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Waste
Torque (N mm)
(a )
n = 1000 rpm
T = 10 N mm
10
Hub
Rim
0.8d d
Arm 0.2d
160
120
80
40
160
120
80
40
1.3 1000 rpm Specific fuel consumption of engine (lb/hp h) 1.2 1.1 1.0 2000 rpm 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 20 40 60 80 100 120 Engine output power (hp) 140 160 180 2500 rpm 3000 rpm 3500 rpm 4000 rpm
1500 rpm
5 mm 1N g = 9.81 m /s 2 m 30 mm
a = 5 ft/s2
g = 32.2 ft/s2
Pulley R = 3 in.
V = 5 ft /s m = 5 lb
t = 2 hr
Crankshaft torque
2.0
55 mph
50 in.
3000 lb
V = 60 mph CP
Fd 25 in.
CG Ft
20 in.
Wr
100 in.
Wf
RT A RT T T T RT RT RT A
RT T
RT A
RT T = 5333 lb.in.
5333 lb.in. (a ) 2 in. 5 in. 2 in. (b ) II 2864 lb 4444 lb 4444 lb 1087 lb 2864 lb (c) IV C D 2667 lb 2667 lb III B (d ) 8333 lb.in. 2864 lb A 1087 lb IV I II 3000 lb.in. 1087 lb I 1087 lb III
F A a
F Fa A (a ) (b )
(b )
F32 = 40 lb
1 in. 2
2 1
F42
F32 = 40 lb 0
2 1 F32 = 40 lb F12
Ft (tendon force)
10 lb Ft = 60 lb 10 lb pinch
Fb + L Fa L
+wb2/2L V
b2 2L
Fab L
2 wb2 a+ b 2L 4L
wb (a + b/2 ) L
M (b ) Distributed load
IV 4444 lb B 1087 lb 5 in. + 1580 lb Shear V 1087 lb 2864 lb 2174 in..lb Moment M 2 in.
IV
2 in.
Torque
IV M = 5728 lb.in.* C V = 1580 lb * Actually slightly less, depending upon the width of gear C
b F d 2b b d F
Fork
Pin 4' 5 2
Blade
F 4' 1 2 2 3 F 1 2 4 4' 3 5
F 2 4' 2 3 4 3 1 2 F 1
w lb/ft
(b )
(a )
pi tc h
Bottom strap
Left plate
Top strap (a )
Bottom strap
Outer row
Inner row
Area
(c) (b )
bp Plate s Plate Strap Bearing with plate Shear bs (d ) Strap Bearing with strap
(e)
1 strap 3
2 straps
Straps
M id
5 4
O u te
In n e
d le p
6 7
r pa
r pa th
a th
th
Plate 1 2 (f)
Wall channel, C
1500 N B 45 45
1500 N
1000 mm
45
45
1000 N B
125 N
10 in.
50 mm 50 mm
4:1 ratio gear reducer Direction of rotation Connecting tube C Pump 450 rpm C' A A'
B'
Engine
Engine is attached to aircraft structure here. Reduction gear, ratio = 1.5 Propeller
Z Rotation X
500 mm
Propeller rotation
Y 2:1 ratio bevel gears are inside this housing Suggested notation for moments applied to mounting flange
150 mm
800 N 160 40 R
330 R 100 R
330 R
400
600
1800 rpm
600 rpm
Attaches to motor
Attaches to load
8 in.
Rear bearings
Front bearings
Mountings
6 in.
100 lb.ft
Output
Motor input torque 100 lb.ft 2 in. dia. pinion Front bearings
D 12 in.
Rear axle (not part of free body) JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. P2-14 W-51
Fan
Motor
Y 45 mm
30 mm
20 mm
20
FA 20 C
Shaft
100 N B 300
140
50 N
48 in.
12 in.
12-in. pulley radius 100 lb JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. P2-19 W-54
Cable
Fr = 600 N
Ft = 2000 N Fa = 1000 N
40
60
Fr = 200 N
Ft = 1000 N Fa = 100 N
50
150
Fr = 400 N
Ft = 1000 N Fa = 200 N
200 N
40 A B
30
20
80
20
200
300
140
120 100 N
250 N
A L F
b t
t/2
Key
Section on A-A A
d D
2a
a d
f A
t B d D
R P F
L P
d D
B E
a k 100 N
a k
t' F t' t F
Rivet diameter = 10 mm
60
C Su = 66 A
Stress (ksi)
40
B Sy = 39 Se = 36
F (Fracture)
40 B A
20
0 0
G 10 20
H 30 40
50
60
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Area ratio R
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.6
Transition region
100 80 60 40 30 20
T =
T E
115
(E
30
) si 3 k 0 1
T = Sy = 39 ksi
T T = 0
15 m ( 0 = 1
ks
0.2 i, m =
2)
10 3
4 5 6 7 8 0.1
4 5 6 7 8 100
"Ideal" material Curve I ( T = Se Sy ) Se2 Se1 Se3 Curve II Elastic line ( T = ET ) True strain T (log)
m) Plastic line ( T = 0T
Su
F Stress Sy Se
Se E
f Strain
1000
900
600
2 0. 3 0. 4 0. 5 0. 6 0.
d = indentation dia. D = ball dia.
500
400 Steel 300 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 m, strain hardening exponent 0.6 0.7
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Shore hardness 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 22 24 26 28 32 34 38 42 46 55 65 75 85 95
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300
800 850
900 950
(0)
(10)
50
60
70
72
80
Brinell hardness
Rockwell C hardness
(a )
1000
Diamond WC Boron Mg0 Steels Ni alloys Zn alloys CFRP uniply Ti alloys GFRP Glasses Zr 02 Silicon Ge Be0 Si C Si3N3 Al203
100
Cu alloys
Brick etc
Engineering ceramics
Engineering composites
Balsa
S = 104 E 1.0
Woods
HDPE PTFE
Design guide lines Engineering polymers S =C E S 3/2 =C E Max energy storage per unit volume Buckling before yield
Polymers foams Hard butyl Cork Silicone Soft butyl 10 Strength S (MPa) Pu
Elastomers S2 =C E
0.01 0.1
100
1000
10,000
Cermets
Engineering alloys
Glasses
Si
Steels
Pottery
Al alloys Mg alloys 100 Strength S (MPa) Ash Oak Pine Fir Parallel to grain Balsa Woods 10 Ash Oak Pine Fir Perpendicular to grain LDPE Soft butyl Polymers foams 1 Cork
Wood products Nylons PMMA PP PS Mel PVC Epoxies Polyesters HDPE PTFE PU Cement concrete
Silicone
Balsa
Elastomers
0.3
1 Density (Mg/m3)
10
30
10,000 Porous ceramics Engineering alloys Engineering composites 1000 CFRP Uniply KFRP Al alloys Zn alloys GFRP CFRP Laminates GFRP Strength at temperature S (T) (MPa) 100 to grain Woods II to grain LDPE 10 Engineering polymers Silicones
Mg alloys
Engineering ceramics
SiC Glasses Zr02 Mg0 Mullites Steels Ni alloys Brick etc. Tialloys
Polymides
Nylons to grain
PC PP PVC PMMA Epoxies PF
Ice
Butyls
Elastomers 1 Polymer foams Range typical of alloy series T-Independent Yield strength Upper limit on strength at temperature
0.1
100
200
600
800
1000
1400
P 2 P 2 (a ) Isometric view of tensile link loaded through a pin at one end and a nut at the other.
E
(b )
P A
A=
D2 4
3 1 5 3 4 1 2 5 6
(a )
(b )
2 3 3
P P 1
T E E (b ) T (a ) Isometric view E Negative shear E Negative shear Enlarged view of element Positive shear
p To
b
Sid e
F ro
nt
T a
Maximum shear stress exists along this line. (a ) Zero shear stress exists along all edges.
Neutral (bending) surface M (a ) Entire beam in equilibrium max c c M (b ) Partial beam in equilibrium Transverse cutting plane Neutral bending axis and centroidal axis y M
Neutral surface
Neutral (bending) surface M (a ) Entire beam in equilibrium Neutral bending axis and centroidal axis CG CG CG M
max c y CG
Centroidal surface
CG M Neutral surface M co ci
Center of initial curvature (c) Initially curved beam segment JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. 4-9 W-84
d b c Centroidal surface c' Neutral surface co ci a d' M ri rn r M d c r rn CG y e y c Centroidal axis Neutral axis e
ro
b 8 3.5 U or T B A
b 4 B
r c A c b
3.0 Round or elliptical Values of K in Eq. 4.11: = K Mc I B A B c Trapezoidal b 2 b 6 B 1.5 Values of Ki for inside fiber as at A A r B b 3 B c A b A b A
2.5
1.0
0.5
0 1
5 Ratio r / c
10
Centroidal axis
dA = b d
h c=h 2 r=h CG
dA
dA
b y y0 c
Neutral axis
dA My/I (M + dM)y/I V
dx
y M M + dM N.A. M
(b ) Loaded as a beam
80,000 N
60 X 40 X
80
60
40,000 N 100
40,000 N
dx dA = 60dy 10 10+
dx dA = 60dy
dx dA = 60dy
40 b = 60 b = 20 dA = 20dy
b = 20 (a ) (b ) (c)
= 32.61 MPa
+ max yx S
(a ) Marked eraser
y y x y Direct view (c) Enlarged view of element Oblique view x x x S' S S S' S S' Oblique view (e) Element subjected to max
Direct view
1 in.
2000 lb
V = 2000 lb 2000 lb
A B
2000 lb Shear diag. 2000 lb M Moment diag. 4000 lb JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. 4-25 W-100
2000 lb
yx y 2 in. A x x xy A
xy x y yx
x y x xy yx x A y
yx xy x x x xy A y yx
(d ) Isometric view
+ y (0, +30.6) 34
max = 37 ksi
yx = 30.6 ksi y 1 = 57 ksi 2 = 17 ksi 0 56 + xy yx x (40.8, 30.6) Direct view of element A x A y x xy x = 40.8 ksi
28 1 = 57 ksi y x A y 2 = 17 ksi x
= +37 ksi
+ x + y 2
x y 2
+ 1 + 2 2 1 2 2 cos 2
2 0
1 2 2 1 2
sin 2 +
2 1
(1)
(1)
(2)
z (a ) Original element
(2) (= z) (b ) Principal element (c) 1-2 plane (d ) 1-3 plane (e) 2-3 plane
3 (17, 0)
2 (0, 0)
1 (57, 0)
3.0 r 2.8 M 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 r /d 2.6 P 2.4 2.2 2.0 Kt 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 r /d 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 Kt 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 r /d 0.2 0.3 D /d = 2 1.2 1.09 T D r d T 0.2 0.3 D /d = 2 1.5 1.2 1.05 1.01 D d r P 0.2 0.3 D /d = 6 3 1.5 1.1 1.03 1.01 nom = Mc = 32M I d 3 (a ) D d M
nom = P = 4P A d 2
(b )
nom = Tc = 16T J d 3
(c)
3.0 2.8 M 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 r/d 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 r/d 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0 Kt 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 r/d T D P D D
r d M
nom = Mc = 32M I d 3 (a )
r P d
nom = P = 4P A d 2 (b )
r d T
nom = Tc = 16T J d 3
(c)
3.0 T 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 Torsion: 1.4 1.2 1.0 T nom = Tc J (D3/16) (dD2/6) Bending (in this plane): M nom = Mc I (D3/32) (dD2/6) M P D d Axial load: P nom = P A (D2/4) Dd P M T
0.1 d /D
0.2
0.3
3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/h (a ) 0.20 0.25 0.30 H /h = 6 2 1.2 1.05 1.01 M H r h b M
nom = Mc = 6M I bh2
3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/h (b ) 0.20 0.25 0.30 H /h = 3 2 1.5 1.15 1.05 1.01 P H r nom h b = P = P A bh P
3.0 2.8 M 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/h (a ) 0.20 0.25 0.30 H /h = 1.5 1.15 1.05 1.01 h r H M
b nom = Mc = 6M A bh2
3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 r/h (b ) 0.20 0.25 0.30 P h r nom = P = P A bh H /h = 1.5 1.15 1.05 1.01 H b P
3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 0.25 Kt 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 d /b (a ) 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 1.0 2.0 d /h = 0 nom = Mc = 6M I (b-d)h2 M h d b M
5 Kt 4 Unloaded hole 3
nom = P = P A (b-d)h
18 17 16 15 r 14 13 12 11 10 Kt 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 h t
h/w = 0.5
0.5
0.75 0.5 0.75 1.0 0.75 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
1 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 W /w
(c) Su Sy F
(d ) = Sy Stress b d a c
(e) (f )
Sy +
Sy
0 =
0+
Load stress
Residual stress
300 mPa 0 F1 F2 F2 10 mm M1 (a) Given information (see text) 0 300 396 396 238 0 F1 300 MPa M1 10 mm 50 mm
25 mm
96 0 62 =
(b )
Load stress 96 0 62
(c)
Residual stress 96 0 62
(d )
Residual stress 96 0 62
(e)
Residual stress
Load stress
P = 0 lb
P = 0 lb
P = 60,000 lb
P = 60,000 lb
10 mm dia.
60 mm P = 400 kN
20 mm
C D
di = 20 mm
T max = 100 mm do = 24 mm
T T 2r b
b h
4 in. 200 lb
A 40 80 P Q
A 60
120
70,000 N
h c X a
3 in. 4
3 in. 16
F 2 in.
3 in. 16
13 in. 16
1 in.
24 mm 5 mm 30 mm 8 mm 5 mm
30 mm
A 12,000 N
Section AA
100
20-mmdia. shaft A
100
2000 N
120-mm-dia. sheave
3 2 in.
8 in.
12 kN Cement L 2 L 2
50
40
200 mm
100 mm 1000 N
F B
50 mm
B 1-in.-dia. shaft
3 in.
30 y x 18 45
75
350 100
5000 N
30 mm
200 mm
5000 N
15 mm 25 mm
1000 N r = 5 mm d = 40 mm A D = 80 mm d = 40 mm B
500 mm RA
250 mm RB
5000 N
50 mm
100 mm
5000 N
200
200
6 Time
10
11
12
(a )
(b )
(c)
(d )
(e)
Unloaded element Element loaded in uniaxial tension in X direction (with deflections shown exaggerated)
z dy (neg.)
y dx
x X dz (neg.)
dx x = lim x x0
dy y = lim y y0
dz z = lim z z0
dx yx y xy Z x X
y y xy 2 x
+/2
1 0 +
120
120 120 0 1 +
240
+ + 0 1 + 0 1
+ 240 + 240 (a )
240 (b ) (c)
120
+ /2 120
2 = 0.001
0.00075 34 +0.0004 0
+0.00185
1 = +0.0020 +
240
90
2 45 90 45 + + 0 1 45
0 +
0 + + 90 1 90
1 45
(a )
(b )
(c)
+2600 m/m
90 = +450 45 = 200
0 = +2600 (b )
1 = +3560
90 = +450 45 = 200
2 = 510
29 119 0 = +2600
510
3560 +
90
+ /2
2 = 24 3 = 0 0 +
2 = 0.001
3 = 0.0005
1 = 134
1 = 0.002
(a )
(b )
2 1 0 1 2 400
255
325
360
A = 36,000
18
9.80
5.67
A = 0.565 103
A = 3 106
1.2 Relative slope (milliradians) 0.8 0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 A= 0.093 mm 0.022
0.4 0
Deflection (mm)
+0.001
0.8
dQ
Area = dU'
Area = dU
0 Deflection
P = 5000 N
b = 25 mm
c L
x b
h y a P
F P h F V 2R (a ) b M
R R R cos
(b )
0.5 sin
/2 0
sin d = 1;
sin
d = 2;
2 0
sin d = 0
0.5
cos
/2 0
cos d = 1;
cos d = 0;
2 0
cos d = 0
0.5
/2 0 2 0
sin2 d =
(0.5) = ; 2 4
sin2 d = (0.5) =
sin2 d =
/2 0 2 0
cos2 d =
(0.5) = ; 2 4
cos2 d = (0.5) =
cos2 d =
0 (0.707)(0.707) = 0.5
2 1 Avg value = 0.5 = = (Half of avg value shown in sin plot) 0.5 sin cos
/2 0 2 0
sin cos d =
1 1 = ; 2 2
sin cos d = 0
sin cos d = 0
0.5
/2
3/2 (radians)
2 R=
.0
in.
0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 0.2 Copper Cast iron Steel
Deflection, (in.)
0.4
0.5
0.035 0.030 Deflection, (in.) 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 1.0 Copper Cast iron Steel
1.5
2.5
3.0
Deflection, (in.)
0. 1 0. 2
) (in.
,h
(in.
0.4
0. 3 0.5
1.2 m
500 kg mass
3 2 P 1 3' b 2
2' a
b 2
M0 M0 P/2 M0 P x P/2
(a )
P/2 M0
P/2
(b )
P P y x y L or Le e Axis of least I and becomes neutral bending axis when buckling occurs. With column formulas, always use I and with respect to this axis. (b ) Column cross section x
0.100
0.010
Scr E
0.001
0.0001
10
100
Slenderness ration Le /
180
160 140
120 A 100 C
80
100 0 0
E F 160
Le Le = L L L Le L Le L Le 2
(b ) Le = 0.707L
(c) Le = 0.5L
(d ) Le = L
(e) Le = 2L
Le = L
Le = 0.80L
Le = 0.65L
Le = 1.2L
Le = 2.1L
Source: From Manual of Steel Construction, 7th ed., American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., New York, 1970, pp. 5138.
900 Critical unit load Scr (ksi) 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 20 E F 0 20 40 60 80 100 Slenderness ratio Le / 120 140 160 120 100 80 60 40 Johnson, E = 71 GPa, Sy = 496 MPa Tangent points Euler, E = 203 GPa Euler, E = 71 GPa A Sy = 496 MPa B D C Sy = 689 MPa Johnson, E = 203 GPa, Sy = 689 MPa
80,000 N 200 m
80,000 N
600 550 500 70 450 Critical unit load Scr (MPa) 400 350 0.1 300 40 250 200 150 100 10 50 0 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Slenderness ratio Le / 0.3 0.6 ec / 2 = 1.0 30 Euler curve ec / 2 = 0 0.05 50 Critical unit load Scr (ksi) 60 80
20
20
40
Beam
Tetrahedron
Triangle
Pentahedron
Quadrilateral
Hexahedron
5 (9)
(10)
(11) 6 (8) W
4 (4) 2
F3
F (7) 3x 3 3x 3'
F (7) 3y
L A, E 6
F (1) 2y
(2)
F (2) 3y F (2) 3x 3
(3) F1 y
F (3) 1x 1
4m
1.
Tension or compression L P
Cross-section area = A
PL AE
k=
P AE = L
2.
Torsion L T
K' a = section property. For solid round section, K' = J = d 4/32.
K=
T K'G = L
3.
K=
M EI = L
4.
ML2 2EI
k=
M 2EI = L2
5.
PL3 3EI
k=
P 3EI = L3
4 K' = J = d 32
di
do
K' = J = (d 4 d4 i) 32 o
t
4 K' = dt 32
2b 2a
3 3 K' = a b 2 a + b2
K' = 0.0216a4 a
K' = 2.69a4 a
3 4 K' = ab 16 3.36 b 1 b 16 3 a 12a4
b a a a
K' = 0.1406a4
120 = +625
0 = +950
240 = +300
200 mm
100 mm A
4 kN d = 30
d = 50
d = 40
5 in.
15 in.
5 in.
b 2 b 2
L F
500 mm S
5 kN
300 mm
12 mm-dia. tie-rod
1m 0.7 m Boom 6 kN
0.7 m 1m
t t 2c c 2w w
in.
2c
2w
=6
in.
2c 2w
2c
t = 1 in.
2w = 6
g = 0.73 Sy a/2c = 0.25
in.
P
+ 2 = 40 ksi
2 = 3 = 0
(a) Standard tensile test of proposed material. Tensile strength, S = 100 ksi
Uniaxial compression +
Uniaxial tension
+2 Sut
Suc 0
Sut
Suc 0
Sut
+1
Principal Mohr circle must lie within these bounds to avoid failure Suc For biaxial stresses (i.e., 3 = 0), 1 and 2 must plot within this area to avoid failure (a) Mohr circle plot (b) 1 2 plot
+2 Syt + Principal Mohr circle must lie within these bounds to avoid failure Uniaxial tension
Syt
Syt 0
+1
For biaxial stresses (i.e., 3 = 0), 1 and 2 must plot within this area to avoid failure (a) Mohr circle plot (b) 1 2 plot
Principal plane
Octahedral plane
Principal planes
Shear diagonal (1 = 2) +2 (0, 100) (100, 100) Shear stress theory (58, 58) Distortion energy theory (100, 100)
(100, 0) 0
(100, 0)
+1
(100, 100)
+2 +Sut +
Suc 0
Sut
Suc 0
Sut
+1
Principal Mohr circle must lie within these bounds to avoid failure For biaxial stresses (i.e., 3 = 0), 1 and 2 must plot within this area to avoid failure (a) Mohr circle plot
Suc
(b) 1 2 plot
+2 Sut
Suc 0
Sut
+1 Shear diagonal
Suc
2 = 25 ksi Note: 3 = 0
1 = 35 ksi
1 = 35 ksi
35
58
66
100
1 (ksi)
Normal load point 25 theory D.E. theory theory (58, 58) Limiting points
Load line
100 2 (ksi)
Shear diagonal
100 Fracture
y (stress) y 0
x (strength) x
Frequency p(z)
Quantity x
x1 x2
Frequency p(x)
Inflection point
Inflection point
2.14% 0.13%
+3
Quantity x
99.99
99.9 99.8
99 98 % reliability (% of survivors or % cumulative probability of survival) 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 Extreme values k = 4, 99.99683% reliability k = 5, 99.9999713% reliability k = 6, 99.9999999013% reliability % of failures k % of survivors Fatigue life, strength, etc.
95 98 99
99.8 99.9
+3
+4
99.99
x = 1 N m y = 1.5 N m
Torque x and y (N m) (a ) k z Frequency p(z) One bolt in 500 twists off z=xy
z 0 (5.22) Torque z (N m) (b )
2 = 100 MPa
2 = 100 MPa
1 = 200 MPa
1 = 150 MPa
Sy = 500 MPa
m k
m k k
(a )
(b )
(c)
100 90 80 70 Su and Sy (ksi) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 106 105 10 4 103 102 101 1 Average strain rate (s1) 101 102 Yield strength Sy Ultimate strength Su Total elongation Ratio Sy /Su
(a )
(b )
2d d2 Area = A = 4 L
L/2
L/2 d d
(a )
(b )
30 in. 100 lb
12 in.
100 lb/in.
100 lb/in.
20 mm
20 mm
700 600 Shaft shear stress (MPa) 500 400 300 200 100 5.0 Aluminum Cast iron Steel
7.5
12.5
15.0
40 Torsional deflection of shaft (deg) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5.0 7.5 10.0 Shaft radius (mm) 12.5 15.0 Aluminum Cast iron Steel
K i = 1.5
K i = 1.5
K i = 1.5
Ki = 3 d 2 d K i = 1.5
Head Ki = 3.4 Ki = 3.4 A = 700 mm2 "Very long" (>10d) d Ki = 1.5 Ki = 3.5 A = 600 mm2 Ki = 3.0 A = 600 mm2 Shank Ki =1.5 A = 300 mm2
30 mm dia.
K = 1.4
Axial hole
(a )
(b )
K =2
"Very long"
K =2
v = 4 km/hr m = 1400 kg
Thread: Area = 600 mm2 K = 3.9 Area = 800 mm2 "Very long" A = 600 mm2 K = 3.9 Platform
Thread: Area = A K = 2.6 K = 1.3 Area = 800 mm2 K = 1.3 Area = A K = 2.6
Original design (a )
New design (b )
Hole dia., d
K = 2.2
K = 1.5
Assume that hole drilled to this depth, does not significantly change the K = 3.8 factor at the thread.
Flexible coupling
50 + + + + + + 40 + + + + + + + 30 + 20
Not broken + + +
10
20
30
90 100
+ + + +
+ + + + +
Not broken + ++ + + + +
104
105
108
100 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
8:7 ratio +
10 103
104
105
107
108
S = 0.9Su (in ksi, S 0.45 1.0 0.9 0.8 S/Su (log) 0.7 0.6 0.5
Not broken
' Sn
0.4 103
104
106
107
' = 0.5 Su Sn ' 0.25 Bhn; (in ksi, Sn ' 1.73 Bhn) in MPa, Sn
140
187
229
477
653
900 120 800 100 Endurance limit S 'n (ksi) 700 600 500 60 400 0.25 Bhn 40 SAE SAE SAE SAE 4063 5150 4052 4140 300 200 100
80
20
0 0
10
20
30 40 50 Hardness (Rockwell C)
60
70
80 70 60 Peak alternating bending stress S (ksi (log) 50 40 35 30 25 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 7 6 5 103 Wrought Permanent mold cast
104
105
107
108
109
Alloys represented: 1100-0, H12, H14, H16, H18 3003-0, H12, H14, H16, H18 5052-0, H32, H34, H36, H38 Fatigue strength at 5 108 cycles Sn ' (ksi) 30
100
50
100
150
200
400
450
500
550
Sn ' (MPa)
20
150
40 35 30 Peak alternating stress S (ksi (log)) 25 20 18 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 105 2 4 6 8 106 2 4 6 8 107 Life N (cycles (log)) 2 4 6 8 108 75 Extruded and forged 150 S (MPa (log)) 200
100 Sand-cast
50
1.0
0.5 Bending 0.3 Axial (no eccentricity) Torsion Sn = 0.9Sn ' = 0.45Su ' = 0.29Su Sn = 0.58Sn
Ratio, 0.1
103
104
106
107
2 Sn 1.2 Note: Dotted portion is superfluous for completely 1.0 reversed stresses 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 1 Sn 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Reversed bending 1.2 0.4 0.8 Reversed bending 1 Sn
1.2
Hardness (HB) 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 1.0 Mirror-polished 0.9 Fine-ground or commercially 0.8 polished 0.7 Surface factor Cs 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 60 Corroded in tap water Corroded in salt water 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 Tensile strength Su (ksi)
Hot -rol led
As f orge d
Mac hine d or
cold -dra wn
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Su (GPa)
a a max Stress + 0 min m = mean stress; a = alternating stress (or stress amplitude) max = maximum stress; min = minimum stress m = (max + min)/2 a = (max min)/2 m a min max m
103 ~
F Sy A"
10 3
10 4
~
~
G
10 5
A Sy
B Su
50 40 30 20 10 0 100 80
10
60
40
20
10
3 0
2 0
1 0
20
30 M ea 40 n st re 5 ss 0 m (% 60 of S
u)
60
70
70
10
10 3 5 10 6 10
80
80
90
20 ) 30 f S u o 10
90
3 le life 10 -cyc 3 0 31
100
10 0
100
90
Su
80
70
% 40 a( ss 50 stre g in 60 nat r te Al
Su
10
50
50 40 30 20 10 0 80
10 7 10 9 10
10
10
60
40
20
1 0
20
3 M 0 ea n
st
re
10
40 ss
10
(k
si
10
60
60
life 3 cycle 10 60
70
70
80
80
ss i) 30 (ks a 20
80
70
40 stre g in at 50 ern t Al
10
30 20 10 0 80 60
40
20
1 0
10
20
10 7 4 6 10 10 9 10
3 M 0 ea n st 40 re ss
40
5 (k 0 si )
50
10
60
60
10
70 3 0
70
3 - cyc 10
fe le li
80
2 0
80
i) 30 (ks a 20 10
80
70
60
in 50 nat r te Al
s 40 tres s g
Sy Sn a a m 0 (c) (b ) Sn (d ) (e)
(a )
P ( t)
103
104
106
107
Sy
80
10 4
~
10 3
3
10 5
a 40
~
~
~
2
10 6
U nn
o tc h
103
104
106
107
Use these values with bending and axial loads Use these values with torsion 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 q 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0.02 0.5 0.04 1.0 0.06 0.08 0.10 Notch radius r (in.) 1.5 2.0 2.5 Notch radius r (mm)
180 (360 Bhn) Bhn) (400 200 0 Bhn) 120 (24 Bhn) 0 8 2 0 Bhn) ( 80 (16 140 hn) n) B 0 20 Bh 60 (1 (20 ) 100 n h 0B ) (16 Bhn 80 (120 hn) B 60 (100 Aluminum alloy (based on 2024-T6 data) 50
0.12 3.0
0.14 3.5
0.16 4.0
600
300
Calculated stresses
(a ) Sy
(b )
(c)
(d )
300
Actual stresses
300
(a )
(b')
(c')
(d')
300 280
d' d c' c
a (MPa)
200
b' a
~ Life
103
100
~ Life
100
400
450 Su
T = 1000 250 N m
Commercial ground finish Heat-treated alloy steel, Su = 1.2 GPa, Sy = 1.0 GPa
200
life
100
B' B A
900 2
"Failure point"
10 6
200
~=
max = Sy
life
Sy = 750 Su = 900
100
(15.7, 65.0) "Operating point" 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Mean bending stress em (MPa) 800
900
140 Reversed stress S (ksi (log)) 120 100 80 1.6 104 3.8 104 60 50 40 103
104
105
106
107
Representative 6-sec test 300 Bending stress (MPa) 200 100 0 100 200 300 2~ a 3~ b 2~ c 1~ b 1~ d Reversed stress S (MPa) 500 400 300 250 200 2.5 103 2 104 150
3.5 106
d' c'
a' 105
b'
106 b''
107
108
(a ) Stress-time plot
a (MPa)
100
400 Sy
500 Su
Pmax
3 in. 1 in.
1 in. dia.
1 4 in. dia.
1 in. dia.
1 16
F lb 2
1 8
1 8
R F lb 2
2-mm rad. 24 mm
0.8-mm rad. 24 mm
20 mm
4 in.
in.
0.050 in.
1 2
0.125-in. dia.
60 mm
50 mm
60 mm
50 mm
1.5 rad.
5-mm rad.
5-mm rad.
+80
0 16 Time
7000 lb in.
3000 lb in.
1 16
Pump
50
25 0-m m
mm
dia .
y x A B Forces act at 500-mm dia. C z D Fy = 1.37 kN Fz = 5.33 kN Fz = 0.3675Fy Fx = 0.2625Fy Fy Fx = 1.37 kN Forces act at 375-mm dia. (2) 120 dia. E Keyway 80 dia. A 550 400 450 C 400 D B
(Kf = 1.6 for bend and torsion; 1.0 for axial load. Use CS = 1 with these values.)
(1)
Electrolyte
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~
Electrolyte
A B
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
~ ~ ~
Electrolyte
Inlet
Magnesium anode
Zinc anodes
(d) Ship
Steel tank
Rust particles
Rust particles
Steel
Steel
Steel
(b ) "Crevice corrosion"
Aluminum plates
Salt water
Ceramics, Glasses
All
Polymers
Polyesters Phenolics PMMA
GFRP
All
Alloys
KFRP
Aerated water
Composites
GFRP CFRP PTFE, PP Epoxies, PS, PVC Nylons Polymers PMMA HDPE, LDPE, Polyesters Phenolics Lead alloys Alloys Steels CuAlTi-alloys alloys alloys Ni-alloys Cast irons
Al-alloys Cast irons Low alloy steels Csteels C-steel Cast irons
Alloys
Polymers
Strong acids
D
Many elastomers PTFE PVC PMMA
C
Al-alloys
B Alloys
Cu-alloys Zn-alloys
A
Ni-alloys Steels S-steels Cast irons Ti-alloys
Ceramics, Glasses
KFRP
All
Composites
CFRP GFRP
Nylons
Polymers
U-V radiation
PMMA Elastomers Phenomics Si02 Polymers Nylons GFRP Glasses Polyesters LDPE/HDPE Vitreous P.V.,PS,PP,PTFE KFRP ceramics Composites PVC,Epoxy
Polymers
Phenomics Polyesters PU LDPE HDPE Epoxies Nylons PP
Ceramics, Glasses
Si C, Si3N4 Al203
CFRP
Strong alkalis
Composites
All
Alloys
All
GFRP CFRP
Ceramics Glasses
PTFE
Alloys
Organic solvents
A B C D
Mo Cr Co Ni Fe Nb Pt In Pb Sn Cd Mg Zn Al Ag Au Cu Ti Zr Pt Nb Fe Ni Co Cr Mo W
Zr
Ti Cu Au Ag Al Zn Mg Cd Sn Pb In
Two liquid phases One liquid phase, solid solubility below 0.1% Solid solubility between 1 and 0.1% Solid solubility above 1% Identical metals Increasing compatibility; hence, increasing wear rate
Unlubed
Excellent lube
Unlubed
Excellent lube Good lube Poor lube Unlubed Excellent lube Good lube Exc. lube
Partly compatible
Unlubed
Incompatible metals
Nonmetal on metal or nonmetal Abrasive wear Fretting 2-body High abr. 3-body concentr.
Lubed
102
106
F = 20 N Pin Pin volume lost = 2.7 mm3 Disk volume lost = 0.65 mm3 t=2h Final profiles
Pin
Disk
n = 80 rpm
z z Contact area R2
Contact area
p0 0.8p0 0
Stress 0.4p0 x = y z
0.4p0
p0 0.8p0
Stress 0.4p0
0.4p0
b x
2b
3b max 4b
5b
max 0.3p0
y 0.1p0
+ y 0.1p0 x 0.25p0
0.6p0
0.4p0
0.2p0
0.2p0
b z yz A y B y z yz y
0.3p0 0.5b below surface 0.2p0 0.1p0 Stress yz 0 0.1p0 p0 = max contact pressure 0.2p0 0.3p0 4b
3b
3b
4b
yt = 2fp0 y yt = 2fp0 b
yzt = fp0
yzt = fp0
Direction of rotation
200
150
100
50 5.00
5.01
5.03
5.04
200 150
Pa ral Rad lel ial rol bal ler l s bea Ang ring ula r-co s nta ct b all Ro bea lle ring rb s ea rin gs
Spur gearshigh-quality manufacture, case-hardened steel, 60 Rockwell C (630 Bhn) 106 107 108 Life N (cycles (log)) 109 1010
100 105
C Key: 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 Legend: X Not compatible C Compatible P Compatible if not exposed within two miles of a body of salt water F Compatible only when finished with at least one coat of primer *Applicable forms: 301, 302, 321, and 347 sheet and plate; 304 and 321 tubing; 302, 303, 316, 321, and 347 bar and forgings; 302 and 347 casting; and 302 and 316 wire. These materials must be finished with at least one coat of primer. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 6 7 C C C C X 5 C C C C 4 C C C C C 10 C C
+ Protected ("noble", more cathodic) 1 2 3 Gold, platinum, gold-platinum alloys C Rhodium, graphite, palladium C Silver, high-silver alloys C Titanium C C C C C C C 11 Steel, AISI, 431, 440; AM 355; PH steels C Chromium plate, tungsten, molybdenum C Steel, AISI 410, 416, 420 C Tin, indium, tin-lead solder C C F F X X F C F F C P F C F F P X F C F F X X F X F F X X F X F F X X F X F F P P F X F F X X F X F F P X F C F F C C F X F F X X F X F F X X F X F F X X F C C C C X P X P C X X X C C C C C X P C X X X C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C X X C C C C X X X X X X X X X X Nickel, manel, cobalt, high-nickel and high-cobalt alloys C C C
Steel, AISI 301, 302, 303, 304, 316, 321, 347*, A286
8 QQ-B-671, MIL-C 20159, silver solder per QQ-5-561 9 10 Commercial yellow brass and bronze; QQ-B-611 brass
Magnesium
Rivets Total exposed area = 100 cm2 Metal plates Total exposed area = 1 m2
Chromium-plated steel cap screws Total exposed area = 110 cm2 301 Stainless steel plates Total exposed area = 1.5 m2
Electrolytic environment
Crankcase (steel)
30 cycles/day, every day 100 N 100 N Steel, 100 Bhn Steel, 300 Bhn
100-mm radius
End of thread
L p
End of thread p
End of thread
p p 8 60 30
Crest
p 4 Pitch dia. dp
Major dia. d
Axis of thread
Nut tolerance zone Basic profile (as shown in Fig. 10.2) Basic profile Screw Nut
p 2
p 2 = 29 p 2
p 2
p 2 = 29 0.3p
d dr dm dr
dm
(a) Acme
p 2
p 2 p 2 = 5 5
p 0.163p = 7 p 2 0.663p
45
dm
dr
dm
dr
dr
dm
(c) Square
(e) Buttress
Weight a dc
Force F
(a )
(b )
(c)
h n Screw axis
b tan n = h
100
90 80
f=
70
f=
Efficiency, e (%) 60
f=
50
40
30 e= 20
10 0
10
20
30
40 50 Helix angle,
60
70
80
90
Total = P
Clamped member
Total = P
Bolt 1 A - shear fracture line for nut thread stripping B - shear fracture line for bolt thread stripping B dr di dp d
2 t 3 A Nut
Clamped member
Bolt
Nut
Motor
Flat washer
(a) Screw
0.65d d 1.5d (b) Square head (a) Hexagon head (c) Round head
(f ) Oval head
(Plug in socket) (a ) Conventional screwdriver will tighten but not loosen the screw
T1
Fi
Mohr circles
Direct tension, black oxide Torqued tension, galvanized and lubricated Bolt tension
Bolt elongation
(a )
(b )
(a ) Insert nut (Nylon insert is compressed when nut seats to provide both locking and sealing.)
(b ) Spring nut (Top of nut pinches bolt thread when nut is tightened.)
(c) Single thread nut (Prongs pinch bolt thread when nut is tightened. This type of nut is quickly applied and used for light loads.)
Starting Spring- top nut (Upper part of nut is tapered. Segments press against bolt threads.) (a ) Nylon-insert nuts (Collar or plug of nylon exerts friction grip on bolt threads.) (b )
Fully locked
Distorted nut (Portion of nut is distorted to provide friction grip on bolt threads.) (c)
Fe
Fb = Fi
Fc = Fi
Fb
Fc
Fb
i a n
Fb and Fc
Fc Fc g Fe Soft gasket Fc Fc
Fb
Fi
Fb
Fb (a ) (b ) (c)
Fc = Fi
b =
Fb
Fb = Fi
Fc Fc Fe "O-ring" gasket Fb
g Fb
(a )
(b )
(c)
Fb = Fi +
kb F kb + kc e
Fb = Fe
Force
Fb Fi Fc
Fb
Fc
kc Fc = Fi F kb + kc e 0
Fc = 0
External load Fe
d g d1
30
d2 d3
a A
(a ) Bolt bending caused by nonparallelism of mating surfaces. (Bolt will bend when nut is tightened.)
(b ) Bolt bending caused by deflection of loaded members. (Note tendency to pivot about A; hence, bending is reduced if dimension a is increased.)
Rotating shaft
F 2 F F 2
F 2 F F 2
150 500 24 kN D 24 kN D
400 100 A
150
150 E
144 kN 180 48 CG of bolt group cross section 144 kN (150 mm) = 21.6 kN m 100
F 180 48 V
200
200 180
48
Bolt yields slightly, with no increase in load or stress during first application of Fe
40
20
Case 1 Fi = 10 kN 13 Fb 9 4 Fc Fe
10
0 Bolt tight, machine not yet turned on Machine operating at normal load Time (a) Fluctuation in Fb and Fc caused by fluctuations in Fe 900 Su = 830 800 Sp = 660 700 600 Stress, (MPa) 500 400 300 12% elongation @ Su specified for class 8.8 200 100 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 Strain, (b) Idealized (not actual) stressstrain curve for class 8.8 bolt steel = 0.0032 @ Sy = 660 on idealized curve Sp = 600 Fluctuation in thread root stress Case 2, Fi = 35.3 kN 505 Fluctuation in thread root stress Case 1, Fi = 10 kN Machine turned off
400
Sn = Sn ' CLCS CG = 830 (1)(1)(0.9) = 373 MPa 2 Life Operation at overload on verge of causing eventual fatigue failure 4 130 During normal operation Sy = 660 Su = 830
300
200
100 0 0
77
600
(c) Mean stress-alternating stress diagram for plotting thread root stresses
grade 5 with cut threads 0 to Fmax 0 to Fmax, fluctuating external force External load Fe
Fmax
Fe
g = 2''
Steel member
a (ksi)
40
a = 37 a = 23
Limiting point for case a Limiting point for case a Limiting point for case b Limiting point for case b
20
a = 22.7 Su y = 120 Sy = 92
0 0
20
40
60 m (ksi)
80
100
120
250 mm 350 mm
5 in.
Fe
Fe = 0 to 8,000 lb kc = 6 kb
Fe
Spring washer
1000 N
230 mm
140 mm 280 mm
80
Fb and Fc
60 Force (kN)
22
22
22
22
22 22
22 22
22 22
22 22
22
22
22
22
Full tubular
Bifurcated (split)
Mandrel breaks after seating and rivet expansion Pulling head Self-plugging blind rivet Blind side upset Trim or grind mandrel
(a )
(b )
(c)
60
60
45
(a )
(b )
(c)
(d )
t = 0.707
h h
(a )
(b )
F A B C
mm 50
F A
B C
50 mm
F
(d ) Transverse loading
C Y
(a ) 295.7 T (45) = t J
20 B
80
B G 20 kN
295.7 t
T G T T (80) 525.8 = J t
802 + 452 J
525.8 t 80 t
674.1 t
5600 N m
T (105) 690.0 = t J
690.0 t
80 t
70 B 60
A X A
B D 26.3 t = 121.2 t
X 120 C 160 10 kN
(a )
Y' t Y G (CG of total weld group) L /2 y X' X b X' G ' (CG of this weld segment) L /2 X
a Y' Y
13.6 a (ksi)
a 30 m = 60 = 0.5
19 m (ksi)
50
62
15 mm
3.0 in.
E60 series welding rods Sy = 50 ksi (plates) h = 0.375 in. SF = 3 Note: There are two 3 in. welds.
60 kN 100 mm 75 mm 55 mm
Note: Each plate has two 75 mm welds and one 100 mm weld.
4 in.
4000 lb
3 in.
Fixed end
(a ) Torsion bar with splined ends (type used in auto suspensions, etc.)
(b ) Rod with bent ends serving as torsion bar spring (type used for auto hood and trunk counterbalancing, etc.)
F F
d T= D F F D FD 2
d FD 2
d End surface ground flat (a ) Compression spring (ends squared and ground) JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. 12-2 W-353
= Tc J
Plane
Plane m
Tc J
Tc J
0 T
a Tc J
18
Ks = 1 + 1.7
16
Kw = 4C 1 + 0.615 (shear and curvature C 4C 4 corrections, use for fatigue loading) 1.6 14
10
1.3
1.2
Kw
1.1
Ks
Wire diameter (in.) 0.004 0.008 0.020 0.040 0.080 0.200 0.400 0.800
350 ASTM A313 (302) ASTM A228 music wire (cold-drawn steel) 300
2000 ASTM A229 ASTM A227 1500 ASTM A230 (oil-tempered carbon steel)
ASTM A401 (Cr-Si steel) 250 ASTM A232 (Cr-Va steel) 200 ASTM A229 (oil-tempered carbon steel) 150 ASTM A227 (cold-drawn carbon steel) ASTM A313 (302 stainless steel) 100
Inconel alloy X-750 (spring temper) 1000 ASTM B159 (phosphor bronze)
500 50
0 5 6 7 891 100.0
2500
(a ) Ls = ( Nt + 1)d
(b ) Ls = N t d
(c) Ls = ( Nt + 1)d
(d ) Ls = N t d
(b )
(c)
(d )
0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 Ratio, deflectionfree length, /L f 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ratio, free lengthmean diameter, L f /D 11 Stable B A Unstable
A- end plates are constrained parallel (buckling pattern as in Fig. 5.27c) B- one end plate is free to tip (buckling pattern as in Fig. 5.27b )
60 lb 105 lb
1 in. 2
Cash allowance
Fs
(Spring free)
Lf
(Spring solid)
Ls
80 70 60 Stress S (% Su)(log)
50 40 0.395 Su
30
0.8 0.72 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.395 0.29
m = 0
a m = 1
0.54 103 104 (0.38, 0.38) 105 P Static load (0.265, 0.265) (0.215, 0.215) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 m /Su 0.8 a m = 0 (0.325, 0.325) Region of interest a m 1
a /Su
106 +
0.80
0.60
0.53 0.43
105 106 +
max /Su
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.60
0.80
76
Calculated curve (from Fig. 12.14) 65 53 43 Note: For zero-to-max torsional stress fluctuation
Shot-peened wire 40 Design curves [1] Non-shot-peened wire 30 103 104 105 Life N, (cycles) 106
107
(965, 965) Infinite life with shot peening (862, 862) Infinite life without shot peening (Static load line)
400
200
200
800
1000
Load stress Load stress plus residual stress + 0 resid from presetting Without presetting With presetting
600 N
300 N
Squared and ground ends, ASTM A232 spring wire 600 N Cam 300 N
25 mm
Shaft
+ 25
1200
1000
975
750
200
400
800
1000
1200
r1 A r3 r4 r2
2F L F F L L F L L
(b ) Semi-elliptic
(c) Full-elliptic
= L
Mc 6Fx = I wt 2 L x b
b F F h t w h L F h
(a )
h n leaves Half of nth leaf Half of 3rd leaf Half of 2nd leaf b Main leaf Half of 2nd leaf Half of 3rd leaf Half of nth leaf b n
(a )
(b )
Fixed pivot
life, bending
a = 525 400
(a )
b = 416 L = 682
6FL3 Ebh3
= 0.0144
FL3 Eh3
k=
F Eh3 = 69.33 L3
L = 682
L = 682 L = 682
b = 416
83
b = 333
83
k = k1 + k2 k = 76.30 Eh
3
1 = k1 =
6FL3 Ebh
3
= 0.0180
3
FL3 Eh
3
2 =
4FL3 Ebh
3
= 0.0482 Eh
3
FL3 Eh3
L3
F Eh = 55.55 1 L3
k2 = 20.75
L3
F a D
F d
Thickness = h
1.6 Factors for inner surface stress concentration Ki, round and Ki, rect
1.5
1.4
1.3
Ki, round
Belleville
Wave
Slotted
Finger
Curve
In series
In parallel
In series-parallel
Storage drum
Output drum
Storage drum
Output drum
Door stop
Force
F = 3.0 kN di do Do = 45 mm do = 8 mm No = 5 Di = 25 mm di = 5 mm Ni = 10
Di Do
Valve acceleration
+ 0 "Reversal point" "Reversal point" Valve lift is 0.201 in. Valve lift is 0.384 in. (maximum-on "nose" of cam) Cam angle
Support
Roller follower
Cam
Key
Shaft
F e
Stationary support
Handle 35 mm Pivot A
Tire
Brake shoe
Spring
Stationary support
Pin stops
110 mm dia.
Torsion springs
Cable
Connecting rod Connecting rod bearing Thrust bearing (flanged portion of main bearing) Main bearing Crankshaft
Main bearing
Oil inlet
W (a ) At rest
Boundary lubrication
Cross-sectional area, A F h
(a ) Surface velocity, U F h
Fh AG where G = shear modulus = (b ) At equilibrium, torque T produces elastic displacement, , across a solid element
Fh A where = absolute viscosity U= (c) At equilibrium, torque T produces laminar flow velocity, U, across a fluid element
100
120
140
160
180 200
3 2 102 5 3 2
5 4 3 2
2 10
Overflow rim
Oil
Bath
R D
c = 0.05 mm L = 80 mm
Oil level
Journal
Fixed bearing
Lubricant flow
( + dy) dx dz y
p dy dz dx
dy
(p +
dp dx) dy dz dx
dx dz
Rotating journal
U Lubricant flow
h y
Stationary bearing
1.0 0.9 L /D = 0.8 h0 c 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 1
1 2
Optimum zone 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 R c
2
n P
200
100
5 4 3 2 1
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.08 0.1
0.2
0.4
8 10
n P
1.0 0.9 P pmax (gage) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1
1 2 1 4
L /D =
0.01
0.02
0.04 0.06
0.1
0.2
8 10
n P
L /D =
0.01
0.02
0.04 0.06
0.1
0.2
8 10
n P
L /D =
25 1
1 2 1 4
1 4
15
1 2
10
1 20 p 10 p 0.01 0.02
0 max
5 0
0.2
0.4
n P
max
(deg*)
20
L /D =
1 4 1 2
L /D = 5
L /D = 1
L /D =
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.1
0.2
8 10
n P
1.0 L /D = 0.9 0.8 0.7 Qs Q 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.1 0.2
1 4
1 2
Flow ratio,
L /D =
0.4 0.6 R c
1.0
2
8 10
n P
R = D/2 h0
max
pmax
1000 lb SAE 20 Oil Tavg = 130F D = 2.0 in. R = 1.0 in. n = 3000 rpm
L 2 Circumferential groove
L 2
Piston Piston pin or wrist pin "Rifle drilled" passage in connecting rod* Oil in Oil in
Drilled passage in crankshaft Circumferential groove in rod bearing Circumferential groove in main bearing *If omitted, piston pin bearing is splash lubricated.
0.010 0.009 h0, minimum oil film thickness (mm) 0.008 f, coefficient of friction 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0
h0 Max. load
Min. friction
0.020
200
0.015
0.010
Qs f
100
0.005
50
Runner
Ro Ri
a>b a b Pads
SAE 10 Oil Tavg = 150F D = 4.0 in. R = 2.0 in. n = 900 rpm
2 (b ) Steps in assembly
Extraextralight series
Extralight series
(LL00) (L00)
Loading grooves
One shield
Two shields
One seal
Two seals
Snap ring
Ro ller axi s
Bearing axis Common apex
+ r dS dH r
1.0 0.9 Life adjustment reliability factor Kr 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 Reliability r (%) 97 98 99 100
Radial bearing
Angular bearing
1800 rpm
1800 rpm
Case b: 30,000-hour life No. 211 radial-contact bearing, C = 12.0 kN Fr = 1.2 kN Ft = 1.5 kN
21 mm
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 Time
50%
30% 100%
20%
Note spacers
F1
F2
F2
L1
2L1
3L1
3500 rpm
No. 204 radial ball bearing Fr = 1000 N, Ft = 250 N 90% reliability Light-moderate shock loading L = ? hr life
Gear
Shaft
Bearing
100 mm
2.25 ft
Rotating shaft
Chain
1.75 ft
0.75 ft
600 lb
600 lb
Right-angle gearing
Parallel gearing
Driven gear
Line of centers
Driving gear
dp
c P (pitch point)
dp
a P b
(pressure angle) g
Pinion
rp d g c Pitch circle b f e P a
Base circle
rg
Gear
Pinion (driving)
Dedendum circle Base circle Pitch circle Addendum circle Angle of approach Dedendum Addendum Position of teeth entering contact Addendum Position of teeth leaving contact p c b Angle of approach Dedendum Addendum circle Pitch circle Base circle Dedendum circle rg Angle of recess n 0p Angle of recess rp
n a
Gear (driven)
0g
Fa ce
wi dt h
t0
Addendum ci rcle
To p Fl an k
Bo tto m la nd
la nd
Addendum
Working depth
Circular pitch p
Whole depth
Dedendum
Tooth thickness t
Width of space
Pitch
circle
Fa ce
6
18
20
16
8
40
22
36
32
48
30
14
64
80
28
12
24
10
26
11
Rack
p Circular pitch
Pinion
Pitch circle
Dedendum circle
01 Driven gear
Pitch point, P
b a
Addendum circles
Interference is on flank of driver during approach Base circle (This portion of profile is not an involute)
Driving gear 2 02
rp P = 6 teeth/in. = 20 p = 3.0
g
c = 4 in. rg
Ft
Ft
dg g
b N = 36 teeth (idler)
600 rpm; 25 hp
2 = 2533 lb.
45
Vcb = 1313 lb
Fr
Ft F h b rf a x t Constantstrengh parabola
0.60 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 12
th tee ub t s 0, =2
25
20
14
1 2
15
17
20 24 30 Number of teeth N
1 revolution Load Fa = Fm = F 2
Load
0 Time F
40% higher fat. strength for o-max loading (driver and driven) a a m
Sn
Su
0.60 0.55 0.50 Geometry factor J 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 12 35 15 17 20 24 30 Number of teeth N (b) 20 full-depth teeth 0.60 0.55 0.50 Geometry factor J 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 12 35 15 17 20 24 30 Number of teeth N (b) 25 full-depth teeth 45 40 50 60 80 125 275
er mb Nu ear gg atin m h in eet of t r gea ting a in m th tee f o er mb Nu
1000 85 50 35 25 17
45 40 50
60 80
125 275
1000
5 E Velocity factor Kv 4
tte rs *
or
3
bs Ho
cu
Hob
s,
pin sha
g cu
,f
tters
*
C B A
1000
2000
6000
7000
* Limited to about 350 Bhn JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. 15-24 W-474
Gear Steel, 290 Bhn (manufacture of pinion and gear corresponds to curve D, Fig. 15.24)
Gear (driver)
Gear (driver)
Vpt
Common tangent
Vp
Common normal
Vpt = Vgt Vp = Vg
Vg Vgn = Vpn
Vgn = Vpn
Common tangent Pinion (driven) (a) General contact position sliding velocity as shown Pinion (driven) (b) Teeth in contact at pitch point no sliding
2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 CLi 1.0 0.8 0.6 104 105 106 107 108 Surface fatigue life (cycles) 109 1010 1011
Negligible shock loading Life: 5 years, 2000 hours/year Full power: 10 percent of time Half power: 90 percent of time Failure in 5 years: 10 percent likely
900 rpm
p1 Motor (input) a
b g1 p2
Ti 2Ti 3R R/2 R
2Ti /3R 4Ti /3R P 2Ti /3R R+S 4 A 4Ti 3R 4Ti /3R
To =
4Ti R + S 4 R S = Ti 1 + R
4Ti 3R To Ti i o
2Ti 3R
2Ti 3R
=1+ S R
i S 0 = 1 + R
90 = 17 2 teeth (ring)
S Planet will NOT fit here Planet will NOT fit here
90 = 5 teeth (sun)
45 teeth 25 mm
To driven machine
8''
2''
18T, P = 9
Motor
Driven machine
a a
To driven machine
A B
4 5 9 3 1
2 8 7 Low (L) Neutral (N) 6 7 Hub 4 can "overrun" in this direction High (H) 4
(a )
(b )
P2
P1 Arm
Output
S1 Input S2 P2 P1
P1
P2
P3 (33 teeth)
(b) Rotated spur gear laminations approach a helical gear as laminations approach zero thickness.
Re =
d 2 cos2
Pitch cylinder
Ft
Ft F Fr
Fr
Ft R Top of tooth d N
Fr Ft Input shaft of driven machine 600 rpm Direction of rotation Np = 18 (teeth) Pn = 14 (normal n = 20 plane) = 30 (right hand) (a ) (b ) Isometric view of motor shaft and pinion Fa
= 30 (left hand)
1 2
0.70
0.50
0.40
0.30
J-factor multiplier
1.00
0.90
10
15 20 Helix angle
25
30
35
r bp
dp
Addendum
Dedendum
Gear pitch dia., dg Gear back cone Developed back cone radius, r bg
Mean radius
Spiral angle
Fr
0.40 0.38 0.36 80 0.34 0.32 Geometry factor J 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Number of teeth in gear for which geometry factor is desired 15 Teeth in mating gear 60 50 40 30 100
20
65 mm 140 mm B A D Load
Rotation
Motor
250 mm
140 mm
0.36 100 0.32 Geometry factor J 80 0.28 60 50 0.24 40 0.20 30 25 20 0 Teeth in mating gear 12 15 60 80 20 40 Number of teeth in gear for which geometry factor is desired
0.16
100
Ng = 100
0.08
0.07 25 30
Ng = 50 40 20 15
0.06
Teeth in gear
0.05 0
10
40
50
0.18
0.12
80
60 50
50
S A
P Fixed arm, A P
P S Left axle R
Right axle
Lead, L Axial pitch, P Worm outside dia., dw, out Pitch dia., dw
Face width, b
Worm-driving torque
Fwa
Fga
f Fn cos Fn cos n sin Fn f Fn cos f Fn f Fn sin f Fn sin Direction of Fgt and Fwa Fn cos n sin Direction of Fga and Fwt Fn n Direction of Fgr and Fwr (a) Worm driving (as in Fig. 16.20) Fn cos n Fn cos n Fn cos n cos
Fn cos n cos
Direction of Fga and Fwt n Fn Fn cos n Direction of Fgr and Fwr Fn sin n
Fn sin n
Vs Vw
Vg
Gear rotation
0.14
0.12
Coefficient of friction f
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0 1
4 6
10
4 6 10,000
Worm: Steel, hardened and ground Nw = 2, RH, p = Motor 2 hp., 1200 rpm
5 8
in., n =14 2
80 70 60 50 40 Without fan 30 20 10 0 0 400 800 Worm rpm, nw 1200 1600 With fan (as in Fig. 16.26)
Coefficient C
min ft2 F
ft lb
Pa b
24 teeth
Input
40 teeth
60 teeth
Output
20 teeth
100 50 teeth 200 25 teeth = 0.35 rad right hand A 20 teeth = 0.50 rad left hand 50 teeth Output 125 B Motor
400 rpm
1500 rpm
Nw = 2 Ng = 55 P=?
1200 rpm
c = 4.5 in.
Gear material: Chill-cast bronze Worm material: Hardened steel Nw = 3 p = 0.5 in. f = 0.029 Ng = 45 n = 20
b= 1.0 in.
w 2 w w h w
h 2
d h 3w/4
Key usually has drive fit; is often tapered (c) Round key
Keys are tapered and driven tightly; for heavy-duty service (d) Kennedy keys
Widely used in automotive and machine tool industries (e) Woodruff key
Usually tapered, giving tight fit when driven into place; gib head facilitates removal ( f ) Gib-head key
Key is screwed to shaft; hub is free to slide axially easier sliding is obtained with two keys spaced 180 apart (g) Feather key
D (a) Straight round pin (b) Tapered round pin (c) Split tubular spring pin Grooves are produced by rolling, and provide spring action to retain pin (d) Grooved pin JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. 17-2 W-524
Basic
Inverted
Basic
Inverted
Internal rings (fit in housing) E-ring External rings (fit on shaft) (a) Conventional type, fitting in grooves
Section II
Section II
(b) Push-on type no grooves required Teeth deflect when installed to "bite in" and resist removal (less positive than conventional type)
4-spline
6-spline
10-spline
(a) Straight-sided
st
Gravitational force, w
m1 w1 m1
m2 w2 m2 m3 w3 m4
m3
m5
w1
w2
w3
w4
w5
st
Fc (= 2500 N) 30 50 300 50 60 Track d T1 A Track sprockets T2 B C Track Chain FT (= 1000 N) Chain sprocket 100 diameter
A T1 S T2
B C
Vertical forces A T1
325
2490 T2 B
2165
Horizontal forces S T2 B
1250
50 VV
245
55
50
60 VH
113,700 95,800
130,000 MH
Sn = S' n CLCGCS = (0.5)(550)(1)(0.9)(0.78) = 186 200 ea (MPa) 165 "Design overload" point
100
ea em = 2.9 530
100
200
400
450 500
d/8 d/4 d
d/4
Sled-runner keyway
Profiled keyway
Steel Annealed (less than 200 Bhn) Quenched and drawn (over 200 Bhn)
* Base nominal stress on total shaft section.
Fatigue stress concentration factor, K f * Bending 1.3 1.6 Torsion 1.3 1.6 Bending 1.6 2.0 Torsion 1.3 1.6
20 in.
50 kg
25-mm dia.
600 mm
600 mm
20 in.
40 in.
30 in.
Bearing (2)
Electric generator rotor Driver 56 kw Bearings Shaft Driven 28 kw Bearing (2) Driven 28 kw Shaft Hydraulic turbine
Driven
Shaft
Fr = 450 lb Fa = 400 lb
Bearing B
5 in. 2 in.
Fr = 2.4 kN Ft = 4.0 kN A
Fa = 1.5 kN
125 mm
Chain sprocket
Stationary shaft
Rotating shaft
(a )
(b )
Driving shaft
Driven shaft
Flywheel
Friction planes
Spring Cover
Engine crankshaft
Release bearing
Housing
To transmission
Disks a driving disks (4 disks, 6 friction surfaces) Disks b driven disks (3 disks, 6 friction surfaces) Seals Oil chamber (pressurized to engage clutch) Bushing Piston Oil passage ri ro Key Input
Output
Key
Oil passage
Cone angle
dr sin
ro
ri
Local pressure = p (a ) (b )
Av Ah
A N
fN
b (a ) Brake assembly
120 120 4 5 3 400 6 45 90 1 300 H45 = 4F H25 = 4F 1 80 80 All dimensions in millimeters O25 V25 = F (b ) 5 F 250 rad. 45 90 (a ) 2 300 Shoe width, 80 mm f = 0.20 pmax = 0.40 N/mm2 400 F
(c) H43 = 4F H34 = 4F 4 3 V63 = 0.2H63 H63 = 10.53F H36 = 10.53F V16 = 0.70F H16 = 3.46F 6 V36 = 2.11F O16 T = 880F (rotation) H13 = 6.53F O13 V13 = 2.11F (d ) JUVINALL: Machine Design Fig. 18-7 W-553 (f) V26 = 1.41F H54 = 4F H52 = 4F V52 = F
H26 = 7.07F
H62 = 7.07F
H12 = 3.07F (e )
O12
A' ' O3 O3 O2
A n
c F
0 (18 in d s sin =d
dN A d
2 O2
fd
r O3
1 180
Force to release brake 300 Spring compressed to force F 150 300 rpm C = 500 200 Cast-iron drum Molded composite shoe lining of width b = 50 O3 2 1
45
150
45 200
150
150
d 150
O2
N Pivot P fN
rf 2
O2
f dN2 + f dN2 ' P f dN1 ' f dN2 f dN2 r dN2 dN1 ' dN2 rf
O3 2 1
Brake lining Brake shoe Adjusting cam and guide Return spring
Brake drum
Forward rotation
P1 P1
d/2 P + dP
d/2 P dN
Rotation
P2 s P1 a c
Band width, b = 80 mm Rotation = 270 Friction coefficient, f = 0.20 Maximum lining pressure, pmax = 0.5 MPa r = 250 mm P2 F
P1 s = 35 mm a = 150 mm c = 700 mm
Pads of diameter = 60 mm
125 mm
4m/s
1000 kg
Friction clutch
Electric motor
Gear reducer
T = 6 N m, 600 rpm
200 mm 340 mm
Rotation
240 mm
400 mm
500 mm Spring
400 mm 300 mm
350 mm
5 in.
25 in.
5 18 in. 2 18 in.
150
Rotation
500 mm
F = 300 N
258 240
75
72 55
370
270
a s
Wt.
Idler
Weight Tight side (a) Manual adjustment (c) Weighted idler pulley
0.50 in.
0.66 in.
0.31 in. B
0.41 in.
0.91 in.
1.0 in. 0.62 in. 0.38 in. 0.54 in. 5V (b) High-capacity sizes 3V, 5V, and 8V 8V 0.88 in.
3 V 0.32 in.
dN/2 sin
dN 2 2 36
dN
(a )
(b )
p B r A B Pitch circle rc
p A
Chordal rise, r rc
rc
(a )
(b )
Pitch p
(a )
Input shaft
r3 D r1
To Ti i o
Blades
Section AA
360
10
8 7
6 5
160
120
80
4 3 2
40
200
400
600
1,400
1,600
1,800
Impeller Turbine
Fluid circulation
Input shaft
Turbine
Impeller
Reactor
One-way clutch
Input shaft
Output shaft
3.2
100
80 Efficiency (%)
60
40
20
0.2
0.8
0 1.0
1 c r1
r2
B A D
Driven machine
3.7 in. dia. Multiple V-belt, = 18, size 5V Unit weight = 0.012 lb/in. Power input = 25 hp Pmax = P1 = 150 lb f = 0.20 Driven pulley Number of belts = ?
B1
B2 C2
Gear
Fluid coupling
B1 C1 1
B2 C2
1 B3
3.66
1.44 B1 engaged
2.53 B2 engaged
S1, P1, R1
2.53
1.00 C1 engaged
B1 C1 2
B2 C2
B3
1.44
1.44 B1 engaged
61%
1.00 C2 engaged
S1, P1, R1
S2, P2, R2 S3, P3, R3 4 B1 B2 C2 1.00 1.00 C1 engaged B3 Reverse 4.31 1.44 B1 engaged
C1 3
2.99 B3 engaged
S1, P1, R1
B1 C1 4
B2 C2
B3
Gear Neutral
C1
B1
C2
B2
B3
S1, P1, R1
1 2
B1 C1 Reverse
B2 C2
B3
3 4
S1, P1, R1
Reverse
7.5 P 27 P R1
Ti P 81
S1
Ti P 40.5
Ti P 40.5
TB2 =
TB2 = 1.53 Ti
Ti P 67.5
Ti S2
R2
Ti P 67.5
45-tooth sun
Ti P 33.75
28.5 P A2 Ti P 33.75
Ti P 33.75 Arm
Ti P 67.5
Ti P 67.5
Ti S2
34.5Ti P 675
R2, S3
Ti P 67.5 Ti P 67.5 22.5 P Ti P 67.5 45-tooth sun P3 69Ti P 675 16-tooth planet Ti P 33.75 34.5Ti P 675 69-tooth ring and 20-tooth sun Ti P 67.5 34.5Ti P 67.5 34.5 P 10 P
34.5
10
Ti P 67.5
28.5 P
18 P
A2, A3
Arms
Torque from reverse lock, B3 34.5Ti P 26 TB3 = (3) P 675 TB3 = 3.99Ti
34.5Ti P 675 26 P R3
52-tooth ring
Torque from C1: T P 12 TC1 = i 3 81 P TC1 = 0.44Ti Ti P 40.5 Ti P 81 12 P Ti P 81 Output torque: To = 1.00Ti TC1
24-tooth sun
A1 Ti P 40.5
19.5 P
For equilibrium of P2: Tf P T P = C2 Tf = 0.39Ti 67.5 103.5 TC2 = 0.61Ti Tf + TC2 = Ti Clutch torque TC2 Planet pin force = 0.0117Ti P Output torque: To = 0.117Ti P To = 1.00Ti 28.5 P To 34.5 P A2 28.5 (3) P
0.0117Ti P
22.5 P
45-tooth sun
h y b Rectangle
h y b Triangle
Circle
di
Hollow circle
d z L x Rod y t d
z Disk y
c a Rectangular prism y
d z L x Cylinder y
di do z L x
Hollow cylinder
220
1095
Yield strength
1095 1040
120
1030 1050
100
1040 1030
80
60 1030, 1040, 4130 1050 40 % 20 1030, 1040 1095, 4130 0 400 1050 600 800 1000 Tempering temperature (F) 1200 1095 Reduction of area
60
Elongation
200
180
160 1050 140 ksi 120 1095 1040 100 1040 80 1050 Yield strength
60
60
40 1095 % 20 1040 1095 0 400 1050 600 800 1000 Tempering temperature (F) 1200 Elongation
300
280 9255 260 9255 Ultimate strength 4140, 4340 Yield strength 240 4140 220 4340
160
140
120
100 60 4140 40 % 20 4140 0 400 4340 600 800 1000 Tempering temperature (F) 1200 4340 9255 9255 Elongation Reduction of area
Diameter of test specimen (mm) 0 190 Su 180 Sy 1200 170 4340 1100 4340 150 1000 140 4140 130 ksi 120 800 110 4140 100 3140 90 1040 600 700 3140 900 MPa 200 400 600 800 1000 1300
160
80 500 70
60
1040
400
50
L x PL P V + 0 0 M M = PL V=P
P max
P a x Pa P + 0 0 M = Pa V=P max b
V M
M b P V M 0 0
L max Mb
M b
P 2 + V 0 + M 0 PL/4
L 2 P 2
x P/2
P/2
a Pb L + V 0 + M 0 x Pb/L
P b Pa L
Pab/L
Pa/L
w wL 2 + V 0 + M 0 wL2 2 wL 2 x L wL /2 wL 2
Pb a x a + 0 0
L z PL a b P P max
Pb/a
Pb
a x M0 L + V 0 + M 0 M0b L
M0
M0 L
b L M0 L M0a L
M0 a x a 0 M 0
L x' M0 a b M a0 max M0
M0
PL 8 P 2 V + 0 + M 0
L P
L 2
PL 8 P 2
P 2 PL 8
P 2
PL 8
PL 8
a P
2 Pab L2
L x wL2 12 wL 2 V w wL2 12 wL 2
+ 0 + 0
wL 2 wL2 24
wL 2
wL2 12
wL2 12
RA 95.00
1 107 152
2 3 4 276 400 530 646 680 716 1060 A shaft with integral worm, dimensions in millimeters. 5 6 7 8 9 10
122.17
Class of fit
s s h
(0)
.0010 (.0010)
Note: Numbers in the table are for use with all dimensions in millimeters, except for those in parentheses, which are for use with inches.