Reichert Cone concentrator system A Reichert Cone unit normally consists of a series of distributing cone pairs, as illustrated in Figure

3 below. Heavy minerals are removed through circular slots in each cone, which can be adjusted to control the yield. Due to the relative inefficiency of separation, several stages of cones connected in series are usually required for each Reichert unit to achieve adequate metallurgical results. Upgrading ratios are typically in the range of 3 to 1, which usually leads to further concentrate cleaning by either/or spirals and shaking tables or intensive cyanidation. Feed solids content to a Reichert Cone reportedly should be maintained between 60% and 63% solids by weight, and should controlled to ensure optimum grade and recovery

Figure 3 Cross Section of a Reichert Cone

Spirals The first application of the spiral concentrator was reported in 1943, and the first all spiral plant was commissioned in the 1960s. Spirals are typically constructed from polyurethane or fibreglass, and consist of a trough winding around a vertical axis. Typical feed is between 15-45% solids and 3 mm to 75 micron. Figure 2 Cross section of a Spiral Concentrator:

Theory of Operation Slurry is introduced at the top of the concentrator and as the material flows downward a combination of centrifugal and gravity forces act on each respective particle, which results in the segregation of the coarse lights and fine heavies Separation typically produces four products, a low solids tails stream, concentrate and middling streams, and a higher solids tails stream. These streams are controlled by three cutters or ports in the stream discharge, each of which is adjustable to control grade and recovery. Wash water can be added at the inner edge of the stream to enhance separation. More on spiral separators A wide range of spiral concentrators are available, including double-spiral models, and models that do not require the addition of wash water. In additional to recovering gold, spirals are also commonly used in the coal and mineral sands industries. The term spiral separator can refer to either a device for separating slurry components by density, or for a device for sorting particles by shape. Here, these are termedwet and dry spiral separators, respectively. Wet Spiral Separators Spiral separators of the wet type, also called spiral concentrators, are devices to separate solid components in a slurry, based upon a combination of the solid particle density as well as the particle's hydrodynamic properties (e.g. drag). The device consists of a tower, around which is wound a sluice, from which slots or channels are placed in the base of the sluice to extract solid particles that have come out of suspension. As larger and heavier particles sink to the bottom of the sluice faster and experience more drag from the bottom, they travel slower, and so move towards the center of the spiral. Conversely, light particles stay towards the outside of the spiral, with the water, and quickly reach the bottom. At the bottom, a "cut" is made with a set of adjustable bars, channels, or slots, separating the low and high density parts. Many things can be done to improve the separation efficiency, including:

Changing the rate of material feed Changing the grain size of the material Changing the slurry mass percentage[1] Adjusting the cutter bar positions Running the output of one spiral separator (often, a third, intermediate, cut) through a second. Adding washwater inlets along the length of the spiral, to aid in separating light minerals Adding multiple outlets along the length, to improve the ability of the spiral to remove heavy contaminants Adding ridges on the sluice at an angle to the direction of flow[2]

Typical spiral concentrators will use a slurry from about 20%-40% solids by weight, with a particle size somewhere between 1.5-.075mm (17-340 mesh), though somewhat larger particle sizes are sometimes used. For good separation, the density difference between the heavy minerals and the light

minerals in the feedstock should be at least 1 g/cm3 [3]; and because the separation is dependent upon size and density, spiral separators are most effective at purifying ore if its particles are of uniform size and shape. A spiral separator may process a couple tons per hour of ore, per flight, and multiple flights may be stacked in the same space as one, to improve capacity.[4] Dry Spiral Separators Dry spiral separators, capable of distinguishing round particles from non rounds, are used to sort the feed by shape. The device consists of a tower, around which is wound an inwardly inclined flight. A catchment funnel is placed around this inner flight. Round particles roll at a higher speed than other objects, and so are flung off the inner flight and into the collection funnel. Shapes which are not round enough are collected at the bottom of the flight. Separators of this type may be used for removing weed seeds from the intended harvest, or to remove deformed lead shot. Shaking Table Shaking Table is a kind of mineral processing equipment of fine materials according to weight. It is widely used for distilling tungsten, tin, molybdenum, aluminium, zinc, other rare metal and noble metal ore, and it is also applicable for distilling iron, manganese and coal. The rocking bed has the advantages of high enrichment grade, high separation efficiency, easy operation, convenient adjustment, and it can distil the final concentrate and gangue in one step, etc. Working Theory of Shaking Table The mineral processing of Shaking Table is carried out on the rifle bed, the mineral particle cluster is fed from the upper corner of bed, and the water gullet provides horizontal current. The bed does asymmetry movement, so the inertial strength and friction are produced. Under the function of weight of mineral particle and horizontal current, the materials forms several layers according to weight and particle size, and do lengthways movement along the bed and horizontal movement along the oblique bed surface. Therefore, the mineral particle of different weight and fineness flow down in the shape of sector along the cater-corner lines, and are discharged through the concentrate and gangue terminal zones. Finally, the concentrate, mineral and gangue are separated.

Introduction to Mineral Processing

FROTH FLOTATION
Froth flotation is considered to be the most widely used method for ore beneficiation. In ore beneficiation, flotation is a process in which valuable minerals are separated from worthless material or other valuable minerals by inducing them to gather in and on the surface of a froth layer. Sulfide and non-sulfide minerals as well as native metals are recovered by froth flotation. This process is based on the ability of certain chemicals to modify the surface properties of the mineral(s). Other chemicals are used to generate the froth and still others are used to adjust the pH. Certain chemicals are even capable of depressing the flotation of minerals that are either to be recovered at a later time or are not to be recovered. The process of froth flotation entails crushing and grinding the ore to a fine size. This fine grinding separates the individual mineral particles from the waste rock and other mineral particles. The grinding is normally done in water with the resultant slurry called the pulp. The pulp is processed in the flotation cells, which agitate the mixture and introduce air as small bubbles.

froth flotation cells

rod mill The ability of a mineral to float depends upon its surface properties. Chemical modification of these properties enables the mineral particles to attach to an air bubble in the flotation cell. The air bubble and mineral particle rise through the pulp to the surface of the froth or foam that is present on the flotation cell. Even though the air bubbles often break at this point, the mineral remains on the surface of the froth. The mineral is physically separated from the remaining pulp material and is removed for further processing.

Frothers - Orfom F series frothers

Frothers are liquids that produce the froth or foam on which the flotation process depends. The froth resembles soap suds and provides the physical separation between the mineral(s) floated and the pulp containing the waste. The froth must be strong enough to support the weight of the mineral floated and yet not be tenacious and non-flowing. It should have the tendency to break down when removed from the flotation cell. The frother should not enhance the flotation of unwanted material. Many other characteristics are required for a foaming agent to be a good flotation frother. Typical frothers include:

pine oil certain alcohols low molecular weight polypropylene glycols

Collectors - Orfom CO series collectors

A collector is a chemical that attaches to the mineral surface and produces a hydrophobic (water-fearing) surface. While certain minerals are naturally hydrophobic and do not require a collector, recovery is often improved when a collector is used. This water-repellent film facilitates the attachment of the mineral particle to the air bubble. Many different chemicals are used as collectors, such as:

oils xanthates dithiophosphates petroleum sulfonates fatty amines

Depressants - Orfom D series depressants

Depressants are chemicals that inhibit the flotation of minerals. They are used to improve the selectivity of a flotation process. They often make it feasible to separate minerals that were initially floated together.

pH

The response of many minerals to the flotation process is often dramatically affected by pH. Flotation circuits are often operated at a pH range of 7.5 to 11.5. The exact range at any given plant is optimized for the ore at that site. Lime is often used to raise the pH of the pulp and also reduce the flotation of iron pyrite.

Particle Size

The particle size to which the ore is ground depends on the nature of the ore. The grind must be fine enough to liberate the mineral grain from associated rock, but producing too small a particle size is both expensive and detrimental to recovery. Froth flotation is generally limited to size fractions between roughly 65 and 400 mesh. Particles larger than 65 mesh Tyler (210 micron) are difficult for the air bubble to lift while particles smaller than 400 mesh (37 micron) often will not attach to the air bubble.

Reagent Dosage Rate

Many factors influence the amount of reagent required for a particular application. Variations in particle size, mass of particle, quantity of mineral, and the character of the host rock are some of the many factors that influence reagent usage.

Other Factors

Water quality, flotation equipment size and type, temperature, and ore body variation are just a few of the variables affecting the flotation process.

Copper/Molybdenum Ore

The figure above is a simplified flow sheet showing the basic steps involved in a copper mill producing the byproduct molybdenum. The crushed copper ore (containing, for example, 0.75% Cu and 0.015% Mo) is fed to the grinding circuit

where water is added and the ore is ground to the proper size. Lime and an oil for collecting molybdenum are usually added in the grinding circuit. A copper collector may also be added at this point. The pulp progresses to the flotation cells. The frother and copper collector are usually added to the pulp just before the roughers. Additional copper collector is often added to the scavenger flotation cells and may be added at several other points. The froth, enriched in copper and molybdenum, is removed from the flotation roughers and scavengers. This enriched material is now called the rougher concentrate or cleaner feed. The combined rougher-scavenger concentrate may be 5% Cu and 0.06% Mo (a concentration factor of 3 to 10 times is typical). The scavenger or combined rougher/scavenger concentrate may go to regrind where it is ground to further liberate the minerals. The rougher and scavenger concentrates ultimately reach the copper molybdenum cleaners. The cleaners, which represent another cycle of froth flotation, provide additional cleaning and upgrading of the rougher scavenger concentrate. The concentrate, which is now approximately 30% Cu and 0.35% Mo, is pumped to the molybdenum plant where the molybdenum disulfide is separated from the copper sulfide. Chemicals referred to as depressants are added to the pulp to reduce the flotation of the copper minerals while allowing the molybdenum minerals to float. The tailings from the molybdenum plant are the final copper concentrate (typically greater than 30% copper). Following molybdenum rougher flotation and several stages of cleaning, a final molybdenum concentrate is produced. The final molybdenum concentrate is typically greater than 55%.

Lead/Zinc Ore

Lead and zinc often occur in the same ore. Copper is also present in some ores. Froth flotation is again employed to produce marketable concentrates of both. The process is identical in principle to the flotation of other minerals. The figure on the right is a simplified version of a Pb/Zn flotation circuit. The main difference in lead/zinc flotation is that zinc is usually depressed while lead (and copper) is floated. The tailing from the lead flotation circuit is the feed to the zinc circuit. The ability to selectively float the separate minerals depends on the ore, the chemicals, and other factors.

Conclusion

Gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, iron, potash, phosphate, and even sand for glass are often processed by froth flotation. Without froth flotation, many of the metals and minerals used every day in our modern world would be much more expensive.

SOLVENT EXTRACTION

Solvent extraction is a hydrometallurgical process. The process entails:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Dissolution of the metal in an aqueous, typically acid, solution Transfer of the dissolved metal to an organic solution Transfer of the dissolved metals to a second aqueous solution Production of a product

The product is usually electroplated to produce the pure metal or precipitated from the solution to produce a metal salt. Copper, uranium, vanadium and other metals are produced by solvent extraction. The figure below is a simplified schematic of a typical copper solvent extraction process.

Oxide copper ore, low-grade copper sulfide overburden, and other copper-containing materials are stacked into a heap. Leach solution (pH approximately 2) is sprinkled or flooded on top of the heap and percolates through. The leach solution containing the dissolved metal eventually flows out of the heap into a collection pond. This material is referred to as pregnant leach solution. Oxide copper minerals are very soluble in the leach solution. Sulfide minerals are rendered soluble by certain bacteria that feed on the sulfide minerals and convert them to soluble sulfates and other soluble forms. This biological action tends to maintain the acidity of the leach solution. Typical operations will leach some areas of the heap, enlarge other sections, and let others rest. The pregnant leach solution is pumped to the extraction mixer where it is intimately mixed with organic solution. The organic solution is a chelating agent diluted in a hydrocarbon solvent. The chelate reacts with the copper and removes it from the aqueous phase. The mixture flows to the settler where the organic phase and aqueous phase separate. The aqueous phase, now called raffinate, is pumped to theraffinate ponds and eventually back to the heap to leach more copper. The loaded organic phase goes to the strip circuit where it is mixed with a strong acid solution. The chelate releases the copper to this aqueous phase, called the strip solution. Again the mixture goes to a settler where the organic and aqueous phases separate. The organic solution returns to the extraction circuit to load more copper, thus repeating the cycle. The strip solution is pumped to the tankhouse where the copper is electrowon (electroplated). This solution then returns to the extraction circuit to repeat the cycle.

Direct electrical current is applied to the electrowinning solution in the tankhouse. A copper starter sheet functions as the cathode, and additional copper deposits on the surface of the sheet. When the copper cathode has reached a certain size it is removed from the electrowinning tank, washed, and prepared for sale. The cathode will be copper of greater than 99% purity.

Froth flotation Froth flotation is an important concentration process. This process can be used to separate any two different particles and operated by the surface chemistry of the particles. In flotation, bubbles are introduced into a pulp and the bubbles rise through the pulp. In the process, hydrophobic particles become bound to the surface of the bubbles. The driving force for this attachment is the change in the surface free energy when the attachment occurs. These bubbles rise through the slurry and are collected from the surface. To enable these particles to attach, careful consideration of the chemistry of the pulp needs to be made. These considerations include the pH, Eh and the presence of flotation reagents. The pH is important as it changes the charge of the particles surface and the Eh effects the chemisorptions of collectors on the surface of the particles. The addition of flotation reagents also effects the operation of these processes. The most important chemical that is added is the collector; this chemical binds to the surface of the particles as it is a surfactant. The main considerations in this chemical is the nature of the head group and the size of the hydrocarbon chain. The hydrocarbon tail needs to be short to maximize the selectivity of the desired mineral and the head group dictates which minerals it attaches to. The frothers are another important chemical addition to the pulp at it enables stable bubbles to be formed. This is important as if the bubble coalesce, minerals fall off their surface. The bubbles however should not be too stable as this prevents easy transportation and dewatering of the concentrate formed. The mechanism of these frothers is not completely known and further research into their mechanisms is being performed. Depressants and activators are used to selectively separate one mineral from another. Depressants inhibit the flotation of one mineral or minerals while activators enable the flotation of others. Examples of these include CN-, used to depress all sulfides but galena and this depressant is believed to operate by changing the solubility of chemisorbed and physisorbed collectors on sulfides. This theory originates from Russia. An example of an activator is Cu2+ ions, used for the flotation of sphalerite. There are a number of cells able to be used for the flotation of minerals. these include flotation columns and mechanical flotation cells. The flotation columns are used for finer minerals and they typically have a higher grade and lower recovery of minerals than mechanical flotation cells. The cells in use at the moment can exceed 300 m3. This is done as they are cheaper per unit volume than smaller cells, but they are not able to be controlled as easily as smaller cells. This process was invented in the 19th century in Australia. It was used to recover a sphalerite concentrate from tailings, produced using gravity concentration. Further improvements have come from Australia in the form of the Jameson cell. This operated by the use of a plunging jet that generates fine bubbles. These fine bubbles have a higher kinetic energy and as such they can be used for the flotation of fine grained minerals, such as those produces by the isamill.