving red flame. Unattacked River, Madagascar. tandrokomby, near the Manandona

3Al2O3.8F.12SiO2 and
"

"

"

BIOTITE.

Axes Monoclinic; pseudo-rhombohedral.

: c

0-57735

-2743;

90". Habit tabular or short prismatic;the pyramidal faces often repeatedin in symcombination. .Crystalsoften apparently rhombohedral metry oscillatory which are inclined to c (001)at senz' (132), sibly since r (101)and z (132), to which these often occur the same together;further,the zones angle, faces belong are inclined 120" to each other,hence the hexagonal outline of basal sections. Twins, according to the mica law, tw. pi. a plane in the sometimes in massive _L c (001) Often in disseminated scales, zone prismatic

of cleavable scales. aggregations

948
960

co,

001 A
001 001 A A

112 221 111

cM,
c/*,

73" 1'. 85" 38'. 81" 19'.

cr,
cz,

001 001 221

MM',

A A A

T01
132 221

0'. 80" 0'. 80" 59" 48*'.

564

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

shown planesof separation highlyperfect; Cleavage: basal,

in the percussion-figure;

pressure-figure forms (Fig. pseudo-crystalline 489, (001)and yielding and less Luster more or 27-3-1. splendent, G. 2-5-3. H. 188). p. when submetallic lateral and sometimes black; pearly on a cleavage surface, and shining. Colors usuallygreen to black, surfaces vitreous when smooth in thin laminae, and sometimes even often deep black in thick crystals, brown or unless the lamina? are very thin;such thin lamina? green, blood-red, white. dark to Streak brown; also rarely transmitted paleyellow light; by
,

f (135) shown also gliding-planes /" (205),

66" to
c
= =

in the

inclined about

uncolored.

Transparent

to opaque.
=

those J_ c lighter and dark green or brown to opaque; c (001) || for red vibrations or vibrations for 1 1c, paleyellow, green deep brown or green about microscopic inclusions. Pleochroic halos often noted, particularly J_ c. b. b Bxa dent _L Ax. pi. (=X) nearlycoincirarely usually|| (010), Optically but inclined about half a degree, sometimes with the normal to c (001), Axial angleusually to the front, sometimes the reverse. very small,and often 0*04 to 0-06. also up to 50". Birefringence a high,y sensibly uniaxial; In most an orthosilicate, chiefly ranging between (H,K)2 cases Comp.
"

Pleochroism Hence sections

strong; absorption Y

nearly,for

much

stronger.

"

"

Of these the second and (H,K)2(Mg,Fe)2Al2(SiO4)3. (Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)2(Si04)4 of iron varies biotite. The amount be to said typical represent may widely. formula
Var. Biotite is divided into two classes by Tschermak: Ax. pi. J_ 6 (010). Of these I. MEROXENE. Axial plane || 6 (010). II. ANOMITE. includes nearly all ordinary biotite, while anomite two kinds, meroxene is,so far as yet the typicallocalitiesbeing Greenwood observed,of restricted occurrence, Furnace, Orange is a name Co., N. Y., and Lake Baikal in East Siberia. Meroxene earlygiven to the Vesu"

vian biotite.

Anomite

is from

aw^tos,

contrary to law.

kinds of biotite containing much iron. are Haughtoniteand Siderophyllite Manganophylliteis a manganesian biotite. Occurs in aggregationsof thin scales. Color bronze- to copper-red. Streak pale red. From mont, Pajsberg and Langban, Sweden; PiedItaly. In the closed tube givesa little water. Some varieties give the reaction for Pyr.,etc. fluorine in the open tube; some reaction for iron with the fluxes, kinds give little or no while others for iron. B. B. give strong reactions whitens and fuses on the thin edges. Completely decomposed by sulphuric acid,leaving the silicain
"

thin scales.

DM. Distinguishedby itsdark green to brown black color and micaceous structure, usually nearly uniaxial. Micro. Recognized in thin sections by 'its brown (or green) color; strong pleochroism and
"

and

"

to the elongation(unlike strong absorption parallel

"by
,.

them

from illy

^ro

u01' Vvha1tered

tourmaline). Sections |c (001) are non-pleochroic, less distinct hexagonal commonly exhibit more or outlines and yielda negativesensibly uniaxial figure. Sections _|_c are stronglypleochroicand are marked fine parallel, lines (Fig.951); they also cleavage have and nearly parallelextinction, show high polarization colors; by reflected lightthey exhibit sheen which is veiT characteristic and aids in distinguishing

is "^i~V?iotitr an,imP"rtant constituent those formed

.curs

of many different kinds of igneous rocks, from magmas containing considerable potash and magnesia non in certain varieties of granites, of the massive granular type; syenite, diorite, etc., i rhyohte and andesite trachyte, the lavas;in minettes, It among etc. kersantites, also as the product of metamorphic action in a variety of rocks. It is not infre-

SILICATES

565

in parallel for example,forming the positionwith muscovite, the latter, portionsof plateshaving a nucleus of biotite. of the prominent localities of crystallized biotite are as follows: Vesuvius, Some mon comin ejected limestone Monte masses on particularly Somma, with augite,chrysolite, The crystalsare sometimes nearly colorless or yellow and then nephelite,humite, etc. in the Fassatal and usually complex in form; also dark green to black; Mt. Monzoni in Hungary; in GerTyrol, Austria; Rezbanya and Morawitza Schwarzenstein,Zillertal, many at Schelingen and other points in the Kaiserstuhl and the Laacher See; on the west side of Lake Ilmen near Miask, Russia. in granite, gneiss, States ordinary biotite is common In the United etc.; but notable It occurs not numerous. with muscovite localitiesof distinct crystals are (which see) as a of the pegmatite veins in the New or less prominent constituent more England States;also From Pennsylvania, Virginia,North Carolina. Greenwood, Orange Co., N. Y. SideroCol. is from the Pike's Peak region, phyllite

quentlyassociated

outer

CASWELLITE. PHLOGOPITE.

An

altered biotite from

Franklin

Furnace,N.

J.

In form and anglesnear biotite. Crystalsprismatic, tapering; largeand coarse; in scales and plates. Thin laminae tough and elastic. H. highlyeminent. Cleavage: basal, Luster pearly, 278-2-85. often submetallic on cleavage 2-5-3. G. surface. brown to brownish red, with often something of a copper-like Color yellowish also pale brownish yellow, reflection; green, white,colorless. Often exhibits due to regularly asterism in transmitted light, arranged inclusions. Pleochroism distinct in colored varieties: Z brownish red, Y brownish green, X Optically-. Ax. pi. ||b (010). Bxa yellow. Absorption Z " Y " X. nearly _!_ c (001). Axial angle small but variable even in the same specimen, axial The from 0" to 50". increase " with to v. Dispersion angle p appears from 1-541-1-638. of iron. Indices variable, the amount A magnesium mica, near biotite,but containing little iron; Comp. in is all the micas,and in most cases fluorine. Typipotassium prominent as

Monoclinic. often

"

cal

where is R3Mg3Al(SiO4)3, phlogopite

Obs.
"

H,K,MgF.

of crystalline limestone or dolomite. It with pyroxene, land; amphibole, serpentine,etc. Thus as at Pargas, Finin St. Lawrence Co. and Jefferson Co., N. Y.; Franklin,N. J.; also Burgess, Ontario, and elsewhere in Canada. in allusion to the color. from "/"Xoyco7r6s, Named fire-like, when The asterism of phlogopite, is viewed through a thin sheet, seen a candle-flame is prominent in the kinds from northern New York and a common character,particularly to be due to minute acicular inclusions, It has been shown rutile or tourmaline, Canada. in the direction of the rays of the pressure-figure, producing a distinct sixarranged chiefly to the lines of the percussion-figure, givinga secondary star,usually rayed star: also parallel less prominent than the other. is often associated silicate. Monoclinic, belonging Taeniolite. Essentially a potassium-magnesium to the elastic. H. 2 '5-3. Perfect basal cleavage. Folia somewhat G. mica group. 2 "9. Fusible. Colorless. From Narsarsuk, southern Greenland.
=
=

is especially characteristic Phlogopite

of ferric iron but characterized By the large amount Lepidomelane. Near biotite, Annite from Cape Ann, Mass., From Langesund fiord, Norway; Haddam, Conn. 3. G. belongs here. In small six-sided tables,or an aggregate of minute scales. H. 3 '0-3 -2. Color black, with occasionally a leek-greenreflection. St. Marcel, Piedmont, Italy. Color copper-red. mica from Alurgite. A manganese Index, 1'59. Mariposite may belong here.

present.
=

Roscoelite.

replaced the aluminium.

has in which vanadium vanadium a muscovite mica; essentially 2'92-2'94. G. In minute scales;structure micaceous.
=

partly
Color

566

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY
in Cal. at the

Occurs 1 '610-1 704. brown. Indices, clove-brown to greenish El Dorado Co. and elsewhere, Granite Creek, Placerville,

gold mine

at

2.

Clintonite

Group.

Monoclinic

The
are near

marked basic character. proper to the In several respectsthey form a transition from the micas and of aluminium silicate basic is a calcium mica, or chlorites. Margarite, iron aluminium ferrous and of silicate calcium, while Chloritoid is a basic (withmagnesium), like the chlorites.

called the Brittle Micas. They minerals here included are sometimes but are form and optical properties, crystalline the micas in cleavage, by the brittleness of the laminae, and chemicallyby their physically

MARGARITE.
or Rarely in distinct crystals.Usually in intersecting structure. with sometimes a scaly massive, laminae; aggregated G. 3 -5-4*5. perfect. Laminae rather brittle. H. Cleavage: basal, Color faces vitreous. of lateral Luster of base pearly, grayish, 2-99-3-08. subtranslucent. reddish white, pink,yellowish. Translucent, but varyAx. pi.J_ b (010). Bxa approximatelyJ_ c (001), ing Optically X A c axis + 6^". Dispersion more widely than the ordinary micas. from 76" to 128" in air. Refractive index ft =1-64Axial anglelarge, p " v.

Monoclinic.

"

1-65.

Comp.
4'5
=

"

H2CaAl4Si2Oi2

Silica 30'2, alumina

51

'3, lime

14'0, water

100.
"

in the closed tube. B.B. whitens and fuses on the edges. Yields water etc. Pyr., Slowly and imperfectlydecomposed by boilinghydrochloricacid. Obs. Associated commonly with corundum, and in many cases obviously formed from it; thus at the emery directly depositsof Gumuch-dagh in Asia Minor, the islands Naxos, Nicaria,etc. Occurs in chlorite of Mt. Greiner,Sterzing,Tyrol. In the United mine at Chester,Mass.; at Unionville, States at the emery Chester dum Co., Pa.; with corunin Madison Co. and elsewhere in N. C.; at Gainesville, Hall Co., Ga.; at Dudley ville,
"

Ala. Named
.

Margarite from

fj.apyapiTt]s,

pearl.

SEYBERTITE.

Clintonite.

Brandisite.

Monoclinic,near
lamellar,radiate.

biotite in form. Structure

as

Also

foliated

massive; sometimes

Laminae brittle. micaceous. foliated, mica. H. with 4-5. G. 3-3-1. pressure-figures, Luster pearly submetallic. Color reddish brown, yellowish,copper-red. Streak uncolored, or slightly rather feeble. or grayish. Pleochroism yellowish Ax. pi. J_ 6 (010) seybertite; Optically b brandisite. Bxa nearly J_ c \\ (001). Axial anglesvariable, but not large, a 1-657. 1*646. ft 7 Percussionand
= =
"

Cleavage: basal, perfect.

1 '658.

y**"

mica

!" The Amity seybertite ated is in reddish brown to copper-redbrittle foli(dintonite} the surfaces of the folia often marked masses; like some with equilateral triangles and chlorite. Axial angle 3"-13".
,

^T^en ffT?m"m b

from the Fassatal, (disterrite) Tyrol, is in hexagonal prisms of a yellowish "lor to reddish gray; H. Ax. 5 of base; of sides, 6-6-5. pi. || (010). Axial angle 15"-30". Some of it pseudomorphous, after fassaite.
=

2. Brandisite

568

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

tical; though it is not certain that they are idenclassed with chloritoid, Ottrelite is generally in small, oblong, the composition H2(Fe,Mn)Al2Si2O9.It occurs to have it seems laceous less hexagonal in form and gray to black in color; in argilmore or shiningscales or plates, borders of Luxemburg, and from the Ardennes, France, the schist near Ottrez,on and Belgium; also near Venasquite is Serravezza,Tuscany, Italy; Tintagel in Cornwall. France. is from the from and Phyllite from in the Teule, Finistere, Pyrenees, Venasque schists of New

England.

3.

Chlorite

Group.

Monoclinic

The CHLORITE from the fact that a large takes its name GROUP part of the with silicates minerals included in it are characterize^by the green color common in which ferrous iron is prominent. The species in many are respects in the monoclinic related to the micas. They crystallize closely system, but in part with distinct monoclinic symmetry, in part with rhombohedral try, symmeuniaxial optical with corresponding The plane anglesof the character. base are also 60" or 120", marking the mutual inclinations of the chief zones of forms. is prominent in distinctly The mica-like basal cleavage crystallized forms, but the laminae are tough and comparativelyinelastic. Percussion and be obtained with the micas and have the as pressure-figures may orientation. The same in general monoclinic in are etching-figures symmetry, in part also asymmetric,suggestinga reference to the triclinic

system.

rocks. The

Chemicallyconsidered the chlorites are silicatesof aluminium with ferrous Ferric iron may magnesium and chemicallycombined water. be the aluminium in small amount present replacing chromium enters similarly ; in some forms,which are then usuallyof a pink instead of the more common color. Manganese replaces the ferrous iron in a few cases. green Calcium and alkalies characteristic of allthe true micas are conspicuously absent, or present only in small amount. The only distinctly of the Chlorite Group are Clinocrystallized species chlore and Penninite. These seem to have the same but while composition, the former is monoclinic in form and the latter is pseudo-rhombohedral habit, and usually uniaxial. Prochlorite (including and Corundosome ripidolite) also occur in distinct cleavage philite masses. Besides the species named there are other kinds less distinct in form, occurring in scales, also fibrous to massive or earthy; they are often of more or less undetermined composition, but in many rence, cases, because of their extensive occurof considerable geological importance. These latter forms occur as secondary minerals resulting from the alteration especially of ferro-magnesian such silicates, as biotite, pyroxene, amphibole; also garnet, vesuvianite, tc. I hey are often accompanied by other secondary minerals,as serpentine, hmonite, calcite, in the altered forms etc., especially of basic
iron and
" "

"
.

in appearance irulites; by their

cleavage (unlike choritoid and ottrelite); low reliefand extremely low interference-color which frequently exhibit the " ultra-blue." By this latter char?r

rock-making chloritesare recognized in thin sections by their characteristic thin leaves, scales or fibers, sometimes aggregatedinto greenish color;pleochroism; extinction parallel to the
are

they

resemble and

with

readilydistinguished from the micas, which which they are frequently associated.

they strongly

SILICATES

569

CLINOCHLORE.

in part. Ripidolite

Monoclinic.
952

Axes

: c

0-57735
953

2-2772;0

89" 40'.
954

m"

Pfitsch

Wchwarzenstem

Zillertal

of the basal section

Crystals usuallyhexagonal in form, often tabular || c (001). Plane angles 60" or 120", and since closely similar anglesare found in the zones which are separated by 60", the symmetry 955 of that to the rhombohedral approximates system. Twins: Mica (1) law, tw. pi._L c (001) in the zone
=

contact-twins with c as composition 60" or a multipleof 60" in azimuth with reference to the other; also in threefold twins. (2) Penninite law, tw. pi. c, contact-twins also united by c (Fig. 954); here corresponding faces differ 180" in position. Massive, coarse scaly granular to fine granularand earthy.
cmo

001

112; sometimes
one

the face,

part revolved

(001) highly perfect. Laminae flexible Achmatovsk elastic. Percussion-figure and slightly orientated with the micas 2-2*5. as pressure-figures (p. 559). H. G. 2-65-2-78. of Luster pearly. Color cleavage-face somewhat to to deep grass-green yellowish and white; olive-green; pale green also rose-red. Streak Transparent to greenish white to uncolored. translucent. Pleochroism not strong,for green varieties usuallyX green, Z 6 (010). Bxa inclined Ax. pi.in most cases yellow. Optically || usually +. 2" 30'. Dispersomewhat to the normal to c (001), sion forward; for Achmatovsk Axial anglesvariable, in the same v. even times 0"-90"; somecrystal, p " sensiblyuniaxial. Birefringencelow. Indices approximately; a
c

Cleavage:
and

tough,
=

but

1-585.
Var.
"

1-586.

1-596.

as Ordinary; green clinochlore,passing into bluish green; (a) in crystals, described, usually with distinct monoclinic symmetry; (6)foliated;(c)massive. Contains usuallylittleor no iron. Color white,pale green, yellowish; Leuchtenbergiie.

1.

resembles talc. From Kotschubeite. Contains in habit. Color rose-red.

Zlatoust in the Ural Mts. near oxide. several per cent of chromium Crystals rhombohedral From the southern Ural Mts. Pajsberg, Manganiferous. Manganchlorite. A chlorite from the Harstig mine near Sweden, is peculiarin containing2 -3 p. c. MnO.

often

Comp.

"

Normally H8Mg5Al2Si3Oi8

4H2O.5MgO.Al2O3.3SiO2
=

Silica

13-0 32-5, alumina 18-4, magnesia 36-1, water the and small the a same replaces magnesia, part of sometimes chromium the aluminium. replaces

100.

Ferrous

iron

is true of manganese

usually rarely;

culty B.B. in the platinum forceps whitens and fuses with diffigrayish black glass. With borax, a clear glass colored by iron, and sometimes In sulphuricacid wholly decomposed. chromium. tinctly Micro. In thin sections color and pleochroism; discharacterized by pale green biaxial and usually +.

Pyr., etc.
on

"

Yields water.
to
a

the

edges

"

570
Orr-nrs

DESCRIPTIVE
in connection with

MINERALOGY
rocks schists and

tine;

iswasSffislfii ^^u^Tys:
u

talcose chloritic'and

or

serpen-

ssr "
vanety
occurs

Marienberg, Saxony;
at

Zoptau, Moravia.
in N.

A manganesian

at

and plates; also Unionville large crystals ^niStherilJteddStates, Westchester, Pa., part changed Y, Brewster, mine and Tex^, fat magnetic
Pa the iron at
in

to

tine; serpen-

near' Lowell, Ver., in crystals.

PENNINITE. Pennine.

rhombohedral Apparently

in form

but

and pseudo-rhombohedral strictly

tabular with c (001) prominent, also in again steep rhombohedral; hedral six-sided pyramids. Rhombotapering striated. faces often horizontally in crested often groups. Crystals of an Also massive, consisting gation aggreof scales;also compact cryptocrystalline. Cleavage: c (001) highly perfect. flexible. Laminae Percussion-figure with clinochlore Zermatt Texas and pressure-figure as but less easy to obtain; not elastic. 2-6-2-85. Luster H. 2-2-5. G. of cleavage-surface pearly; of lateral to olive-green; emeraldbrilliant. Color and sometimes vitreous, plates also violet, yellowishand silverpink, rose-red,grayish red; occasionally white. distinct: to subtranslucent. Pleochroism usually ||c Transparent in adjaboth sometimes and cent (001)green; _L c yellow. Optically +, also sometimes lamina of the same b ut uniaxial, crystal.Usually sensibly section. biaxial (occasionally 2E distinctly 61") and both in the same Sometimes while the border is biaxial with 2E a uniaxial nucleus 36",the latter probablyto be referred to clinochlore. Indices 1-576 and 1-579.
= =
"

thick L"^abitCr'hombohedral: sometimes

Var.

"

1.

Penninite,as first named, included

green

chlorite crystallized

from

the

In hexagonal forms bounded by steep six-sided pyramids. Color Lake from kermes-red; peach-blossom-red. Pleochroism Itkul, distinct. Optically Bisersk, Perm, Russia; + Texas, Pa. Uniaxial or biaxial with axial angle up to 20". Rhofrom Texas, Pa.,and rhodochrome from Lake dophyllite Itkul belong here. Pseudophiteis compact massive, without cleavage,and resembles serpentine.
"

Penninine Alps. Kammererite.

Comp.

"

the Essentially
"

same

as

H8(Mg,Fe)5Al2Si3Oi8. clinochlore,

In the closed tube yields water. cultly B.B. exfoliates somewhat and is diffifusible. With the fluxes all varieties give reactions for iron,and many varieties react for chromium. Partially decomposed by hydrochloricand completely by sulphuric acid. Micro. In thin sections shows pale green color and pleochroism ; usually nearly

Pyr., etc.

"

uniaxial,
"

Occurs with serpentine in the region of Zermatt, Valais, Switzerland, near in the moraines Rosa, especially of the Findelen glacier;crystalsfrom Zermatt are sometimes 2 in. long and H in. thick; also at the foot of the Simplon Pass, Switzerland; at Ala, Piedmont, Italy, with clinochlore; in Tyrol, Austria; at Taberg at Schwarzenstein in Wermland, Sweden; at Snarum, Norway, greenishand foliated. Kammererite is found at the localitiesalreadymentioned; also near Miask in the Ural Mts.; at Haroldswick in Unst, Shetland Isles. In large crystals enclosed in the talc in crevices of the chromite from Kraubat, Styria. Abundant at Texas, Lancaster Co., Pa., along with clmochlore, Also some in clinochlore, crystals the reverse. being embedded or
"

Obs.

Mt.

SILICATES

571 Co.;
and other points.

in N. C., with chromite at Culsagee, Macon From Washington, Cal. PROCHLORITE.

in part. Ripidolite

Co.; Webster, Jackson

In six-sided tables or prisms,the side planes stronglyfurMonoclinic. rowed and dull. Crystals often implanted by their sides, and in divergent groups, H.
=

or fan-shaped, vermicular, spheroidal. Also in largefolia. Massive,

or foliated, granular.

Translucent to opaque; transparent only in cleavagesurface feebly pearly. Color green, grassblackish green; the axis by transmitted light across green, olive-green, times somered. Streak uncolored or not elastic. greenish. Laminae flexible, Pleochroism distinct. Optically Bx inclined to the normal + in most cases. 2". Axial anglesmall, often nearlyuniaxial; to c (001) some 23"again 2E 30". Dispersionp " v. Lower in silicon than clinochlore, and with ferrous iron usuComp. ally, but not always,in largeamount.
1-2.
=

G.

278-2-96. of

very

thin folia.

Luster

"

Like other chloritesin modes Obs. of occurrence. Occasionallyformed from amphibole. in implanted crystals, Sometimes at St. Gothard, Switzerland, as enveloping often adularia,etc.; Mt. Greiner in the Zillertal, Tyrol, Austria; Rauris in Salzburg, Austria;
"

Traversella in Piedmont, Italy; at Mts. Sept Lacs and St. Cristophe in Dauphine, France; Also massive in Cornwall, England, in tin veins; at Arendal in Norway; Styria,Bohemia. In Scotland at various Salberg and Dannemora, Sweden; Dognacska, Hungary. points. In the United States,near Washington, D. C.; on Castle Mt., Batesville, Va., a massive form resembling soapstone, color grayish green, feel greasy; Steele's mine, Montgomery at the Culsagee mine, in broad platesof a dark Co., N. C.; also with corundum in the small amount color and fine scaly; it differsfrom ordinary of ferrous prochlorite green iron.
in

more

Corundophilite. A chlorite occurring in deep green contains but 24 p. c. SiO2. /3 1'583. brittle;
=

laminae resembling clinochlore but Occurs with corundum at Chester,

Mass. AMESITE.

the green

pearly on
Mass.

H4(Mg,Fe)2Al2SiO9. Silica 21'4 p. c. In hexagonal plates, resembling foliated, 271. talc from the Tyrol. H. 2-5-3. G. Color apple-green. Luster cleavage face. Optically+, sensiblyuniaxial. Occurs with diasporeat Chester,
= =

SHERIDANITE.

chlorite from

Sheridan

Co., Wy., containingonly littleiron.

Besides the chlorites already described OTHER CHLORITES. which occur usuallyin there are, as noted on p. 568, forms varying from fine scalyto distinct crystals or plates, In some fibrous and earthy, which are cases prominent in rocks. they may belong to the speciesbefore described,but frequently the want of sufficient pure material has left their These chlorites are commonly characterized by their green composition in doubt. color, distinct pleochroism and low birefringence (p. 568). been follow, ng are to the chlorites filling The which have names given particularly in basic igneous rocks : aphrosiderite, cavities or seams euraldiabantite, delessite, epichlorite,

ite,chlorophceite, pycnochlorite. hullite,

followingare other related minerals. Moravite. scaly and granular forms with 2FeO.2(Al,Fe)oO3.7SiO2.2H2O. In lamellar, Fuses 3"5. G. 2'4. iron-black. Color cleavage. H. difficultly. perfect basal of Gobitschau Found at iron mines near Sternberg,Moravia. Cronstedite. Occurs tapering in hexagonal pyramids; also 4FeO.2Fe2O3.3SiO2.4H2O. in diverging groups; amorphous. Cleavage: basal,highly perfect. Thin laminae elastic. Color coal-black to brownish G. 3 '34-3 '35. black; by transmitted lightin thin scales From 1*80. Pfibram in Bohemia; also in emerald-green. Streak dark olive-green. /3 Cornwall, England. Massive; an aggregation of minute pearly Thuringite. 8FeO.4(Al,Fe)2O3.6SiO2.9H2O. From 1*63. in Thurinto pistachio-green./3 near scales. Color olive-green Saalfeld, Harper's gia; Hot Springs,Ark., etc.; from the metamorphic rocks on the Potomac, near
The
= =

572

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY alteration product of thuringitefrom bronze-red scales. foliated

masses

is name Ferry (owenite). Stilpnochloran

given
In

to

an

Gobitschau, near
Brunsvigite.

Sternberg,Moravia.

yellowto

and In cryptocrystalline 9(Fe,Mg)O.2Al2O3.6SiO2.8H2O.

microscope
=

radiated aggregates. Under sometimes forming spherical 1-2. outline. Color olive-green to yellow-green. H. Harz in the Germany. Radautal Mts., the gabbro of the
Color
= =

G.

3U

folia show Occurs in

hexagonal
cavities in

of the Chlorite Group. A member Griffithite. 4(Mg,Fe,Ca)O.(Al,Fe)2O3.5SiO2.7H2O. Fusible to magnetic slag. Pleochroic, 2 '31. pale yelG. low, 1. H. dark green. in amygdaloidal cavities in a Indices 1 '48-1 '57. Occurs brown-green. olive-green, basalt from Cahuenga Pass, Griffith Park, Los Angeles, Cal.

CHAMOSITE. with H. about

Contains

iron

(FeO)

with

but

3; G.

gray 3-3'4; color greenish

little MgO. to black.

Occurs
From

compact

or

Chamoson,

near

oolitic St.

Maurice, in the Valais,Switzerland. ing. as a velvety coator Stilpnomelane. An iron silicate. In foliated plates; also fibrous, Occurs at Obergrund and elsewhere Color black, greenish black. 2 '77-2 '96. G. from the Sterling Chalcodite, in Silesia; Weilburg, Nassau, Germany. also hi Moravia; near and is the same calcite, Iron mine, in Antwerp, Jefferson Co., N. Y., coating hematite mineral in velvety coating of mica-like scales with a bronze color. A silicate of ferric and ferrous iron,intermediate of Chlorite Group. Minguetite. A member 2'86. Color blackish between green. stilpnomelane and lepidomelane. G. Fuses to a black magblack. Optically lightyellowto opaque netic Strongly pleochroic, acid. From Minguet mine, near enamel. Segre, Decomposed by hydrochloric France. Maine-et-Loire, In crystals. Color dark aggregations of minute H4Fe2(Al,Fe)2Si2Oii. Strigovite. the minerals in cavities in the granite of Striegau in Occurs as a fine coating over green.
= =
"

Silesia.

Rumpfite.
fine scales.

Color

of very Probably a variety of clinochlore. Massive; granular, consisting Occurs with talc near St. Michael and elsewhere in greenish white.

Styria. In rough hexagonal prisms. Micaceous Spodiophyllite.(Na2,K2)2(Mg,Fe)3(Fe,Al)2(SiO3)8. 3-3'2. brittle. H. G. 2 '6. Color cleavage. Laminae ash-jgray. Fusible. From Narsarsuk, southern Greenland.
= =

APPENDIX The

TO

THE

MICA

DIVISION.

"

VERMICULITES.

VERMICULITE GROUP includes a number of micaceous cates, minerals, all hydrated siliin part closely related to the chlorites, but varying somewhat widely in composition. of the micas,biotite, They are alteration-products chiefly phlogopite, etc.,and retain the micaceous more and of ten-show the negative opticalcharacter or less perfectly cleavage, and small axial angle of the original less indefinite species.-Many of them are of a more or chemical nature, and the composition varies,with that of the original mineral and with the degree of alteration. The laminae in generalare soft, and inelastic; the luster pearly or bronze-like, pliable, and the color varies from white to yellow; and brown. Heated to 100"-110" dried over or sulphuricacid most of the vermiculites lose considerable water, up to 10 p. c., which is at 300" another portion is often given off; and at a red heat a someprobablyhygroscopic; what is expelled. Connected largeramount with the loss of water ignitionis the upon common physical character of exfoliation; of the kinds especiallyshow some this to a marked degree,slowly opening out, when heated gradually,into long worm-like threads. Ihis character has given the name to the group, from the Latin vermiculari, to breed worms. Ihe minerals included can hardly rank as distinct species and only their names be can
given

here:

Jefferisite, vermiculite, culsageeite, kerrite, lennilite, hallite, vaalite, philadelphite,

macomte, dudleyite, pyrosclerite.

HI.

Serpentine and

Talc

Division

The
borne

Chlorite Group other magnesium

leading species belonging here, and Talc,are closely Serpentine related of the Mica Division preceding,as noted beyond. in part amorphous, are included with them. silicates,

SILICATES SERPENTINE.

573

Monoclinic. In distinct crystals, but only as pseudomorphs. Sometimes folia rarelyseparable;also delicately foliated, the fibers often easily fibrous, and either flexible or brittle. Usuallymassive, separable, but microscopically fibrous and felted, also fine granularto impalpableor cryptocrystalline finely ; in structure but often by compensation nearlyisotropic; slaty. Crystalline amorphous. sometimes also prismatic(50")in chrysotile. Cleavage b (010), distinct; Fracture usually conchoidal or splintery.Feel smooth, sometimes greasy. H. fibrous varieties 2-2-2-3; 2-5-4, rarely 5-5. G. 2-50-2-65; some 2-36-2-55. Luster subresinous to retinalite, earthy; resin-like, greasy, pearly, feeble. Color leek-green, or wax-like;usually blackish green; oil-and siskinyellow; none bright;sometimes nearlywhite. green; brownish red, brownish On exposure, often becoming yellowish Streak white,slightly gray. shining.
= =

Translucent to opaque. feeble. Optically Pleochroism perhaps also + in chrysotile.Double refraction weak. Ax. pi. |a (100). Bx (X) J_ 6 (010)the cleavagesurface; Z || of fibers. Biaxial, often large;2V 20" to 90". elongation anglevariable, Indices variable, from 1*490-1' 571.
-

in strucMany unsustained specieshave been made out of serpentine, ture differing (massive,slaty, foliated, and these fibrous), or, as supposed, in chemical composition; in part, stand as varieties, others based on variations in texture, along with some etc. now, A. IN CRYSTALS PSEUDOMORPHS. The most have the form of chrysolite. common Other kinds are pseudomorphs after pyroxene, amphibole, spinel,chondrodite, garnet, less phlogopite,etc. Bastite or Schiller Spar is enstatite (hypersthene) altered more or completely to serpentine. See p. 474. B. MASSIVE. 1. Ordinary massive, (a) Precious or Noble Serpentineis of a rich oilin thick pieces. when color, of pale or dark shades, and translucent even green The former has a (b) Common Serpentineis of dark shades of color,and sub translucent. hardness of 2*5-3; the latter often of 4 or beyond, owing to impurities. Resinous. Retinalite. resin-like Massive, honey-yellow to light oil-green, or waxy Var.
" "

luster.
Bowenite (NephriteBowen) Massive, of very fine granulartexture,and much resembles and was 2 '594nephrite, long so called. It is apple-greenor greenishwhite in color; G. R. I..; also a similar kind 2*787; and it has the unusual hardness 5 "5-6. From Smithfield,
.

from

New Zealand. Ricolite is a banded variety with a fine green color from Mexico. thin lamellar in structure, separatinginto translucent folia. C. LAMELLAR. Antigorite, H. 2-5; G. 2*622; color brownish green by reflected light;feel smooth, but not greasy.
= =

From D.

G.
N.

Antigorio valley,Piedmont, Italy. THIN FOLIATED. Marmolite, thin foliated; the laminae brittle but From 2*41; colors greenishwhite, bluish white to pale asparagus-green.

separable. Hoboken,

J.

E. FIBROUS. Chrysotile. Delicately fibrous,the fibers usually flexible and easily or yellow silkymetallic; color greenishwhite, green, olive-green, separating; luster silky, of in serpentine. It includes most and brownish; G. Often constitutes seams 2 -219. is popularly called asbestus of what the silky amianthus of serpentine rocks and much (asbestos). Cf. p. 489. and often not easilysepaPicrolite, columnar, but fibers or columns not easilyflexible, rable, or affordingonly a splinteryfracture; color dark green to mountain-green, gray, from Bare Hills, Baltimorite is picrolite brown. from Taberg, Sweden. The original was
=

Md.

and specific gravity. In is like serpentine except in regard to its solubility of radiatingfibers from near Dillenburg,Nassau. It frequently F. SERPENTINE ROCKS. Serpentine often constitutes rock-masses. mixed with more less of dolomite,magnesite, or calcite, making a rock of clouded or occurs or ophicalcite. veined with white or pale green, called verd antique,ophiolite, green, sometimes mottled with red, or has something of the aspect of a red Serpentine rock is sometimes Radiotine

spherical aggregates

574 porphyry; the

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

of oxide of iron. pentine reddish portions containingan unusual amount Any sermarble. rock cut into slabs and polishedis called serpentine in rock-masses has been Microscopicexamination has established the fact that serpentine and many apparently homogeneous serpentines largelyproduced by the alteration of chrysolite, In other cases it has resulted from the mineral. show more or less of this original or amphibole. Sections of the serpentine derived from chrysolite alteration of pyroxene of a net (Fig.958) ; the lines marked often show a peculiar by structure, like the meshes cracks and cleavage directions of the chrysolite grainsof magnetite also follow the original from amphibole and pyroxene commonly shows an analogous (Fig. 959, a). The serpentine followingthe former cleavstructure; the iron particles the nature of the original mineral 968 can age lines. Hence often be inferred. Cf. Fig. 959, a, b, c (Pirsson).

A magnesium silicate, H4Mg3Si209 Comp. Silica 44.1, magnesia or 3MgO.2SiO2.2H20 Iron protoxide often 100. 43-0, water 12-9 small part of the magnesium ; nickel a replaces
"

in small
water

is sometimes amount present. is chiefly at a red heat. expelled

-"-

The

fuses
fibers.

on

In the closed tube yieldswater. B. B. Pyr., etc. iron reaction. F. ==6. Gives usually an posed Decomedges with difficulty. chrysotilethe silica is left in fine by hydrochloric and sulphuricacids. From

the

Diff. Characterized by softness, absence of cleavage and feeble waxy or oily luster; low specific gravity; by yieldingmuch water B.B. Micro. Readilyrecognizedin thin sections by its greenish or yellowish green color; low relief and aggregate polarization due to its fibrous structure. When the fibers are the interference-colors are not very low, but the confused aggregates may parallel, show
" "

..Mife

"lMii$
\M
i

a,

derived Serpentine

from

chrysolite; 6, from amphibole; c, from

pyroxene

above, containingmagnesia, particularly chrysolite, amphibole or pyroxene. frequently torms largerock-masses, then being derived from the alteration of peridotites dumtes and other basic rocks of igneous origin; also of and amphibolites, or pyroxene chrysoliterocks of metamorphic origin. In the first case it is usually accompanied by spinel,garnet, chromite and sometimes nickel ores; in the second case nates by various carbosuch as dolomite, magnesite, breunnerite, etc. Crystalsof serpentine, pseudomorphous after monticellite, in the Fassatal Tyrol occur Austria. A variety containingsoda from the Zillertal, Tyrol, is called nemaphyllite Near Miask at Lake Aushkul,Barsovka, and elsewhere in Russia; in Norway, Ekaterinburg, Fine precious from Falun and Gulsjo in Sweden, the serpentinescome ?vT M?' of
alteration of silicates

the "ultra blue" or even be isotropic. The constant association with other magnesia bearing minerals like chrysolite, is also characteristic. hornblende, pyroxene, The presence etc., oi lines of iron oxide particles noted above (Fig.959) is characteristic. as Obs. Serpentine is always a secondary mineral resulting, from noted as the
"

in Aberdeenshire, w^lF^lAn Pnei^b0^od Scotland;the ofQPorts"y England; Corsica, Siberia,

iL

Lizard

in Cornwall,

Saxony, etc.

Al?erlf^e'' Roxbnrv0^ aVDef Isle'Precious serpentine. Roxbury, etc. In Mass, fine at

'

In

Ver,

Newburyport.

In R.

I,

at

Newport;

at New Fane, bowenite at Smith-

576
and less translucent
at

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

rightanglesto this direction;brownish to blackish ties white; of dark green varieStreak usually green and reddish when impure. translucent. to Optically tive negathan the color. Subtransparent lighter variable. Indices Ax. pi. 1 1a (100). Bx _L c (001). Axial anglesmall,
approx.;
Var.
"

1'539.

1-589.

1'589.

having a greasy feel, usuallyeasilyseparated, Talc. Consists of folia, Foliated, 2'55-278. lightgreen, greenishwhite, and white colors. G. presentingordinarily and brownish Coarse grayish gray granular, green, Steatite a. or Soapstone. Massive, 6. Fine granuor less impure. lar Pot-stone is ordinary soapstone, more l-2'5. in color;H. which is and soft enough to be used as chalk; as the French chalk, cryptocrystalline, or harder than An talc. talc, Indurated slaty luster, impure c. milk-white with a pearly
and
= =

ordinary talc. Pseudomorphous. a. Fibrous, fine to 6. Rensselaerite, having the form of pyroxene

coarse,

from

altered from northern New

and tremohte. enstatite York and Canada.

acid metasilicate of magnesium, H2Mg3(SiO3)4 or H2O. The water goes 100. 63 -5, Silica magnesia 317, water 4*8 3MgO.4Si02 off only at a red heat. Nickel is sometimes present in small amount.

Comp.

"

An

varieties yieldwater. most In the closed tube B.B., when intensely ignited, Pyr.,etc. the thin edges to a and fuses with difficulty on In the platinum forcepswhitens,exfoliates, Not white enamel. a pale red color. assumes on ignition Moistened with cobalt solution, decomposed by acids. Rensselaerite is decomposed by concentrated sulphuric acid.
"

foliated structure; Characterized feel; common softness, by extreme soapy is flexiblebut inelastic. Yields water only on intense ignition. Obs. Talc or steatite is a very common mineral,and in the latter form constitutes extensive beds in some talcose or chloritic regions. It is often associated with serpentine, of dolomite,breunnerite, and dolomite,and frequentlycontains crystals also asbesschist,
Diff.
"

pearlyluster;it
"

tus, actinolite, tourmaline,magnetite.

Steatite is the material of many which the most common are pseudomorphs, among those after pyroxene, and spinel. The magnesian minerals are hornblende,mica, scapolite, and nephelite, those which commonly afford steatite by alteration; while those like scapolite which contain soda and no magnesia, most pseudomorphs. frequently yield pinite-like There also steatitic pseudomorphs after quartz, dolomite,topaz, chiastolite, are staurolite, cyanite, chrysolite, garnet, vesuvianite, gehlenite. Talc in the fibrous form is pseudomorph after enstatite and tremolite. Apple-greentalc occurs at Mt. Greiner in the Zillertal, Tyrol, Austria; in the Valais and St. Gothard in Switzerland; in Cornwall, England, near Lizard Point, with serpentine; the Shetland islands. In North in Me., at Dexter. In Ver., at Bridgewater, America, foliated talc occurs handsome with dolomite; Newfane. In Mass., at Middlefield, talc, green Windsor, BlanIn R. I., at Smithfield, Andover, and Chester. delicate green and white in a crystalfprd, line limestone. In N. Y., at Edwards, St. Lawrence ciated assoCo., a fine fibrous talc (agalite) with pink tremolite;on Staten Island. In N. J., Sparta. In Pa., at Texas, in South Mountain, ten miles south of Carlisle; Nottingham,Unionville; at Chestnut Hill, the Schuylkill, on talc and also soapstone, the latter quarried extensively. In Md., at Cooptown, of green, blue, and rose colors. In N. C., at Webster, Jackson portant Co. The imstates for the productionof talc and soapstone are New and Virginia. York, Vermont In Canada, in the townships Bolton, Button,and Potton, Quebec, with steatite in beds of
Cambrian
in

age;
"

in

the

Archaean rocks. Use. In the form hearth stones,furnace

township of Elzevir, Hastings Co.,Ontario,an impure grayishvariety

linings, etc.;
m

of soapstone used the

for wash

tips of
as

etc" 3rnaments' etc" ; Powdered form varietyof talc, in the G^?M"is aPPa.rently differing its
a
%

tubs, sinks,table tops, switchboards, tailors' chalk, slate pencils, burners, in papers, as a lubricant, filler in toilet powders,
gas

amount

of water

solubility in
SEPIOLITE.

acids.

present and

in

From

Gava

valley,Italy.

Meerschaum.
a
=

Compact, with
rarely fibrous.
H.

smooth

2-2-5.

and fine earthy texture, or clay-like; feel, also G. 2. In Impressible by the nail. dry
=

SILICATES

577

grayish white, white, or with a faint yellowish 1-55. or Biaxial,". Opaque. /3 Silica 60-8, magnesia H4Mg2Si3O10 or Comp. 2H2O.2MgO.3SiO2 12-1 100. Some 27-1, water analyses show more water, which is probably nickel may to be regarded as hygroscopic. Copper and replace part of the magnesium.
masses on

floats

water.

Color

reddish

tinge,bluish green.
"

yields first hygroscopic moisture, and at a higher temperature B.B. smell. varieties blacken, then burn some the thin edges. With cobalt solution a pink color on white, and by hydrochloric acid with separation of silica. ignition. Decomposed in Asia Minor, in masses in stratified earthy or alluvial deposits at the Obs. Occurs in Moravia; in Morocco, called in French Pierre de plains of Eskihi sher; at Hrubschitz beds. Savon de Maroc; at Vallecas in Spain, in extensive A fibrous mineral, having the composition of sepiolite, in Utah. occurs is German The meerschaum and word for sea-froth, alludes to its lightness and color. the bone of which is light and porous. Sepioliteis from "rr}Tria, cuttle-fish, Pyr.,
etc.
"

gives

the closed tube water and a fuse with difficulty on

much

In

burnt

"

Connarite.

hydrous
Color

G.

2'459-2'619.

nickel silicate, In small fragile grains. perhaps H^N^SisOio. From yellowish green. Rottis, in Saxon Voigtland.

Spadaite. Perhaps 5MgO.6SiOa.4H2O. Rome. Capo di Bove, near

Massive, amorphous.

Color

reddish.

From

SAPONITE.

Piotine.

In nodules, or filling cavities. Soft, like butter or cheese,but Luster 2 '24" 2 '30. Color white, yellowish, drying. G. greasy. adhere reddish. Does to the not grayish green, bluish, tongue. A and but the hydrous silicate of magnesium aluminium; Comp. material is amorphous and probably always impure, and hence analyses give Contains 19-26 results. uniform SiO2 40-45 no p. c., A12O3 5-10 p. c., MgO

Massive.
on

brittle

"

p. c.,

H20

19-21
"

p. c.; also

Fe2O3, FeO, etc.

B.B. gives out water very readily and blackens; thin splinters fuse with Pyr., etc. the edge. on Decomposed by sulphuric acid. difficulty in cavities in basalt,diabase, etc.; also with serpentine. Thus at Lizard Occurs Obs. Point, Cornwall, in veins in serpentine; at various localities in Scotland, etc. Saponite is from sapo, soap; and piotine from TTIOT^S, fat.
"

LASSALLITE.
masses.

Composition
=

perhaps 3MgO.2Al2p3.12SiO2.8H2O.
mine at Miramont

In

snow-white

G.
France.

1.5.

From

the antimony

and

at Can

Pey

near

fibrous Arles-sur-

Tech,
scales.

and A silicate of iron, magnesium potassium. Earthy or in minute cavities in amygdaloid at Mte. Baldo Index, 1 '63. From Very soft. Color green. near Verona, Italy. and Glauconite. Amorphous, Essentially a hydrous silicate of iron and potassium. Color resembling earthy chlorite; either in cavities in rocks, or loosely granular massive. abundant in the in rocks of nearly all geological ages; Occurs dull green. Index, 1'61. constituting 75 to 90 p. c. of the whole. "green sand," of the Chalk formation, sometimes A manganese shores. the continental sediments Found glauconear abundantly in ocean nite from the Marsjat forest,Ural Mts., has been called marsjatskite. Greenalite is a green hydrated ferrous silicate found as granules in the cherty rock associated with iron ores of the but contains no potash. Resembles Minn. Mesabi glauconite district,
Celadonite. In Corresponds approximately to K2q.l2(Fe,Mg)O.Al2O3.13SiO2.5H2O. Color grayish yellow. From 2*408. Taberg in Wermcrystallinescales. G. land, Sweden, with garnet, diopside, etc. Pholidolite. minute
=

578

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

IV. KAOLINITE.
Kaolin.

KAOLIN

DIVISION

Monoclinic; in thin rhombic, rhomboidal

with

anglesof 60" and

120".

hexagonal scales or plates or either a clay-like mass, Usually constituting

= =

compact, friable or mealy.

2-6-2-63. 2-2-5. G. inelastic. H. Flexible, perfect. Cleavage:basal, Color dull to earthy. white,grayish Luster of plates, pearly;of mass, pearly sometimes brownish,bluish or reddish. Scales transparent white, yellowish, and plastic. unctuous to translucent;usually pi. inclined Bx0 _L b (010). Bxa and ax. negative. Opticallybiaxial, 0 20" to normal to c (001). Axial anglelarge, behind some approx. 90".
=

1-482.
In crystalline Kaolinite. scales, pure white and with a satin luster in the less impure scales but more in part in crystalline or kaolin, Ordinary. Common includingthe compact lithomarge. Var.
"

1.

mass.

2.

Comp.
water

"

14-0

Silica 46.5, alumina 2H2O.Al203.2SiO2 39.5, or H4Al2Si209, The water goes off at a high temperature, above 330". 100.
=

solution.
"

with cobalt B.B. infusible. Gives a blue color on ignition Yields water. Insoluble in acids. sembles ReDiff. Characterized by unctuous, soapy feel and the alumina reaction B.B. under the microscope. infusorial earth,but readilydistinguished Obs. Ordinary kaolin is a result of the decomposition of aluminous minerals, especially and gneissoid rocks and porphyries. In some of granitic the feldspar regions where the resultingclay remains in vast beds of these rocks have decomposed on a largescale, less mixed free with more or usually kaolin, quartz, and sometimes with oxide of iron from in connection with of the other minerals present. Pure kaolinite in scales often occurs some tion, iron ores of the Coal formation. It sometimes forms extensive beds in the Tertiary formaAlso met with accompanying as near or Richmond, Va. diaspore and emery corundum. Occurs in the coal formation in Belgium; Schlan in Bohemia; in argillaceous schist at Lodeve, Dept. of H6rault, France; as kaolin at Diendorf (Bodenmais) in Bavaria; at Schemnitz, Hungary; with fluoriteat Zinnwald, Germany. near Yrieix, Limoges, France, of kaolin in Europe (a discovery of 1765) ; it affords material for the is the best locality famous Sevres porcelain of clay (kaolin) found in Cornwall manufactory. Large quantities are and West Devon, England. In the United States,kaolin occurs at Newcastle and Wilmington, Del.; at various in the limonite regionof Ver. (atBrandon, etc.), localities sonville, Mass., Delaware Co., Pa.; JackIn crystalplates Ala.; near Webster, N. C.; Edgefield, S. C.; near Augusta, Ga. from National Belle mine, Silverton, Col. From Lawrence Co., Ind. The name Kaolin is a corruptionof the Chinese Raiding, meaning high-ridge, the name of a hill near Jauchau Fu, where the material is obtained. Use. The finer, of porcelain, grades used in the manufacture purer china,etc.; in the form of clay in pottery, stoneware, bricks, etc.

Pyr.,etc.

"

"

"

Pholerite. from the coal

Near
mines

of

but kaolinite, Fins,Dept.

some

analyses give

15 p.

c.

water.

The

originalwas

of

France. 'Allier,

Faratsihite. (Al,Fe)2O?.2SiO2.2H2O. Intermediate kaolinite and between chloropal. In microscopic Monoclinic. hexagonal plates. Soft. G. 2. Color pale yellow. Index a littlehigher than that of kaolinite. Difficultly fusible. Decomposed by hydrochloric acid. From Faratsiho, Madagascar.
=

HALLOYSITE.

Massive.

Fracture conchoidal. somewhat or pearly,

Clay-like or earthy. H. Hardly plastic. 1-2. G. 2-0-2-20. Luster waxy, to dull. Color white,grayish, yellowish, greenish,
= =

SILICATES

579
or

reddish. bluish,
even

sometimes Translucent to opaque, becoming translucent increase of one-fifth in weight. in transparent water, with an
"

Var. in luster and opaque massive. Ordinary. Earthy or waxy is halGalapectite of Angleur,Belgium. dark green in color, loysite Pseudosteatite is an impure variety, with H. 2'25. G. 2'469. Indianaite is a white porcelainclay from Lawrence Co.,Indiana, where it occurs with allophane in beds four to ten feet thick. Smectite is greenish,and in certain states of humidity appears transparent and almost gelatinous;it is from Conde, near Houdan, France. Bole, in part, may belong here; that is those colored,unctuous clays containing more less iron oxide,which also have about 24 p. c. of water; the iron gives them a brownish, or Here yellowishor reddish color; but they may be mixtures. belongs Bergseife(mountainsoap).
=

A silicate of aluminium like kaolinite, but amor(Al2O3.2SiO2) phous and containing is somewhat uncertain, more but the water; the amount formula is probably to be taken as H4Al2Si2O9.H2O or 2H2O.Al2O3.2SiO2.H2O Silica 43-5, alumina 36 -9,water 100. 19 -6

Comp.

"

Yields water. Pyr., etc. Decomposed by acids.

"

B.B.

infusible.

fine blue

on

tion. ignitionwith cobalt solu-

Occurs often in veins or beds of ore, as a secondary product; also in granite aluminous minerals. rocks,being derived from the decomposition of some A clay-like TERMIERITE. of uncertain composition from substance resembling halloysite the antimony mines of Miramont, France.
"

Obs.

and

other

Newtonite. Found Sneed's on

HgA^Si^On-H^O.
Creek

In

in the northern

soft white compact masses Co., Ark. part of Newton

resembling kaolin.

BATCHELORITE. Tasmania.

Al2O3.2SiO2.H2O.

green

foliated mineral

from

Mt.

Lyell mine,

A Cimolite. hydrous silicate of aluminium, 2Al2O3.9SiO2.6H2O. Amorphous clayColor white, grayishwhite, reddish. 2' 18-2*30. From or like, chalky. Very soft. G. the island of Argentiera (Kimolos of the Greeks). Montmorillonite. Probably H2Al2SLiOi2.nH2O. Massive, clay-like. Very soft and tender. Luster feeble. and bluish ; also pistachio-green. Color white or grayishto rose-red, Unctuous. from Montmorillon, France, is rose-red. is paler Montmorillonite, Confolensite rose-red;from Confolens, Dept. of Charente at St. Jean-de-Cole,near Thiyiers. is a clay from the basalt of Stolpen,Germany. Stolpenite Saponite of Nickl"s is a white, plastic, soap-likeclay from the granite from which issues one of the hot springs of Plombieres, smegmatite by Naumann. France, called Soap Spring; it was named
=

PYROPHYLLITE.

radiated lamellar or somewhat also granuFoliated, fibrous; lar latter the sometimes compact cryptocrystalline; slaty. not elastic. Feel greasy. Laminae Cleavage: basal,eminent. flexible, 1-2. H. G. 2 -8-2 -9. Luster of folia pearly; of massive kinds dull and glistening.Color white,apple-green, grayishand brownish green, yellowish to ocher-yellow, Optically grayish white. Subtransparent to opaque. Bx _L cleavage. Ax. anglelarge, Mean to 108". index,1*58.
to
or
= =
"

Monoclinic?

and often radiated,closely luster and resembling talc in color, feel, (1) Foliated, (2) Compact massive, white, grayish and greenish,somewhat pact resembling comThis compact variety includes part of what has gone under French chalk. or steatite, the name of agalmatolite, and is sometimes from China; it is used for slate-pencils, called pencil-stone. Var.
"

structure.

Comp.
water

"

or H2Al2(SiO3)4

H2O.Al2O3.4SiO2

Silica 667, alumina

28*3,

5'0

100.
"

with

Yields water, but only at a high temperature. Pyr., etc. the edges. The radiated varieties exfoliate on difficulty

B.B. whitens, and fuses in fan-like forms, swelling

580
UD

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

with cobalt solution and Moistened of the assay volume times the original by sulphuric acid, and Partiallydecomposed heated gives a deep blue color (alumina). carbonates. alkaline with fusion on completely but distinguished by the reaction for alumina with cobalt talc, Resembles some
to
many

Diff. Obs

"

"

Compact

near

Mt., Mecklenburg Co., N. C.; in Lincoln Co., Ga., on Graves Mt. for making slate-pencils and The compact kind, at Deep River, N. C., is extensivelyused or pagodite of China, often used for ornamental resembles the so-called agalmatolite
Cottonstone in stellate aggregations Chesterfield Dist., S. C., with lazulite and cyanite; Also in white
in

varietyis often the gangue Ottrez, Luxemburg; Ouro

is the material or pyrophyllite of cyanite. Occurs

base

of

some

schistose rocks.

The

ated foli-

in the Ural

Mts.;

at

Westana, Sweden;

Preto, Brazil.

carvings.
USe.
"

For

the

same

purposes

as

which talc,

see.

ALLOPHANE.

and

usuallythin,with a mammillary surface, Amorphous. In incrustations, almost pulverulent. stalactitic. sometimes Occasionally hyalite-like; to conchoidal and Fracture earthy. Very brittle. shining, imperfectly Luster vitreous to subresinous;brightand waxy 1-85-1-89. H. 3. G. sometimes Color pale sky-blue, greenishto deep green, brown, internally. 1*49. Translucent, Streak uncolored. n yellowor colorless. Silica 23'8, alumina aluminium Al2Si05.5H20 silicate, Hydrous Comp. water of 100. Some analysesgive 6 equivalents 40-5,water 35-7
= = =
"

Silica 22-2,alumina Impuritiesare

and of chrysocolla,
are

37-8,water

40'0

100.

not

uncommon.

often present. The coloringmatter of the blue variety is due to traces substances intermediate between allophane and chrysocolla(mixtures) The green variety is colored by malachite, and the yellowish and

brown

by iron. in the closed tube. B.B. but is infusible. Yields much water crumbles Pyr.,etc. Gives a blue color on ignition with cobalt solution. Gelatinizes with hydrochloricacid. Obs. cate silialuminous Allophane is regarded as a result of the decomposition of some (feldspar, etc.);and it often occurs incrustingfissures or cavities in mines, especially
"

"

those of copper and limonite, and even in beds of coal. Named from aXXos, other, and ^aiveadai, to appear, in allusion to its change of appearance under the blowpipe.
H. 2(Al,Fe)2O3.SiO2.8H2O. In imperfect 3. massive. prisms. Stalactitic, Infusible. From Thuringia. Saalfield, Collyrite.2Al2O3.SiO2.9H2O. A clay-like mineral, white, with a glimmering luster, and adhering to the tongue. G. 2-2 -15. greasy feel, From Ezquerra in the Pyrenees. SchrStterite. 8Al2O3.3SiO2.30H2O. Resembles in like gum allophane; sometimes H. 3-3 -5. G. 1-95-2 -05. Color pale green or yellowish. From appearance. Dollinin Styria; at the Falls of Little River, on the Sand Mt., ger mountain, near Freienstein, Cherokee Co., Ala.
=

Melite. 2-2.

Color bluish brown.

The

are minerals following clay-like

or

mineral

substances:

catlinite. smectite, Sinopite,

Cenosite. I^Ca^Er^CSi^n. From Hittero, Norway; Britholite.

In A
minute

Orthorhombic.
Sweden.

G.

3'38.

Color

yellowishbrown.

Nordmark,
"

complex silicateand phosphate of the cerium metals and calcium. agonal. Hexcrystals. H. 5'5. G. 4-4. brown. From Color nepheline
=
=

syenite region of Julianehaab, South Greenland. Erikite. Compositionuncertain;

silicate and phosphate of the cerium a essentially rthorhombic. In prismatic crystals. H. 5'5. G. 3'5. Color light yellow-brown to dark gray-brown. From in South Greenland. nepheline-syenite Plazolite 3CaO Isometric. In minute dodecahedrons. b5. G. =3-13. Colorless to lightyellow, n 171. From Cal.
= =

Al20A2(Si02,C02).2H20.
=

Crestmore,

SILICATES

581 Massive, compact, crystalline.Cleavage

Thaumasite. H. in traces.

CaSiO3.CaCO3.CaSO4.15H2O.
=

3'5.

G.

1-877.

Color

white.

Uniaxial,o-.
co
=

1'507,

"

1'468.

Occurs cavities and crevices at the Bjelkemine, near filling Areskuta, Jemtland, at first soft but hardens to the air. Also in fibrous crystalline on masses exposure Co., Utah. erson, N. J.; from Beaver

Sweden;
at Pat-

Spurrite.
H.
=

2Ca2SiO4.CaCO3.
=

and

Color pale gray, ft diorite in Velardena mining 5.

Probably monoclinic. Infusible. .From Mexico. district,

T67.

In

granular cleavable
zone

masses.

contact

between

limestone

Uranophane.
fibrous.

G.

granite of
Dixenite. H.
=

CaO.2UO3.2'SiO2.GH2O.In radiated aggregations; massive, Color yellow. Biaxial,-. Indices, 1'650-1'670. From the at Wolsendorf,Bavaria; Mitchell Co., Kupferberg, Silesia. Uranotil occurs
Uranotil.
=

3-81-3-90.

3-4.
n
=

Basal
1*96. A

In aggregates MnSiO3.2Mn2(OH)AsO3. of thin folia. Hexagonal. cleavage. Color nearly black, red by transmitted light. Optically From

Langban,

Sweden.

Bakerite.
masses

From

In compact 8CaO.5B2O3.6SiO2.6H2O. hydrated calcium borosilicate, 4'5. G. Color white. 2'7-2'9. Fusible. resembling unglazed porcelain. H. borax depositsin Mohave desert,16 miles N. E. of Daggett, San Bernardino Co.,
=

Cal. CHRYSOCOLLA.

often opal-like enamel-like in texture; earthy. Inor Cryptocrystalline; Sometimes seams. botryoidal. In microscopicacicular crustingor filling from Mackay, Idaho. crystals Rather sectile; Fracture conchoidal. translucent varieties brittle. H. 2-2*238. Luster 2-4. G. vitreous,shining,earthy. Color mountaininto bluish brown to black passing sky-blueand turquois-blue; green, green, when when pure, white. Translucent to opaque. Crystals impure. Streak, from Idaho w 1-46; e 1-57; weakly pleochroic, Uniaxial, +; gave: e co colorless, paleblue-green. True to correspond to CuSiO3.2H2O chrysocollaappears Comp. Silica 34-3,copper oxide 45 -2, water 20 -5 100, the water being double that of dioptase.
= = = = = =
"

also alumina, black oxide of Composition varies much through impurities; free silica, and be present; the color coniron oxide of oxide of sequently (orlimonite) manganese may copper, It has been suggested that the and black. varies from bluish green to brown is not definite but that it is usuallyin the form of a mineral composition of most chrysocolla gel with copper oxide,silica and water occurring in varying proportionsaccording to the conditions of formation. B.B. decrepitates, colors the In the closed tube blackens and yields water. Pyr.,etc. flame emerald-green, but is infusible. With the fluxes gives the reactions for copper. With soda and charcoal a globule of metallic copper. Decomposed by acids without
"

gelatinization. Obs. Accompanies

"

in the upper other copper part of veins. ores, occurringespecially in copper mines in Cornwall, England; Hungary; Siberia;Saxony; South Australia; Chile,etc. In the United States,similarly at the Schuyler'smines, N. J.; at Morgantown, Pa.; at from In crystals the Clifton mines, Graham mine, Utah. Co., 'inGila Co., Ariz.; Emma Mackay, Idaho. of a material used the name and was glue, Chrysocollais from XPV(TOS, gold,and KO\\"X, is often applied now in soldering to borax, which is so employed. gold. The name

Found

Use.

"

Chrysocolla may

serve

as

minor

ore

of copper.
3-8. Color blue. G. Shattuck mine, Bisbee,
=

Shattuckite. 2CuSiO3.H2O. Compact, granular, fibrous. at Indices, 1 '73-1 '80. Pleochroic,dark to light blue. Found forming pseudomorphs after malachite. Ariz.,

Color pale blue to nearly white; Bisbeeite. CuSiO3.H2O. Orthorhombic, fibrous. of fibers positive. Indices 1-59 to 1-65. Pleochroic, pale green to pale very mine from the hydrationof at Bisbee, Ariz.,resulting Found at Shattuck olive-brown.

Elongation

shattuckite.

582
CHLOROPAL.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Compact
H.
=

2-5^-5.

specimen;
to

earthy. massive, with an opal-like appearance; the second a conchoidal G. 1727-1-870, earthy varieties, and Color pistachio-green. yellow greenish Ceylon. 2-105,
=

Fragile. Fracture Opaque to subtranslucent. the to Adheres feebly tongue. earthy.

Var.
"

conchoidal

and

splintery

from the Hungaand was named characters, rian Chloropalhas the above-mentioned occurringat Unghwar. and greenish,with an unctuous is pale straw-yellow or canary-yellow, Nontronite feel; flattens and grows lumpy under the pestle,and is polished by friction; from Nontron, extremely soft,like ftewPinguite is siskin- and oil-green, Dept. of Dordogne, France. resinous luster, not adhering to the tongue; from Wolkenstein with a slightly made soap, has a grass-green color (whence the name), and occurs Graminite in Saxony. at MenzenGermany; in thin fibrous seams, or as delicate lamellaB. berg,in the Siebengebirge, mineral

A hydrated silicate of ferric iron, perhaps with the general Comp. Silica 41-9, iron sesquiformula Fe2O3.3SiO2.5H2O or HeF^CSiO^a^I^O
"

water oxide 37 -2,

The water

20*9

100.

Alumina

is present in

some

varieties.

The silica both vary much. mixed with Hungarian chloropal occurs of its analyses. opal,and graduates into it,and this accounts for the high silica of some Obs. Localities mentioned also at Meenser above. Chloropal occurs Steinbergnear On Moravia. Gottingen, Germany; pinguite at Sternberg, Lehigh Mt., Pa., south of in connection with iron deposits. From Palmetto Allentown, occurs Mts., Esmeralda Co.,
"

and

Nev.

HCBFERITE. G.

An

iron silicate near

chloropal. Color
From

green.

From

Kfitz, Bohemia.
nontronite. Soft.

Miillerite. Zamboniniie. Fe2Si3O9.2H2O. Color yellowishgreen. 2-0. Infusible.

A

Massive.

Resembles

Hisingerite.

Nontron, Dordogne, France. of uncertain hydrated ferric silicate, composition. Amorphous,

=

pact. com-

Fracture conchoidal. H. =3. G. brownish black. Streak yellowish brown. Langban, etc.,Norway; from Greenland.

2'5-3'0. From

Luster

greasy.

Color

black

to

Riddarhyttan, Tunaberg,
composition.
Fibrous.

Sweden;
Color

Morencite. A hydrated ferric silicate of brownish yellow. From Morenci, Ariz.

uncertain

The
radiated
the
zinc

are following hydrous

manganese

silicates.
to Cleavages ||
=

Bementite.
masses mines

HeMn^SiO^. Orthorhombic. resembling pyrophyllite. G.

of Franklin
.

2 "981.

three pinacoids. In soft Color pale grayish yellow. From

Furnace,N. J. In thin tabular crystals. Good Monoclinic(?). cleavage. H. G. 2-46. Color brown. 1 "62-1 -63. Opaque. Indices, From Langban, Sweden. Agnolite. H2Mn3(SiO3)4.H2O. Name given to the manganese silicate occurring as part of the material from Schemnitz,Hungary, known as manganocalcite. Triclinic. In
T

Mn*Si8O28.7H2O. EcJr"P^e=4.
=

radiatingfibrous
Orientite.
77" 776.

masses.

Color

flesh-red to

rose.

H.

=5.

G.

3'0.

Ca4Mn4(SiO4)5.4H2O. Orthorhombic.
=

Radiating prismatic.
=

^I7" ^ From opaq;f 1795.

and

""

H-

Onente

G. Cuba. Province,
=

4-"-5.

3.

+. Optically In acute

"

Brown to 1758.
=

Perfect basal
-

Monoclinic. PprS?tdh^10n?te' 3"z*LMn)9|iO*-H*". cleavage. H= 4-5-5.

G.
=

pyramidal crystals.
to reddish brown. From Franklin, N. J. In J.

3*91.

1 76.
~

Color,bright pink

crepitates

then fuses readily. Soluble in acids.

radiating groups
G
~

A of manganese, 1}ydrojf ran,??;"*6' sjjicate of needle-like

magnesium and zinc, 8RO.3SiO2.2H2O. crystals. Colorless and transparent. From Franklin, N.
stalactitic and reniform Sweden. Pajsberg,

Harstigmine near and iron, of "?!]"* ?ica11 "[ allv dee"rivedefrnm alteration of rhodonite. Amorphous. and
manSanese

In -^T^-Qi %""?*** iMn0-3SKV3H20. olor brown. From the

shapes.

liverTbro^n

doubtful composition, usuColor black to dark brown

584
flattened
1$} in f*l 11\ T*

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

||c (001); also prismatic.Sometimes

massive, compact;

rarely

in greenoI vite Cleavage- m (110)rather distinct;a (100), (112)imperfect; to due often (221) twinning 177 Parting less so. easy 1 n (111)easy, t (111)
to adamantine resinous. Luster 3 -4-3 -56. G. 5-5'5. lamellae. H. Streak black. and white, slightly Color brown, gray, yellow, green, rose-red Transparent to opaque. reddish in greenovite. but distinct in deep-colored kinds: rather feeble, Pleochroism in general 7, yellow,often greenish;X, nearly colorless. Z red with tinge of yellow;.
= =

Bx A c axis i.e., b (010). Bx nearly J_ x (102), Ax. pi.|| + Optically axial o f the the hence and peculiarity large, " v very p + 51". Dispersion 27". a in white, light. Axial angles variable. 2V interference-figure
=
.

1-900.
Var.
"

ft

1-907.

2-034.

to black, the original being thus colored,also Ordinary, (a) Titanite; brown of lightshades, as from a wedge)', a^v, (named subtranslucent. (6) Sphene or opaque is an applewas yellow. Ligurite and often translucent;the original etc., yellow,greenish, subkind. Lederite is or brown, greenish a opaque, Semeline) green sphene. Spinthere(or of the form in Fig. 960. translucent, of rutile and ilmemte, not is a white mostly granular alteration-product Titanomorphite in certain crystalline rocks; here also belongs most leucoxene (see p. 418). uncommon ganese; owing to the presence of a littlemanManganesian; Greenovite. Red or rose-colored, in Narukot, India. from St. Marcel, Piedmont, Italy; from Jothvad eucolite-titanite. Here belong grothite, alshedite, Containingyttrium or cerium.

CaTiSiO5 Comp. 100. 28*6 lime 40-8,

"

or

CaO.TiO2.Si02

Silica 30-6, titanium

dioxide
ganese man-

Iron is
some

present in
kinds.

varying amounts, sometimes

and also
"

yttrium in

varieties change color,becoming yellow, and fuse at 3 with B.B. some Pyr., etc. intumescence,to a yellow,brown or black glass. With borax they afford a clear yellowish if the solution be concentrated green glass. Imperfectly soluble in heated hydrochloricacid; and it assumes With salt of phosphorus in R. F. a fine violet color. along with tin, gives a violet bead; varieties containing much iron require to be treated with the flux on charcoal with metallic tin. Completely decomposed by sulphuricand hydrofluoricacids. Diff. Characterized by its obliquecrystallization, a wedge-shaped form by common; hardness resinous (oradamantine) luster; less than that of staurolite and greater than that of sphalerite. The reaction for titanium is distinctive, but less so in varieties containing
"

much
its

iron.
"

in thin sections by its acute-angledform, often lozenge-shaped; Distinguished generallypale brown tone; very high relief and remarkable birefringence, causing the section to show white of the higher order; by its biaxial character (showing many lemniscate curves); and by its great dispersion, which produces colored hyperbolas. Artif. Titanite is apparently produced artificially only with difficulty.It has been obtained by fusingtogether silicaand titanic oxide with calcium chloride. Obs. as Titanite, an component, is widespread as a rock forming mineral, accessory though confined mostly to the acidic feldspathic common igneous rocks; it is much more in the plutonicgranular types than in the volcanic forms. Thus it is found in the more basic hornblende granites, and diorites, and is especially and characteristic syenites, common in the nephelite-syenites. It occurs in also in the metamorphic rocks and especially the schists, rich in magnesia and iron and in certain granular limestones. It gneisses, etc., is also found in beds of iron ore; commonly associated minerals are amphibole, pyroxene, chlorite, scapolite, In cavities in gneiss and granite, zircon, etc. it often accomapatite, panies adularia, smoky quartz, apatite,chlorite, etc. Occurs at various points in the Grisons,Switzerland, associated with feldspar and chlorite;Tavetsch; Binnental;in the St. Gothard region; Zermatt in the Valais ; Maderanertal in Uri; also elsewhere in the Alps; in Dauphine (spinthere), France; in Italy at Ala (hgunte) and at St. Marcel, in Piedmont; at Schwarzenstein and Rothenkopf in the Tyro1' z"Ptau, Moravia; near Tavistock, England; near Tremadoc, in /uif r' XT JNorth Wales; from Kragero and in titanic iron at Arendal, Norway; with magnetite at
" "

Micro.

TITANO-SILICATES,
Nordmark,
at Lake

TITANATES

585

Mts. found among volcanic rocks, Occasionally the Rhine. Andernach on In Mass., in gneiss, In Me., in fine crystals at Sandford. in the east part of Lee; at and In N. Y., at Roger's Rock Bolton with pyroxene scapolitein limestone. Lake on in small brown in granular crystals;at Gouverneur, in black crystals George, abundant limestone; in Diana near Natural Bridge, Lewis Co., in largedark brown crystals, among
as

Sweden;

Achmatovsk, Ural
at

Laach

(semeline) and

Iredell Co., yellowishwhite with sunstone; also Buncombe Statesville, Co., Alexander Co., other points. in Quebec at Grenyille, Occurs in Canada ArgenteuilCo.; also Buckingham, Templeton, Co.; in Ontario at North Burgess, honey-yellow; Wakefield,Hull, Ottawa near Eganville, with apatite, Renfrew Co., in very large dark brown crystals amphibole, zircon. Molengraaffite. A titano-silicateof lime and soda. Monoclinic (?). In imperfectprismatic From crystals.Cleavage (100)perfect. Color yellow-brown. Indices, 173-177. in Pilandsberg,near a rock, "lujaurite," Rustenberg, Transvaal. A titano-silicate of calcium, aluminium, ferric iron, and Keilhauite. the yttrium 6'5. titanite in habit and angles. H. G. metals. 3'52-377. Color near Crystals From brownish black. near Arendal, Norway. A titano-silicate of the cerium Tscheffkinite. metals, iron, etc., but an alteration less heterogeneous, and the composition of the original mineral is very or product, more G. 5-5'5. 4'508-4'549. Color velvet-black. uncertain. Massive, amorphous. H. in the Ural Mts. Also from South India, Kanjamalai Hill, From mountains the Ilmen Salem district. An isolated mass weighing 20 Ibs. has been found on Hat Creek,near MasNelson Co., Va.; also found, south of this point,in Bedford Co. sie's Mills,
and
=

H, Na, K, and R Fe, Mn chiefly, Astrophyllite.Probably R4R4Ti(SiO4)4with R In elongated crystals; also in thin strips or blades; includingalso Fe2O3. Orthorhombic. in stellate groups. sometimes Cleavage: 6 (010) perfect like mica, but laminae brittle. H. 3 '3-3 '4. Luster submetallic, G. 3. pearly. Color bronze-yellowto gold-yellow. Indices,1 '678-1733. Optically+. near Occurs on the small islands in the Langesund fiord, Brevik, Norway, in elseolitein feldspar,with catapleiite, black mica, etc. segirite, Similarlyat syenite, embedded Also with arfvedsonite and zircon at St. Kangerdluarsuk and Narsarsuk, Greenland. Peter's Dome, Pike's Peak, El Paso Co., Col.
= = = =

Johnstrupite.A
and fluorine.
From Near
near

In

silicateof the cerium metals, calcium prismatic monoclinic crystals. G.

near

and
=

3 '29.

sodium with titanium chiefly, Color brownish green.

same

Index,

1 -646.

Barkevik, Norway.
and

Mosandrite.

Rinkite,also
Narsarsukite. In
on

in form Johnstrupite is Johnstrupite, from

composition and from the

""

region.

Greenland.
H.
w

f""

highly acidic titano-silicate of ferric

=7.
=

iron
=

tabular

cleavage. crystals.Fine prismatic

G.

T55. or ocher-yellow. weathering brownish gray Narsarsuk, southern Greenland. Neptunite. A titano-silicate of iron (manganese) and the alkali metals. In prismatic black. 3 '23. Color 5-6. G. Streak, cinnamon-brown. monoclinic crystals.H. at Narsarsuk and elsewhere, Mean yellow to deep-red. Found Pleochroic, index, 170. called in San Benito Co., Cal. (originally southern Greenland, and at the benitoite locality
= =

and sodium. Tetragonal. Color honey-yellow, 27. In pegmatite at Fusible.

carlosite)
.

In crystals Hexagonal, trigonal(ditrigonal-bipyramidal) Benitojte. BaTiSi3O9. 3'6. Color sapphire-blue to lightblue and 6'2-6'5. G .= with p(1011) prominent. H. 177. Fusible colorless. Transparent. deep blue to colorless, co Strongly dichroic, of the San Benito the headwaters and natrolite near Found at 3. associated with neptunite River in San Benito Co., Cal. In minute wedge-shaped crystals. Leucosphenite. Na4Ba(TiO)2(Si2O5)5. Monoclinic. 1'66. fusible. Color white. 3'0. G. Difficultly 6'5. /8 Distinct cleavage. H. From Narsarsuk, southern Greenland.
.

586
Lorenzenite. acicular

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Nao(TiO)2Si2O7. Contains

considerable zirconia.
H.
=

minute From

crystals.Distinct cleavage.

6.

G.

3 -4.

/3about

In Orthorhombic. 1 '78. Fusible.

Narsarsuk, southern Greenland. Joaquinite. A titano-silicate of calcium

Associated with benitoite from San

yellow.

and Benito

iron.

Orthorhombic.

Color, honey-

Co., Cal.

PEROVSKITE.

Perofskite.

Crystalsin general(Ural Mts., Zermatt, Isometric or pseudo-isometric. Switzerland) cubic in habit and often highly modified, but the faces often
distributed. irregularly
to the edges and apparCubic faces striated parallel ently in reniform Also individuals. if of pyritohedral penetration-twins, showing small cubes. masses subconchoidal. to uneven Cleavage: cubic, rather perfect. Fracture mantine. metallic-adato adamantine Luster 4-017-4-039. G. 5*5. Brittle. H. reddish brown, Color pale yellow,honey-yellow,orange-yellow,
as
= =

Streak colorless, Usually grayish. Transparent to opaque. double refraction. Mean index, about 2*38. exhibits anomalous however, conforms to the isometric system; optically, perovskite Geometricallyconsidered, oped molecular structure (alsoas develit is uniformly biaxial and usuallypositive. The Cf. Art. 429. to correspond to Orthorhombic symmetry. by etching)seems Titanium dioxide 58-9, lime 41-1 Calcium titanate,CaTiO3 Comp.

grayishblack.

"

100.

Iron is
"

present in small
forcepsand
on

amount

the calcium. replacing

charcoal infusible. With salt of phosphorus in O.F. dissolves easily, giving a greenishbead while hot, which becomes colorless on cooling; in tirely Enand on coolingassumes R.F. the bead changes to grayish green, a violet-blue color. decomposed by boilingsulphuricacid. associated with chlorite, and magnetic iron in chlorite Obs. Occurs in small crystals, in the Ural Mts.; at Schelingen in the Kaiserstuhl, at Achmatovsk, near Zlatoust, slate, Germany, in granularlimestone; in the valley of Zermatt, Switzerland,near the Findelen Pfitsch and in Tyrol, Austria; various Pfunders glacier;at Wildkreuzjoch, between noted in microscopic octahedral crystals as a rock localities, Piedmont, Italy. Sometimes and melilite-basalts; also in serpentine(altered constituent; thus in nepheliteperidotite) at Syracuse, N. Y.; in igneous rocks,Beaver Creek, Gunnison Co., Col.

Pyr.,etc.

In the

"

In black isometric crystals. From Knopite. Near perovskitebut contains cerium. Alno, Sweden. Dysanalyte. A titano-niobate of calcium and iron,like perovskitewith lime replaced to some extent etc. In cubic crystals. by iron, Pseudo-isometric, probably Orthorhombic. the granular limestone of Vogtsburg, Kaiserstuhl,Baden, GerColor, iron-black. From many. Has previouslybeen called perovskite,but is in fact intermediate between the titanate, perovskite,and the niobates, Mte. pyrochlore and koppite. From Somma,

has also long passed as perovskite,occurs It is in octahedrons Cove, Ark. or black or brownish black in color and submetallic in luster. See also the allied titanate, mentioned bixbyite, on p. 425.

Vesuvius. A related mineral,which

brookite, rutile, etc.,at Magnet

with magnetite, cubo-octahedrons,

Magnesium iron titanate, ally Usu(Mg,Fe)TiO3. Hexagonal, rhombohedral. roUed pebbles. H. =6. G. 4. Color bluish or brownish black. high. From Ceylon. Delorenzite. A titanate of iron,uranium and yttrium of uncertain composition. Orthorhombi Prismatic habit. Color black. Resinous in pegmatite at luster. Found Val Vigezzo, Graveggia, Piedmont, Italy. Yttrocrasite. A hydrous titanate of the yttrium earths and thorium. Orthorhombic. G4-8. Black color with pitchy to resinous luster. Infusible. **"_? 5'5~6; Found in Burnet Co., three miles east of Barringer Hill, Texas.
massive, Index, very
as
=

Geikielite.

Brannerite. Basin Idh

Essentially (UO,TiO,UO2)TiO3.
greenish brown"
H"
=

4'5"

G"

"

Prismatic crystalsor granular. Blank. 4'5-5'4F"und in gold placers, Stanley

NIOBATES,

TANTALATES

587

Oxygen
3.

Salts

NIOBATES,

TANTALATES
are

and

The Niobates metatantalic

(Columbates)and Tantalates and acid, RNb2O6 RTa^A;

also in

R2Nb2O7, etc. Titanium is prominent in a number hence intermediate between the niobates and titanates. Niobium and tantalum also enter into the composition of a few rare silicates, as lavenwohlerite,
etc. ite, The

salts of metaniobic chiefly part Pyroniobates, of the species, which are

be mentioned: may PYROCHLORE GROUP, includingpyrochlore, etc. microlite, The and tetragonal FERGUSONITE GROUP, including fergusonite sipylite. The orthorhombic COLUMBITE GROUP, includingcolumbite and tantalite. Also the orthorhombic SAMARSKITE samarskGROUP, including yttrotantalite, and annerodite. ite, The species belonging in this class are for the most part rare, and are hence but briefly described. The isometric
PYROCHLORE.

following groups

Commonly in octanedrons;also in grains. sometimes distinct. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle. Cleavage octahedral, H. 4 -2-4 -36. 5-5-5. Luster vitreous or resinous, G. the latter on fracture surfaces. Color brown, dark reddish or blackish brown. Streak light brown. Subtranslucent to opaque, brown, yellowish Chiefly a niobate of the cerium metals, calcium and other Comp. bases,with also titanium, thorium,fluorine. Probably essentially a metaniobate with a titanate, RNb2O6.R(Ti,Th)03; fluorine is also present.
:
= =
"

Isometric.

Obs. at Fredriksvarn and Laurvik, Norway; Occurs in elseolite-syenite the island on Lovo, oppositeBrevik, and at several pointsin the Langesund fiord;near Miask in the Ural Mts. Named and x^wpos, green, because B.B. it becomes from -n-vp,fire, yellowish green. A variety of pyrochlore from near Wausau, Wis., has been called marignadte. Neotantalite. that of tantalite. Composition near Isometric, in octahedrons. H. 5-6. 5'2. G. Color clear yellow. Refractive index, 1*9. with Found kaolin France, at Colettes and Echassieres, Dept. PAllier,
"

ii

ii
=

In small octahedrons. H. Isometric. 5-5. Chalcolamprite. RNb2OeF2.RSiO3. G. 3 '8. Color dark gray-brown. Crystal faces show a copper-red metallic iridescence. Occurs sparinglyat Narsarsuk, South Greenland. Endeiolite is a similar mineral from the same supposed to have the same composition with the substitution of the hydroxyl locality
=

group

for the fluorine.

Koppite. Essentially a
minute brown

embedded

dodecahedrons. in limestone.
A

pyroniobate of cerium, calcium, etc., near pyrochlore. In From 4'45-4'56. G. Schelingen, Kaiserstuhl, Germany,
=

Hatchettolite.
a

tantalo-niobate
=

(100) and
the mica

(311). G.
A

at

mines

477-4-90. of Mitchell Co., N. niobate

of uranium, near pyrochlore. In octahedrons with Color yellowish brown. Occurs with samarskite, C.; from Mesa Grande, Cal.
=

In octahedrons. G. 5 24. of uranium, etc. Isometric. Antsirabe, on Samiresy Hill,Madagascar. Microlite. bium, Essentiallya calcium pyrotantalate,CauTa2O7, but containing also nioIsometric. Habit fluorine and hedral; octaa variety of bases in small amount. H. 5'5. G. crystalsoften very small and highly modified. 5'485-5'562; T94. From 6*13 Virginia. Color pale yellow to brown, rarely hyacinth-red, n Conn.; Rumford, Me.; Uto, Sweden; GreenMass., in albite;Branchville, Chesterfield, Samiresite.

Color golden-yellow. From

588
land.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Courtat Amelia at the mica mines Also in fine crystals up to 1 in. in diameter House, Amelia Co., Va. and perhaps identical with PYRRHITE. Probably a niobate related to pyrochlore, From Alabashka, near Mursinka orange-yellowoctahedrons. microlite. Occurs in minute in the Ural Mts.; from Mte. Somma, Vesuvius.
RISORITE. H.
=

niobate
4-18. In

of

the

yttrium
at

metals.

Isotropic. Color

yellow-brown.

5'5.

G.

pegmatite

Risor, Norway.

FERGUSONITE.

Tyrite. Bragite
c
=

Axis Tetragonal-pyramidal. in habit.

T4643.

Crystals pyramidal

or

matic pris=

subconchoidal. Brittle. H. Fracture (111) in traces. nally to 4 -3 when 5-5-6. G. largelyhydrated. Luster exter5-8, diminishing Color brownvitreous and submetallic. ish the fracture brilliantly on dull, Streak pale brown. Subtransblack; in thin scales pale liver-brown.

Cleavage:
=

lucent to opaque.
"

Index, 2-19.

metaniobate a (and tantalate)of yttrium with Essentially Comp. also iron,calcium,etc. in amounts; uranium, varying cerium, etc., erbium,
in
in

General

formula

R(Nb,Ta)O4 with

Y,Er,Ce.

in considerable amount, but probably not an Water is usually present and sometimes increases. gravity falls as the amount constituent;the specific original From Obs. Cape Farewell in Greenland, in quartz; also at Ytterby and Kararfvet, From Sweden. near Beforona, Madagascar; South Africa; Australia; Ceylon; Takathe island of on Mino, Japan. Tyrite is associated with euxenite at Hampemyr yama, is from Helle,Naresto, etc.,Norway. Tromo, and Helle on the mainland, Norway; bragite Found in the United States,at Rockport, Mass., in granite; in the Brindletown gold Burke Co., N. C., in gold washings; with zircon in Anderson district, Co., S. C.; at the in Llano Co., Texas, in considerable locality gadolinite quantity. also the cerium metals, etc., near Sipylite. A niobate of erbium chiefly, fergusonite in form. 4 '89. G. Color Rarely in octahedral crystals. Usually in irregular masses. brownish black to brownish orange. Occurs sparinglywith allanite in Amherst Co., Va.
"

COLUMBITE-TANTALITE.

Orthorhombic. yy'", mm'", gg', cfc,

cq, 210 110 130 001 001 A A A A A

Axes
2lO
110 130 103 023
=

: c

0'8285

0'8898.
001 100 001 133 133
,

45"

0'.

ce,

A A A A
A

021 111 133

60" 40'. 51" 16'.

43" 48'.

79" 17'. 43" 50'. 19" 42'. 30" 41'.

ao, cu,

uu',
uu"'

133
133

29" 57'. 79" 54'.

Twins: tw. pi. e (021) usually contact-twins, common, heart-shaped(Fig. also penetration-twins; 385, p. 160), further tw. pi.q (023)rare 434, p. (Fig. short prismatic, 169). Crystals often rectangular prisms with the three pinacoids

prominent; also thin tabular || a (100);the pyramids often but slightly developed, terminated by u (133)alone. sometimes, however,acutely Also in large and massive. crystals, groups of parallel rather distinct; Cleavage:a (100) 6 (010) less so. Fracture subconchoidal to uneven. Brittle. H. 6. G. 5 -3-7 -3,varying with the composition (see below). Luster submetallic, often very brilliant, sub-resinous. Color iron-black, grayish and brownish black,opaque; and rarelyreddish brown
= =

NIOBATES, iridescent. frequently translucent;

".=

TANTALATES

589 red to black.

4Optically

Streak dark

2-26.

0
967

2-20.

2-34.
968 969

Middletown

Black

Hills

Greenland

Niobate and tantalate of iron and manganese, Comp. (Fe,Mn)(Nb, from normal COLUMBITE, the nearly Ta)206,passingby insensible gradations The iron and pure niobate,to normal TANTALITE, the nearlypure tantalate. also and Tin in small amount. widely. vary tungsten are present manganese The Niobium percentage composition for FeNb2O6 pentbxide 82-7, iron Tantalum protoxide17 '3 100; for FeTa^Oe pentoxide86-1,iron protoxide
"

13-9
In
some

100. manganocolumbite varieties,

or

the iron is largelyreplacedby manganotantalite, the percentage of -metallic acids G. Bodenmais Haddam Bodenmais Haddam
Tantalite 5 '92 6'05 6 '06 613 7-03

manganese.

The
shown

connection between the specific gravity and in the followingtable: G.

is

TaaOe
3 '3 15'8 13 '8 13'4 lO'O

Ta2O5
27-1 30-4 35-4 31-5 65-6

Greenland

Acworth, Limoges
Bodenmais
Haddam

N.

H.

5 '36 5'65

570

(Dianite)

574 5'85

Diff. Distinguished (from black tourmaline, etc.) by orthorhombic crystallization, often with iridescent rectangularforms common; high specific gravity; submetallic luster, surface; cleavage much less distinct than for wolframite. For B.B. With salt of phosphorus dissolves alone unaltered. Pyr., etc. tantalite, coal which in R.F. is pale yellowon cooling;treated with tin on charslowly,givingan iron glass, it becomes Decomposed on fusion with potassium bisulphatein the platinum green. with dilute hydrochloric acid a yellowsolution and a heavy spoon, and gives on treatment white powder, which, on addition of metallic zinc,assumes a smalt-blue color; on dilution with water the blue color soon disappears. Columbite,when decomposed by fusion with the addition of caustic potash, and treated with hydrochloricand sulphuricacids, on gives, a blue color more than with tantalite. Partially decomposed when the powdered zinc, lasting mineral is evaporated to dryness with concentrated sulphuricacid,its color is changed to acid and metallic zinc it white, lightgray, or yellow, and when boiled with hydrochloric givesa beautiful blue. Obs. Columbite at Rabenstein and Bodenmais, Bavaria, in granite; Tamoccurs near mela, in Finland; Chanteloube,near Limoges, France, in pegmatitewith tantalite; of the Sanarka Miask, in the Ilmen Mts., Russia, with samarskite; in the gold-washings region in the Ural Mts.; in Greenland,in cryolite, at Ivigtut (or Evigtok), in brilliant from Ampangabe crystals. In crystals and Ambatofotsikely,Madagascar. in granite;also at StoneIn the United States, in Me., at Standish,in splendent crystals ham with cassiterite, In N. H., at Acworth, at the from Rumford. etc.,manganotantalite in a granite mica mine. In Mass., at Chesterfield; In Conn., at Haddam, Northfield. in large Fairfield Co., in a vein of albitic granite, vein; near Middletown; at Branch ville,
" " "

590

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

translucent crystals also in minute (manganocolumbite} and aggregatesof crystals, crystals with chrysoberyl.In Pa., Mineral Hill, ware DelaIn N. Y., at Greenfield, spodumene. upon monazite, etc. In Va., Amelia Co. Co., in fine splendent crystalswith microlite, of Mitchell Co. In Col., on microcline at In N. C., with samarskite at the mica mines In S. D. in the Black Hills region, the Pike's Peak region; Turkey Creek, Jefferson Co. Fresno Co., from Rinc.on and veins. In Cal.,King's Creek district, in the granite common Pala. from manganotantalite with from petalite, Uto, Sweden, occurs lepidolite, Mangantantalite (Nordenskiold) region in etc. Manganotantalite(Arzruni)is from gold-washingsin the Sanarka microlite, Australia. West the Ural Mts.; from Pilbarra district, in Finland,in Tammela, at Harkasaari near Torro; in Kimito, Massive tantalite occurs at Katiala,with lepidolite, at Kaidasuo, and in Kuprtane line, tourmaat Skogbole; in Somero and Finbo; in France, at Chanteloube Falun, at Broddbo and beryl; in Sweden, near in Yancey Co., N. C.; Coosa Co.,Ala.; near Limoges, in pegmatite. In the United States, Canon near S. D.; in largemasses City, Col. also in the Black Hills, Source of tantalum used in making filaments for incandescent electric lights. Use. but occurring in square hedrons. tetragonal octaTapiolite. Fe(Ta,Nb)aO6. Like tantalite, Tapioliteshows close similarities with the minerals of the Rutile Group, in From Color pure black. the Kulmala 7'496. authors place it. G. which some farm, In twin crystals from Topsham, Me. Mossite,a niobium tapiolite. Tammela, Finland. and ixiolite are twinned varieties of tapioFound at Berg near Skogbolite Moss, Norway. lite.
,
"

Stibiotantalite. Orthorhombic, hemimorphic in direction of a (Sbp)2(Ta,Nb)2Oe. axis. Polysynthetictwinning parallelto a (100). Cleavage a 5*5. (perfect). H. 6'0-7'4 (varyingwith composition). /S. 2'40-2'42. G. Fusible. Color brown, reddish to resinous. found in tin-bearing sands of yellow,yellow. Luster adamantine Originally from Mesa Greenbushes, Australia. In crystals Grande, San Diego Co., Cal.
= = =

YTTROTANTALITE.

Orthorhombic. 110 A 110 mm'"

b Axes a 56" 50'.

: c

0-5412

M330.

Crystalsprismatic,
=

indistinct. Fracture small conchoidal. H. Luster submetallic to vitreous and Color greasy. black, brown, brownish yellow, straw-yellow. Streak gray to colorless. Opaque to subtranslucent.
5-5-5.

Cleavage:
G.
=

(010) very

5 '5-5 -9.

n
=

in

Comp. Er, Ce, etc.

"

Essentially with R RR2(Ta,Nb)4Oi5.4H2O, The water may be secondary.

Fe, Ca, R

Y,

so-called yellow yttrotantalite of Ytterby and Kararfvet belongs to fergusonite. Occurs in Sweden at Ytterby,near Vaxholm, in red feldspar; at Finbo and Broddbo, near Falun, in southern Norway.
Obs.
"

The

SAMARSKITE.

Orthorhombic.

Axes a : b lar prisms

0*5456 1 : 0-5178. Crystals rectangu(a(100), b (010),with e (101) prominent). mm'" 110 A 110 Angles, 57" 14'; ee' 101 A 101 87". Faces flattened rough. in and Commonly massive,
: c
= = =

embedded Brittle.
resinous,

grains.
b

Cleavage:
H.
=

(010) imperfect.
=

5-6.

splendent. reddish brown. Nearly opaque. Comp;

m
"

Fracture conchoidal. G. 5-6-5-8. Luster vitreous to Color velvet-black. Streak dark

Index, 2*21.
=

nRTRs(Nb,Ta)6O2i with R
cerium and

Fe, Ca, U02,

etc. ; R
-

yttrium metals chiefly.

In the closed tube decrepitates, glows,cracks open, and turns black. B.B, edges to a black glass. With salt of phosphorus in both flames an emerald-

592

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

SiO2, TiO2, Epistolite. A niobate of uncertain composition. Analysis shows chiefly also in aggregates of curved folia. Basal In rectangularplates, Monoclinic. Na^O, H2O. 2 '9. Color white, grayish, brownish. Refractive 1-1 '5. G. cleavage perfect. H. albite from Greenland. in pegmatite veins or in massive Found index 1 '67. Julianehaab, niobate of yttrium, uranium, lead, iron, etc. A Plumboniobite. Amorphous.
= =

H.

German

5-5-5. East

G.

4*81.

Color dark

brown

to black.

Found

in mica

mines

at

Morogoro,

Africa.

Oxygen
4.

Salts

PHOSPHATES,
A.

ARSENATES,

VANADATES,

ANTIMONATES

Anhydrous Phosphates, Arsenates, Vanadates, Antimonates phosphoric acid

i
n

Normal have
the

is

H3PO4, and
m

consequently normal

phosphates

for the arseRPO4, and similarly of species conform comparatively small number to this Most contain more than one metallic element, species simple formula. and in the prominent Apatite Group the radical (CaF), (CaCl) or (PbCl) enters;

formulas

R3P04, R3(PO4)2 and

nates,

etc.

Only

in the

Wagnerite Group

we

have

similarly (RF)

or

(ROH).

XENOTIME.

82" 22'.

55" 30',zz" (111 A Til) Tetragonal. Axisc 0-6187, zz' (111 A 111) In crystals resembling zircon in habit; sometimes compounded with zircon in parallel position(Fig. 462, p. 173). In 972 973
= =

rolled grains.

Cleavage: m (110) perfect. Fracture uneven and H. splintery. Brittle. 4-5. G. 4-45-4-56. Luster resinous to vitreous. Color yellowish brown, reddish brown, hair-brown, flesh-red, grayish white, wine-yellow, pale yellow; streak pale brown, yellowish reddish. or Opaque. + Optically 1 -72. o"
= = =
.

1*81.

Comp.
or
=

"

Y203.P2O5
100
is

Essentiallyyttrium phosphate, YPO4 Phosphorus pentoxide 38 -6, yttria

=

The

large amount;

cerium

sometimes

yttrium metals may include erbium present; also silicon and thorium as in
sulphuric acid colors
the

monazite. with moi?tene,d flame

nl soluble Difficultly

u salt of

andDpfrfe7t

Diff

PP '

**

^^^

phosphorus. Insoluble in acids. f"rm' but Distinguished by inferior

sometimes gram'te.veins; !?
in minute

hardness

embedded

uent

tySonite Ml

^taKgfaluSf of SO d "shings of Clarksville, Hender^n Ga, CIolteMftchten'Co t^f Coouslythought to

" "

if tfe musoovT^Hesof B", S"1' *

6

An Switzerland:
""*"

accessory

constiterrone-

fr"m

Braz"

in N. C., Burke ^ "tile,etc,

with'

Co.,

PHOSPHATES,

ARSENATES,

ETC.

593

Crystals commonly small,

often flattened ||a (100)or axis times elongated || 6; some-

prismatic by extension also v (111); large and In coarse. masses yielding angular fragments; in rolled Switzerland Norwich, Ct. grains. Cleavage: c (001) sometimes perfect (parting?); 6 also,a (100) distinct; sometimes showing parting|| (010)difficult; c (001), m (110). Fracture conchoidal to uneven. Brittle. H. 5-5 -5. G. 4-9-5-3; mostly 5*0 to 5-2. Luster to resinous. Color hyacinth-red, inclining clove-brown,reddish or brown. Ax. pi. yellowish Subtransparentto subtranslucent. + Optically 1" " b (010) and nearly || 4". a axis to + (100). Bxa Ac Dispersion 2V v 1-786. 14". a weak; horizontal weak. 1-788. 7 p " ft
of
= =
.

1-837.

Comp.
Most proper
amount

"

Phosphate
to

of the cerium

metals, essentially (Ce,La,Di)PO4.

analyses show
form

the presence
thorium

of ThO2 and SiO2,usually, but not always,in the that this is mechanically present is not certain silicate;

but possible.
B.B. infusible, and when turns moistened with sulphuricacid colors Pyr., etc. gray, the flame bluish green. With borax gives a bead yellow while hot and colorless on cooling; saturated bead becomes enamel-white a soluble in hydrochloric on flaming. Difficultly
"

acid.
Rather constituent of gneissoid rocks in abundantly distributed as an accessory Carolina and Brazil. Occurs near Zlatoust in the Ilmen regions,thus in North Mts., Russia, in granite. In Norway, near Arendal, and at Annerod. In small yellow or in Dauphine, France, and Switzerland. brown Found also in the gold crystals(turnerite] washings of Antioquia, Colombia; in the diamond gravels of Brazil. In crystalsfrom and Emmaville, New Trundle Condobolin South Wales; California Creek, Queensnear land; Olary, South Australia. In Madagascar at various localities. In the United States,formerly found with the sillimanite of Norwich, and at Portland, In largecoarse in albitic granite and masses with Conn.; also at Yorktown, N. Y. crystals In Alexander Co., N. C., in splendentcrystals; microlite, etc.,at Amelia Court-House, Va. in Mitchell,Madison, Burke, and McDowell counties,obtained in large quantitiesin rolled grains by washing the gravels. In the gold sands of southern Idaho. Monazite is named from in allusion to its rare occurrence. nova^iv, to be solitary, in wine-yellow prisms and grainsin the green and red apatiteof Arendal, occurs Cryptolite Norway, and is discovered on putting the apatitein dilute nitric acid. It is probably
"

Obs.

certain

monazite.
Use. is the chief Monazite of incandescent gaslightmantles.
"

source

of thorium

oxide

which

is used in the manufacture

G. 4-03. Isometric, usually massive. from the Sjo mines, Sweden, Pyrrharsenite contains also antimony; color yellowish red. associated with berzeliite, is related, Caryinite, but contains lead; massive (monoclinic). of lead,iron, and sometimes Monimolite. An antimonate calcium; in part, RsSbaOg. Color yellowish or brownish 6 '58. Usually in octahedrons; massive, incrusting. G. From the Harstig mine, Pajsberg,Sweden. green.
=

Berzeliite. R3As2O8(R Color bright yellow. From

Ca,Mg,Mn,Na2). Lungban, Sweden.

594
Carminite. forms.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY
In clusters of fine needles; also in the Luise at mine

Perhaps Pb3As2O8.10FeAsO4.
G.
=

roidal spheHor-

4105.

Color

carmine

to tile-red. From

hausen, Nassau, Germany.

Georgiadesite.
=

Orthorhombic. Pb3(AsO4)2.3PbCl2.
=

Resinous 7'1. G. 3'5. outline. H. Found on lead slagsat Laurium, Greece.

Pucherite.
=

luster.

In small crystalswith Color white, brownish

hexagonal yellow.
H.
="

In small Bismuth vanadate, BiVO4. 0 Optically Color reddish brown. Schneeberg,Saxony; San Diego Co., Cal.

orthorhombic
=

crystals.
the Pucher

4.

G.

6-249.

-.

2 -50.

From

Mine,
H.
=

Armangite.
Poor 4-23. G. refractive index.
=

habit. Hexagonal-rhombohedral.Prismatic Mn3(AsO3)2. Optically basal cleavage. Color black, streak brown. From Langban, Sweden.

4.

-.

High

Triphylite Group. Triphylite Lithiophilite Natrophilite

of Orthophosphates
an

Orthorhombic
a : :

b
1

: c :

Li(Fe,Mn)P04 Li(Mn,Fe)PO4
NaMnPO4
alkali metal,lithium
or

0'4348

0'5265

sodium, with iron and

ganese. man-

TRIPHYLITE-LITHIOPHILITE.

Orthorhombic.
and faces

Axes

: c

0-4348

0'5265.

Crystalsrare,

ally usu-

coarse uneven. Commonly Cleavage: c (001) perfect;b (010)nearly perfect;m

massive,cleavable to compact. (110) interrupted.

=

Luster 3-42-3-56. H. G 4-5-5. subconchoidal. in also pale to bluish vitreous to resinous. Color greenish triphylite; gray Streak uncolored to grayish pink to yellow and clove-brown in lithiophilite. white. Transparent to translucent. Axial angle variable,0"-90". Mean Fracture
uneven

to

index,1-68. A phosphate of iron,manganese and lithium,Li(Fe,Mn)P04, Comp. from the bluish with little to the salmonvarying manganese gray TRIPHYLITE clove-brown littleiron. with but pink or LITHIOPHILITE
"

lithia Phosphorus pentoxide 45 '0,iron protoxide 45 '5, is LiMnPO4 Typical Lithiophilite Phosphorus pentoxide 45 '3, manganese 100. Both Fe and Mn protoxide45'1,lithia 9'6 are always present. In the closed tube sometimes Pyr.,etc. and gives turns to a dark color, decrepitates, off traces of water. B.B. fuses at T5, coloringthe flame beautiful lithia-red in streaks, with a pale bluish green on the exterior of the cone With the fluxes reacts for of flame. iron and manganese; the iron reaction is feeble in pure lithiophilite. Soluble in hydrochloric
=

is LiFePO4 TypicalTriphylite
=

9'5

100.

"

acid.
at Rabenstein, near spodumene; occurs Peru, Me.; Grafton, N. H. Named from Tpis, and "j"v\ri, threefold, family,in allusion to its containing three phosphates. Lithiophilite occurs at Branch ville, Fairfield Co., Conn., in a vein of albitic granite, with spodumene, manganese from Pala, Cal. phosphates, etc.; also at Norway, Me., in crystals Named from lithium and "j"t\6s, friend. Natrophilite.NaMnPO4. Near triphylite in form. Chiefly massive, cleavable. H. 4-5-5. G. 3-41. Color deep wine-yellow. Occurs sparinglyat Branchville, Conn.
"

Obs.

is often associated with Triphylite

Bavaria;Keityo, Finland; Norwich,Mass.; Zwiesel^in

Graftomte.

(Fe,Mn,Ca)3P2O8. Monoclinic.

H.

=5.

salmon-pink, usually dark from alteration. Fusible. with tnphyllite in a pegmatite from Grafton, N. H.

G. Occurs

fresh Color when 37. in laminated intergrowths

PHOSPHATES,-

ARSENATES,

ETC.

595

Crystals short prismatic Beryllonite. A phosphate of sodium and beryllium, NaBePCX. H. 5'5-6. Luster G. 2*845. to tabular,orthorhombic. on c (001) vitreous; From 1*558. Stone/3 pearly. Colorless to white or pale yellowish. Optically ham, Me.
= =
"

Apatite Group
General formula
or

Apatite Pyromorphite
Mimetite Vanadinite
In addition to the above

R5(F,Cl)[(P,As,V)04]3 (R(F,Cl))R4[(P,As,V)04]3; 0-7346 (CaF)Ca4(PO4)3 Fluor-apatite c (CaCl)Ca4(PO4)3 Chlor-apatite 0-7362 (PbCl)Pb4(PO4)3 0-7224 (PbCl)Pb4(AsO4)3 0-7122 (PbCl)Pb4(VO4)3
= =

ing there are also certain intermediate compounds containspecies, lead and calcium; others with phosphorus and arsenic, arsenic and vanadium, as or calcium arsenate, Svabite, also seems to belong in this Further the rare noted beyond. The radicals CaO, Ca.OH, may possiblyreplace the CaF radical in apatite. A group. contains CO3, SiO2 and SO4 in addition to usual of the group, probable member wilkeite, contains strontium. radicals. Fermorite

but

GROUP in the hexagonal system, speciesof the APATITE crystallize in that they all show, either by the subordinate faces, or .etching-figures, class (p. 100). They are chemicallyphosphates, belong to the pyramidal of calcium or lead (alsomanganese), with chlorine or arsenates, vanadates is probably present as a univalent radical fluorine. The latter element CaF one hydrogen atom in (orCaCl), etc.,in generalRF (orRC1), replacing
The
i

the acid

that so R9(P04)3,

for the arsenates. the other method

APATITE.

and similarly (RF)R4(PO4)3, than This is a more correct way of viewingthe composition sometimes etc. adopted,viz., 3R3(PO4)2.RF2,
the

generalformula

is

Hexagonal-pyramidal. Axis
976 977

07346.
978 979

cr, ex, cy,

0001 0001 0001

A
A A

1012

22" 59'.

lOll
2021 0112

40" 18'. 59" 29'.

22" 31'.

xxr,lOTl 88', 1121

m^
ms,

1011

37

A
A

1211
2131 1121

48" 50'. 30" 20'. 44" 17'.

1010
1010

1012 rr',

and tabular. Also to short prismatic Crystals varyingfrom longprismatic columnar fibrous with or and imperfectly a structure; reniform, globular massive, structure granularto compact. Fracture conchoidal so. Cleavage: c (0001)imperfect;m (1010) more

596
and
3-23
uneven.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Brittle.

H.

crystals. Luster sometimes usuallysea-green, bluish green; often violet-blue; brown. and Transparent to flesh-red yellow, gray, red, occasionally 1-6417. low. 1-6461,e co Birefringence Optically
Color
= =

G massive. 4-5 when 5, sometimes btreak subresmous. to vitreous, inclining

=

3-17white.

white;
opaque.

-.

Colorless to granular massive. from Murcia Spain is o riginally asparagus-stone, blue yellow,flesh-red, ereen is in greenishblue and bluish crystals from Norway, Arendal, Moroxite, yellowish green. in Siberia, (c)Francohte,from Wheal varietywith lapis-lazuli (6)Lasurapatiteis a sky-blue stalactitic masses occurs in small crystalline England, Devonshire, Tavistock, near Franco,
Var
"

Ordinary

cleavable or Crystallized,

and

(a) The

and in minute
up

curving crystals.
a is c.

containing fluorine often with only Ordinary apatiteis fluor-apatite,

fluorine and sometimes to 0'5 p. c.; rarelychlorine preponderates, calcium to 10'5 p. replacing 2. Manganapatite contains manganese 3 4.

trace

of chlorine, absent. entirely

MnO;

color dark

Voelckeriteis name
.

isomorphous molecule,Ca4(CaO)(PO4)3 and given to the possible

concretionary Fibrous, concretionary,stalactitic. Phosphorite includes the fibrous from Eupyrchroite, and partly scaly mineral from Estremadura, Spain, and elsewhere. incrustoccurs Staffelite Crown Point, N. Y., belongs here; it is concentric in structure. reniform, or stalactitic masses, of Staffel, Germany, in botryoidal, ing the phosphorite fibrous and radiating. See p. 597. are impure calcium 5. Earthy apatite; Osteolite. Mostly altered apatite; coprolites phosphate.

Fluor-apatite (CaF)Ca4(PO4)3; (CaCl)Ca4(PO4)3;also written 3Ca3P2O8.CaF2 and Comp.

"

For

and

for

Chlor-apatite
The

There SCaaPaOs.CaCl;.

are

both fluorine and chlorine. compounds containing varieties is as follows : normal these for percentage composition also intermediate
55'5 53 '8 F 3'8
=

here belongs the apatiteof than the other variety; common nent Apatites in which chlorine is promiCo., N. Y., Canada. Norwegian kinds. are rare; this is true of some B.B. in the forcepsfuses with difficulty the edges (F. on 4-5-5),coloring Pyr.,etc. the flame reddish yellow; moistened with sulphuricacid and heated colors the flame pale bluish green (phosphoricacid). Dissolves in hydrochloricand nitric acids,yieldingwith of calcium sulphate; the dilute nitric acid solution gives acid a copiousprecipitate sulphuric varieties will sometimes a precipitate of silver chloride on addition of silver nitrate. Most in a closed tube. when heat ed with potassium bisulphate test for fluorine, give a slight Diff. Characterized by the common hexagonal form, but softer than beryl, being scratched by a knife; does not effervesce in acid (like a fusible;yields calcite) ; difficultly flame B.B. after being moistened with sulphuricacid. green Micro. fringence Recognized in thin sections by its moderately high relief; extremely low birethe interference in basal sections), (hence not often showing a distinet axial figure colors in ordinary sections scarcelyrisingabove gray of the firstorder; parallel extinction and negativeextension; columnar form; lack of color and cleavage; and by the rude cross partingseen as occasional cracks crossingthe prism. Artif. Apatite may be prepared artificially by fusing sodium phosphate with calcium
"

Fluor-apatiteP2O542'3 CaO Chlor-apatiteP2O541'0 CaO is much more Fluor-apatite the Alps, Spain, St. Lawrence

101'6 101-6

or or

C16'8

Ca3PsO8 92'25 Ca3P208 89'4

CaF2 CaCl2

775 10'6

100 100

"

"

"

fluoride
Obs.

or
"

calcium

chloride.

in rocks of various kinds and ages, but is most common in metaApatite occurs metalliferous morphic crystalline in granular limestone and in many rocks, especially those of tin,in gneiss, beds of veins,particularly hornblendic gneiss, mica schist, syenite, iron ore; occasionally in serpentine. In the form of minute microscopic crystals it has an almost universal distribution as an accessory rock-forming mineral. It is found in all kinds of igneousrocks and is one of the earliest products of crystallization. it is In largercrystals characteristic of the pegmatite facies of igneous rocks,particularly especially the granites, and occurs there associated with quartz, feldspar, tourmaline,muscovite, beryl,etc. It is sometimes present in ordinary stratifiedlimestone, beds of sandstone or shale of the Silurian, Carboniferous, Jurassic, or Cretaceous, Tertiary. It has been observed as the petrifying matenal of wood.

PHOSPHATES, Among
its localities are

ARSENATES,

ETC.

597

Ehrenfriedersdorf in Saxony; Schwarzenstein, the Knappenand Zillertalin the Tyrol, Austria; St. Gothard, Tavetsch, etc., in Switzerland; Mussa-Alp in Piedmont, Italy, white or colorless; Zinnwald and Schlackenwald in Bohemia; at Gellivare, with tin ores; in CumSweden; in England, in Cornwall, berland, at Carrock Fells; in Devonshire, cream-colored at Bovey Tracey, and at Wheal The asparagus-stone or spargelstein Franco of Jumilla,in Murcia, Spain, is (francolite). of apatiteare mined in Norway at Kragero; paleyellowishgreen in color. Large quantities also at Odegaard, near Bamle, and elsewhere. In Me., on Long Island, Blue-hill Bay; in fine purple crystalsof gem-quality from In N. H., Westmoreland. In Mass., at Norwich; at Bolton abundant. Auburn. In at Haddam Conn., at Branch ville (manganapatite) also greenish white and colorless; in St. Lawrence In N. Y., common Neck. Co., in granular limestone, also Jefferson Co.; Sandford mine, East Moriah, Essex Co., in magnetite; near Edenville, Orange Co.; at Tilly iron mine. In Pa., at Leiperville, Foster Delaware In N. C., at Co.; in Chester Co. from Mesa Stony Point, Alexander Co., etc. In lavender-colored crystals Grande, Cal. In extensive beds in the Laurentian gneissof Canada, usuallyassociated with limestone, wand
in Untersulzbachtal
,

amphibole, titanite, zircon,garnet, vesuvianite and many in Ottawa ingham, are County, Quebec, in the townships of BuckAlso in Renfrew Templeton, Portland, Hull, and Wakefield. county, Ontario, and in Lanark, Leeds, and Frontenac counties. named from older mineralogistshaving by Werner diraTaew, to deceive, Apatite was referred it to aquamarine, chrysolite, amethyst, fluorite, tourmaline,etc. Besides the definite mineral phosphates,including normal apatite,phosphorite, etc., there are also extensive deposits of amorphous phosphates, consisting largelyof "bone of great economic cal importance, though not having a definite chemiphosphate" (CasPjOs), belonging to pure mineralogy. Here belong the composition,and hence not strictly bone beds, guano, etc. Extensive phosphatic depositsalso phosphatic nodules, coprolites, in North occur Carolina,Alabama, Florida,Tennessee,and in the western states,Idaho, is bone phosphate of lime, mixed with the hydrous phosGuano phates, Utah, and Wyoming. calcium carbonate, and often a littlemagnesia, alumina, and generallywith some and other impurities. iron, silica, gypsum, fertilizers. Use. of mineral as sources Apatite and phosphate rock are used chiefly The mineral is be used as gem stones. Some clear finelycolored varieties of apatitemay for this purpose. too soft,however, to permit of extensive use A the phosphorite of calcium carbonated STAFFELITE. phosphate. Occurs incrusting Staffel, Germany, in botryoidalor stalactitic masses, fibrous and radiating;it is the result
"

and accompanied by pyroxene, mines other species. Prominent

of the

action of carbonated

waters.

H.

=4.

G.

3 '128.

Color

leek- to dark

green,

Bamle, Norway, is similar. member A of the Fermorite. Apatite Group. (Ca,Sr)4[Ca(OH,F)][(P,As)O4]3. 1'66. Index Color pale pinkish white to white. H. 3-52. Uniaxial, 5. G. India. Central provinces, at Sitapar, Chhindwara Found with manganese District, ores of Apatite Wilkeite. Probably a member 3Ca3(PO4)o.CaCO3.3Ca3((SiO4)(SO4)].CaO. Color 3*23. G. pale rose-red, yellow. Optically Group. Hexagonal. H. =5. Index, 1-64. Fusible at 5 '5. Dissolves in acids with separationof silica. In crystalline limestone at Crestmore, Riverside Co., Cal.
from greenishyellow. Dahllite,
= =
-

="

"

PYROMORPHITE.

Green

Lead

Ore.
c
=

barrel-shaped forms; i n nearlyparallel prismatic crystals branching groups to a slender point. Often globular, position,tapering down with usually reniform,and botryoidalor in wart-like shapes, and also a subcolumnar jibrous, granular. structure; subconFracture in traces. x (1011) Cleavage: m (1010), 6-5-7-1 G. 3-5-4. Brittle. H. mostly, uneven. choidal,
also in

Hexagonal pyramidal. often Crystals prismatic,

of

Axis

07362.

in rounded

when

pure;

5-9-6-5, when

different shades; Color green, sometimes wax-yellow and fine orange-yellow;also grayish Streak milk-white. white, sometimes yellowish. white to 2*050. co Optically Subtransparent to subtranslucent.
"

containing brown, of yellow, and

lime.

Luster

resinous.

2-042.

598
Var
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

described; sometimes yellow and in rounded as 1 Ordinary, (a) In crystals (6)In acicular and moss-like aggregations. (pseudo-campylite) resemblingcampylite the surface angular, (d) Fibrous, of crystals, having masses or (c) Concretionary groups (/)Earthy; incrusting. (e) Granular massive. of different shades, yellowish gray, Containing lime; color brown 2 Polysphcerite. 5'89-6'44. Rarely in separate crystals; pale yellow to nearly white; streak white; G. from Mies in Bohemia, is a brown Miesite, m ammillary. usually in groups, globular, Beaujeu, Prance; color Nussiere, near is similar and impure, from Nussierite variety 3. Chromiferous; color brilliant red and orange. 5'042. G. or grayish; yellow greenish 5 '5-6 '6. 5. Pseudomorphous; (a) after to white; G. 4. Arseniferous; color green cerussite. galena; (6)
forms
.

also written 3Pb3P2O8.PbCl2 lead 100-5,or Lead 82-2,chlorine 2-6 protoxide pentoxide157, 100. 897, lead chloride 10-3

Comp.

"

or (PbCl)Pb4(PO4)3

Phosphorus phosphate

increases the species the amount as the lead to a considerable extent. Calcium also replaces B.B. in the closed tube gives a white sublimate of lead chloride. flame bluish charcoal fuses without the on fuses coloring T5), green; (F. easily forceps which on coolingassumes a crystalline form, while the reduction to a globule, polyhedral the assay, yellow from lead oxide. With coal is coated white from lead chloride and, nearer varieties contain arsenic, and give the odor of soda on charcoal yieldsmetallic lead; some in R.F. on charcoal. Soluble in nitric acid. garlic Diff. gravity; resinous luster; Distinguishedby its hexagonal form; high specific blowpipe characters. in veins,and accompanies other ores of lead. Obs. principally Pyromorphite occurs At Poullaouen and Huelgoet in Brittany,France; at Zschopau and other placesin Saxony,
The

and phosphorusis often replaced by arsenic,

"

passes into mimetite. In the Pyr., etc.

"

"

in Bohemia; in fine crystals at Ems, Braubach, in Nassau, Germany; at Pfibram,Bleistadt, Germany; also at Dernbach in Nassau; in Siberia at Beresov and in the Nerchinsk mining in Cornwall, green and brown; Devon, gray; England, in Derbyshire, green and district; From Broken red and orange. yellow; Cumberland, golden yellow; in Scotland,Leadhill, Hill and elsewhere, New South Wales. In the United States, Pa. ; also in Me., at Lubec has been found very fine at Phenixville, and Lenox; in N. Y., a mile south of Sing Sing; in Davidson Co., N. C., also in Cabarrus and Caldwell Cos.; from and Mace, Idaho. Mullan, Burke, Wardner Named from irvp, fire, form the globule assumes form, alludingto the crystalline vop"f"r), on cooling. This species passes into mimetite. Use.
"

minor

ore

of lead.

MIMETITE.

07224. Hexagonal-pyramidal. Axis c Habit of crystals like pyromorphite; sometimes rounded to globular forms. Also in mammillary crusts. Cleavage: x (1011) imperfect. Fracture uneven. Brittle. H. 3-5. 7-0-7-25. Luster G. resinous. Color pale yellow, passing into brown; white or colorless. Streak white or nearly so. orange-yellow; Sub transparent to translucent. 2-135. 2-118. Optically", co "
= = = = =

Var1- Ordinary, (a) In crystals, usuallyin rounded aggregates. (6) Capillaryor marked in a variety from St. Prix-sous-Beuvray, filamentous, especially France; somewhat like asbestus, and straw-yellowin color, (c)Concretionary. Campylite,from Drygill in Cumberland, England, has G. 7*218, and is in barrelshaped crystals (whence the name, from Kanirv\os,curved),yellowish to brown and brownish red; contains 3 p. c. P2O6.
"

Comp.

"

also (PbCl)Pb4(AsO4)3;
=

written
2-4

3Pb3As208.PbCl2
=

Arsenic
arsenate

pentoxide 23'2, lead protoxide 74-9,chlorine 90-7,lead chloride 9-3 100.

the Phosphorus replaces

100'5,

or

Lead

(p.599)

is

intermediate

arsenic in part, and calcium the lead. between mimetite and vanadinite.

Endlichite

6QO

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Wagnerite Group. Wagnerite

Triplite

Monoclinic
a

:b
:

: c :

ft
53' 46' 15'

(MgF)MgP04 (RF)RP04, R
R

1'9145
=

1
1 1

1'5059; 71" 1*4925; 71" 1-5642; 73"

1

Fe
=

Mn
:

2
=

1, 1
:

1, etc.
: : : :

Triploidite ROH)RP04,

AdSlte

Mn

Fe

Tilasite Sarkinite

(MgOH)CaAs04 (MgF)CaAs04 (MnOH)MnAsO4

1 T8572 2'1978

2'0017

5154; 62" 13*'

iron and manganese Phosphates (and arsenates)of magnesium (calcium), Formula R2FPO4 or (RF)RPO4, etc. fluorine (also hydroxyl). containing
WAGNERITE.

Monoclinic. massive.

Axes, see above.

a

sometimes Crystals

and large

coarse.

Also

Fracture uneven m (110)imperfect;c (001)in traces. (100), Luster vitreous. 3*07-3' 14. G. 5-5*5. H. Brittle. and splintery. also flesh-red, of different shades; often grayish, Color yellow, Streak white. 1*569. 2V 26" a Translucent. +. (approx.). Optically greenish.

Cleavage:

ft

1'570.

7
"

1*582.

or Mg3P208. fluo-phosphateof magnesium, (MgF)MgPO4 11*8 fluorine 43 104*9, Phosphorus pentoxide '8, magnesia 49*3, MgF2 A little calcium replaces 100. deduct (O part of the magnesium. 2F) 4'9

Comp.
=

with B.B. in the forceps fuses at 4 to a greenish gray glass; moistened Pyr., etc. On fusion with With borax reacts for iron. sulphuricacid colors the flame bluish green. acts Rereaction. but is not completely dissolved;gives a faint manganese soda effervesces, With for fluorine. Soluble in nitric and hydrochloricacids. sulphuric acid evolves of hydrofluoric acid. fumes in the valley of HollenObs. occurs Wagnerite (in small highly modified crystals) (massive,cleavable; also in coarse graben, near Werfen, in Salzburg,Austria. Kjerulfine is from Kjorrestad, near Bamle, Norway. crystals) A In flattened prismatic calcium fluo-phosphate, perhaps (CaF)CaPO4. Spodiosite. 2 '94. orthorhombic Color ash-gray. From the Krangrufva, Wermland, crystals. G. and Nordmark, Sweden.
" "

"

TRIPLITE.

two

or

Monoclinic. Massive, imperfectly crystalline. Cleavage: unequal in directions perpendicular to each other, ture distinct. Fracmuch the more one small conchoidal. H. 4-5 -5. G. ing Luster resinous,inclin3'44-3'S. to adamantine. Color brown or blackish brown. Streak yellowish gray brown. Subtranslucent to opaque. Mean index from 1 "66+. Optically
= =
"

1-68.

Comp. Mg. The

.

(RF)RP04
ratio varies

or

R3P208.RF2 with R
Fe
:

Fe 1
:

and
1 to

widely from

Mn

Mn, also Ca and : : 1 (zwieselite)

1:2;

1:7.

is a variety Talktriplite from Horrsjoberg, Sweden; contains magnesium and calcium in largeamount. etc. B.B. fuses easily at 1*5 to a black magnetic globule; moistened with Pyr.? sulphuric acid colors the flame bluish green. With borax in O.F. gives an amethystinecolored glass(manganese) in R.F. a ganese. ; strong reaction for iron. With soda reacts for manWith sulphuricacid evolves hydrofluoric acid. Soluble in hydrochloricacid. by Alluaud at Limoges in France; Helsingfors, Finland; Stoneham, Me.; Branchville, Conn.; from Reagan mining district, White Pine Co., Nev. Zwieselite,
" ~~

UMI

clove-brown

variety, is from Rabenstein, near

A

Zwiesel in Bavaria. reni-

GRIPHITE.
form
masses.

problematicalphosphate related to triplite occurring in embedded From the Riverton lode near Harney City, Pennington Co., S. D.

PHOSPHATES,
II

ARSENATES,

ETC.

601

Columnar. White to yellow or Fe, Mn,Ca, Mg. H. G. 4-5. 3' 16. pale green. Habendorf, Bavaria. but with the F replaced Triploidite.Like triplite, by (OH). Monoclinic. Commonly in crystalline H. 4'5-5. 3*697. G. Color yelaggregates. Fibrous to columnar. lowish 1726. to reddish brown. From Optically+ 0 Branchville,Fair-field Co.,
= =

PHOSPHOFERRITE.

H6R9(PO4)3: R
=

Conn.

Monoclinic. (MgOH)CaAsO4. Axes, see p. 600; also massive. H. 5. Mean index,1 '67. From Nordgray or grayishyellow. Optically +. mark Langban, Sweden. Tilasite. Like adelite, but contains fluorine. Monoclinic. 1*660. Optically /3 From Langban, Sweden, and Kajlidongri, Jhabua, India. In monoclinic Sarkinite. (MnOH)MnAsO4. crystals; also in spherical forms. G. 4 '17. Color rose-red,flesh-red, reddish yellow. From the iron-manganese mines of Pajsberg, Sweden. Polyarseniteand Xantharsenite from the Sjo mine, Grythytte from the Pajsberg, Sweden, are essentially parish,Orebro, Sweden, and Chondrasenite
Adelite.
= =

G.

374. and

Color

"

same.

In small wedge-shapedcrystals. Monoclinic-clinohedral. Trigonite. Pb3MnH(AsO3)3. Perfect cleavage || 2-3. 216. Ax. pi. 2*08. 7 (010). Color sulphur-yellow, a. | j (010) From Langban, Sweden. Herderite. A fluo-phpsphate of beryllium and calcium,Ca[Be(F,OH)]PO4. In prismatic G. 2 '99-3 *01. Luster crystals,monoclinic with complex twinning. H. =5. and vitreous. From Color yellowish T612. the tin greenish white. Optically", ft of Ehrenfriedersdorf,Saxony; mines from Epprechtstein, Bavaria; also at Stoneham, Auburn, Hebron, and Paris,Me. A basic phosphate of aluminium, Hamlinite. In colorless rhomboand strontium. 4 '5. G. 3* 16-3 '28. 1*620. hedral with Occurs +. crystals. H. Optically In the diamond sands of Diamantina, herderite,bertrandite,etc., at Stoneham, Me. and also in Binnental, Switzerland Brazil. Found (originally thought to be a new species named bowmannite) In chemical group A basic phosphate of lead and aluminium. with Plumbogummite. ish. brownhamlinite. Resembles Color yellowish, as incrustations. drops or coatingsof gum; From Cumberland, England. Hitchcockite from Canton mine, Ga., is Roughten Gill, identical. The material from Huelgoet, Brittany,France, is a mixture. closely and the cerium metals,closely A basic phosphate of aluminium Florencite. analogous it is related in form. to hamlinite to which 3Al2O3.Ce2O3.2P2O6.6H2O. Hexagonal, rhom3*58. G. Color rhombohedral. Basal bohedral. Habit cleavage. H. =5. pale Ouro Preto and Diamantina, Minas in sands from near yellow. Infusible. Found Geraes, Brazil. of A basic phosphate of aluminium Georceixite. and barium (with smaller amounts in rolled H. 6. calcium and cerium) Microcrystalline, pebbles. BaO.2Al2p3.P2O5.5H2O. the diamond From sands of Refractive index, 1*63. and white. 3*1. Color brown G. acidic in composition. Geraesite is similar but more Minas Geraes, Brazil. H.
= = =
.

o"

In Crandallite. 2CaO.4Al/)3.2P2O5.10H2O. fibrous. Color white to light gray. mine

near

compact

to

Indices,1-58-1*60.
of

cleavable masses. scopically MicroFound at Brooklyn and

Silver City, Utah. A G.

A

Harttite. H. 4'5-5.

basic phosphate and

sulphate

aluminium
the

strontium, (Sr,Ca)O.
as

2A12O3.P2O5.SO3.5H2O.
= =

Hexagonal.
Color

Usually
From

microcrystalline
diamond

3*2.

flesh-red.

sands

of

rolled Minas

pebbles. Geraes,

Brazil.

fluo-phosphate of lime,soda, and alumina, Na4CaAl(AlO)(F,OH)4(Pp4)2 2*94. 4*5. G. Cleavage perfect (100); imperfect (001). Indices, From Colorless or white. 1 '55-1 '59. Ehrenfriedersdorf, Saxony. alumina. A Lacroixite. oxide, and fluo-phosphate of soda, lime, manganese monoclinic. Pyramidal cleavage. Na4(Ca,Mn)4Al3(F,OH)4P3Oi6.2H2O. Probably Found at Ehrenfriedersdorf, Color pale yellow or 3*13. H. G. 4-1. green. Saxony. In monoclinic Durangite. A fluo-arsenate of sodium and aluminium, Na(AlF)AsO4. From Color index, 1*673. 3*94-4*07. orange-red. Mean Durango, crystals. G. Jezekite.
Monoclinic.
H.
= = = = =

Mexico.

602
AMBLYGONITE.

DESCRIPTIVE Hebronite.

MINERALOGY

Triclinic. Crystalslarge and coarse; cleavable to columnar and compact massive.

common.

forms

rarely distinct. Usually twinning lamellae Polysynthetic

somewhat less so, with pearlyluster; a_(100) Cleavage: c (001)perfect, M ca (001) A (110)difficult; vitreous; e (021) sometimes equallydistinct; 74" 40', cM (001) A (110) 92" 20'. G. 3'01-3'09. 6. H. Brittle. subconchoidal. to Fracture uneven white to Color pale greenish, to c on vitreous (001)pearly. Luster greasy, white. SubtransStreak white. brownish grayish or bluish, yellowish,

(100)

75"

30',ce (001)A

(021)

1'597. 1*593. 1'579. 0 a 7 parent to translucent. Optically and aluminium of A fluo-phosphate lithium,Li(AlF)PO4 or Comp. AlPO4.LiF Phosphorus pentoxide47*9, alumina 34-4, lithia 10-1, fluorine Sodium often replaces 100. deduct (0 part of the 12-9 2F) 5*3 105-3, fluorine. of the and hydroxyl part lithium,
-.
= = =
"

In the closed tube yieldswater, which at a high heat is acid and corrodes etc. Pyr., white on cooling. the glass. B.B. fuses easily(at2) with intumescence, and becomes opaque tense Colors the flame yellowishred with traces of green; the Hebron varietygives an inWith moistened with sulphuric acid gives a bluish green to the flame. lithia-red; borax and salt of phosphorusforms a transparent colorless glass. In fine powder dissolves in sulphuricacid,more slowly in hydrochloricacid. easily Diff. and by yieldinga red flame B.B., from feldspar, Distinguished by its easy fusibility calcite, barite, etc.; also by the acid water in the tube from spodumene. Obs. Occurs near Penig in Saxony; Arendal, Norway; Montebras, Creuze, France. In the United States, in Me., at Hebron; also at Paris,Peru, etc.; Branchville, Conn., Pala, San Diego Co., Cal. is from The name and yow, angle. amblygonite blunt, anftXls,
"
"

"

Natramblygonite. Natromontebrasite. (Na,Li)Al(OH,F)PO4. Monowith rough faces. Three cleavages. Usually in cleavage masses. Polysynthetic twinning shown under microscope. H. 5'5. G. 3 '04. Luster vitreous to greasy. Color,grayishwhite to white. Translucent to opaque. trix BisecOptically". nearly normal to basal cleavage. Easily fusible to a white enamel with strong sodium flame color. From a pegmatite near Canon City, Fremont County, Col.
clinic. Crystalscoarse
= =

Fremontite.

B.

Basic

Phosphates

This section includes a series of well-characterized basic phosphates, a number of which fall into the Olivinite Group. Acid phosphates are
sented repre-

by
see

one

species only, the littleknown

Olivenite

monetite,probably HCaPO4,

p. b06.

Group.

Orthorhombic
0-9396 0-9601 1 1 1 1 0-6726 0-7019 0-7158 0-8045

OUvenite

Libethenite
Adamite

Cu2(OH)AsO4 Cu2(OH)PO4 Zn2(OH)AsO4

: : :

: : :

0-9733
or

Descloizite
a :

(Pb,Zn)2(OH)VO4
b
: c
=

0-6368

0-8045

Cuprodescloizite
The OLIVENITE
zinc, and

fa

: c

0-9552

(Pb,Zn,Cu)2(OH)VO4

GROUP includes several basic phosphates, of arsenates, etc., copper, with the general formula lead, (ROH)RPO4,(ROH)RAsO4, 1 hey crystallize in the orthorhombic system with similar form. It is to

?roup corresP"ndsin Group,

*"

measure

to the monoclinic

p.

600,which also includes basic members.

Wagnerite

PHOSPHATES,
OLIVENITE.

ARSENATES,

ETC.

603

Orthorhombic. mm'", w'f

110 101

Axes
= =

: c

0*9396
Oil ee', ve, 101

1
A A

0-6726.
= =

110 A TOl
A

86" 26'. 71" 1U'.

Oil
Oil

67" 51'. 47" 34'.

Crystals prismatic,often acicular. Also globular and fibers straightand divergent, reniform, indistinctly fibrous, also curved lamellar and granular. rarelyirregular; Cleavage: m (110),6(010), e (Oil) in traces. Fracture
conchoidal' to uneven. H. Brittle. 3. G. 4-1-4-4. Luster adamantine to vitreous; of some fibrous varieties pearly. \ Color various shades of olive-green, passing into leek-, siskin-, and blackish also liver- and wood-brown; pistachio-, green; sometimes to brown. straw-yellowand grayish white. Streak olive-green Mean to 1-83. Subtransparent opaque. index, Var. of green, yellow, (a) Crystallized,(b) Fibrous;finelyand divergentlyfibrous, brown and gray, to white colors, with the surface sometimes velvetyor acicular;found investing the common variety or passing into it; called wood-copper or wood-arsenate. (c)Earthy; nodular or massive; sometimes soft enough to soil the fingers.
= =
"

Cu3As2O8Cu(OH)2 Comp. 407, cupricoxide 56-1,water 3-2

"

or
=

4CuO.As2O5.H20
100.

Arsenic

pentoxide

In the closed tube gives water. B.B. fuses at 2, coloring the flame bluish cooling the fused mass crystalline.B.B. on charcoal fuses with appears givesoff arsenical fumes, and yieldsa metallic arsenide which with soda yields deflagration, With the fluxes reacts for copper. Soluble in nitric acid. a globuleof copper. in Cornwall, at various mines; Tavistock, in Obs. varieties occur The crystallized Devonshire; in Tyrol, Austria; the Banat, Hungary; Nizhni Tagilsk in the Ural Mts.; in Utah, at the American In the United States, Chile. Eagle and Mammoth mines, Tintic both in crystals and wood-copper. The name olivenite alludes to the olive-green district,

Pyr., etc.
and

"

green,

on

"

color. LIBETHENITE.

Orthorhombic.

Axes ee',
In

: c

0-9601
=

0-7019.
Ill Ill A A 111 111
=

mm"',

110 Oil

A A

110 Oil

87" 40'. 70" 8'.

59" 4"'. 61" 47|'.

united in druses. subconchoidal

3*8. Luster

in habit ; often short prismatic crystals usually small, Also globular or reniform and compact. Cleavage: a (100),b (010)very indistinct. Fracture
= =

3-6Brittle. H. 4. G. to uneven. dark. resinous. Color olive-green, generally Mean Translucent to subtranslucent. Streak olive-green.

index, 1'72.

Cu3P2O8.Cu(OH)2 or 4CuO.P2O5.H2O Comp. Phosphorus pentoxide 29'8, cupric oxide 66*4, water
"

3'8
"

100.

B.B. fuses at 2 and colors water and turns black, In the closed tube yields Pyr.,etc. also an the flame emerald-green. On charcoal with soda gives metallic copper, sometimes with Fused with metallic lead on charcoal is reduced to metallic copper, arsenical odor. bead polyhedral the formation of lead phosphate, which treated in R.F. gives a crystalline Soluble in nitric acid. on cooling. With the fluxes reacts for copper. Occurs Obs. with chalcopyriteat Libethen, near Neusohl, Hungary; at Rheinat Nizhni Tagilsk in the Ural Mts.; from breitenbach and Ehl on the Rhine, Germany; trict, disin Cornwall, England. In Clifton-Morenci Viel-Salm, Belgium; in small quantities
"

Ariz.

604
Tarbuttite,

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Zn3P2O8 Zn(OH)2. Triclinic. Crystals striated and rounded, frequently Colorless to pale 4'1. G. 37. aggregates. Perfect basal cleavage. H. N. W. Rhodesia. Broken From Fusible. Hill, or yellow,brown, red, green. often grouped in crusts crystals, Zn3As-"O8.Zn(OH)2. In small orthorhombic Adamite. Color honey-yellow,violet, 4'34-4'35. roseG. 3'5. H. and granularaggregations. From 173. Cap Garonne, Chile; France; Mean Chanarcillo, colorless. index, red,green, of Laurion, Mte. from Valerio,Campiglia Marittima, Italy; at the ancient zinc mines taining Island of Thasos, Turkey. Varieties from Cap Garonne, Var, France, conFrom Greece. cobalt and copper have been called cobaltoadamiie and cuproadamite. and usually in Pb, Zn chiefly, Descloizite. R2V2O8.R(OH)2 or 4RO.V2O6.H2O; R often drusy; also massive, fibrous In small orthorhombic crystals, the ratio 1 : 1 approx. 5'9-6'2. Color H. 3 '5. G. surface. cherry-red and with mammillary radiated red or yellowish Streak orange to brownish brownish red, to lightor dark brown, black. Mean index,1'83. gray. Abundant at Lake From the Sierra de Cordoba, Argentina; Kappel in Carinthia. stone; TombGeorgetown and at Magdalena; in Ariz, near Valley,Sierra Co., N. M., also near Gold mine, near in Yavapai Co.; at the Mammoth Oracle,Final Co. in crusts,and reniform with masses A massive variety, containingcopper (6'5to 9 p. c.), in San Luis Potosi, also in a vein of argentiferousgalena in radiated structure, occurs A ramirite. cuprodescloizite, tritochorite, Zacatecas,Mexico; it has been variouslynamed incrustation on quartz at the Lucky Cuss mine, similar variety(11 p. c. CuO) occurs as an From Tombstone, Cochise Co., and in stalactites at Shattuck Arizona mine, Bisbee,Ariz. San Bernardino Co., Cal. Camp Signal, in nodular, stalactitic forms. be identical with descloizite. Massive: EUSYNCHITE may G. Color yellowishred, reddish brown, greenish. From burg Frei5 '596. Hofsgrund near in Baden, Germany. from Dahn The same be true of arceoxene Niedernear may Rhenish Bavaria, Germany. Schlettenbach, In small acicular crystals. Orthorhombic. Pyrobelonite. 4PbO.7MnO.2V2O5.3H2O. 5'377. Fire-red color. H. 3'5. G. High index. Probably related crystallographicallyto descloizite. From Langban, Sweden. DECHENITE. Composition usuallyaccepted as PbV2O6. nodular. Massive, botryoidal, G. 5'6-5'81. Color deep red to yellowishred and brownish red. From Nieder-Schlettenbach in the Lautertal, Rhenish Bavaria, Germany. Calciovolborthite. Probably (Cu,Ca)sVXMChi,Ca)(OH)8. In thin green tables;also From 2 '05. granular. Mean index, many. gray, fine crystalline Friedrichsrode, Thuringia, GerMinerals from Richardson, southeastern Utah, and from near Baker Oregon, City, probably belong here. Orthorhombic. Higginsite. CuCa(OH)AsO4. Small 4'5. prismatic crystals. H. G. 4 '33. n 1745. Pleochroic, green, yellow-green, blue-green. From Higgins mine, Bisbee,Ariz.
in sheaf-like
= = =

Brackebuschite. TURANITE.
A of

Near

descloizite (monoclinic?). From

the

State

of

Cordoba,
From

gentina. Ar-

Muyun,

south

vanadate, 5CuO.V2O5.2H2O. copper Andidjan, Alai Mts., Turkestan.

Radiating fibrous.

TyuyaIn

Psittacinite. A vanadate of lead and copper, from the Silver Star thin coatings; also pulverulent. Color siskin- to olive-green. MOTTRAMITE.
in

Mon District,

vanadate

velvety black

incrustations.

of lead and copper; From St. Mottram

possibly identical with psittacinite; Andrew's, Cheshire, England.

Furnacite. A basic chrom-arsenate of lead and In dark olive-green small copper. .prismatic crystals. From Djocie, French Equatorial Africa. Tsumebite. Preslite. A basic lead and phosphate. Orthorhombic? In copper small tabular 3'5. crystals. H G. 6'1. Color Index, " 178. emerald-green. Pleochroic, blue-greento yellow-green.Easily fusible. From Tsumeb, Otavi, German
=
=

o.

Alrica.

CLINOCLASITE.

Aphanese.
= =

Monoclinic.

Axes a : b : c 1-9069 : 1 : 3-8507; 0 80" 30' Crystals prismatic (TO (110)); also elongated ||6 axis; of ten* grouped in

PHOSPHATES, forms. nearly spherical radiated Luster:

ARSENATES,

ETC.

605

Also massive,

or hemispherical reniform; structure

fibrous.
= =

2'5-3. G. 4'19-4'37. Cleavage: c (001)highlyperfect.Brittle. H. to vitreous resinous. elsewhere Color c pearly; dark verdigris-green; internally blackish blue-green. Streak bluish green. Subtransexternally
to translucent.
"

parent

Cu3As2O8.3Cu(OH)2 Comp. 30'3, cupricoxide 62'6,water 71

Pyr., etc.
Obs.
" "

or
=

6CuO.As2O5.3H20
100.

Arsenic

pentoxide

Same
in

as

for olivenite.

In Utah, Tintic district, Cornwall, with other ores of copper. at the mine. From in allusion to the basal Mammoth Collahurasi,Tarapaca, Chile. Named cleavage being oblique to the sides of the prism. In mammillated Erinite. Color fine emerCu3As2O8.2Cu(OH)2. crystalline ald-green. groups. Utah. From Cornwall; also the Tintic district, In dark emerald-green crystals (monoclinic). Dihydrite. Cu3P2Og.2Cu(OH)2. From Ehl near G.= H. 4-4'4. Linz on the Rhine, Germany ; the Ural Mts., etc. 4'5-5. In Pseudomalachite. Massive, resembling malachite in part Cu3P2O8.3Cu(OH)2. structure. color and Indices, 1*83-1*93. From Rheinbreitenbach, Germany; Nizhni allied. Tagilsk,Russia, etc. Ehlite is closely Occurs
=

DUFRENITE.

Kraurite.

Crystalsrare, small, and indistinct. Usuallymassive,in nodules; radiated fibrous with drusy surface. 3*5-4. Cleavage: a (100),probably also b (010),but indistinct. H. Luster dull 3'2-3'4. weak. Color G. or leek-green, silky, olive-green, Streak siskin-green. to yellowand brown. alters on exposure blackish green; 1'83-1'93. Subtranslucent to nearly opaque. Stronglypleochroic.Indices, in 2Fe2O3.P2O5.3H2O Doubtful; Comp. part FeP04.Fe(OH)3 100. Phosphorus pentoxide27 -5,iron sesquioxide 62'0,water 10*5
Orthorhombic.
= =
"

but less water is given out in the closed tube. B.B. Same for vivianite, as Pyr., etc. fuses easilyto a slag. Obs. Occurs near Vienne, France; in Germany at HirschAnglar, Dept. of Haute mine near Waldgirmes; St. Benigna, berg in Westphalia and from the Rothlaufchen Bohemia; East Cornwall, England. In the United States, at Allentown, N. J.; in Rockbridge Co., Va., in radiated coarsely is a variety intermediate in comfrom Graf ton, N. H. fibrous masses; position Dufreniberaunite and beraunite from Hellertown, Pa. between dufrenite
" "

LAZULITE.

Monoclinic:
at, 100
A

Axes
=

: c

0-9750
111

1
A
A

1-6483; 0 :_
111
111
= =

89" 14'.
986

101 111

ppf, 111

30" 24'. 79" 40'.

ee',Til
pe,

80" 20'. 82" 30'.

pyramidal in habit. Also Crystals usually acute to compact. massive, granular uneven. Cleavage: prismatic, indistinct. Fracture
vitreous. commonly a fine deep blue viewed along one axis,and a pale greenish blue along another. to Subtranslucent Streak white. Optically opaque. 1-639. 1'632. 1-603. 2V 69". a (3 7
5-6. Brittle. H. Color azure-blue;
=

G.

3-057-3-122.

Luster

"

Comp.
Fe
:

"

RAL(OH)2P2O8
=

or :

2AlPO4.(Fe,Mg)(OH)2
2, 2
:

with

Mg(Ca)

12, 1
=

6, 1

requires: Phosphorus 100. magnesia 8'5,water 5*8

for2 the mula pentoxide 45*4,alumina 32*6,iron

3. For 1
:

protoxide7*7,

506
Pyr
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

In the forceps whitens,cracks In the closed tube whitens and yieldswater. etc B.B. fusion falls to pieces,coloring the flame bluish green. swells up, and without The color of the flame mineral is restored. the of color green blue the solution cobalt with With the fluxes gives an with sulphuric acid. intense by moistening the assay is made more Unacted infusible mass. by acids, retaining charcoal an upon iron glass; with soda on perfectlyits blue color. also Horrsin Salzburg, Austria; Kneglach, in Styna; Werfen Obs. Occurs near
open
"

joberg,Sweden;

from

Madagascar.

at Crowder's Mt., Gaston Co., N. C.; and on Graves Mt., with corundum Abundant etc. Lincoln Co., Ga., with cyanite,rutile, word, azw, meaning heaven, and alludes to The lazulite is derived from an Arabic name the color of the mineral.

sometimes In microscopic acicular crystals, stellate Ca3P2O8.2Al(OH)2. Devonshire. From Tavistock, groups. 3'OS. G. Color pale yellow. Compact. Cirrolite. Perhaps Ca3Al(PO4)3.Al(OH)3. at Westana, in Scania, Sweden. Occurs at the iron mine fibrous concretions. Arseniosiderite. Ca3Fe(AsO4)3.3Fe(OH)3. In yellowish brown From 3'520. Romaneche, near Macon, France; also at Schneeberg, G. Index, 3'83.
Tavistockite.

Color

white.

Saxony.
In small brownish Monoclinic. red prismatic crysMn3As2O8.4Mn(OH)2. the Moss From mine, Nordmark, and at Langban, Sweden. index, 1786. In prismatic crystals;also in grains. G.= Synadelphite. 2(Al,Mn)AsO4.5Mn(OH)2. From the Moss 3 '45-3 -50. Color brownish black to black. mine, Nordmark, Sweden. Allactite. Mean In

stals.

Flinkite. MnAsO4.2Mn(OH)2. grouped in feather-like aggregates. mine, Pajsberg, Sweden. Hematolite. 3 -30-3 '40. Moss

minute
=

G.

3 '87.

orthorhombic crystals,tabular ||c (001); Color greenish brown. From the Harstig

In rhombohedral Perhaps (Al,Mn)AsO4.4Mn(OH)2. crystals. G. Mean brownish From the red, black on the surface. Index, 1730. mine, Nordmark, Sweden.
=

Color

Retzian. A basic arsenate of the yttrium earths, manganese and calcium. rhombic Color chocolate- to chestnut-brown. 415. G. crystals. H. =4. Moss mine, Nordmark, Sweden.
=

From

In orthothe

ii
=

ni
=

R Arseniopleite. Perhaps RgR^OH^AsO^e; R Mn, Ca, also Pb, Mg; Mn, also Fe. Color brownish red. Occurs Massive, cleavable. at the Sjo mine, Grythytte parish, Sweden, with rhodonite in crystalline limestone.

is

Manganostibiite. Hematostibiite. antimonates. In emHighly basic manganese bedded grains. Color black. at Nordmark, Sweden; hematostibiite Manganostibiite occurs from the Sjo mine, Grythytte parish, Sweden.
Atelestite. Basic bismuth In arsenate, H2Bi3AsO8. Color sulphur-yellow. From Schneeberg,Saxony. minute tabular

crystals

6'4.

C. The

Normal
group

Hydrous
among

Phosphates,

etc.

only important
VIVIANITE

the normal

hydrous phosphates is the

monoclinic
Struvite.

GROUP. phosphate. In orthorhombic-hemimorphic soluble. yeUowish; sli8htly From Index, 1'502.

Hydrous ammonium-magnesium
P'
6 "r

Sanod
r*k
4
"

Collophanite. Ca3P2O8.H2O.
i'
A
"

"L59'
Mona
in

occurring

In layers resembling gymnite or opal. Colorless or the island of Sombrero, West Indies. is similar, Monile and Moneta in the West Indies,where it is associated with monetite, yellowish white triclinic crystals.
From

608
The

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

includes hydrous phosphates of iron,magnesium, GROUP VIVIANITE The crystallization all with eightmolecules of water. nickel and zinc, cobalt, far as known, correspondclosely. so is monoclinic,and the angles,
VIVIANITE.

Monoclinic. stellategroups.

71" 58'); often in (mm'" 110 A 110 Crystalsprismatic or divergent,fibrous, Also reniform and globular;structure
=

earthy; also incrusting. Cleavage: b (010)highlyperfect;a (100)in traces; also 1'5 nearly_L c axis. Flexible in thin laminae; sectile. H.
=
-

fibrous G 2'58 faces other vitreous. metallic pearly; 2*68. Luster, b (010) pearly or Streak blue to green, deepening on exposure. Colorless when unaltered, and to liver-brown. colorless to bluish white, changing to indigo-blue Pleochroism after exposure. strong; Transparent to translucent; opaque
"

fracture 2.

Y cobalt-blue, 1'604.
=

and

-f. yellow. Optically palegreenish

1*581.

ft

Comp.

"

1-636. 7 Hydrous ferrous

phosphate,Fe3P208.8H20
287
=

Phosphorus pent-

oxide 28'3,iron protoxide 43'0,water

100.

Many analysesshow the presence of iron sesquioxidedue to alteration. In the closed tube yields neutral water, whitens, and exfoliates. B.B. Pyr., etc. the flame bluish green, to a grayish black magnetic globule. With fuses at 1 "5, coloring
" .

acid. Soluble in hydrochloric the fluxes reacts for iron. and tin veins; someOccurs associated with pyrrhotiteand pyrite in copper Obs. times veins with gold,traversing in narrow in beds graywacke; both friable and crystallized often in cavities of fossils of clay, and sometimes associated with limonite, or bog iron ore;
"

or

buried bones. Occurs at St. Agnes and

of

elsewhere in Cornwall, England; at Bodenmais, Germany;

in

the

Ashio, Shimotsuke, Japan. A variety Transylvania. From from the Kertsch and Taman of South Russia, that contains small quantities peninsulas, and magnesium has been called paravivianite. The earthy variety,sometimes manganese called blue iron-earth or native Prussian blue (Fer azure), occurs in Greenland, Carinthia, etc. Guatemala, Bolivia, Victoria, Australia, In North in nodules, America, in N. J.,at Allentown, Monmouth Co., both crystallized, and earthy; at Mullica Hill,Gloucester Co. (mullicite}, in cylindrical In Va., in masses. In Ky., near Stafford Co. Eddyville. In Col. at Leadville; in Idaho, at Silver City. In Canada, with limonite at Vaudreuil. gold mines Verespatak
In small prismatic crystalsand in radiated Probably Fe3As2O8.8H2O. Symplesite. 2 '957. Color pale indigo,inclined to celandine-green. From spherical aggregates. G. Carinthia. Lobenstein,Germany; Hiittenberg, Bobierrite. Mg3P2O8.8H2O. In aggregates of minute crystals; also massive. less ColorFrom the of Mexillones, to white. the Chilian coast. on guano Hautefeuillite is like bobierrite, but contains calcium. Index Monoclinic. From 1*52. Bamle, Norway.
=

Hoernesite.

Mg3As2p8.8H2O.In crystals resembling gypsum;

From

also columnar; stellar-

foliated.

Color snow-white. Cobalt

the Banat,

Hungary.

ERYTHRITE.

bloom.

Monoclinic. and vertically Crystals prismatic striated. Also in globular and reniform shapes, having a drusy surface and a columnar structure; sometimes stellate. Also pulverulent and earthy, incrusting.
b (010) highly perfect. Sectile. H. T5-2'5; least on b. Luster of 6 pearly; other faces adamantine to vitreous; also dull, earthy. Color crimson- and peach-red, sometimes Streak a little gray. paler than the color. Transparent to subtranslucent. Strongly pleochroic.
=

Cleavage:
2'948.

G.

Optically

-.

1'626.

ft

1'661.

1'699.

PHOSPHATES,

ARSENATES,

ETC.

609
=

Comp.

38*4, cobalt
Pyr., etc.

Arsenic pentoxide Hydrous cobalt arsenate, Co3As208.8H2O water 24' 1 100. cobalt is sometimes The protoxide37'5, placed reand calcium. iron, by nickel,
"

the closed tube yields water at a gentle heat and turns bluish; at a arsenic trioxide which condenses in crystals the cool glass, and the on residue has a dark gray or black color. B.B. in the forcepsfuses at 2 to a gray bead, and colors the flame light blue (arsenic). B.B. on charcoal gives an arsenical odor, and fuses which with borax givesthe deep blue color characteristic of cobalt. to a dark gray arsenide, Soluble in hydrochloricacid, giving a rose-red solution. Occurs Obs. at Schneeberg in Saxony, in micaceous in Baden; scales; Wolfach in Norway. From Modum the Veta Rica mine, Sierra Mojada, Coahuila, Mexico; Chile. in Pa.,sparinglynear In the United States, Philadelphia;in Nev., at Lovelock's station. from from In crystals In Cal. Named red. Cobalt,Canada. epi"0p6s,
"

In

higherheat givesoff

"

In capillarycrystals; also massive Monoclinic. and Mean From Alleindex, 1'68. apple-green. Optically in Dauphine, France; Annaberg, Schneeberg and Riechelsdorf, mont Germany; in Col.; Canada. Nev.; Cobalt, Ontario, Cabrerite. (Ni,Mg)3As2O8.8H2O. Like erythrite in habit. Also fibrous,radiated; the Sierra Cabrera, Spain; at Laurion, reniform, granular. Color apple-green. From

Annabergite.

NiaAsaOs.SH^O.
fine

disseminated.

Color

"

Greece. Color Massive, or in crusts. Kottigite. Hydrous zinc arsenate, ZnsAs2O8.8H2O. light carmine- and peach-blossom-red. Occurs with smaltite at the cobalt mine Daniel, near Schneeberg, Germany.

Rhabdophanite. Scovillite. A hydrous phosphate of the cerium and yttrium metals. Color brown, pinkish or 3'94-4'OL Massive, small mamillaryj as an incrustation. G. yellowishwhite. Rhabdophanite is from Cornwall; Scovillite is from the Scoville (limonite) bed in Salisbury, Conn. ore As a thin coating of minute Churchite. A hydrous phosphate of cerium and calcium. 3'14. Color pale smoke-gray tinged with flesh-red. From Cornwall,England. crystals. G.
=

Uvanite.

2UO3.3V2O6.15H2O.

Color

Temple Ferganite. U3(VO4)2.6H2O. Turkestan. Fergana, Russian

in

brownish yellow. Rock, 45 miles southwest

ages. Fine granular. Two Orthorhombic. pinacoidalcleavin rocks near disseminated Indices, 1 '82-2 '06. Found of Greenriver,Utah. In scales. Color province of sulphur-yellow. From

Color dull green. Massive. Fernandinite. Readily soluble CaO.V^O^SVaOe.MHaO. Found at Minasragra, Peru. acids,partly soluble in water. In Monoclinic. Pascoite. Hydrous calcium vanadate, possibly2CaO.3V2O6.11H2O. Streak Color 2'46. G. 2'5. yellow. Indices, 177-1 '83. grains. H. orange. of Pasco, Peru. Found at Minasragra, Province Easily fusible. Soluble in water. Color As efflorescence. Pintadoite. calcium an 2CaO.V2O6.9H2O. vanadate, Hydrous Utah. in sandstone of surfaces Found Pintado, Canyon coating green.
= =

SCORODITE.

987

Orthorhombic. dd', pp', Habit

120 111 A A

Axes
120 111
= =

b
.

: c

0*8658 pp", pp'",

0-9541. 111
111
=

60" 1'. 77" 8'.

111 111

A A

111" 6'. 65" 20'.

also prismatic. Also earthy, amorphous. octahedral, ture Fracd a (100),6(010) in traces. (120)imperfect; Cleavage:
uneven.

Brittle.

to subadamantine
or

liver-brown.

Luster vitreous 3'l-3'3. 3'5-4. G. Color paleleek-green subresinous. Streak white. Subtransparent to translucent. H.
= =

and

index, 1'84. ferric arsenate, FeAsO4.2H20 Hydrous Comp. 100. 34'6,water 15'6 49'8,iron sesquioxide
"

Mean

Arsenic

pentoxide

610
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

and turns yellow. B.B. fuses In the closed tube yields neutral water Pyr., etc. coloringthe flame blue. B.B. on charcoal givesarsenical fumes, and with soda a easily, acid. black magnetic scoria. Wit^hthe fluxes reacts for iron. Soluble in hydrochloric Schwarzenberg, Saxony; DernOften associated with arsenopyrite. From Obs. Carinthia; Schlaggenwald, Bohemia; Nerchinsk, Siberia, bach, Nassau, Germany; Lolling, From in the Cornish mines. Congo Free State. From Obira, in fine crystals; leek-green, Japan. N. Y., with arsenopyrite;in Utah, Tintic district,, at the Mammoth Occurs near Edenville, mine on enargite. As an incrustation on siliceous sinter of the Yellowstone geysers. From Cobalt, Ontario, Canada. from anopodov, Named alludingto the odor before the blowpipe. garlic, Monoclinic. Vilateite. H. 3-4. Hydrous iron phosphate with a littlemanganese. in pegmatite at La Vilate near Found 275. Color violet. Index, 174. G. Chanteloube, Haute Vienne, France. Two Purpurite. 2(Fe,Mn)PO4.H2O. Orthorhombic(?). In small irregular masses. 4-4*5. G. 3 '4. Color deep red or reddish purple cleavages at right angles. H. Found at Kings Mt., Gaston Refractive index, 1*66-1*65,Fusible. Co.,N. C., sparingly from Pala, San Diego Co., Cal.,Hill City, S. D., and Branchville, Conn. Crystalsrare; in habit and angle near Strengite. FePO4.2H2O. scorodite; generally in spherical and botryoidal 2 '87. Color pale red. forms. G. 172'. +. Optically 0 From iron mines near Giessen,Germany; also in Rockbridge Co.,Va., with dufrenite;irom Pala, Cal. Phosphosiderite. 2FePO4.3"H2O. An iron phosphate near strengite, but with 3|H2O. Color red. Index 173. From the Siegen mining district, Germany; from Sardinia. Barrandite. color pale shades of gray. (Al,Fe)PO4.2H2O. In spheroidalconcretions, Bohemia. Index, 1-57. From
"

Variscite.

A1PO4.2H2O.
with
reniform

incrustations nodular
habit.
masses

pleochroic. From
Lucinite.
Also

Messbach from Tooele

same

Orthorhombic. Commonly in crystallineaggregates and surface. Color green. 1'556. Optically -. 0 Strongly in Saxon Voigtland; Montgomery Co., Ark.,on quartz in Co., Utah (Utahlite); from Lucin, Utah. crystalized
=

Comp.

as

for
H.
=

varisdte,A1PO4.2H2O.
5.

Orthorhombic.

Octahedral
'59

compact, massive.

Found

with varisdte at Utahlite Hill, near

Color green. Lucin, Boxelder Co., Utah.

=

G.

2*52.

1 -56-1 Indices,

Callainite.
a

A1PO4.2"H2O.
in

Massive; wax-like.

Celtic grave
From

Color apple- to emerald-green Color

From grayish

Lockmariaquer, Brittany.
Crystallineto compact. yellowish
or

Zepharovichite. A1PO4.3H2O.
white.
stratum

Trenic in Bohemia.

HK2A12(PO4)3.7H2O. Amorphous, pulverulent. Color white. Occurs as depositon Mte. Alburno,Salerno, Italy. Rosieresite. A hydrous phosphate of aluminium with lead and copper. In stalao2'2' yellow to brown. C.olor Index, 1*5. Isotropic.Infusible. Found in GJ= u68^ abandoned at Rosieres, copper mine Tarn, France.
a in a

Palmerite.

guano

yelbw"mR^Su
""rr 3 Li,H)20.

^^

*******

"f

^^

needles'

Color

"5w^Arite; ^ hydrous In cleavable

A

iron-manganesephosphate
G.
=

masses.

3*45.

Color

^ perpendicularto cleavaSe- Fusible" lithium flamf giving Trom piTa"C"aiange"red' SaLmonsite.

with lithia,Fe2O3.6MnO.4P2O6 dark brown. 171-175 Indices,

hydrous iron-manganese phosphate, Fe2O3.9MnO.4P2O5 14H,O

COl0rbUff'

^4,1-65-1.67.Fou^d

Cleav-

Acid PHARMACOLITE.

Hydrous Phosphates,etc.

"

C"mmonly

in delicate si

Cleavage:6 (010) perfect. Fracture

uneven.

Flexible in thin laminse.

PHOSPHATES,
H.
=

ARSENATES,

ETC.

611

2-2;5.G.
"

Color white
to opaque.

Comp.
water

6 (010)inclining on to pearly. vitreous; or grayish; frequently tinged red. Streak white. Translucent 1'583. 1'589. 1'594. a Optically 0 7 Arsenic pentoxide 53*3,lime 25'9, Probably HCaAsO4.2H2O
=

2'64-273.

Luster

-.

20'8
"

100.

Obs. Found with arsenical ores of cobalt and silver, also with arsenopyrite; at Andreasberg in the Harz Mts., Germany; Riechelsdorf in Hesse, Germany; Joachimstal in Named from ^ap/za/cop, poison. etc. Bohemia, Markirch, Alsace, In minute Haidingerite. HCaAsO4.H2O. crystalaggregates, botryoidal and drusy. Color white. 2 -848. G. Index, 1 '67. From Joachimstal, Bohemia, with pharmacolite. In in incrustations. minute also Colorless Wapplerite. HCaAsO4.3"H2O. crystals; Found with pharmacolite at Joachimstal,Bohemia. to white. Brushite. In small slender monoclinic prisms: concretionarymassive. HCaPO4.2H2O. 1*545. Colorless to pale yellowish. " Occurs in guano. ciated, assoMetabrushite, similarly is a mineral similar to brushite but said to contain a is 2HCaPO4.3H2O. Stoffertite From littlemore water. depositson the island of Mona, West Indies. guano Martinite. H2Ca5(PO4)4.|H2O. From phosphorite deposits(from guano) in the island of Curacoa, West Indies. G. Hewettite. 2'5-2'6. In microscopic needles. Color CaO.3V2O5.9H2O. deep red. lightorange-yellowto red. On heating loses water changing color through Pleochroic, at Minasshades of brown to a bronze. Easily fusible. Found as an alteration of patronite
= =

ragra,

Peru.

Also observed

from

Paradox

Col. Valley,

In minute tabular orthorhombic as Comp. same tals. crysParadox changing from dark red to yellow-brown. From heating loses water Valley,Col.,and at Thompson's, Utah. In white orthorhombic crystals. Index, 1'52. From Newberyite. HMgPO4.3H2O. is a hydrous phosphate of Skipton Caves, Victoria. locality, Hannayite, from same guano Occurs in small of ammonium and magnesium. Mg(NH4)2H2(PO4)2.4H2O. Schertelite, in hot guano Australia. tabular crystals depositsnear Skipton, southwest of Ballarat, In white crystalline Microcosmic Stercorite. salt. HNa(NH4)PO4.4H2O. and masses Metahewettite. On

for hewetlite.

nodules

in guano.

In short prismatic crystals (monoclinic). Also H2Mn6(PO4)4.4H2O. fibrous. Color yellowish,orange-red, rose, grayish. massive, compact, or imperfectly In the United of Bureaux, France. From T654. Limoges, commune (3 Optically States,at Branchville,Conn.; Pala, Cal. Color grayish white. Forbesite. H2(Ni,Co)2As2O8.SH2O. Structure fibro-crystalline.

Hureaulite.
"

From

Atacama,

Chile.

FERRAZITE.

3(Ba,Pb)O.2P2O6.8H2O.
G.
=

"fava"

found

in the diamond

sands of Brazil.

Color dark

white. yellowish

3 '0-3 '3.

Basic

Hydrous Phosphates,

etc.

In minute white crystals; also columnar. From Isoclasite. Ca3P2O8.Ca(OH)2.4H2O. Joachimstal,Bohemia. in spherical radiated groups. Mn3As2O8.3Mn(OH)2.2H2O. Commonly Hemafibrite. the Moss red to garnet-red, mine, Nordmark, becoming black. From Color brownish Sweden. EUCHROITE.

Orthorhombic.
m

Habit G.

mm'" prismatic
Fracture
=

110

110

62" 40'.
to
uneven.

Cleavage:
Rather

(110),

(Oil) in traces.
=

small conchoidal
Luster vitreous.

brittle. H.
or

3 -5-4.

3-389.

Color

brightemerald-

leek-green. Transparent to translucent. Mean Arsenic Cu3As2Os.Cu(OH)2.6H2O Comp. 100. 187 oxide 47-1,water
"

index,1-70. pentoxide 34'2, cupric

Obs.

"

Occurs

in quartzose mica

having much size,

resemblance

to

of considerable slate at Libethen in Hungary, in crystals color. from evxpoa, beautiful dioptase. Named

612

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Orthorhombic. Usually Conichalcite. Perhaps (Cu,Ca)3As2O8.(Cu,Ca)(OH)2.|H2O. Color pistachio-greento emerald-green and massive, resembling malachite. reniform Tintic district, Utah. From Andalusia, Spain; Maya-Tass, Akmolinsk, Siberia (crystals);

Bayldonite.
Color green. Color

In (Pb,Cu)3As2O8.(Pb,Cu)(OH)2.H2O.

mamillary

concretions,drusy.

From

Cornwall, England.

Tagilite. Cu3P2O8.Cu(OH)2.2H2.O. In reniform or the Ural Mts. to emerald-green. From verdigrisLeucochalcite. Probably Cu3As2O8.Cu(OH)2.2H2O. in the Spessart,Germany. mine From the Wilhelmine
Barthite.

spheroidalconcretions; earthy.
In white,

silkyacicular crystals.
=

3ZnO.CuO.3As2O6.2H2O.
Color grass-green. Africa. Found

G. 419. Southwest
=

In small in druses of

monoclinic 3. (?) crystals. H. dolomite at Guchab, Otavi, German

small From

In of copper, barium, and calcium. A hydrous vanadate Volbprthite. Color olive-green, Index, 1 '90. citron-yellow. tables; in globularforms.
.

six-sided the Ural

Mts. In Monoclinic. microscopic hair-like Hiigelite. A hydrous lead-zinc vanadate. Reichenbach near Lahr, Baden, crystals. Color orange-yellow to yellow-brown. From Germany. Cornwallite. Color emerCu3As2O8.2Cu(OH)2.H2O. Massive, resembling malachite. ald-green. From Cornwall; England. Usually in fan-shapedcrystalTyrolite. Tirolit. Perhaps Cu3As2O8.2Cu(OH)2.7H2O. line in foliated aggregates; also massive. Cleavage perfect,yielding soft thin groups; flexible laminae. Color pale green From incliningto sky-blue. Index, T70. Libethen, Hungary; Nerchinsk, Siberia;Falkenstein,Tyrol; etc. In the United States,in the Tintic district, "Utah. Some analyses yield CaCO3, usually regarded as an impurity,but it may be essential. In radiating and Monoclinic. reticulated Spencerite. Zn3(PO4)2.Zn(OH)2.3H2p. G. 3*12. H. crystals. Cleavages parallelto three pinacoids. Color white. 2*7. From 1-61. Hudson 0 Optically Bay Mine, Salmo, B. C. Hibbenite. Tabular parallel 2Zn3(PO4)2.Zn(OH)2.6fH2O. Orthorhombic. to a (100). to three pinacoids. Color white. G. H. Cleavages parallel 3 '21. 3 7. Optically From Hudson Bay Mine, Salmo, British Columbia.
= = =

-.

"

CHALCOPHYLLITE.

Rhombohedral.

Axis

2761.

cr

In

tabular

72" 2'. also foliated crystals;

A

0001

1011

massive; in
r

druses.

Cleavage:
=

(0001) highly perfect;

=

(lOll) in
c

Color emerald- or grass-green to verdigris-green.Streak somewhat paler than the color. Transparent to translucent. Opticallv 1-632. 1-575. " A highlybasic arsenate of formula uncertain,perhaps copper;
______^__
-

H. traces. 2. G. 2'4-2'66. Luster of of other faces vitreous subadamantine. or

pearly;

uO. As2O5.14H20.

(??I!lp" 7"
" "

Pyr., etc.
Ubs.

olive-greenscales.

Bisbi Ariz
a

In the closed tube decrepitates, yieldsmuch water, and gives a residue of In other respects like olivenite. Soluble in nitric acid,and in ammonia. *rom the copper mines near Redruth in Cornwall; at Sayda, Saxony; Moldawa from ChUeIn the United gary; in the Tintic district, States, Utah;

Veszelyite.A
WAVELLITE.

hydrous phospho-arsenate of
at

copper

and

zinc, formula
the

uncertain.

greenish blue crystalline incrustation

Morawitza, in

Banat, Hungary.

Orthorhombic.

Axes

: c

0*5049

0-3751.

Crystals rare

Usu-

hemispherical or

Slobular with

crystalline surface,and

PHOSPHATES,

ARSENATES,

ETC.

613

p (101) and b (010) rather perfect. Fracture uneven to subBrittle. H. 3-25-4. G. 2-316-2-337. Luster vitreous, to pearly and resinous. Color white, passing into yellow, inclining and black. Streak white. Translucent. brown, Mean gray, index,T526

Cleavage:

conchoidal.

green'
c.

Comp.
Pyr., etc.

"

4A1PO4.2A1(OH)3.9H2O
26-8
=

Phosphorus

pentoxide
present, up

mina 35'2, aluto 2 p.

38'0,water
"

100.

Fluorine is sometimes

the closed tube gives off much water, the last portions of which may react acid (fluorine).B.B. in the forceps swells up and splits into fine infusible particles Gives a blue on ignition with cobalt solution. Soluble in coloringthe flame pale green. hydrochloricacid,and also in caustic potash. Obs. From Barnstaple in Devonshire, England; at Zbirow in Bohemia: at Frankenberg,Saxony; Arbrefontaine,Belgium; Montebras, France; Minas Geraes,Brazil, etc. In the United States at the slate quarries of York Co., Pa.; White Horse Station Chester
"

In

Valley R. R., Pa.; Magnet

Fischerite.

Cove,

Ark.

In AlPO4.Al(OH)3.2^H2p.

Color green.

Index, 1'55.

From

Nizhni

small prismatic crystalsand Tagilsk in the Ural Mts. in green

in

drusy

crusts.

Occurs Peganite. A1(PO4).A1(OH)3.UH2O. at Striegis, near Freiberg,Saxony.

crusts, of small prismatic crystals,

TURQUOIS.

Turquoise.

Triclinic. Crystalsminute and in angle near those of chakosiderite with be isomorphous. Usuallymassive; amorphous or cryptocrystalwhich it may line. Reniform, stalactitic, or and disseminated incrusting. In thin seams grains. Also in rolled masses. in massive material. Fracture Cleavage in two directions in crystals ; none small conchoidal. Rather brittle. H. 5-6. 2-6-2-83. G. Luster somewhat feeble. Color sky-blue, bluish green to apple-green, and greenish waxy, Streak white or greenish. Feebly subtranslucent to opaque. gray. cally Opti= =

a
"

1-61. A

j8

1-62.

1-65.

and copper hydrous phosphate CuO.3Al203. 2P205.9H2O or perhaps H6(CuOH)[Al(OH)2]6(PO4)4 Phosphorus pentoxide 100. 34-12,alumina 36-84,cupricoxide 9-57,water 19-47

Comp.

of aluminium

and A1(OH)2 mutually replace each other in the Penfield considers that the H,(CuOH) orthophosphoric molecule. In the closed tube decrepitates, yieldswater, and turns brown or black. Pyr., etc. and assumes B.B. in the forceps becomes brown but does not fuse; a glassy appearance, with hydrochloricacid the color'is at firstblue (copper moistened colors the flame green; Soluble in hydrochloricacid. chloride). With the fluxes reacts for copper. in narrow The highlyprizedoriental turquoisoccurs Obs. 6 mm. seams (2 to 4 or even in thickness)or in irregularpatches in the brecciated portions of a porphyritictrachyte not far from and the surrounding clay slate in Persia, Nishapur, Khorassan; in the Megara Mts. in Turkestan, 50 versts from Samarkand. Valley, Sinai; in the Kara-Tube in the Los Cerillos Mts., 20 m. S.E. of Santa Fe, New In the United States, occurs long mined by the Mexicans and in recent years reopened Mexico, in a trachyticrock, a locality and extensively worked; in the Burro Mts., Grant Co., N. M.; pale green variety In crystals near near Lynch Station,Campbell Columbus, and in Lincoln Co., Nevada.
" "

Co., Va.
treated to give it the tint desired. Natural turquois of inferior color is often artificially first found retain the color only so ctcncs vrhich are of a fine blue when Mor-ovrr, many long as they arc kept moist, and when dry they fade,become a dirtygreen, and are of littlo used in jewelry in former of the turquois (not artificial) well value. Much as centuries, was the present, and that described in the earlyworks on minerals, bone-turquois as (called from which is fossil bone, or tooth, colored by a phosphate of also odontolite, o*oy~, tooth), manifest under a microscope. Moreover, true turquois. iron. Its organic originbecomes when acid,gives a fine blue color with ammonia, which is not decomposed by hydrochloric
true

Use.

of the odontolite. As an ornamental

"

material.

614
Wardite.

DESCRIPTIVE
Forms

MINERALOGY

2A12O3.P2O6.4H2O.

in cavities of nodular

masses

tations lightgreen or bluish green concretionary incrusH. Cedar 5. Valley, Utah. of variscite from
=

G.

277. In

Sphserite. Perhaps 4A1PO4.6A1(OH)3.

gray,

globulardrusy

concretions.

Color

light

bluish.

From

near

St.

Benigna,Bohemia.

In thin incrustinglayers,white or (Al,Fe)AsO4.2(Al,Fe)(OH)3.5H2O. Liskeardite. Liskeard, Cornwall,England. bluish. From or 2A1PO4.4A1(OH)3.12H2O. Massive; reniform or botryoidal. Colorless, Evansite. From Zsetcznik,Hungary; Gross-Tresny, Moravia; Tasmania; 1'485. n Ala.; Goldburg, Idaho. coalfield, milk-white to Perhaps 3A12O3.2P2O6.10H2O. Crypto-crystalline; CCERULEOLACTITE. also East Whiteland Germany; From Nassau, Katzenellnbogen, near lightcopper-blue. Township, Chester Co., Pa. and massive. G. 27. Augelite. 2A12O3.P2O5.3H2O. In tabular monoclinic crystals From the iron mine T576. of Bolivia; from 0 Colorless to white. Optically+. The same localityhas also yielded the three following aluminium Westana, Sweden. phosphates. G. 2 '64. Colorless to grayish BERLINITE. 2A12O3.2P2O5.H20. Compact, massive.

milk-white,

Coosa

or

rose-red.
TROLLEITE.

cleavable. 4Al2O3.3P206.3H2O. Compact, indistinctly

G.

310.

Color

pale green.
ATTACOLITE.

etc.;formula P2O5,Al203,MnO,CaO,H2O,
An aluminium when

doubtful.

Massive. Brazil.
=

G.=3'09.

Color salmon-red.
MINASITE. VASHEGYITE.
or

phosphate.

In rolled

pebbles from
2-3. From

4A1203.3P206.30H20.

yellowto

rust-brown
A

Massive. colored by iron oxide.

H.=

G. iron mine

1'96. at

Color

Vashegy

white in Comi-

tat

Gomor, Hungary.
Soumansite.

fluo-phosphate of aluminium
H.
=

Pyramidal

habit.

4'5.

G.
From

Fusible with intumescence.

and sodium with water. Colorless. Indices, 1 '55-1 '56. Montebras in Soumans, Creuse,France.
2"87.

Tetragonal.

Optically +.

PHARMACOSIDERITE.

Isometric-tetrahedral.

Commonly

in

cubes; also tetrahedral.

sectile.

Rarely
H.
=

granular. Cleavage:
989

(100) imperfect. Fracture

2 -5. very
=

Rather uneven. G. 2*9-3. Luster adamantine distinct. Color olive-, or grass-

to greasy,
green

not to

emerald-green,

yellowish brown, honey-yellow. Streak

=

brown, yellow,pale. Subtransparent to subtranslucent. 1-676. n Pyroelectric. Comp. Perhaps 6FeAs04.2Fe(OH)3.12H2O Arsenic pent oxide 43% iron sesquioxide40 '0,water
"

16 -9

100.
"

Some
as

varieties contain

K2O.

v.. near Konigsberg,

for scorodite. Obs. at the mines in Cornwall. England, with of copper; ores at Schneeberg and Schwarzenberg, Saxony; at Schemmtz, Hungary. In Utah, at the Mammoth mine, Tintic district,
" .

etc. Pyr.,

Same Obtained

from

QapucxKov,poison,

and

iron. aidrjpos,

Occurs *" 2F^pA.Fe(OH)2.8H2O.

Iruro, Cornwall, England.

From
near

in small green tufts of

tabular

crystals(monobrownish

St.

.-

In radiated

yellow

or

color.

rnnnl

ii

W'

stem

Bavaria

Benigna in Bohemia; Lancaster Co Pa with FeO, MnO, CaO, MgO, A12O3. MonoPleochroic- G2'^From RabenHiihnerkobel,
=

615
Tomn
-

DESCRIPTIVE A hvdrous arsenate

MINERALOGY

of aluminium

and

copper,

formula

uncertain;
=

3CuAl(OH),20H2O CueAl(As04)5 analysSP'correspond nearly 24-9 water

to

28-9, alumina pentoxide

Pvr etc
"

10-3, cupric

oxide 35-9,

100.

Arsenic phorus Phos-

part of the arsenic. replaces

cracks and turns olive-green. B.B water In the closed tube gives much fuses less readilythan olivenite to a dark gray slag; on decrepitate; open and givesreactions like olivenite. Soluble in nitric acid. charcoal cracks open, deflagrates, Cornwall; Herrengrund m Hungary. From Obs. Color dark green Massive to compact.
but does not
"

Chenevixite.

to

yellow. greenish
HENWOODITE.
masses.

Perhaps Cu2(FeO)2As2O8.3H2O. From Cornwall; Utah.

A

Color

hydratedphosphateof aluminium Cornwall. From turquois-blue.

and

copper.

In

botryoidalglobular
minute Taltal

of very Compact, made up Ceruleite. CuO.2Al2O3.As2O5.8H2O. From Soluble in acids. Huanaco, 2-8. Color, turquois-blue. G. Chile.
=

crystals.
province,

Chalcosiderite. should have 9H2O.

green.

CuO.3Fe2O3.2P2O5.8H2O.
Cornwall.

Probably isomorphous
as

with

turquois and

In sheaf-Jike From 1 '83-1 '93. Indices,

crystalline groups,

incrustations.

Color

lightsiskin-

ANDREWSITE,
Kehoeite. From A

also from

Cornwall, is near

chalcosiderite. Massive. G.
=

hydrated phosphate of aluminium, zinc,etc.

2'34.

Galena, S. D.

Goyazite. Perhaps Ca3AljoP2O23.9H2O.

that it is identical with hamlinite. it is possible Minas Geraes, Brazil. From white.

in the mineral and Strontia has been found In small rounded grains. Color yellowish From

Roscherite.

(Mn,Fe,Ca)2Al(OH)(PO4)2.2H2O.Monoclinic.

Ehrensfriedersdorf
,

Saxony.
Uranite
TORBERNITE.

Group

Copper Uranite.
"

sometimes 2*9361. Crystals usually Tetragonal. Axis c square tables, Also foliated, micaceous. very thin,againthick; less often pyramidal. Laminae 2-2-5. micaceous. brittle. H. Cleavage: c (001) perfect, other faces subadamantine. Color emerald!3'4-3'6. Luster of c pearly, G. and siskin-green. and grass-green, and sometimes Streak paler leek-, apple-, than the color. Transparent to subtranslucent. Optically negative, uniaxial;
= =

1-61.

Comp.
12H2O
21*4
= =

hydrous phosphate of uranium and copper, Cu(UO2)2P2O8. uranium trioxide 56*6,copper 7'9,water Phosphorus pentoxide14-1, 100. Arsenic may of the phosphorus. replace part'
" "

In the closed tube yieldswater. Fuses at 2*5 to a blackish mass, Pyr., etc. and colors the flame green. With salt of phosphorusgivesa green bead,which with tin on charcoal red (copper). With becomes on coolingopaque soda on charcoal gives a globule of .Soluble in nitric acid. copper. Obs. From Germany at Schneeberg, etc., Saxony; Reichenbach, Baden; at
"

Joachimstal, Bohemia;
Australia. The

From Ambert, Puy-de-D6me; France. Mt. Painter, South material from Gunnis Lake, Cornwall corresponds to Cu(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O and is the same the first dehydration product of torbernite, as has been called which meta-torbernite I. G. 3'68. T623. e=l'625. o"
=
=

Zeimerite.
and

Cu(UO");A",O8.SH2O.
=

In

color.

G.

3'2.

co

1-64.

From

Cornwall. AUTUNITE. Lime Uranite.

tabular crystalsresembling torbernite in form Schneeberg, Saxony; near Joachimstal,Bohemia;

Orthorhombic. In thin tabular crystals, nearly tetragonal in form but slightly from torbernite in angle; also deviating micaceous. foliated,

and

PHOSPHATES,

ARSENATES,

ETC.

617
= =

Laminae brittle. H. 2-2'5. G. Cleavage: basal,eminent. 3-05Luster of c (001)pearly, elsewhere subadamantine. Color lemon- to sulphur-yellow. Streak yellowish. Transparent to translucent. Optically Ax. pi.|| 6 (010). Bx _L c (001). a 1-553. 1-575. 1-577. 0 7 A hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium,probably analogous Comp. to phorus Phostorbernite, Ca(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O or CaO.2UO3.P2O5.8H2O 100. pentoxide15*5,uranium trioxide 62-7,lime 6-1,water 15-7
3*19.
-.
= = =
"

Some analyses give 10 and others 12 molecules of water, but it is not certain that the additional amount is essential. Same for torbernite, but no reaction for copper. as Pyr., etc. Obs. With uraninite, at Johanngeorgenstadt and Falkenstein; in Italy as in Germany
" "

at

Lurisia,Cuneo;

in

Madagascar;

at

Tinh-Tuc, Tongking, China;

from

Mt.

In the United States,at Middletown South Australia. and Branchville, Conn. at mica mines in Mitchell Co.; in Alexander S. D. Co.; Black Hills,
=

In N.

Painter, C.,

Bassetite. autunite. 89" 17'. Monoclinic. Composition probably the same as /3 to three pinacoids. G. 3'10. Color yelTwinned; tw. pi.6 (010). Cleavage parallel low. Transparent. Indices,1 '57-1 '58. From the Basset mines, Cornwall. Previously
=

considered

to be

autunite.

Uranospinite. Probably Ca(UO2)2As2O8.8H2O. In thin tabular orthorhombic crystals From T63. near rectangularin outline. Color siskin-green. /3 Schneeberg, Saxony. Uranocircite. Color yellowBa(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O. In crystals similar to autunite. From Falkenstein,Saxon Voigtland,Germany. j8-= 1'62. green.
=

Carnotite.

Approximately, K2O.2U2O3.V2O6.3H2O.
.

Orthorhombic.

In

the

form
=

of

1 '86. Basal cleavage. Color yellow. /3 j c (001) plates| powder, sometimes in crystalline Occurs as a yellow crystalline powder, or in loosely cohering masses, intimatelymixed with It is found in largequantities in western Utah. Colorado and eastern quartzose material. Is mined there not only for its uranium and vanadium content but also for the small amount and from of radium it contains. Noted also from Radium near Hill, Olary, South Australia, Mauch near Chunk, Pa. at carnotite. Found calcium TYUYAMUNITE. Perhaps a CaO.2UO3.y2O5.4H2O. Fergana, Russian Central Asia. Tyuya-Muyun, Uranospathite. A hydrated uranyl phosphate. Orthorhombic, pseudo-tetragonal. In to the three pinacoids. Color yellow to elongated tabular crystals. Cleavages parallel From Previously considered to be autunite. Redruth, Cornwall. pale green.

4emon-yellow.

Color deep a pulverulent incrustation. Co., N. C. nal. Trogerite. (UO2)3As2O8.12H2O. In thin druses of tabular crystals.Probably tetragoColor lemon-yellow. From near Schneeberg, Saxony. Walpurgite. Probably Biio(UO2)3(OH)24(AsO4)4. In thin yellow crystalsresembling G. 5'76. near Color yellow. Index, 2 '00. From Schneeberg, Saxony. gypsum. aggregates. Color yellowish Rhagite. Perhaps 2BiAsO4.3Bi(OH)3. In crystalline near Schneeberg, Saxony. wax-yellow. From green, In A arsenate. aggregates. ARSENO-BISMITE. cryptocrystalline hydrous bismuth at Mammoth G. 5'7. Index, 1-6. Found with tinge of brown. Color yellowish green Utah. mine, Tintic district, In doubtful. and bismuth, formula of copper A hydrated basic arsenate Mixite. hemia; From Joachimstal,BoColor green to whitish. incrustation. acicular crystals;as an Utah. Wittichen, Baden; Tintic district,

Phosphuranylite.
From

As (yO-2)3P2O8.6H2O.

Mitchell

Antimonates A
among

; also

Antimonites, Arsenites.
been included in the

number
the

of antimonates

have

preceding pages

etc. arsenates, phosphates,

of lead. Amorphous, reniform; also earthy or A hydrous antimonate Bindheimite. A result of the decomposition 2'0. Index, yellowish. Color brownish, incrusting. gray,

518
of other antimonial ores;

DESCRIPTIVE thus

MINERALOGY in

at Horhausen,

Germany;

Cornwall,England;

Sevier

meite.' An antimonite
octahedrons
1 87 5'5.

G. 7'02. Color 3'5-4. crystals.H. Constantme. Algeria. From Djebel-Nador, 2 '35. brownish yellow. 0 massive, and as an Perhaps Pb4As2O7.2PbCl2. In crystals, Heliophyllite. Ecdemite. From Langban, Sweden; to Color bright yellow green. 6'89-7'14. G. incrustation. also Pajsberg(heliophyllite) united in diverging groups. Ochrolite. Probably Pb4Sb2O7.2PbCl2. In small crystals, Sweden. From Pajsberg, Color sulphur-yellow. crystals. From Copiapo, In small bluish green, tetragonal Trippkeite. nCuO.As2O3. Nadorite

ban,

H. above St. Marcel, Piedmont; From species. Sweden, is probablythe same

=

of minute In groups square of calcium, perhaps CaSb2O4 183honey-yellow, n or Color hyacinth4713.' G. from LangGeraes. Mmas Atopite Miguel Burnier,
=

PbClSbO2.
=

In

orthorhombic

Chile.
From

Schafarzikite is described as isomorphous with Pernek, Comitat Pozsony, Hungary.

with trippkeite

the formula, nFeO.P2O3.

2FeO.Sb2O5. Tripuhyite. An iron antimonate. Tripuhy, Brazil. dull greenishyellow color. From

In

aggregates microcrystalline

of

4FeSbO4.3H2O. Compact or earthy. Color Flajolotite. Hammam From N'Bail,Constantine,Algiers. masses.

=

lemon-yellow.

In

nodular

ular Monoclinic. Crystals minute tabCatoptrite. 14(Mn,Fe)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.2SiO2.Sb2O5. In 4 '5. Color black. 5 '5. G. to 6 (010). Perfect basal cleavage. H. parallel NordFrom Brattsfor mine, to red-brown red-yellow. r ed. thin splinters, Pleochroic, marken, Sweden. 5. orthorhombic crystals. H. Derbylite. An antimo-titanate of iron. In prismatic, G. 4-53. Color black. Tripuhy, Brazil. isometric octahedrons. In minute Lewisite. 5CaO.2TiO2.3Sb2O6. yellow to brown Tripuhy, Brazil. of lead and calcium, related to lewisite. In dark A titano-antimonate Mauzeliite. brown isometric octahedrons. Jakobsberg, Sweden. Chile. A doubtful antimonite of mercury; AMMIOLITE. forming a scarlet earthymass.
= =

Phosphates or
=

Arsenates

with

Carbonates, Sulphates,Borates
=

also in Podolite. 3Ca3(PO4)2.CaCO3. Hexagonal. In microscopic prismatic crystals, 1'64. 3'1. Occurs in cavities in the phosphorite Color yellow, ft spherulites. G. elite and See also staff nodules from near the Uschitza River, Podolien, southern Russia. dahllite, p. 597. A hydrated phosphate and sulphate of ferric iron. Diadochite. From Index, 1*606. Thuringia. Destinezite is similar;from Belgium. Pitticite. A hydrated arsenate and sulphate of ferric iron. Reniform and massive. Yellowish and reddish brown. Index, 1 -63. From Saxony, Cornwall, etc. In and calcium. Svanbergite. A hydrated phosphate and sulphate of aluminium rhombohedral From T64. crystals. Color yellow to yellowish brown, rose-red, co Horrsjoberg,Sweden. Beudantite. A phosphate or arsenate with sulphate of ferric iron and lead; formula perhaps,3Fe2O3.2PbO.2SO3.As2O5.6H2O. In rhombohedral crystals. Color green to brown and black. Indices, 175-1 '94. From and Horhausen, Nassau. Dernbach Corkite is same mineral from Cork, Ireland; Beaver Co., Utah. Phosphophyllite. 3Fe3P2O8.2Al(OH)SO4.9H2O, with Ca,Ba,Mg,Mn,K2 Monoclinic. Colorless to paleblue-green. 3 pinacoidalcleavages. H. 3-4. T65. G. 3 '08. n
= = = =

From

Habendorf,Bavaria.
= =

Hinsdalite. In 2PbO.3Fe2O3.2SO3.P2O5.6H2O. Pseudo-rhombohedral. dull coarse, crystals. Cleavage, basal perfect. H. 4'5. G. 4'65. Colorless with greenishtone. Indices 1 -67-1 -69. Found at Golden Fleece mine, Hinsdale Co., Col. Lindackerite. In rosettes, and in reniform Perhaps 3NiO.6CuO.SO3.2As2O5.7H2O. Color verdigrismasses. to apple-green. From Bohemia. Joachimstal,

BO

RATES

619
to

Monoclinic? In flattened Liineburgite. 3MgO.B2O3.P2O5.8H2O. fibrous masses, From Biaxial, Index, T53. earthy structure. Hannover. Ltineburg, and lead sulphate from A hydrous iron arsenate Lossenite. Laurion,Greece.
"

Nitrates The in Nitrates soluble in being largely

water

play but

an

unimportant role

Mineralogy.
SODA
NITER.
=

Axis c Rhombohedral. 0-8276; rr" 1011 A morphous with calcite. Usuallymassive form, as
= =

73" 30'. Homceoincrustation or in beds. Cleavage: r (1011) perfect. Fracture conchoidal,seldom observable. T5-2. G. sectile. H. Rather 2'24-2'29. Luster vitreous. Color white; also reddish brown, gray and lemon-yellow. Transparent. Taste
=

1101

an

co T5874, cooling. Optically Sodium NaNO3 nitrate, Comp.

-.
=
"

e
=

1'3361.

Nitrogen pentoxide 63'5,soda

36'5

100.
"

Deflagrates on charcoal with less violence than niter,causing a yellow Pyr., etc. and also deliquesces. Colors the flame intensely light, yellow. Dissolves in three parts of
at 60" F. water Obs. From
"

in Humboldt
Use.
"

Niter.

Tarapaca, northern Chile,and also the neighboring parts of Bolivia; also Co., Nev.; near Calico,San Bernardino Co., Cal. A source of nitrates. The depositsin Chile are of great importance. Orthorhombic. Potassium KNO3. T505. In thin white crusts nitrate, 0
=

and

silkytufts.
Nitrocalcite. In Hydrous calcium nitrate,Ca(NO3)2.nH2O. In many limestone caverns, those of Kentucky. as masses.

efflorescent silky tufts

caves. n
=

and

In efflorescences in limestone Nitromagnesite. Mg(NO3)2.nH2O. Nitrobarite. Barium nitrate, Ba(NO3)2. Isometric-tetartohedral. Chile.

1'57.

From

In pyramidal orthorhombic Basic cupric nitrate, Gerhardtite. Cu(NO3)2.3Cu(OH)2. 1713. From the 3 '426. Color mines at emerald-green. /3 crystals. G. copper Jerome, Ariz. Monoclinic. In square tabular crystals. Colorless. Darapskite. NaNOs.Na2SO4.H2O. From Atacama, Chile. From Atacama, Chile. Nitroglauberite. 6NaNO3.2Na2SO4.3H2O.
= =

Lautarite.

yellowish.
H.
=

From

Calcium iodate,Ca(IO3)2. In prismatic,monoclinic the sodium nitrate depositsof Atacama, Chile. calcium iodo-chromate. Monoclinic; commonly Color dark gold-yellow. From the same 370.

colorless crystals, fibrous

or

to

Dietzeite. 3-4.

-A

columnar.

G.

region as lautarite.

Oxygen
5.
The

Salts

BORAXES

duced etc.,allied chemically to the borates, have been already introaluminates, ferrates,
among

the oxides.
etc.

They include the speciesof the Spinel Group,

pp.

418-423, also

Chrysoberyl, p. 423,
SUSSEXITE.

In fibrous

seams a

Color white

with

veins. H. tingeof pink or

or

3.

G.

3 -42.

Luster

silkyto pearly.

yellow. Translucent.

Index, T59.

620

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Comp.
manganese

"

HRB03,
=

where

Mn,

Zn

and

Mg

Boron
8'8
=

41 '5, magnesia protoxide,

15'6, water

100.

trioxide 34 1, Here Mn

(+ Zn)
paper

Mg

2.

If turmeric in color and yieldsneutral water. a this water, and then with dilute hydrochloricacid, it assumes 2), and B.B. in acid). In the forcepsfuses in the flame of a candle (F. red color (boric With coloringthe flame intenselyyellowish green. mass, O F. yieldsa black crystalline in hydrochloricacid. Soluble for fluxes reacts the manganese. Mine Hill,Franklin Furnace, Sussex Co., N. J., with franklinite, Found on Obs. at Min? not uncommon An intimate mixture of zincite and calcite, etc. zincite willemite, of the genuine mineral tinctive. is disHill,is often mistaken for sussexite,but the ready fusibility

Pyr., etc.
is

In the closed tube darkens

moistened with

G.

Ludwigite. Perhaps 3MgO.B2O3.FeO.Fe2O3. Orthorhombic. Index, Color blackish green to nearly black. 3-91-4-02.
=

In T86.

fibrous masses. finely Strongly pleochroic.

more

From

Morawitza, Hungary.

Collbranite from

Korea

is

ludwigite.
ferrous iron.

VONSENITE. Cal. Riverside;

3(Fe,Mg)O.B2O3.FeO.Fe2O3.Similar to ludwigitewith
From

Magnesioludwigite. 3MgO.B2O3.MgO.Fe2O3.
Brighton, Utah.
G.=
Pinakiolite. 3MgO.B2O3.MnO.Mn2O3. Luster metallic. Color black. 3-881. In

Mountain

Lake

mine, south of
=

Nordenskioldine.
=

5*5-6. crystals. H. Norway. In Aluminium borate, A1BO3. prismatic hexagonal Jeremejevite. Eichwaldite. Colorless G. 6'5. to 1'64. From Index, Mt. pale yellow. crystals. H. 3/28. in Eastern Siberia. Soktuj,Adun-Chalon range In orthorhombic grayish white Hambergite. Be2(OH)BO3. prismatic crystals. 2-347. H. 7-5. G. 1'588. From Optically+. way; 0 Langesund fiord, southern Norvarious localitiesin Madagascar. In small nodules;white outside, Szaibelyite.2Mg5B4Ou.3H2O. From yellow within. Rezbdnya, Hungary.
=
= = = = =

6. rectangular crystals. H. Langban, Sweden. calcium-tin borate, CaSn(BOi)2. In tabular rhombohedral 4'20. From Color sulphur-yellow. G. the Langesund fiord, From

small

BORACITE.

Isometric in molecular

becomes Art. 429.)

991

retrahedral in external form under ordinaryconditions, but orthorhombic and the structure pseudo-isometric; as isotropic, required by the form, only when heated to 265". (See
and structure

993

\7

Habit

cubic and tetrahedral

or

octahedral;also dodecahedral.
groups.

usuallyisolated, embedded; less often in smooth, o, (111) dull or uneven.

Crystals

Faces

(111) bright and

Cleavage: o,oy
crystals. G. to white,inclining
in
=

Fracture conchoidal, Brittle H uneven. =7 Luster vitreous, to adamantine. inclining Color Streak white. gray, yellow and green. to Subtransparent
2-9-3.

in traces.

BORATES

621

translucent.
upon
n
=

Commonly shows double refraction, which,however, disappears heatingto 265",when a section becomes isotropic.Refractive index,
-

1-667; 7

0-0107.

the oppositepolarity to the position Strongly pyroelectric, corresponding of the + and tetrahedral faces (seepp. 306, 307). The faces of the dull tetrahedron o/ (111) form the analogous pole,those of the polished form o (111) the antilogous pole. Boron trioxide 62*5, Mg7Cl2B16O3o or 6MgO.MgCl2.8B2O3 Comp. chlorine 7'9 deduct 1'8 100. magnesia 31'4, (O= Cl) 101'8,
"

Var.

"

1.

Ordinary.

In

of varied habit. crystals

columnar

of Rose. structure; stassfurtite

Parasite of Volger granularlimestone. Fe. 3. Eisenstassfurtite contains some The massive variety gives water in the closed tube. B.B. both varieties Pyr., etc. fuse at 2 with intumescence to a white crystalline pearl,coloringthe flame green; heated after moistening with cobalt solution assumes with oxide of a deep pink color. Mixed and heated on charcoal colors the flame deep azure-blue (copperchloride). Soluble copper in hydrochloricacid. Alters very slowlyon exposure, owing to the magnesium chloride present, which takes It is the frequent presence of this deliquescent chloride in the massive mineral, up water. thus originating, that led to the view that there was a hydrous boracite (stassfurtite). Parasite of Volger is a result of the same of kind of alteration in the interior of crystals boracite; this alteration giving it its somewhat plumose character, and introducingwater. Obs. in beds of anhydrite, gypsum in Germany Observed at salt. In crystals or Kalkberg and Schildstein in Llineburg, Hannover; at Segeberg, near Kiel, in Holstein; massive, or as part of the rock, also in crystals, at Stassfurt, Prussia;at Luneville, La
" "

2. Massive, with sometimes a subIt resembles white marble or a fine-grained is the plumose interior of some of boracite. crystals

Meurthe,

France. A

Ascharite.

hydrous magnesium
Aschersleben and

borate.

In white

lumps with boracite.

Paternoite.

G.
A

2'7.

Index, 1*54.
mineral from
Rhodizite.

From

Neustassfurt, Germany.

similar
Iso=

Sicily.
= =

A borate of aluminium and potassium, with caesium and rubidium. in white, translucent dodecahedrons. H. 3 '41. n 8. G. metric-tetrahedral; red tourmaline Found from near on Ekaterinburg, Ural Mts.; from Madagascar. Warwickite. 3'36. (Mg, Fe)3TiB2O8. In elongated prismatic crystals. G.
=

T69.

Color

dark

brown

to dull

black.

From

Edenville, N. Y.

also

A silico-borate of calcium, H5 Ca2B6SiOi4. In small white rounded nodules; Nova earthy. From Scotia;Lang, Los Angeles Co., and in San Bernardino Co., Cal. An incrustation at the Tuscan lagoons,Italy. Lagonite. Fe2O3.3B2O3.3H2O. Larderellite. From Tuscan the (NH4)2Bi0O16.5H2O. lagoons,Italy.

Howlite.

COLEMANITE.

69" 51'. 07748 Axes a : b : c : 1 : 0'5410;j3 72" 4'). Massive 110 110 short A Crystalsusually prismatic(mm'" cleavable to granularand compact. to Fracture uneven Cleavable: b (010) highlyperfect; c (001)distinct. to vitreous H. Luster 4-4'5. subconchoidal. G. 2*42. adamantine, brilliant. Colorless to milky white,yellowish Transparent to white, gray. 1'614. 1'592. translucent. 1'586. + a Optically 0 7 Monoclinic.
= = = = = = = =
.

Comp.
"

"

Ca2B6On.5H2O, perhaps HCa(BO2)3.2H20

21*9
=

Boron

trioxide

50'9,lime 27*2,water
Pyr. yellowishgreen.
Obs.
"

100.

B.B.

Bernardino manite.
PRICEITE.

and fuses imperfectly, coloringthe flame exfoliates, sinters, decrepitates, Soluble in hot hydrochloricacid with separationof boric acid on cooling. San First discovered in Death Valley,Inyo Co., Cal.; later in Calico district, Neocolemanite Co. from Lang, Los Angeles Co., Cal., is identical with coleNear

colemanite.
Pandermite

Curry Co., Oregon. Argentina.

Massive, friable and chalky. Color snow-white. from Asia nodules is similar; in compact
"

From

Minor;

622

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

In Monoclinic. large tabular crystals. Cleavage, Inyoite. 2CaO.3B2O3.13H2O. G. 1-87. Decrepitates and fuses with intumescence, Indices, 1 '49-1*52. (001). H. =2. From Mt. Blanco district, Largely altered into meyerhofferite. givinggreen flame. Death Furnace Valley,Inyo Co., Cal. Associated with colemanite. Creek, near on Triclinic crystals often tabular parallel prismatic, Meyerhofferite. 2CaO.3B2O3.7H2O. 2. 2*12. G. Colorless to white. to a (100). Fibrous. dices, InCleavage, b (010). H. but with intumescence. Found 1 '50-1 '56. Fuses without decrepitation with inyoite (which see)as an alteration product. Pinnoite. Usually in nodules,radiated fibrous. MgB2O4.3H2O. Tetragonal-pyramidal. From 1'56. G. 2 '29. Color Stassfurt, Germany. sulphur- or straw-yellow, A Heintzite. of Hintzeite. Kaliborite. hydrous borate magnesium and potassium. In small monoclinic sometimes 4-5. G. aggregated together. H. 2*13. crystals, From Colorless to white, T525. Leopoldshall, Stassfurt, ft Germany. Hulsite. 12(Fe,Mg)O.2Fe2O3.lSnO2.3B2O".2H2O. Orthorhombic (?) as small crystals
c
= = =

co

or

tabular

masses.

H.

3.

G.

4 '3.

Color

and

streak

black.

Fusible.

Found

in

metamorphosed limestone at a granite contact at Brooks mountain, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. locality with the composition Paigeileis a similar mineral from the same 30FeO.5Fe2O3.lSnO2.6B2O3.5H2O.
BORAX.

Monoclinic.
994

Axes

: c

1-0995
A A
A

0-5632; 0
cz,

73" 25'.
A
A A

ca,

001 110 001

100
110 111

73" 25'. 93"

0'.

001

221

64"

8'.

mm'",
co,

oo', III zz', 221

Til
221

57" 27'.

40" 31'.

83" 28'.

pyroxene

Crystals prismatic, sometimes large; resembling in habit and angles. Cleavage: a (100)perfect; m in (110)less so; 6](010)
=

Fracture conchoidal. Rather brittle. H. 2-2*5. T69-172. Luster vitreous to resinous; sometimes earthy. Color white; sometimes grayish, bluish or greenish. Streak white. Translucent to opaque. Taste sweetish feeble. alkaline, Ax. pi." b (010). Optically Bxa _L 6 (010). Bxo.rA c axis 56" 50'. 2V 39". a 1-447. 0 T470. 1-472. 7
traces.

G.

Comp.
soda

"

Na2B4O7.10H2O
=

or

Na2O.2B2O3.10H2O

Boron

trioxide 36'6.

16-2,water 47-2

100.
fuses to a transparent globule, called the glass it colors the flame around P"t*?*um bisulphate, the a " alkaline soMonBoi^g water
"f

of bomx

afterward ?'B:fEUflS Up.and F,~^ and

Tibet; the crude mineral is called

.

the i

two

small alkaline lakes in

Co-;
,

at

which

included

inolderin^ gold
a

also the niter (sodium carbonate) Called "=h^o-"- by Agricola ^

" preservative;

sclent

t^^^^^^^^^^
Boronatrocalcite. Natronborocalcite.
m
=

tJLEXITE.

are

1. "f^ycrystas. ^ ColorS white. Tasteless. Ophcally

r

Ioose acTcu"r,Tned massf ', H.

of fine fibers, texture,consisting which

G.
=

+.

"

1'65. Luster silkywithin. 1'500. 1-508. T520. (3 7

=

624 Pyr., etc.

B.B.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

rounded the edges, sometimes on or coloring only slightly infusible, (copper). With borax and salt of phosphorus gives a yellow bead in in R.F. (uranium). With soda on charcoal gives a coating of lead O.F., becoming oxide,and frequentlythe odor of arsenic. Many specimens give reactions for sulphur and differs widely Soluble in nitric and sulphuricacids; the solubility arsenic in the open tube. able in different varieties, being greater in those kinds containingthe rare earths. Not attractStrongly radioactive. by the magnet. either as a primary constituent of granitic rocks As noted above, uraninite occurs Obs. Under the latter condition with ores of silver, lead,copper, etc. a secondary mineral or as at Johanngeorgenstadt, Marienberg, and in Germany it is found Schneeberg in Saxony; Occurs in Norway in and Pfibram; in Hungary at Rezbanya. at Joachimstal in Bohemia Moss, viz.: Annerod (broggerite), Elvestad,etc., pegmatitic veins at several points near associated with orthite, Arendal at the Garta feldspar also near (deveite), fergusonite, quarry etc. thorite, In the United States,at the Middletown feldsparquarry, Conn., in large octahedrons, in Glastonbury, a few miles N.E. of Middletown. At Branchville, rare; at Hale's quarry in albite. In N. C., at embedded Conn., in a pegmatite vein,as small octahedral crystals, the Flat Rock mine and other mica mines in Mitchell Co., rather abundant, but usually in part or entirely, to gummite and uranophane; the crystals sometimes inch altered, are an In S. C., at Marietta. and cubic in habit. In Texas, at the gadolinite or more across in Llano Co. (nivenite). In large quantitiesat Black Hawk, near Central City, locality Col. in the Bald Mountain Rather abundant Black Hills,S. D. Also with district, Ottawa at the Villeneuye mica veins, monazite, etc., Co., Quebec, Canada.
"

the outer

flame

green green

"

Use.

"

As

source

of uranium

and

of radium

salts. rounded Color reddish many, GerJohanngeorgenstadt,

In

or

of uraninite of doubtful composition. alteration-product flattened pieces, G. Luster 3'9-4'20. looking much like gum. greasy.
=

Gummite.

An

yellow

to

also Mitchell YTTROGUMMITE. THOROGUMMITE. in Llano locality

orange-red,reddish Co., N. C.
Occurs
Occurs with

brown,

1'61.

From

cleveite

as

decomposition-product.
other

with fergusonite, and cyrtolite,

speciesat the gadolinite

=

Thorianite. and uranium oxides. cubic habit. G. 9'3. Isometric, Color black. Radioactive. Obtained from gem gravelsof Balangoda,Ceylon. Also noted from Province of Betroka, Madagascar.

Co., Texas. Chiefly thorium

Uranosphaerite. (BiO)2U2O7.3H2O.
brick-red. yellow, From
near

In

half-globular aggregated forms.

Color orange-

Schneeberg, Saxony.

Oxygen
6.

Salts

SULPHATES,
A.

CHROMATES,

TELLURATES

Anhydrous
GROUP

Sulphates, etc. only one

among

The

important BARITE
and

is the

the

phates anhydrous sul-

chromates.

A"mo"" sulphate, (NH4)2SO4. ipg"ite* forms, 1'523. ft Occurs

=

about
^

volcanoes,as
C"m

Orthorhombic. Usually in crusts and at Etna, Vesuvius, etc.

0r

80*'

In orthorhombic Na2S04. sulphate, s?diu" crystals, pyramitwlnS (Fig" 384' White to brownish. p- 160)' ^ti^ i"/77 Opticanv water" Often ob^rved in connection with salt /V ,Sol"b vT f thp Central Asia; similarly AnSfof ?nTa"n"reS nJfke TBalk,hash" elsewhere;also in South States"f"rms extensive deposits the Rio vSdeAriz. ^ Ir? An"TaTrnaPrT' t,he ynited In Cal., at Borax San

dal

nr^m ^^T* hTrf

" T
n

aS

erae

on

Lake,
U

Bernardino

Co.

(K'Na)^O4. Co^wh^^6- "laSerite" cruste many3,' in' k

Rhombohedral;

also

massive,

in

SULPHATES,
GLAUBERITE.

CHROMATES,

ETC.

625

Monoclinic.
ca,

Axes
100 110
= =

"

i'2200
001 001 A A 111

1
=

T0275; /3
2'

67" 49'.
995

001 110

mm'", In H.

A A

67" 49'. 96" 58'.

cs, cm,

43"

110

75" 30f.

c (001);also prismatic. || Cleavage:c perfect. Fracture conchoidal. Brittle.

tabular crystals
2-5-3. Taste
=

G.

pale yellow or
white.

2-7-2-85. Luster vitreous. Color sometimes brick-red. Streak saline. Optically". 2V slightly
=

gray;

Optical y see heating, p. 297. Na2SO4.CaSO4 Comp. Sulphur trioxide 57'6, lime 20'1, soda 22'3 100; or, Sodium sulphate calcium 48 "9 100. 51'1, sulphate
= =
"

7". a 1-515. j8 characters change on

1-532.

1'536.

turns white, and fuses at 1'5 to a white enamel, coloring Pyr.,etc. decrepitates, intenselyyellow. On charcoal fuses in O.F. to a clear bead; in R.F. a portion is absorbed by the charcoal, leaving an infusible hepatic residue. Soluble in hydrochloric acid. In water it loses its transparency,is partially dissolved, leavinga residue of calcium this is completely dissolved. sulphate,and in a large excess In crystals Obs. in rock salt at Villa Rubia, in New Castile, Spain; also at Aussee and Hallstatt, Upper Austria; in Germany at Berchtesgaden, Bavaria; Westeregeln; Stassfurt. In crystals in the Rio Verde Valley,Ariz., with thenardite, mirabilite, etc.;Borax lake,San Bernardino Co., Cal. In highly modified Langbeinite. K2Mg2(SO4)3. Isometric-tetartohedral. colorless 2'83. 1'533. From crystals. G. n Westeregeln and Stassfurt,Germany; Hall, Tyrol; Punjab, India.
"

B.B.

the flame

"

Vanthoffite.

3Na2SO4.MgSO4.
Prussia. Stassfurt,

Almost

colorless crystalline material

found

at

Wil-

helmshall,

near

Barite
m

Group.
A A

RS04.

Orthorhombic

m'"
110 102

dd'_
A

110 Barite

102

Celestite

Anglesite Anhydrite

BaSO4 SrSO4 PbSO4 CaS04

78" 22J' 75" 50' 76" 16J'

77" 43' 78" 49' 78" 47'

(83" 33')

(58" 31')

The BARITE GROUP includes the sulphates of barium, strontium, and lead, three species which are closely isomorphous,agreeingnot only in axial ratio but also in crystalline habit and cleavage. With these is also included calcium similar form; it anhydrite,which has a related but not closely sulphate, differs from the others conspicuously in cleavage. It is to be noted that the carbonates of the same metals form the isomorphous ARAGONITE GROUP, p. 437.
BARITE.

Heavy

Spar.
Axes

Barytes.
a :

Orthorhombic.
mm'", cd,
co,

: c

G'8152

1-3136.
102
=

110 001 001

A A

110 102 Oil

78" 22|'. 38" 51 i'. 52" 43'.

dd"f, 102 A

oo'", Oil
cz,

A A

Oil
111

001

102" 17'. 74" 34'. 64" 19'.

and united in diverging commonly tabular c (001), Crystals groups having the axis b in common; most also prismatic, axis b,d (102)predominating; || frequently axis c, m (110) prominent; again || axis a, with o (Oil)promialso || nent. Also in globular forms, fibrous or lamellar, coarsely laminated, crested;

626

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

resembling white marble, and laminae convergent and often curved; granular, in stalagmite. earthy; colors sometimes banded as Fig. 996 the form yielded (110)also perfect, m Cleavage: c (001)perfect;
996
997

998

999

1000

1001

1002

1003

1004

by cleavage; also
Brittle. H.

6
=

(010)imperfect.
G. 2'5-3;5.
=

Fracture

even. un-

4'3-4'6.

ter Lus-

to resinous;sometimes pearly inclining vitreous, white. Streak often less on m (110). c on (001), t o red, Color white; also inclining yellow, gray, blue, brown. Transparent to translucent or brown, dark when rubbed. Sometimes fetid, cally Optito opaque.

37" 30'.
Var.
"

1.636.

+. 1-637.

Ax.
7
=

6(010). pi.||
1-648.

Bx

J_

(100). 2V

Ordinary, (a)Crystalsusuallybroad or stout; sometimes very large; again in of tabular crystals, the crystals ing projectslender needles. (6)Crested; massive aggregations and loosely at surface into crest-like forms, (c)Columnar; the columns often coarse and either radiated or parallel; rarelyfine fibrous, (d) In globularor nodular aggregated, Bologna) is here concretions, subfibrous or columnar within. Bologna Stone (from near of wonder because of the phosphorescence it exhibited after included; it was earlya source made from it. (e) Lamellar, either heating with charcoal. "Bologna phosphorus" was as aggregations of curved scale-like plates. straightor curved; the latter sometimes (g)Compact or cryptocrystalline.(h) Earthy, (i)Stalactitic and stalag(/)Granular, and of much to calcareous stalactites and stalagmites mitic; similar in structure and origin beauty when polished, (h) Fetid; so called from the odor given off when struck or when be due to carbonaceous matters which odor may two present. piecesare rubbed together, The barite of Muzsaj and of Betler, near Rosenau, Hungary, was early called Wolnyn. Cawk is the ordinary barite of the Derbyshire lead mines. Dreelite,supposed to be rhomfrom Perkin's Mill,Templeton, Quebec (described bohedral, is simply barite. Michel-levyte in its pearly luster on m, twinning striations,etc. is peculiar as monoclinic), Barium BaSO4 sulphate, Comp. Sulphur trioxide 34'3, baryta 657
"

100.

Strontium sulphateis often present, also calcium sulphate; silica, as impurities, further, clay,bituminous or carbonaceous substances. B.B. decrepitates and fuses at 3, coloringthe flame yellowish green; Pyr, etc. the, fused mass reacts alkaline with test paper. On charcoalreduced to a sulphide. With soda but on continued blowing yieldsa hepatic mass, givesat first a clear pearl, which spreads out and soaks into the coal. This reacts for sulphur (p. 340). Insoluble in acids. DifE. Characterized by high specific gravity (higherthan celestite, aragonite,albite, calcite,gypsum, etc.); cleavage; insolubility; green coloration of the blowpipe flame. Albite is harder and calcite effervesces with acid. Obs. Occurs commonly in connection with beds or veins of metallic of ores, especially lead, also copper, silver, cobalt, manganese, of the ore; also often as part of the gangue stibmte. Sometimes forms with hematite deposits. It is accompanies present in massive met with m secondary limestones and sandstones, sometimes forming distinct veins, and in
" " "

SULPHATES,

CHROMATES,

ETC.

627

ores.

the former often in crystals along with calcite and celestite; in the latteroften with coooer Sometimes occupiesthe cavities of amygdaloidal basalt, etc forms earthv porphyry, in beds of marl. Occurs as the petrifying masses material of fossilsand occupying cavities
"

in

them.

obtained in England at the Dufton lead mines, Westmorelandalso in Lancashire; in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, etc.; Cleator Moor-' Alston In Moor. Scotland, in Argyleshire,at Strontian, Some of the most important of the European localities are Felsobanya, Nagybanya. Schemnitz, and Kremnitz many in Hungary, and Jlef eld,often with stibnite; Huttenberg, Carinthia; Freiberg, Marienberg in Saxony; Claustal in the Harz Mts.; Pribram, Bohemia; Auvergne, France. In the United States, formerly in Conn., at Cheshire^intersecting the red sandstone in veins with chalcocite and malachite. In N. Y., at Pillar Point, opposite Sackett's Harbor massive; at Scoharie, fibrous;in St. Lawrence Co.,crystals at DeKalb; the crested variety In Pa., in crystals at Perkiomen at Hammond. In Va., at Eldridge's lea^mine. gold In N. C., white ma^sw^aTCrowders Mt., Gaston mine in Buckingham Co. In Co., etc Tenn., on Brown's Creek; at Haysboro' near Nashville;in large veins in sandstone on the west end of Isle Roy ale,Lake Superior,and on Spar Island,north shore. In Mo. with the lead ores; in concretionary not uncommon forms at Salina, Saline Co., Kan In Weld Co.; Apishapa Creek; also in El Paso and Fremont Col., at Sterling, Cos. In fine Fort Wallace, N. M. near crystals, Crystals enclosing quartz sand, "sand barite,"from In distorted crystals from the Bad Islands, Norman, Oklahoma. S. D. In Ontario, in Bathurst, and North Burgess, Lanark Co.; Malway, PeterboroughCo.' veins on Jarvis,McKellars, and Pie islands, in Lake Superior, as large and near Fort William' Thunder Scotia,in veins in the slates of East River of the Five Islands) Bay. In Nova
Fine
are crystals

Cumberland

and

Colchester Named
Use.
"

Co. from papvs, heavy. Source of barium hydroxide used in the

to paper, etc. cloth,

of refining

sugar;

ground and used

as

pigment, to give weight

CELESTITE.

Coelestine.

Orthorhombic.
1005

Axes

: c

07790

1-2800.
1006

mm"',
d,

110 001

A A

110

75" 50'.
22" 20'.

cd, 001
co,

A
A

102 Oil

39" 24"'.
52" 0'.

104

001

those of barite in habit; commonly tabular 1 resembling Crystals 1c (001)or axis a or 6; also more rarely pyramidal by the prominence of the prismatic|| forms \j/ (133) or x (144). Also fibrous and radiated; sometimes globular; granular. occasionally Cleavage: c (001)perfect;ra (110)nearlyperfect;b (010)less distinct. G. 3'95-3'97. Luster vitreous, H. 3-3'5. Fracture uneven. sometimes often white. Color faint Streak and somet o white, times bluish, inclining pearly. b (010). Ax. reddish. Transparent to subtranslucent. +. Optically pi.|| 1'624. 1'622. 1'631. 51". a Bx _L a (100). 2V ft 7
= = = = = =

cate above; a tingeof a delia crystal. The variety from Montmartre, Paris, France, called apotome, is prismaticby extension of o (Oil) near and doubly terminated radiated. or by the pyramid ^ (133). (6) Fibrous, either parallel (e)Concretionary. (/)Earthy; impure (d) Granular, (c)Lamellar; of rare occurrence, usually with carbonate of lime or clay.
Var.
"

1.

Ordinary,
common

of varied habit (a) In crystals and sometimes

as

noted

blue

is very

belongs to only

part of

628

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Comp.
tia 56'4
=

"

Strontium
100.
"

sulphate, SrSO4
and barium
are

Sulphur trioxide
present.

43'6,

stron-

Calcium

sometimes

fuses at 3 to a white pearl,coloringthe flame B.B. frequentlydecrepitates, Pyr.jetc. in R.F. is converted reacts alkaline. On charcoal fuses, and the fused mass strontia-red; this treated with hydrochloricacid and alcohol gives fusible hepatic mass; into a difficultly Insoluble in acids. With soda on charcoal reacts like barite. red flame. intensely an Characterized by form,'cleavage,high specificgravity, red coloration of the Diff. effervesce with acids like the carbonates not Does (e.g.,strontianite); blowpipe flame. gravity lower than that of barite. specific of various Obs. Usually associated with limestone,or sandstone ages; occasionally at Condorcet, France; at Rezbanya, with metalliferous ores, as with galena and sphalerite rock salt,as at Bex, Switzerland; Ischl, Austria; Liinealso in beds of gypsum, Hungary; fillscavities in fossils, sometimes with sulphur in some e.g., ammonites; berg, Hannover; Yate, Gloucester,England. Sicily. From volcanic regionsas at Girgenti, of a bluish tint,are found in limestone about Lake Huron, crystallized, Specimens, finely Drummond Island, also on Strontian Island, Put-in-Bay,Lake Erie, and on particularly
"
"

at

Kingston
Y. From

in Ontario,
near

N.

Canada; Syracuse, N.

Chaumont Y. A

Bay,

Lake

Ontario,Schoharie, and

Lockport,

Co., Pa.

From Cumberland, Md. near Ohio. Md., in pyramidalblue crystals. At Tifflin,

blue fibrous celestite occurs at Bell's Mills,Blair In Mineral Co., W. Va., a few miles south of Cumberland,

crystals. With masses crystalline

masses

colemanite
at

In Texas, at Lampasas, large Valley, San Bernardino Co., Cal. In Canada, in Co.; Lansdowne, Leeds Co.; in radiatingfibrous Kingston, Frontenac
at

Death

of Renfrew Co. in the Laurentian in allusion to the faint shades of blue often from ccelestis, Named celestial, present. Use. Used in the preparation of strontium nitrate for fireworks; other salts used
"

in

of sugar, the refining

ANGLESITE.

Orthorhombic.
1007

Axes

: c

07852

1*2894.
1009

1008

110

A A

110 104

76" 22"

16*'.
19'.

cd, 001
co,

A A

102 Oil

39" 23'. 52" 12'.

d,

001

001

n all the three axial

tabular Some1times

ifferent cases;

pact;
di.1

nodular. stalactitic;

1 1c (001) often prismatic ; more in habit, and in d (102), directions, m (110), o (Oil), in the predominating pyramidal of varied types. Also massive, granular to comconchoiadaman-

but interrupted. Fracture C1vJrageh -Ctt^"\m (1,1Sl oisti?,ct' H'

:

"" tme

in in

tny
some

6;

specimens, opaque.
P

6'3~6'39-G;-= ^t8others
green,

Luster

WBUy

to resinous inclining and

white, tinged

yellow,gray,
"".

Transparent to

Optically +.
2V
=

strong, B^persion

and vitreous. Color sometimes blue. Streak uncolored Ax. pi. ||6 (010) Bx 100)

60"-75".

1-877,

"

-1-882

T=

SULPHATES,

CHROMATES,
=

ETC.

629
73*6

Comp.
=

"

Lead

PbSO4 sulphate,

Sulphur trioxide 26*4,lead oxide

=

100.

fuses in the flame of a candle (F. decrepitates, 1*5). On charcoal clear pearl,which on cooling becomes milk-white; in R.F. is reduced to metallic lead. with effervescence With soda on charcoal in R.F. gives metallic lead, soluble in nitric acid. and the soda is absorbed by the coal. Difficultly Characterized Diff. by high specific gravity; adamantine luster; cleavage; and by Cerussite effervesces in nitric acid. yieldinglead B.B. A result of the decomposition of galena, and often found in its cavities;also Obs. surrounds a nucleus of galena in concentric layers. First found in England at Pary's mine in crystals;at Leadhill, Scotland; in Gerin Anglesea; in Derbyshire and in Cumberland many at Claustal, in the Harz Mts.; near Siegen in Prussia; Schapbach and Badenweiler in Baden; in Hungary at Felsobanya and elsewhere; Nerchinsk, Siberia; and at Monte and Andalusia, Spain; massive in Siberia; in Australia,whence Poni, Sardinia; Granada At Broken In the Sierra Mojada, South Wales. it is exported to England. Hill, New quantities, mostly massive. Mexico, in immense lead at Wheatley's mine, Phenixville, Pa. ; in Missouri In the United States in crystals View In Col. at of varied habit at the Mountain mine, Carroll Co., Md. mines; in crystals than cerussite. At the Cerro Gordo mines of Cal. (argenvarious points,but less common tiferous In Ariz.,in the mines of the Castle'Dome trict, diswith other lead minerals. galena), In fine crystalsfrom Yuma Co., and elsewhere. Kingston and Wardner, Idaho; Eureka, Utah. from the locality, Named Anglesea, where it was firstfound. An ore of lead. Use.

Pyr., etc.

"

B.B.
a

in O.F.

fuses to

"

"

"

ANHYDRITE.

Orthorhombic.
mm'", rr\
110 101

Axes
A
A

a
=

: c

0'8933

1'OOOS.
A A Oil 111
= =

1TO TOl

83" 33' 96" 30'

ss',Oil
bo, 010

90" 3' 56" 19'

Twins:
not common,

tw. lamellae. Crystals as 1, tw. pi.d (012); 2, r (101)occasionally thick tabular,also 6.

prismatic|| axis

Usually

1010

1012

massive, cleavable, fibrous, times lamellar, granular, and someimpalpable. Cleavage: in the three pinactangular oidal directions yielding recfragments but with varying ease, thus, c (001)very

perfect; b (010) also perfect; less so. a (100) somewhat 1010, 1011, 'Stassfurt
Fracture
_

1012, Aussee

uneven,

sometimes
=

splintery. Brittle. H. after heating in especially

massive

grayish, + Optically
(3
=

Luster: c pearly, 2-899-2-985. 6 vitreous;in a closed tube; a somewhat greasy; sometimes a to pearly. Color white, vitreous inclining varieties, white. Streak brick-red. also grayish reddish or tinge; bluish, 3-3' 5.

G.

Ax.
.

b (010). pi.||

Bx

J_

(100).

2V

42".

1-571.

1-576.
Var.
"

1'614.
massive and

commonly crystalsrare, more 1. Ordinary, (a) Crystallized; radiated or (6) Fibrous; either parallel, cleavable in its three rectangular directions. kind from a is scalygranular plumose, (c)Fine granular, (d) Scaly granular. Vulpinite A kind in for ornamental purposes. Vulpino in Lombardy, Italy; it is cut and polished
contorted
2.

concretionaryforms is the tripestone. Pseudomorphous; in cubes after rock-salt. CaS04 Anhydrous calcium sulphate, Comp.
"

Sulphur trioxide, 58'8,

lime 41-2

100.

630
Pyr., etc.
"

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

B.B. fuses at 3, coloringthe flame reddish yellow, and yielding an enamelreduced to a sulphide; with soda On charcoal in R.F. which reacts alkaline. by the coal like barite; is,however, does not fuse to a clear globule,and is not absorbed silver. Soluble in hydrochloric acid. which blackens decomposed, and yieldsa mass Characterized Diff. by its cleavage in three rectangular directions (pseudo-cubic in with acids like the carbonates. does not effervesce aspect); harder than gypsum; in limestone in rocks of various ages, especially Occurs Obs. strata, and often the same in beds of rock-salt; and also very commonly at the salt that contain ordinary gypsum, mine Hall in Tyrol, Austria; of Bex, Switzerland; at Aussee, upper Austria, crystalnear lized Wieliczka and massive; Liineburg, Hannover, Kapnik in Hungary; Germany; in Poland; Ischl in Upper Austria; Berchtesgaden in Bavaria; Stassfurt, Germany, in fine in cavities in lava at Santorin Island. in kieserite; embedded crystals, In the United States, at Meriden, Conn.; at Lockport, N. Y., fine blue, in geodes of at West black limestone, with calcite and gypsum; Paterson, N. J.; in limestone at Nashville, Scotia itforms extensive beds. In Nova In the salt beds of central Kansas. Tenn., etc. Extensive beds are changes to gypsum. Anhydrite by absorption of moisture times somethus altered in part or throughout, as at Bex, in Switzerland, where, by digging down be found. 60 to 100 ft.,the unaltered anhydrite may Sometimes specimens of anhydrite the folia or over altered between the exterior. are
like bead
" "

"

Bassanite. of slender

CaSO4.
in
=

In 76.

white

opaque

needles

parallelarrangement.
Transformed

2 '69-2 elongation. G. ejected from Vesuvius. Zinkosite.

but. composed crystalshaving form of gypsum These show parallelextinction and positive into anhydrite at red heat. in blocks Found mine
a

ZnSO4. Reported Found Hydrocyanite. CuSO4. the eruption of 1868.

as

occurring at
at

in the
green

Sierra
to blue

Almagrera, Spain.
incrustation after

Vesuvius

as

pale

A mixture HOKUTOLITE. in variable proportions of lead and barium sulphates. A radioactive crystalline crust deposited by hot springs at Hokuto, Formosa. Millosevichite. Normal ferric and aluminium sulphate. As a violet incrustation, Alum Grotto, Island of Vulcano, Lipari Islands.

CROCOITE.

Monoclinic.
1n1Q

Axes

b
110

: c

0*9603 1TO
=

0*9159; 0
"',

77" 33'.
A A

mm'", ck,

A A

001

101

86" 19'. 49" 32'.

111

111
111

ct, 001

60" 50'. 46" 58'.

Crystals usually prismatic, habit

columnar
and

varied.

Also

imperfectly

granular.
= =

Cleavage:m (110) rather distinct; c (001), a (100) less so. Fracture small conchoidal to uneven. Sectile. H. 2*5-3. G. 5*9-6*1. Luster adamantine to vitreous. Color various shades Of bright hyacinth-red. Streak orange-yellow. Translucent.
p
"

" 4"".

Comp.
3rl,
lead

"

Lead

chromate, PbCrO4
68*9
=

Chromium

trioxide

protoxide

100.

With and

Tn Molrf^ HuSLrv

nea'r NiT.rfH,*'
TT

^ rTi Ura'

^tSVn crystalsin I"**

m

veins; ali"
do

at

Mursinka

Mt?';

BraZl1' at ConS"^^

Campo; at Rezbanya infineCryStal8fr0m

"^i^

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

BROCHANTITE.

Orthorhombic.

Axes

: c

07739

0'4871.
_

(mm"' acicular crystals In groups of prismatic structure. reniform drusy crusts; massive with

110

110

75"
uneven.

28') and
H.=

Cleavage: 6(010) very

3'5-4.
=

perfect ; m (110)in

traces.

Fracture

6(101).

vitreous; a little pearly on the cleavage-face 3'907. Luster G. Streak palergreen. parent TransColor emerald-green,blackish green.

to translucent.

Comp.
3H2O
=

CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2 basic sulphate of.copper, oxide water 12'0 70'3, trioxide cupric 17'7, Sulphur
"

or
=

4CuO.S03.

100.

Yields water, and at a higher temperature sulphuricacid,in the closed tube, Pyr.,etc. With soda gives B.B. fuses,and on charcoal affords metallic copper. and becomes black. for sulphuricacid. the reaction from Gumeshevsk, Obs. Occurs in the Ural Mts. ; the konigme (or komgite) was and in Cornwall (inpart waringRoughten Gill,in Cumberland Ural Mts.; in England near in small beds at Krisuvig in Iceland (krisuvigite) at Rezbanya, Hungary; ; in tonite); In the United States, at Monarch Chile. and Atacama Tarapaca, Mexico (brongnartine); in Tintic district, at the Mammoth mine; in mine, Chaffee Co., Col.; in Utah, at Frisco,
" "

Bisbee,Ariz. crystals. Color greenish sulphate, Pb2SO6. In monoclinic From Leadhill, Scotland; Siberia; the Harz Mts., Germany. white, pale yellow or gray. monoclinic Dolerophanite. A basic cupric sulphate, Cu2SOs(?). In small brown crystals. From Vesuvius (eruptionof 1868). A basic sulphate of lead and Caledonite. Said perhaps 2(Pb,Cu)O.SO3.H2O. copper, In small prismaticorthorhombic at times to contain CO2. crystals. Color deep verdigrisFrom Leadhill, Scotland; Red Gill, Cumberland, bluish green. Index, 1'85. or green New etc., England; Inyo Co., Cal.; Organ Mts., N. M.; Butte, Mon.; Atacama, Chile;
Ch'fton-Morenci
Lanarkite. and district,

Basic

lead

Caledonia.
A basic sulphate of lead and copper, Linarite. (Pb,Cu)SO4.(Pb,Cu)(OH)2. In deep From T838. blue monoclinic crystals. Optically land, Leadhill, Scotland; Cumber0 England; the Ural Mts.; Broken Hill,New South Wales; Sardinia. Also Inyo Co., Cal.; Eureka, Utah; Schiilz, Ariz.; Slocan, British Columbia.
"

Antlerite.

Perhaps CuSO4.2Cu(OH)2.
Stelzneritefrom In prismaticcrystals. G.

mine, Mohave
as

Co., Ariz.

In light green soft lumps. From the Antler Remolinos, Vallinar, Chile,is probablythe same
=

antlerite. Alumian.

3 '9.

Perhaps A12O3.2SO3.

White

crystallineor

massive.

Sierra

Almagrera,

C. Three EPSOMITE

Normal

Hydrous Sulphates

well-characterized groups included here. are Two of these,the GROUP and the MELANTERITE GROUP, have the same general formula,RS04.7H20, but in the first the crystallization is orthorhombic, in the second monoclinic. The species best known are from the artificial of the laboratory; the native minerals are rarely crystals There crystallized. is also the isometric ALUM GROUP, to which the same remark is applicable.

Lecontite.

(Na,NH4,K)2SO4.2H2O.
Central America. Glauber Salt.

From

bat guano

in the

cave

of Las

Piedras,

near

Comayagua,

MIRABILITE.

Monoclinic.

Crystals like

pyroxene

in habit

and

angle. Usually in
H.
=

efflorescent crusts.
a (100), Cleavage: b (010) in perfect;e (001),

traces.

I'5-2. Taste

G.

1*481.

Luster vitreous.

Color white.

Transparentto

opaque.

cool,

SULPHATES, then
T410.

CHROMATES,

ETC.

633
76".
=

feebly saline and

7
=

bitter.

Optically
"

2V

1-396

1-419.

Comp.
24'8,soda
Pyr.,etc.
Obs.
"

"

Hydrous sodium
19'3,water
"

sulphate,Na2SO4.10H2O
100.

Sulphur trioxide
Very

55'9

soluble in water.

In the closed tube much water; givesan intense yellow to the flame, Loses its water on exposure to dry air and falls to powder. Occurs at Ischl,Hallstadt,and Aussee in Upper Austria; also in

Hungary,

Switzerland, Italy; at the hot springsat Carlsbad, Bohemia, etc. Large quantities of this sodium sulphate are obtained from the waters of Great Salt Lake, Utah.
Kieserite.

MgSO4.H2O.

Monoclinic.

white, grayish,yellowish. Optically+.

ft

Usually massive,granular to compact. Color 1'535. From Stassfurt, stadt, Germany; Hall=

Austria; India.
Szomolnokite.

G.

3 '08.

Hungary.
Szmikite. GYPSUM.

Monoclinic. FeSO4.H2O. Isomorphous with kieserite. In pyramids. with other iron sulphates from Szomolnok, Found yellow or brown. from near Apparently identical with ferropallidite Copiapo, Chile. Stalactitic. Whitish, reddish. MnSO4.H2O. From Felsobdnya, Hungary. Color

Monoclinic.
mm' 110 001 001 001 Oil

Axes
A A A A A 110 101 101 103

a
=

: c

0'6899

0-4124; 0

42'. _80"
=

cd,
ct,
ce,

vv',
1014

Oil

68" 30'. 28" 17'. 33" 8*'. 11" 29'. 44" 17|'.
1016

"', 111 A 111 nn', 111 A Til ml, 110 A 111 110 A 111 mn,
1017

36" 12'.
41" 20'.

49" 9'. 59" 15'.

1015

1018

6 (010)or prisform flattened || common matic usuallysimplein habit, Crystals ular to acicular 1 by extension o{l (111). Also lentic1c axis;againprismatic whose faces are by rounding of I (111)and e (103). The form e (103), usuallyrough and convex, is nearlyat rightanglesto the vertical axis (edge m (110)/w'"(110),hence the apparent hemimorphic character of the twin often with warped as well as curved surfaces. (Fig.1018). Simple crystals often granularmassive; and sometimes Also foliated massive; lamellar-stellate; often the common, very nearly impalpable. Twins: tw. pi.a (100), familiar swallow-tail twins.
a (100), Cleavage: 6(010) eminent, yieldingeasilythin polishedfolia; surface with conchoidal fracture; n(lll),with a fibrous fracture || "(101); a cleavage fragment has the rhombic form of Fig.1019, with plane l'5-2. G. 2*3 14-2'328, when in pure crystals. of 66" and 114". H. angles

givinga

(010) pearly and shining,other faces sub vitreous. Massive sometimes dull earthy. Color usually times white; somevarieties often glistening, often varieties blue; impure honey-yellow, ocher-yellow, flesh-red, gray, to white. Streak reddish brown. Transparent or red, opaque. brown, black,
Luster of b

634

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

4 52i" (at 9*4" C.), and Bx A c axis 6 (010), Ax. pi. || + Optically Q" inclined strong. Bxr A Bxw (cf. Fig. 1019). Dispersionp " v; also
=
" .

30'.

2V

58".
1019

"

1-520.

|8
on
"

1?523.

1-530.

On

the
p. 297.

effect of

heat

the

see properties, optical

Selenite; colorless, or ent; transpar1. Crystallized, Var. ually broad folia,often large. Usor in distinct crystals, t (101), but flexible and yielding a fibrous fracture ||
the variety from brittle.
Montmartre
near

Paris, France, rather

fine. Called Satin spar, when or 2. Fibrous; coarse fine-fibrous,with pearly opalescence. variety,white or 3. Massive; Alabaster, a fine-grained

delicatelyshaded; earthy or rock-gypsum, a dull-colored rock, often impure with clay, calcium carbonate or silica. Also, in caves, curious curved forms, often grouped in rosettes and other shapes. calcium sulphate, Hydrous Comp.
"

CaS04.2H2O
water 20'9
=

Sulphur trioxide 46-6, lime 32-5,

100.

Fuses at 2 '5-3, closed tube gives off water and becomes opaque. 629. reddish yellow. For other reactions see ANHYDRITE, Ignited p. when with water moistened, and at a temperature not exceeding 260" C., it again combines becomes firmly solid. Soluble in hydrochloric acid, and also in 400 to 500 parts of water. and by cleavages in crystallized Characterized Diff. by its softness in all varieties, like the zeolites;harder like effervesce acids not with it calcite, nor gelatinize does kinds; in the closed tube. water than talc and yieldsmuch with various stratified rocks, Obs. Gypsum often forms extensive beds in connection It occurs occasionally in crystalline limestones, and marlites or clay beds. especially It is also a product of volcanoes, occurring about fumaroles, or where rocks. sulphur are escaping,being formed from the sulphuric acid generated, and the lime afforded gases by the decomposing lavas. It is also produced by the decomposition of pyrite when lime and brines,in which is present. Gypsum is also deposited on the evaporation of sea-water it exists in solution. Fine specimens are found in the salt mines of Bex in Switzerland; Hall in Tyrol, Austria; the sulphur mines of Sicily;in the clay of Shotover Hill, near Oxford, England; and large at Montmartre, A noted locality of alabaster occurs lenticular crystals Paris, France. near it is taken to Florence for the manufacture whence at Castelino, 35 m. from Leghorn, Italy, of vases, figures, etc. Occurs in extensive beds in several of the United States, and more N. Y., particularly Iowa, Mich., Okla., Texas, Ohio, and Ark., and is usually associated with salt springs,also with rock salt. Also on a large scale in Nova Scotia, etc. Handsome selenite and snowy in N. Y., near occur Lockport in limestone. gypsum In Md., large grouped crystalson the St. Mary's in clay. In Ohio, large transparent have been found at Ellsworth and Canfield,Trumbull crystals In Tenn., selenite and Co. alabaster in Davidson In Ky., in Mammoth Co. Cave, it has the forms of rosettes, or vines, and shrubbery. Also common in isolated crystalsand masses, flowers, in the Cretaceous claysin the western United States. In enormous several feet in length,in crystals,

Pyr., etc. coloringthe

"

In the

flame

"

"

Wayne
which

Co., Utah.

mostly contain much

Named

mineral. with this, the most of the word common use the Greeks. among Burnt gypsum is called Plaster-of-Paris, because the Montmartre near quarries, gypsum Pans, are, and have long been, famous for affordingit. Use. In the manufacture of plaster-of-Paris used for molds and casts and as "staff erection of temporary buildings; in making adamant in plaster for interior use; as land plaster for fertilizer; alabaster for ornamental as purposes.
"

Scotia, in Sussex, Kings Co., largesingleand grouped crystals, symmetrically disseminated sand. from yy^os,the Greek for the mineral, but more especiallyfor the calcined The derivation' ordinarilysuggested, from tyeiv, to cook, corre777, earth, and sponds

In Nova

"

Hesite.
from

(Mn,Zn,Fe)SO4.4H2O.

In

loosely adherent

aggregates.

Color

Colorado.

clear green,

SULPHATES,

CHROMATES,

ETC.

635

Epsomite Epsomite
Goslarite

Group.

RS04.7H20.
a

Orthorhombic
:

MgS04.7H2O (Fe,Mg)S04.7H20
ZnSO4.7H2O

: c

0-9902 0-9807 0-9816

1 1 1

0-5709 0-5631 0-5655

Ferro-goslarite
Morenosite
EPSOMITE.

(Zn,Fe)SO4.7H2O
NiSO4.7H2O
: :

Epsom
6

Salt.

Cleavage:
=

to

and delicately fibrous crusts. 2-0-2-5. (010)very perfect. Fracture conchoidal. H. G. Luster vitreous to earthy. Streak and color white. 1*751. Transparent Taste translucent. bitter and saline. Optically 2V 52". a
= =
"

Orthorhombic.

Usuallyin botryoidal masses

1-433.

ft

1-455.
"

1-461.

Comp.
Obs.
"

Hydrous magnesium
51-2
in mineral

sulphate, MgSO4.7H2O
=

Sulphur triox-

ide 32-5, magnesia 16-3,water

Common of mines, and rocks, in the galleries

100.

waters, and as a delicate fibrous or capillary efflorescence on In the former elsewhere. state it exists at Epsom, in Bohemia. At Idria in Carniola, England, and at Sedlitz and Saidschitz (orSaidschiitz) in silky fibers,and is hence called hair salt by the workmen. Also obtained Austria, it occurs Paris. at the gypsum Also found at Vesuvius, at quarries of Montmartre, near the eruptions of 1850 and 1855. of Kentucky, Tennessee, and The floors of the limestone caves Indiana, are in many instances covered with epsomite, in minute crystals, mingled with the earth. In the like snowballs. From Mammoth Laramie Cave, Ky., it adheres to the roof in loose masses Leona Co., Cal.; Cripple Creek, Col. Basin, Wy.; near Heights, Alameda massive. Color Commonly white, reddish, yellowish. and found in the by the decomposition of sphalerite, mine of mines, as at the Rammelsberg Goslar, in the Harz Mts., Germany, near passages with at the Gagnon In Mon. mine, Butte. (4*9 p. c. FeSO4) occurs etc. Ferro-goslarite at Webb as a City, Jasper Co., Mo. Cuprogoslarite (13'4 p. c. CuSO-j) occurs sphalerite zinc mine at Galena, Kan. lightgreenish blue incrustation on the wall of an abandoned In acicular crystals;also fibrous,as efflorescence. Morenosite. an NiSO4.7H2O. A result of the alteration of nickel ores, 1 '489. Color apple-greento greenishwhite. 0 as near Cape Hortegal,in Galicia; Riechelsdorf, in Hesse, Germany; Zermatt, Switzerland, containing magnesium.
Goslarite.
"

ZnSO4.7H2O.
=

Optically

1'480.

Formed

Melanterite

Group.

RS04.7H2O.
a : :

Monoclinic
b 1
: c :

Melanterite Luckite Mallardite

Pisanite Bieberite Boothite

FeSO4.7H20

1 -1828

1 -5427

ft

75" 44'

(Fe,Mn)SO4.7H2O
MnSO4.7H2O

(Fe,Cu)SO4.7H2O
CoSO4.7H20 CuSO4.7H2O CuSO4.5H2O
=

1-1609 1-1815 1-1622

: :

1 1 1

: :

1-5110 1-5325 1-500

74" 38' 75" 20' 74" 24' 77" 37'.

Cupromagnesite (Cu,Mg)SO4.7H2O
: ;

Chalcanthite
a :

Triclinic
a
=

: c

0-5656

0-5507;

82"

ft 21',

73"

11', 7

here included are the ordinaryvitriols. They are identical in species and are regarded as of the Epsomite group, with the species The copper under crystallization. oblique essentially the same compound in the others and confrom tains crystallization, diverges chalcanthite, sulphate, The

generalformula

but 5 molecules

of water.

636
MELANTERITE.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Copperas.

and concretionary; fibrous,stalactitic, Usually capillary, Fraoless so. m (110) c (001)perfect; Cleavage: also massive,pulverulent. Color, 1-89-1-90. Luster vitreous. 2. G. Brittle. H. on yellowish exposure. becoming into white; various shades of -green, passing

Monoclinic.

turernchoidal.

Streak uncolored. Subtransparent to 2V + and metallic. Optically

.

Taste translucent. 1-471. 86". a

=

sweetish
=

gent, astrin7
=

ft

1-478.

1 *486

Comp

"

Hydrous

ferrous

sulphate, FeSO4.7H2O
=

Sulphur trioxide
and
magnesium

25-9, water 45*3 28-8, iron protoxide sometimes replace part of the iron.
Obs

100.

Manganese

Goslar in the of pyriteor marcasite; thus near the decomposition sewhere. and e Usually Sweden, Falun, in Bodenmais Bavaria; Mts Germany; Harz Leona from near In crystals efflorescence. as an United States, in the accompanies pyrite the from "Lucky Boy is MnO) mine, c. Heights,Alameda Co., Cal. Luckite (1'9 p. Butterfield Canon, Utah. the mine Lucky MnSO4.7H2O. Fibrous, massive; colorless. From Mallardite. Proceeds
from

Boy," south of Salt Lake, Utah.

forms. Leona

Pisanite. Color

(Fe,Cu)SO4.7H2O. CuO
From

blue. Heights, Cal.

A

Turkey.

10 to From

15

p.

c.

Bingham,

In concretionary and stalactitic Tenn." near Utah; Ducktown, From

SALVADORITE. Chile.
Bieberite. From

vitriol near copper-iron

pisanite.

the Salvador

mine

Quetena,

CoSO4.7H2O. Usually in stalactites and crusts. Color flesh- and rose-red. Bieber, in Hesse, Germany, etc. 1'94. Color blue, G. H. 2-2'5. CuSO4.7H2O. Usually massive. Boothite. Alameda Leona Co., Heights, Alma mine, near Found at chalcanthite. pyrite than paler and at a copper mine near Campo Seco, Calaveras Co., Cal.
= =

CUPROMAGNESITE.

(Cu,Mg)SO4.7H2O.

From

Vesuvius.

CHALCANTHITE.

Blue Vitriol.

Triclinic.

commonly flattened || Crystals p (111).

fibrous structure.
Luster M

Occurs

also

massive,

with stalactitic, reniform,_sometimes

conchoidal. Berlin-blue Color vitreous. 2-5. G. -30. Brittle. of differentshades ; sometimes a little to sky-blue, greenish. Streak uncolored. Taste metallic and nauseous. to translucent. Optically Subtransparent 2V 56". a 1-516. 1-539. 1'546. ft 7 Comp. Hydrous cupric sulphate, CuSO4.5H20 Sulphur trioxide oxide 31-8,water 361 100. 32-1,cupric

Cleavage:
H.

(110),m
=

(110),p (111) imperfect. Fracture

212-2

"

"

Pyr., etc.
B.B. copper. Obs.
"

In the closed tube yieldswater, and at a higher temperature oxide. sulphur triwith soda on charcoal yields metallic copper. With the fluxes reacts for Soluble in water; a drop of the solution placed on a surface of iron coats it with
"

metallic copper.
in waters from mines and in connection with rocks containing issuing the alteration of which it is formed; thus at the Rammelsberg mine near Goslar in the Harz Mts., Germany; Falun in Sweden; Parys mine, Anglesea,England; at various mines in County Wicklow, Ireland; Rio Tinto mine, Spain; Zajecar,Servia. From the Hiwassee copper mine, also in largequantities In at other mines, in Polk Co., Tenn. Ariz., near Graham Clifton, Leona Co., and Jerome, Yavapai Co.; in Cal. near Heights, Alameda Co.; from Ely and Reno, Nev. Found

chalcopyrite, by

Syngenite. Kaluzite. or milky-white. 0

=

1 '517.

less CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O. In prismatic(monoclinic) crystals. ColorFrom Kalusz, Galicia.

SULPHATES.

CHROMATES,

ETC.

637
Color

Loweite.

MgSO4.Na2SO4.2|H2O.
From

Tetragonal.

Massive, cleavable.

pale yellow.

Index, 1'49.
Blodite.

Austria. Ischl,

Crystals short prismatic, monoclinic; also massive Colorless to greenish,yellowish, red. 1/488. Optically ft From the salt mines of Ischl and at Hallstadt (simonyite), Austria; at Stassfurt, Germany; the salt lakes of Astrakhan From Soda Lake, San (astrakanite), Asia; India; Chile,etc. Luis Obispo Co., Cal granular
or

MgSO4.Na2SO4.4H2O.

compact.

"

Leonite. MgSO4.K2SO4.4H2O. 1-487. 0 Germany. poldshall,

=

In

monoclinic
From

crystals from
the boric

Westeregeln and
acid

Leo-

Boussingaultite.

(NH4)2SO4.MgSO4.6H2O.

lagoons, Tuscany.

Italy. Index,
Picromerite.

1-474.

MgSO4.K2SO4.6H2.O.
1'463. replaces the

Optically +.
which
copper

/3

Germany; Galusz in East Polyhalite. 2CaSO4.MgSO4.K2SO4.2H2O.

lamellar
masses.

incrustation. As a white crystalline Monoclinic. Vesuvius with cyanochroite, in an isomorphous species Also at Stassfurt (schoenite)and Aschersleben, magnesium. Galicia. From

Triclinic. Usually in compact fibrous or 1'562. flesh- or brick-red. the at Occurs Optically ft at Berchtesgaden, Bavaria; mines of Ischl, Hallstadt, etc., in Austria; in Germany Stassfurt, Prussia. Color
"

Hexahydrite.
1"76. B.B. taste.

MgSO4.6H2O.
with

G.

Color, white

exfoliates and British Columbia.

fibrous to Columnar structure. Cleavage prismatic. Pearly luster. Opaque. light green tone. Salty, bitter but does not fuse. in Lillooet district, Found yields water

Alum

Group.
or

Isometric

RA1(SO4)2.12H2O
Kalinite

Tschermigite
Mendozite The ALUMS
proper

Potash Alum Ammonia Alum Soda Alum

R2SO4.A12(SO4)3.24H2O. KA1(SO4)2.12H20 (NH4)A1(S04)2.12H2O

NaAl(SO4)2.12H2O

isometric in crystallization are are and, chemically, 12 metal if with alkali and the mula foraluminium of an (i.e., hydrous sulphates listed above occur The species is doubled, 24) molecules of water. very artificial form in the laboratory. known in and best in are sparingly nature, The HALOTRICHITES are commonly fibrous obliquein crystallization, very with magnesium, manof aluminium ganese, in structure, and are hydrous sulphates is given as 22 molecules, and in of water in some cases etc. ; the amount Here belong: the two. others 24, but it is not always easy to decide between Pickeringit". Magnesia
and
in efflorescences.

Alum.

MgSO4.Al2(SO4)3.22H2O.
In

In

long fibrous

masses;

Halotrichite.

Iron

Alum.

FeSO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O.

yellowish silky fibrous forms.

Color white
to

Index, 1.48.
Bilinite.

Radiating FeSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O.
Alum.

fibrous.

yellow.
contains

From

Bohemia. Schwaz, near Bilin, Apjohnite. Manganese

In fibrous
or

MnSO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O.
also
as

Bushmanite

MgO.

asbestiform

masses;

crusts

and

efflorescences.

Dietrichite.

(Zn,Fe,Mn)SO4.Al2(SO4)3.22H2O.

Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O. Rhombohedral. From 1-550. +. Optically Chile (not from Coquimbo). Quenstedtite. Fe2(SO4)3.10H2O.In reddish
Coquimbite.
brownish.
"
=

Color massive. Granular the Tierra Amarilla near tabular

lowish, white,yelCopiapo, coquimbite,

crystals. With

Chile.

638
Ihleite.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Muyellow efflorescence on graphite. From orange Perhaps identical with copiapite. or crusts; massive. Usually in delicate fibrous masses Alunogen. A12(SO4)3.18H2O. many; Bilm, Bohemia; Bodenmais, Gernear Color white, or tinged with yellowor red. From Fjom Cripple Creek, Doughty Austria; from Vesuvius; Elba. Pusterthal, Tyrol, Springs,and Alum Gulch, Col. sulphatedepositedby the alkaline waters of the A hydratedaluminium DOUGHTYITE. Doughty Springs in Col. massive, coarsely fibrous. Krohnkite. CuSO4.Na2SO4.2H2O. Monoclinic crystalline; From 1'577. Calama, Atacama, Chuquicamata, /3 Color azure-blue. Optically and Collahurasi, Tarapaca, Chile. Autofagasta, Habit Monoclinic. fect Natrochalcite. pyramidal. PerCu4(OH)2(SO4)2.Na2SO4.2H2O. '3. Color 2 1-65. G. H. 4 -5. bright emerald-green. basal 0 cleavage. Found at Chuquicamata, Autofagasta,Chile. Found PHILLIPITE. at the Perhaps CuSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.nH2O. In blue fibrous masses. of Santiago, Chile. copper mines in the Cordilleras of Condes, province Ferronatrite. Rarely in acicular crystals; 3Na2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.6H2O. Rhombohedral. forms. Color greenish or gray to white. 1-558. Optically+" eo usuallyin spherical

Fe2(SO4)3.12H2O?An

grau, Bohemia.

"

From

Sierra Gorda

near

Caracoles, Chile.
In tabular From

Romerite.

FeSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.14H2O.

Color chesnut-brown.

Goslar in the Harz

Mts., Germany;

triclinic crystals; granular, massive. Persia; Chile.

Basic
Langite.
Near

Hydrous Sulphates
fibre-lamellar, cretionary con-

crusts.

brochantite. CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2.H2O. Usually in Color blue to greenishblue. From Cornwall.

with one-fifth of the copper Herrengrundite. 2(CuOH)2SO4.Cu(OH)2.3H2O replaced by calcium. In thin tabular monoclinic crystals;usually in sphericalgroups. Color From bluish green. emerald-green, Herrengrund, Hungary. Vernadskite. In aggregates of minute 3CuSO4.Cu(OH)2.4H2O. 3'5. crystals. H. Occurs as an alteration of dolerophanite at Vesuvius. Kamarezite. A hydrous basic copper sulphate from Laurion,Greece. In velvet-like druses;in Cyanotrichite.Lettsomite. Perhaps 4CuO.Al2O3.SO3.8H2O. forms. Color bright blue. From Moldawa spherical in the Banat, Hungary; ronne, Cap Ga=

France.

In Utah

and

Arizona.
copper

Serpierite.A basic sulphateof

Color bluish green.
From

and zinc.

In minute

tabular, crystals,

in tufts.

Laurion, Greece.

Beaverite. CuO.PbO.Fe2O3.2SO3.4H2O. canary-yellow. Refractive index " 174.

Hexagonal ?
From Horn

In microscopic plates Color Silver mine, Frisco, Beaver Co

Utah.

Vegasite. PbO.3Fe2O3.3SO3.6H2O. Hexagonal. In microscopic fibrous crystalssometimes showing hexagonalplates. Optically 1 75-1 '82. Indices, Found in Yellow Pine Las Vegas, Nev. near district,
.

COPIAPITE.

Monoclinic.
massive;

Usuallyin loose aggregationsof crystalline or granular scales, mcrusting. H. Cleavage: b (010).. 2-5. G. 2-103. Luster pearly. Color sulphur-yello Translucent. citron-yellow. 1-527. Optically a 0
= =

-.

='

l'O4/.

1'572.

Comp."A
tnoxide
t

basic ferric
38
iron -3,

sulphate,perhaps 2Fe2O3.5SO3.18H2O
31-1
=

phur Sul-

sesquioxide30-6,water
species.

100.
It
seems

vaguely applied. "arSe^nrl Wh/Ch fnl^l been.83mew^t !l?S here and part also to other related Janosite
in

to

is identical with

copiapit?.

belong in

640

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Cleavage:
uneven;

of massive
=

in traces. r (lOll) (0001) distinct; and sometimes varieties splintery; Luster of

Fracture

flat

conchoidal,
H.
=

earthy.

Brittle.

pearly. r G. 2-58-2:752. Streak white. Transparent to Color white, sometimes grayish or reddish. 1'592. 1-572. subtranslucent. e co Optically+ and Basic hydrous sulphate of aluminium potassium, K2A16 Comp. water 13 -0 alumina trioxide 37'0, 11-4, potash 38'6, Sulphur (OH)i2(SO4)4
3-5-4.
= =
.
"

vitreous,basal

plane somewhat

100.

Sometimes
"

contains

considerable
at
a

soda, natroalunite.
In the closed tube yields water, sometimes sulphurous and sulphuric soda and

Pyr., etc.
also

B.B. with

ammonium

and decrepitates, sulphate, and

is infusible.

higher temperature

oxides.
Obs.

Heated
Forms

cobalt

infusible,but yieldsa hepatic mass.

"

seams

With affords a fine blue color. Soluble in sulphuric acid. it has been in trachytic and allied rocks, where

solution

charcoal
as a

formed

result

of the alteration of the rock by

at Tolfa, near as Civitavecchia, sulphurous vapors; Italy; in Hungary; on Milo, Grecian Archipelago; at Mt. Dore, France; Kinkwaseki, Formosa. In the United States, associated with diaspore,in rhombohedral lar tabucrystals, through the presence of c (0001) at the Rosita Hills,Custer Co., and from Red Mt., Col.; Marysvale, Utah; Goldfield and near Sulphur, Nev.
means

of

JAROSITE.

_Rhombohedral.
1011
=

Axis

1-2492;

rr' lOll

TlOl

90"

55" 16'.
in

Often

in druses

of minute

crystals;also
uneven.

45', cr 0001 A granular fibrous,

H.
=

massive;
G.
=

nodules,or as an incrustation. Cleavage: c (0001) distinct. Fracture

3-15-3-26.

Brittle.
:

2-5-3-5.

Luster

vitreous

to

subadamantine

Color

ocher-yellow, yellowishbrown, clove-brown. 1-74. Optically+. 177. co e Comp. K2Fe6(OH)i2(SO4)4 Sulphur trioxide 31*9, iron sesquixoide
= =
"

also dull. brilliant, Streak yellow, shining.

47-9,potash 9-4,water
Obs.
"

10'8

100.

originalGelbeisenerz was from Luschitz, between Kolosoruk and Bilin, coal; and later from Modum, Norway, in alum slate. The jarositewas from Barranco Jaroso, in the Sierra Almagrera, Spain; Schlaggenwald, Bohemia; Elba; In the United Chocaya, Potosi, Bolivia. States on quartz in the Vulture mine, Ariz.; in Chaffee County, Col.; Tintic district, Utah; Lawrence Ana Co. N. M Co., S. D.; Dona Bisbee, Ariz.; Brewster Co., Texas. Natrojarosite. Na*Fe6(OH)12(SO4)4. Rhombohedral. In minute tabular crvstals. Color From yellow-brown. Soda Springs Valley,Esmeralda Co., Nev.
Bohemia,
in brown
"

The

Plumbojarosite. PbFe6(OH)12(SO4)4. Rhombohedral.

Color

In

minute

tabular

dark

brown.

crystals.
in outline.

Colorless.

Palmierite. Fusible.

Peak, N. M., and in Beaver County, Utah. 3(K,Na)2SO4.4PbSO4? In microscopicplates,often hexagonal

Found
in

From

Cook's

fumerole

depositsat
9H20.
In

Vesuvius. rounded
masses,

K20.3A1203.4SO

similar

to

compact

N^S"4-Al2(S"4)3-5A1(OH)3.H20.Compact.
In minute From^m^6* ?erihapS 6?a9-A1^3.3S03.33H20. From limestone-inclusions
m

White. colorless

From

Almeria,

acicular

lava, near

Mayen,

Rhenish

Prussia; Tombstone,

An/

crystals.

of

TUNGSTATES,

MOLYBDATES

641

G. " 3 '3. Indices, 1 '57-1 -61. Infusible. Readily soluble in canary-yellow. H. =2. From Gilpin Co., Col. In Uranopilite. Perhaps CaUgSaOai^SH^O. velvety incrustations;yellow. From Johanngeorgenstadt, Germany. uraconite uncertain uranium are Zippeite,voglianite, sulphates, from Joachimstal, acids. Bohemia.

Minasragrite. An acid hydrous vanadyl sulphate (V2O2)H2(SO4)".15HjO. Probably In granular aggregates, small mammillary masses, in spherulites. Two or cleavages. Color blue. Indices 1-5 1-1 '54. Strongly pleochroic,deep blue to colorless. Found efflorescence on patronitefrom MinasEasily fusible. Soluble in cold water. as an
monoclinic.
ragra,

Peru.

A hydrated acid ferric sulphate.Fe2O3.4SO3.9H2O. Rhomboclase. Basal cleavage. Colorless. Occurs at Szomolnok, Hungary.

In rhombic

plates.

Tellurates; also Tellurites,Selenites

In earthy incrustations;yellowish to white. Montanite. From Highland, Mon., with tetradymite. Emmonsite. Probably a hydrated ferric tellurite. In thin yellow-greenscales. From
near

Tombstone,
Durdenite.

Ariz.

Hydrous

yellow. greenish
Chalcomenite.

ferric tellurite, Fe2(TeOs)3.4H2O. In small Honduras.

mammillary forms;

Hydrous
the Cerro

crystals.From
MOLYBDOMENITE

In small blue monoclinic CuSeO3.2H2O. cupric selenite, selenides. Argentina, with silver, copper is lead selenite and COBALTOMENITE from probably cobalt selenite,

de Cacheuta,

the

same

chalcomenite. as locality

Oxygen
7.

Salts MOLYBDATES
are

TUNGSTATES,

The monoclinic included here.

Wolframite

Scheelite Group Group and the tetragonal

Wolframite
Wolframite Hiibnerite
WOLFRAMITE.

Group
=

(Fe,Mn)WO4
MnWO4

: c

0-8300 0-8362

: :

1 1

: :

0-8678
0-8668

89" 22' 89"

Monoclimc. mm'",
at,
110 100 A A

Axes
110
102
=

0-8300
A A 102 Oil

1
=

0-8678;

89"

22'

79" 23'. 61" 54'.

ay', 100 ff',

Oil

62" 54' 81" 54'.

1020

(1)tw. axis c with a (100)as comp.-face;(2) tw. pi. k (023),Fig. 449, p. 171. Crystals commonly tabular ||a (100); also prismatic. Faces in prismatic coarse striated. Often bladed, lamellar, zone vertically divergentcolumnar, granular. perfect; also parting || Cleavage: b (010) very Brittle. H. Fracture uneven. t and a || (102). (100),
Twins:
=

5-5-5.

G.

7-2-7-5.

Luster

black. or brownish grayish 1*93. magnetic. 0

=

Color dark submetallic. black. Opaque, Streak nearly

Sometimes

weakly

642

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

Comp.

"

4 : 1 chiefly
"

(Fe,Mn)W04. Fe : Mn Tungstate of iron and manganese and 2 3 47 p. c.) : (FeO 9'5,MnO 14-0). (FeO 18-9,MnO
=

which has a crystalline Fuses B.B. easily(F. surface 2-5-3)to a globule, Pyr.,etc. With salt of phosphorus gives a clear reddish yellow glass while hot is magnetic. rated, which is paleron cooling;in R.F. becomes dark red; on charcoal with tin,if not too satuin R.F. changes treatment color,which continued the bead assumes on a green cooling to reddish yellow. With soda and niter on platinum foil fuses to a bluish green manganate. ciently Decomposed by aqua regia with separationof tungsticacid as a yellow powder. Suffihydrochloricacid, to give a decomposed by concentrated sulphuricacid, or even colorless solution, which, treated with metallic zinc, becomes blue, but soon intensely
and

bleaches
Obs.
"

on

dilution.

is often associated with tin ores; also in quartz, with native bismuth, In Bohemia in fine crystalsat Schlackenwald, etc. scheelite, pyrite,galena,sphalerite, Zinnwald, Bohemia; in Germany at Schneeberg, Freiberg,Altenberg, Neudorf; at Nerchinsk, Wolframite

Siberia;Chanteloup, near Limoges, France; near Redruth and elsewhere in Cornwall From tin ores. Sardinia; Greenland; Central Provinces, India. In South With tin stone at various points in New America, at Oruro in Bolivia. South Wales. In the United States at Lane's mine, Monroe, Conn.; Flowe mine, Mecklenburg Co., N. C., with scheelite; in Mo., near Mine la Motte; Laurence Co., S. D.; Boulder Co.]
with

Col.;Ariz.
Use.
"

An

ore

of tungsten.

20 to 25 p. c. MnO. wolframite,but containing Usuallyin bladed forms,rarelyin distinct terminated crystals. Color brownish red to hair-brown to nearly black. Streak yellowish brown, greenish Often translucent, 2 '24. gray. Mammoth ft district, Nev.; Ouray County, Col.,and near Silyerton, San Juan Co.; Black Hills, S. D.; Dragoon, Ariz. Also in Peru, and in rhodochrosite at Adervielle in the Pyrenees.
=

Hiibnerite.

Near

Scheelite Scheelite

Group.

Tetragonal-pyramidal
=

CaW04

pp' (111 A 111)

79"

55J'

1-5360

Cuprotungstite CuWO4 Cuproscheelite (Ca,Cu)W04 Powellite Ca(Mo,W)04

Stolzite Wulfenite The

PbW04
PbMo04

80" 1' 80" 15' 80" 22'

c c c

1-5445 T5667

1-5771

SCHEELITE GROUP includes the tungstatesand molybdates of calcium also In crystallization lead; copper. they belong to the Pyramidal class of the Tetragonal System. Wulfenite is probably
and

hemimorphic.

SCHEELITE.

Axis Tetragonal-pyramidal.
ee', 101 A Oil
ce,
=

1-5356. pp',
cp, 111 001 A A

72" 40*'.
56" 56'. 1022

ill
111

001

101

79" 55*' 65" 16|'. 1024

1021

1023

Forms:

(102), e (101).

ft (113), p (111), k (515), ft (313), ,,(131)

TUNGSTATES,
Twins:

MOLYBDATES

643

both contact- and penetration-twins (1)tw. pi.a (100), (Fig. 416, also tabular. octahedral, Symmetry shown by faces k, h, s (Fig.1023). Also reniform with columnar structure;massive granular. Cleavage: p (111)most distinct; e (101)interrupted. Fracture uneven. Brittle. H. 4-5-5. G. 5-9-6-1. Luster vitreous, to adamantine. inclining Color white,yellowish white,pale yellow,brownish,greenish, reddish. Streak white. Transparent to translucent. Optically-f. Indices: w p.

167). Habit

1-918. 19-4

1-934.
"

Comp.
=

Calcium

tungstate, CaWO4
p.

Tungsten
may

trioxide

80-6, lime

100.
is

Molybdenum
scheelite.
"

usuallypresent (to 8

c.). Copper

replacecalcium, see

cupro-

B.B. in the forceps fuses at 5 to a semi-transparentglass. Soluble with Pyr., etc. borax to a transparent glass, which afterward becomes and crystalline. With salt opaque of phosphorus forms a glass,colorless in outer flame, in inner green when hot, and fine blue when cold; varieties containingiron requireto be treated on charcoal with tin before the blue color appears. In hydrochloric nitric acid decomposed, leavinga yellow powder or The soluble in ammonia. hydrochloricacid solution treated with tin and boiled assumes later changing to brown. a blue color, Obs. Scheelite is usually associated with crystalline rocks, and is commonly found in connection with cassiterite, topaz, fluorite, apatite, molybdenite, or wolframite,in quartz; also associated with gold. Thus at Schlackenwald and Zinnwald, Bohemia; Altenberg, in the UnterSaxony; Riesengrund in the Riesengebirge,Germany; the Knappenwand sulzbachtal, Tyrol, Austria; Carrock Fells in Cumberland, England; Traversella in Piedmont, land. (containingTa2O5); Sweden; Pitkaranta in FinItaly; Meymac, Correze, France In New South Wales, at Adelong, from a gold mine; New Zealand, massive; Mt. Sonora, Mexico. Ramsay, Tasmania, with cassiterite. From In the United States, at Lane's Mine, Monroe, and at Trumbull, Conn.; Flowe mine, Mecklenburg Co., N. C.; the Mammoth mining district, Nev.; with gold at the Charity mine, Warren's, Idaho; Lake Co., Col.; Atolia mining field, Cal.; White Pine Co., Nev.; In quartz veins in Risborough and Marlow, Beauce Dragoon, Ariz. county, Quebec.
"

Use.

"

An

ore

of

tungsten.

From the copper mines of Llamuco, near Cuprotungstite. Cupric tungstate, CuWO4. from the vicinityof La Paz, Lower is California, Santiago, Chile. CUPROSCHEELITE, From Montoro, Spain; from Yeoral, New (Ca,Cu)WO4, with 6'8 p. c. CuO; color green.

South

Wales.

Calciuni molybdate with calcium tungstate (10 p. c. WO3), Ca(Mo,W)O4. From 4'349. 2 '00. western w Idaho; yellow tetragonal pyramids. G. Houghton Co., Mich.; from Llano Co., Texas, and Nye Co., Nev. In pyramidal tetragonalcrystals. H. 2-75-3. Stolzite. Lead tungstate, PbWO4. brown. 2'269. Color green to gray Zinnwald, G. Optically 7-87-8-13. or "o From LoudSouth Wales. Hill, New Bohemia; Sardinia; Minas Geraes, Brazil; Broken Mass. ville, but is referred to the monoclinic composition as stolzite, Raspite. Has the same From the In small tabular crystals. Color brownish yellow. Index, 2*60. system. South Wales;. Minas Geraes, Brazil. Broken Hill mines, New In tabular tetragonal crystals, apparently hemimorphic. Chillagite. 3PbWO4.PbMoO4. From 7'5. H. 3 -5. G. Chillagoe, Color yellow to brownish. Queensland.
Powellite.

In minute

-.

WULFENITE.

hemimorphic. Tetragonal-pyramidal;
cu, ce, en,

Axis

1-5771.
= =

001 001 001

A A A

102 101 111

38" 15'. 57" 37'. 65" 51'.

uu', 102 A 012 ee', 101 A Oil nn't 111 A Til

51" 56'. 73" 20'. 80" 22'.

quently Crystalscommonly square tabular, sometimes extremely thin; less fredistinct. sometimes also prismatic. Hemimorphism octahedral; firmlycohesive. or fine, Also granularly massive, coarse

644
Cleavagen

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

(111) very

smooth;
=

(001),s (113)less distinct.

G.
=

subconchoidal. Brittle. Color waxadamantine.

67-7-0. 275-3. H. and siskinto orange-yellow,

1028

Luster

Fracture resinous or

yellowish olive-green,

1027

gray,

grayishwhite
white.
"*
"

Streak
Indices:

brown; also to nearly colorless, Subtransparent to subtranslucent. 2-304. 2-402,er

=

orange

to bright red. Optically negative.

Comp.
oxide 607
etc.

Lead
=

molybdate, PbMo04
Calcium sometimes

100.
B.B.

Molybdenum trioxide 39'3, lead the lead. replaces

=

and fuses below 2. With salt 9fphosphorus in O.F. gives decrepitates Pyr., With soda on charcoal yields in R.F. becomes dark green. which a yellowish green glass, metallic lead. Decomposed on evaporation with hydrochloricacid, with the formation of and adding metallic lead chloride and molybdic oxide; on moistening the residue with water zinc,it givesan intense blue color,which does not fade on dilution of the liquid. in veins with other ores of lead. At Bleiberg,Carinthia; Rezbanya, Obs. -^Occurs in the Banat, Hungary; Annaberg, Schneeberg, Hungary; Pfibram, Austria; Moldawa Germany; Sardinia; Broken Hill,New South Wales. In the United States, sparinglyat the Southampton lead mine, and at Quincy, Mass., lode and at Eureka in and near Sing Sing,N. Y.; near Phenixville, Pa.; at the Comstock Nev. ; in large In N. M., pale yellow thin orange-yellow tables at the Tecomah mine, Utah. in the Organ Mts. In Ariz., largedeep red crystals and* other at the Hamburg crystals Yuma Co., often with red vanadinite; also at the Castle Dome district,30 miles mines, distant;at the Mammoth gold mine near Oracle,Pinal Co., with vanadinite and descloizite. Named after the Austrian mineralogist Wulfen (1728-1805). Use. An ore of molybdenum.
" "

pseudomorphous.

tetragonalpyramids, perhaps Kimbosan, Japan. Koechlinite. A molybdate of bismuth, Bi2O3.MoO3. In minute Orthorhombic. lar tabucrystals. Cleavage,a (100). Color, greenishyellow. Index, 2'55. Easily fusible. From Schneeberg, Saxony, Germany. In microscopic Ferritungstite. Fe2O3.WO3.6H2O. hexagonal plates. Color pale yellow to brownish yellow. Decomposed by acids leavingyellow tungsticoxide. Product of oxidation of Wolframite from Germania Deer Trail district, Tungsten mine. Wash.
= =

Reinite.

Ferrous tungstate, FeWO4. H. 4. 6*64. G.

In blackish brown

VII.

SALTS

OF

ORGANIC

ACIDS

Oxalates, Mellates
Whewellite. +. Optically Oxammite. Peru. Islands, 0 Calcium
"555.

Ammonium

oxalate,CaC2O4.H2O. In sfmall colorless monoclinic crystals. From Saxony, with coal; also from Bohemia and Alsace. oxalate,(NH4)2C2O4.2H2O. From the guano of the Guanape

HYDROCARBON

COMPOUNDS

645

Humboldtine.

/5

Hydrous ferrous oxalate, FeC2O4.2H2O. Orthorhombic. Color yellow. Bilin,Bohemia; Capo d'Arco, Elba. Mellite. Hydrous aluminium mellate, Al2Ci2Oi2.1SH2O. In square tetragonalpyramids; also 1 -55^-1 massive, granular. G. '65. Color honey-yellow. Optically T539. Occurs in brown coal in Thuringia, Bohemia, etc.
1-561. From
near
=
"

VIII.
The

HYDROCARBON

COMPOUNDS

with few exceptions, Hydrocarbon compounds in general, not homogeneous substances, are mixtures, which by the action of solvents or by fractional distillation may be separated into two or more component parts. They are hence not definite mineral species and do not strictly rather, with the recent gums and resins,to belong to pure Mineralogy, Chemistry or, so far as they are of practical value,to Economic Geology. In the following part with great brevity. pages they are treated for the most
but

1.

Simple Hydrocarbons.
SCHEERERITE.
In Found HATCHETTITE. Mountain

Chieflymembers
In thin of C to H

(CH4).

whitish monoclinic in brown coal at Uznach,

of the Paraffin Series CraH2n+2. crystals. Perhaps a polymer of marsh-gas

massive. or plates,
=

Switzerland.

Tallow. Ratio 1 '47-1 '50. yellowish. Indices,

near

nearly1:1.
from Galicia.

From

Like soft wax. Color the Coal-measures

Merthyr-Tydvilin Glamorganshire, England;

A native crystallized PARAFFIN. paraffinhas been described in basaltic lava near Paterno, Sicily.Indices, 1*49-1 '52.

as

occurring in cavities

Like wax and consistency. or spermaceti in appearance brownish often leek-green, yellowish, yellow,brown. and consisting of one of the higher memIndices, 1 '51-1 "54. Essentially a paraffin, chiefly bers at Slanik, of the series. Occurs in beds of coal, or associated bituminous as deposits, in southern Utah on a Moldavia; Roumania; Boryslaw in the Carpathians. Also occurs largescale. OZOCERITE.
wax

Mineral

in part. pure;

Colorless

to white

when

are Zietrisikite, Chrismatite, Urpethite

near

ozocerite.

FICHTELITE.

layersof pine
NAPALITE.

In wood

white

monoclinic
has
a

tabular

from

peat-beds,near
similar

crystals. Perhaps CsHg. Occurs in thin Redwitz, in the Fichtelgebirge, Bavaria; from
occurrence. wax.

Borkovic, Bohemia. C3H4.

From

Hartite

of the consistency of shoemaker's substance A yellow bituminous mine in Pope Valley,Napa county, Cal. the Phoenix mercury

2.

Oxygenated Hydrocarbons
= =

H. 2-2 '5. G. 1'096. with fracture. conchoidal In irregularmasses, AMBER. sometimes Color yellow, reddish, brownish, and whitish, often clouded, Luster resinous. to 150" begins to soften, sometimes fluorescent. Transparent to translucent. Heated 40 : 64 : 4. Ratio for C : H : O and finally melts at 250"-300". succinite (yielding succinic is separated mineralogicatly Part of the so-called amber as the Atlantic coast of the other regions (e.g., acid). Other related fossil resins from many Some of them have been called retinite, United glessite, gedanite, States)have been noted.
=

rumanite,
Amber
on

etc. krantzite, chemawinite, delatynite, simetite,

occurs

the Prussian coast of the Baltic from Dantzig to Memel; and the Russian Baltic provinces. It is mined after a heavy storm. the shores cast up by the waves on altered by fossilization; this is Amber and the similar fossil resins are of vegetableorigin, of inferred both from its native situation with coal,or fossil wood, and from the occurrence called yXtxTpov, the ancients, and to was insects early known incased in it. Amber has been derived the word of its electrical susceptibilities, electrum, whence, on account

abundantly

on

coasts of Denmark, and is also found extensively,

also

the

Sweden,

electricity.
blue clay. It is like the resin copal in COPALITE, or Highgate resin,is from the London in alcohol. Color clear pale difficult and solubility hardness, color, luster,transparency,

yellow to dirty gray

and

dirty brown.

Emits

resinous

aromatic

odor when

broken.

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY
coal and

The
fnf the

are following

BATHVILLITE

I? may
average

Crrbonfferous riin,else material which ^atoed be

an or

peat deposits etc : or in the torbamte Boghead coal Occurs in dull,brown, porous lumps Bathville, Scotland. Torbane Hill, of lands the formation) adjoining occurringwith hydrocarbons oxygenated
has

filtrated into the cavity from

the

surrounding torbanite.
TASMANITE

diameter about 0'03 of scales Tcarbon disulphide, turpentine

Vom sufpto!
DYSODILE gave 2 3 p.

shale; scales disseminated through a laminated dissolved at all by alcohol, ether,benzene. Remarkable as yielding 5 '3 p. c, heated. when even the rock is called combustible the river Mersey, north side of Tasmania;
In minute

reddish brown

in.

Not

c.

sis Analyelastic; yellowor greenishgray. slightly flexible, In very thin folia, and at Melili, From Sicily, deposits lignite 7 and 1 c. nitrogen. p. sulphur
coal ot Gesterwitz,

elsewhere.
GEOCERITE
near

from the brown A white, wax-like substance, separated other products from are and geocerellite Weissenfels. Geomyricite coal. Between Also from the Gesterwitz brown LEUCOPETRITE.
PYRORETINITE. From

the
a

same

source. wax

resin and

in

characters. physical brown coal

near

Aussig, Bohemia.
acid substance

An black. brownish masses; In elastic or partlyjelly-like DOPPLERITE. for C, H, Ratio acid. to humic related acids, different of mixture or Bavaria. in Styria;Fichtelgebirge, Aussee From 10 : 12 : 5. peat beds near white and In the state Idria. of cinnabar the pure Occurs with IDRIALITE. in structure.

O, nearly

crystalline

pyrite and
and

In nature in gypsum

the presence

POSEPNYTE. Great Western FLAGSTAFFITE.

mercury

found only impure, being mixed with cinnabar, clay, and some its combustibility brownish black earthy material, called, from a of mercury, inflammable cinnabar. the Occurs in hard, brittle platesor nodules,lightgreen in color. From mine, Lake Co., Cal. See also napalite, p. 645.

Ci2H24O3. Orthorhombic.
in cracks of buried tree

In

minute

prisms. Colorless,
Ariz. Flagstaff.

T51.

G.

1'092.

Found

trunks,near

The

still more are following

complex native hydrocarboncompounds of great importance

from an economic standpoint. Mineral oil. Kerosene. PETROLEUM. Petroleum. NAPHTHA; Mineral Tar. Maltha. PITT ASPHALT: from in the crude state of disagreeable odor; varying widely in color, Liquids or oils, color the most and nearly black, the greenishbrown colorless to dark yellow or brown from thin flowing kinds to those that are thick and viscous; also in consistency common;

in specific gravityfrom 0'6 to 0*9. Petroleum, proper, passes by insensible gradations into asphaltor solid into pittasphalt or maltha bitumen) ; and the latter as insensibly (viscid bitumen. of the paraffinseries, Chemically, petroleum consists for the most part of members The CreH2w, are CnH2n+2, varying from marsh gas, CH4, to the solid forms. olefines, also present in smaller amount. oils. Those of the" true of the American This is especially Caucasus have a higherdensity, the volatile constituents are less prominent, they distillat about 150" and contain the benzenes, CnH2n-6, in considerable amount. There are present also members of the series CnH2n-8. the The German petroleum is intermediate between and the Caucasian. American The Canadian rich in the solid petroleum is especially
and

paraffins.
Petroleum in rocks or deposits of nearly all geological occurs from the Lower ages, Silurian to the present epoch. It is associated most shales, abundantly with argillaceous sands, and sandstones, but is found also permeating limestones, giving them a bituminous odor, and rendering them sometimes of oil. From these oleiferous a considerable source sands and limestones the oil often exudes, and shales, the streams or on floating appears lakes of the region, rises in oil springs. It also exists collected in subterranean or cavities in certain rocks, whence it issues in jetsor fountains whenever outlet is made by Coring. an The oil which fills the cavities has ordinarily been derived from the subjacent rocks; for the strata in which the cavities exist are barren sandstones. The conditions frequently required for the production of such subterranean accumulations minous would be therefore a bituelse oil-producing or oil-bearing at a greater or less depth below; cavities stratum to receive the oil;an overlyingstratum of close-grained shale or limestone,not allowing of the easy escape of the naphtha vapors.

548

DESCRIPTIVE

MINERALOGY

or tar; distillation hydrocarbon (ashexcluded); while the so-called 16 or 17) of oxygen coals contain from 5-15 p. c. (rarely of 15-36 p. c. of at 100 contains from 20-36 p. c., after the expulsion, brown coal or lignite have Both 4-7 a bright, from is usually c. in each of The amount p. water. hydrogen with anthracite, rather fragile compared are firm texture, compact a luster, pitchy,greasy the 1 '14-1 '40. The brown coals have often a brownish black color,whence and have G. ous and others they shade into ordinary bituminthese in but and respects more oxygen, name, has G. castle, 1 '26-1 '37; of Newcoals. The ordinary bituminous coal of Pennsylvania England, 1'27; of Scotland, 1 '27-1 '32; of France, 1 "2-1 "33; of Belgium, 1'27-1'3.
,
= =

still retain it passes from forms which Thus the extent to which this change has gone on. and lignite) through those with less of volatile or of the wood (peat, he origmal kinds which approach graphite. matter to anthracite and further to bituni often submetalhc, ironLuster bright, 1'32-1'7. G. 2-2 '5. H ANTHRACITE 1 after drying 3^6 matter Volatile conchoidal. Fracture iridescent. black and frequently The anthracites of Pennsylvania contain of flame feeble a pale color with Burns a p. c. 80-83; of 88-95; of France 85-93 per cent of carbon; those of South Wales ordinarily Anthracite graduates through 94 per cent. sometimes Russia, southern of Saxony 81; volatile and containing more semi-anthracite into bituminous coal, becoming less hard anthracite. is called free-burning intermediate variety and an matter; smoky flame, and gives out on in the fire with a yellow, Burns COAL. BITUMINOUS 2 The ordinarybituminous bituminous. hence the name oils

structure
=

'

most prominent kinds are the following: (a) Caking or Coking Coal. A bituminous coal which softens and becomes pasty or semitakes placeat the temperature of incipient decomposition, viscid in the fire. This softening the heat, the volatile On increasing of bubbles of gas. and is attended with the escape driven off, are products which- result from the ultimate decomposition of the softened mass is left. Amount of coke left and a coherent, grayishblack, cellular or fritted mass (coke) varies from 50-85 p. c. (or part not volatile) mate (6) Non-Caking Coal. Like the precedingin all external characters, and often in ultiof incipient composition; but burning freelywithout softeningor any appearance between fusion. There are all gradations caking and non-caking bituminous coals. (c) Cannel Coal (ParrotCoal). A varietyof bituminous coal, and often caking; but in composition,as shown extent from the precedingin texture, and to some by its differing and without any appearance luster, or no productson distillation. It is compact, with little of a banded structure; and it breaks with a conchoidal fracture and smooth surface; color dull black or grayishblack. it affords,after drying,40 to 66 p. c. of volatile On distillation cating includes a largeproportion of burning and lubrimatter, and the material volatilized, much larger than the above kinds of bituminous oils, coal; whence it is extensively used for the manufacture of such oils. It graduates into oil-producing coaly shales, the Torbanite is a varietyof cannel coal of a dark more compact of which it much resembles. brown color,from Torbane Hill,near Bathgate, Scotland; also called Boghead Cannel. (d) Brown Coal (Lignite).The prominent characteristics of brown coal have already been mentioned. They are non-caking,but afford a largeproportion of volatile matter; sometimes but often rather dull and brownish black. G. 1 '15-1 '3. Brown pitch-black, coal is often called lignite. But this term is sometimes restricted to masses of coal which stillretain the form of the original wood. Jet is a black varietyof brown coal, compact in whence texture,and taking a good polish, its use in jewelry. Coal occurs in beds, interstratifiedwith shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, and sometimes limestones, which vary from a fraction of an inch to 30 forming distinct layers, feet or more in thickness. In the United States,the anthracites occur east of the Alleghany and fracturings, while the bituminrange, in rocks that have undergone great contortions ous

The

found extensively in many States farther west, in rocks that have been less this fact and other observations have led geologists to the view that the anthracites have lost their bitumen by the action of heat. The origin of coal is mainly vegetable, though animal life has contributed somewhat to the result. The beds were once beds of vegetation, analogous,in most respects,in mode of formation to the peat beds of modern times,yet in mode of burial often of a This vegetable very different character. origin is proved not only by the occurrence of the leaves, and logsof plantsin the coal, stems but also by the presence throughout its texture, in many cases, of the forms of the original resi also by the direct observation that peat is a transition state between unaltered vegebrown coal" being sometimes found passing completely " s * into true brown i coal. Peat differsfrom true coal in want of homogeneity, it visiblycontainingvegetable fibers only partially and wherever changed to a fine-textured homogeneous maaltered; terial, even though hardlyconsolidated, it may be true brown coal. .bor an account of the chief coal fields, as also of the geological relations of the different coal deposits, reference is made to works on Economic Geology.
are

coals

and disturbed;

APPENDIX

A.

ON

THE

DRAWING

OF

CRYSTAL

FIGURES

IN the representation of crystals it is customary to draw their edges as if they by figures definite plane. Two sorts of projectionare projected upon some graphic used; the orthoin which the lines of projection fall at rightangles and the clinographic where they fall at obliqueangles upon the plane of projection. The second of these projections is the more important, and must be treated here in some detail. Two points are to be noted in regard to it. In the firstplace,in the drawings of crystals the point of view is supposed to be at an infinite distance, and it follows from this that all lines which are parallel the on
were

crystalappear

in the drawing. parallel In the second place,in all ordinary cases, it is the complete ideal that is,the crystalwith its full geometrical symmetry as

which crystal explained on

pp.

is sented, repre10 to

note on p. 13). (cf. general,drawings of crystalsare made, either by constructing the figure upon a of its crystal of the different faces upon the axes projection in order axes, using the intercepts the directions of the edges or by constructingthe figure to determine from the gnomonic Both of these methods (or stereographic)projection of the crystalforms. have their advantages and disadvantages. By drawing the crystalfigureby the aid of a projection the symmetry of its crystal of the crystal and the relations of its faces to the axes axes are emphasized. In many a projectionof the poles of the cases, however, drawing from faces is simplerand takes less time. The student should be able to use both methods crystal and consequently both are described below. In

13

DRAWING

OF

CRYSTALS

UPON CRYSTAL

PROJECTIONS AXES

OF

THEIR

PROJECTION

OF

THE

AXES
.

The projectionof the particular axes required is obviously the firststep in the process. These axes be most can easilyobtained by making use of the Penfield Axial Protractor, The customary directions of the axes for the isometric, illustrated in Fig. 1030. * tetragonal, orthorhombic and hexagonal systems are given on the protractor and it is a simple matter, as explained below, to determine the directions of the inclined axes of the monoclinic and triclinic systems. Penfield drawing charts giving the projectionof the isometric axes, which are easilymodified for the tetragonaland orthorhombic onal systems, and of the hexag(see Figs. 1031, 1032) are also quite convenient. axes, Isometric of the The followingexplanation of the making of the projection System. has been taken largely from Penfield's description, isometric axes f clear the principles which the projectionof the isometric Figure 1033 will make upon
"

based. are of a cube in two A B C D, after

axes

orthographicprojection(a plan, as seen from above) b c d, in what be called normal position, the other, may its vertical axis. The brokenof 18" 26' to the left about a revolution dashed lines throughout represent the axes. Figure 1033B is likewise an orthographic viewed from in front,the eye projectionof a cube in the positionA B C D of A, when or point of vision being on a level with the crystal. In the positionchosen, the apparent width of the side face B C B' C' is one-third that of the front face ABA' Bf, this
an a

Figure 1033A positions, one,

is

being dependent upon the angle of revolution 18" 26',the tangent of which is equal to f. To construct the angle 18" 26',draw a perpendicularat any point on the horizontal line, X Y, figure1033A as at o, make op equal one-third Oo, and join O and p. The next is to change from projection. In orthographic to clinographic step in the construction the appearance it is supposed that the eye or point of solidity order to give crystal figures
"

* The various Penfield Sheffield Scientific School t On Crystal Drawing;

be obtained crystaldrawing apparatus may of Yale University, New Haven, Conn, Am. J. Sc., 19, 39, 1905.

from

the

Mineralogical. Laboratory of the

649

650

APPENDIX 1030

Protractor

for

plottingcrystallographic axes;
1031

one-third

natural 1032

size

Penfield) (after

Scheme

of the engraved

axes

of the isometric and

hexagonal systems, one-sixth natural

size (afterPenfield)

APPENDIX

651

of vision is raiseji, that one looks down so at an angle upon the crystal;thus, in the case under consideration, figure1033C, the top face of the cube comes into view. The position of the crystal, however, is not changed, and the plane upon which the projectionis made vertical. From A it may remains be seen that the positiveends of the axes a\ and a2 are forward of the 1033 ImeXY, the distances a\x and "2 y being as 3 : 1. In be imagined, and B it must by the aid of a model it easilybe seen, that the extremities of these same may to the front of an imaginary vertical plane (the are axes of XY above) passing through the center of projection the distance being the same the crystal, as ai x and a2 In D the distance ax is drawn the y of the plan. to same length as a\x of the plan, and the amount which it is supposed that the eye is raised, indicated by the arrow, is such that a, instead of being projected to x, is projected at an inclination of 9" horizontally the horizontal to w, the distance xw being one28' from the sixth of ax; hence angle 9" 28' is such that its tangent is |. Looking down upon a solid at an angle, and stillmaking the projectionon a vertical plane,may

designated as clinographic projection;accordingly, of a cube in clinographic projection plot the axes the conformity with figures A, B and D draw horizontal construction line hk, figureC, and cross it in vertical alignment with the by four perpendiculars A and B. Then "i and a2 of figures points "i, a2, the extremities of the first, determine a\ axis by a\, of figureD, or oneequal to xw laying off distances sixth ai x of figureA, locatingthem below and above
be to in
" "
"

The line ai, a\ is thus the front-to-back axis. In like determine the extremities of the second manner axis, 02, by laying off distances equal to one-thircUcw "2, of figureD, or one-sixth a2y of figureA, plotted below is thus~tKe~ The line a2, and above the line hk. a2 axis. It is projection of the second, or right-tp-left important to keep in mind that in clinographicprojection there is no foreshorteningof vertical distances. In figureC the axis a2, a2 is somewhat, and a\, "i much of the' foreshortened,yet both represent axes
the
"

horizontal

line hk.

projection of
"

the

or first,

"

"

"

same

length as

the

vertical, a3,

"

a3.

of choice that the angle of It is wholly a matter in figure 1033A is 18" 26',and revolution shown that of the the eye is raised so as to look down a crystal at Development of the axes upon in isometric orthographic system of 9" 28' from the indicated as an horizontal, angle by and clinographic projection Also it is evident that these angles may figure1033D. (after Penfield) be varied to suit any specialrequirement. As a matter of fact,however, the angles 18" 26' and 9" 28' have been well chosen and are established by long usage, and practically all the figuresin clinographic found in modern treatises on crystallographyand mineralogy, have projection, with them. in accordance been drawn hombic orthorOrthorhombic The projectionof tetragonal and Systems. Tetragonal and obtained from the isometric axes be easily axes can by modifying the lengthsof the with zircon to the axial ratio of the desired crystal. For instance various axes to conform 0.64 in respect to the equal lengthsof the horizontal the vertical axis has a relative length of c axes. tion By taking 0.64 of the unit length of the vertical axis of the isometric projecfor a zircon figureare The Penfield axial charts all give obtained. the crystal axes decimal parts of the unit length of the isometric vertical axis,so that any proportion of In the orthorhombic be found at once. this length can system the lengths of both the a scribed be obtained as deThe desired point upon the c axis can and c axes be modified. must be found by some In the case of the a axis the required point can above. simple of construction. method a plan of the unforeshortIf,as is the case in the Penfield charts, be laid off directly ened horizontal axes is given in a top view, the desired length can upon
"

652
the
on a

APPENDIX

axis in this

down vertically

to a line from this point parallel of a line drawn the isometric proportional the of projection proper a c by intersection. part of the a axis can be determined the hexagonal axes For projecting Hexagonal System. 1034 of as were be made use principles may exactly the same of isometric the construction axes. in the Figure employed a plan, of a hexagonal 1034A is an orthographic projection, of them, ai, 02, etc., after a prism in two positions,one be called normal posirevolution of 18" 26' from what may tion. In figure1034B the extremities of the horizontal axes the horizontal construction of A have been projecteddown upon forward of the line hk, and a\, a2 and are a3 which ographic the line hk in the clinlocated below in A are line XY hk being one-sixth the distances from projection, of dix, (hy and Figure 1034C is a scheme for asz of A. the extremities of the axes are gettingthe distances which dropped. The vertical axis in 1034B has been given the same length as the axes of the plan. In the case of the monoclinic Monoclinic System. be the inclination and length of the a axis must axes The in each case. axial chart, Fig. 1030, can determined used for this purpose. The ellipse be most conveniently C gives the trace of lettered A, C, in the figure, A, the ends of the a and c axes as they are revolved in the A the inclination of the a C plane. To find,therefore, to lay off the angle /8 by means axis it is only necessary of the graduation given on this ellipse. The unit length of in various ways. the a axis may be determined The plan of the axes given at the top of the chart may be used for this of Development of the axes of procedure Fig. 1035 will illustrate the method purpose. the hexagonal system in of orthoclase, where 64" and applied in the case as 0 ographic and clinorthographic The foreshortened 0.66. termined a length of the a axis is deprojection (after indicated and then this length can be projected as Penfield) downward the inclined a axis, the direction vertically upon of which has been previouslydetermined above. as described Triclinic System. In the construction of triclinic axes the inclination of the a axis and its length are determined in exactly the same described in the preceding manner as paragraph in the case of the monoclinic system. The direction of the 6 axis is determined The vertical plane of the 6 and c axes is as follows. revolved about the c axis through such an angle as 10"5 will conform to the angle between the pinacoids 100 and 010. Care must be taken to note whether this plane is to be revolved toward the front or toward the back. If the angle between the normals to 100 and 010 is greater than 90" the right hand end of this plane is to be revolved toward the front. Figure 1036, which is a simplifiedportion of the axial chart, shows the necessary in construction order to obtain the direction of the 6 axis in the of rhodonite in which 100 A 010 case 94" 26' and 103" 18'. The plane of the b-c axes a will pass through the point p which is 94" 26' from -a. To locate the point 6', which is the point where the 6 axis would emerge from the sphere, draw through the point p two or more chords from points where the vertical ellipses of the chart cross the horizontal lines a-p. -a-p. b-p, in figure 1036. as ellipse,

of the decimal by means projection orthographic its clinographic projection.Or the proper upon
then

scale and
distance

then
can

projected
be laid oft

the vertical axis and

by

means

ioinine the extremities of the

and

axes

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Ihen which

these same vertical ellipses the horizontal plane draw chords parallel to the firstseries as x-x',y-y',z-z'. The point where these three chords meet determines the position of 6' and a line from this point drawn through the center of the
on are

from

points

13" 18' below

APPENDIX

653

chart determines the direction of the b axis, since it Ues in the vertical plane and proper makes the angle a, 103" 18',with the c axis. The foreshortened length of the 6 axis can be determined by the use of the orthographic projectionof the a and b axes at the top of the chart in exactly the same described under the monoclinic system and the manner as be projectedvertically point thus determined downward the line of the b axis may upon of the clinographicprojection as It must be already determined. 1036 remembered, however, that the graphic positionof the b axis in the orthoconform projection must to the position of the plane of in the case the b and c axes of or rhodonite have its right hand end at an angle of 94" 26' with the negative end of the projectionof
the Aid Axes. the
"

axis. of In of Crystal Figures by their Projections of order

to

Drawing

determine

in

drawing the direction of any edge between two crystalfaces it is necessary to establish two to these two faces. points,both of which shall be common A line connecting two such points will obviouslyhave the desired direction. The positions of these points is commonly established by use of the linear or Quendstedt projection as explained in the followingparagraphs, which have been taken almost verbatim from Penfield's description of the process. The principle which the linear projectionis based is very simple: Everyface of a upon but without crystal(shifted if necessary, change of direction)is made to intersect the vertical axis at UNITY, and then its intersection with the horizontal plane,or the plane of the a and b axis is indicated by a line. For instance if a given face has the indices 111 it is clear that its linear projectionwould be a line passing through la and 16,since the face under these conditions will also pass through Ic. If,however, the indices of the face are 112 it will only pass through 1/2 c when it passes through la and 15. In order to fulfill, the requirements of the linear projectherefore, tion 1037 that the plane should pass through Ic the indices must be multipliedby two and then under these conditions the line in which the plane intercepts the horizontal plane, or in other words the linear projectionof the face, will pass through 2a and 26. In the case of a prism face with the indices 110, its linear direction as a line joining projectionwill be a line having the same la and 16 but passing through the point of intersection of these as a only prism can axes, since a vertical plane such it also includes the c axis and so must through Ic when pass have its linear projectionpass through the point of intersection
of the three axes. it is desired to find the direction of an edge made When the lines representing the linear meeting of any two faces,
"-

of the faces are first drawn, and the point where faces is deteris noted. mined, Thus a point common to both is located in the plane of the a and 6 axes. A which the vertical to the two faces is unity on second point common axis,and a line from this point to where the lines of the linear projectionintersect gives the desired direction. chosen from the orthorhombic A simple illustration, system, how the linear projection may be employed to show will serve of barite, such as in drawing. The example is a combination in figure1037. is shown The axial ratio of barite is as follows:
a :

by the projection sect they inter-

: c

0'8152

1'3136

On

the orthographic axes

figureand the symbols are, base c (001), d (102). brachydome o (Oil) and macrodome prism m (110), Figure 1038 represents the details of construction of the shown in figure1037. orthographic and clinographicprojections the axial lengths a and 6 are located,the vertical axis c being
The forms

shown

in the

654

APPENDIX

1038

is

The prism m (110) to the 6 axis: the lines xy and x'y', through 2a parallel : oo 6 ; c), ditions hence in order that such a plane shall satisfy the conto the vertical axis, parallel be of the linear projectionand pass through unity on the vertical axis, it must considered as shifted (without change of direction) until it passes through the center: to the Its linear projection therefore is represented by the lines yz and parallel y'z', the on directions la to 16 on the two sets of axes. Since a linear projection is made plane of the a and 6 axes, the intersection of any face with the base (001) has the same sections direction as the line representingits linear projection. It is well to note that the interand z' in with another. and and vertical z are one x',y' alignment x, y Concerningthe drawing of figure1038, it is a simple matter to proportionthe general outline of the barite crystal in orthographicprojection. The direction of the edge between d, 102, and o, Oil, is determined by findingthe point x, where the lines of the linear projection of d and o intersect, and drawing the edge parallel x to the to the direction from to center c. The intersection of the prism m, 110, with d and o is a straightline, parallel the direction la to 16 or y to z. convenient To construct the clinorraphic at some figure, point beneath, the axes the horizontal middle edges of the crystalmay be drawn parallel to the a and 6 axes, their lengths and intersections being determined by carrying down perpendicularsfrom the orthographic projection above. d, The intersection between

(2a

656
are
A
=

APPENDIX

steD

To insure 60" 31'. in plot001 A 232 ting accuracy 54" 37' and P 010 A 230 of the protractorhave been regardedas unity. The first the full lengthsof the axes the position of the twinning plane, 232. projection the clinographic is to locate on
=
= =

1041

Fig. 1041 as the triangle 3/2c. The next step is find the position of the twinning axis to this plane. to will be normal The which coordinates of this twinning axis are given The by the "f"and p angles quoted abov". point p which is 54" 37' back from the pole to 010 or b marks _theplace where the normal to the prism face 230 would ejnerge from the to is the sphere. The normal 232, which the meridian on twinning axis will emerge that runs through the point p and at such a distance below it that it will make the angle the negative end of the c axis. 60" 31' with Chords are drawn to p from the points where
This is shown from
-

in

3/2a

to

b to

the
drawn

and
from

axes

sphere and then

the

meet chords

the

equator

of

the
are

to these parallel

points x, y and z which are in each case 60" 31' from the point where the negative end of the c axis cuts the spherical surface. The common meeting point of the twinning axis pierces the sphericalsurface. these chords T marks the place where the point t at which The the twinning axis cuts next the step is to determine at right angles to the line connecting twinning plane. The line OPp is by construction -3/2a and 16. Therefore a vertical plane which is normal to the twinning plane would intersect that plane in the line connecting" 3 /2c and P. The twinning axis OT would He in this plane also. Consequently the point t, where OT and -3/2c-P intersect would Ke both on the twinning axis and in the twinning plane. In order to 1042
make the

given. Here twinning axis is repeated from Fig. 1041. The twin position of the crystal is to be found by revolving it from its normal positionthrough an arc of 180", using the twinning axis as the
axis
turn

the method clearer Fig. 1042

of construction is

of revolution. This will the twinning plane about the point t as a pivot and upon so transpos3 the points-3/2a, 6
and

from

points equidistant opposite position. By drawing lines through t and layingoff equal distances beyond that point the new points-3/2A, -3/2c
it in to
an

and -3/2C will be obtained. These points lie upon the three in their twin position axes and so determine their directions. The plotting of the twin axes the top view in follows similar methods. In order to make the construction learer a separate figure. Fig. 1043, is given. The line 0-t is laid off at an angle of 4" 37' to the 6 axis. Upon this 1S Projection

ith* th^"

founlby
6

upward from
the methods

meS

which a,r"Uud 0"?1

Y

below. This ^olved 180" to their twin of construction and the directions of
axes are

the

view clinographic

APPENDIX

657

Upon the twin axes found in this way the portion of the crystal in twin position is drawn in exactly the same if it was in the normal manner as position. (2). To plotthe axes for the calcitetwin shown in Fig. 1044. In this case it was desired to scalenohedron a represent twinned the rhombohedron upon 1043 that the / (0221) and so drawn twinning plane should be vertical and have the positionof 6 (010) of orthorhombic an crystal. The c angle from (001) to / (0221) \ equals 63" 7'. In order to make the face / vertical, the vertical axis be inclined at an must angle of 26" 53', or the angle between the of the two individuals c axes posing comthe twin would be double this or 53" 46'. These relations are in Fig 1045. As indicated shown in Fig. 1046 the position of these are easily axes, c and C in the figure, obtained at inclinations of 26" 53* by use of the graduation of the that passes through vertical ellipse B and -B. The points X,X' and Y, Y' indicate the intersections with this same eclipseof the two planes in containing the a\, a-2 and a3 axes their respectiveinclined positions, and the angles -BX, BX', and BY -BY' tion being in each case equal to 26" 53'. In order to have the twinning plane occupy a posiit is necessary to revolve the axes to the 010 plane of an orthorhombic so crystal parallel

1044

1045

1045

that
axis such

one

of the

a as

hexagonal
-a3, a3 in

axes

shall coincide with the

of position

the

hombic axis of the orthor-

The two other hexagonal axes correspondingto the Fig. 1046. therefore lie in a plane which includes -a3, as and the pointsX and X' and have c must that they will make angles of 60" with -o3, a3. The construction necessary positions

system,

APPENDIX

the two chords lettered x-x' Draw is as follows: the ends of these axes the direction of a chord that t o and and parallel a3 that are 60" from -as chords y-y the two through the draw In a similar way X. and -B would that of direction the a chord t o and from parallel a,, -a, that are 60" of second "r sets of chords of these two The intersections X. and B the points through The hexagon of these respective axes. points* and -a* which are the ends that liein a plane perpendicular the of ends "2 and as axes the fll, connects the in shown figure that belong to the axis C are to be found m a similar way. The set of axes to the axis c. 0'854 obtained by multiplying that of calcite c The length of the verticalaxis is to be This is transferred obtained or 2'562 line the length vertical the by three and layingoff on The desired figureof to the line p-p. line p'-p' parallel to the twin axis c by drawing the of inclined axes. sets two these drawn upon the calcite twin is to be
to

SrouKh^Snte ^Hhrough Sts wou?d pis determfnTthe

determine

DRAWING

CRYSTALS

BY

USE

OF

THE

STEREOGRAPHIC

AND

GNOMONIC

PROJECTIONS

of from the projections of drawing crystals of the methods The followingexplanation from Penfield's description.* their forms has been taken with only minor modifications
PROJECTION STEREOGRAPHIC THE OF 1. USE been has chosen; the construction of a a the generalexample method, In explaining graphic Figure 1047A represents a stenoof the triclinicsystem. of axinite, drawing of a crystal M (111), forms a (100), of m (110), (110), axinite, of the p ordinary projection the positionof 010, theirs*meridian,locating and s (201). As shown by the figure, r (111) has been chosen at 20" from the horizontal direction SS'. it appears as projectionof an axinite crystal, Figure 1047B is a plan,or an orthographic It derived from the be stereovertical axis. the of direction in the may at looked when The follows: direction of the parallel edges in a simple manner, as graphic projection to a tangent at m, s, r, m', A, is parallel made by the intersections of the faces in the zone be had most easilyby laying a straightedge from either m or m', and this direction may 90" of transposingthe direction to B, as shown by the triangle, a m' means to and, by m
"

construction. construction The

explained: It

next be be called a parallel-perspective view, may may projectionlike the usual crystaldrawings from axes, clinographic the sphere, represented by made on a plane intersecting but an orthographicprojection, the stereographic A, along the great circle SES'; the distance EC being 10". projection, of course, have any desired inclination The plane on which a drawing is to be made may, but by making the distance CE equal 10" and taking the firstmeridian at 20" or position, effects of plan and parallel from S, almost the same perspectiveare produced as in the of drawing from axes^ where the eye is raised 9" 28' and the crystal conventional method

of C, which
a

is not

turned 18" 26'. The easiest way to explainthe construction of C from A is to imagine the sphere,represented revolved 80" about an axis joiningS and S', or as by the stereographic projection, until the great circleSES' becomes horizontal. After such a revolution, the stereographic projectionshown in A would appear as in D, and the parallel-perspective drawing, E, B was This could then be derived from D in exactlythe same derived from A. manner as for example, because the great circle through m, s and r, D, intersects the graduated is, circle at x, where the pole of a vertical plane in the same would fall, zone provided one were present; hence the intersection of such a surface with the horizontal plane,and, consequently, the direction of the edges of the zone, would be parallel In to a tangent at z: other words, E is a plan of a crystal in the positionrepresentedby the stereographic jection, proD. Although not a difficult matter to transpose the poles of a stereographic to derive D from A, it takes both time and skill to do the work so as projection with accuracy, and it is not at all necessary to go through the operation. To find the direction of the edges of any zone in C, for example m s r, note firstin A the point x, where the great circlesm s r and SES' cross. During the supposed revolution of 80" about the axis SS', the pole x follows the arc of a small circle and falls finally at x' (the same positionas x of D) and a line at rightangles to a diameter through x',as shown by the construction, is the desired direction for C. Similarlyfor the zones and MspM', their intersections pr, MrM' with SES' at w, y and z are transposed by the revolution of 80" to w', y' and z'. The transposition of the polesw, x, y and z, A, to w',x',y' and z' be accomplished easily may
*

Am.

J.

Sc.,21, 206, 1906.

APPENDIX

659

in the

of the Penfield transparent, small-circle (1) By means tractor pro(*ig-68, p. 39) the distances of w, x, y and z from either S or S' be determined may and the corresponding number of degrees counted off on the graduated circle. (2)
"

followingways:

1047

Development

of

from

triclinicsystem plan and parallel-perspective figureof axinite, a stereographicprojection(after Penfield)

pole P of the great circle SES', where P is 90" from E or 80" from C, and of a stereographic scale or protractor (Fig.62, p. 35) : A straight line by means drawn through P and x will so intersect the graduated circle at x',that S'x and S'x' are agined for this is not easilycomprehended from A, but if it is imequal in degrees. The reason that the projection is revolved 90" about an axis A A', so as to bring S' at the center, the important poles and great circles to be considered will appear as in figure1048, where P and C' are the poles,respectively, of the great circles ES'E' and AS' A', and x is 41 "" It is evident from the symmetry of figure1048 that a plane from S' as in figure1047 A. surface touching at C', P and x will so intersect the great circle AS' A' that the distances S'x and S'x' are equal. Now a plane passing through C", P, x and x',if extended, would but since this circle passes through shown in the figure, intersect the sphere as a small circle, C', which in figure 1047A is the pole of the stereographicprojection(antipodalto C), it tions drawn will be projected in figureA as a straightline, through P and x, since the intersecthe plane of projection of all planes that pass through the point of vision of the upon lines. (3) In figure1048 B is located midway between E projectionwill appear as straight
Find
first the is located

660

APPENDIX

evident from the and W, 40" from C, is its pole: It is now and A' BS'B' is a great circle, intersects the great circle and x so W circle through that a great of the figure symmetry the foregoing relations that the distances S'x and S'x' are equal. Transferring A"A' to figure 1047A, W, 40" from C, is the pole of the a great circle drawn great circle SBS', and through W and x falls at x'. However, it is not the great circle through W to draw necessary and x to locate the point x' on the graduated circle: By centering the Penfield transparent (Fig.67, p. 39) at C, and great circle protractor, great turning it so that W and x fallon the same be transposed to x',and the point x may circle, in would be found other points,wf, y' and z', like manner. of transposing x The three foregoingmethods etc.,are about equally simple,and tox',z to z', be it may pointed out that, supplied with transparent stereographic protractors, and having the polesof a crystalplotted in stereoit is only necessary to draw graphic projection, point, the great circle SES' and to locate one either W or P, in order to find the directions responding needed for a parallel-perspective drawing, cor1047C. to figure Thus, with only a the great circle through great circle protractor, be traced, and its zone the poles of any may noted and spaced off with dividers from either S or S'; then intersection with SES' is determined, and where and W the great circle through the intersection just found be had of by means it falls on the divided circle noted, when the desired direction may
a as edge and 90" triangle, straight alreadyexplained.

2.

DRAWING

OF

TWIN

CRYSTALS

BY

USE

OF

THE

STEREOGRAPHIC

PROJECTION

In the great majority of cases be most advantageously the drawing of twin crystals can It is only necessary of their forms. accomplished by the use of a stereographic projection first to prepare a projectionshowing the poles of the faces in the normal and twin positions and then follow the methods The preparation of the desired prooutlined above. jection however, need some explanation. An illustrative example is given below may, twins taken from an article by Ford and Tillotson on some of orthoclase.* Bavenno According to the Baveno law of twinning the n (021) face becomes the twinning plane and as the angle c A n 44" 56 1/2' the angle between c' (twin position) becomes c and 89" 53'. For the purposes of drawing it is quite accurate that this enough to assume angle is exactly90" and that accordinglythe r. face of the twin will occupy a positionparallel
=

to that of the b face of the normal

individual.

Fig. 1049 shows the forms observed of the crystals both in normal and in twin positions, the faces in twin positionbeing indicated by (')after their open circles and a prime mark while the zones in twin positionare in dashed respective lines. Starting letters, drawn out with the forms in normal This form, is the base c. the firstface to transp9se position, from the law of the twinning,will be position transposed to c' where it occupies the same as 6 of the normal and it necessarily follows that 6 itselfin being transposed will individual, to b' at the point where the normal c is located. come In turning therefore the crystalto the left from normal to twin position,the fades c and 6 travel along the great circle I through an arc of 90" until they reach their respective twin positions. We have,in other words, revolved the crystal 90" to the left about an axis which is parallel to the faces of the zone I. The pole of this axis is located on the stereoat 90" from the great circle I and falls on graphicprojection the straightline II, another great circle which intersects zone I at rightangles. This pole P is readilylocated by the stereographic protractor on the great circle II at 90" from c. The volve problem then is to rethe poles of the faces from their normal about the point P to the left and positions through an arc of 90" in each case. During the revolution the poles of the n faces remain on the great circle I and as the K) angle n A n the location of their poleswhen in twin is identical with that of position
=

Am.

J.

Sc.,26, 149, 1908.

APPENDIX

661

the normal
its normal

to

position and n' fallson top of n. We its twin position, since P remains
the twin

have

determined

positionof

c.

The

now transposethe great circleII from stationaryduring the revolution and we dashed arc II' gives the twin position of the can

1049

The twin positionof y must lie on arc II' and can be readily located at y', the intersection of arc II' with a small circle about P having the radius P Ay. It is now the arc of the zone III in its transposedpositionIII', to construct for we have two possible of the points, y' and n' of the latter, already located. By the aid of the Penfield transparent great circle protractor the positionof the arc of the great circle on which these two points On this arc, III', o' and m' must lie can be determined. also lie. Their positions most are 6 A o easilydetermined by drawing arcs of small circles about b' with the requiredradii, 59" 22 1/2' and the points at which they intersect arc III' locate the 63" 8', b A //* At the same time the correspondingpoints on IV may be positionof the poles o' and mf. But one other form remains arc. Jocated,it being noted that IV and III are the same We the prism z. to be transposed, have already 6' and m' located and it is a simple matter with the aid of the great circle protractor to determine the positionof the great circle 6' with the proper radius, which they lie. Then b/\z a small circle about 29" 24', upon determines at once of the polesof the z faces. by its intersections with this arc the position be pointed out that if it should be desired to make of the methods of the It may use described below, the stereographic as gnonomic projectionfor the drawing of the figures of the forms may be readilytransformed into a gnomonic projection by doubling projection the angular distance from the center of the projection to each pole by the use of the stereo-

great circle II.

graphic protractor, Fig. 62, p.

3. As

35.
OF THE

USE

GNOMONIC

PROJECTION

the method of drawing a simple combination of barite has been chosen. an illustration, in figure1050 are c (001),m The forms shown (110),o (Oil) and d (102). The location of the poles in the gnomonic projectionis shown in A, where, as in figure1047A. the first

662
meridian In any is taken

APPENDIX

locations of S
plan
such

The SS poles of the prism m and the horizontal direction at 20" from the fall projection at infinity. in 1047A) gnomonic and S' (compare figure made by the meeting of two faces figure1050B, the direction of an edge as
.

1050
A
at oo tfatoo

at oo

is at rightangles to a line joiningthe poles of the faces,shown and c. at 90" to the line joining m"
The

in

figures A and

by

the

rection di-

is an orthographic projection (compare figures plane passing through S and S', and intersecting the sphere on which gnomonic projection is based as a great circle passing through E, figure 1050A, This great circle is called by Goldto SS', the distance cE being 10": and drawn parallel and d, m"' and c, and the Leitlinie. m To find such intersections as between schmidt figureC, note, as in figure 1047A, where the great circles through the poles of the faces intersect the Leitlinie;thus, the one through m'" and c at x, and that through m and d Next t o d and m" at infinity) since at y. imagine the points m m are m", parallel (through latter pomts, however, are located x and y transposed as in figure1047 A to x' and y',which at infinity:This transpositionis done by locating first the so-called Winkelpunkt, W, of Goldschmidt, 40" from c in figure1050A, and as in figure1047A, 90" from a point B, which is an equal number of degrees from E and A' (compare figure1048). Of the three methods be easilyapplied in the gnomgiven above for transposing x and y to x' and y',the third may onic projection. Great circles, or straight lines,through W and x and W and y, figure ing would is accomplished by drawx' and y',which determine 1050A, if continued to infinity, and lines parallelto Wx It is not necessary, Wy through the center. however, to draw the lines Wx and Wy, nor the parallel to lines through the center; all that is needed find the directions of the edges m'" A c and m A d is to lay a straightedge from W to x, respectively W to y, and with a 90" triangletranspose the directions in to C, as indicated the drawings. The the interrelations worked for principlesare exactly the same as put of figures1047A and C. As in the case of the stereographic projection,it is evident that, of the given poles a to crystalplotted in the gnomonic projection, it would be necessary draw only one the Leitlinie, and to locate one line, point, the Winkelpunkt, W, in order to find all possible directions for a plan and parallel-perspective views, corresponding to figures1050B and C.

view, 1050C, parallel-perspective C)

drawn
on a

1047 A

and the

664

APPENDIX

Dietrichite,(Zn,Fe,Mn)SO4.Al2(SO4)H3.222O H2Al2(Si03)4. PYROPHYLLITE, Alunogen, A12(SO4)3.18H2O. Allophane,Al2Si06.5H20. Cyanotrichite,4CuO.Al2O3.SO3.8H2O. Melite,2(Al,Fe)203.S102.8H20. Hydrous, Fe,Al,Cr,sulphate. Knoxvillite, 2Al2O3.SiO2.9H2O. Collyrite, 7Fe2O3.A12O3.10SO3. 14H2O. Cyprusite, 8Al2O3.3SiO2.30H2O. Schrotterite, Aluminite, A12O3.SO3.9H2O. Hamlinite, Al,Sr,phosphate Paraluminite,2A12O3.SO3.10H2O. Plumbogummite, Pb,Al, phosphate. Felsobanyite.2A12O3.SO3.10H2O. Al,Ce, phosphate. Florencite, Voltaite,3(K2,Fe)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.6SO3.9H2O. BaO.2Al2O3.P2O6.5H2O. Georceixite, ALUNITE, K2A16(OH)12.(SO4)4. 2CaO.4 A12O3.2P2O5.10H2O. Crandallite, K2O.3A12O3.4SO3.9H2O. Lowigite, (Sr,Ca)O.2Al2O3.P2O6.SO3.5H2O. Harttite, Almeriite,Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.5Al(OH)3.H2O. Durangite, Na(AlF)AsO4. Ettringite,6CaO.Al2O3.3SO3.33H2O. Li(AlF)PO4 Amblygonite, Zincaluminite,2ZnSO4.4Zn(OH)2.6Al(OH)3. Fremontite, (Na,Li)Al(OH,F)PO4. 5H2O. 2AlPO4.(Fe,Mg)(OH)2. Lazulite, A12C12O12.18H2O. Mellite, Ca3P2O3.2Al(OH)2. Tavistockite, Ca3Al(PO4)3.Al(OH)3. Cirrolite, 2(Al,Mn)AsO4.5Mn(OH)2. Synadelphite, Hematolite, (Al,Mn)AsO4.4Mn(OH)2. Barrandite,(Al,Fe)PO4.2H2O.
A1PO4.2H2O. Variscite, A1PO4.2H2O. Lucinite, A1PO4.2"H2O. Callainite, A1PO4.3H2O. Zepharovichite,
ANTIMONY NOTE
:
"

The

antimonates

are

not

cluded in-

in this list.

Palmerite,HK2A12(PO4)3.7H2O. Hydrous, Al,Pb,Cu, phosphate. Rosier6site, WAVELLITE, 4A1PO4.2A1(OH)3.9H2O. AlPO4.Al(OH)3.2iH2O. Fischerite, Peganite,A1PO4.A1(OH)3.HH2O.
TURQUOIS, CuO.3Al2O3.2P2O5.9H2O.

Allemontite,SbAs3. NATIVE ANTIMONY, Sb. Sb2S3. Stibnite, Kermesite, Sb2S2O. Sb2O3. Senarmontite, Valentinite, Cervantite,Sb2O3.Sb2O6. H2Sb2O5. Stibiconite, (SbO)2(Ta,Nb)2O6. Stibiotantalite,
ARSENIC
NOTE
in :
"

Wardite, 2A12O3.P2O6.4H2O. 4A1PO4.6A1(OH)3. Sphserite, (Al,Fe)AsO4.2(Al,Fe) (OH)". Liskeardite,

5H2O.
'

The

arsenates

are

not

included

this Ust.

NATIVE ARSENIC, As. Evansite,2A1PO4.4A1(OH)3.12H2O. SbAs3. Allemontite, 3 A12O3.2P2O5. 10H2O. Coeruleolactite, AsS. REALGAR, Angelite, 2Al2O3.P2O6.3H2q. ORPIMENT, As2S3. Attacolite 1 Hydrous Berlinite,Trolleite, FeAsS. Arsenopyrite, Minasite, Vashegyite jAlphosphates Claudetite,As2O3. Soumansite,Hydrous, Al,Na,fluo-phosphate. Arsenolite, Childrenite,2AlPO4.2Fe(OH)3.2H2O. BARIUM Eosphorite, 2AlPO4.2(Mn,Fe) (OH)3.2H2O. Witherite,BaCO3. Egueiite, Hydrous, Fe,Al,Ca,phosphate. Bromlite, (Ba,Ca)CO3. Liroconite, Cu6Al(AsO4)5.3CuAl(OH)6.

20H2O.

Henwoodite,Al,Cu, hydrous phosphate.

Ceruleite, CuO.2Al2O3.As2O5.8H2O. Kehoite,Hydrous, Al,Zn,phosphate. Goyazite,Ca3Al10 P2O23.9H2O. Rosch6rite, (Mn,Fe,Ca)2Al(OH) (PO4)2.2H2O. Svanbergite, Hydrous Al, Ca, phosphate and sulphate.
A1BO3. Teremejevite, Rhodizite, A1,K, borate. Millosevichite, (Fe,Al)2(SO4)3. Spangolite, Cu6AlClSO10.9H2O. Alumian,A12O3.2SO3. KaUnite, KA1(SO4)2.12H2O. Tschermigite, (NH4)A1(SO4)2.12H2O. Mendozite, NaAl(SO4)2.12H2O. Pickeringite, MgSO4.Al2(SO4)3.22H2O. Halotrichite, FeSO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O. Apjohnite, MnSO4.Al2(S04)3.24H2O.

BaCO3.CaCO3. Barytocalcite, Hyalophane, (K2,Ba)Al2(SiO3)4.

Celsian,BaAl2Si2O8. Cappelenite,Y,Ba, boro-silicate. Hyalotekite, (Pb,Ba,Ca)B2(SiO3)12. Ba4Al4Si7O24. Barylite, Taramellite,Ba^e'' Fe4'" SiidOM. H4(Sr,Ba,Ca)Al2(SiO3)6.3H2O. Brewsterite, Wellsite,(Ba,Ca,K2)Al2Si3Oi0.3H2O. Harmotone, (K2,Ba)Al2Si5Oi4.5H2O. Edingtonite,BaAl2Si3Oi0.3H2O. BaTiSi3O9. Benitoite, Leucosphenite, Na4Ba(TiO)2(Si2O5)5. BaO.2Al2O3.P2O5.5H2O. Georceixite, 3(Ba,Pb)O.2P2O5.8H2O. Ferrazite, Cu,Ba,Ca, vanadate. Volborthite, Ba(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O. Uranocircite, Ba(NO3)2. Nitrobarite, Barite,BaS04.

APPENDIX

665
CESIUM

BERYLLIUM

BeAl2O4. Chrysoberyl,

Eudidymite, Epididymite, HNaBeS.\3O8. Beryl, Be3Al2(SiO3)6.

Pollucite, 2Cs2O.2Al2O3.9SiO2.H2O.

Rhodizite, Al,K,Cs,borate.
CALCIUM

Helvite,(Be,Mn,Fe)7Si3Oi2S. Danalite, (Be,Fe,Zn,Mn)7Si3Oi2S. Phenacite, Be2SiO4. Trimerite,(Mn,Ca)2SiO4.Be2SiO4. Euclase, HBeAlSiO5. Be2FeY2Si2O10. Gadolinite, Bertrandite,H2Be4Si2O9. NaBePO4. Beryllonite, Herderite,Ca[Be(F,OH)]PO4. Hambergite, Be2(OH)BO3.
BISMUTH NATIVE BISMUTH, Bi. BlSMUTHINITE, Bl2S3. Guanajuatite, Bi2Se3. Tetradymite, Bi2(Te,S)3. Bi4TeS3. Grunlingite, Wehrlite, bismuth tellurides. Joseite, Daubreete, Bi, oxychloride. Bismite, Bi2O3. Bi2(CO3)3.2Bi2O3. Bismutosparite, Bismutite,Bi2O3.CO2.H2q. Bi4Si3Oi2. Eulytite, Agricolite, Pucherite,BiVO4.

Oldhamite, CaS.
CaF2. Fluorite, CaCl2. Hydrophilite, Yttrofluorite, (Ca3,Y2)F6.

Nocerite,2(Ca,Mg)F2.(Ca.Mg)O.

Tachhydrite, CaCl2.2MgCl2.12H2O. Prosopite, CaF2.2Al(F.OH)3. Pachnolite, Thomsenolite, NaF.CaF2.AlF3.

H2O. Gearksutite. CaF2.Al(F,OH)3.H2O.

Creedite, 2CaF2.2Al(F,OH)3.CaSO4.2H2O. Yttrocerite, (Y,Er,Ce)F3.5CaF2.H2O. UhUgite,Ca(Ti,Zr)O5.Al(Ti,Al)O5.

CaCO3. Calcite, Dolomite, CaCO3.MgCO3.

Ankerite, CaCO3.(Mg,Fe,Mn)CO3.
Aragonite,CaCO3.

Bromlite,(Ba,Ca)CO3. Barytocalcite, BaCO3.CaCO3 Parisite, [(Ce,La,Di)F]2Ca(CO3)2.

Pirssonite, CaCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O. Gay-Lussite, CaCO3.Na2CO3.5H2O. Gajite,basic, hydrous,Ca, Mg, carbonate.

H2Bi3AsO8. Atelestite,

Walpurgite, Bi10(UO2)3(OH)24(AsO4)4. Rhagite, 2BiAsO4.3Bi(OH)3. Arseno-bismite,hydrous Bi arsenate. Mixite,Hydrous Cu, Bi, arsenate. Uranosphaerite, (BiO)2U2O7.3H2O. Montanite, Bi2p3.Te03.2H2O.
Bi2O3.MoO3. Koechlinite,
BORON NOTE : this list.
"

Uranothallite, 2CaCO3.U(CO3)2. 10H2O. Liebigite, Hydrous Ca,U, carbonate. Voglite,Hydrous U,Ca,Cu, carbonate. Milarite, HKCa2Al2(Si2O5)6. Rivaite,(Ca,Na2)Si2O6.
Mixtures A^desinT Labradorite of NaAlSi308 and

CaAl2Si2O8.

The

borates

are

not

included in

Anorthite,CaAl2Si2O8. Anemousite, Na2O.2CaO.3Al2O3.9SiO2. Pyroxene, Ca,Mg, etc.,silicate. CaSiO3. Wollastonite, PECTOLITE, HNaCa2(SiO3)3.

B(OH)3. Sassolite, Cappelenite, Y,Ba,

.

boro-silicate.

Hy alotekite, (Pb Ba,Ca) B2 (SiO3) ". DANBURITE, CaB2(SiO4)2. HCaBSiO5. Datolite,

Ca2FeB2Si2Oi0. Homilite,

Schizoh'te, HNa(Ca,Mn)2(SiO3)3. near with Zr. Rosenbuschite, pectolite Zr-silicate and niobate of Ca,Na. Wohlerite, Zr-silicate of Mn,Ca. Lavenite, Babingtonite, (Ca,Fe,Mn)SiO3 with
Fe2(SiO3)3.

Hiortdahlite, (Na2,Ca)(Si,Zr)O3.
Amphibole, Ca, Mg, etc.,silicate. Arfvedsonite,Na,Ca,Fe, silicate. Leucophanite i fluo-sihcate. Meliphanite I***",""
AT T" n a -i-

Axinite,Ca,Al, boro-silicate. Tourmaline, complex boro-silicate.

8AL"O3.B,O3.6SiO2.H2O. Dumortierite, 10(Ca,Mg)O.5Al2O3.B2O3.6SiO2. Serendibite, Manandonite, H44Li4Ali4B4.Si6O53. Hydrous Ca, boro-silicate. Bakerite, NaB(SiO3)2.H2O. Searlesite, 3MgO.B2O3.P2O5.8H2O. Luneburgite,
CADMIUM

Greenockite,CdS. Cadmiumoxide, CdO. Otavite,Cd carbonate.

Custerite, Ca2(OH,F)SiO3. Didymolite, 2CaO.3Al2O3.9SiO2. Ganomalite,Pb4(PbOH)2Ca4(Si2O7)3. Pb4(PbCl)2Ca4(Si2O7)3. Nasonite, Margarosanite, Pb(Ca,Mn)2(SiO3)3. Ca2ZnSi2O7. Hardystonite, Rocblingite, 5(H2CaSiO4).2(CaPbSO4). Haiiynite, Na2Ca(NaSO4.Al)Al2(SiO4)3.
Grossularite, Ca3Al2(SiO4)3. Andradite, Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3.

566
UVAROVITE,

APPENDIX

Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3. [(Si,Ti)O"]. Schorlomite,Ca3(Fe,Ti2) MonticeUite,CaMgSiO4.

CaMnSiO4. Glaucochroite,

Thomsonite, (Na2,Ca)Al2Si2O8.2"H2O. Hydrpthomsonite; (H2,Na2,Ca)Ali"Si2O8.

5H2O.

Arduinite,Ca,Na, zeolite. (Ca,Na2)O.2Al2O3.3SiO2.4H2O. Echellite, Trimerite,(Mn,Ca)2SiO4.Be2SiO4. (Na2,Ca)Al2Si6Oi6.6H2O. Epidesmine, of Mixtures GROUP, SCAPOLITE CaAl2Si7Oi8.7H2O. Stellerite, and Na4Al3Si9O24Cl. Ca4Al6Si6O25 Erionite,H2CaK2Na2Al2Si6Oi7.5H2O. (Ca,Na2)3Al2(SiO4)3. Sarcolite, Bavenite, Ca3Al2(SiO3)6.H2O. Na2(Ca,Mg)n (Al,Fe)4(SiO4)9. Melilite, Hydrous, Ca,Al, silicate. Bityite, Cebollite, Margarite, H2CaAl4Si2Oi2. Gehlenite, Seybertite, H3(Mg,Ca)5Al5Si2Oi8. Vesuvianite,Ca6[Al(OH,F)]Al2(Si04)6. Xanthophyllite, H8(Mg,Ca)i4Al16Si5O62. CaB2(SiO4)2. DANBURITE, Griffithite, 4(Mg,Fe,Ca)O(Al,Fe)2O3.5SiO2. Guarinite,2(K,Na)2O.8CaO.5(Al,Fe,Ce)2O3.
10SiO2. Datolite,HCaBSiO5. Homilite,CazFeB^iAo. 7H2O.

Cenosite,H4Ca2(Y,Er)2CSi4Oi7.

PlazoUte,3CaO.Al2O3.2(SiO2,CO2).2H2O.

Thaumasite, CaSiO3.CaCO3.CaSO4. 15H2O. ZOISITE,Ca2(AlOH)Al2(SiO4)3. 2Ca2SiO4.CaCO3. Epidote, Ca2[(Al,Fe)OH](Al,Fe)2(SiO4)3. Spurrite, Uranophane, CaO.2UO3.2SiO2.6H2O. Piedmontite,Ca2(AlOH) (Al,Mn)2(SiO4)3. Hydrous Ca boro-silicate. Bakerite, (Al,Ce,Fe)2(SiO4)3. (Ca,Fe)2(AlOH) Allanite, boro-silicate. CaTiSiO5. TINANITE, Ca,Al, AXINITE, Molengraafite, Ca,Na, titano-silicate. PREHNITE, HzCa^SiO^. Keilhauite, Mn,Ca, silicate Ca,Al,Fe,Y,titano-silicate. Harstigite, Joaquinite, Ca,Fe, titano-silicate. Cuspidine,Ca2Si(O,F2)4. CaTiO3. Perovskite, ILVAITE, CaFe3(FeOH)(SiO4)2. H2CaZnSiO6. Dysanalyte,Ca,Fe, titano-niobate. Clinohedrite, H4CaSnSi3Oii. Pyrochlore, Stokesite, Ca,Ce, niobate. H4CaAl2Si2Oi0. Lawsonite, Hibschite, Koppite,Ca,Ce,niobate Ca3(Ce,La,Di)4Si3O15. Beckelite, RNb2O6F2.RSiO3. Angaralite,2(Ca,Mg)0.5(Al.Fe)2O3.6SiO2.Chalcolamprite, Ca2Ta2O7. 10(Ca,Mg)O.5Al2O3.B2O3.6SiO2. Microlite, Serendibite, Berzeliite, (Ca,Mg,Mn,Na1)8A8aO8. H2Ca4Mg3Si2O7Fi0. Silicomagnesiofluorite, Gro thine,Ca,Al, silicate. Graftonite, (Fe,Mn,Ca)3P2O8. Apatite,Ca4(CaF)(PO4)3. Aloisite, Fe,Ca,Mg,Na, silicate. Fermorite,(Ca,Sr)4[Ca(OH,F)][(P,As)O4]3 H2(Mn,Ca)6Si6Oi9.3H2O. Inesite, Ca2SiO4.H2O. Hillebrandite, Wilkeite,3Ca3(PO4)2.CaCO3.3Ca3[(SiO4) (SO4)].CaO. 4H2CaSiO4.3H2O. Crestmoreite,
,

Ca arsenate. -2CaSiO5.H2O. Svabite, Riversideite, Spodiosite, (CaF)CaPO4. Lotrite,3(Ca,Mg)0.2(Al,Fe)203.4Si02.2H20

Okenite, H2CaSi2O5.H2O. Gyre-lite, H2Ca2Si3O9.H2O. APOPHYLLITE, H7KCa4(SiO3)8.4"H2O.

Ptilolite.(Ca,K2,Na,)Al2Si10O24.5H2O.

AdeHte (MgOH)CaAsO4. Tilasite (MgF)CaAsO4.

Mordemte, (Ca,K2,Na2)Al2Sii0O24.20H2O. HEULANDITE, H4CaAl2(SiO3)6.3H2O. Brewsterite, H4(Sr,Ba,Ca)Al2(SiO3)6.3H2O. 2H2O. H4CaAl2 (SiO3)6.3H2O. Epistilbite, Calciovolborthite, Ca) 3V2O8.(Cu, (Cu, Ca) Wellsite, (Ba,Ca,K2)Al2Si3O10.3H2O. (OH)2. Phillipsite, (K2,Ca)Al2Si4Oi2.4iH2O. Tavistockite, Ca3P2O8.2Al(OH)2. StUbite,(Na2,Ca)Al2Si6Oi6.6H2O. Cirrolite, Ca3Al(PO4)3.Al(OH)3. Flokite, H8(Ca,Na2)Al2Si9O26.2H2O. Ca3Fe (AsO4)3.3Fe(OH) 3. Arseniosiderite, Gismondite, CaAl2Si2O8.4H2O. Retzian, Y,Mn,Ca, arsenate. Laumontite, H4CaAl2Si4Oi4.2H2O. Arseniopleite, (Mn, Ca) 9 (Mn, Fe)2(OH) 6 Laubanite, Ca2Al2Si5Oi5.6H2O. (AsO4)6. CHABAZITE, (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4Oi2.6H2O. Ca3P2O8.H2O. Collophanite, Gmelinite, (Na2,Ca)Al2Si4Oi2.6H2O. Pyrophosphorite, Mg2P2O7.4(Ca3P2O8. Levynite, CaAl2Si3O10.5H2O. Ca2P207). Faujasite, H4Na2CaAl4Si,0O38. 18H2O. Roselite, (Ca,Co,Mg)3As2O8.2H2O. Scolecite, Ca(AlOH)3(SiO3)3.2HnO. Brandite, Ca2MnAs2O8.2H2O. MS5%" N^^SiaOio^HaO +2[CaAl2Si3O10 Fairfieldite, Ca2MnP2O8.2H2O. 3H2OJ. Messelite, (Ca,Fe)3P2O8.2iH2O. Gonnardite, (Ca,Na2)2Al2Si6O15.5^H2O. Anapaite,(Ca,Fe)3P2O8.4H2O.

Herderite, Ca[Be(F,OH)]PO4. Jezekite, Na4CaAl(AlO) (F,OH)4(PO4)2. Crandallite, 2CaO.4Al2O3.2P2O5.10H20. Lacroixite, Na4(Ca,Mn)4Al3(F,OH)4P3Oi6.

APPENDIX

667

(Ca,Mg)As2O8.6H2O. Picropharmacolite, Churchite, Hydrous Ca,Ce" phosphate.

Fernandinite,CaO.V2O4.5V2O5.14H2O. Pascoite,2CaO.3V2O5.llH2O. Pintadoite,2CaO.V2O5.9H2O. Pharmacolite, HCaAsO4.2H2O. HCaAsO4.H2O. Haidingerite, HCaAsO4.3"H2O. Wapplerite, Brushite,HCaPO4.2H2O. Martinite,H2Ca5(PO4)44H2O.
Hewettite Metahewettite

Bastnasite,(CeF)CO3. Ancylite,4Ce(OH)CO3.3SrCO3.3H2O. Sr,carbonate. Ambatoarinite, Rare earths, Lanthanite, La2(CO3)3.9H2O.

Melanocerite

\pao

W O QTT O }"-aO.3V2O5.9H2O.

Ca3P2O8.Ca(OH)2.4H2O. Isoclasite, (Cu,Ca) (OH)2. Conichalcite,(Cu,Ca)3As2O8. ^H20. Cu,Ba,Ca, vanadate. Volborthite, Mazapilite,Ca3Fe2(AsO4)4.2FeO(OH).5H2O. Yukonite, (Ca3,Fe2'")(AsO4)2.2Fe(OH)3.
-

Ca,Ce,Y, fluo-sihcates. Caryocerite Steenstrupine Tritomite,Th,Ce,Y,Ca, fluo-silicate. Mackintoshite,U,Th,Ce, sihcate. Allanite, Ca,Fe,Ce,Al, silicate. Cerite,Ce, etc.,silicate. Ca3(Ce,La,Di)4Si3O15. Beckelite, Ce, etc.,Al,Mn,Ca, silicate. Hellandite, Bazzite,Sc.,etc.,silicate. Britholite, Ce, etc.,silicate and phosphate. Erikite, Ce, etc.,sihcate and phosphate. Ce,Fe, titano-silicate. Tscheffkinite, Johnstrupite ]
Mosandrite

5H2O.

etc.,titano-silicates. |Ce,

Rinkite Calcioferrite,Ca3Fe2(PO4)4.Fe(OH)3.8H2O.

Ca3Fe2(PO4)4.12Fe(OH)3.6H2O. Borickite, Egueiite,Hydrous Fe,Al,Ca, phosphate. Goyazite, Ca3Ali0P2O23.9H2O. Roscherite,(Mn,Fe,Ca)2Al(OH) (PO4)2.

2H2O.

Knopite, Ca,Ce, titanate. Pyrochlore,Ca,Ce, niobate.

Chalcplamprite,
Koppite, Ca,Ce, niobate. Fergusonite,Y,Er,Ce,U,niobate. Er,Ce, niobate. Sipylite, tantalate. Yttrotantalite, Fe,Ca,Y,Er,Ce, Samarskite, Fe,Ca,U,Ce,Y,niobate. Aeschynite,Ce, niobate-titanate. Polymignite, Ce, Fe, Ca, niobate-titanate.
Euxenite

Ca(UO2)2P2O,8H2O. Uranospinite,Ca(UO2)2As2O8.8H2O.

Tyuyamunite, CaO.2UO3.V2O5.4H2O.
Romeite, CaSb2O4. Lewisite,5CaO.2TiO2.3Sb2O5. Mauzeliite,Pb,Ca, titano-antimonate. Podolite,3Ca3(PO4)2.CaCO3. Svanbergite,Hydrous Al,Ca,phosphate and sulphate. Ca(NO3)2.rcH2O. Nitrocalcite, Lautarite,Ca(IO3)2. Ca iodo-chroniate. Dietzeite, Nordenskioldine,CaSn(BO3)2. Howlite, H5Ca2B5SiOi4. COLEMANITE, Ca2B6On.5H2O. Inyoite,2CaO.3B2O3.13H2O. 2CaO.3B2O3.7H2O. Meyerhofferite, Ulexite,NaCaB5O9.8H2O. CaB4O7.4H2O. Bechilite, Hydroboracite, CaMgB6On.6H2O. GLAUBERITE, Na2SO4.CaSO4. Anhydrite \r"oQr"
Bassanite

Polycrase
Blomstrandine-Priorite

Y,Ce,U, niobatetitanates.

MONAZITE, (Ce,La,Di)P'O4. Ce,Al, phosphate. Florencite, Rhabdophanite, Hydrous Ce,Y, phosphate. Churchite, Hydrous Ce,Ca, phosphate.
CHROMIUM

|CaSO^

Daubreelite,FeS.Cr2S3. Chromite, FeO.Cr2O3. 2MgCO3.5Mg(OH)2.2Cr(OH)3. Stichtite, Uvarovite, Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3. Furnacite,Pb,Cu, chrom-arsenate. Ca iodo-chromate. Dietzite, CROCOITE, PbCrO4. 3PbO.2CrO3. Phcenicochroite,

2(Pb,Cu)CrO4.(Pb,Cu)3P2O8. Vauquelinite,,
Pb, arseno-chromate. Bellite, Hydrous Fe,Al,Cr,sulphate. Knoxvillite, Redingtonite,Hydrous Cr sulphate.
COBALT

Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O. Syngenite, CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O. Polyhahte, 2CaSO4.MgSO4.K2SO4.2H2O. 6CaO.Al2O3.3SO3.33H2O. Ettringite, CaU8S2O3i.25H2O. Uranopilite, SCHEELITE, CaWO4. Ca(Mo,W)O4. Powellite, Whewellite, CaC2O4.H2O.
CERIUM EARTHS

Sychnodymite, (Co,Cu)4S5.
,

Co3S4.

Tysonite, (Ce,La,Di)F3. Fluocerite, (Ce,La,Di)2OF4. Yttrocerite, (Y,Er,Ce)F3.5CaF2.H2Q. Parisite, [(Ce,La,Di)F]2.CaCO3.

CuCo2S4. Carrollite, Badenite, (Co,Ni,Fe)2(As,Bi)3. (Co,Ni,Fe)S2. Cobaltnickelpyrite, SMALTITE, CoAs2. COBALTITE, CoAsS. Willyamite, CoS2.NiS2.CoSb2.NiSb2. Villamaninite, Cu,Ni,Co,Fe,sulphide.

668
CoAs3. Skutterudite,
CoAs2. Safflorite,

APPENDIX

Glaucodot, (Co,Fe)AsS.

iwocuKCj

v"""jv"")"

"

"

Co3As2O8.8H2O. Erythrite,

0/5

H2(Ni,Co)2As2O8.8H2O. Forbesite, CoSO4.7H2O. Bieberite,

COPPER
Native

Cumengite, 4PbCl2.4CuO.5H2O. Hydrous Cu chloride. Tallingite, Cuprite,Cu2O. Tenorite,Paramelaconite, CuO. Crednerite,3CuO.2Zn2O3. Rosasite,2CuO.3CuCO3.5ZnCO3? Malachite, CuCO3.Cu(OH)2. Azurite,2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2.

Aurichalcite,2(Zn,Cu)CO3.3(Zn,Cu)(OH)".
Voglite,Hydrous U,Ca,Cu, carbonate. Dioptase, H2CuSiO4. Plancheite,H4Cu7(Cu.OH)8(SiO3)12.
CHRYSOCOLLA, CuSiO3.2H2O.

Copper, Cu.

Horsfordite, CueSb. Domeykite, Cu3As. Mohawkite, Cu3As. CuoAs. Algodonite, Whitneyite, Cu^As.

Cu4AgS. Cocinerite, Cu4Te3. Rickardite, Cu2Se. Berzelianite, Eucairite,Cu2Se.Ag2Se. Pb,Cu, selenide. Zorgite, Cu,Tl, selenide. Crookesite, Umangite, CuSe.Cu2Se.
Chalcocite,Cu2S.

Shattuckite,2CuSiO3.HiiO. CuSiO3.H2O Bisbeeite, Cu2(OH)AsO4. Olivenite, Libethenite,Cu2(OH)PO4. (Cu,Ca)3V2O8. Calciovolborthite,

'

(Cu,Ca)(OH),.
Turanite, 5CuO.V2O5.2H2O.

Stromeyrite,(Ag,Cu)2S. Chalmersite,Cu2S.Fe4S6.
COVELLITE, CuS.

Sychnodymite,(Co,Cu)4S6.
Boniite, Cu6FeS4. CuS.Co2S3. CarroUite, CuFeS2. Chalcopyrite,

Furncite,Pb,Cu, chrom-arsenate. Tsumebite, Pb,Cu, phosphate. CUnoclasite,Cu3As2O8.3Cu(OH)2. Cu3As2O8.2Cu(OH)2. Erinite, Dihydrite, Cu3P2O8.2Cu(OH)2. Pseudomalachite, Cu3P2O8.3Cu (OH)2. Cu3As2O8.5H2O. Trichalcite, Hydrous Al,Pb,Cu, phosphate. Rosieresite, Eucroite,Cu3As2O8.Cu(OH)2.6H2O. Conichalcite,(Cu,Ca)3As2O8. (Cu,Ca)(OH)2. (Pb,Cu) (OH)2. Bayldonite, (Pb,Cu)3As2O8. Tagihte, Cu3P2O8.Cu(OH)2.2H2O. Cu3As2O8.Cu(OH)2.2H2O. Leucochalcite, Barthite,3ZnO.CuO.3As2O5.2H2O. Hydrous, Cu,Ba,Ca, vanadate. Volborthite, Cu3As2O8.2Cu(OH)2.H2O. Cornwallite, Tyrolite,Cu3As2O8.2Cu(OH)2.7H2O. 7CuO. As2O5.14H2O. Chalcophyllite, Cu,Zn, phospho-arVeszelyite, Hydrous
senate.

Cu,Ni,Co,Fe, sulphide. Villamaninite, (Cu;Fe)2S.3(Bi,Sb)2S3. Eichbergite, 5CuFeS2.2Sb2S3.7Bi2S3. Histrixite,

3Cu2S.4Bi2S3. Cuprobismutite, Cu2S.Bi2S3. Emplectite, Cu2S.Sb2S3. Chalcostibite, + PbS. Hutchinsonite,(Tl,Ag,Cu)2S.As2S3 As2S3? 3Cu2S.Bi2S3. Klaprotholite,

Bournonite,3(Pb,Cu2)S.Sb2S3. 3(Pb,Cu2)S.As2S3. Seligmannite,

2PbS.Cu2S.Bi2S3. Aikinite, 3Cu2S.Bi2S3. Wittichenite, 3(Cu2,Ag2,Fe)S.Sb2S3. Stylotypite, 7[Pb,(Ag,Cu)2]S.2As2S3. Lengenbachite, Falkenhaynite,3Cu2S.Sb2S3. Tetrahedrite,4Cu2S.Sb2S3. TENNANTITE, 4Cu2S.As2S3. 5Cu2S. (Sb, As,Bi)2(S.Te)8. Goldfieldite, Enargite,3Cu2S.As2S5. Famatinite,3Cu2S.Sb2S5. 3Cu2S.V2S6. Sulvanite, 4Cu2S.3FeS.As2S6. Epigenite, STANNITE, Cu2S.FeS.SnS2.

Turquois, CuO.3Al2O3.2P2O5.9H2O. Liroconite,Cu6Al(AsO4)5.3CuAl(OH)5.20H20 Chenevixite,Cu2(FeO)2As2O8.3H2O. Henwoodite, Al,Cu, hydrous phosphate. CuO.2Al2O3.As2O6.8H2O. Ceruleite, CuO.2Fe2O3.2P2O5.8H2O. Chalcosiderite, Torbernite,Cu(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O. Zeunerite, Cu(UO2)2As2O8.8H2O. Mixite, Hydrous Cu,Bi, arsenate. Trippkeite,Cu, arsenite.
3NiO.6CuO.SO3.2As2O5.7H2O. Lindackerite,

Gerhardtite,Cu(NO3)2.3Cu(OH)2.
CuSO4. Hydrocyanite, Vauquehnite,2(Pb,Cu)CrO4. (Pb,Cu)3P2O8. CuSO4.2CuCl2. 19Cu(OH)2.H2O. Connellite,

Nantokite,CuCl. Marshite,Cul. Miersite, 4AgI.CuI. ATACAMITE, CuCl2.3Cu(OH)2. PbCl2.CuO.H2O. Percylite,

Boleite. 9PbCk8CuO.3AgC1.9H2O. 5PbCl2.4CuO.6H2O. Pseudoboleite,

Spangolite,Cu6AlClSOi0.9H2O. BROCHANTITE, CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2. Dolerophanite, Cu2SO5. 2(Pb,Cu)O.SO3.H2O. Caledonite,

APPENDIX

669

Hercynite, FeO.Al2O3. Magnetite, FeO.Fe2O3. (Fe.Zn.Mn)O. FRANKLINITE, (Fe,Mn),Os. Magnesioferrite, MgO.Fe2O3. Jacobsite,(Mn,Mg)O.(Fe,Mn)2Oa. Natrochalcite,Cu4(OH)2(SO4)2.Na2SO4.2H2OChromite, FeO.Cr2O3 Phillipite, CuSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.nH2O. Pseudobrookite, Fe4(TiO4)3. FeO.MnO2. Langite, CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2.H2O. Bixbyite, Herrengrundite,2(CuOH)2SO4.Cu(OH)2. Gothite,Fe2O3.H2O. Lepidocrocite, Fe2O3.H2O. Vernadskite,3CuSO4.Cu(OH)2.4H2O. Kamarezite, Hydrous basic Cu sulphate. Limonite, 2Fe2O3.3H2O. Cyanotrichite,4CuO.Al?O3.SO3.8H2O. Turgite,2Fe2O3.H2O. Serpierite, Hydrous basic Cu,Zn, sulphate. Hydrogothite, 3Fe2O3.4H2O. Xanthosiderite,Fe2O3.2H2O. Beaverite,CuO.PbO.Fe2O3.2SO3.4H2O. Esmeraldaite, Fe2O3.4H2O. Johannite, Hydrous Cu,U, sulphate. (Cu,Fe,Na2)O.UO3.SO3.4H2O. Gilpinite, Pyroaurite,Fe(OH)3.3Mg(OH)2.3H2O. Chalcomenite, CuSeO3.2H2O. Skemmatite, 3MnO2.2Fe2O3.6H2O. 6Mn2O3.Fe2O3.8H2O. Cuprotiungstite,CuWO4. Beldongrite, Ankerite,2CaCO3.MgCO3.FeCO3. GOLD Mesitite,2MgCO3.FeCO3. Native MgCO3.FeC03. Pistomesite, Gold, Au. FeCO3. Siderite, Petzite,(Ag,Au)2Te. BrugnateUite,MgCO3.5Mg(OH)2.Fe(OH)3. SYLVANITE, (Au,Ag)Te2. 4H2O. Krennerite, (Au,Ag)Te2. HYPERSTHENE, (Fe,Mg)SiO3. CALAVERITE, AuTe2. ACMITE, NaFe(SiO3)2. Muthmannite, (Ag,Au)Te. Pyroxmangite, Mn,Fe, pyroxene. Nagyagite,Au,Pb, sulpho-telluride. Babingtonite, (Ca,Fe,Mn)SiO3, with IRON Fe2(SiO3)3. Native Iron, Fe. ANTHOPHYLLITE, (Mg,Fe)SiO3. GLAticopHANE, NaAl(SiO3)2. Awaruite, FeNi2. (Fe,Mg)SiO3. FeNi3. Josephinite, Cu2S.Fe4S5. RIEBECKITE, 2NaFe(SiO3)2.FeSiO3. Chalmersite, CROCIDOLITE, NaFe(SiO3)2.FeSiO3. Sternbergite, Ag2S.Fe4S6. ARFVEDSONITE, Na,Ca,Fe, silicate. (Fe,Ni)S. Peritlandite, FeS. ^Enigmatite,Fe,Na,Ti-sihcate. Pyrrhotite, NaAlSiO4.3FeSiO3. FeS. Weinbergerite, Troilite, (Na,K)2Fe(Al,Fe)2(SiO3)6.H20? Astrolite, Daubreelite,FeS.Cr2S3. H2(Mg,Fe)4Al8Si10O37. lolite, Badenite, (Co,Ni,Fe)2(As,Bi)3. 0O31. Ba4Fe 'Fe4 'Sii Taramellite, CuFeS2. Chalcopyrite, Helvite, (Be,Mn,Fe)7Si3Oi2S. Pyrite,FeS2. Almandite, Fe3Al2(SiO4)3. (Fe,Ni)S2. Bravoite, Andradite,Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3. Cobaltnickelpyrite, (Fe,Co,Ni)S2. (Mn,Fe)3Al2Si3Oi2. Partschinite, FeAs2. Arsenoferrite, Fayalite,Fe2SiO4. Marcasite, FeS2. Knebelite,(Fe,Mn)2SiO4. FeAs2. Lollingite, H7((Fe,Mn)Cl)(Fe,Mn)4Si4O,6. Pyrosmalite, Arsenopyrite,FeAsS. Homilite, (Ca,Fe)3B2Si2O10. Eichbergite,(Cu,Fe)2S.3(Bi,Sb)2S3. (Al,Ce,Fe)2(SiO4)3. (Ca,Fe)2(AlOH) Allanite, 5CuFeS2.2Sb2S3.7Bi2S3. Histrixite, ILVAITE, CaFe2(FeOH)(SiO4)2. FeS.Sb2S3. Berthierite, Melanotekite, 3PbO.2Fe2O3.3SiO2. 3(Cu2,Ag2,Fe)S.Sb2S3. Stylotypite, 2(Ca,Mg)O.5(Al,Fe)2O3.6Si02. Angaralite, Molysite, FeCl3. (AlO)4(AlOH)Fe(SiO4)2. STAUROLITE, Lawrencite, FeCl2. Al,Fe,Mg, silicate. Grandidierite, Rinneite,FeCl2.3KCl.NaCl. silicate. F e,Ca,Mg,Na, Aloisite, KCl2.NH4Cl.FeCl2.H2O. Kremersite, Pochite, Hi6Fe8Mn2Si3O29. 2KCl.FeCl3.H2O. Erythrosiderite, Lotrite,3(Ca,Mg)0.2(Al,Fe)208.4Si02.2H2 Hematite, Fe2O3. Zinnwaldite,Li-Fe mica. ILMENITE, FeTiO3. Mg-Fe mica. Biotite, Senaite,(Fe,Mn,Pb)O.TiO2. Lepidomelane, Iron mica. Fe2O3.3TiO2. Arizonite, H2(Fe,Mg)Al2Si07. Chloritoid, 9Mn2O3.4Fe2O3.MnO2.3CaO. Sitaparite,
'
'

Linarite,(Pb,Cu)SO4. (Pb,Cu) (OH)* Anthrite,CuSO4.2Cu(OH)2. (Fe,Cu)SO4.7H2O. Pisanite, Boothite, CuSO4.7H2O. Cupromagnesite, (Cu,Mg)SO4.7H2O. CHALCANTHITE, CuSO4.5H2O. Krohnkite, CuSO4.Na2SO4.2H2O.

Vredenburgite, 3Mn3O4.2Fe2O3.

'

670
Prochlorite,Fe,Mg,chlonte.

APPENDIX

Pharmacosiderite,6FeAs04.2Fe(OH)3.
2Fe3P2O8.Fe(OH)2.8H2O.

Ludlamite, Cronstedtite, 4FeO.2Fe2O3.3SiO2.4H2O. Cacoxenite, FePO4.Fe(OH)3.4^H2O. 8FeO.4(Al,Fe)2O3.6SiO2.9H2O. Thuringite,

12H20. Moravite, 2Fe0.2(Al,Fe)203.7Si02.2H20.

Beraunite, 2FePO4.Fe(OH)3.2|H2O. Brunsvigite, 2AlPO4.2Fe(OH)2.2H2O. Childrenite, 4(Mg,Fe,Ca)0.(Al,Fe)203.5Si02. Griffithite, Mazapilite,Ca3Fe2(AsO4)4.2FeO(OH).5H2O. 7H2O. (AsO4)2.2Fe(OH)3. Yukonite, (Ca3,Fe2'/') Chamosite, Fe,Mg, silicate.

9(FeM^O.2A\f)^O2m,O.
5H2O.
silicates.

Stilpnomelane \ Fe
/

Mmgu6tite H4Fe2(Al,Fe)2Si2Oii. Strigovite,

Calciof errite, Ca3Fe2 (PO4)4. Fe (OH )3. 8H2O.

Ca3Fe2(PO4)4. 12Fe(OH)3.6H2O. Borickite,

Egueiite,Hydrous Fe,Al,Ca, phosphate. (Na2,K2)2(Mg,Fe)3(Fe,Al)2 Spodiophyllite, 4FeP2O8.Fe2OF2(OH)2.36H2O. Richelite, (SiO3)8. Chenevixite,Cu2(FeO)2As2O8.3H2O. silicate. Celadonite,Fe,Mg,K, CuO.3Fe2O3.2P2O5.8H2O. Chalcosiderite, Glauconite,Hydrous Fe,K, silicate. (PO4)2. Roscherite, (Mn,Fe,Ca)2Al(OH) K20.12(Fe,Mg)O.A}203.13Si02. Pholidolite,
5H2O. 2H20.

(Al,Fe)2O3.2Si02.2H2O. Faratsihite, Melite,2(Al,Fe)203.Si02.8H20.

H6Fe2(SiO4)2.2H2O. Chloropal, Fe2Si3O9.2H2O. Mullerite, Hisingerite \ Hydrous ferric silicates. / J
Morencite

Tripuhyite,2FeO.Sb2O5. 4FeSbO4.3H2O. Flajolotite, Catoptrite, 14(Mn,Fe)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.2SiO2. Derbylite,Fe antimo-titanate. Fe Diadochite, Hydrous phosphate and sulphate. and phate. sulHydrous Fe arsenate Pitticite, Beudantite, 3Fe2O3.2PbO.2SO3.As2O8.6H2O. 3Fe2O3.2PbO.2SO3.P2O5.6H2O. Hinsdalite, and Lossenite, Hydrous Fe,Pb, arsenate sulphate. Ludwigite, 3MgO.B2O3.FeO.Fe2O3. Vonsenite,3(Fe,Mg)O.B2O3.FeO.Fe2O3. Magnesioludwigite,3MgO.B2O3.MgO.Fe2O3. Warwickite, (Mg,Fe)3TiB2O8.
Fe2O3.3B2O3.3H2O. Lagonite,

Astrophyllite,Na, K, Fe, Mn,

icate.

titano-sil-

Fe,Na, titaim-silicate. Narsarsukite, Neptunite, Fe,Mn,Na,K, titano-silicate. Joaquinite,Ca,Fe, titano-silicate. Ca,Fe, titano-niobate. Dysanalyte, (Mg,Fe)Ti03. Geikielite, Fe,U,Y, titanate. Delorenzite, Fe tantalate. Neotantalite, (Fe,Mn) COLUMBITE, TANTALITE, (Nb,Ta)206. Tapiolite, Fe(Ta,Nb)2O6. Fe,Ca,Y,Er,Ce, tantalate. Yttrotantalite, Samarskite,Fe,U,Y, etc.,niobate-tantalate. Hielmite,Y,Fe,Mn,Ca, stanno-tantalate. Monimolite, Pb,Fe, antimonate. TRIPHYLITE, Li(Fe,Mn)PO4. (Fe,Mn,Ca)3P2O8. Graftonite, Triplite. (RF)RPO4; R Fe,Mn. Triploidite (ROH)RPO4; R Fe,Mn. Dufrenite,FePO4.Fe(OH)3. LazuUte, 2AlPO4.(Fe,Mg)(OH)2. Arseniosiderite, Ca3Fe(AsO4)3.3Fe(OH)3. Dickinsonite i Hydrous Mn,Fe,Na, / Fillowite phosphate. Messelite (Ca,Fe)3P2O8.2"H2O. Anapaite, (Ca,Fe)3P2O8.4H2O. Vivianite, Fe3P2O8.8H2O. Symplesite,Fe3As-"O8.8H2O. FeAsO4.2H2O. Scorodite, Vilateite, Hydrous Fe, Mn, phosphate. Purpurite, 2(Fe,Mn)PO4.H2O.
= =

Hulsite,12(Fe,Mg)O.2Fe2O3.lSnO2.3B2O3. (Fe,Al)2(SO4)3. Millosevichite,

FeSO4.H2O. Szomolnokite, (Mn,Zn,Fe)SO4.4H2O. Ilesite, FeSO4.7H2O. Melanterite, (Fe,Cu)SO4.7H2O. Pisanite;

Halotrichite, FeSO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O. FeSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O. Bilinite, Dietrichite, (Zn,Fe,Mn)SO4.Al2(SO4)3.

22H2O.

Coquimbite,Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O. Quenstedtite, Fe2(SO4)8.10H2O.

Ihleite, Fe2(SO4)3.12H2O. CuSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.nH2O. Phillipite,

Ferronatrite,3Na2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.6H2O.
Romerite, FeSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.14H2O. CuO.PbO.Fe2O3.2SO3.4H2O. Beaverite, Vegasite, PbO.3Fe2O3.3SO3.6H2O.
2Fe2O3.5SO3.18H2O. Copiapite, Fe2O3.2SO3.8H2O. Castanite, 3Fe2O3.2SO3.7H2O. Utahite, Amaranthite,Fe2O3.2SO3.7H2O.
Fibrof errite, Fe2O3.2SO3.10H2O.

FePO4.2H2O. Strengite, Phosphosiderite, 2FePO4.3^H2O. Barrandite, (Al,Fe)PO4.2H2O. FePO4.3H2O. Koninckite, Sicklerite, Fe2O3.6MnO.4P2O5.3(Li,H)2O. Salmonsite, Fe2O3.9MnO.4P2O5. 14H,O. Liskeardite, (Al,Fe) AsO4.2(Al,Fe) (OH)3.
5H2O.

Raimondite,2Fe2O3.3SO3.7H2O. Carphosiderite, 3Fe2O3.4SO3.7H2O. Planoferrite, Fe2O3.SO3.15H2O. Glockerite, 2Fe2O3.SO3.6H2O. Knoxvillite, Hydrous Fe,Al,Cr, sulphate.

672
3PbO.2Cr03. Phcenicochroite,

APPENDIX

(Pb,Cu)3P2Os 2(Pb,Cu)CrO4. Vauquelinite,

Pb arseno-chromate. Bellite, PbSO4.2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2. Leadhillite, Pb(OH)Cl.Na2SO4. Caracolite, Lanarkite,Pb2SO6. (Pb,Cu) (OH)2. Caledonite,(Pb,Cu)S04. (Pb,Cu)SO4.(Pb,Cu) (OH)2. Linarite, CuO.PbO.Fe2O3.2SO3.4H2O. Beaverite, PbO.3Fe2O3.3SO3.6H2O. Vegasite, PbFe6(OH)i2(SO4)4. Plumbojarosite, 3(K,Na)2SO4.4PbSO4. Palmierite,

HYPERSTHENE, (Fe,Mg)Si03. Pyroxene, Ca,Mg, etc.,silicate. ANTHOPHYLLITE, (Mg,Fe)SiO3. Amphibole, Ca,Mg, etc.,silicate. GLAUCOPHANE, NaAl (SiO3)2. (Fe,Mg)SiO8 IOLITE,H2(Mg,Fe)4Al8SiioO37. Molybdophyllite, (Pb,Mg)SiO4.H2O. Pyrope, Mg3Al2(SiO4)3. Chrysolite, (Mg,Fe)2SiO4. Monticellite, CaMgSiO4. Fosterite, Mg2SiO4. Hortonolite,(Fe,Mg,Mn)2SiO4.
,

CHONDRODITE, [Mg(F,OH)]2Mg3(SiO4)2.
Humite, [Mg(F,OH)]2Mg5(Si04)3.
3PbW04.PbMo04. Chillagite, WULFENITE, PbMoO4.
LITHIUM

LiAl(Si2O5)2. Petalite, Spodumene, LiAl(SiO3)2. Eucryptite,LiAlSiO4. LEPIDOLITE, Lithium mica. Zinnwaldite,Lithium-iron mica. Manandonite, H24Li4Ali4B4Si6()53. TRIPHYLITE, Li(Fe,Mn)PO4. Lithiophilite, Li(Mn,Fe)PO. AMBLYGGNITE, Li(AlF)PO4. Fremontite, (Na,Li)Al(OH,F)PO4. Sicklerite, Fe2O3.6MnO.4P2O5.3(Li,H)2O.
MAGNESIUM

Clinohumite, [Mg(F,OH)]2Mg7(SiO4)4. Kornerupine,MgAl2SiO6. Sapphirine, Mg5Ali2Si2O27. Serendibite, 10(Ca,Mg)O.5Al2O3.B2O3.6SiO2. Silicomagnesiofluorite, H2Ca4Mg3Si2O7Fi0

Biotite, Magnesium-iron mica. Phlogopite,Magnesium mica. K, Mg, silicate. Ta3niolite,

Lptrite,3(Ca,Mg)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.4SiO2.

Seybertite, H3(Mg,Ca)6Al5Si2Oi8. Xanthophyllite, H8(Mg,Ca)14Al16Si6O52. Chloritoid, H2(Fe,Mg)Al2SiO7. Clinochlore, Penninite, H8Mg5Al,Si3O18. Prochlorite, Fe,Mg, chlorite. Brunsvigite, 9(Fe,Mg)O.2Al2O3.6SiO2.8H2O. Griffithite, 4(Mg,Fe,Ca)O.(Al,Fe)2O3.5SiO2.
7H2O.
.

MgCl2. Chloromagnesite, Sellaite, MgF2. Nocerite,2(Ca,Mg)F2(Ca,Mg)O. Koenenite, Al,Mg, oxy chloride. Carnallite, KCl.MgCl2.6H2O. Mi Bischofite, _.-0Jl2.6H20. Tachhydrite, CaCl2.2MgCl2.12HoO Ralstonite, (Na2,Mg)F2.3Al(F.OH)3.2H2O. Periclase, MgO. Spinel,MgO.Al2O3. Magnesioferrite, MgO.Fe2O3. Jacobsite, (Mn,Mg)O.(Fe,Mn)2O3. BRUCITE, Mg(OH)2.
"

Spodiophyllite, (Na2,K2)2(Mg,Fe)3(Fe,Al) Serpentine, H4Mg3Si2O9. Deweylite, 4MgO.3SiO2.6H2O. Genthite, 2NiO.2MgO.3SiO2.6H2O. Nepouite,3(Ni,Mg)O.2SiO2.2H2O. Garnierite, H2(Ni,Mg)SiO4 + water. Talc, H2Mg3(Si03)4. SEPIOLITE, H4Mg2Si3Oi0. Spadaite, 5MgO.6SiO2.4H2O. Saponite, Hydrous Mg,Al, silicate. Celadonite, Fe,Mg,K, silicate. K20. 12(Fe,Mg)0.A1203.13SiO2 Pholidolite,
5H2O.

Hydrotalcite, Al(OH)3.3Mg(OH)2.3H2O. Pyroaurite, Fe(OH)3.3Mg(OH)2.3H20. Dolomite, CaCO3.MgCO3.

Ankerite,CaCO3.(Mg,Fe,Mn)CO3. Magnesite, MgCO3. Mesitite, 2MgCO3.FeCO3. Pistomesite, MgCO3.FeCO3. Northupite, MgCO3.Na2CO3.NaCl.

Tychite, 2MgCO3.2Na2CO3.Na2SO4.

Nesquehonite, MgCO3.3H2O. Hydromagnesite, 3MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.3H2O.

Artimte, MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.3H2O.

Hydrogiobertite,MgC03.Mg(OH)2.2H20. Ca2P2O7).

Colerainite, 4MgO.Al2O3.2SiO2.5H2O. Tartarkaite, Al,Mg, hydrous silicate. Geikielite, (Mg,Fe)TiO3. Berzeliite, (Ca,Mg,Mn,Na2)3As2O8. Wagnerite,(MgF)MgPO4. Adelite, (MgOH)CaAsO4. Tilasite, (MgF)CaAs04. Lazulite, 2AlPO4.(Fe,Mg)(OH)2 Struvite, Hydrous, NH4,Mg, phosphate. Pyrophosphorite, Mg2P2O7.4(Ca3P2O8.

Mg3As2O8.8H2O. Cabrerite, ( Ni,Mg)3As2O8.8H2O. Gajite basic, hydrous Ca,Mg, carbonate. Newberyite,HMgPO4.3H2O. Stichtite,2MgC03.5Mg(OH)2.2Cr(OH)3. Hannayite i Hydrous, NH4,Mg, ENSTATITE, MgSiOs.
4ji2v-J"

Roselite, (Ca,Co,Mg)3As2O8.2H2O. Lansfordite, 3MgC03.Mg(OH)2.21H20. Bobierrite, Mg3P2O8.8H2O. Brugnatelhte, MgCO3.5Mg(OH)2.Fe(OH)3. Hcernesite,

Schertelite /

phosphates.

APPENDIX

673

Liineburgite, 3MgO.B2O3.P2O6.8H2O. Nitromagnesite, Mg(NO3)2.nH2O. Sussexite, H(Mn,Zn,Mg)BO3. Ludwigite. 3MgO.B2O3.FeO.Fe2O3. Vonsenite, 3(Fe,Mg)O.B2O3.FeO.Fe2O3. Magnesioludwigite, 3MgO.B2O3.MgO.Fe2O3. Pinakiolite, 3MgO.B2O3.MnO.Mn2O3. Szaibelyite, 2Mg5B4Oi,.3H2O. BORACITE, Mg7Cl2Bi6O30. Ascharite,Hydrous Mg, borate. Warwickite, (Mg,Fe)3TiB2O8. Pinnoite,MgB2O4.3H2O. Hydrous Mg,K, borate. Heintzite, Hulsite,12(Fe,Mg)O.2Fe2O3. !SnO2.3B2O3.
2H2O.

MnCO3. Rhodochrosite, Schizolite, HNa(Ca,Mn)2(SiO3)3 Zr-silicate of Mn, Ca. Lavenite,

Rhodonite, MnSiO3. Pyroxmangite,Mn,Fe pyroxene. Babingtonite, (Ca,Fe,Mn)SiO3 with Fe2(SiO3)3. Margarosanite, Pb(Ca,Mn)2(SiO3)3.

Helvite, (Be,Mn,Fe)7Si3O12S. Danalite, (Be,Fe,Zn,Mn)7Si3O12S.

Spessartite, Mn3Al2(SiO4)3. Partschinite, (Mn,Fe)3Al2Si3Oi2.
CaMnSiO4. Glaucochroite,

CaMgB6On.6H2O. Hydroboracite, Sulphoborite,2MgSO4.4MgHBO3.7H2O. Langbeinite,K2Mg2(SO4)3. Vanthoffite, 3Na2SQ4.MgSO4. Kainite,MgSO4.KC1.3H2O. MgSO4.H2O. Kieserite, Epsomite, MgSO4.7H2O. Cupromagnesite,(Cu,Mg)SO4.7H2O. Loweite, MgSO4.Na2SO4.2"H2O. Blodite,MgSO4.Na2SO4.4H2O. Leonite,MgSO4.K2SO4.4H2O. Boussingaulite,(NH4)2SO4.MgSO4.6H2O. Picromerite,MgSO4.K2SO4.6H2O. 2CaSO4.MgSO4.K2SO4.2H2O. Polyhalite, MgSO4.6H2O. Hexahydrite, Pickeringite, MgSO4.Al2(SO4)3.22H2O. Botryogen, MgO.FeO.Fe2O3.4SO3. 18H,O. Quetenite, MgO.Fe2O3.3SO3.13H2O.
MANGANESE
.

Knebelite, (Fe,Mn)2SiO4. Tephrdite, Mn2SiO4. Trimerite,(Mn,Ca)2SiO4.Be2SiO4. Friedelite, H7(MnCl)Mn4Si4Oi6. Pyrosmahte, H7((Fe,Mn)Cl)(Fe,Mn)4Si4Oi6 Piedmontite, Mn epidote. Hancockite, Pb,Mn,Ca,Al, etc.,silicate. Harstigite, Mn,Ca, silicate. Leucophoenicite, Mn5(MnOH)2(SiO4)3. Ardennite, Al,Mn,V, silicate. Langbanite, Mn silicatewith Fe antimonate.

MnS. Alabandite,

Hauerite, MnS2. Samsonite, 2Ag2S.MnS.Sb2S3.

MnCl2. Sacchite,

Chlormanganokalite, 4KCl.MnCl2. Manganosite, MnO. Senaite,(Fe,Mn,Pb)O.TiO2. Pyrophanite, MhTiO3. 9Mn2O3.4Fe2O3.MnO2.3CaO. Sitaparite, Vredenburgite, 3Mn3O4.2Fe2O3. FRANKLINITE, (Fe,Zn,Mn)O. (Fe,Mn)2O3. (Mn,Mg)O.(Fe, Mn)2O3. Jacobsite, Hausmannite, MnO.Mn2O3. Coronadite, (Mn,Pb)Mn3O7. Crednerite,3CuO.2Mn2O3. BRAUNITE, 3Mn2O3.MnSiO3.
FeO.MnO2. Bixbyite, MnO2. Polianite, MnO2. Pyrolusite, Manganite, Mn2O3.H2O. Pyrochroite,Mn(OH)2. Backstromite, Mn(OH)2. Chalcophanite, (Mn,Zn)O.2MnO2.2H2O Heta3roHte,2ZnO.2Mn2O3.lH2O. manganate. Psilomelane,Hydrous Mn Wad, Mn oxides. Skemmatite, 3MnO2.2Fe2O3.6H2O. Beldongrite,6Mn3O5.Fe2O8.8H2O.

3PbO.2Mn2O3.3SiO2. Kentrolite, Carpholite,H4MnAl2Si2O10. Pochite, Hi6Fe8Mn2Si3O29. Inesite, H2(Mn,Ca)6Si6Oi9.3H2O. Ganophyllite,7MnO.Al2O3.8SiO2.6H2O. Alurgite, Manganese mica. Dixenite,MnSiO3.2Mn2(OH)AsO3. Bementite, H6Mn5(SiO4)4. Ectropite,Mn2Si8O28.7H2O. Agnolite,H2Mn3(SiO3)4.H2O. Hodgkinsonite, 3(Zn,Mn)O.SiO2.H2O. Gageite,Hydrous, Mn,Mg,Zn, silicate. 4MnO.3SiO2.3H2O. Caryopilite, Neotocite,Hydrous, Mn, Fe, silicate. Astrophyllite, Na,K,Fe,Mn,Ti-silicate. Neptunite, Fe,Mn,K,Na, titano-silicate. COLUMBITE-TANTALITE, (Fe,Mn) (Nb,Ta)2O6. Hielmite,Y,Fe,Mn,Ca, stanno-tantalate. Berzeliite, (Ca,Mg,Mn,Na2)3As2O8. Li(Mn,Fe)PO4. Lithiophilite, NaMnPO4. Natrophilite, Graftonite,(Fe,Mn,Ca)3P2O8. (RF)RPO4; R Fe,Mn. Triplite, R Mn.Fe. (ROH)RPO4; Triploidite (MnOH)MnAsO4. Sarkinite, Pb3MnH(AsO3)3. Trigonite, Lacroixite,Na4(Ca,Mn)4Al3(F,OH)4P3Oi0.
= =

2H20.

Pyrobelonite,4PbO.7MnO.2V2O6.3H2O. Mn3As2O8.4Mn(OH)2. Allactite, Synadelphite,2(Al,Mn)AsO4.5Mn(OH)2. MnAsO4.2Mn(OH)2. Flinkite, HematoHte, (Al,Mn)AsO4.4Mn(OH)2. Retzian, Y,Mn,Ca, phosphate. (Mn,Ca)9(Mn,Fe)2(OH)" Arseniopleite, (AsO4)6. Manganostibiite,Mn antimonate.

674
Dickinsonite Fillowite
l

APPENDIX

Hydrous Mn,Fe,Na,

phosphates. Brandite,Ca2MnAs2O8.2H2O. Ca3MnP2O8.2H2O. Fairfieldite, Reddingite,Mn3P2O8.3H2O. 5MnO.2P2O6.4H2O. Palaite, 3MnO.P2O5.4H2O. Stewartite, Purpurite,2(Fe,Mn)PO4.H2O. Fe2O3.6MnO.4P2O5.3(Li,H)2O. Sicklerite, Salmonsite,Fe2O3.9MnO.4P2O6. 14H2O. H2Mn6(PO4)4.4H2O. Hureaulite, Hemafibrite,Mn3As2O8.3Mn (OH)2.2H2O. 2AlPO4.2(Mn,Fe) (OH)2.2H2O. Eosphorite, (Mn,Fe,Ca)2Al(OH) (PO4)o.2H,O Rosche-rite, Catoptrite, 14(Mn,Fe)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.2SiO2.
I

Bravoite, (Fe,Ni)S2. Cobaltnickelpyrite, (Co,Ni,Fe)S2. CHLOANTHITE, NiAs2. NiAsS. Gersdorffite, Willyamite, CoS2.NiS2.CoSb2.NiSb2. Villamaninite, Cu,Ni,Co,Fe,sulphide. Ullmanite, NiSbS. Ni(Sb,Bi)S. Kallilite, Rammelsbergite, NiAs2. Wolfachite,Ni(As,Sb)S. Melonite, NiTe2. Bunsenite, NiO. Zaratite, NiCO3.2Ni(OH)2.4H2O. Genthite,2NiO.2MgO.3SiO2.6H2O. Nepouite, 3(Ni,Mg)O.2SiO2.2H2O. Garnierite, H2(Ni,Mg)SiO4 + water.
H4Ni2Si3Oi0. Connarite,

Sussexite, H(Mn,Zn,Mg)BO3. Pinakiolite, 3MgO.B2O3.MnO.Mn2O3. Szmikite,MnSO4.H2O. Ilesite, (Mn,Zn,Fe)SOi.4H2O. MnSO4.7H2O. Mallardite, Apjohnite,MnSO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O. Dietrichite,(Zn,Fe,Mn)S04.Al2(SO4)3.
22H.O. MnWO4. Hiibnerite,
MERCURY Native

Annabergite, Ni3As2O8.8H2O. Cabrerite,(Ni,Mg)3As2O8.8H2O. Forbesite, H2(Ni,Co)2As2O8.8H2O. Lindackerite, 3NiO.6CuO.SO3.2As2O6. 7H20.

NiSO4.7H2O. Morenosite,
PLATINUM Native

Platinum, Pt.
POTASSIUM

PtAs2. Sperrylite,

Mercury, Hg.
SYLVITE, KC1.

Amalgam,

(Ag,Hg). Metacinnabarite, HgS. Tiemannite, HgSe. Onofrite, Hg(S,Se). Cotoradoite, HgTe. Cinnabar, HgS. Livingstonite, HgS.2Sb2S3. Calomel,HgCl.

Chlormanganokalite, 4KCl.MnCl2. FeCl2.3KCl.NaCl. Rinneite,

Hieratite, K,Si, fluoride. CARNALLITE, KCl.MgCl2.6HoO. KCl,NH4Cl.FeCl2.H2O. Kremersite,
2KCl.FeCl3.H2O. Erythrosiderite,

Kleinite, Hg,NH4, chloride. Eglestonite, Hg4Cl2O. Terlinguaite, HgClO. Mosesite, Hydrous Hg,NH4, chloride.
HgO. Montroydite,

Milarite, HKCa2Al2(Si2O5)6. Orthoclase,Microcline,KAlSi3O8.

Hyalophane, (K2,Ba)Al2(SiO3)4. Anorthoclase, (Na,K)AlSi3O8.

Leucite,KAl(SiO3)2.
KAlSiO4. Kaliophilite, ApophylUte,H7KCa4(SiO3)8.4|H2O. PtiloHte, (Ca,K2,Na2)Al2Si10O24.5H2O. Mordenite,(Ca,K2,Na2)Al2SiioO24.20H20. Wellsite, (Ba,Ca,K2)Al2Si3O10.3H20. Phillipsite, (K2,Ca)Al2Si4O,2.4iH2O. Harmotone, (K2, Ba) Al2Si6Oi4. 5H2O Potash zeolite. Offretite, Muscovite,H2KAl3(SiO4)3. TaBniolite, K,Mg, silicate.
-

Ammiolite,Hg

antimonite.

MOLYBDENUM MoS2. Molybdenite, MoO3. Molybdite, Powellite, Ca(Mo,W)O4. Chillagite, 3PbWO4.PbMoO4. WULFENITE, PbMoO4. Koechlinite, Bi2O3.Mo03. NICKEL

(Na2K2)2(Mg,Fe)3(Fe,Al)2 Sppdiophyllite,
(SiO3)8.

Awaruite, FeNi2.
FeNi3. Jbsephinite, Maucherite, Ni3As2. PENTLANDITE, (Fe,Ni)S.

Millerite,NiS
NiS. Beyrichite, Hauchecornite, Ni(Bi,Sb,S)? NiAs. Niccolite, NiSb Breithauptite,

Ni4S6. Polydymite,

Badenite, (Co,Ni,Fe)2(As,Bi)8.

Celadonite, Fe,Mg,K, silicate. Glauconite, Hydrous Fe, K, silicate. Astrophyllite, Na,K,Mn,Fe, titano-sih'cate. Palmerite, HK2Al2(PO4)3.7HoO. Carnotite, K2O.2U2O3.V2O5.3H2O. KNOs. Niter, Rhpdizite, A1,K, borate. Heintzite, Hydrous Mg,K, borate. 5K2SO4. (NH4)2S04. Taylorite, Aphthitalite, (K,Na)2SO4. Langbeinite, K2Mg2(SO4)3.

APPENDIX

675

MgSO4.KC1.3H2O. Kainite,

lodobromite, 2AgCl.2AgBr.AgI. Hanksite, 9Na2SO4.2Na2CO3.KCl. Miersite, 4AgI.CuI. Misenite, HKSO4. lodyrite, Agl. Lecontite,(Na,NH4,K)SO4.2H2O. SODIUM Syngenite, CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O. Leonite,MgSO4.K2SO4.4H2O. Halite,NaCl. NaF. Picromerite,MgSO4.K2SO4.6H2O. Villiaumite, 2CaSO4.MgSO4.K2SO4.2H2O. Polyhalite, Huantajayite, 20NaCl.AgCl. KA1(SO4)2.12H2O. Rinneite,FeCl3.3KCl.NaCl. Kalinite, CRYOLITE, Na3AlF6. 3(K2,Fe)O.2(Al,Fe)2O3.6SO3.9H2O. Voltaite, ChioUte, 5NaF.3AlF3. Metavoltine, 5(K2,Na2,Fe)O.3Fe2O3.12SO8. 18H2O. Ralstonite,(Na2,Mg)F2.3Al(F,OH)3.2H2O. Northupite, MgCO3.Na2CO3.NaCl. ALUNITE, K2A16(OH)12(SO4)4. K2Fe6(OH)12(SO4)4. Tychite, 2MgCO3.2Na2CO3.Na2SO4. Jarosite, Dawsonite, Na3Al(CO3)3.2Al(OH)3. Palmierite, 3(K,Na)2SO4.4PbSO4, Thermonatrite, Na2CO3.H2O. Lowigite, K2O.3A12O3.4SO3.9H2O. Natron, Na2CO3. 10H2O. SILVER CaCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O. Pirssonite, Gay-Lussite, CaCO3.Na2CO3.5H2O. Native Silver,Ag. Trona, Na2CO3.HNaCO3.2H2O. Amalgam, (Ag,Hg). Eudidymite, Epididymite, HNaBeSi3O8. Dyscrasite,Ag3Sb. Rivaite,(Ca,Na2)Si2O6. Ag6Bi. Chilenite, Anorthoclase,(Na,K)AlSi3O8. Cu4AgS. Cocinerite, Albite,NaAlSi3O8. Ag4Te. Stutzite, Oligoclase Naumannite, (Ag2,Pb)Se and Mixtures of Argentite,Ag2S. Hessite,Ag2Te. Petzite,(Ag,Au)2Te. Ag2(S,Se). Aquilarite, Cu2Se.Ag"Se. Eucairite, : Crookesite,(Cu,Tl,Ag)2Se. (Ag,Cu)2S. Stromeyrite, Acanthite, Ag2S. Ag2S.Fe4S5. Sternbergite, Sylvanite,(Au,Ag)Te2. Krennerite, (Au,Ag)Te2. Muthmannite, (Ag,Au)Te. Andorite, Ag2S.2PbS.3Sb2S3. Matildite,Ag2S.Bi2S3. Miargyrite, Ag2S.Sb2S3. Smithite,Ag2S.Sb2S3. Trechmanite, Ag2S.As2S3. + PbS. Hutchinsonite, (Tl,Ag,Cu)2S.As2S3 As2S3(?). 3(Ag2.Pb)S.2Bi2S3. Schirmerite, 5(Pb,Ag2)S.2Sb2S3. Freieslebenite, Diaphorite, 5(Pb,Ag2)S.2Sb2S3. 3(Cu2,Ag2,Fe)S.Sb2S3. Stylotypite, 7[Pb,(Ag,Cu)2]S.2As2S8. Lengenbachite,
",

Andesine

Labradorite

CaAl2Si2O8,

Anemousite, NaO.2CaO.3Al2O3.9SiO2. Ussingite, HNa2Al'(SiO3)3. ACMITE, NaFe(SiO3)2. JADEITE, NaAl(SiO3)2. PECTOLITE, HNaCa2(SiO3)3. Schizolite, HNa(Ca,Mn)2(SiO3)3. with Zr. Rosenbuschite, near pectolite Wohlerite,Zr-silicate and niobate of Ca,Na. Hiortdahlite, (Na2.Ca)(Si,Zr)O3. GLAUCOPHANE, NaAl(SiO3)2.(Fe,Mg)
Si03.

RIEBECKITE, 2NaFe(SiO3)o.FeSiO3. CROCIDOLITE, NaFe(SiO3)2.FeSiO3.

Na^a^e" Arfyedsonite,

silicate.

Fe,Na,Ti-silicate. jiEnigmatite, Weinbergerite,NaAlSiO4.3FeSiO3. Na2O.ZrO2.6SiO2.3H2O. Elpidite, H4 (Na2, Ca) ZrSi3On Catapleiite,

.

3Ag2S.Sb2S3. PYRARGYRITE, PROUSTITE, 3Ag2S.As2S3. 3Ag2S.Sb2S3. Pyrostilpnite, Samsonite, 2Ag2S.MnS.Sb2S3. STEPHANITE, 5Ag2S.Sb2S3. POLYBASITE, 9Ag2S.Sb2S3. 9Ag2S.As2S3. Pearceite, 12Ag2S.Sb2S3. Polyargyrite, Xanthoconite, 3Ag2S.As2Ss. Argyrodite,4Ag2S.GeS2. 4Ag2S.SnS2. Canfieldite,
AgCl. Cerargyrite, Embolite, Ag(Br,Cl). Bromyrite,AgBr.

Nephelite,NaAlSiO4. H6Na6Ca(NaCO3)2Al8 CANCRINITE, (Si04)9. Microsommite, Davyne, near cancrimte. SODALITE, Na4(AlCl)Al2(SiO4)3 Hackmanite, near sodalite. HAITTNITE, (Na2,Ca)2(NaSO4.Al)Al2 (SiO4)3. Na4(NaSO4.Al)Al2(SiO4)3. Noselite, LAZURITE, Na4(NaS3.Al)Al2(SiO4)3. of SCAPOLITE GROUP, Mixtures Ca4Al6Si6O26 and Na4Al3Si9O24Cl. (Ca,Na2)3Al2(SiO4)3. Sarcolite, Na2(Ca,Mg)n(Al,Fe)4(SiO4)9. Melilite, Mordenite, (Ca,K2,Na2)Al2Si,0O24.20H2O.
Stilbite, (Na2,Ca)Al2Si6Oi6.6H2O.

676

APPENDIX

H8(Ca,Na2)Al2Si9O26.2H2O. Flokite, (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4Oi2.6H2O. Gmelinite,(Na2Ca)Al2Si4OI2.6H2O.

CHABAZITE, Analcite, NaAlSi2O6.H2O. H4Na2CaAl4Si10O38. Faujasite, Na2Al2Si3Oi0.2H2O. Natrolite, Mesolite, Na2Al2Si3Oi0.2H2O + 2[CaAl2Si3 Oi0.3H2O].

3(K,Na)2SO4.4PbSO4. Palmierite, Almeriite, Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.5Al(OH)3.H2O.

STRONTIUM

SrCO3. Strontianite,
Ambatoarinite.

Ancylite,4Ce(OH)CO3.3SrCO3.3H2O. Rare earths,Sr, carbonate.

Gonnardite, (Ca,Na2)2Al2Si6O,5.5|H2O. Thomsomte, (Na2,Ca)Al2Si2O8.2"H2O. Hydrothomsonite, (H2,Na2,Ca)Al2Si2O8.

Brewsterite, H4(Sr,Ba,Ca)Al2(SiO3)6.3H2O. Fermorite, (Ca,Sr)4[Ca(OH,F)][(P,As)O4]3 Sr,Al, Hamlinite, phosphate.

Sr.Al. phosphate and sulphate. Harttite, SrSO4. Celestite,

5H2q.

Arduinite, Ca,Na, zeolite. THORIUM Echellite, (Ca,Na2)O.2Al2O3.3SiO2.4H2O. " Epidesmine, (Na2,Ca)Al2Si6Oi6.6H2O. fluo-silicates. /Ca,Ce,Y,Th, H2CaK2Na2Al2Si6O17.5H2O. Erionite, Thorite,ThSiO4. Hydronephelite,HNa2Al3Si3Oi2.3H2O. Th silico-phosphate. Auerlite, Paragonite, H2NaAl3(SiO4)3. Yttrialite, Th,Y, silicate. Spodiophyllite, (Na2,K2)2(Mg,Fe)3(Fe,Al)2 Mackintoshite, U,Th,Ce, silicate. (Si03)8. Yttrocrasite, Hydrous Y,Th, titanate. Searlesite, NaB(SiO3)2.H2O. Pyrochlore,RNb2O6.R(Ti,Th)O3. Molengraafite, Ca,Na, titano-silicate. Astrophyllite, Na,K,Mn,Fe,titano-silicate. MONAZITE, (Ce,La,Di)PO4with ThO2. Th and U oxides. Thorianite, Narsarsukite, Fe,Na,titano-silicate. Na4Ba(TiO)2(Si2O5)5. Leucosphenite, TIN Lorenzenite, Na2(TiO)2Si2O7. Cu2S.FeS.SnS2. n iobate. Stannite, Epistolite, Ti,Na,etc., Canfieldite, 4Ag2"S.SnS2. Berzeliite, (Ca,Mg,Mn,Na2)3As2O8. PbSnS2. Teallite, NaMnPO4. Natrophilite, NaBePO4. Franckeite, Pb5Sn3FeSb2S14. Beryllonite, Jezekite, Cylindrite, Na4CaAl(AlO) (F,OH)4(PO4)2. Pb3Sn4FeSb2Si4. Lacroixite,Na4(Ca,Mn)4Al3(F,OH)4P3O16. Cassiterite, SnO2. 2H2O. Stokesite, H.CaSnSisOu. Durangite,Na(AlF)AsO4. Hielmite, Y,Fe,Mn,Ca, stanno-niobate.

Trftomfte

Fremontite, (Na,Li)Al(OH,F)PO4.

raiowite11^
SODA

Nordenskioldine, CaSn(BO3)2. Hulsite, 12(Fe,Mg)0.2Fe203. !SnO2.3B2O3. }3(Mn,Fe,Na2)3P208.H20.

2H2O. TITANIUM

Stercorite, HNa(NH4)PO4.4H2O. Soumansite, Hydrous Al,Na,fluophosphate.

NITER, NaNO3.

Darapskite, NaNO3.Na2SO4.H2O. Nitroglauberite, 6NaNO3.2Na2SO4.3H2O

Borax, Na2B4O7.10H2O. Ulexite, NaCaB5O9.8H2O.
Na2SO4. Thenardite, Aphthitalite, (K,Na)2SO4. GLAUBERITE, Na2SO4.CaSO4. Vanthoffite, 3Na2SO4.MgSO4.

ILMENITE, FeTiO3. Senaite, (Fe,Mn,Pb)O.TiO2. Arizonite, Fe2O3.3TiO2. MnTiO3. Pyrophanite, Pseudobrookite, Fe4(TiO4)3.
Rutite,Ti02.

Octahedrite, Brookite, TiO2. Uhligite, Ca(Ti,Zr)O5.Al(Ti,Al)O6.

Sulphohalite, 3Na2SO4.NaCl.NaF. Caracolite, Pb(OH)Cl.Na2SO4.

Hanksite, 9Na2SO4.2Na2CO3.KCl Lecontite, (Na,NH4,K)2SO4.2H2O. Mirabikte, Na2SO4.10H2O. Loweite, MgSO4.Na2SO4.2iH2O. Blodite, MgSO4.Na2SO4.4H2O. Mendozite, NaAI(SO4)2.12H2O.

Molengraafite, Ca,Na, titano-silicate. Keilhauite, titano-silicate. Ca,Al,Fe,Y, Ischeffkmite, Ce, etc., titano-silicate Astrophyllite, Na,K,Fe,Mn, titano-silicate.
Johnstrupite
Mosandrite
Rmkite

Ce, etc., titano-silicates

Narsarsukite, Fe,Na, titano-silicate. Neptunite, Fe,Mn,Na,K, titano-silicate. NatrochalciteCu4(OH)2(S04)2.Na2S04.2H20. Benitoite, BaTiSi3O9. Ferronatnte, 3Na2S04.Fe2(S04)3.6H26 Leucosphenite, Na4Ba(TiO)2(Si2O6)6. Sideronatrite, 2Na20.Fe203.4S03.7H20 Lorenzenite, Na2(TiO)2Si2O7. Krohnkite, CuSO4.Na2SO4.2H2O.
3.

12S03.

Joaquinite, Ca,Fe, titano-sih'cate.

Natrojarosite, Na2Fe6(OH)12(S04)4

PEROVSKITE, CaTiO3.
Knopite,Ca,Ce, titanate.

APPENDIX

677

Dysanalyte, Ca,Fe, titano-silicate. Geikielite, Mg,Fe, titanate. Delorenzite,Fe,U,Y, titanate. Yttrocrasite, Hydrous Y, Th, titanate. (UO,TiO,UO2)TiO3. Brannerite, Pyrochlore, RNb2p6.R(Ti,Th)O3. Aeschynite, Ce, niobate-titanate. Polymignite, Ce,Fe,Ca,niobate-titanate.
1 ^r ^ TT Y Ce,U mobatePolvcrase tltanatesBlomstrandine-Priorite j Betafite, U, etc.,niobate-titanate.
Euxenite
"

Phosphuranylite, (UO2)3P2O8.6H2O.
Trogerite, (UO2)3As2O8.12H2O. Walpurgite, Bi10(UO2)3(OH)24(AsO4)4. .URANINITE, Uranyl,etc.,uranate. Gummite, alteration of uraninite. Th and U oxides. Thorianite, Uranosphaerite, (BiO)2U2O7.3H2O. Johannite, Hydrous Cu,U, sulphate. Gilpinite, (Cu,Fe,Na2)O.UO3.SO3.4H2O. CaU8S2O3i.25H2O. Uranopilite,
VANADIUM

i_

fcS

Epistolite, Na,Ti, Lewisite,5CaO.2Tiq2.3Sb2O5. Mauzeliite,Pb,Ca, titano-antimonate. Warwickite, (Mg,Fe)3TiB2O8.

etc.,mobate.
TUNGSTEN

PATRONITE, VS4. 3Cu2S.V2S5. Sulvanite,

Alaite,V2O5.H2O. Ardennite, Al,Mn,V, silicate.
Vanadium Roscoelite, mica.

Tungstenite, WS2. Tungstite, WO3. (Fe,Mn)WO4. WOLFRAMITE, Hubnerite, MnWO4. SCHEELITE, CaWO4. Cuprotungstite, CuWO4. Powellite, Ca(Mo,W)O4.

Pucherite,BiVO4. Vanadinite, Pb4(PbCl)(VO4)3. Descloizite, (Pb,Zn)2(OH)VO4. Pyrobelonite,4PbO.7MnO.2V2O5.3H2O. Dechenite, PbV2O6. Calciovolborthite, (Cu,Ca)3V2O8.(Cu,Ca) (OH)2. Turanite, 5CuO.V2O5.2HoO.

}Pb,Cu,"nadates.
3PbWO4.PbMoO4. Chillagite, Reinite,FeWO4. Fe2O3.WO3.6H2O. Ferritungstite,
URANIUM

Uvanite, 2UO3.3V2O5.15H2O. Ferganite,U3(VO4)2.6H2O. Fernandinite,CaO. V2O4.5V2O5. 14H2O. Pascoite,2CaO.3V2O5.llH2O. Pintadoite,2CaO.V2O6.9H2O.

MeUhewettite

Rutherfordine, UO2CO3. 2CaCO3.U(CO3)2.10H2O. Uranothallite, Hydrous, U,Ca, carbonate. Liebigite, Voglite,Hydrous, U, Ca, Cu, carbonate. Mackintoshite, U,Th,Ce, silicate. Uranophane, CaO.2UO3.2SiO2.6H2O. Fe,U,Y, titanate. Delorenzite, Brannerite,(UO,TiO,UO2)TiO3. U, tantalo-niobate. Hatchettolite, Samiresite, U, etc.,niobate. Fergusonite,Y,Er;U, niobate. Samarskite, Fe,Ca,U,Ce,Y, niobate. Ampangabeite, U, etc.,niobate. Annerodite, U,Y, niobate.
Euxenite

CaO.3V!O,9H2O. }

Volborthite, Hydrous, Cu,Ba,Ca, vanadate. Hydrous, Pb,Zn, vanadate. Hiigelite, CARNOTITE, K2O.2U2O3.V2O5.3H2O. Tyuyamunite, CaO.2UO3.V2O5.4H2O. 15H2O. Minasragrite, (V2O2)H2(SO4)3. YTTRIUM,
Etc.

(Ca3,Y2)F6. Yttrofluorite, (Y,Er,Ce)F3.5CaF2.H2O. Yttrocerite, Tengerite,Y carbonate. Cappelenite,Y,Ba, boro-silicate.

Melanocerite \ fluo-silicates. [Ca,Y,Ce, Caryocerite Steenstrupine J Tritomite,Th,Ce,Y,Ca, fluo-silicate. Gadolinite,Be2FeY2Si2Oi0. Th,Y, silicate. Yttriah'te, Rowlandite, Y sih'cate. Thalenite,Y silicate (Sc,Y)2Si2O7. Thortveitite, Cenosite,H4Ca2(Y,Er)2CSiOi7. Keilhauite,Ca,Al,Fe,Y, titano-silicate. Fe,U,Y, titanate. Delorenzite, Hydrous Y,Th, titanate. Yttrocrasite, Y niobate. Risorite, Fergusonite,Y,Err niobate. Er niobate. Sipylite, Yttrotantalite, Y, etc.,tantalate-niobate.
.

1v

Polvcrase

Y"Ce"U' \

n^

TT

mobate^

"

Blomstrandine-Priorite j Betafite, U, niobate-titanate. Plumboniobite, Y,U,Pb, niobate.

tltanates-

Uvanite, 2UO3.3V2O6.15H2O. Ferganite,U3(VO4)2.6H2O. Torbernite,Cu(UO2)2P2O8.8H3O. Zeunerite,Cu(UO2)2As2O8.8H2O.

Bas'sTtfte }Ca(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O.
Uranospinite,Ca(UO2)2As2O8.8H2O. Ba(UO2)2P2O8.8H2O. Uranocircite, CARNOTITE, K2O.2U2O.V2O6.3H2O. Tyuyamunite, CaO.2UO3.V2O5.4H2O. Uranospathite, Hydrous uranyl phosphate.

678

APPENDIX

Samarskite,
late.

Fe,Ca,U,Ce,Y,

niobate-tanta-

Adamite,

Zn2(OH)AsO4. (Pb,Zn)2(OH)VO4.

Descloizite, U,Y,
niobate.

Annerodite, Hielmite,
Euxenite

Par^peite }^P2O8.4H!O.
stanno-tantalate.

Y,Fe,Mn,Ca,

Kottigite,
!

Zn3As2O8.8H2O. 3ZnO.CuO.3As2O5.2H2O.

Y,Ce,U,

niobate-

Barthite, Hugelite, Spencerite,

Hydrous, Zn3(PO4)2.Zn

Pb,

Zn,

vanadate

(OH)2.3H2O.

Plumboniobite,
XENOTIME, YPO4.

Y,U,Pb,Fe,

niobate.

Hibbenite, Veszelyite,

2Zn3(PO4)2.Zn(OH)2.6iH2O. Hydrous, Cu, Zn, phospho-

Retzian,

Y,Mn,Ca,

arsenate. arsenate.

Rhabdophanite,

Hydrous

Ce,Y,

phosphate.
Kehoeite, Sussexite, Hydrous, Al, Zn, phosphate. H(Mn,Zn,Mg)BO3.
ZnSO4.

ZINC

Zinkosite, Sphalerite, Wurtzite, Voltzite, ZINCITE, Gahnite, FRANKLINITE, Chalcophanite, Hetserolite, Smithsonite, Rosasite, Aurichalcite,
ZnS. ZnS.

Ilesite,

(Mn,Zn,Fe)SO4.4H2O.
ZnSO4.7H2O.

Goslarite,
Dietrichite,
22H2O.

Zn^O.
ZnO.

(Zn,Fe,Mn)SO4.Al2(SO4)3.

ZnO.A]2O3.

Serpierite, (Fe,Mn)203.

Hydrous,

Cu,

Zn,

sulphate.

(Fe,Zn,Mn)O.

Zincaluminite,
5H2O.

2ZnSO4.4Zn(OH)2.6Al(OH)3.

(Mn,Zn)O.2MnO2.2H2O.
2ZnO.2Mn2O3.lH2O.

ZIRCONIUM

ZnCO3. 2CuO.CuCO3.5ZnCO3?

Baddeleyite,
Uhligite,

ZrO2.

2(Zn,Cu)CO3,3(Zn,Cu)(OH)2. ZnCO3.2Zn(OH)2.
Ca2ZnSi2O7.

Ca(Ti,Zr)O6.Al(Ti,Al)O6. Na,Ca,Zr, Na,Ca,Zr, Mn,Ca,Zr,

(Na2,
silicate. and niobate.

Hydrozincite,
Hardystonite, Danalite, Willemite, Calamine, Clinohedrite,

Rosenbuschite, Wohlerite,
Lavenite, Hiortdahlite, Eudialyte, Elpidite,

silicate silicate.

(Be,Fe,Zn,Mn)7Si3Oi2S.
Zn2SiO4. H2ZnSiO5. H2CaZnSiO5.

Ca)

(Si, Zr)

O3.

Zr,Fe,Ca,Na,
Na2O.ZrO2.6SiO2.3H2O.

silicate.

Hodgkinsonite,
Gageite, Hydrous,

3(Zn,Mn)O.SiO2.H20. Mn, MR, Zn,

silicate.

Catapleiite,
Zircon,
Zr

H4(Na2,Ca)ZrSi3On.
SiO4.
R
'

Tarbuttite,

Zn3P2O8.Zn(OH)2.

Chalcolamprite,

'Nb

.O6. R

'

'SiO3.

680

APPENDIX

B.

LUSTER

METALLIC

(AND

SUBMETALLIC)
.

APPENDIX

681

II.

CRYSTALLIZATION
A.

TETRAGONAL. NONMETALLIC.

LUSTER

B.

LUSTER

METALLIC

(AND

SUBMETALLIC).

682

APPENDIX III. CRYSTALLIZATION

HEXAGONAL.*
a

Rhombohedral
A.

are distinguished by species

letter R.

LUSTER

NONMETALLIC.

Some

pseudo-hexagonalspecies are included.

APPENDIX

683

B.

LUSTER

METALLIC

(AND SUB METALLIC).

IV.

CRYSTALLIZATION A. LUSTER

ORTHORHOMBIC. NONMETALLIC.

684
A.

APPENDIX

LUSTER

NONMETALLIC

B.

LUSTER 3-87-4-07 4-0-4-05 4-0-44 4-1-4-2

4-2-44 4-5

METALLIC
5-5-6 5-5-6 5-5-5
1-1-5 4 3

(AND SUBMETALLIC).
Stibnite (p.358) 4-5^-6
. .

Brookite (p.429)

2 3-5 2-5 1-5-2 6-5 3-5 3-4

538) IlvaiteKp.

Gothite (p.431)

...

(p.367) Sternbergite Manganite (p.432) Wittichenite (p.388)

Famatinite (p.393) Klaprotholite(p.386) Hutchinsonite (p.386)

. . . .

4-57 4-6 4-6

Euxenite

(p.591)
.

4-43-4-45 Enargite(p.393)...:

Chalmersite (p.366) Chalcostibite (p.386)

4-6-5 47 4-75-5

APPENDIX B. LUSTER

685

METALLIC

(AND SUBMETALLIC)
.

686
A.

APPENDIX

LUSTER

NONMETALLIC.

688

APPENDIX

VI.

CRYSTALLIZATION

TRICLINIC.

A.

LUSTER

NONMETALLIC.

APPENDIX

689 HABIT.

TABLE

III.
I.

CRYSTALLINE
SYSTEM.

ISOMETRIC

the followinglists some whose crystalline speciesare enumerated habit is often so marked as to be a distinctive character. LUSTER: METALLIC ! Cubes. Pyrite. LUSTER: FluonTe : Cuprite NONMETALLIC (at times elongated into capillaryforms) Sylvite; Also Percy lite; Cerargyrite; Halitej Boracite;Pharmacosiderite. Perovskite. with Cube-like forms occur the following: Apophyllite (tetragonal); Cryolite (monoclinic). Also with the rhombohedral species: Chabazite: Alunite;Calcite; rarelyQuartz and Hematite. Octahedrons. SUBMETALLIC METALLIC LUSTER: AND Magnetite: Franklinite; ChroAlso sometimes, Galena; Pvrite; Linnaeite; mite; Uraninite. Dysanalyte. NONMETALLIC LUSTER: and Gahnite) ; Cuprite; Spinel(incl."Hercynite Diamond; Pyrochlore and Microlite; Alum. Ralstonite; Periclase; Forms somewhat with some resembling regularoctahedrons occur as tetragonal species, Braunite; Hausmannite; Chalcopyrite; rhombohedral species, Zircon,etc.; also with some as Dolomite. Dodecahedrons. METALLIC LUSTER: Magnetite; Amslgam. NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Garnet; Cuprite;SoH^lif^ Tetrahexahedrons. Native Copper; Fluorite. NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Trapezohedrons. Garnet; Leucite; Analcite. (Jobaltite.Also Gersdorffite; LUSTER: Gersd Pyritohedrons. METALLIC Hauerite JPyrite^
In
"

Galem^

"

"

"

"

"

(submetallic).
Tetrahedrons. NONMETALLIC

The

METALLIC LUSTER: Tetrahedrite. LUSTER: Sphalerite; Boracite;Helvite;Eulytite;Diamond; Zunyite. sometimes resemble tetrahedrons. tetragonalsphenoids of Chalcopyrite closely
"

II.
"

TETRAGONAL

SYSTEM.

SUBMETALLIC LUSTER: Square Pyramids. Braunite; Hausmannite. NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Zircon; Wulfenite; Vesuvianite; Octahedrite;Xenotime. NONMETALLIC vesuvianite.: Scapolites; LUSTER: zircon: Square Prisms. Apophyllite;
"

Phosgenite. with Apophyllite; Wulfenite; Torbernite. Square tabular crystals occur Prisms of orthorhombic species, nearly square are noted with a itiuritDer e.g., Topaz; monoclinic also (100 A 010 with the Andalusite; Danburite: 90", Pyroxene 110 A 110 87")
""""
=
=

III.
"

HEXAGONAL

SYSTEM.

Apatite: Bervl: VanadiNONMETALLIC LUSTER: Hexagonal Prisms. Pyromprphite; indistinct rounded nite; Mimetite forms). Also Nephelite; Milarite: Tysonite, (usually

and

others.
are

Hexagonal prisms
Tourmaline
ous rare

also

common

with

the

Willemite; Phenacite; Dioptass, etc.

-

rhombohedral species: Quartz;Calcitej Again, with the Micas, efc. Numef^

could be included here. orthorhombic (or monoclinic) specieshaving a prismatic angle of about 60" (and the result of twinning. as and stillmore 120") simulate this form both in simple crystals lolite. It is also to be noted that the isometric Thus, Aragonite; Leadhillite; Strontianite; dodecahedron, e.g., of Garnet, has often the form of a hexagonalpyramid with trihedral terminations (cf.Fig. 470, p. 175). LUSTER: Tabular hexagonal prisms are noted with various species. Thus, METALLIC LUSTER: Tri^ Graphite; Molybdenite; Hematite; Ilmenjte; Pyrrhotite. NONMETALLIC
specit

Many

Hexagonal Pyramids. Apatite: Corundum, (rhombohedral);Quartz (rhombohedral: Hanksite. trapezohedral) in part as the result of This form is often simulated by various orthorhombic species, LUSTER: Chalcocite; Stephanite; Polybasite;Jortwinning. For example, METALLIC
"

Also Brookite. lolite. LUSTER: Witherite;Bromlite; Cerussite; Tourmaline. Trigonal Prisms. Siderite : PJiodochrosite. Rhombohedrons. : JDolomitej. Angle ?5u(and 105"): Calcite ; Quartz ; Hematite. Angle not far from 90": Chabazite; Alunite ;Talciter'also ProustifE7~~ Scalenohedrons. Calcite and allied Carbonates^ NONMETALLIC
" " "

etc. danite;

690
IV.

APPENDIX

ORTHORHOMBIC,
"

MONOCLINIC
LUSTER:

AND

TRICLINIC

SYSTEMS.

Prismatic Crystals.
m

METALLIC

Arsenopyrite;Bournonite;MangaStibnite;

NONMETALLIC

LUSTER:

Andalusite;"arite: Celes(orthorhombic) Tojmz; Sj^ijrolite;

and many Pyroxene; Amphibole; Qrthoclase, others. Also (monoclinic) tite;Danburite. in aspect (Fig. 894, p. 531JT often prismatic are Epidote crystals Wollastonite;4lhl'te, Tabular Crystals. Barite; Cerussite;Calamine; Diasppre; LUSTER: Stibnite;BismutEimtej Miflente; JameAcicular Crystals. METALLIC and other species. Aikinite, sonite; Natrolite: Scolecite; Thomsonite, and other Zeolites. NONMETALLIC LUSTER: gectolite; lesd 6f ten Calcite. Also many other species. Also Aragonjie;Strontianite; istic. speciesis very characterTwinTrystals. The habit of the twins occurringwith many for a presentation Reference is made to pp. 165 to 172 and the accompanying figures of this subject.
" "

'

"

TABLE
Fibrous.
of
"

IV.

STRUCTURE

OF

MASSIVE

MINERALS

also the similar asbestiform Fibers separable: Asbestus (amphibole); riety vablue). serpentine(chrysotile) ; Crocidolite (color Fibers not separable, Also Aragonite; Anthophyllite;Calcite; straight: Gypsum. chiefly Barite; Celestite;Anhydrite; Brucite; Enstatite; Wollastonite; Dufrenite; Vivianite. See also Columnar below. Fibrous-Radiated. Wavellite; Pectolite; Thomsonite; Natrolite; Stilbite, Scolecite; and other Zeolites;Gothite;Malachit Columnar. METALLIC LUSTER: Stibnite; Hematite; Jamesonite; etc. Zinkenite, NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Limonite; Gothite; Aragonite;Amphibole (tremolite, actinolite, Natrolite and other Zeolites: Stronetc.);Epidote; Zoisite; Tourmaline; Sillimanite; tianite;
"

"

Witherite;Topaz. Cyanite has often a bladed

Fibrous and columnar Lamellar-Stellate. Foliated. METALLIC
" "

tructure.

varieties pass

into

one

another.

Talc. Gypsum; Pyrophyllite; LUSTER: Graphite; Molybdenite; Tetradymite; Sternbergite-

Nagyagite.
NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Talc; Orpiment; Gypsum; Pyrophyllite; Serpentine; Gypsum Micaceous. The Micas,p. 559: also the Brittle Micas, p. 566, and the Chlorites, 568 p. Also Brucite; Orpiment; Talc; Torber^ite; Autunite. Granular. METALLIC LUSTER: Galena; Hematite; Magnetite. Many sulphides, sulpharsemtes; etc.,have varieties which are fine-granular to compact and impalpable NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Pyroxene (coccolite); Garnet;Calcite; etc
"
"

Botryoidal,Mammillary, Reniform,
Allemontite.

Barite,

etc.

"

METALLIC

LUSTER:

Hematite; Arsenic-

Malachite; Prehnite; Smithsonite;Calamine; Chalcedony;

Stalactitic.
"

METALLIC

LUSTER:

Limonite; Psilomelane; Marcasite.

LUSTER: Calcite; NONMETALLIC Aragonite; Gibbsite; Chalcedony.

Granular

Cleavable." METALLIC LUSTER: Galena. NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Calcite; Dolomite;Sphalerite; Fluorite. Oolitic. Calcite; Hematite. Aragonite;
"

fcartny.
"

NONMETALLIC

LUSTER:

Magnesite; piolite

TABLE
Cubic.

V.

PHYSICAL
I. CLEAVAGE.

CHARACTERS.

"

METALLIC

LUSTER:
STER:

Galena. Halite: Sylvite. The

Ui.

also

Corundum,

cleavageof Anhydrite (alsoof Cyro(also Franklinite) has

often distinct

p. 413.

Diamond.

Magnetite

75

"alcite "dral'~ 105!

^ and

other

sPecies of th^

Sodalite; Hauynite. wine group (pp. 437-445) angles

Square Prismatic(90").
-

Scapolite; Xenotime. Rutile;

APPENDIX

691

Prismatic.
Basal.
"

Barite METALLIC
"

NONMETALLIC
etc. phyllite,

(78"i, 101"^); Celestite; Amphibole (54" and 126"),etc. LUSTER: Graphite; Molybdenite. LUSTER: Apophyllitej Topaz; Talc; the Micas and Chlorites; ChalcoPyroxene often shows marked basal parting.
METALLIC LUSTER: LUSTER: Stibnite.

Pinacoidal.
NONMETALLIC

"

Gypsum;

Orpiment; Euclase;Diaspore;Sillimanite; Cyanite;

II.

Feldspars.
HARDNESS.
are

1.
or

Soft

Minerals.

"

The
a

followingminerals
greasy

conspicuously Soft,that is,H

to

688.) METALLIC LUSTER: Graphite; Molybdenite; Tetradymite; Sternbergite; Argentite; of the Native Metals (Lead, etc.). Nagyagite; some NONMETALLIC LUSTER: Talc; Pyrophyllite; Tyrolite;Orpiment; Cerargyrite; Brucite; Cinnabar; Sulphur; Gypsum. and many Also Calomel, Arsenolite, hydrous sulphates, phosphats, etc. Minerals. Minerals whose hardness is equal to or greater than 7 (Quartz 2. Hard 7). The followingminerals are here included:
"

less;they hence have

feel.

(See further the Tables, pp. 679

LUSTER

NONMETALLIC

QUARTZ (p.403) Tridymite (p.407) Barylite (p.498).Dumortierite (p.543) Danburite (p.522) BORACITE (p.620) Zunyite (p.505) CYANITE (p.526) TOURMALINE (p.540) GARNET (p.505) IOLITE (p.497) STAUROLITE (p.543) (p.510) Schorlpmite Sapphirine (p.544) Euclase (p.529)

7 7 7 7

7-7'25 7
7

5-7'25 7-7*5 6'5-7'5

7-7-5

7-7 "5 7-7*5 7'5 7'5

Hambergite (p.620) ZIRCON (p.520) ANDALUSITE (p.524) BERYL (p.495) Lawsonite (p.540) Phenacite (p.514) Gahnite (p. 420) Hercynite (p.420) SPINEL (p.419) TOPAZ (p.523) Rhodizite (p.621) CHRYSOBERYL (p.423) CORUNDUM (p.413) DIAMOND (p.345)

7'5
7'5 7'5 7'5-8 7'5-8 7'5-8

7'5-8 7 '5-8
8 8 8 8'5 9 10

7. The followingminerals have hardness equal to 6 to 7, or 6 '5 METALLIC: Iridosmine LUSTER (p. 355); Iridium (p. 355); Sperrylite(p. 379). Ardennite NONMETALLIC: LUSTER (p. 534); Bertrandite (p. 539); (p. 539); Axinite Cassiterite (p. 425); Chrysolite (p. 511); Diaspore (p. 431); Elpidite (p. 496); Epidote (p. 531);Forsterite (p. 513); Gadolinite (p. 529); Jadeite (p.479); Partschinite (p. 510); Sillimanite (p.526);Spodumene (p.480); Trimerite (p.515).
"

III.

SPECIFIC

GRAVITY.

gravityto Attention is called to the remarks in Art. 302 (p.199),on the relation of specific in Art. 303 as to the average specific gravity chemical composition. Also to the statements in each of the The species minerals of metallic and norimetallic luster respectively. among are arranged separate lists of Table II of minerals classifiedwith reference to crystallization tinguished gravities.Hence the lists give at a glance minerals disaccording to ascending specific by both low and high density.
IV. Metallic.
"

LUSTER.
most

(See Art. 364, p. 249) Sulphides; some

ganese, Oxides, those containingiron,man-

Native
"

metals;

lead,etc.
Here belong chiefly certain iron and manganese compounds, as Ilmenite; Submetallic. Wolframite; Braunite; Hausmannite. Ilvaite;Columbite; Tantalite (and allied species); Also Brookite;Uraninite,etc. Some hard minerals: Here Adamantine. belong minerals of high refractive index: (a) as Zircon; Rutile. (6) Many speciesof high density, Diamond; Corundum; Cassiterite; Thus, Cerussite,Anglesite,Phosmercury. copper, compounds of lead, also of silver, erite, Cinnabar, etc. (c)Also certain varieties of Sphalgenite, etc.; Cerargyrite;Cuprite; some
"

Tjtanite and Octahedrite.

(592
"

APPENDIX

varieties of the following: Cuprite, some Pyrargyrite; Metallic-Adamantine. Octahedrite, Rutile,Brookite. Phosphates. Sulphur; Elseohte; Serpentine; many Sphalerite; Resinous or Waxy. Garnet, Beryl, etc. as Silicates, Vitreous. Quartz and many site, Cerus" "

Pearly "The

Silky.
"

Also (on cleavage surfaces) foliated species: Talc, Brucite, Pyrpphylhte. H eulandite. Also, less prominent: Stilbite, the following: Apophyllite, conspicuously Feldspar,and others. Diaspore; some Barite;Celestite; also Asbestus; Malachite. fibrous minerals,as Gypsum, Calcite; Some

V.
The

COLOR.

ever, of suggestion. It is to be noted, howin the way use followinglists may be of some alter the of metallic minerals a slightsurface change may in the case especially luster particularly, no minerals of nonmetallic sharp effect of color. Further, among variations of shade occur and many between colors slightly different, be drawn line can unless inconvenientlyextended, no lists, in the case of a singlespecies. For these reasons could make any claim to completeness.
that

(a)
"

METALLIC

LUSTER.

and Tin-white. Native silver;Native Antimony, Arsenic Tellurium; Silver-white, Amalgam; Arsenopyrite and Lollingite;several sulphides,arsenides,etc., of cobalt or Cobaltite some Tellurides;(Bismuth (reddish).) No sharp line can (reddish); nickel, as these and the followinggroup. be drawn between Steel-gray. Platinum; Manganite; Chalcocite; Sylvanite; Bournonite. Blue-gray. Molybdenite; Galena. Galena (bluish); as Stibnite; many Sulpharsenites, etc., Lead-gray. Many sulphides, as Jamesonite,Dufrenoysite,etc. Iron-black. Graphite; Tetrahedrite; Polybasite; Stephanite; Enargite; Pyrolusite; Magnetite; Hematite; Franklinite. Black (with submetallic luster). Ilmenite; Limonite; Columbite; Tantalite, etc.; Ilvaite; Wolframite; Uraninite,etc. The followingare usually brownish black: Braunite;
" " " " "

Hausmannite.

Copper-red.
"

Bronze-red.

"

Native copper. Bornite (quicklytarnished givingpurplishtints) ; Niccolite.

" "

Bronze-yellow. Pyrrhotite; Pentlandite;Breithauptite. Brass-yellow. Chalcopyrite;Millerite (bronze). Pale brass-yellow: Pyrite; Marcasite (whiterthan Pyrite). Gold-yellow. Native gold; chalcopyriteand pyrite sometimes are mistaken for gold.
"

Streak. streak:

"

The

minerals following

of metallic luster

are

notable

for the color of their

Cochineal-red:

Pyrargyrite. Cherry-red:Miargyrite.
Dull Red: cinnabar. Hematite;Cuprite; some Scarlet: Cinnabar (usually nonmetallic). Dark Brown: Chromite. Manganite; Franklinite; Yellow: Limonite. Tarnish. The following are conspicuous for their bright or variegated tarnish: Bornite (purplish Limonite. tints); some Tetrahedrite;
"

copyrite; Chal-

(6) NONMETALLIC
Colorless.
"

LUSTER.

Quartz; Calcite;Aragonite;Gypsum; Cerussite; AnglesApophyllite;Natrolite and other Zeolites; Celestite; Diaspore; Nephelite; Meionite;Calamine; Cryolite; Phenacite, etc MASSIVE: Quartz;Calcite; Gypsum; Hyalite (botryoidal) White. CRYSTALS: Amphibole (tremolite); Pyroxene (diopside, usually greenish). Quartz5 Felspars, especially lit^T Albite; Barite; i^; Mllk7 l IVEiCr Cerussite, Scapolite; Talc; Meerschaum;Magnesite;Kaolinite; Amblygonite, etc. Blue. BLACKISH BLUE: Crocidolite. Azurite; INDIGO-BLUE: Indicolite (Tourmaline);Vivianite. AZURE-BLUE: Lazulite; Azurite; Lapis Lazuli; Turquois Sapphire; Cyanite; Mite; Azurite;Chalcanthite and many mIN"BLUE: copper
ite; Albite; Barite; Adulana; Topaz;
"

IN

CRYSTALS:

APPENDIX

693

SKY-BLUE,
VIOLET-BLUE: GREENISH

Beryl; Celestite. Amethyst; Fluorite. BLUE: Amazon-stone; Chrysocolla;Calamine; Smithsonite;some

BLACKISH GREEN:

MOUNTAIN-BLUE:

Turquois;

Beryl.
Green.
"

Epidote; Serpentine; Pyroxene; Amphibole.

Beryl (Emerald); Malachite; Dioptase; Atacamite; and many other compounds; Spodumene (hiddenite);Pyroxene (rare);Gahnite; Jadeite and Jade. copper GREEN: BLUISH Beryl; Apatite; Fluorite; sonite; Amazon-stone; Prehnite;Calamine; SmithChrysocolla; Chlorite; some Turquois. MOUNTAIN GREEN: Beryl (aquamarine); Euclase. APPLE-GREEN: Talc; Garnet; Chrysoprase; Willemite;Garnierite; Pyrophyllite: some Muscovite; Jadeite and Jade, Pyrophyllite. PISTACHIO-GREEN: Epidote. GRASS-GREEN: Pyromorphite; Wavellite;Variscite;Chrysoberyl. GREEN: GRAYISH Amphibole and Pyroxene, many common kinds; Jasper; Jade. OLIVE-GREEN: YELLOW-GREEN to Beryl; Apatite; Chrysoberyl; Chrysolite (oliveTitanite green); Chlorite; Serpentine; Datolite; Olivenite;Vesuvianite. Yellow. SULPHUR-YELLOW: Vesuvianite. Sulphur; some ORANGE-YELLOW: Orpiment; Wulfenite; Mimetite. also WINE-YELLOW, WAXYELLOW: STRAW-YELLOW, Topaz; Sulphur; Fluorite; Cancrinite; Wulfenite; Vanadinite; Willemite; Calcite; Barite; Chrysolite;Chondrodite; Titanite; Datolite, etc. Gothite. BROWNISH YELLOW: Much Sphalerite;Siderite; Gothite: OCHERYellow ocher (limonite). YELLOW: dinite; VanaRed. RUBY-RED: Garnet; Proustite; Ruby (corundum); Ruby spinel; much Sphalerite;Chondrodite.
EMERALD-GREEN:
"
"

COCHINEAL-RED:
HYACINTH-RED.
"

Cuprite; Cinnabar.
"

Zircon; Crocoite. ORANGE-RED. Zincite;Realgar; Wulfenite. Fluorite. Tourmaline CRIMSON-RED: (rubellite); Spinel, Cinnabar. SCARLET-RED: BRICK-RED: Some Hematite (red ocher). to PINK: Rose ROSE-RED quartz; Rhodonite; Rhodochrosite; lite. Apophyllite and Zoisite;Eudialyte; Petalite;Margarite. Rubellite. PEACH-BLOSSOM RED to LILAC: Lepidolite;
FLESH-RED:

Erythrite;some

Scapo-

Stilbite and BROWNISH

Brown.
"

some Chabazite; Some (the variety troostite); Orthoclase; Willemite Heulandite; Apatite; rarely Calcite;Polyhalite.. Rutile. RED: Jasper; Limonite; Garnet; Sphalerite;Siderite; S aurolite; Cassiterite; Some Sphalerite; BROWN: REDDISH Garnet; some

Axinite; Zircon; Pyromorphite. Jasper; Limonite; related carbonates; Sphalerite; Siderite and Staurolite. Chrondrodite; Vesuvianite; Gothite; Tourmaline; BLACKISH BROWN: Siderite; Sphalerite. Titanite; some SMOKY BROWN: Quartz. Mica biotite):also (especially Black: (melanite); some Tourmaline; black Garnet back); some Amphibole, Pyroxene and Epidote (these are mos'ly greenish or brownish to black); smoky brown kinds of Quartz (varying from further,some Sphalerite and some mentioned luster are with submetalhc black minerals also Allanite; Samarskite. Some
BROWN:
on

Rutile. CLOVE-BROWN: YELLOWISH

minerals with nonmetallic of some The streak is to be noted in the case Tourmaline), the mass in (e.g. colored far the when deeply By majority have, even be mentioned: The following may but little from white. differing ORANGE-YELLOW: Zincite,Crocoite. COCHINEAL-RED: Pyrargyriteand Proustite.
"

p. 692. Streak.

luster.
a

streak

Cinnabar. RED: BROWNISH RED: Cuprite; Hematite. BROWN: Limonite. , A Azunte, and blue minerals, as Malachite, The streak of the various green copper, little often a paler. though is about the same the color of the mineral itself, as
,.

SCARLET

.,

etc.,

696
Carlsbad twin, 170
Center

GENERAL

INDEX

aggregate,8, 182 Crystalline

structure, 8
180 Crystallites, systems of, 15 Crystallization, 7 Crystallography,

of symmetry, 12

334 Charcoal tests,

Chemical compound, 318

composition and
298

acters, optical char-

literature of,2

elements, 311, 312 formula,312

Cube,

54

mineralogy,311
317 radicals,

Cubic system, 52 Curved and crystals

faces,177
D

reactions,317

symbol,312
328, 338 tests,
338 tests for, Chlorides, 339 Chromium, tests for, Circular polarization, 240, 270
.

Decrepitation, 332, 333

Deltoid dodecahedron, 69 Dendritic structure, 173, 183
tions, sec-

imitated by mica
300

343 Classification of minerals,

Cleavage, 186 basal,187 cubic,187 dodecahedral,187 187 octahedral,

187 prismatic,

Density, 195 343 Descriptionof species, Determination of minerals, 341 Diamagnetic minerals,309 Diamagnetism, 309 Diametral prism, monoclinic system, 134 orthorhombic system, 122
247 Diaphaneity,

rhombohedral, 187 133 Clino-axis, Clinodome, 135 Clinohedral class, 138

134 Clinopinacoid,

Clinoprism,135 Clinopyramid, 135

Closed tube tests, 333
339 Cobalt,tests for, use nitrate, of,332 Cohesion, 186

Diathermancy, 305 Dibasic acid,318 Dichroism, 247, 268 Dichroscope,269 223 Diffration, 95 Dihexagonal bipyramidalclass, Dihexagonal pyrism, 96 Dihexagonal pyramid, 98 98 Dihexagonal pyramidal class, Dimorphism, 325
65 Diploid, 221 Dispersion, 294 crossed, 293 horizontal, 292 inclined, of bisectrices, 293, 294 of optic axes, 289 Distorted crystals, 13, 174 77 Ditetragonal bipyramidalclass, Ditetragonalprism, 79

Colloid structure,183 Colloidal minerals, 324

Color,204, 247, 248 complementary, 205

Columnar

structure,182

Complementary colors, 205 161 Composition-plane, 160 Compound crystals,

Concentric Conchoidal

pyramid, 82
84 Ditetragonalpyramidal class, 103 Ditrigonalbipyramidalclass, Ditrigonalprism, 103 pyramid, 103 109 Ditrigonalpyramidal class, 104 Ditrigonalscalenohedral class, J.

structure,182
191 fracture,

for electricity, Conductivity, 306 for heat,304 Conical 276 refraction,

,,
-

243 Conoscope,

Contact "goniometer
162 Contact-twin, Coolingtaste,310 Copper,tests for,389^

structure, 182 Divergent

69 deltoid, dyakis,65 64 pentagonal, 72 tetrahedral,

Dodecahedron,54

Coralloidal struetur Corrosion forms, 191^. Critical angle, 210 h Crossed dispersion,

Cotangentrelation,; Jlffi
Domatic Double

rhombic, 138 class,

223 refraction,

54

H Crypto-crystalline,
H Crystal, definition,
distorted

Domes, 31, 123, 135,

145

form, 30

Drusy, 183 Dyakis-dodecahedron, 65 Dyakisdodecahedral class, 63

GENERAL

INDEX

697

250 Glistening luster,

Earthy

191 fracture,

Globular

183 structure,

328 Effervescence, Eightling,164 186, 194 Elasticity, Elastic minerals,194 Electrical conductivityin minerals, 306 Electro-negative elements,313 -positive elements,313 Elements, angular, 128, 139, 148 128, 139, 148 axial, chemical,312 240 polarizedlight, Elliptically 280 Elongation,negative or positive, Enantimorphous forms, 71, 113 288 Epoptic figures, 189 Etching figures, 332 Exfoliation, Expansion by heat, 304 Exterior conical refraction, 276 Extinction,230 character of, 239 directions, inclined, 260, 278 parallel, 260, 278 278 Extinction-angle, Extraordinary ray, 254

180 Globulites, Glowing,332, 333

Gnomonic

Gnomonic

40 projection, of isometric forms, 62 projection hexagonal forms,99, 109

tetragonal forms, 84
"

triclinic forms, 147 monoclinic forms,

137

orthorhombic
127

forms,

Goniometer,contact

or hand, 155 horizontal, 154 reflecting, 157 theodolite, 157 two-circle,

152

Granular

structure, 182

249 Greasy luster, Grouping,molecular,22

parallel, 172, 173

Gyroidalforms, 71
H
10 Habit, crystal, 191 Hackly fracture, Hand goniometer, 152 Hard minerals,193 Hardness, 191 Heat, 303 effect on optical properties,296 198 Heavy solutions, Hemihedral forms, 21 Hemimorphic class, hexagonal system,

Feel,310 Fetid odor, 310

Fibrous

structure, 182

183 Filiform, First order prisms,79, 95 pyramids,80, 97 164 Fiveling, 332 Flame coloration, 331 oxidizing, reducing,331 194 Flexible, 251 Fluorescence, test for, 339 Fluorides, Fluxes,336

98

monoclinic
138

system, system,
84

orthorhombic
126

tetragonal system, Hexagonal

axes,

94

Foliated structure, 182

Forceps, 330 Form, 30 Formula, chemical,312, 320

calculation of,321 Fracture, 191 in minerals,306 Frictional electricity Fundamental form, 30 304, 332 Fusibility, scale of,332

100 class, bipyramidal prisms,95, 96 prism of third order,111 101 pyramidalclass, pyramids,97, 98

symmetry, 11 system, 17, 94

102 class, trapezohedral

Gels, 324
3 General mineralogy, literature of, Gladstone law, 210 Glass,opticalcharacters of,252, 300 Glass tubes,331, use of,333

Gliding planes,187 250 Glimmering luster,

trapezohedron,102 Hexakistetrahedron,70 52 Hexoctahedral class, Hexoctahedron, 59 66 Hextetrahedral class, Hextetrahedron, 70 Holohedral forms, 21 292 Horizontal dispersion, goniometer, 155 Horse-radish odor, 310, 334 Houppes, 288 Hour-glass structure, 478
318 Hydroxides,

698

GENERAL

INDEX

202 Light-waves,

65, 67 Icosahedron, 58 Icositetrahedron, Impalpable structure, 182 274 biaxial, Indicatrix, 257 uniaxial, Dana, 29 crystallographic, Indices, Goldschmidt, 29 Naumann, 29 Weiss, 29 29 rational,
207 refractive,

213 Liquids with high refractive indices, 339 test for, Lithium, Lorentz law, 210 Lorenz law, 210 249 Luster, M

determination

of,280,

213, 216 angle of,206 Incidence, 292 Inclined dispersion, 67 hemihedrons, 179 Inclusions,
194 Inelastic minerals, 329 Insoluble minerals,

121, 144 Macro-axis, Macrodome, 123, 145 122, 145 Macropinacoid, Macroprism,123 Macropyramid, 124 Magnesium, test for,339 Magnetic minerals,308

Magnetism, 308 Magnets, natural,308 193 Malleable minerals, 183 structure, Mammillary Manganese, test for,339
Manebach

224, 230 Interferenceof light,

236 colors, 260 biaxial crystals, uniaxial crystals, 278 281 biaxial, figures,

twin, 171, 457

180 Margarites,

Measurement

inclined, 267, 283 260 uniaxial,

Interior conical
250 Iridescence,

276 refraction,

332 Intumescence,

of crystal 152 angles, 339 Mercury, test for, 325 Meta-colloids, Metagenetictwins, 163 249 Metallic-adamantineluster, 249 Metallic luster, 249 Metallic pearly luster, 313 Metals, Mica plate, of,264 use

339 Iron,test for, Iron cross, 166

252 Isodiametric crystals,

Mica

sections superposed,300

325 Isodimorphism,

182 Micaceous structure, 326 Microchemical analysis, 336 v. Salt of Phosporus, Microcosmic salt, 180 Microlites, 245 Microscope,

Isometric crystals, properties 252 optical 52 16, system,

322 Isomorphism,

Miller hexagonalaxes, 117

117 indices,
28 indices, 14 Mimetic crystals, 326 Mineral, artificial,

Isomorphousgroup, 322 323 mixtures, 252 Isotropic crystals,

literature of,4 definitionof, 1

196 balance, Jolly
K

Mineral

326 synthesis, kingdom, 1 4 journals, Mineralogical

chemical Mineralogy, Klein 198 solution,

and

determinative,

literature of,4
science of,1, 2 21 Models of crystals, Mohs 191 scale of hardness,

Lamellar
.

302 polarization,
182 structure,

Molecular networks, 22, 25

7 structure, 316 weight,
311 Molecule, test for,339 Molybdenum,

Lamp
Law

for blowpipe, 330 of rational indices, 29

339 Lead, test for, Left-handed crystal, 114,403 241 polarization,

nature of,200 Light, 204 Light-ray,

Monobasic

acid,318 Monoclinic axes, 133

134 crystals, 291 opticalcharacters, system, 17, 133 183 Mossy structure,

Light velocity, relationto refractive index,

GENERAL

INDEX

699

N Natural
Naumann's

magnets, 308

29 indices, 277, 286 Negative crystal, biaxial, uniaxial, 254, 258, element, 313 280 elongation, Network, molecular,22 319 Neutral salt, 225 Newton's rings, Nickel,test for,339 Nicol prism, 228 Niobium, test for,339 339 test for, Nitrates,

Oscillatory combination, 176 318 Oxides, Oxidizing flame,331

264

Paragenetictwins,163 Parallel extinction, 260, 278 grouping, 172 hemihedrons, 64 309 Paramagnetic minerals, Paramagnetism, 309 Parameter, 27

Paramorph, 27'
Paramorphism, 27 Parting,188 249 Pearly luster, 162 Penetration-twin, Penfield beam balance,197 Pentagonal dodecahedron, 64 72 tetrahedral, 63 hemihedral class, 71 icositetrahedral class, 71 icositetrahedron, Pentavalent element,317 Percussion 188 figure, Pericline law (twinning), 172,462 Periodic law, 314, 315 182 Phanero-crystaUine, Phosphates, test for,339 Phosphorescence,251 339 Phosphoric acid,test for, 307 Photo-electricity, 185 Physicalcharacters, mineralogy,literature of,2 307 Piezo-electricity, Pinacoid,31 144 Pinacoidal class, 71 Plagiohedral class, 71 hemihedral class, Plagiohedral 226 Plane-polarized light, 226 Plane of polarization,
Planes of symmetry, 10 Platinum wire,330, 336 250 Play of colors, 288 Pleochroic halos,

Nodular structure, 183 249 Non-metallic luster, Normal

Non-metals, 313 angles,44 isometric system, 52 class, hexagonal system, 95

monoclinic

system, 133 system, 121 tetragonalsystem, 77 triclinicsystem, 144

orthorhombic 319 salt,

Oblique system, 133 Octahedron, 54 Ocular, Bertrand, 279 Odor, 310 Opalescence,250 Opaque, 247 Open tube tests,334 form, 30 Optic axes, 273, 276 axial angle,277 254 axis, Opticalanomalies,301
characters of crystalline aggregates,
300 twin crystals, 298

effectof heat upon,

296 on, 300 pressure relation to chemical composition,298

Pleochroism,247, 287 Pleomorphism, 325

Point

tests,methods

and

order of,295

system, 23

229, 243 Polariscope, 226 Polarization, 288 Polarization-brushes, Orthodome, 135 245 -microscope, Orthopinacoid,134 226 Polarized light, Orthoprism, 135 229 Orthopyramid, 135 Polarizer, Orthorhombi ombic axes, 121 Polysynthetictwinning, 163 Positive crvstal, 121 biaxial, 277, 286 bipyramidalclass, 128 254, 258, 264 uniaxial, bisphenoidalclass, 121 element,313 crystals, 280 elongation, optical characters, 288 Potassium, test for,340 optical characters, 289 Pressure, effect upon dispersion, 300 126 pyramidal class, 189 figures, system, 17, 121

Ordinary ray,

254 133 Ortho-axis,

700
Primary opticaxes, 276 Prism, 30

GENERAL

INDEX

Reflecting goniometer, 154

205 Reflection of light, first order,95

96 system, dihexagonal, hexagonal

second order,96 third order,100 monoclinic system, 135 orthorhombic system, 123 79 tetragonal system, ditetragonal, first order,79 second order, 79 third order,85 triclinic system, 145 133 Prismatic class,

angle of,205 206 Refraction, double, 223 strength of,224 Refractive index,207 determination of, 213. 216, 180 relation to lightvelocitv,
208

indices, 209 principal,

241 Refractometer,

gnomonic, 40 Projection,
literature of,44
31 horizontal, 31 spherical, 32 stereographic,

Regular system, 52 Relief, high or low, 212

Reniform structure, 183 Resinous luster, 249 Reticulated structure, 182 Rhombic 462 section, Rhombohedral Rhombohedral Rhombohedral

literature of,44 14, 169,437 Pseudo-hexagonalcrystals, -isometric

301 crystals,

sphenoid, 128 class, 104, 110

103 division,

Pseudomorph, 183,326 Pseudomorphism, 326 Pseudosymmetry, 14, 60, 164, 174,297 Pycnometer, 197 Pyramid, 31 98 hexagonalsystem, dihexagonal, firstorder,97 97 second order, third order,100
monoclinic system, 135
orthorhombic

hemihedral

104 class,

109 hemimorphic class,

tetartohedral class, 110

Rhombohedron, positive and

negative, 104, 105 second order, 110 third order,110 Right-handed crystal, 114, 403 241 polarization,
334 Roasting, Rontgen rays,

system, 124 79 tetragonal system, ditetragonal,

first order, 79 79 second order, third order, 85 triclinic system, 145

25

Pyramidal hemihedral
101

hemimorphic

class,

Saccharoidal structure, 182 Saline taste,310 Salt of phosporus, 337

319 Salts, 106 Scalenohedron, 88 tetragonal,

Pyramidal-hemimorphic class, hexagonal

system, 101

tetragonal
system, 86
63 Pyritohedral class, 64 Pyritohedron, 306 Pyro-electricity, 338 Pyrognostics,

Scalenohedral class, 87 Scale of fusibility, 332 Scale of hardness, 191

251 Schiller, 251 Schillerization, 192 Sclerometer,

Q Quarter-undulation mica plate, 264 Quartz wedge, 231 use of,286

Second

order prism, hexagonalsystem, 96

tetragonal system, 79 pyramid, hexagonal system,

97

tetragonal system, 79-

rhombohedron, 110
Radiated structure, 182

Radical, 317 chemical, Rational indices, law of,29 Reaction, 317 chemical, Reagents, 328 chemical, Reducingflame, 331
Reduction of metals,334

Secondaryoptic axes, 276 twinning, 165, 188 193 Sectile,

Selenite-plate, 236, 266

test for, 340 Selenium, 313 Semi-metals,

247 Semi-transparent,

Sensitive tint, 236

use

of,266

GENERAL

INDEX

701
10

182 Separable, 250 Shining luster, 340 test for, Silica, 249 Silkyluster, 340 test for, Silver, Soda, use of,330, 336 Sodium, test for,340 Soft minerals,193 Solid solution, 323 in minerals, 328 Solubility Solution planes,189 Sonstadt solution, 198

Symmetry,

axis of, 11

of, 12 15 classes, exhibited by Stereographic jection, procenter 45

of systems, 18, 19 planes of, 10

Synthesis, mineral,326 System, hexagonal,94

52 isometric, monoclinic,133
.

Sound

waves,

201

121 orthorhombic,

Specific gravity,195
determination
221 Spectroscope, Sphenoid,87

of, 196

77 tetragonal, 143 triclinic, 15 Systems of crystallization,

rhombic,

128 138

monoclinic system, Sphenoidalclass, orthorhombic

128

system,

tetragonal system, 87 87 class, 89 tetartohedraj class, 31 projections, Spherical Spherulites, 300, 459 250 Splendent luster,
hemihedral
191 Splintery fracture,

Tangent relation 49 Tarnish,250 Taste, 310 45 Tautozonal faces, Tellurium,test for,340 Tenacity, 193
,

Test paper, 330 Tetartohedral class, isometric system, 72

Stalactitic structure, 183 Stellated structure, 182 circles and scales, 36 Stereographic
32 projection,

literature of,44

hexagonal forms, 99, 108 isometric forms,

61

tetragonal system, forms, 22 85 Tetragonal bipyramidal class, 89 bisphenoidal class, 77 crystals, 86 pyramidal class, 88 scalenohedron, 87 sphenoidalclass,
symmetry, 11 system, 16, 77

89

tetragonal forms,
83

triclinic
146

forms,
forms,

monoclinic
137

orthorhombic

forms,126
protractor, 35, 39
247 Streak, 224 Strengthof double refraction, 176 Striations, 188 v. Percussion-figure, Strike-figure, 340 test for, Strontium,

Structure

of

minerals,182

Sublimate, 333, 334 247 Subtranslucent, 247 Subtransparent, 249 Subvitreous, test for, 340 Sulphates, 340 test for, Sulphides, 320 Sulpho-salts,
Sulphur, test for,340 Sulphurous odor, 310 Swellingup, 332 Symbol, chemical,312
27 crystallographic,

89 class, trapezohedral 89 trapezohedron, 58 trisoctahedron, 69 tristetrahedron, 66 Tetrahedral class, 66 hemihedral class, pentagonal dodecahedral 72 class, dodecahedron, 72 pentagonal s/ Tetrahedron, 67 Tetrahexahedron, 56 Tetravalent element,317 Theodolite goniometer,157 307 Thermo-electricity, Third-order prism,hexagonal system, 100 tetragonal system, 85 pyramid, hexagonal system, TOO tetragonal system 85 rhombohedron, 110 198 Thoulet solution, 340 Tin, test for, 340 Titanium, test for, 210 Total reflection, 219, 241 refractometer,

Tourmaline

tongs, 243

247 Translucent, Transparency, 247

702

GENERAL

INDEX

Transparent, 247 Trapezohedral class, hexagonal system,

102, 112 system, tetragonal
102 hemihedral class, 112 tetratohedral class, 58 Trapezohedron, 89

U
521 Ultra-blue, 191 Uneven fracture, 253 Uniaxial crystals,

behavior
253

of

light in,
of in

hexagonal, 102 89 tetragonal, 113 trigonal,

Tribasic acid,318 180 Trichite, Triclinic axes, 143
143 crystals,

determination
examination

tive refracgent conver-

254 indices,

polarized light,
examination
259 light,

in polarized
260 colors,

characters of, 295 optical

interference

system, 17, 143 symmetry, 115

114 Trigonalbipyramidal class, 103 class, 103 division,

270 opticalcharacters, positive and negative, 254 257 indicatrix, surface,255 wave Unit form, 30 Univalent element, 317 Uranium, test for,340 490 Uralitization,

hemihedral

103 class, 109 hemimorphic class,

prism, 103 pyramid, 103 114 pyramidal class,

symmetry, 11 system, 103
114 class, 114 hemimorphic class, 112 trapezohedralclass, trapezohedron,113 57 trisoctahedron, 69 trictetrahedron, Trigondodecahedron, 69 103 Trigonotype class, 164 Trilling, tetartohedral

Valence,317 340 Vanadium, test for, of light, 203 Velocity

relation to 208 Vicinal forms, 24 Vitreous luster, 209 W of crystallization, 320 Water-waves, 201 Wave-front,203 Wave-length,204 Wave-motion, 201 biaxial crystals, 273 Wave-surface, uniaxial crystals, 255
249 Waxy luster, Westphal balance,199 White light, 204

refractive

dex, in-

Trimorphous,325
Tripyramidal class, hexagonal system, 100 tetragonal system, 85
57 Trisoctahedron, Trirhombohedral
110 class, 69 Tristetrahedrons,

Water

Trivalent element, 317

56 Truncate,truncation, Tungsten,test for,340

Twin

160 crystals,

characters of,298 optical

188 Twinning,artificial,

axis,161 plane, 161

163 polysynthetic,

Widmanstatten

lines,356

repeated,163
165 secondary, 163 symmetrical, 165 Twins, isometric, 167 hexagonal, 170 monoclinic,

X-rays and crystalstructure, 25

169 orthorhombic,
419 spinel, 166 tetragonal,
'

340 Zinc,test for, test for, 341 Zirconium, 82 Zirconoid,

Zonal

172 triclinic, Two-circlegoniometer, 157

equations,46

Zone, 31
31 Zone-axis,

704
Red, Antimony, White, 409 409 Antimony oxides, 383 oxysulphide, 358 sulphide, 358 glance, Antimony 632 Antlerite, 595 Apatite, 604 Aphanese,Aphanesite, 440 Aphrite, 542 Aphrizite,
v.

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

Kermesite

621 Ascharite, Asmanite, 408 596 Asparagus-stone, 498 Aspasiolite, Asphaltum, 647 413 Asteria, 413 sapphire, 637 Astrakanite, 496 Astrolite, 585 Astrophyllite, Atacamite,400 606 Atelestite, 618 Atopite, 614 Attacolite, 522 Auerlite, 614 Augelite, Augite,477

I 1

449 Barytocalcite, 617 Baryturanit, 406 Basanite,

Bassanite,630
617 1Bassetite, 474, 573 Bastite, 449 Bastnasite, 579 Batchelorite, I 646 Bathvillite, 512 Batrachite, 386 Baumhauerite,

Asteriated quartz, 405

Bauxite,433
558 Bavenite, 612 Bayldonite, 540 Bazzite, 549 Beaumontite, 433 Beauxite, 638 Beaverite, 623 Bechilite, 540 Beckelite, 392 Beegerite,
v. Nephrite | Beilstein, 436 Beldongrite,

Aphrosiderite, 624 Aphthalose,

624 Aphthitalite, 637 Apjohnite, Aplome, 508 546 Apophyllite, Apotome, 627 495 Aquamarine, 604 Araeoxene, 446 Aragonite, 624 Arcanite, 539 Ardennite, 558 Arduinite, 531 Arendalite, 494 Arfvedsonite, 440 Argentine, 364 Argentite,

571

498 Auralite, 451 Aurichalcite, 357 Auripigmentum, 420 Automolite, 616 Autunite, 465 Aventurine feldspar,

631 Bellite,

quartz. 405
482 Ax-stone, 534 Axinite,
v.

Bell-metal ore, |
399 Belonesite,
582 Bementite, 585 Benitoite, I 615 Beraunite,

394

Argentobismutite,
dite
394 Argyrodite, 372 Arite, 418 Arizonite, 430 Arkansite, 354 Arquerite, 594 Armangite,

Matil-

356 Awaruite, 451 Azurite, B 493 Bababudanite,

491 Bergamaskite,
v. Bergblau,

Azurite

v. Quartz Bergkrystall, 556 Bergmannite,

485 Babingtonite, 435 Backstromite, 562 Saddeckite, 428 v. Aragonite, Jaddeleyite, Arragonite, 374 Jadenite, 44 O 533 Sagrationite, 592 ARSENATES, 477 Saikalite, 348 Arsenic, 581 Jakerite, White,409 Salas ruby, 419 349 Arsenical antimony,

v. Bergsalz,

Halite

579 Bergseife, v. Pittasphalt Bergtheer, 614 | Berlinite, v. Amber Bernstein,

386 Berthierite, 539 Bertrandite,

Beryl,495
423 Berylliumaluminate,
620 borate, 601 phosphate,

409" Arsenic oxide, 357 sulphide,

361 ARSENIDES, v. ArsenopyArsenikalkies, nte

573 Saltimorite,

526 Samlite, 458 Sarbierite, 440 3aricalcite, 625 iarite,

495, 496, 514, silicate, 529, 539

595 Beryllonite, 365 Berzelianite,

y. Arsenopy- Barium Arsenikkies,

carbonate, 447,

rite
606 Arseniopleite, 606 Arseniosiderite,
v. Arsenopyrite Arsenkies,

449 619 nitrate,

593 Berzeliite, 591 Betafite,

618 Beudantite,
'

403 460, 498, 549, Beta-quartz, silicate,

550, 555, etc.

625 sulphate,

617 Arsenobismite, 378 Arsenoferrite,

409 Arsenolite, 381 Arsenopyrite,

372 Beyrichite, 636 Bieberite,

v. Agalmatolite Bildstein,

617 ariumuranit,
494 arkevikite, 610 Barrandite, 523 Barsowite, 612 Barthite, 498 Barylite, 498 Barysilite,

637 Bilinite, 617 Bindheimite, 391 Binnite, 468 Biotine, Biotina,

ProusArsensilberblende, tite 453 Artinite,

v.

489, Asbestus, Asbestos,

573 493 Blue, 436 Asbolan, 436 Asbolite,
,

625 Barytes, Baryt, v. Barium Baryta,

563 Biotite, 581 Bisbeeite,

402 Bischofite, 410 Bismite, 349 IBismuth,

Baryta-feldspar, Baryta-orthoclase,

460 460

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

705
Bunsenite, 411
v. Bornite Buntkupfererz, 406 Burrstone, Bushmanite,637 484 Bustamite, v. Buttermilcherz, Cerargy-

Bismuth

arsenate, 606

carbonate,449, 454 oxide,410 401 oxychloride, 359 selenide, 504 silicate,

359 sulphide, 641 tellurate, 360 telluride,

BORATES, 619 Borax, 622 615 Borickite, Boric acid,435 Bomite, 374 Boron hydrate, 435 silicate, 522, 527
622 Boronatrocalcite,

rite 490 Byssolite, 467 Bytownite,

Bort, 345
575 Bostonite,

uranate, 617

vanadate, 594 glance,359 gold,350 ocher,410 Bismuthinite,359 Bismutite,454 387 Bismutoplagionite, Bismutosmaltite,380 449 Bismutosphaerite, v. Epsomite Bittersalz,
Bismuth Bismuth Bismuth Bitter spar, Dolomite
v. Bitterspath,

Bitumen, 646, 647 Bituminous coal,648

558 Bityite, 425 Bixbyite, 387 Bjelkite, Black jack,367 Black lead,347 477 Blanfordite, Blatter tellur, v. Nagyagite v. Vivianite Blaueisenerde, Bleiantimonglanz,v. Zinken-

ite
v. Galena Bleiglanz, v. BindBleinierite, Bleiniere,

heimite
363 Bleischweif, v. Anglesite Bleivitrol, Blende, 367

Blodite, 637
637 Bloedite, Bloedite,

Blomstrandine, 591

Bloodstone,405
Blue asbestus. 493 iron earth,608

John, 398 malachite,v. Azurite 636 vitriol,

Bobierrite,608
399 Bccumlerite, Boghead cannel,648 Bog-iron ore, 433 manganese, Bole, 579 436

609 Cabrerite, Cacholong, 408 Cacoxenite,614 Cadmia, 540 Cadmium 371 sulphide, Cadmium blende, v. Green371 ockite, Cadmium oxide,411 Caesium silicate, 470 580 v. Cenosite, Brannerite, 586 Cainosite, Brauneisenstein, v. LimonCairngorm stone, 405 ite 648 Caking coal, Calamine, 539, 445 Braunile,425 383 Braunstein,Grauer, v. Pyro- Calaverite, 440 Calc sinter, lusite Bravoite,378 spar, 438 Brazilian pebble,325 tufa,440 615 Calcioferrite, emerald, 542 448 Calciostrontianite, sapphire,542 604 428 Calciovolborthite, Brazilite, 438 Calcite, Bredbergite,508 Calcium arsenate, 610, etc. 490 Breislakite, 372 antimonate, 618 Breithauptite, 443 borate,620, 621, etc. Breunerite, carbonate,438, 446 Breunnerite,443 399 chloride, Brevicite,556 398 flouride, Brewsterite, 549 619 580 iodate, Britholite, Brittle silver ore, 392 molybdate, 643 niobate,587, etc. Brochantite, 632 619 623 nitrate, Broggerite, 644 oxalate, Bromargyrite, 397 401 oxyfluoride, BROMIDES, 397 phosphate, 595, 606, Bromlite, 447 611, etc. Bromyrite, 397 483, 467, etc. silicate, Brongnartine,632 387 629, 633, etc. sulphate, Brongniardite, 369 sulphide, Bronzite,472 587 Calcium tantalate, Brookite, 429 583, 586 titanate, Brown coal,648
'

Botryogen, 639 528 Botryolite, 387 Boulangerite, Bournonite, 388 637 Boussingaultite, Bowenite, 572 Bowmannite, 601 Brackebuschite,604 Bragite,588 566 Brandisite, Brandtite,607

Boleite,401

iron ore, 432 iron stone, 432 hematite, 432 ocher,432 spar, 443 Brucite, 434 453 Brugnatellite, 572 Brunsvigite,

tungstate, 642
632 Caledonite, 520 Californite, 610 Callainite, Calomel, 395

Bologna stone, 626

513 Boltonite, Bone-phosphate, 597 613 turquoise, 498 Bonsdorffite, Boort, 345

Campylite, 598 Canaanite, 476

Cancrinite, 501
501 sulphatic, 394 Canfieldite, 648 Cannel coal, Caoutchouc, Mineral, 647

Brushite, 611

Boothite, 636
620 Boracite,

Bucholzitef526 Bucklandite,532, 533

Buhrstone, 406

706
372 pyrites, Capillary 552 Caporcianite, 496 Cappelenite,
631 Caracolite, Carbon, 345 Carbonado, 345

INDEX

TO

SPECIES 579 Cimolite, Cinnabar, 370 Inflammable, 646 Cinnamon-stone, 507 606 Cirrolite, 405 Citrine, 393 Clarite, 409 Claudetite, 364 Clausthalite, Clay, et seq. 578 416 Clay iron-stone, Brown, 433 465 Cleavlandite, Cleiophane,368 623 Cleveite, 434 Cliachite, 347 Cliftonite, 569 Clinochlore, 604 Ch'noclase, 604 Clinoclasite,
477 Clinoenstatite, 540 Clinohedrite, Clinohumite,536 532 Clinozoisite, 566 Clintonite, CLINTONITE Group, 566 Coal, Mineral, 647, 648 Cobalt arsenate, 607, 608 carbonate,446, 453 arsenide,378, 379, 380, 381 641 selenite, 378 sulph-arsenide, sulphate,636 378 sulphide, Cobalt bloom, 608 Cobalt glance,v. Cobaltite Cobaltine,379 379 Cobaltite, 378 Cobaltnickelpyrite, Cobaltoadamite, 604 441 Cobaltocalcite, Cobaltomenite, 641 477 Coccolite, 362 Cocinerite, Cockscomb Pyrite,380 627 Crelestine, 614 Coeruleolactite, Cohenite, 356 Coke, 648 Colemanite, 621 583 Colerainite, v. Celestite Cb'lestine, 620 Collbranite, 606 Collophanite, 580 Collyrite, Colophonite,508, 520

Chalmersite, 366

Chalybite,443 Chamoisite,Chamosite, 572 Chathamite, 378

Chemawinite, 645 Chenevixite, 616

CARBONATES,
585 Carlosite,

436

Carminite, 594 401 Carnallite,

468 Carnegieite, 405 Carnelian, Carneol,v. Carhelian

Chert, 406 Chessy copper, 451 Chessylite, 461 Chesterlite, 525 Chiastolite,
Childrenite,615
362 Chilenite, 643 Chillagite, 400 Chiolite, 385 Chiviatite, 472 Chladnite,

451

Caraotite,617
540 Carpholite, 639 Carphosiderite, 374 Carrollite, 593 Caryinite, 496 Caryocerite, 582 Caryopilite, 425 Cassiterite, Castanite,639

Chloanthite,378
399 Chloralluminite, 595 Chlor-apatite, 397 Chlorargyrite, v. Cotunnite Chlorblei, CHLORIDES, 395 568 Chlorite, CHLORITE Group, 568 567 Chloritoid, v. Chloritoid Chloritspath, 399 Chlormanganokalite, 399 Chlorocalcite, Chloromagnesite,399 482 Chloromelanite, 582 Chloropal, 571 Chlorophseite, Chlorophane, 398 498 Chlorophyllite, mel CaloChlorquecksilber, v
'

Castor,CastorHe, 455
565 Caswellite, 496 Catapleiite, 498 Cataspilite, 580 Catlinite, 618 Catoptrite, Cat's eye, 405, 424 Cauk, Cawk, 626 518 Cebollite, 577 Celadonite, 627 Celestine, 627 Celestite, 460 Celsian, 580 Cenosite, 397 Cerargyrite, 540 Cerite, Cerium carbonate, 449 399 fluoride, 587 niobates, phosphates, 593,609,etc. etc. silicates, 533,540,585, 616 Ceruleite, 448 Cerussite, 410 Cervantite, 424 Cesarolite, 410 Ceylanite, Ceylonite, 552 Chabazite, 636 Chalcanthite, 405 Chalcedony, 366 Chalcocite, 572 Chalcodite, 587 Chalcolamprite, 641 Chalcomenite, 435 Chalcophanite, 612 Chalcophyllite, 374 Chalcopyrite, 616 Chalcosiderite, 366 Chalcosine, 386 Chalcostibite, 411 Chalcotrichite, 440 Cfcalk,

419 Chlorospinel, Chlorsilber v. Cerargyrite 601 Chondrarsenite, Chondrodite,536 Chrismatine, Chrismatite, 645 468 Christianite, 408 Christobalite, 368 Christophite, CHROMATES, 630, etc. 476 diopside, 419 spinel, Chromeisenstein, v. Chrom-

Chrome Chrome

ite Chromic

423 iron, Chromite, 423

423 Chromitite,

Chromium

oxide,423

575 French,

639 sulphate, 374 sulphide, 423 Chrysoberyl, 581 Chrysocolla, 511 Chrysolite, CHRYSOLITE Group, 510 405 Chrysoprase, 573 Chrysotile, 609 Churchite,

Coloradoite, 369
COLUMBATES
587
V.

NlOBATES.

Columbite, 588

Comptonite,558
579 Confolensite, 612 Conichalcite,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

707
401 Daviesite, Davyne, 501 Dawsonite, 452 Dechenite,604 Deeckeite,518 571 Delessite, 645 Delatynite, 586 Delorenzite, 531 Delphinite, Delvauxite,615 Demant, v. Diamond, 508 618 Derbylite,

Connarite,577
Connellite,631

517 Couseranite,
371 Covellite, 601 Crandallite, Creedite,402 424 Crednerite, 546 Crestmoreite, 417 Crichtonite, 408 Cristobalite, Crocalite,556 493 Crocidolite, 630 Crocoite, Cromfordite,v. Phosgenite 571 Cronstedtite,

Cookeite,563 645 Copal, Fossil, Copaline,Copalite,645 638 Copiapite, Copper, 353 Emerald, v. Dioptase
515

Gray, 390 Indigo, v.

371

Covellite,

345

Demantoid,

Native, 353 Red, v. Cuprite,410 Copper, Vitreous,v. Chalco366 cite, Yellow, 374 Copper arsenate, 603, 604, 612, etc. 362 arsenide, carbonate,450, 451 395, 400 chloride,
manganate,
395 iodide, 619 nitrate, oxides,410, 424

Crookesite, 365
493 Crossite, 399 Cryolite, 400 Cryolithionite, 363 Cryophyllite, 593 Cryptolite, 460 Cryptoperthite, Cuban, 374 Cubanite, 374

Derbyshire spar, 398

604 Descioizite,

Cube ore, ite Cube spar,

v.

Pharmacosider-

v.

Anhydrite

572 Culsageeite, Cumengite, 401 Cummingtonite, 489 phosphates,603, 612, 410 etc. Cuprite, 365 Cuproadamite, 604 selenides, 641 Cuprobismutite,385 selenite, 604 Cuprodescloizite, silicates, 515, 581 635 Cuprogoslarite, sulphantimonate,393 386 et Cupromagnesite, 636 sulphantimonites, Cuproplumbite, 364 seq. 643 393 Cuproscheelite, sulpharsenates, 643 Cuprotungstite, sulpharsemte,386 Cuspidine,535 drous, sulphates,630, 632; hy412 400 oxychlorides, 636
et seq. et seq.

Custerite,497

sulphides, 366, 371, 374

386 sulpho-bismuthites,

tungstate, 643

vanadates, 604 Copper glance,366 Copper mica, 616 372 Copper nickel, 374 Copper pyrites, 616 Copper uranite, 636 Copper vitriol, Copperas, 636 597 Coprolites, Coquimbite, 637 497 Cordierite, 449 Cordylite, Gorkite, 618 612 Cornwallite,
Coronadite, 424
571 Corundophilite, 413 Corynite,379 Cosalite,387 494 Cossyri'te,

Cyanite,526 Cyanochroite,637 638 Cyanotrichite, 468 Cyclopite, 394 Cylindrite, Cymatolite,481

Desmine, 551 618 Destinezite, Dewalquite, 539 Deweylite,575 Diabantite,571 Diadochite,618 477 Diallage, 444 Dialogite, Diamant, 345 Diamond, 345 Bristol, Lake Diamond, George, 405 Dianite,589 387 Diaphorite, Diaspore,431 434 Diasporogelite, Diatomite, 409 Dichroite,.497 607 Dickinsonite, Didymolite,497 637 Dietrichite, 619 Dietzeite, 605 Dihydrite, Diopside,476 Dioptase,515 Dipyre, 517 566 Disterrite, Disthene,526
Dixenite, 581

Cymophane,
522 Cyrtolite,

423

Cyprine, 519 Cyprusite,639

Dahllite, 597

Damourite, 561 Danaite, 382

Danalite, 504 Danburite, 522

Dog-tooth spar, 439 632 Dolerophanite, Dolomite, 442 Domeykite, 362 Domingite, 387 Doppelspath, v. Calcite 646 Dopplerite, Double-refracting spar, Doughtyite, 638 402 Douglasite,
Dreelite,626

Corundum,

Dannemorite, 489 Darapskite,619 527 Datholite,

Datolite,527 Daubreeite, Daubreite,401 Daubreelite, 374

Dry-bone, 445 Dudleyite,572 605 Dufreniberaunite,

Dufrenite, 605
387 Dufrenoysite,

Dumortierite, 543 Dundasite, 452

Durangite, 601
Durdenite, 641

Cotunnite,399

Davidsonite,496

708
586 Dysanalyte, 361 Dyscrasite, 420 Dysluite, 646 Dysodile, 485 Dyssnite, 500, 562 Dysyntribite,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES FELDSPAR Blue

394 Epiboulangerite,

Group, 456
v.

Group, 530 Epidote,531 394 Epigenite, 549 Epistilbite, E 592 Epistolite, 635 Epsom salt, Ecdemite, 618 635 Epsomite, 558 Echellite, 588, 591 niobate,, Erbium 582 Ectropite, Pisolite v. Erbsenstein, ficume de Mer, 576 Erdkobalt, v. Asbolite 535 Edelite, 580 Erikite, 490 Edenite, 605 Erinite, 555 Edingtonite, 558 Erionite, 520 Egeran, 374 Erubescite, 401 Eglestonite, 608 Erythrite, 615 Egueiite, 402 Erythrosiderite, 432 Ehrenwerthite, 498 Esmarkite, 605 Ehlite, Esmeraldaite,433 385 Eichbergite, 507 Essonite, 620 Eichwaldite, 640 Ettringite, Eisen,v. Iron 365 Eucairite, Vivianite v. Eisenblau, 611 Euchroite, v. Flos ferri Eisenbliithe, 529 Euclase, Hematite v. Eiaenglanz, 496 Eucolite, Eisenglimmer,v. Hematite 584 Eucolite-titanite, v. Pyrite Eisenkies, 500 PentlandEucryptite, v. Eisenniekelkies, 496 Eudialyte, ite Eudidymite, 455 Eisenrahm, v. Hematite Eudyalite,496 v. Hematite Eisenrosen, Eugenglanz, v. Polvbasite v. Siderite Eisenspath, 365 621 Eukairite, Eisenstassfurtite, Euklas, 529 v. Rhyacolite Eisspath, Eulytine,504 Eisstein. v. Cryolite 504 Eulytite, Ekdemite, 618 596 499 Eupyrchroite, Elseolite, 571 647 Euralite, Elaterite,
EPIDOTE 350 Electrum, 344 Elements, 499 Eleolite, 615 Eleonorite, 496 Elpidite, Embolite,397 387 Embrithite, 501 Facellite, 390 Fahlerz, 498 Fahlunite, 607 Fairfieldite, 390 Palkenhaynite,
v.

Epichlorite, 558 Epidesmine, 455 Epididymite,

571

Feldspar,Baryta,460
Lazulite

Common, 457 458 Glassy, Labrador,466

Lime, 467 Potash, 457, 460
Soda, 464

Felsobanyite,639 Felspar,v. Feldspar Ferganite,609 Fergusonite,588 Fermorite, 597

Fernandinite, 609

FERRATES, 418 611 Ferrazite, 644 Ferritungstite,

487 Ferroanthophyllite,
434 Ferrobrucite, 441 Ferrocalcite,

379 Ferrocobaltite,
635 Ferrogoslarite, 638 Ferronatrite,

Feuerblende

633 Ferropallidite, v. Pyrostilpnite,

639 Fibroferrite, 526 Fibrolite, 645 Fichtelite, 401 Fiedlerite, 607 Fillowite, 409 Fiorite, Fire opal,408 marble, 356 Fireblende, v. Pyrostilpnite, 390 613 Fischerite, 646 Flagstaffite, 618 Flajolotite,

Fleches d'amour,
606 Flinkite, 406 Flint, 409 Float-stone, 552 Flokite, 601 Florencite,

427

604 Eusynchite,
et seq.

Euxenite,591 Evansite,614

Flos

446 ferri,

402 Fluellite, 399 Fluocerite, Fluor v. Fluorite, 595 Fluor-apatite,

Emerald,495 413 Oriental, 508 Uralian,

Emerald
515 copper,

False Galena. Dioptase,

367

Fluor spar, 398

Emerald

453 nickel,

Emery, 410 Emmonsite, 641 386 Emplectite, 383 Empressite, 393 Enargite, 587 Endeiolite,

393 Famatinite, 578 Faratsihite, 556 ?argite, v. Fibrolite ?aserkiesel,

v. Natrolite ?aserzeolith,

FLUORIDES, 398
398 Fluorite,
v. Flusspath,

et seq.

Foliated

Fluorite tellurium v.

Nag-

yagite,383
Pontainebleau
631 Footeite, 611 ?orbesite, 513 ?orstereite, 439 limestone,

477 ?assaite, 555 Faujasite,

"ava,

428

513 v. Bournonite Fayalite, Endellionite, 388 v. ^eather-alum, 598 ite Endlichite, 472 Enstatite, 615 Eosphorite, 387 feather-ore,

Halotrich-

Fossil copal,645

wood, 405, 408

615 ^oucherite,

v. Jamesonite ^edererz,

Fouqueite. 532

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

709
507 Grossular, Grossularite,

484 Fowlerite, Franckeite,394 596 Francolite, 420 Franklinite, Fraueneis,v. Selenite Frauenglas,v. Mica 391 Fredricite, 390 Freibergite, 387 Freieslebenite,

GERMANATES, 394 379 Gersdorffite, Geyerite,381

409 Geyserite,

Gibbsite,435 Gieseckite, 500, 562 Gigantolite, 498, 562

561 Gilbertite, 640 Gilpinite, 647 Gilsonite, 453 Giorgiosite," Gips, v. Gypsum 408 Girasol, Gismondine, 552 Gismondite, 552

Grothine,545 Grothite,584 Griinbleierz,v. phite

490 Griinerite,

Pyromor-

Griineisenerde, v, Dufrenite
360 Griinlingite, 369 Guadalcazarite, Guanajuatite,359 Guano, 597 525 Guarinite, 386 Guejarite, Guitermanite,388

Fremontite, 602
French chalk,576 359 Frenzelite,

Friedelite,515
367 Frieseite, Fuchsite,561 Fuggerite,518 Furaacite,604

Gummierz,

v.

Gummite

Glance

coal, 648

Cobalt, v. Colbaltite Copper, v. Chalcocite Glanzeisenerz, v. Hematite Glaserite,v. Aphthitalite Glaskopf,Brauner, v. Limonite

Gummite, 624 Gymnite, 575 Gypsum, 633 546 Gyrolite,

529 Gadolinite, Gageite, 582

Rother,

v.

Hematite

Gahnite, 420

Gajite,453 556 Galactite, 579 Galapectite, Galena, Galenite,363 Galena, False,367 Galenobismutite,386 Galmei, v. Calamine Ganomalite, 498 546 Ganophyllite, Garnet, 505 Cinnamon, 507 Chrome, 417 Grossalur,507 507 Oriental, Precious,507 Tetrahedral,v. Helvite White, v. Leucite
Garni erite,575
493 Gastaldite, Gavite, 576 Gay-Lussite,452

Glassy Feldspar,458 Glauber salt, 632 Glauberite,625 513 Glaucochroite, Glaucodot, 382 517 Glaucolite, Glauconite,577 Glaucophane, 492 Glaukodot, 382 645 Glessite, Glimmer, v. Mica 615 Globosite, 639 Glockerite, Glucinum, v. Beryllium
Gmelinite, 554

Haarkies,v. Millerite Haarsalz,v. Epsomite Hackmanite, 502 Hematite, v. Hematite 610 Haidingerite, Hair salt, 635 Halite,395 562 Hallerite, 572 Hallite, 578 Halloysite,
Halotrichite,637

Hamartite, 449 Hambergite, 620 Hamlinite, 601

Hancockite, 533
Hanks!

Goethite,431
Gold, 350
391 Goldfieldite, Gold tellurides, 382, 383 Gonnardite, 557 Goshenite,496

Hannaite, HaMfouite,
Harl. Harmotomc

611

498

Goslarite, 635

Gearksutite, 402

Gedanite, 645 Gedrite,487

Gehlenite, 518 586 Geikielite,
v. Tripe stone Gekrosstein, v. Wulfenite Gelbbleierz,

Gothite,431 Goyazite,616
Graftonite, 594

535 Harstigite, Hartite,645 601 Harttite, 491 Hastingsite, Hatchettine, Hatchettite, 645

Grahamite, 647 Gramenite, Graminite, 582 Grammatite, 489 Granat, v. Garnet

Grandiderite, 544

Hatchettolite,587

Hauchecornite,372
Hauerite, 378

Gelbeisenerz, v. Jarosite

Haughtonite, 564
Hausmannite,
424 608 Hautefeuillite, Hauyne, 503 503 Haiiynite, Haydenite, 552 Heavy spar, 625 Hebronite, 602 Hedenbergite, 476 Hedyphane, 598 622 Heiiitzite,

Gelbeisenstein,v.
siderite

Xantho-

Genthite, 575
646 Geocerellite, 646 Geocerite,

Graphic tellurium. 382 Graphite,347 Gray antimony, 358

copper, Green 390 577 Greenalite,

Georceixite, 601 Geocronite, 392

lead ore, 597

Geomyricite,646 594 Georgiadesite,

Geraesite,601 Gerhardtite, 619**

Greenockite,371 Greenovite,584 Grenat, v. Garnet

572 Griffithite, 500 Griphite,

Heliodor,495

710
618 Heliophyllite,
405 Heliotrope, 540 Hellandite, 504 Helvine, Helvite, Hemafibrite,611 Hematite, 415 Brown, 432

INDEX

TO

SPECIES
546 Inesite,

396 Huantajayite, 642 Hiibnerite, 612 Hiigelite,

492 Hudsonite, 571 Hullite, 622 Hulsite,
'

Inflammable cinnabar, 646 Infusorial earth, 409

622 Inyoite,

lodate of

619 calcium, 397 lodembolite,

Humboltine, 645
518 Humboldtilite, Humboldtite,528

Hematogel,434
Hematolite,606
606 Hematostibiite, Hemimorphite,539 Henwoodite,616 Hepaticcinnabar, 370 420 Hercynite,

Humite, 536
362 Huntilite, 386 Hutchinsonite,

Hureaulite,611
592 Hussakite, Hyacinth,521,507 409 Hyalite, Hyalophane,460 511 Hyalosiderite, 498 Hyalotekite, 435 Hydrargillite, 440 Hydrauliclimestone, 623 Hydroboracite,

Herderite,601
638 Herrengrundite, 552 Herschelite,

Hessite,365 507 Hessonite, 435 Hetaerolite,

425 Heterocline, 387 Heteromorphite,

Heulandite,548 Hewattite,611 Hexahydrite,637

612 Hibbenite,

HYDROCARBONS,

645

Hibschite,540
591 Hjelmit, Hielmite, 400 Hieratite, 481 Hiddenite, 645 Highgateresin, 604 Hipgensite, 546 Hillebrandite, v. RhodochroHimbeerspath, site 618 Hinsdalite, 622 ^jabzeitc, Hiortdah'.u

452 Hydrocerussite, 538 Hydroclinohumite, 630 Hydrocyanite, 435 Hydrofranklinite, 433 Hydrogothite, 453 Hydrogiobertite, 433 Hydrohematite, Hydromagnesite,452 Hydromica, 561 Hydromuscovite,561 558 Hydronephelite, Hydrophane, 408 399 Hydrophilite, 435 Hydrotalcite, 558 Hydrothomsonite,
'

IODIDES,397 397 lodobromite, 397 lodyrite, 497 lolite, Hydrous, 498 355 Iridium, 355 Iridosmine, Iron,Chromic,v. Chromite Magnetic, 420 356 Meteoric, Native,356 v. Hematite Oligist, Iron aluminate, 420 arsenates, 608,609, etc. 381 arsenides, 356 carbide, 443 carbonate, 399 chlorides, chromate,423 columbate,588 420 ferrate, hydrates, 431,432 588 niobate, 528 oxalate, oxide, 415, 420; hydrated,431, 432 phosphates, 605, 608,
"

610 etc.

silicates, 513, 538, 571,

572 386 sulphantimonite, 381 sulpharsenide, sulphates, 636,637,638,
etc.

596 Hydroxyapatite, 451 Hydrozincite, Hypersthene,473 551 Hypostiibite, 608 Hoernesite,

sulphides, 369,373,377,
381

Hohmannite, 639 630 Hokutolite, 424 Hollandite,

493 Holmquistite,
v. Wood-opal Holzopal, v. Woodtin Holzzinnerz, 529 Homilite,

498 Iberite, 411 Ice, Ice spar,

v.

Rhyacolite

Iceland spar, 439

512 Iddingsite, 519 Idocrase, 435 Igelstromite, 638 Ihleite, 634 Ilesite, 417 Illmenite,

Honey-stone, 646 v. Honigstein, Idrialite,

Mellite
607 Hopeite,

magnetic,373 588 tantalates, tellurite,.641 titanates, 417, 424 tungstates,641, 644 Iron alum, 637 Iron natrolite, 556 Iron pyrites, 377 Magnetic,373 White, 380
563 Irvingite, 427 Iserine, 611 Isoclasite, 458 Isothose, 417 Itabirite, 406 Itacolumite,

Horn quicksilver, 395 Horn silver, 397

v. Phosgenite Hornblei, 490 Hornblende, 397 Hornesit, Hornsilber, 406 Hornstone,

427 Ilmenorutile,
538 Hvaite, 490 Imerinite, 647 Impsonite, 579 Indianaite, 467 Indianite. 542 Indicolite, .542 Indigolite.

Ixiolitc

Horse-flesh ore, 374

362 Horsfordite, 513 Hortonolite, 621 Howlite,

Jacobsite, Jade,482: 489

B

"

712
643 Lead tungstate,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

385 Livingstonite,

vanadates, 598, 604

363 Lead glance, v. Anglesite Lead vitriol, 631 Leadhillite, 632 Lecontite, 554 Ledererite, 584 Lederite, 362 Ledouxite,

Lodestone, 421 Loeweite, 637

Loewigite,640 381 Lollingite,

Lorandite, 386 Loranskite, 591
586 Lorenzenite,

Manandonite, 563 MANGANATES, 418 Manganandalusite, 524 Manganapatite, 596 Manganblende, v. Alabandite Manganbrucite, 434 Manganchlorite, 569 Manganepidote, v. Piedmontite

Lehrbachite,365
388 Lengenbachite, 572 Lennilite, Leonhardite, 552 Leonite,637

Lorettoite,401 Lossenite, 619 Lotrite,546 Loweite, 637

Manganese antimonate, 606 arsenates, 601, 606 carbonate, 444

378 disulphide, 432, 435 hydrates,

397 Leopoldite, 432 Lepidocrocite, Lepidolite,.562 Lepidomelane,565 468 Lepolite, 638 Lettsomite,, 477 Leucaugite, 569 Leuchtenbergite,

Lowigite,640 458 Loxoclase, 439 Lublinite,

Lucinite, 610

Leucite,469 Leucochalcite,612

Leucomanganite, 607 646 Leucopetrite, 496 Leucophanite, 538 Leucophoenicite, 381 Leucopyrite, 585 Leucosphenite, Leucoxene, 418 554 Levynite,
Lewisite, 618 Libethenite,603

Luckite,636 Ludlamite, 614 Ludwigite,620 545 Luigite, Lumachelle, 440 619 Liineburgite, 405 Lussatite, 407 Lutecite, Luzonite,393 Lydian stone, 406
M

niobate,588 oxides, 411, 424, 425, 427, 430, 432, 435 phosphates, 594, 600, 484, 513, 582, silicates,
etc.

633, 636 sulphates, 369, 378 sulphide, 588 tantalate, 418 titanate,
tungstate, 642

Manganfayalite, 513 Manganglanz v. Alabandite v. SpessarMangangranat,

tite

500, 562 Liebenerite, 454 Liebigite, 538 Lievrite, 648 Lignite, 584 Ligurite, 388 Lillianite, Lime, v. Calcium Lime-mesotype, 557 515 Lime uranite, Limestone,440 Hydraulic,440 Magnesian, 442 Limonite,432 632 Linarite, 618 Lindackerite, 374 Linnaeite,

Mackintoshite,529 Made, 525 Maconite, 572 420 Magnesioferrite, Magnesioludwigite,620 Magnesite, 443 Magnesium aluminate,419
arsenate, 608

476 Manganhedenbergite,

borate,621, 622 carbonates, 443, 452,

453 420 ferrate, 399 fluoride, 434 hydrate,

Manganite, 432 Manganmagnetite, 420 Manganocalcite, 441, 444 Manganocolumbite, 589 Manganophyllite, 564 Manganosiderite, 444 Manganosite, 411 Manganospherite, 444 Manganostibiite,606 Manganotantalite, 589 Manganpectolite, 483 Manganspath) v. Rhodochrc
site

608, Mangantantalite, 588 611 Mangan-vesuvianite, 520 473, Marble, 440 etc.; 472, silicates, Verd-antique,573 513, 536, 573, 576 Marcasite, 380' sulphates, 633, 635 586 Marceline,425, 485 titanate, iron 420 Margarite, 566 Liroconite ore, v. Magnetic Linsenkupfer, 373 Margarodite, 561 557 Magnetic pyrites, Lintonite, Margarosanite, 498 615 Magnetite, 420 Liroconite, 518 Marialite, v. 614 Magnetkies, Pyrrhotite Liskeardite, 420 Lithia mica, 562 Marignacite,587 Magnoferrite, 565 v. Mariposite, Lepido- Malachite,450 Lithionglimmer, lite Marmatite, 368 Blue,v. Azurite 594 Marmolite, 573 Green,450 Lithiophilite, Lithium 476 Marshite, 395 phosphates,594. Malacolite, 602 522 Marsjakskite,577 Malacon, 611 Martinite, silicates 350 480, 500, 562 Maldonite, 391 Martite, 417 Lithographic stone,440 Malinowskite, 578 636 Mascagnite, 624 Lithomarge, Mallardite,
387 Liveingite,

oxides, 411, 434 phosphates, 600,

Maltha, 646

467 Maskelynite,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

713
Monite, 606 Monrolite,526 Montanite, 641 513 Monticellite,
579 Montmorillonite,

626 Michei-levyte, 460 Maxite, 631 Microcline, Microcosmic 611 Mazapilite,615. salt, 587 Meerschaum, 576 Microlite, Meionite, 516 Microsonunite,501 460 Melaconite, 412 Microperthite, 467 Melanglanz, v. Stephanite Microphyllite, 467 Melanite, 508 Microplakite, Melanocerite,496 Miersite,397 Melanophlogite,408 Miesite,598 Melanotekite, 539 Mikroklin,460 455 Melanterite, 636 Milarite, 518 Milky quartz, 405 Melilite, 372 Melinophane, v. Meliphan- Millerite, 630 ite Millosevichite, Mimetene, Mimetesite, 598 Meliphanite,496 Melite, 580 Mimetite, 598 Mellate of aluminium, 645 Minasite,614 Minasragrite,641 Mellite,645 Mineral caoutchouc, 647 Meionite, 382 Mineral coal,647 Menaccanite, 417 646 oil, Mendipite, 401 pitch,647Mendozite, 637 645 resin, Meneghinite, 391 408 tallow,645 Menilite, tar, v. Pittasphalt Mennige, v. Minium 645 Mercurammonite, 395 wax, Minguetite, 572 Mercury, 354 Minium, 424 Horn, 395 632 Mirabilite, Native, 354 Misenite, 631 Mercury antimonite,618 3Q5 Mispickel,381 chloride, 369 Misy, 638 selenides, 423 369, 370 Mitchellite, sulphides, 369 Mixite, 617 sulpho-selenide, 369 Mizzonite,517 telluride, Mocha stone, v. Moss agate Mercury amalgam, 354 Mock lead,291 Meroxene, 564 443 Moissanite, 356 Mesitite, Mohawkite, 362 Mesitinspath,v. Mesitite 585 Molengraaffite, Mesole, v. Thorn sonite

Masonite, 567 Massicot, 412 386 Matildite, Matlockite,401 Maucherite, 362 Mauzeliite,618

Mica, Magnesia, 563, 565 Potash, 560 Soda, 562 Vanadium, 565
Micaceous
iron ore, 415

Montroydite, 412 Moonstone, 458, 465 Moravite, 571 Mordenite, 548 Morencite, 582 Morenosite, 635 Morganite, 495 Morion, 405 Moroxite, 596 Mosandrite, 585 Mosesite, 402
Moss

agate, 405

Mossite,590 Mottramite, 604 Mountain cork,490

490 leather, soap, 578 645 tallow, wood, 490 582 Miillerite, Mullanite,388 Muller's glass, 409 608 Mullicite, Mundic, v. Pyrite Murchisonite,458

Muscovite, 560
562 Muscovy glass, Mussite, 478 Muthmannite, 383

"

v. Gothite Nadeleisenerz, Nadelerz,v. Aikinite v. Natrolite Nadelzeolith, Nadorite,618 Naegite,522 Nagyagite, 383

Nailhead

spar, 439

Mesolite, 557
556 Messelite, 607

v, Molybdanbleispath,

Wul-

Nantokite,395 Napalite,645 Naphtha, 646

Narsarsukite, 585

Mesotype,

fenite

Molybdanglanz,

v.

denite Molyb-

Metabrushite, 611 Metachinabarite, 369 Metahewettite, 611 Metastibnite, 359

Meta-torbernite

I, 616

Metavoltine, 639

Metaxite, 575 Meteoric iron,356

Mexican
onyx,

440

MOLYBDATES, 641 360 Molybdenum sulphide, 410 trioxide, Molybdenite, 360 Molybdic ocher,410 Molybdite, 410 Molybdomenite, 641 498 Molybdophyllite,
502 Molybdosodalite,

Nasonite, 498 NATIVE ELEMENTS, 344 Natramblygonite, 602 Natrium, v. Sodium 622 Natroborocalcite,
Natrochalcite, 638 Natrolite,556
640 Natrojarosite, Natromontebrasite,602

Natron, 452
594 Natrophilite,

622 Meyerhofferite,

Miargyrite,386 MICA Group, 559 Mica, Iron, 563, 565 Lime, 566 Lithia,562

Molysite,399
Monazite, 593

Naumannite, 364 Needle ironstone, 432

Needle Needle
556
ore,
v.

Monetite, 606 Monheimite, 445 Monimolite, 593

Aikinite

v. zeolite,

Natrolite,

714
Nemalite,434 Neocolemanite,621
Neotantalite,587 Neotocite,485, 582
499 Nepheline, 499 Nephelite, Nephrite,489 Nepouite,575 Neptunite,585 Nesquehonite,452 Nevyanskite,355

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

532 Oisanite,

Paposite,639
Paracelsian, 460
645 Paraffin, Paragonite,562 Parahopeite,607 401 Paralaurionite, Paraluminite,639 Paramelaconite, 412 621 Parasite, 608 Paravivianite,
"

Okenite, 546 Oldhamite, 369

iron Oligist
v.

Hematite

466 Oligoclase, 444 Oligonite, v. Olivenite Olivenerz,

Olivenite,603
511 Olivine, Omphacite, 477 Oncosin, 561 369 Onofrite, Onyx, 406 Mexican, 440 Onyx marble, 440 440 Oolite, Opal, 408 409 Opal jasper, 573 Ophicalcite, 573 Ophiolite, Ophite, 575 Orangite,522 Oriental alabaster, 440 amethyst, 413 emerald, 413 ruby, 413

428 Paredrite, 490 Pargasite, 449 Parisite, Parophite,562 Parrot coal, 648 510 Partschinite, Pascoite,609 Passauite,517

Newberyite, 611 Newtonite, 579 372 Niccolite,

446 Nicholsonite, Nickel antimonide,372

arsenates,609

arsenides, 372,378, 382 carbonate,453 411 oxides, 575 silicate, 379 sulphantimonide, sulpharsenide, 379, 382 635 sulphate, sulphides, 369,372,373 382 telluride, Nickelantimonglanz, v. Ullmaimite GersNickelarsenikglanz, v. dorffite
575 Nickel-gymnite, 380 Nickel-skutterudite, 427 Nigrine, 647 Nigrite,

Paternoite. 621
361 Patronite, Peacock Ore, 374 Pearceite,393 Pearl sinter, 409 441 Pearl-spar, Peat, 648 405 Pebble, Brazilian, Pechblende, Percherz, v.

topaz, 413
582 Orientite, Orpiment, 357 533 Orthite, 457 Orthoclase, Orthose,v. Orthoclase 360 Oruetite,

Uraninite

Osannite, 494

NIOBATES,587
Niter,619 Niter,Soda, 619

Osmelite,483 Osmiridium, 355

Osmium 379 sulphide,
596 Osteolite, Otavite,452 567 Ottrelite, Ouvarovite,508 Owenite, 572 3XALATES, 644 Oxammite, 644 3xiDEs, 402

NITRATES,619
619 Nitrobarite, 619 Nitrocalcite, 619 Nitroglauberite, 619 Nitromagnesite, 623 Nivenite, 401 Nocerite, 582 Nontronite, 620 Nordenskipldine, 544 Nordmarkite, 450 Northupite, 503 Nosean,' 503 Noselite, Noumeite,575 Nussierite, 598

3XYCHLORJDES,400
3XYFLUORIDES,
400 61 Dxykertschenite, 383 DXYSULPHIDES, 557 3zarkite, 645 Ozocerite,

Peckhamite, 474 483 Pectolite, Peganite,613 579 Pencil-stone, 401 Penfieldite, Pennine, 570 Penninite,570 369 Pentlandite, 498 Peplolite, 401 Percylite, 411 Periclase, 465 Pericline, Peridot,511 465 Peristerite, 460 Perthite, 586 Perofskite, Perovskite,586 Perowskit, 586 455 Petalite, Petrified wood, 406
646 Petroleum, 365 Petzite, 501 Phacelite, Phacellite, 553 hacolite, 610 Pharmacolite, 614 Pharmacosiderite,

Ocher, Brown, 432 Red, 415 Ochrolite, 618

428 Octahedrite,

Odontolite 613
(Eilde
424 chat, 561 (Ellacherite, 554 Offretite,

Mineral Oil,

402 Pachnolite, Pagodite,562 622 Paigeite, 484 Paisbergite, 607 Palaite, Palladium, 355 610 Palmerite, 640 Palmierite, Panabase,v. Tetrahedrite

514 Phenacite, 561 Phengite, 572 Philadelphite, 491 Philipstadite, 638 Phillipite, 550 Phillipsite, Phlogopite,565 630 3hoenicite, 630 Phcenicochroite,

646

621 Pandermite,

578 Pholerite,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

715
389 Pyrargyrite, 508 Pyreneite, Pyrgom, 477 377 Pyrite, .Pyrites, v. ArsenoArsenical, 381 pyrite, 372 Capillary, Cockscomb, 380 Copper, 374

Pholidolite

577

508 Polyadelphite, 562 Polyargite, 393 Polyargyrite, 601 Polyarsenite, 392 Polybasite,

Phosgenite,450 PHOSPHATES, 592 601 Phosphoferrite, Phosphorite,596 618 Phosphophyllite,

v. Phosphorsalz,

Polycrase,591
498 Polychroilite, 373 Polydymite, 637 Polyhalite, 563 Polylithionite,

Stercorite

610 Phosphosiderite, Phosphuranylite,617 485 Photicite, 567 Phyllite, 523 Physalite, 615 Picite, 637 Pickeringite, 419 Picotite, 532 Picroepidote,

Iron,377

Polymignite,591
598 Polysphaerite,

573 Picrolite, Picromerite,637 607 Picropharmacolite, 417 Picrotitanite,

Piedmontite, 532
479 Pigeonite, 620 Pinakiolite, Pinguite,582 Pinite, 562, 498 Pinnoite,622 609 Pintadoite, 576 Piotine,

Pirssonite,452
636 Pisanite, 440 Pisolite, 531 Pistacite, 443 Pistomesite, Pitchblende,623 646 Pittasphalt, 618 Pitticite,

Placodine,3r"2 374 Plagioclase, 38T7 Plagionite,

Plancheite, 515
639 Planoferrite, Plasma, 405 634 Plaster of Paris, 355 Platina, 355 Platiniridium,

Tin, 394 iron,380 646 Posepnyte, 435 Pyroaurite, Potash alum, 637 604 Pyrobelonite, Potassium borate,622 Pyrochlore,587 396 chloride, 435 Pyrochroite, 619 nitrate, 430 Pyrolusite, silicate, 457, 460, 469, Pyromorphite, 597 560, etc. Pyrope, 507 624 sulphate, Pyrophanite,418 606 Potstone,576 Pyrophosphorite, 643 Powellite, 579 Pyrophyllite, 523 Prase, 405 Pyrophysalite, 498 646 Praseolite, Pyroretinite, 572 Prehnite,534 Pyrosclerite, 604 515 Preslite, Pyrosmalite, 368 390 Pfibramite, Pyrostilpnite, 621 Priceite, Pyroxene, 474 591 PYROXENE Priorite, Group, 470 Prismatine,544 Pyroxmangite, 485 368 593 Przibramite, Pyrrharsenite, 571 Prochlorite, Pyrrhite,588 538 373 Pyrrhotine, Prolectite, 402 373 Prosopite, Pyrrhotite, 473 Protobastite,
White

Ponite,445 v. Scolecite Poonahlite, 350 Porpezite,

Magnetic,373 380 Radiated, Spear,380

Proustite, 389
Prussian

blue,Native, 608 432 Przibramite,

Pseudoboleite, 401

Q Quartz, 403 Quartzine,407 406 Quartzite, Quecksilber, Gediegen,

Cinnabar mel Calov. Quecksilberhornerz,
637 (uenstedtite, 640 luetenite, 354 uicksilver, 347 uisqueite,

Platinum, 35

379 Platinum, arsenide,

428 Plattnerite, 385 Platynite, 580 Plazolite, 386 Plenargyrite, 419 Pleonaste, 356 Plessite, Plumbago, 347 Plumbogummite, 601 441 Plombocalcite, Plumbojarosite,640

Pseudobrookite,424 Pseudocampylite, 598 470 Pseudoleucite, Pseudomalachite, 605 Pseudomeionite,516

557 Pseudomesqlite,
550 Pseudophillipsite, Pseudophite, 570 579 Pseudosteatite, 483 Pseudowollastonite,

v.

Psilomelane, 436
604 Psittacimite, 548 Ptilolite,

Plumboniobite, 592

Plumbostib, 387 Plumosite,387

Podolite, 618

Pochite,545
Polianite,427 Pollucite,470

Pucherite,594 551 Puflerite, Punamu, 482 Purple copper ore, 374 610 Purpurite, 532 Puschkinite, Pycnite,523
571 Pycnochlorite, 498 Pyrargillite,

Radelerz,v. Bournonite 380 Radiated pyrite, Radiotine,573 401 Rafaelite, Raimondite, 639 402 Ralstonite, 604 Ramirite, Rammelsbergite, 382 Ranite, 558 Raspite,643

716
Rathite, 386

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

Romanzovite,
Romeite, 618

507

Rauchquarz, v. Smoky Quartz Raumite, 498 Realgar,357 Red antimony, v. Kermesite chalk,416
copper ore, 410

Romerite, 638 449 Rosasite,

Roscherite, 616 Roscoelite, 565 Rose quartz, 405 Roselite, 607 Rosenbuschite, 483 Rosieresite,610

hematite,415
iron ore, 416

lead ore, 630

ocher,416
silver ore, 389
zinc ore, 411

Reddingite,607 Reddle, 416 639 Redingtonite, 366 Redruthite, 644 Reinite, 549 Reissite, Remingtonite,453 576 Rensselaerite, Resin,Mineral,645 573 Retinalite, 645 Retinite, Retzbanyite,385 Retzian,606 Rezbanyite,385 Rhabdophanite, 609 527 Rhaetizite, Rhagite,617 Rhodalose, v. Bieberite 621 Rhodizite, Rhodochrome, 570 444 Rhodochrosite,
Rhodolite, 507

Rosite,562 Saussurite, 350 509 Rosolite, v. Crocoite Scacchite,399 Rothbleierz, 516 Rotheisenstein,Scapolite, Rotheisenerz, SCAPOLITE Group, v. Hematite 618 v. Rothgiiltigerz, Pyrargy- Schafarzikite,
rite 368 Schalenblende,

Saponite,576, 579 Sapphire, 413 Sapphirine,544 518 Sarcolite, Sard, 405 Sardonyx, 406 601 Sarkinite, 385 Sartorite, 435 Sassolite, Satin spar, 439, 634 530 Saualpite,

515

387 Schapbachite, Rothkupfererz,v. Cuprite Niccolite v. Schaumerde, v. Aphrite Rothnickelkies, 508 Rothoffite, Schaumopal, 409 mesite Schaumspath, v. Aphrite Rothspiessglanzerz,v. Kerv. Stolzite Scheelbleispath,

Rhodonite,484
570 Rhodophyllite, 546 Rhodotilite, Rhodusite,493 Rhonite,494 Rhomboclase, 641 458 Rhyacolite, 406 jasper, 615 Richellite, 489 Richterite, 362 Rickardite, 573 Ricolite, 493 Riebeckite, 585 Rinkite, 399 Rinneite, 569 Ripidolite, 588 Risorite, 393 Rittingerite, 455 Rivaite, 546 Riversideite, 361 Rizopatronite,

Rothzinkerz,v. Zincite Rowlandite, 529 542 Rubellite, 419 Rubicelle, Rubin, 419 Ruby, Almandine, 419 Balas,419 413 Oriental, 419 Spinel, 368 Ruby blende, Ruby copper, 410 389 Ruby silver, Ruby zinc,368 Ruin marble, 440 Rumanite, 645 Rumpfite, 572
Ruthenium 302 sulphide, 449 Rutherfordine,
427 Rutile,

642 Scheelite,
v. Scheelite Scheelspath, 645 Scheererite,

477 Schefferite, 611 Schertelite,

474 Schiller-spar,

Schirmerite,386 483 Schizolite,

v. TripeSchlangenalabaster,

stone
v. Emery Schmirgel, 552 Schneiderite, 637 Schoenite,

Schorlomite,510
531 Schorza, 356 Schreibersite, v. Schrifterz, Schrifttellur,

Sylvanite 580 Schrotterite,

v. Lepidolite Schuppenstein, 401 Schwartzembergite, 391 Schwatzite,

Riband

Schwefel
382 Safflorite, Sagenite, 405, 427 477 Sahlite, Sal

v.

Sulphur
nabar Cin-

v. Pyrite Schwefelkies, v. Schwefelquecksilber,

Ammoniac,

397

477 Salite, Salmiak, 397

567 Salmite,

Salmonsite,610 Salt, Rock, 395

v. Niter Saltpeter, 636 Salvadorite, 590 Samarskite,

Rock

405 crystal, meal, 440 milk,440 395 salt,

587 Samiresite, 432 Sammetblende, 390 Samsonite, 391 Sandbergerite, 390 Sanguinite, 458 Sanidine, Saphird'eau, 498

498 Roeblingite, 638 Romerite,

v. Plattnerite Schwerbleierz, Barite v. "Jchwerspath, v. Sartorite Scleroclase, 557 Scolezite, Scolecite, 609 Scorodite, 531 Scorza, 609 Scovillite, 583 Searlesite, 552 Seebachite, SELENIDES,364, 365 634 Selenite, 641 SELENITES, 344 Selenium, TiemanSelenquecksilber, v.

513 Roepperite,

nite
348 Selensulphur,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

717 Spodumene, 480 434 Sporogelite, 556 Spreustein, v. Polybasite Sprodglanzerz, v. Polybasite Sprodglaserz, 446 Sprudelstein,
581 Spurrite,

Selenwismuthglanz, v. Guanjuatite Seligmannite,388 399 Sellaite, Semeline, 584 Semi-opal,408 Semseyite, 387 Senaite,418 Senarmontite, 409 576 Sepiolite,
Serendibite, 545
561 Sericite, Serpentine,573 638 Serpeirite, 566 Seybertite, Shanyavskite, 436 581 Shattuckite, Shepardite,472 571 Sheridanite, Shell marble, 440 542 Siberite, 610 Sicklerite, 443 Siderite, 639 Sideronatrite, 564 Siderophyllite, 374 Siegenite, v. Silver Silber, Silberamalgam, v. Amalgam v. Argentite Silberglanz, Silberhornerz, v. Cerargyrite 403 Silica, Silex, SILICATES,454 409 Siliceous sinter, Silicified wood, 404 545 Silicomagnesiofluorite, Silicon oxido,403, 407, 408 526 Sillimanite, 352 Silver, Silver antimonide, 361 362 arsenide, bismuthide,362 bromide, 397 397 chlorides, 397 iodide,

Skemmatite, 436 v. Sartorite Skleroklas, 590 Skogbolite, 380 Skutterudite, Smaltite,378. Smaragd, v. Emerald Smaragdite, 490 Smectite,579, 580 Smegmatite, 579 Smirgel,v. Emery Smithite,386 Smithsonite,445, 539 Smoky quartz, 405 Soapstone, 576 485 Sobralite, Soda alum, 637
557 Soda-mesotype, Soda 461 microcline, Soda niter, 619 Soda orthoclase, 458 518 Soda-sarcolite, 502 Sodalite, borate,622 carbonate,452, 453 395 hloride,

Staffelite, 596, 597 440 Stalactite, 440 Stalagmite,

394 Stannite, 621 Stassfurtite, 405 Star-quartz, 410 sapphire, 543 Staurolite, 543 Staurotide,

576 Steatite, 496 Steenstrupine, 498 Steinheilite, 363 Steinmannite, v. Lithomarge Steinmark,
v. Halite Steinsalz, 558 Stellerite,

Sodium

632 Stelznerite,

selenide,364
.

sulphantimonites, 386,
389 389 sulpharsenite,

sulphide, 364, 367

386 sulpho-bismuthite,

sulpho-germanate,394 telluride, 362, 365, 382 Silver glance,364 645 Simetite, Simonyite, 637 580 Sinopite, 409 Siliceous, Sinter, 588 Sipylite, 355 Siserskite, Sismondine, Sismondite, 567 355 Sisserskite, 418 Sitaparite, Skapolith,516

392 Stephanite, 611 Stercorite, 367 Sternbergite, 607 Stewartite, 410 Stibiconite, 556 590 Stibiotantalite, 358 sulphate, 625: hydrous Stibnite, 453 Stichtite, 632, etc. 518 Somervillite, Stilbite, 551, 548 572 Stilpnochloran, Sonnenstein,v. Sunstone 491 Soretite, Stilpnomelane,572 356 611 Stoffertite, Souesite, 540 Soumansite, 614 Stokesite, 579 Stolpenite, Spadaite,577 446 643 Spaerocobaltite, Stolzite, 631 v. Clinoclasite Spangolite, Strahlerz, v. Marcasite Spargelstein, v. Asparagus Strahlkies, 489 stone Strahlstein, 485 Stratopeite, Spathic iron,443 Stream v. Siderite Spatheisenstein, tin,426 380 610 Spear pyrites, Strengite, 572 v. Steatite Speckstein, Strigovite, 366 Specular iron,415 Stromeyerite, 447 v. Marcasite Strontianite, Speerkies, 440 v. Smaltite Strontianocalcite, Speiskobalt, 612 Strontium carbonate,447 Spencerite, 549 507 silicate, Spessartine,Spessartite, 491 sulphate,627 Speziaite, 606 379 Struvite, Sperrylite, 427 614 Striiverite, Sphaerite, 362 446 Stiitzite, Sphaerocobaltite, 388 367 Stylotypite, Sphalerite, Succinic acid,645 Sphene, 583 645, 507 Succinite, Sphenomanganite, 432 Sulfoborite,623 v. Wurtzite Spiauterite, 393 SULPHANTIMONATES, Spinel,419 383 SULPHANTIMONITES, Spinelruby, 419 393 SULPHARSENATES, Spinthere,584 572 SULPHARSENITES, 383 Spodiophyllite, 600 SULPHATES, 624 Spodiosite,

fluoride, 399, etc. 619 nitrate, phosphate, 594, etc. silicate, 464, 502, 554,

"

718
SULPHIDES, 357
SULPHOBISMUTHITES,
623 Sulphoborite, 631 Sulphohalite, 383

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

Tellurium

oxide,410 Melonite v. Tellurnickel, Hessite v. Tellursilber, Tellurwismuth, v. Tetrady

mite

476 Traversellite,

Travertine,440
386 Trechmanite,

Tremolite,489
607 Trichalcite,

SULPHOSTANNATES,

315

Sulphur,347
393 Sulvanite, 385 Sundtite, Sunstone,466 631 Susannite,

Sussexite, 619
598 Svabite, 618 Svanbergite, Sychnodymite, 373 382 Sylvanite, 396 Sylvite, 608 Symplesite, 606 Synadelphite, 449 Synchisite,

Temiskamite, 372 Tengerite,454 Tennantite,391 Tenorite,412 513 Tephroite, 401 Terlinguaite, 579 Termierite, Teschemacherite, 450
v. Skutterudite Tesseralkies,

Tridymite,407 601 Trigonite, Trimerite,515

629 Tripestone, 480 Triphane, 594 Triphyline, 594 Triphylite, 600 Triplite, 601 Triploidite, 409 Triploite, 618 Trippkeite, 618 Tripuhyite, 604 Tritochorite, 496 Tritomite, 617 Trogerite, 373 Troilite, 614 Trolleite,

Tetradymite,360 390 Tetrahedrite, 529 Thalenite,

Thallium
531 Thallite, 365 selenide,

Syngenite,636
489 Syntagmatite, 474 Szaboite, 620 Szaibelyite, 489 Szechenyiite, Szmikite,633 633 Szomolnokite, T

Thaumasite, 581 Thenardite,624 Thennonatrite,452

ThermophyUite,575 441 Thinolite,

468 Thiorsauite, 402 Thomsenplite,

Trona, 453
514 Troostite, Tschewkinit, Tscheffkinite, 585

Thomsonite,

557

Thonerde,v.
Thorium

Aluminium

Tabular

spar, 482 402 Tachhydrite,

624 Thorianite, Thorite,522

Tachyhydrite, Tachydrite,
402 565 Taeniolite, 356 Taenite,
v. Wollastonite Tafelspath,

612 Tagilite, Talc,575

v. Magnetite Talkeisenerz, 600 Talktriplite, 402 Tallingite, 645 Tallow, Mineral, Tamanite,607

silicate, 522, 540 529 Thortveitite, Thorogummite, 624 530 Thulite, 571 Thuringite, 369 Tiemannite, 405 Tiger-eye,
601 Tilasite,

637 Tschermigite, Tsumebite,604 440 Tufa,Calcareous, 410 Tungsten trioxide, 361 Tungstenite, 410 Tungstite, 604 Turanite,

Turgite,433
613 Tiirkis, Turmalin,540 593 Turnerite, 613 Turquois, Turquoise,

Tile ore, 410

364 Tilkerodite, 354 Tin, Native, Tin borate, 620

Tychite,450 Tyrite,588 612 Tyrolite, Tysonite,399

587 TANTALATES, 588 Tantalite, Tantalum,349 389 Tapalpite, 590 Tapiolite, 498 Taramellite, 604 Tarbuttite, 446 Tarnowitzite, 583 Tartarkaite, 646 Tasmanite, 606 Tavistockite, 532 Tawmanite, 624 Taylorite, 394 Teallite, v. Tellurium Tellur, 641 TELLURATES, 360 Tellurbismuth,

oxide,425
394 sulphide,

Tyuyamunite, 617
U
428 Uhligite, 647 Uintahite, Uintaite, 622 Ulexite,

Tin ore, Tin stone,425

Tin 394 pyrites, 622 Tincal, 622 Tinkal, 612 Tirolite,

583 TlTANATES,
v. Ilmenite Titaneisen, Titanic iron ore, 417

583 Titanite,

Titaniumoxide, 427, 428, 429 584 ritanomorphite, 540 Toernebohnite,

Topaz,523 405 False, 413 Oriental,
508 Topazolite, 648 Porbanite,
616 Torberaite,

379 Ullmannite, 392 Jltrabasite, 503 Jltramarine, Umangite,365 530 Jnionite, 641 Jraconite, 490 Jralite, JRANATES, 623 623 Jraninite, 616 Jranite, Jranium

Tellurblei, v. Altaite 364 et sea TELLURIDES,

410 Tellurite, 641 TELLURITES,

arsenate, 617

349 Tellurium,

406 Touchstone,

Tourmaline. 540

454 carbonates, niobates, 590, 591 616 phosphates, 581 silicates, 641 sulphate,

720
630, 635 sulphates, Zinc, sulphides, 367,371 vanadate,604 Zinc blende, 367
Zinc ore, Red, 441 445 Zincorodochrosite,

INDEX

TO

SPECIES

Zincaluminite,640 411 Zincite,

385 Zinckenite, 441 Zincocalcite,

v. Sphalerite Zinkblende, 385. Zinkenite, 630 Zinkosite, Zinkspath,v. Smithsonite 425 Zinnerz, Zinnkies, v, Stannite Zinnober,v. Cinnabar

Zircon,520
Zirconium 428 dioxide, silicate, 520, 484

Zinnstein,425
563 Zinnwaldite, 641 Zippeite,

428 Zirkelite, 530 Zoisite, 365 Zorgite, Zunyite,505 518 Zurlite,

500 Zwieselite,