Cooking Ingredients

COOKING INGREDIENTS
Bay leaf
Bay leaf
Laurus nobilis, known as bay leaf, from

William Woodville, Medical Botany,
1793.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Magnoliophyta
(unranked): Magnoliopsida
Order: Laurales
Family: Lauraceae
Genus: Laurus
Species: L. nobilis
Binomial name
Laurus nobilis
Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) refers to the aromatic leaf of the Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis,
Lauraceae). Fresh or dried bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and
fragrance in Mexican food, one example is Red Snapper Veracruzana. The leaves are often
used to flavor soups, stews, braises and pâtés in Mediterranean Cuisine. The fresh leaves are
very mild and do not develop their full flavor until several weeks after picking and drying.[1]
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http://www.crazychefs.net/
Taxonomy
Several other plants use the term "bay leaf," but do not refer to the leaves of the Bay Laurel.
They include:
California bay leaf
The leaf of the California bay tree (Umbellularia californica), also known as
'California laurel', 'Oregon myrtle', and 'pepperwood', is similar to the Mediterranean
bay but has a stronger flavor.
"Indian bay leaf" (also tej pat, tejpat, tejpata or Tamalpatra

or palav aaku in Telugu)
The leaf of the Cinnamomum tejpata (malabathrum) tree is similar in fragrance and
taste to cinnamon bark, but milder. In appearance, it is similar to the other bay leaves
but is culinarily quite different, having an aroma and flavor more similar to that of
Cassia. It is inaccurately called a bay leaf because while it is in the same family, it is
of a different genus than the bay laurel.
"Indonesian bay leaf" or "Indonesian laurel" (salam leaf)
The leaf of Syzygium polyanthum. Not commonly found outside of Indonesia, this
exotic spice is applied to meat and, less often vegetables. Like Indian bay leaf, it is
also inaccurately named because the plant is actually a member of the Myrtaceae
family.[2]
History/Region of Origin
The bay leaf originated in Asia Minor, and spread to the Mediterranean and other countries
with suitable climates. Bay leaf is not grown in Northern regions, as the plants do not thrive
in cold climates. Turkey is one of the main exporters of bay leaves, although they are also
grown in areas of France, Belgium, Central and North America, Italy, Russia and India.[1]
The laurel tree that the bay leaf comes from was very important both symbolically and
literally in both Greece and Rome. The laurel can be found as a central component found in
many ancient mythologies that glorify the tree as a symbol of honor. This association
continues today.[3] Bay leaves are one of the most widely used culinary herbs in Europe and
North America. The bay laurel tree has been cultivated since the beginning of recorded
history.[4]
Taste and aroma

If eaten whole, bay leaves are pungent and have a sharp, bitter taste. As with many spices and
flavorings, the fragrance of the bay leaf is more noticeable in cooked foods than the taste.
When dried, the fragrance is herbal, slightly floral, and somewhat similar to oregano and
thyme. Myrcene, which is a component of many essential oils used in perfumery, can be
extracted from the bay leaf. Bay leaves also contain the essential oil eugenol.[3]

Uses
Bay leaves are a fixture in the cooking of many European cuisines (particularly those of the
Mediterranean), as well as in North America. They are used in soups, stews, meat, seafood
and vegetable dishes. The leaves also flavor classic French dishes such as bouillabaisse and
bouillon. The leaves are most often used whole (sometimes in a bouquet garni), and removed
before serving. In Indian and Pakistani cuisine bay leaves are often used in biryani and as an
ingredient in garam masala. In Japan, too, it has a long history as a herbal ingredient.
Bay leaves can also be crushed or ground before cooking. Crushed bay leaves impart more of
their desired fragrance than whole leaves, but are more difficult to remove, and thus they are
often used in a muslin bag or tea infuser. Ground bay laurel may be substituted for whole
leaves, and does not need to be removed, but it is much stronger due to the increased surface
area and in some dishes the texture may not be desirable.
Bay leaves can also be used scattered in pantries to repel meal moths[5] and roaches.
Medicinal Value
In the Middle Ages it was believed to induce abortions and to have many magical qualities. It
was once used to keep moths away, owing to the leafs lauric acid content which gives it
insecticidal properties. Bay leaf has many properties which make it useful for treating high
blood sugar, migraine headaches, bacterial and fungal infections, and gastric ulcers. Bay
leaves and berries have been used for their astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive,
diuretic, emetic and stomachic properties. Bay Oil, or Oil of Bays (Oleum Lauri) is used in
liniments for bruising and sprains. Bay leaf has been used as an herbal remedy for headaches.
It contains compounds called parthenolides, which have proven useful in the treatment of
migraines. Bay leaf has also been shown to help the body process insulin more efficiently,
which leads to lower blood sugar levels.It has also been used to reduce the effects of stomach
ulcers. Bay Leaf contains eugenol, which has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties.
Bay leaf is also an anti-fungal and anti-bacterial. Bay Leaf has also been used to treat
rheumatism, amenorrhea, and colic.
Safety
A number of members of the Laurel family (including mountain laurel and cherry laurel)
have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold
anywhere for culinary use, their visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated
belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous.
This is not true - bay leaves may be eaten without toxic effect. However, they remain very
stiff even after thorough cooking, and if swallowed whole or in large pieces, they may pose a
risk of scratching the digestive tract or even causing choking. Thus most recipes that use bay
leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished.[6]
Cultivation
Gardeners in frost-free or light frost areas will find that Bay Laurel seedlings planted in the
ground willingly grow into large trees, 38 feet and taller; but when kept pruned the Bay

Laurel tree can thrive as a small bush. Bay Laurel can also be grown in containers, the size of
which limits the ultimate size of the trees. New plants are often started via layering, or from
cuttings, since growing from seed can be difficult.
Bay trees are difficult to start from seed, due in part to the seed's low germination rate, and
long germination period. Fresh seeds with the pericarp removed typically have a 40%
germination rate, while dried seeds and/or seeds with an intact pericarp have yet lower
germination rates. In addition, the Bay Laurel seed germination period can be 50 days or
more, which increases the risk of the seeds rotting before they germinate. Treating the seeds
with gibberellic acid can be useful in increasing seed yield, as is careful monitoring of
moisture levels in the rooting media.[7]
Gallery
Fresh leaves and leaf of Laurus nobilis A Laurus nobilis bush.

flower buds of Laurus dried bay leaves
nobilis
A close-up of several
Laurus nobilis leaves.

Thyme
Common thyme, Thymus vulgaris.
Shavings of the thyme herb.
Thyme (pronounced /ˈtaɪ m/) is a well known herb; in common usage the name may refer
to
any or all members of the plant genus Thymus,

common thyme, Thymus vulgaris, and some other species that are used as culinary
herbs or for medicinal purposes.
History
Ancient Egyptians used thyme for embalming. The ancient Greeks used it in their baths and
burnt it as incense in their temples, believing that thyme was a source of courage. It was
thought that the spread of thyme throughout Europe was thanks to the Romans, as they used
it to purify their rooms and to "give an aromatic flavour to cheese and liqueurs".[1] In the
European Middle Ages, the herb was placed beneath pillows to aid sleep and ward off
nightmares.[2] In this period, women would also often give knights and warriors gifts that
included thyme leaves as it was believed to bring courage to the bearer. Thyme was also used
as incense and placed on coffins during funerals as it was supposed to assure passage into the
next life.[3]

Cultivation
Thyme is widely cultivated for its strong flavour, which is due to its content of thymol.[2]
Thyme is best cultivated in a hot sunny location with well drained soil. It is generally planted
in the spring and thereafter grows as a perennial. It can be propagated by seed, cuttings, or by
dividing rooted sections of the plant. It tolerates drought well.[4] The plants can take deep
freezes and are found growing wild on mountain highlands.[citation needed]
Thyme retains its flavour on drying better than many other herbs.
Culinary use
Thyme is a good source of iron and is used widely in cooking. Thyme is a basic ingredient in
French, Greek, Italian, Albanian, Lebanese, Persian, Portuguese, Libyan, Spanish, Syrian,
and Turkish cuisines, and in those derived from them. It is also widely used in Arab and
Caribbean cuisines.
Thyme is often used to flavour meats, soups and stews. It has a particular affinity to and is
often used as a primary flavour with lamb, tomatoes and eggs.
Thyme, while flavourful, does not overpower and blends well with other herbs and spices. In
French cuisine, along with bay and parsley it is a common component of the bouquet garni,
and of herbes de Provence. In some Levantine countries, the condiment za'atar (Arabic for
thyme) contains thyme as a vital ingredient.
Thyme is sold both fresh and dried. The fresh form is more flavourful but also less
convenient; storage life is rarely more than a week. While summer-seasonal, fresh thyme is
often available year-round.
Fresh thyme is commonly sold in bunches of sprigs. A sprig is a single stem snipped from the
plant. It is composed of a woody stem with paired leaf or flower clusters ("leaves") spaced ½
to 1" apart. A recipe may measure thyme by the bunch (or fraction thereof), or by the sprig,
or by the tablespoon or teaspoon. If the recipe does not specify fresh or dried, assume that it
means fresh.
Depending on how it is used in a dish, the whole sprig may be used (e.g. in a bouquet garni),
or the leaves removed and the stems discarded. Usually when a recipe specifies 'bunch' or
'sprig' it means the whole form; when it specifies spoons it means the leaves. It is perfectly
acceptable to substitute dried for whole thyme.
Leaves may be removed from stems either by scraping with the back of a knife, or by pulling
through the fingers or tines of a fork. Leaves are often chopped.
Thyme retains its flavour on drying better than many other herbs. Dried, and especially
powdered thyme occupies less space than fresh, so less of it is required when substituted in a
recipe. As a rule of thumb, use one third as much dried as fresh thyme - a little less if it is
ground. Substitution is often more complicated than that because recipes can specify sprigs
and sprigs can vary in yield of leaves. Assuming a 4" sprig (they are often somewhat longer),

estimate that 6 sprigs will yield one tablespoon of leaves. The dried equivalent is 1:3, so
substitute 1 teaspoon of dried or ¾ tsp of ground thyme for 6 small sprigs.[5]
As with bay, thyme is slow to release its flavours so it is usually added early in the cooking
process.
Medicinal use
The essential oil of common thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is made up of 20-54% thymol.[6]
Thymol, an antiseptic, is the main active ingredient in Listerine mouthwash.[7] Before the
advent of modern antibiotics, it was used to medicate bandages.[1] It has also been shown to
be effective against the fungus that commonly infects toenails.[8]
A tea made by infusing the herb in water can be used for cough and bronchitis.[6] Medicinally
thyme is used for respiratory infections in the form of a tincture, tisane, salve, syrup or by
steam inhalation[citation needed]. Because it is antiseptic, thyme boiled in water and cooled is very
effective against inflammation of the throat when gargled 3 times a day.[citation needed] The
inflammation will normally disappear in 2 – 5 days. Other infections and wounds can be
dripped with thyme that has been boiled in water and cooled.[citation needed]
In traditional Jamaican childbirth practice, thyme tea is given to the mother after delivery of
the baby[citation needed]. Its oxytocin-like effect causes uterine contractions and more rapid
delivery of the placenta but this was said by Sheila Kitzinger[citation needed] to cause an increased
prevalence of retained placenta.
Important species
Thymus vulgaris (Common Thyme or Garden Thyme) is a commonly used culinary herb. It
also has medicinal uses. Common thyme is a Mediterranean perennial which is best suited to
well-drained soils and enjoys full sun.
Thymus herba-barona (Caraway Thyme) is used both as a culinary herb and a groundcover,
and has a very strong caraway scent due to the chemical carvone.
Thymus × citriodorus (Citrus Thyme; hybrid T. pulegioides × T. vulgaris) is also a popular

culinary herb, with cultivars selected with aromas of various citrus fruit (lemon thyme, etc.)
Thymus pseudolanuginosus (Woolly Thyme) is not a culinary herb, but is grown as a ground
cover.
Thymus serpyllum (Wild Thyme) is an important nectar source plant for honeybees. All
thyme species are nectar sources, but wild thyme covers large areas of droughty, rocky soils
in southern Europe (Greece is especially famous for wild thyme honey) and North Africa, as
well as in similar landscapes in the Berkshire Mountains and Catskill Mountains of the
northeastern US.
Popular cultivars

Variegated lemon thyme.
There are a number of different cultivars of thyme with established or growing popularity,
including:
English thyme—the most common

Lemon thyme—smells of lemons
Variegated lemon thyme—with bi-colour leaves
Orange thyme—an unusually low-growing, ground cover thyme that smells like
orange
Creeping thyme—the lowest-growing of the widely used thyme, good for walkways
Silver thyme—white/cream variegate
Summer thyme—unusually strong flavour
Caribbean thyme—Same flavor as English thyme but 10 times stronger.

Parsley
Parsley
Parsley
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Petroselinum
Species: Petroselinum
crispum
Subspecies
Petroselinum crispum var.
neapolitanum
curly leaf parsley

Parsley (raw)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 40 kcal 150 kJ
Carbohydrates 6.3 g
- Sugars 0.9 g
- Dietary fiber 3.3 g
Fat 0.8 g
Protein 3.0 g
Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.1 mg 8%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.2 mg 13%
Niacin (Vit. B3) 1.3 mg 9%
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.4 mg 8%
Vitamin B6 0.1 mg 8%
Folate (Vit. B9) 152 μg 38%
Vitamin C 133.0 mg 222%
Vitamin K 1640.0 μg 1562%
Calcium 138.0 mg 14%
Iron 6.2 mg 50%
Magnesium 50.0 mg 14%
Phosphorus 58.0 mg 8%
Potassium 554 mg 12%
Zinc 1.1 mg 11%
Percentages are relative to US

recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) is a bright green biennial herb, often used as spice. It is
common in Middle Eastern, European, and American cooking. Parsley is used for its leaf in
much the same way as coriander (which is also known as Chinese parsley or cilantro),
although parsley has a milder flavor.
10 | P a g e Cooking Ingredients/at3585@gmail.com
Varieties
Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian, or flat leaf (P. neapolitanum).
Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. One of the compounds of the essential oil is
apiol. The use of curly leaf parsley may be favored by some because it cannot be confused
with poison hemlock, like flat leaf parsley or chervil.
Root parsley
Another type of parsley is grown as a root vegetable, as with hamburg root parsley
(Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum). This type of parsley produces much thicker roots
than types cultivated for their leaves. Although little known in Britain and the United States,
root parsley is very common in Central and Eastern European cuisine, used in soups and
stews. Parsley grows best between 72 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (22 to 30 degrees Celsius).
Though it looks similar to parsnip it tastes quite different. Parsnips are among the closest
relatives of parsley in the umbellifer family of herbs. The similarity of the names is a
coincidence, parsnip meaning "forked turnip"; it is not related to real turnips.
Cultivation
Parsley's germination is notoriously difficult to achieve.[1] Germination is inconsistent and
may require 3-6 weeks.[1]
Furanocoumarins in parsley's seed coat may be responsible for parsley's problematic

germination. These compounds may inhibit the germination of other seeds, allowing parsley
to compete with nearby plants. However, parsley itself may be affected by the
furanocoumarins. Soaking parsley seeds overnight before sowing shortens the germination
period.[1]
Parsley grows well in deep pots, which helps accommodate the long taproot. Parsley grown
indoors requires at least five hours of sunlight a day.
Companion plant
Parsley is widely used as a companion plant in gardens. Like many other umbellifers, it
attracts predatory insects, including wasps and predatory flies to gardens, which then tend to
protect plants nearby. For example, they are especially useful for protecting tomato plants as
the wasps that kill tomato hornworms also eat nectar from parsley. While parsley is biennial,
not blooming until its second year, even in its first year it is reputed to help cover up the
strong scent of the tomato plant, reducing pest attraction.
Usage
Culinary use
In Central and Eastern Europe and in West Asia, many dishes are served with fresh green
chopped parsley sprinkled on top. Green parsley is often used as a garnish. The fresh flavor
of the green parsley goes extremely well with potato dishes (french fries, boiled buttered
potatoes or mashed potato), with rice dishes (risotto or pilaf), with fish, fried chicken, lamb or
goose, steaks, meat or vegetable stews[2] (like Beef Bourguignon, Goulash or Chicken
paprikash). In Southern and Central Europe, parsley is part of bouquet garni, a bundle of
fresh herbs used to flavor stocks, soups, and sauces. Freshly chopped green parsley is used as
a topping for soups like chicken soup, green salads or salads like Salade Olivier, on open
sandwiches with cold cuts or pâtés. Parsley is a key ingredient in several West Asian salads,
e.g., tabbouleh (the national dish of Lebanon). Persillade is mixture of chopped garlic and
chopped parsley in the French cuisine. Gremolata is a traditional accompaniment to the
Italian veal stew, Ossobuco alla milanese, a mixture of parsley, garlic, and lemon zest.
In addition, the consumption of parsley is thought to contribute to sweet smelling breath.
Root parsley is very common in Central and Eastern European cuisines, where it is used as
soup vegetable in many soups and in most meat or vegetable stews and casseroles.
Health risks
Parsley should not be consumed as a drug or supplement by pregnant women. Parsley
as an oil, root, leaf, or seed could lead to uterine stimulation and preterm labor.[3]
Parsley is high (1.70% by mass, [1]) in oxalic acid, a compound involved in the
formation of kidney stones and nutrient deficiencies.
Parsley oil contains furanocoumarins and psoralens which leads to extreme
photosensitivity if used orally.[4]
The produce code for parsley is 4899, or 4900. "Parsley on plucodes.com".

http://www.plucodes.com/PLUdetails.aspx?id=1075&s=4.
References
1. ^ a b c John W. Jett. "That Devilish Parsley." West Virginia University Extension
Service. Last retrieved April 26, 2007.
2. ^ June Meyers Authentic Hungarian Heirloon Recipes Cookbook
3. ^ "Parsley information on Drugs.com". http://www.drugs.com/npc/parsley.html.
4. ^ Health effects:Furanocoumarins, chemical photosensitivity & photodermatitis
Gallery
Parsley Bush Flat Parsley white

Flat Parsley flower flower
Curled Parsley
Parsley bush
Oregano
Oregano
Flowering oregano
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Origanum
Species: O. vulgare
Binomial name
Origanum vulgare
L.
Oregano (IPA: əˈregənoʊ , British English: ɒ rɪ ˈgɑ :nəʊ ) or (Origanum vulgare) is a
species of Origanum, of the mint family, native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and
southern and central Asia. It is a perennial herb, growing to 20-80 cm tall, with opposite
leaves 1-4 cm long. The flowers are purple, 3-4 mm long, produced in erect spikes.
Varieties
There are a number of subspecies, e.g. O vulgare hirtum (Greek Oregano), O vulgare gracile,
as well as cultivars, each with distinct flavours.[1]
Uses Culinary
Dried oregano for culinary use.
Oregano growing in a field.
Oregano is an important culinary herb. It is particularly widely used in Turkish, Greek,

Spanish and in Italian cuisine. It is the leaves that are used in cooking, and the dried herb is
often more flavourful than the fresh.[2]
Oregano[3] is often used in tomato sauces, fried vegetables, and grilled meat. Together with
basil, it contributes much to the distinctive character of many Italian dishes.
It is commonly used by local chefs in southern Philippines when boiling carabao or cow meat
to eliminate the odor of the meat, and to add a nice, spicy flavor.
Oregano combines nicely with pickled olives, capers, and lovage leaves. Unlike most Italian
herbs,[citation needed] oregano works with hot and spicy food, which is popular in southern Italy.
Oregano is an indispensable ingredient in Greek cuisine. Oregano adds flavor to Greek salad
and is usually added to the lemon-olive oil sauce that accompanies many fish or meat
barbecues and some casseroles.
In Turkish Cuisine, oregano is mostly used for flavoring meat, especially for mutton and
lambs meat. In barbecue and kebab restaurants, it can be usually found on table, together with
paprika, salt and pepper.
Oregano growing in a pot.
It has an aromatic, warm and slightly bitter taste. It varies in intensity; good quality oregano
is so strong that it almost numbs the tongue, but the cultivars adapted to colder climates have
often unsatisfactory flavor. The influence of climate, season and soil on the composition of
the essential oil is greater than the difference between the various species.
The related species Origanum onites (Greece, Asia Minor) and O. heracleoticum (Italy,
Balkan peninsula, West Asia) have similar flavors. A closely related plant is marjoram from
Asia Minor, which, however, differs significantly in taste, because phenolic compounds are
missing in its essential oil. Some breeds show a flavor intermediate between oregano and
marjoram.
Pizza
The dish most commonly associated with oregano is pizza. Its variations have probably been
eaten in Southern Italy for centuries. Oregano became popular in the US when returning
WW2 soldiers brought back with them a taste for the ―pizza herb‖.[4]
Health benefits
Oregano is high in antioxidant activity, due to a high content of phenolic acids and
flavonoids.[5][6] Additionally, oregano has demonstrated antimicrobial activity against food-
borne pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes.[5] Both of these characteristics may be
useful in both health and food preservation. In the Philippines, oregano (Coleus aromaticus)
is not commonly used for cooking but is rather considered as a primarily medicinal plant,
useful for relieving children's coughs.
Main constituents include carvacrol, thymol, limonene, pinene, ocimene, and caryophyllene.
The leaves and flowering stems are strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative,
cholagogue, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic and mildly tonic.
Aqueous extracts, capsules, or oil extracts of oregano are taken by mouth for the treatment of
colds, influenza, mild fevers, fungal infections, indigestion, stomach upsets, enteric
parasites,[7] and painful menstruation. It is strongly sedative and should not be taken in large
doses, though mild teas have a soothing effect and aid restful sleep. Used topically, oregano
is one of the best antiseptics because of its high thymol content.[8]
Hippocrates, the father of medicine, used oregano as an antiseptic as well as a cure for
stomach and respiratory ailments. A Cretan oregano (O. dictamnus) is still used today in
Greece to soothe a sore throat.[9]
Oregano has recently been found to have extremely effective properties against methicillin-
resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), showing a higher effectiveness than 18 currently
used drugs.[10][11]
Other plants called oregano

Mexican oregano, Lippia graveolens (Verbenaceae) is closely related to lemon verbena. It is
a highly studied herb that is said to be of some medical use and is common in curandera
female shamanic practices in Mexico and the Southwestern United States. Mexican oregano
has a very similar flavour to oregano, but is usually stronger. It is becoming more commonly
sold outside of Mexico, especially in the United States. It is sometimes used as a substitute
for epazote leaves[citation needed]; this substitution would not work the other way round.
Several other plants are also known as oregano in various parts of Mexico, including
Poliomintha longiflora, Lippia berlandieri, and Plectranthus amboinicus (syn. Coleus
aromaticus), also called Cuban oregano.
In the Philippines, oregano, Plectranthus amboinicus, is not commonly used as a cooking

ingredient but is primarily considered a medicinal plant, useful for relieving children's
coughs.
Etymology
Oregano is the anglicized form of the Italian word origano, or possibly of the medieval Latin
organum; this latter is used in at least one Old English work. Both were drawn from Classical
Latin term origanum, which probably referred specifically to sweet marjoram, and was itself
a derivation from the Greek origanon ὀ ρίγανον, which simply referred to "an acrid herb".
The etymology of the Greek term is often given as oros ὄ ρος "mountain" + the verb
ganousthai γανοῦ σθαι "delight in", but the Oxford English Dictionary notes that it is quite
likely a loanword from an unknown North African language.[12]
References
1. ^ Organic Gardening
2. ^ http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Orig_vul.html. Oregano leaves are more flavorful
when dried
3. ^ ["http://www.dmannose.co.uk/wild-oregano-oil-carvacrol.php" Wild oregano oil from the
high mountains of the Mediterranean]
4. ^ Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Spring 2007
5. ^ a b Faleiro, Leonor; et al. (2005). "Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils
Isolated from Thymbra capitata L. (Cav.) and Origanum vulgare L.". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53
(21): 8162–8168. doi:10.1021/jf0510079. PMID 16218659.
6. ^ Dragland, Steinar; et al. (01 May 2003). "Several culinary and medicinal herbs are
important sources of dietary antioxidants". J Nutr. 133 (5): 1286–1290. PMID 12730411.
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/133/5/1286.
7. ^ Inhibition of enteric parasites by emulsified oil of oregano
8. ^ Oregano Herb Profile
9. ^ Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter 2007
10. ^ "Himalayan Oregano Effective Against MRSA". Medical News Today. 24 November 2008.
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/130620.php. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
11. ^ "Scientists win SEED award for Himalayan oregano project". University of the West of
England. 28.10.2008.
http://info.uwe.ac.uk/news/UWENews/article.asp?item=1374&year=2008. Retrieved 2008-
11-26.
12. ^ Oxford English Dictionary Online. Draft revision for "oregano", June 2008; draft revision for
"origanum", March 2009; draft revision for "organum", June 2008
Fennel
Fennel
Fennel in flower
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Genus: Foeniculum
Species: F. vulgare
Binomial name
Foeniculum vulgare
Mill.
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), is a plant species in the genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole
species in the genus by most botanists). It is a member of the blunden family Apiaceae
(formerly the Umbelliferae). It is a hardy, perennial, umbelliferous herb, with yellow flowers
and feathery leaves. It is generally considered indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean,
but has become widely naturalised elsewhere (particularly, it seems, areas colonized by the
Romans[1]) and may now be found growing wild in many parts of the world, especially on dry
soils near the sea-coast and on river-banks.
It is a highly aromatic and flavorful herb with culinary and medicinal uses, and is one of the
primary ingredients of absinthe. Florence fennel or finocchio is a selection with a swollen,
bulb-like stem base that is used as a vegetable.
Fennel is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Mouse
Moth and the Anise Swallowtail.
Etymology and history

The word fennel developed from the Middle English fenel or fenyl, and is pronounced
finocchio in Italian. This came from the Old English fenol or finol, which in turn came from
the Latin feniculum or foeniculum, the diminutive of fenum or faenum, meaning "hay". The
Latin word for the plant was ferula, which is now used as the genus name of a related plant.
As Old English finule it is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine
Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century.
In Ancient Greek, fennel was called marathon (μάραθον), and is attested in Linear B tablets
as ma-ra-tu-wo. John Chadwick notes that this word is the origin of the place name Marathon
(meaning "place of fennel"), site of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC; however, Chadwick
wryly notes that he has "not seen any fennel growing there now".[2] In Greek mythology,
Prometheus used the stalk of a fennel plant to steal fire from the gods. Also, it was from the
giant fennel, Ferula communis, that the Bacchanalian wands of the god Dionysus and his
followers were said to have come.[3]
Appearance
Fennel flowerheads
Fennel is a perennial herb. It is erect, glaucous green, and grows to heights of up to 2.5 m,
with hollow stems. The leaves grow up to 40 cm long; they are finely dissected, with the
ultimate segments filiform (threadlike), about 0.5 mm wide. (Its leaves are similar to those of
dill, but thinner.) The flowers are produced in terminal compound umbels 5–15 cm wide,
each umbel section having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. The fruit is a dry
seed from 4–10 mm long, half as wide or less, and grooved.[4]
Cultivation and uses

Fennel, bulb, raw
Carbohydrates 7.29 g
Fat 0.20 g
Protein 1.24 g
Vitamin C 12 mg 20%
Calcium 49 mg 5%
Iron 0.73 mg 6%
Magnesium 17 mg 5%
Phosphorus 50 mg 7%
Potassium 414 mg 9%
Zinc 0.20 mg 2%
Manganese 0.191 mg
Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, strongly-
flavoured leaves and seeds. Its aniseed flavour comes from anethole, an aromatic compound
also found in anise and star anise, and its taste and aroma are similar to theirs, though usually
not as strong.[5]
The Florence fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Azoricum Group; syn. F. vulgare var. azoricum)
is a cultivar group with inflated leaf bases which form a bulb-like structure. It is of cultivated
origin,[6] and has a mild anise-like flavour, but is more aromatic and sweeter. Florence fennel
plants are smaller than the wild type.[citation needed] Their inflated leaf bases are eaten as a
vegetable, both raw and cooked. There are several cultivars of Florence fennel, which is also
known by several other names, notably the Italian name finocchio. In North American
supermarkets, it is often mislabelled as "anise".[citation needed]
Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available in the UK

where it is grown as a decorative garden plant.[7]
Fennel has become naturalised along roadsides, in pastures, and in other open sites in many
regions, including northern Europe, the United States, southern Canada and in much of Asia
and Australia. It propagates well by seed, and is considered an invasive species and a weed in
Australia and the United States[8] (see Santa Cruz Island).
Florence fennel bulbs
Florence fennel was one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of absinthe, an
alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Switzerland and became, by the
late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries. Fennel itself is
known to be a stimulant,[9] although many modern preparations marketed under the name
"absinthe" do not make use of it.[citation needed]
Culinary uses
Fennel, from Koehler's Medicinal-plants (1887)
The bulb, foliage, and seeds of the fennel plant are widely used in many of the culinary
traditions of the world. Fennel pollen is the most potent form of fennel, but also the most
expensive.[10] Dried fennel seed is an aromatic, anise-flavoured spice, brown or green in
colour when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the seed ages. For cooking, green seeds are
optimal.[5] The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to those of dill. The bulb is
a crisp, hardy root vegetable and may be sauteed, stewed, braised, grilled, or eaten raw.
Fennel seeds are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are very similar in taste and
appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also used as a flavouring in some natural toothpaste.
Fennel features prominently in Mediterranean cuisine, where bulbs and fronds are used, both
raw and cooked, in side dishes, salads, pastas, vegetable dishes such as artichoke dishes in
Greece, and risottos. Fennel seed is a common ingredient in Italian sausages and meatballs
and northern European rye breads.
Many cultures in the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East use fennel seed in their
cookery. It is an essential ingredient of the Bengali/Oriya spice mixture panch phoron and in
Chinese five-spice powders. It is known as saunf or mauti saunf in Hindi and Urdu (
Devanagiri ), sompu in Telugu, badesoppu in Kannada, mouri in Bengali, shombu or
peruncheeragam ( ) in Tamil and Malayalam language, variyali in
Gujarati, badeeshop or badeeshep in Marathi and barishap in the Malay language, Razianeh
or ‫ر‬‫ ررر ررر‬in PersianJintan Manis in Malay. In many parts of Pakistan and India roasted
fennel seeds are consumed as an after-meal digestive and breath freshener. Farming
communities also chew on fresh sprigs of green fennel seeds.
Many egg, fish, and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key
ingredient in some Italian and German salads, often tossed with chicory and avocado, or it
can be braised and served as a warm side dish. It may be blanched or marinated, or cooked in
risotto.
Medicinal uses
Fennel seeds
Fennel contains anethole, which can explain some of its medical effects: it, or its polymers,
act as phytoestrogens.[11]
Intestinal tract
On account of its carminative properties, Fennel is chiefly used medicinally with purgatives
to allay their side effects and for this purpose forms one of the ingredients of the well-known
compound Liquorice Powder.
Fennel water has properties similar to those of anise and dill water: mixed with sodium
bicarbonate and syrup, these waters constitute the domestic 'Gripe Water', used to ease
flatulence in infants; it also can be made into a syrup to treat babies with colic or painful
teething. Long term ingestion of fennel preparations by babies is a known cause of
thelarche.[12] For adults, fennel seeds or tea can relax the intestines and reduce bloating
caused by digestive disorders. Essential oil of fennel has these properties in concentration.
Fennel tea, also employed as a carminative, is made by pouring boiling water on a

teaspoonful of bruised fennel seeds.
Eyes
In the Indian subcontinent, Fennel seeds are also eaten raw, sometimes with some sweetener,
as it is said to improve eyesight.[citation needed] Fennel tea can be used as an eye tonic, applied
directly like eyedrops or as a compress, to reduce soreness and inflammation of the eye.[citation
needed]
Extracts of fennel seed have been shown in animal studies to have a potential use in the
treatment of glaucoma.[13]
Blood and urine
Some people use fennel as a diuretic,[citation needed] and it may be an effective diuretic and a
potential drug for treatment of hypertension.[14][15]
Breastmilk
There are historical anecdotes that fennel is a galactogogue,[16] improving the milk supply of
a breastfeeding mother. This use, although not supported by direct evidence, is sometimes
justified by the fact that fennel is a source of phytoestrogens, which promote growth of breast
tissue.[17] However, normal lactation does not involve growth of breast tissue. There is a
single case report of fennel tea ingested by a breastfeeding mother resulting in neurotoxicity
for the newborn child.[18]
Other uses
Syrup prepared from fennel juice was formerly given for chronic coughs. Fennel is also
largely used for cattle condiments. It is one of the plants which is said to be disliked by fleas,
and powdered fennel has the effect of driving away fleas from kennels and stables.[19] Plain
water drunk after chewing and consuming fennel seeds tastes extremely sweet.
Production
Syrian Arab Republic is leader in production of anise, badian (star anise), fennel and
coriander, followed by India.
Cinnamon
Cinnamon
Cinnamon foliage and flowers

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Laurales
Family: Lauraceae
Genus: Cinnamomum
Species: C. verum
Binomial name
Cinnamomum verum
J.Presl
Synonyms
C. zeylanicum Blume
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, synonym C. zeylanicum) is a small evergreen tree

belonging to the family Lauraceae, native to Sri Lanka,[1] or the spice obtained from the tree's
bark. It is often confused with other similar species and the similar spices derived from them,
such as Cassia and Cinnamomum burmannii, which are often called cinnamon too.
Nomenclature and taxonomy

The name cinnamon comes from Greek kinnámōmon, itself ultimately from Phoenician. The
botanical name for the spice—Cinnamomum zeylanicum—is derived from Sri Lanka's former
name, Ceylon.[2]
In Marathi, it is known as "DalChini ( )". In Bengali, it is called "Darchini"

( ). In Telugu, it is called Dalchina Chakka, Chakka meaning bark or wood. In Sanskrit
cinnamon is known as tvak or dārusitā. In Urdu, Hindi, and Hindustani cinnamon is called
darchini ( ni ,(‫دارچ ی نی‬Assamese it is called alseni, and in Gujarati taj. In Farsi
(Persian), it is called darchin (‫)نیچراد‬.
In Indonesia, where it is cultivated in Java and Sumatra, it is called kayu manis and
sometimes cassia vera, the "real' cassia.[3] In Sri Lanka, in the original Sinhala, cinnamon is
known as kurundu,[4] recorded in English in the 17th century as Korunda.[5] In Malayalam,
karugapatta and in Tamil pattai or lavangampattai or karuvappattai. In Arabic it is called
qerfa (‫)ةفرق‬.
History
Cinnamon (canella) output in 2005
Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants (1887)
Quills of true cinnamon bark and ground cinnamon.
Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity; the first mention of a particular spice in
the Old Testament is of cinnamon (. 24) where Moses is commanded to use both sweet
cinnamon (Hebrew , qinnāmôn) and cassia in the holy anointing oil; in Proverbs, where
the lover's bed is perfumed with myrrh, aloe and cinnamon; and in Song of Solomon, a song
describing the beauty of his beloved, cinnamon scents her garments like the smell of
Lebanon. It was so highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a gift fit for
monarchs and even for a god: a fine inscription records the gift of cinnamon and cassia to the
temple of Apollo at Miletus.[6] Though its source was kept mysterious in the Mediterranean
world for centuries by the middlemen who handled the spice trade, to protect their monopoly
as suppliers, cinnamon is native to Sri Lanka.[1] It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000
BC, but those who report that it had come from China confuse it with cassia.[7] It is also
alluded to by Herodotus and other classical writers. It was too expensive to be commonly
used on funeral pyres in Rome, but the Emperor Nero is said to have burned a year's worth of
the city's supply at the funeral for his wife Poppaea Sabina in 65 AD.[8]
Before the foundation of Cairo, Alexandria was the Mediterranean shipping port of
cinnamon. Europeans who knew the Latin writers who were quoting Herodotus knew that
cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the trading ports of Egypt, but whether from Ethiopia or
not was less than clear. When the sieur de Joinville accompanied his king to Egypt on
Crusade in 1248, he reported what he had been told— and believed— that cinnamon was
fished up in nets at the source of the Nile out at the edge of the world. Through the Middle
Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. Marco Polo avoided
precision on this score.[9] In Herodotus and other authors, Arabia was the source of cinnamon:
giant Cinnamon birds collected the cinnamon sticks from an unknown land where the
cinnamon trees grew, and used them to construct their nests; the Arabs employed a trick to
obtain the sticks. This story was current as late as 1310 in Byzantium, although in the first
century, Pliny the Elder had written that the traders had made this up in order to charge more.
The first mention of the spice growing in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwini's Athar al-
bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad ("Monument of Places and History of God's Bondsmen") in about
1270.[10] This was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino, in a letter of about
1292.[11]
Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon (known in Indonesia as kayu manis- literally "sweet
wood") on a "cinnamon route" directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, where local traders
then carried it north to the Roman market.[12][13][14] See also Rhapta.
Arab traders brought the spice via overland trade routes to Alexandria in Egypt, where it was
bought by Venetian traders from Italy who held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe. The
disruption of this trade by the rise of other Mediterranean powers, such as the Mamluk
Sultans and the Ottoman Empire, was one of many factors that led Europeans to search more
widely for other routes to Asia.
Portuguese traders finally landed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) at the beginning of the sixteenth
century and restructured the traditional production and management of cinnamon by the
Sinhalese, who later held the monopoly for cinnamon in Ceylon. The Portuguese established
a fort on the island in 1518 and protected their own monopoly for over a hundred years.
Dutch traders finally dislodged the Portuguese by allying with the inland Kingdom of Kandy.
They established a trading post in 1638, took control of the factories by 1640, and expelled
all remaining Portuguese by 1658. "The shores of the island are full of it", a Dutch captain
reported, "and it is the best in all the Orient: when one is downwind of the island, one can still
smell cinnamon eight leagues out to sea." (Braudel 1984, p. 215)
The Dutch East India Company continued to overhaul the methods of harvesting in the wild,
and eventually began to cultivate its own trees.
In 1767 Lord Brown of East India Company established Anjarakkandy Cinnamon Estate near
Anjarakkandy in Cannanore (now Kannur) district of Kerala and this estate become Asia's
largest cinnamon estate.
The British took control of the island from the Dutch in 1796. However, the importance of
the monopoly of Ceylon was already declining, as cultivation of the cinnamon tree spread to
other areas, the more common cassia bark became more acceptable to consumers, and coffee,
tea, sugar, and chocolate began to outstrip the popularity of traditional spices.
The plant
Cinnamon' trees are 10–15 metres (32.8–49.2 feet) tall. The leaves are ovate-oblong in shape,
7–18 cm (2.75–7.1 inches) long. The flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish
color, and have a distinct odor. The fruit is a purple 1-cm berry containing a single seed.
Cultivation
Leaves of a wild Cinnamon
Cinnamon is harvested by growing the tree for two years and then coppicing it. The next
year, about a dozen shoots will form from the roots. These shoots are then stripped of their
bark, which is left to dry. Only the thin (0.5 mm) inner bark is used; the outer woody portion
is removed, leaving metre-long cinnamon strips that curl into rolls ("quills") on drying; each
dried quill comprises strips from numerous shoots packed together. These quills are then cut
into 5–10 cm lengths for sale.
Cinnamon has been cultivated from time immemorial in Sri Lanka, and the tree is also grown
commercially at Kerala in southern India, Bangladesh, Java, Sumatra, the West Indies, Brazil,
Vietnam, Madagascar, Zanzibar, and Egypt. Sri Lanka cinnamon has a very thin, smooth bark
with a light-yellowish brown color and a highly fragrant aroma.
According to the International Herald Tribune, in 2006 Sri Lanka produced 90% of the
world's cinnamon, followed by China, India, and Vietnam.[15] According to the FAO,
Indonesia produces 40% of the world's Cassia genus of cinnamon.
The Sri Lankan grading system divides the cinnamon quills into four groups:
• Alba less than 6 mm in diameter
• Continental less than 16 mm in diameter
• Mexican less than 19 mm in diameter
• Hamburg less than 32 mm in diameter
These groups are further divided into specific grades, eg, Mexican is divided into M00 000
special, M000000 and M0000 depending on quill diameter and number of quills per kg.
Any pieces of bark less than 106 mm long is categorized as quillings. Featherings are the
inner bark of twigs and twisted shoots. Chips are trimmings of quills, outer and inner bark
that cannot be separated or the bark of small twigs.
Associated species
There are several species of Cinnamon found in South and South-East Asia. In addition to the
cultivated cinnamon type (Cinnamomum zeylanicum or C. verum), there reported to be seven
other species of wild cinnamon which are endemic to Sri Lanka
Cinnamomum tamala
Cinnamomum dubium (Wight) (Sinhala: sewel Kurundu or wal Kurundu)[citation needed]
Cinnamomum ovalifolium (Wight)[citation needed]
Cinnamomum litseafolium Thw. (Sinhala: Kudu Kurundu)[citation needed]
Cinnamomum citriodorum (Sinhala: Pangiri Kurundu - rare)
Cinnamomum rivulorum[citation needed]
Cinnamomum sinharajense[citation needed]
Cinnamomum capparu-corende (Sinhala: Kapuru Kurundu)[citation needed]
There are several different cultivars of Cinnamomum zeylanicum based on the taste of bark.
Type 1 Sinhala: Pani Kurundu, Pat Kurundu or Mapat Kurundu

Type 2 Sinhala: Naga Kurundu
Type 3 Sinhala: Pani Miris Kurundu
Type 4 Sinhala: Weli Kurundu
Type 5 Sinhala: Sewala Kurundu
Type 6 Sinhala: Kahata Kurundu
Type 7 Sinhala: Pieris Kurundu
Cinnamon and cassia
True Cinnamon (on the left) and Indonesian Cinnamon (Cassia) quills (Cinnamomum
burmannii) side-by-side
The name cinnamon is correctly used to refer to Ceylon cinnamon, also known as "true
cinnamon" (from the botanical name C. zeylanicum). However, the related species, Cassia
(Cinnamomum aromaticum), Saigon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum loureiroi), and Cinnamomum
burmannii are sometimes sold labeled as cinnamon, sometimes distinguished from true
cinnamon as "Chinese cinnamon", "Vietnamese cinnamon", or "Indonesian cinnamon"; many
websites, for example, describe their "cinnamon" as being cassia.[16] Ceylon cinnamon, using
only the thin inner bark, has a finer, less dense, and more crumbly texture, and is considered
to be less strong than cassia. Cassia has a much stronger (somewhat harsher) flavour than
cinnamon, is generally a medium to light reddish brown, hard and woody in texture, and
thicker (2–3 mm thick), as all of the layers of bark are used.[17]
Due to the presence of a moderately toxic component called coumarin, European health
agencies have recently warned against consuming large amounts of cassia.[18] This is
contained in much lower dosages in Cinnamomum burmannii due to its low essential oil
content. Coumarin is known to cause liver and kidney damage in high concentrations. True
Ceylon cinnamon has negligible amounts of coumarin.
The two barks, when whole, are easily distinguished, and their microscopic characteristics are
also quite distinct. Cinnamon sticks (or quills) have many thin layers and can easily be made
into powder using a coffee or spice grinder, whereas cassia sticks are much harder.
Indonesian cassia (Cinnamomum burmannii) is often sold in neat quills made up of one thick
layer, capable of damaging a spice or coffee grinder. Saigon cassia (Cinnamomum loureiroi)
and Chinese cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum) are always sold as broken pieces of thick
bark, as the bark is not supple enough to be rolled into quills. It is a bit harder to tell
powdered cinnamon from powdered cassia. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of
iodine (a test for starch), little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality,
but when cassia is present, a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the coloration
depending on the proportion of cassia.[citation needed]
Cinnamon is also sometimes confused with Malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala) and Saigon
cinnamon (Cinnamomum loureiroi).
Uses
Cinnamon bark
Cinnamon bark is widely used as a spice. It is principally employed in cookery as a

condiment and flavoring material. It is used in the preparation of chocolate, especially in
Mexico, which is the main importer of true cinnamon.[19] It is also used in the preparation of
some kinds of desserts, such as apple pie, donuts and cinnamon buns as well as spicy candies,
tea, hot cocoa, and liqueurs. True cinnamon, rather than cassia, is more suitable for use in
sweet dishes. In the Middle East, it is often used in savory dishes of chicken and lamb. In the
United States, cinnamon and sugar are often used to flavor cereals, bread-based dishes, and
fruits, especially apples; a cinnamon-sugar mixture is even sold separately for such purposes.
Cinnamon can also be used in pickling. Cinnamon bark is one of the few spices that can be
consumed directly. Cinnamon powder has long been an important spice in Persian cuisine,
used in a variety of thick soups, drinks, and sweets. It is often mixed with rosewater or other
spices to make a cinnamon-based curry powder for stews or just sprinkled on sweet treats
(most notably Sholezard Per. ‫)درز هلش‬.
Its flavor is due to an aromatic essential oil that makes up 0.5% to 1% of its composition.
This oil is prepared by roughly pounding the bark, macerating it in seawater, and then quickly
distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow color, with the characteristic odor of cinnamon
and a very hot aromatic taste. The pungent taste and scent come from cinnamic aldehyde or
cinnamaldehyde (about 60 % of the bark oil) and, by the absorption of oxygen as it ages, it
darkens in color and develops resinous compounds. Other chemical components of the
essential oil include ethyl cinnamate, eugenol (found mostly in the leaves), cinnamaldehyde,
beta-caryophyllene, linalool, and methyl chavicol[citation needed].
In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and once had a reputation as a cure for colds. It has
also been used to treat diarrhea and other problems of the digestive system.[20] Cinnamon is
high in antioxidant activity.[21][22] The essential oil of cinnamon also has antimicrobial
properties,[23] which can aid in the preservation of certain foods.[24]
Cinnamon has been reported to have remarkable pharmacological effects in the treatment of
Type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance. However, the plant material used in the study
was mostly from cassia and only few of them are truly from Cinnamomum zeylanicum (see
cassia's medicinal uses for more information about its health benefits).[25][26] Recent
advancement in phytochemistry has shown that it is a cinnamtannin B1 isolated from C.
zeylanicum which is of therapeutic effect on Type 2 diabetes,[27] with the exception of the
postmenopausal patients studied on C. cassia.[28] Cinnamon has traditionally been used to
treat toothache and fight bad breath and its regular use is believed to stave off common cold
and aid digestion.[29]
Cinnamon is used in the system of Thelemic Magick for Solar invocations, according to the
correspondences listed in Aleister Crowley's work Liber 777. In Hoodoo, it is a multipurpose
ingredient used for purification, luck, love, and money.[30]
Cinnamon has been proposed for use as an insect repellent, although it remains untested.[31]
Cinnamon leaf oil has been found to be very effective in killing mosquito larvae.[32] The
compounds cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, eugenol, and anethole, that are contained in
cinnamon leaf oil, were found to have the highest effectiveness against mosquito larvae.[32]
It is reported that regularly drinking of Cinnamomum zeylanicum tea made from the bark
could be beneficial to oxidative stress related illness in humans, as the plant part contains
significant antioxidant potential.[33]
Popular culture
Cinnamon is the subject of an internet meme, The Cinnamon Challenge, in which one is to
attempt to simply eat a whole tablespoon of cinnamon without vomiting. Despite thousands
of video-documented attempts, few seem able to succeed. One notable challenger was the
host of the television show Tosh.0, who failed.[34]
Notes
1. ^ a b "Cinnamon". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2008. "(species Cinnamomum
zeylanicum), bushy evergreen tree of the laurel family (Lauraceae) native to
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), the neighboring Malabar Coast of India, and
Myanmar (Burma), and also cultivated in South America and the West Indies for the
spice consisting of its dried inner bark. The bark is widely used as a spice due to its
distinct odor."
2. ^
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/south_asia_sri_lanka0s_spice
_of_life/html/1.stm
3. ^ "Cassia, also known as bastard cinnamon or Chinese cinnamon is a tree which has
bark similar to that of cinnamon but with a rather pungent odour," remarks
Maguelonne Toussant-Samat, Anthea Bell, tr. The History of Food, revised ed. 2009,
p.437.
4. ^ The Epicentre, Encyclopedia of Spices, Cinnamon,
http://www.theepicentre.com/Spices/cinnamon.html, retrieved 2008-07-15
5. ^ Knox, Robert, An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon,
http://www.ihaystack.com/authors/k/robert_knox/00014346_an_historical_relation_of
_the_island_ceylon_in_the_e/00014346_english_iso88591_p004.htm, retrieved 2008-
07-15
6. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 437
7. ^ "The Indians obtained cassia from China" (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 437).
8. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 437f.
9. ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 438 discusses cinnamon's hidden origins and Joinville's
report.
10. ^ Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Account of the Island of Ceylon,
http://lakdiva.org/tennent/v1_p5_c02.html#pg598, retrieved 2008-07-15
11. ^ Yule, Col. Henry, Cathay and the Way Thither, http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/III-2-
F-b-2/V-1/page/0487.html.en, retrieved 2008-07-15
12. ^ http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1984_June/ai_3289703
13. ^
http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?click_id=588&art_id=iol1078376795319P146&set_i
d=1
14. ^ http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0075-
4358(1970)60%3C222%3ATSTOTR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N
15. ^ [1]
16. ^ http://www.thespicehouse.com/spices/vietnamese-cassia-saigon-cinnamon-whole-
cracked-ground thespicehouse.com
17. ^ [2]
18. ^ Harris, Emily, German Christmas Cookies Pose Health Danger,
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6672644, retrieved 2007-05-01
19. ^ http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae017e/ae017e12.htm
20. ^ Felter, Harvey, Cinnamomum.—Cinnamon.,
http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/cinnamomum.html, retrieved 2007-
05-01
21. ^ Shan B, Cai YZ, Sun M, Corke H (October 2005). "Antioxidant capacity of 26
spice extracts and characterization of their phenolic constituents". J. Agric. Food
Chem. 53 (20): 7749–59. doi:10.1021/jf051513y. PMID 16190627.
22. ^ Mancini-Filho J, Van-Koiij A, Mancini DA, Cozzolino FF, Torres RP (December
1998). "Antioxidant activity of cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne)
extracts". Boll Chim Farm 137 (11): 443–7. PMID 10077878.
23. ^ López P, Sánchez C, Batlle R, Nerín C (August 2005). "Solid- and vapor-phase
antimicrobial activities of six essential oils: susceptibility of selected foodborne
bacterial and fungal strains". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (17): 6939–46.
doi:10.1021/jf050709v. PMID 16104824.
24. ^ George Mateljan Foundation, Cinnamon, ground, Research: Thalido...,
http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=68, retrieved 2007-
05-01
25. ^ Khan A, Safdar M, Ali Khan MM, Khattak KN, Anderson RA (December 2003).
"Cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of people with type 2 diabetes". Diabetes
Care 26 (12): 3215–8. doi:10.2337/diacare.26.12.3215. PMID 14633804.
http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14633804.
26. ^ Verspohl, Eugen J. et al. (2005). "Antidiabetic effect of Cinnamomum cassia and
Cinnamomum zeylanicum In vivo and In vitro". Phytotherapy Research 19 (3): 203–
206. doi:10.1002/ptr.1643.
27. ^ Taher, Muhammad et al.. "A proanthocyanidin from Cinnamomum zeylanicum
stimulates phosphorylation of insullin receptor in 3T3-L1 adipocyties" (PDF).
http://eprints.utm.my/3661/1/JTJun44F%5B5%5D_FADZILAH_ADIBAH.pdf.
Retrieved 2008-05-11.
28. ^ Vanschoonbeek, Kristof et al.. "Cinnamon Supplementation Does Not Improve
Glycemic Control in Postmenopausal Type 2 Diabetes Patients".
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/136/4/977. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
29. ^ Alice Hart-Davis (16 January 2007). "Chillies Are the Spice of Life".
http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/803646/chillies_are_the_spice_of_life__pepper
s_have_been/index.html?source=r_health. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
30. ^ Yronwode, Cat, http://www.luckymojo.com, retrieved 2007-12-12
31. ^ Beck, Leslie, Cinnamon — December 2006's Featured Food,
http://www.lesliebeck.com/ingredient_index.php?featured_food=80, retrieved 2007-
05-01
32. ^ a b "Cinnamon Oil Kills Mosquitoes". www.sciencedaily.com.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040716081706.htm. Retrieved 2008-
08-05.
33. ^ Ranjbar, Akram et al.. "Antioxidative stress potential of Cinnamomum zeylanicum
in humans: a comparative cross-sectional clinical study".
doi:10.2217/14750708.3.1.113.
http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/abs/10.2217/14750708.3.1.113. Retrieved 2008-
05-11.
34. ^ [3].
References
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a
publication now in the public domain.
Braudel, Fernand (1984). The Perspective of the World, Vol III of Civilization and
Capitalism.
Corn, Charles (1998). The Scents of Eden: A Narrative of the Spice Trade. New
York: Kodansha International.
"Cinnamon Extracts Boost Insulin Sensitivity" (2000). Agricultural Research
magazine, July 2000.
Alan W. Archer (1988). "Determination of cinnamaldehyde, coumarin and
cinnamyl alcohol in cinnamon and cassia by high-performance liquid
chromatography". Journal of Chromatography 447: 272–276. doi:10.1016/0021-
9673(88)90035-0.
Medicinal Seasonings, The Healing Power Of Spices Book by Dr. Keith Scott
Department of Export Agriculture, Sri Lanka
Onion
Onion
Onions
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Monocots
Order: Asparagales
Family: Alliaceae
Genus: Allium
Species: A. cepa
Binomial name
Allium cepa
L.
Onion is a term used for many plants in the genus Allium. They are known by the common
name "onion" but, used without qualifiers, it usually refers to Allium cepa. Allium cepa is
also known as the "garden onion" or "bulb" onion. It is grown underground by the plant as a
vertical shoot that is used for food storage, leading to the possibility of confusion with a
tuber, which it is not.
Allium Cepa is known only in cultivation,[1] but related wild species occur in Central Asia.
The most closely-related species include Allium vavilovii Popov & Vved. and Allium
asarense R.M. Fritsch & Matin from Iran.[2] However Zohary and Hopf warn that "there are
doubts whether the vavilovii collections tested represent genuine wild material or only feral
derivatives of the crop."[3]
Uses
Onions, one of the oldest vegetables, are found in a large number of recipes and preparations
spanning almost the totality of the world's cultures. They are now available in fresh, frozen,
canned, pickled, powdered, chopped, and dehydrated forms. Onions can be used, usually
chopped or sliced, in almost every type of food including cooked foods and fresh salads and
as a spicy garnish. They are rarely eaten on their own but usually act as accompaniment to the
main course. Depending on the variety, an onion can be sharp, spicy, tangy and pungent or
mild and sweet.
Onions pickled in vinegar are eaten as a snack. These are often served as a side serving in
fish and chip shops throughout the United Kingdom and are referred to simply as "Pickled
Onions". Onions are widely-used in India and Pakistan and are fundamental in the local
cuisine. They are commonly used as a base for curries or made into a paste and eaten as a
main course or as a side dish.
Tissue from onions is frequently used in science education to demonstrate microscope usage,
because they have particularly large cells which are readily observed even at low
magnifications.[4]
Historical uses
It is thought that bulbs from the onion family have been used as a food source for millennia.
In Bronze Age settlements, traces of onion remains were found alongside fig and date stones
dating back to 5000 BC.[5]
However, it is not clear if these were cultivated onions. Archaeological and literary evidence
such as the Book of Numbers 11:5 suggests cultivation probably took place around two
thousand years later in ancient Egypt, at the same time that leeks and garlic were cultivated.
Workers who built the Egyptian pyramids may have been fed radishes and onions.[5]
The onion is easily propagated, transported and stored. The Ancient Egyptians worshipped
it,[6] believing that its spherical shape and concentric rings symbolized eternal life. Onions
were even used in Egyptian burials as evidenced by onion traces being found in the eye
sockets of Ramesses IV.
In ancient Greece, athletes ate large quantities of onion because it was believed that it would
lighten the balance of blood. Roman gladiators were rubbed down with onion to firm up their
muscles. In the Middle Ages onions were such an important food that people would pay their
rent with onions and even give them as gifts.[6] Doctors were known to prescribe onions to
facilitate bowel movements and erection, and also to relieve headaches, coughs, snakebite
and hair loss. The onion was introduced to North America by Christopher Columbus on his
1492 expedition to Hispaniola. Onions were also prescribed by doctors in the early 1500s to
help with infertility in women, and even dogs and cattle and many other household pets.
However, recent evidence has shown that dogs, cats, and other animals should not be given
onions in any form, due to toxicity during digestion.[7]
Medicinal properties and health effects
Raw Onions
- Sugars 4.24 g
Fat 0.1 g
- saturated 0.042 g
- monounsaturated 0.013 g
- polyunsaturated 0.017 g
Protein 1.1 g
Water 89.11 g
Vitamin A equiv. 0 μg 0%
Vitamin B12 0 μg 0%
Vitamin E 0.02 mg 0%
Calcium 23 mg 2%
Iron 0.21 mg 2%
Magnesium 0.129 mg 0%
Phosphorus 29 mg 4%
Potassium 146 mg 3%
Sodium 4 mg 0%
Zinc 0.17 mg 2%

Wide-ranging claims have been made for the effectiveness of onions against conditions
ranging from the common cold to heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, and other diseases.[8]
They contain chemical compounds believed to have anti-inflammatory, anticholesterol,
anticancer, and antioxidant properties such as quercetin. However, it has not been
conclusively demonstrated that increased consumption of onions is directly linked to health
benefits. Some studies have shown that increased consumption of onions reduces the risk of
head and neck cancers.[9] In India some sects do not eat onion due to its alleged aphrodisiac
properties.[10]
In many parts of the world, onions are used to heal blisters and boils. A traditional Maltese
remedy for sea urchin wounds is to tie half a baked onion to the afflicted area overnight. An
application of raw onion is also said to be helpful in reducing swelling from bee stings. In the
United States, products that contain onion extract are used in the treatment of topical scars;
some studies have found their action to be ineffective,[11][12][13] while others found that they
may act as an anti-inflammatory or bacteriostatic[14] and can improve collagen organization in
rabbits.[15]
Onions may be especially beneficial for women,[16] who are at increased risk for osteoporosis
as they go through menopause, by destroying osteoclasts so that they do not break down
bone.
An American chemist has stated[17] that the pleiomeric chemicals in onions have the potential
to alleviate or prevent sore throat. However onion in combination with jaggery has been
widely used as a traditional household remedy for sore throat in India.
Shallots have the most phenols, six times the amount found in Vidalia onion, the variety with
the lowest phenolic content. Shallots also have the most antioxidant activity, followed by
Western Yellow, pungent yellow (New York Bold[18]), Northern Red, Mexico, Empire Sweet,
Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia. Western
Yellow onions have the most flavonoids, eleven times the amount found in Western White,
the variety with the lowest flavonoid content.
For all varieties of onions, the more phenols and flavonoids they contain, the more
antioxidant and anti-cancer activity they provide. When tested against liver and colon cancer
cells, Western Yellow, pungent yellow (New York Bold[18]) and shallots were most effective
in inhibiting their growth. The milder-tasting varieties—Western White, Peruvian Sweet,
Empire Sweet, Mexico, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet, and Vidalia—showed little
cancer-fighting ability.[18]
Shallots and ten other onion (Allium cepa L.) varieties commonly available in the United
States were evaluated: Western Yellow, Northern Red, pungent yellow (New York Bold),
Western White, Peruvian Sweet, Empire Sweet, Mexico, Texas 1015, Imperial Valley Sweet,
and Vidalia. In general, the most pungent onions delivered many times the benefits of their
milder cousins.[18]
Allergies and eye irritation

Some people suffer from from allergies to plants in the allium family. If you are allergic to
onions, then you can be allergic to all plants under the family liliaceae (lilies). This can
include reactions to onions, garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.
Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea,
breathing difficulties, and in rare cases anaphylaxis. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive
tests to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all present in garlic.
Even if garlic is present in a very small amount, it can lead to an allergic reaction.
As onions are sliced or eaten, cells are broken, allowing enzymes called alliinases to break
down amino acid sulphoxides and generate sulphenic acids. Sulphenic acids are unstable and
spontaneously rearrange into a volatile gas called syn-propanethial-S-oxide. The gas diffuses
through the air and eventually reaches the eye, where it binds to sensory neurons, creating a
stinging sensation. Tear glands produce tears to dilute and flush out the irritant.[19]
Supplying ample water to the reaction while peeling onions prevents the gas from reaching
the eyes. Eye irritation can, therefore, be avoided by cutting onions under running water or
submerged in a basin of water.[19] Rinsing the onion and leaving it wet while chopping may
also be effective. Another way to reduce irritation is by chilling, or by not cutting off the root
of the onion (or by doing it last), as the root of the onion has a higher concentration of
enzymes.[20] Using a sharp blade to chop onions will limit the cell damage and the release of
enzymes that drive the irritation response. Chilling or freezing onions prevents the enzymes
from activating, limiting the amount of gas generated. Eye irritation may be avoided by
having a fan blow the gas away from the eyes as the onion is being cut.
It is also possible to avoid eye irritation by wearing goggles or any eye protection that creates
a seal around the eye. Contact lens wearers can experience less immediate irritation as a
result of the slight protection afforded by the lenses themselves. It may also be that lens
wearers are familiar with controlling the more reflexive actions of their eyes with regards to
irritation; as this is an ability they require when manipulating the lenses to prevent blinking.
The volume of sulfenic acids released, and the irritation effect, differs among Allium species.
On January 31, 2008, the New Zealand Crop and Food institute created a strain of "no tears"
onions by using gene-silencing biotechnology.[21]
Propagation
Onion and shallot output in 2005
Onion growing shoots
Onions may be grown from seed or, more commonly today, from sets started from seed the
previous year. Onion sets are produced by sowing seed very thickly one year, resulting in
stunted plants which produce very small bulbs. These bulbs are very easy to set out and grow
into mature bulbs the following year, but they have the reputation of producing a less durable
bulb than onions grown directly from seed and thinned.
Seed-bearing onions are day-length sensitive; their bulbs begin growing only after the
number of daylight hours has surpassed some minimal quantity. Most traditional European
onions are what is referred to as "long-day" onions, producing bulbs only after 15+ hours of
daylight occur. Southern European and North African varieties are often known as
"intermediate day" types, requiring only 12–13 hours of daylight to stimulate bulb formation.
Finally, "short-day" onions, which have been developed in more recent times, are planted in
mild-winter areas in the fall and form bulbs in the early spring, and require only 9–10 hours
of sunlight to stimulate bulb formation.
Either planting method may be used to produce spring onions or green onions, which are the
leaves and/or immature plants. Green onion is a name also used to refer to another species,
Allium fistulosum, the Welsh onion, which is said not to produce dry bulbs.
The tree onion produces bulbs instead of flowers and seeds, which can be planted directly in
the ground.
Varieties
Brown and white onions Yellow onions Flower head of a yellow

onion Red onions
Bulb onion – Grown from seed (or onion sets), bulb onions range from the pungent
varieties used for dried soups and onion powder to the mild and hearty sweet onions,
such as the Vidalia from Georgia or Walla Walla from Washington that can be sliced
and eaten on a sandwich instead of meat.
Multiplier onions – May refer to perennial green onions, or to onions raised from
bulbs which produce multiple shoots, each of which forms a bulb. The second type is
often referred to as a Potato onion.
Tree onion or Egyptian onion - Produce bulblets in the flower head; a hybrid of
Allium cepas.
Welsh onion – Sometimes referred to as green onion or spring onion, although these
onions may refer to any green onion stalk.
Leek
Production trends
Onion field during harvest, Vale, Oregon (USA).

Top Ten Onions Producers — 2005
(1000 tonnes)
India 9,793
China 5,500
United States 3,346
Turkey 2,220
Pakistan 1,764
Russia 1,758
South Korea 1,750
Japan 1,637
Egypt 1,302
Spain 1,149
World Total 64,101
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[22]
The Onion Futures Act, passed in 1958, bans the trading of futures contracts on onions in the
United States, after farmers complained about alleged market manipulation at the Chicago
Mercantile Exchange. It provides economists with a unique case study in the effects of
futures trading on agricultural prices. It remains in effect as of 2009.
Aroma attributes
3-Mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol[23][24]
Potential medicinal use

3-mercapto-2-methylpentan-1-ol in onion was found to have an antioxidant potent which
inhibites peroxynitrite induced diseases.[25]
Pictures
Onion fields near Elba, Onions cooked in a Onion weighing and

Red onion packing in The
New York frying pan
Netherlands
Spring onion
Cut onion
Garlic
Garlic
Allium sativum, known as garlic, from

William Woodville, Medical Botany,
1793.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asparagales
Family: Alliaceae
Subfamily: Allioideae
Tribe: Allieae
Genus: Allium
Species: A. sativum
Binomial name
Allium sativum
L.
Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. Its
close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, and chive. Garlic has been used throughout
recorded history for both culinary and medicinal purposes. It has a characteristic pungent,
spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.[1] A bulb of garlic, the
most commonly used part of the plant, is divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves.
Single clove garlic (also called Pearl garlic or Solo garlic) also exists—it originates in the
Yunnan province of China. The cloves are used as seed, for consumption (raw or cooked),
and for medicinal purposes. The leaves, stems (scape), and flowers (bulbils) on the head
(spathe) are also edible and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. The
papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant and the roots attached to the
bulb are the only parts not considered palatable.
Origin and distribution

The ancestry of cultivated garlic, according to Zohary and Hopf, is not definitely established:
"A difficulty in the identification of its wild progenitor is the sterility of the cultivars."[4]
Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalised; it probably
descended from the species Allium longicuspis, which grows wild in southwestern Asia.[5]
The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain are the species Allium ursinum,
Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale
(known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense, known as "meadow garlic"
or "wild garlic" and "wild onion", are common weeds in fields.[6] One of the best-known
"garlics", the so-called elephant garlic, is actually a wild leek (Allium ampeloprasum). It is
called "Sudu Lunu" in Sinhalese, Lehsun in Urdu and Hindi, Velli ullipaaya in Telugu and
Vellai poondu in Tamil.
Cultivation
Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. In cold climates, cloves
can be planted in the ground about six weeks before the soil freezes and harvested in late
spring. Garlic plants are not attacked by pests. They can suffer from pink root, a disease that
stunts the roots and turns them pink or red. Garlic plants can be grown close together, leaving
enough room for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth.
There are different types or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic and softneck
garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the chocie of type as garlic can be day-
length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates; softneck garlic is
generally grown closer to the equator.[7][8]
Production trends
Garlic output in 2005.
Garlic is grown globally, but China is by far the largest producer of garlic, with
approximately 10.5 million tonnes (23 billion pounds) annually, accounting for over 77% of
world output. India (4.1%) and South Korea (2%) follow, with Russia (1.6%) in fourth place
and the United States (where garlic is grown primarily as a cash crop in every state except for
Alaska) in fifth place (1.4%).[9] This leaves 16% of global garlic production in countries that
each produce less than 2% of global output. Much of the garlic production in the United
States is centered on Gilroy, California, which calls itself the "garlic capital of the world".
Top Ten Garlic Producers — 11 June 2008

Country Production (Tonnes) Footnote
People's Republic of China 12,088,000 F
India 645,000 F
South Korea 325,000 F
Russia 254,000 F
United States 221,810
Egypt 168,000 F
Spain 142,400
Argentina 140,000 F
Myanmar 128,000 F
Ukraine 125,000 F
World 15,686,310 A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data,
C = calculated figure, A = aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates).
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division
Uses
Culinary uses
Garlic being crushed using a garlic press.
Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment. It
is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern
Asia, south Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, and
parts of South and Central America. The flavour varies in intensity and aroma with the
different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or ginger. The parchment-
like skin is much like the skin of an onion and is typically removed before using in raw or
cooked form. An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive
oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. The garlic softens
and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually
by squeezing one end of the clove. In Japan and Korea, heads of garlic are fermented at high
temperature; the resulting product, called black garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is now being
sold in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia.
Garlic may be applied to breads to create a variety of classic cuisines such as garlic bread,
garlic toast, bruschetta, crostini and canapé.
Garlic being rubbed using a garlicboss
Oils are often flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories
of vegetables, meats, breads and pasta.
In some cuisine, the young bulbs are pickled for 3–6 weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and
spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer.
Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or
"tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than cloves. They are often used in stir frying or
prepared like asparagus. Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The
leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.
Mixing garlic with eggs and olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce
skordalia. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco.
Garlic powder has a different taste than fresh garlic. If used as a substitute for fresh garlic,
1/8 teaspoon of garlic powder is equivalent to one clove of garlic.
Storage
Ready peeled garlic cloves sold in a plastic container
Domestically, garlic is stored warm (above 18°C [64°F]) and dry to keep it dormant (so that it
does not sprout). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands, called
"plaits" or grappes. Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavoured oil; however, the practice
requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling. Untreated garlic kept in oil
can support the growth of deadly Clostridium botulinum. Refrigeration will not assure the
safety of garlic kept in oil. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine or vinegar in the
refrigerator.[10]
Commercially prepared oils are widely available, but when preparing and storing garlic-
infused oil at home, there is a risk of botulism if the product is not stored properly. To reduce
this risk, the oil should be refrigerated and used within one week. Manufacturers add acids
and/or other chemicals to eliminate the risk of botulism in their products.[11]
Commercially, garlic is stored at −3°C, also dry.[12][13]
Historical use
Garlic has been used as both food and medicine in many cultures for thousands of years,
dating at least as far back as the time that the Giza pyramids were built. Garlic is still grown
in Egypt, but the Syrian variety is the kind most esteemed now (see Rawlinson's Herodotus,
2.125).
Garlic is mentioned in the Bible and the Talmud. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and
Dioscorides all mention the use of garlic for many conditions, including parasites, respiratory
problems, poor digestion, and low energy. Its use in China was first mentioned in A.D. 510.
It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil,
Ecologues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African
peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus
Aegineta, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of
his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor.
In the account of Korea's establishment as a nation, gods were said to have given mortal
women with bear and tiger temperaments an immortal's black garlic before mating with them.
This is a genetically unique six-clove garlic that was to have given the women supernatural
powers and immortality. This garlic is still cultivated in a few mountain areas today.
In his Natural History, Pliny gives an exceedingly long list of scenarios in which it was
considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23). Dr. T. Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent
smallpox, and, says Cullen (Mat. Med. ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it
alone. Early in the 20th century, it was sometimes used in the treatment of pulmonary
tuberculosis or phthisis.
Harvesting garlic, from Tacuinum sanitatis, 15th century (Bibliothèque nationale).
Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England
before 1548) and has been a much more common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Garlic
was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate
(Theophrastus, Characters, The Superstitious Man); and according to Pliny, garlic and onions
were invoked as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. (Pliny also states that garlic
demagnetizes lodestones, which is not factual.)[14] The inhabitants of Pelusium, in lower
Egypt (who worshiped the onion), are said to have had an aversion to both onions and garlic
as food.
To prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (N.H. xix. 34) advised bending the stalk
downward and covering with earth; seeding, he observes, may be prevented by twisting the
stalk (by "seeding", he most likely meant the development of small, less potent bulbs).
Medicinal use and health benefits
Garlic, raw
- Sugars 1.00g
Fat 0.5 g
Protein 6.39 g
- beta-carotene 5 μg 0%
Calcium 181 mg 18%
Iron 1.7 mg 14%
Magnesium 25 mg 7%
Phosphorus 153 mg 22%
Potassium 401 mg 9%
Sodium 17 mg 1%
Zinc 1.16 mg 12%
Manganese 1.672 mg
Selenium 14.2 mcg
In test tube studies garlic has been found to have antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal
activity. However, these actions are less clear in humans and do not suggest that garlic is a
substitute for antibiotics or antifungal medications. Garlic is also claimed to help prevent
heart disease (including atherosclerosis, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure) and
cancer.[15] Animal studies, and some early investigational studies in humans, have suggested
possible cardiovascular benefits of garlic. A Czech study found that garlic supplementation
reduced accumulation of cholesterol on the vascular walls of animals.[16] Another study had
similar results, with garlic supplementation significantly reducing aortic plaque deposits of
cholesterol-fed rabbits.[17] Another study showed that supplementation with garlic extract
inhibited vascular calcification in human patients with high blood cholesterol.[18] The known
vasodilative effect of garlic is possibly caused by catabolism of garlic-derived polysulfides to
hydrogen sulfide in red blood cells, a reaction that is dependent on reduced thiols in or on the
RBC membrane. Hydrogen sulfide is an endogenous cardioprotective vascular cell-signaling
molecule.[19]
Although these studies showed protective vascular changes in garlic-fed subjects, a

randomized clinical trial funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United
States and published in the Archives of Internal Medicine in 2007 found that the consumption
of garlic in any form did not reduce blood cholesterol levels in patients with moderately high
baseline cholesterol levels.[20][21]
―
Despite decades of research suggesting that garlic can improve cholesterol
profiles, a new NIH-funded trial found absolutely no effects of raw garlic or
garlic supplements on LDL, HDL, or triglycerides… The findings underscore the
hazards of meta-analyses made up of small, flawed studies and the value of
rigorously studying popular herbal remedies. ‖
—theheart.org, 2007-02-26[22]
There are critics of the NIH, and its pharmaceutical lobby, who believe their study intended
to confuse those prior findings that had shown protective vascular changes for withstanding
high cholesterol levels (and not, as in the NIH study, the cholesterol levels themselves).
In 2007, the BBC reported that Allium sativum may have other beneficial properties, such as
preventing and fighting the common cold.[23] This assertion has the backing of long tradition
in herbal medicine, which has used garlic for hoarseness and coughs.[24] The Cherokee also
used it as an expectorant for coughs and croup.[25]
Allium sativum has been found to reduce platelet aggregation[26][27][28][29] and

hyperlipidemia.[29][30][31]
Garlic is also alleged to help regulate blood sugar levels. Regular and prolonged use of
therapeutic amounts of aged garlic extracts lower blood homocysteine levels and has shown
to prevent some complications of diabetes mellitus.[32][33] People taking insulin should not
consume medicinal amounts of garlic without consulting a physician.
In 1858, Louis Pasteur observed garlic's antibacterial activity, and it was used as an antiseptic
to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II.[34] More recently, it has been
found from a clinical trial that a mouthwash containing 2.5% fresh garlic shows good
antimicrobial activity, although the majority of the participants reported an unpleasant taste
and halitosis.[35]
In modern naturopathy, garlic is used as a treatment for intestinal worms and other intestinal
parasites, both orally and as an anal suppository. Garlic cloves are used as a remedy for
infections (especially chest problems), digestive disorders, and fungal infections such as
thrush.[36][37]
Garlic has been used reasonably successfully in AIDS patients to treat cryptosporidium in an
uncontrolled study in China.[38] It has also been used by at least one AIDS patient to treat
toxoplasmosis, another protozoal disease.[39]
Garlic supplementation in rats, along with a high protein diet, has been shown to boost
testosterone levels.[40]
Side effects
Garlic is known for causing halitosis as well as causing sweat to have a pungent 'garlicky'
smell which is caused by Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a gas which is absorbed into
the blood during the metabolism of garlic; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from
there to the mouth causing bad breath) and skin where it is exuded through skin pores.
Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell.
Raw garlic is more potent and therefore cooking garlic reduces the effect. The green dry
'folds' in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The sulfur compound allicin,
produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, allyl
sulfides, and vinyldithiins. Aged garlic lack allicin, but may have some activity due to the
presence of S-allylcysteine.
Some people suffer from allergies to plants in the allium family. Symptoms can include
irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and in
rare cases anaphylaxis. Even if garlic is present in a very small amount, it can lead to an
allergic reaction.
When crushed, Allium sativum yields allicin, a powerful antibiotic and antifungal compound
(phytoncide). In some cases, it can be used as a home remedy to help speed recovery from
strep throat or other minor ailments because of its antibiotic properties. It also contains the
sulfur containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide, dithiin, S-allylcysteine, and
enzymes, vitamin B, proteins, minerals, saponins, flavonoids, and maillard reaction products,
which are non-sulfur containing compounds. Furthermore a phytoalexin called allixin (3-
hydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-penthyl-4H-pyran-4-one) was found, a non-sulfur compound
with a γ-pyrone skeleton structure with anti-oxidative effects,[1] anti-microbial effects,[41]
anti-tumor promoting effects,[42] inhibition of aflatoxin B2 DNA binding,[42] and neurotrophic
effects. Allixin showed an anti-tumor promoting effect in vivo, inhibiting skin tumor
formation by TPA in DMBA initiated mice.[42] Analogs of this compound have exhibited anti
tumor promoting effects in in vitro experimental conditions. Herein, allixin and/or its analogs
may be expected useful compounds for cancer prevention or chemotherapy agents for other
diseases.
The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09% water, 13.38% organic matter, and
1.53% inorganic matter, while the leaves are 87.14% water, 11.27% organic matter, and
1.59% inorganic matter.[43][44][45]
The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's
cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored
in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the
cell fluids. The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong
smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to evolve over time.
Among the members of the onion family, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of
initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onions, shallots, or leeks.[46]
Although people have come to enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have
evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals like birds, insects, and worms from
eating the plant. Humans, however, usually enjoy these sensations.[47]
A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Diallyl
disulfide is believed to be an important odour component. Allicin has been found to be the
compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens
thermoTRP (transient receptor potential) channels that are responsible for the burning sense
of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its
spiciness.[48]
Due to its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose". When eaten in quantity,
garlic may be strongly evident in the diner's sweat and breath the following day. This is
because garlic's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl
sulfide. Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is
carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and
release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.
This well-known phenomenon of "garlic breath" is alleged to be alleviated by eating fresh

parsley. The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such as pistou, persillade, and
the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread. However, since the odour results mainly from
digestive processes placing compounds such as AMS in the blood, and AMS is then released
through the lungs over the course of many hours, eating parsley provides only a temporary
masking. One way of accelerating the release of AMS from the body is the use of a sauna.
Because of the AMS in the bloodstream, it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent.
However, there is no evidence to suggest that garlic is actually effective for this purpose.[49]
Toxicology
Some people can have allergic reactions to garlic. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive
tests to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all present in garlic.
People who suffer from garlic allergies will often be sensitive to many plants in the lily
family (liliaceae), including onions, garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and
bananas.
Spiritual and religious perceptions

Garlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil. A Christian myth considers that
after Satan left the Garden of Eden, garlic arose in his left footprint and onion in the right.[50]
In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its
reputation as a potent preventative medicine.[51] Central European folk beliefs considered
garlic a powerful ward against demons, werewolves, and vampires.[51] To ward off vampires,
garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.[52]
In Daoism mythology, six-clove black garlic is used as part of the process of modifying a
Daoist's physiology. It supposedly endows the users immortality by intensifying their vital
energy or "chi".[53]
The association of garlic to evil spirits may be based on the antibacterial, antiparasitic value
of garlic, which could prevent infections that lead to delusions and other related mental
illness symptoms.[54][55]
In both Hinduism and Jainism, garlic is considered to stimulate and warm the body and to
increase one's desires. Some Hindus generally avoid using garlic and the related onion in the
preparation of foods for religious festivities and events. Followers of the Jain religion avoid
eating garlic and onion on a daily basis.
In connection with the odor associated with garlic, Islam views eating garlic and
subsequently going to the mosque as inappropriate. "Whoever has eaten (garlic) should not
approach our mosque", indicated Muhammad.[56]
Miscellaneous
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by
converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (August 2009)
Known adverse effects of garlic include halitosis (nonbacterial bad breath),

indigestion, nausea, emesis, and diarrhea.[57]
Garlic may interact with warfarin, antiplatelets, saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium
channel blockers, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications. Consult a
health professional before taking a garlic supplement[57] or consuming excessive
amounts of garlic.
Garlic can thin the blood, similar to the effect of aspirin.[58]
Two outbreaks of botulism have been caused by consuming commercially produced
garlic-in-oil preparations that were not properly preserved. It is especially important
for home preparation to use safe and tested food preservation methods to retard
bacterial growth, such as including sufficient salt or acidity and keeping the mixture
refrigerated. It is recommended to not keep home preparations for more than a
week.[59][60]
While culinary quantities are considered safe for consumption, very high quantities of
garlic and garlic supplements have been linked with an increased risk of bleeding,
particularly during pregnancy and after surgery and childbirth.[57][61] Some
breastfeeding mothers have found their babies slow to feed and have noted a garlic
odour coming from their baby when they have consumed garlic.[57][62] The safety of
garlic supplements had not been determined for children.[62]
The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation, if any exist, are largely
unknown, and no FDA-approved study has been performed. However, garlic has been
consumed for several thousand years without any adverse long-term effects,
suggesting that modest quantities of garlic pose, at worst, minimal risks to normal
individuals. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating,
dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.[61]
Some degree of liver toxicity has been demonstrated in rats, particularly in extremely
large quantities exceeding those that a rat would consume under normal situations.[63]
There have been several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied
topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, so care
must be taken to test a small area of skin using a very low concentration of garlic.[64]
On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical
use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged.
In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.[65]
Garlic and onions might be toxic to cats or dogs.[66]
Gallery
Garlic scapes are often

Garlic bulbs and harvested early so that
Garlic Bulbs and
Garlic growing in a individual cloves, one the bulbs will grow
cloves
container. peeled. bigger.
A bulb of garlic, split.
Notes
1. ^ Gernot Katzer (2005-02-23). "Spice Pages: Garlic (Allium sativum, garlick)". http://www.uni-
graz.at/~katzer/engl/Alli_sat.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
2. ^ a b Lee, J. et al. (2005). "Free amino acid and cysteine sulfoxide composition of 11 garlic (Allium
sativum L.) cultivars by gas chromatography with flame ionization and mass selective detection".
http://hdl.handle.net/10113/877. Retrieved 5 June 2009.
3. ^ a b c d Tabor, G. et al. (2004). "Influence of storage duration on field sprouting, maturity and
yield of some garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars at Debre Zeit, Ethiopia". The Journal of
Horticultural Science & Biotechnology 79 (6): 871-876.
http://www.jhortscib.org/Vol79/79_6/8.htm. Retrieved 5 June.
4. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford:
University Press, 2000), p. 197
5. ^ Salunkhe and Kadam p. 397
6. ^ McGee p. 112
7. ^ http://www.nj.com/warrenreporter/index.ssf/2008/12/farmers_forum_it_probably_came.html
8. ^ http://www.natural-holistic-health.com/alternative-therapies/herbs-for-health/medicinal-garlic/
9. ^ [1]
10. ^ GARLIC: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve and Enjoy
11. ^ It's Your Health - Garlic-In-Oil
12. ^ Garlic Produce Facts
13. ^ Garlic Information: Storage
14. ^ Lehoux, Daryn (2003). "Tropes, Facts, and Empiricism" (PDF). Perspectives on Science 11:
326–345. doi:10.1162/106361403773062678.
http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/daryn.lehoux/Tropes.pdf.
15. ^ University of Maryland Garlic
16. ^ Sovová M, Sova P (May 2004). "[Pharmaceutical importance of Allium sativum L. 5.
Hypolipemic effects in vitro and in vivo]" (in Czech). Ceska Slov Farm 53 (3): 117–23. PMID
15218732.
17. ^ Durak I, Oztürk HS, Olcay E, Güven C (2002). "Effects of garlic extract supplementation on
blood lipid and antioxidant parameters and atherosclerotic plaque formation process in
cholesterol-fed rabbits". J Herb Pharmacother 2 (2): 19–32. PMID 15277094.
18. ^ Durak I, Kavutcu M, Aytaç B, et al (June 2004). "Effects of garlic extract consumption on blood
lipid and oxidant/antioxidant parameters in humans with high blood cholesterol". J. Nutr.
Biochem. 15 (6): 373–7. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2004.01.005. PMID 15157944.
19. ^ Benavides GA, Squadrito GL, Mills RW, et al (November 2007). "Hydrogen sulfide mediates
the vasoactivity of garlic". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (46): 17977–82.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0705710104. PMID 17951430.
20. ^ Charlson M, McFerren M (February 2007). "Garlic: what we know and what we don't know".
Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (4): 325–6. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.325. PMID 17325291.
http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/extract/167/4/325.
21. ^ Gardner CD, Lawson LD, Block E, et al (February 2007). "Effect of raw garlic vs commercial
garlic supplements on plasma lipid concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: a
randomized clinical trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (4): 346–53. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.346.
PMID 17325296. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/167/4/346.
22. ^ Goodbye, garlic? Randomized controlled trial of raw garlic and supplements finds no effect on
lipids Retrieved 27 February 2007
23. ^ Garlic 'prevents common cold' 2007
24. ^ Grieve, Maud. (Mrs.). Garlic. A Modern Herbal. Hypertext version of the 1931 edition.
Accessed: December 18, 2006. [2]
25. ^ Hamel, Paul B. and Mary U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year
History. Sylva, N.C. Herald Publishing Co. (p. 35)
26. ^ Rahman K (November 2007). "Effects of garlic on platelet biochemistry and physiology". Mol
Nutr Food Res 51 (11): 1335–44. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700058. PMID 17966136.
27. ^ Chan KC, Yin MC, Chao WJ (March 2007). "Effect of diallyl trisulfide-rich garlic oil on blood
coagulation and plasma activity of anticoagulation factors in rats". Food Chem Toxicol 45 (3):
502–7. PMID 17123684.
28. ^ Borrelli F, Capasso R, Izzo AA (November 2007). "Garlic (Allium sativum L.): adverse effects
and drug interactions in humans". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (11): 1386–97.
doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700072. PMID 17918162.
29. ^ a b Steiner M, Lin RS (June 1998). "Changes in platelet function and susceptibility of
lipoproteins to oxidation associated with administration of aged garlic extract". J Cardiovasc
Pharmacol 31 (6): 904–8. doi:10.1097/00005344-199806000-00014. PMID 9641475.
30. ^ Kojuri J, Vosoughi AR, Akrami M (March 2007). "Effects of anethum graveolens and garlic on
lipid profile in hyperlipidemic patients". Lipids Health Dis 1 (6): 5. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-6-5.
PMID 17328819.
31. ^ Mader FH (October 1990). "Treatment of hyperlipidaemia with garlic-powder tablets. Evidence
from the German Association of General Practitioners' multicentric placebo-controlled double-
blind study". Arzneimittelforschung 40 (10): 1111–6. PMID 2291748.
32. ^ People with diabetes should say 'yes' to garlic by Patricia Andersen-Parrado, Better Nutrition,
Sept 1996
33. ^ Garlic - University of Maryland Medical Center
34. ^ Health effects of garlic American Family Physician by Ellen Tattelman, July 1, 2005
35. ^ Groppo, F.; Ramacciato, J.; Motta, R.; Ferraresi, P.; Sartoratto, A. (2007) "Antimicrobial
activity of garlic against oral streptococci." Int. J. Dent. Hyg., 5:109–115.
36. ^ Lemar KM, Passa O, Aon MA, et al (October 2005). "Allyl alcohol and garlic (Allium sativum)
extract produce oxidative stress in Candida albicans". Microbiology (Reading, Engl.) 151 (Pt 10):
3257–65. doi:10.1099/mic.0.28095-0. PMID 16207909.
http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/151/10/3257.
37. ^ Shuford JA, Steckelberg JM, Patel R (January 2005). "Effects of fresh garlic extract on Candida
albicans biofilms". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49 (1): 473. doi:10.1128/AAC.49.1.473.2005.
PMID 15616341. PMC: 538912. http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/full/49/1/473.
38. ^ Fareed G, Scolaro M, Jordan W, Sanders N, Chesson C, Slattery M, Long D, Castro C. The use
of a high-dose garlic preparation for the treatment of Cryptosporidium parvum diarrhea. NLM
Gateway. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
39. ^ John S. James. Treatment Leads on Cryptosporisiosis: Preliminary Report on Opportunistic
Infection, AIDS TREATMENT NEWS No. 049 - January 29, 1988. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
40. ^ Oi Y, Imafuku M, Shishido C, Kominato Y, Nishimura S, Iwai K. (2001). "Garlic
supplementation increases testicular testosterone and decreases plasma corticosterone in rats fed a
high protein diet.". Journal of Nutrition 131 (8): 2150–6. PMID 11481410.
41. ^ Kodera Y., Matuura H., Yoshida S., Sumida T., Itakura Y., Fuwa T., Nishino H. (1989-01-30).
"Allixin, a stress compound from garlic.".
http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JLC/AID/6d45e46d45c048c9062c390a58734a7228bf?from=J-
STAGE&type=list&lang=en. Retrieved 2009-01-30.
42. ^ a b c Yamasaki T., Teel R. W., Lau B. H. (1991-08-01). "Effect of allixin, a phytoalexin
produced by garlic, on mutagenesis, DNA-binding and metabolism of aflatoxin B1 = 2009-01-30".
http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JLC/AID/6d45e46d45c048c9062c390a58734a7c72bf?from=J-
STAGE&type=list&lang=en.
43. ^ http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Garlic.htm
44. ^ http://lem.ch.unito.it/didattica/infochimica/2006_aglio/pagine/agronomy.html
45. ^ http://www.goldbamboo.com/topic-t6335-a1-6Allium_sativum.html
46. ^ McGee p. 310–311
47. ^ Macpherson et al. section "Conclusion"
48. ^ Macpherson et al.
49. ^ Mosquito Repellents
50. ^ Pickering, David (2003). Cassell's Dictionary of Superstitions. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 0-304-
36561-0. p. 211
51. ^ a b McNally, Raymond T (1994). In Search of Dracula. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65783-0.
p. 120.
52. ^ McNally p. 122; Pickering p. 211.
53. ^ http://washokufood.blogspot.com/2009/03/ninniku-garlic.html
54. ^ University of Maryland Garlic
55. ^ Neurodegenerative diseases
56. ^ Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 65
57. ^ a b c d Hogg, Jennifer (2002-12-13). "Garlic Supplements" (PDF). Complementary Medicines
Summary. UK Medicines Information, National Health Service.
http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-
07.
58. ^ Garlic - Allium sativum [NCCAM Herbs at a Glance]
59. ^ CSU SafeFood Newsletter, Summer 2005 - Vol 9 No. 4 - Botulinum Toxin: Friend or Foe
60. ^ Health Canada - Garlic-in-Oil
61. ^ a b MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Garlic (Allium sativum L.)
62. ^ a b Mayo Clinic, garlic advisory
63. ^ Alnaqeeb MA, Thomson M, Bordia T, Ali M (June 1996). "Histopathological effects of garlic
on liver and lung of rats". Toxicol. Lett. 85 (3): 157–64. PMID 8644128.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0378427496036582.
64. ^ Baruchin AM, Sagi A, Yoffe B, Ronen M (November 2001). "Garlic burns". Burns 27 (7): 781–
2. PMID 11600262. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305417901000390.
65. ^ Garty BZ (March 1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics 91 (3): 658–9. PMID 8441577.
66. ^ What you should know about household hazards to pets brochure by the American Veterinary
Medical Association.
References
Japanese garlic.にんにく専門のにんにく屋.jp［青森県産］.
Balch, P. A. (2000). Prescription for Nutritional Healing, 3rd ed. New York: Avery.
Block, E. (1985). The chemistry of garlic and onions. Scientific American 252
(March): 114–9.
Block, E. (1992). The organosulfur chemistry of the genus Allium — implications for
organic sulfur chemistry. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 104: 1158–1203.
Breithaupt-Grögler K, Ling M, Boudoulas H, Belz GG (October 1997). "Protective
effect of chronic garlic intake on elastic properties of aorta in the elderly". Circulation
96 (8): 2649–55. PMID 9355906.
http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9355906.
Efendy JL, Simmons DL, Campbell GR, Campbell JH (July 1997). "The effect of the
aged garlic extract, 'Kyolic', on the development of experimental atherosclerosis".
Atherosclerosis 132 (1): 37–42. PMID 9247357.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0021-9150(97)00078-6.
Gardner, C. D.; Lawson, L. D.; Block, E.; Chatterjee, L. M.; Kiazand, A.; Balise, R.
R.; Kraemer, H. C. (2007) The effect of raw garlic vs. garlic supplements on plasma
lipids concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: A clinical trial.
"Archives of Internal Medicine" 167: 346–353.
Garty BZ (March 1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics 91 (3): 658–9. PMID 8441577.
Hamilton, Andy (2004). Selfsufficientish - Garlic. Retrieved 1 May 2005.
Hile, A. G.; Shan, Z.; Zhang, S.-Z.; Block, E. (2004). Aversion of European starlings
(Sturnus vulgaris) to garlic oil treated granules: garlic oil as an avian repellent. Garlic
oil analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry 52: 2192–6.
Jain AK, Vargas R, Gotzkowsky S, McMahon FG (June 1993). "Can garlic reduce
levels of serum lipids? A controlled clinical study". Am. J. Med. 94 (6): 632–5. PMID
8506890.
R. Kamenetsky, I. L. Shafir, H. Zemah, A. Barzilay, and H. D. Rabinowitch (2004).
Environmental Control of Garlic Growth and Florogenesis. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 129:
144–151.
Koch, H. P.; Lawson, L. D. (1996). Garlic. The Science and Therapeutic Application
of Allium sativum L. and Related Species (Second Edition). Williams & Wilkens.
ISBN 0-683-18147-5.
Yukihiro Kodera, Makoto Ichikawa, Jiro Yoshida, Naoki Kashimoto, Naoto Uda, Isao
Sumioka, Nagatoshi Ide and Kazuhisa Ono, ―Pharmacokinetic Study of Allixin, a
Phytoalexin Produced by Garlic‖, Chem. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 50, 354-363 (2002). [3]
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Clove
Clove
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiosperms
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Genus: Syzygium
Species: S. aromaticum
Binomial name
Syzygium aromaticum
(L.) Merrill & Perry
Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, syn. Eugenia aromaticum or Eugenia caryophyllata) are the
aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. Cloves are native to Indonesia
and India and used as a spice in cuisine all over the world. The English name derives from
Latin clavus 'nail' (also origin of French clou 'nail') as the buds vaguely resemble small
irregular nails in shape. Cloves are harvested primarily in Indonesia, Madagascar, Zanzibar,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka; it is also grown in India under the name Lavang, called "lavanga"
( ) in Telugu. In Vietnam, it is called đinh hương.
The clove tree is an evergreen which grows to a height ranging from 10-20 m, having large
oval leaves and crimson flowers in numerous groups of terminal clusters. The flower buds are
at first of a pale color and gradually become green, after which they develop into a bright red,
when they are ready for collecting. Cloves are harvested when 1.5-2 cm long, and consist of a
long calyx, terminating in four spreading sepals, and four unopened petals which form a
small ball in the centre.
Uses
Dried cloves
Global distribution of clove output in 2005 as a percentage of the top producer (Indonesia -
110,000 tonnes).
Cloves can be used in cooking either whole or in a ground form, but as they are extremely
strong, they are used sparingly. The spice is used throughout Europe and Asia and is smoked
in a type of cigarettes locally known as kretek in Indonesia. A major brand of kreteks in the
United States is Djarum, which sells Djarum Black. Cloves are also an important incense
material in Chinese and Japanese culture.
Cloves have historically been used in Indian cuisine (both North Indian and South Indian) as
well as Mexican cuisine (best known as "clavos de olor"), where it is often paired together
with cumin and cinnamon.[1] In north Indian cuisine, it is used in almost all dishes, along with
other spices. It is also a key ingredient in tea along with green cardamom. In south Indian
cuisine, it is used extensively in biryani along with "cloves dish" (similar to pilaf, but with the
addition of other spices), and it is normally added whole to enhance the presentation and
flavor of the rice. In Vietnamese cuisine, cloves are often used to season pho broth.
Due to the Indonesean influence the use of cloves is widespread in the Netherlands. Cloves
are used in cheeses, often in combination with cumin. Cloves are an essential ingredient for
making Dutch speculaas. Furthermore cloves are used in traditional Dutch stews like hachee.
Its essence is commonly used in the production of many perfumes.
During Christmas, it is a tradition in some European countries to make a pomander from

cloves and oranges to hang around the house. This spreads a nice scent throughout the house
and the oranges themselves act as Christmas decorations.
Medicinal and Nostrums
Cloves are used in Ayurveda called Lavang in India, Chinese medicine and western
herbalism and dentistry where the essential oil is used as an anodyne (painkiller) for dental
emergencies. Cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach
and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural antihelmintic.[2] The essential
oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for
digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the
digestive tract.
In Chinese medicine cloves or ding xiang are considered acrid, warm and aromatic, entering
the kidney, spleen and stomach meridians, and are notable in their ability to warm the middle,
direct stomach qi downward, to treat hiccough and to fortify the kidney yang.[3] Because the
herb is so warming it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms and according to
classical sources should not be used for anything except cold from yang deficiency. As such
it is used in formulas for impotence or clear vaginal discharge from yang deficiency, for
morning sickness together with ginseng and patchouli, or for vomiting and diarrhea due to
spleen and stomach coldness.[3] This would translate to hypochlorhydria. Clove oil is used in
various skin disorders like acne, pimples etc. It is also used in severe burns, skin irritations
and to reduce the sensitiveness of skin.
Ayurvedic herbalist K.P. Khalsa, RH (AHG), uses cloves internally as a tea and topically as
an oil for hypotonic muscles, including for multiple sclerosis. This is also found in Tibetan
medicine.[4] Ayurvedic herbalist Alan Tilotson, RH (AHG) suggests avoiding more than
occasional use of cloves internally in the presence of pitta inflammation such as is found in
acute flares of autoimmune diseases.[5]
In West Africa, the Yorubas use cloves infused in water as a treatment for stomach upsets,
vomiting and diarrhea.The infusion is called Ogun Jedi-jedi.
Western studies have supported the use of cloves and clove oil for dental pain, and to a lesser
extent for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent and to prevent premature ejaculation.
Clove may reduce blood sugar levels.[6]
History
Until modern times, cloves grew only on a few islands in the Maluku Islands (historically
called the Spice Islands), including Bacan, Makian, Moti, Ternate, and Tidore.[7]
Nevertheless, they found their way west to the Middle East and Europe well before the first
century AD. Archeologists found cloves within a ceramic vessel in Syria along with evidence
dating the find to within a few years of 1721 BC.[7]
Cloves, along with nutmeg and pepper, were highly prized in Roman times, and Pliny the
Elder once famously complained that "there is no year in which India does not drain the
Roman Empire of fifty million sesterces." Cloves were traded by Arabs during the Middle
Ages in the profitable Indian Ocean trade. In the late fifteenth century, Portugal took over the
Indian Ocean trade, including cloves, due to the Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain and a
separate treaty with the sultan of Ternate. The Portuguese brought large quantities of cloves
to Europe, mainly from the Maluku Islands. Clove was then one of the most valuable spices,
a kg costing around 7 g of gold.[citation needed]
The high value of cloves and other spices drove Spain to seek new routes to the Maluku
Islands, which would not be seen as trespassing on the Portuguese domain in the Indian
Ocean. Fernando e Isabela sponsored the unsuccessful voyages of Cristobal Colon
(Columbus), and their grandson Carlos I sponsored the voyage of Hernando de Magallanes
(Magellan). The fleet led by Magallanes reached the Maluku Islands after his death, and the
Spanish were successful in briefly capturing this trade from the Portuguese. The trade later
became dominated by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. With great difficulty the French
succeeded in introducing the clove tree into Mauritius in the year 1770. Subsequently, their
cultivation was introduced into Guiana, Brazil, most of the West Indies, and Zanzibar.
In Britain in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, cloves were worth at least their weight
in gold, due to the high price of importing them.[citation needed]
Active compounds
The compound eugenol is responsible for most of the characteristic aroma of cloves.
The compound responsible for the cloves' aroma is eugenol. It is the main component in the
essential oil extracted from cloves, comprising 72-90%. Eugenol has pronounced antiseptic
and anaesthetic properties. Other important constituents include essential oils acetyl eugenol,
beta-caryophyllene and vanillin; crategolic acid; tannins, gallotannic acid, methyl salicylate
(painkiller); the flavonoids eugenin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, and eugenitin; triterpenoids like
oleanolic acid, stigmasterol and campesterol; and several sesquiterpenes.[8]
Notes and references

1. ^ Dorenburg, Andrew and Page, Karen. "The New American Chef: Cooking with the
Best Flavors and Techniques from Around the World", John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
©2003.
2. ^ Balch, Phyllis and Balch, James. Prescription for Nutritional Healing, 3rd ed.,
Avery Publishing, ©2000, pg. 94.
3. ^ a b Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky,
Steven Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble 2004
4. ^ "TibetMed - Question: Multiple Sclerosis".
http://www.tibetmed.org/questions/question_44.htm.
5. ^ http://oneearthherbs.squarespace.com/diseases/special-diets-for-illness.html
Tilotson, Alan. Special Diets for Illness
6. ^ http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-clove.html National
Institutes of Health, Medicine Plus. Clove (Eugenia aromatica) and Clove oil
(Eugenol)
7. ^ a b Turner, Jack (2004). Spice: The History of a Temptation. Vintage Books. pp. xv.
ISBN 0-375-70705-0.
8. ^ Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica, Third Edition by Dan Bensky, Steven
Clavey, Erich Stoger, and Andrew Gamble. 2004
Shallot
Shallot
Shallots
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asparagales
Family: Alliaceae
Genus: Allium
Species: A. oschaninii
Binomial name
Allium oschaninii
O. Fedtsch
For other uses, see Shallot (disambiguation).
The term shallot is used to describe two different Allium species of plant. The French grey
challot or griselle, which has been considered to be the ―true shallot‖ by many, is Allium
oschaninii, a species that grows wild from Central to Southwest Asia. Other varieties of
shallot are Allium cepa var. aggregatum (multiplier onions), also known as A.
ascalonicum.[citation needed]
The botanical name of shallot is Allium ascalonicum Linn and it belongs to the family
Alliaceae. Indian names are Ek-kanda-lasun or Gandana (Hindi, Marwari and Punjabi) or
Gundhun (Bengali).
Details
Shallots probably originated in Asia, traveling from there to India and the eastern
Mediterranean. The name ―shallot‖ comes from Ashkelon, a city in Israel, where people in
classical Greek times believed shallots originated.
Like garlic, shallots are formed in clusters of offsets with a head composed of multiple
cloves. Their skin color can vary from golden brown to gray to rose red, and their off-white
flesh is usually tinged with green or magenta. Shallots are much favored by chefs because of
their firm texture and sweet, aromatic, yet pungent, flavor.
This ambiguity[clarification needed] is further confused with scallions, also known as spring or
green onions. In some countries, green onions are called shallots, and shallots are referred to
by alternative names such as eschallot or eschalotte.
Shallots for sale in Southern France
The shallot is a relative of the onion, and tastes a bit like an onion, but has a sweeter, milder
flavor. They tend to be more expensive than onions, especially in the United States. They can
be stored for at least 6 months.[1]
Shallots are extensively cultivated and much used in cookery, in addition to being pickled.
Finely sliced deep-fried shallots are used as a condiment in Asian cuisine.
Shallots are propagated by offsets, which, in the Northern Hemisphere, are often planted in
September or October, but the principal crop should not be planted earlier than February or
the beginning of March. In planting, the tops of the bulbs should be kept a little above
ground, and it is a commendable plan to draw away the soil surrounding the bulbs when their
roots have taken hold. They should not be planted on ground recently manured. They come to
maturity about July or August, although they can now be found year-round in supermarkets.
Similar to onions, raw shallots release chemicals that irritate the eye when sliced, resulting in
tears. See onion for a discussion of this phenomenon.
Onion and shallot output in 2005
Shallots appear to contain more flavonoids and phenols than other members of the onion
family.[1]
In Australia, shallots are sometimes referred to as eschalottes or eshalotts. The latter names
are preferred by those living in the city of Sydney.
The term French shallot has also been used for Allium oschaninii.[citation needed]
There is a very specific region of shallot gardening in south eastern Ghana.
Shallots in Persian Cooking

The shallot in Persian is called ‫( ریسوم‬Mûsîr), which is often crushed into yogurt. Iranians
enjoy yogurt in this way, especially in restaurants and Kebab-Saras where just kebabs are
served. Most shallots are grown wild, harvested, sliced, dried, and sold at markets. Buyers
will often soak the shallots for a number of days then boil them to get a milder flavour.
Shallots in Indian and South East Asian Cooking

Shallots are called 'bawang merah kecil' (small red onions) in Bahasa Melayu, an official
language of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, also called Brambang in Java, and
"hom" (หอม - literally "fragrant") in Thai. In Cambodian (Khmer) literally called it "Katem
Kror Hom" where "Katem or Ktem" is a species of Onion and "Kror Hom" or "Hom" is
meant RED describing the colour of the onion, which roughly translate as "Red Onion". In
South East Asian cuisines, such as Thai, Cambodian, Malaysian and Indonesian cuisines,
both shallots and garlic ('bawang putih', white onions) are very often used as elementary
spices. Raw shallot can also accompany cucumbers when pickled in mild vinegar solution. It
is also often chopped finely, then fried until golden brown, resulting in tiny crispy shallot
chips called 'bawang goreng' (fried onions) in Indonesian language, which can be bought
ready-made from groceries and supermarkets. It enhances the flavor of many South East
Asian dishes, such as fried rice variants. Crispy shallot chips are also used in Southern
Chinese cuisine. In Indonesia, sometimes it is made into pickle which is usually added in
variable kinds of traditional food. Its sourness increases one's appetite.
It is widely used in the southern part of India. In Kannada language it is known as 'Eerulli'
and used extensively in snacks, salads, curries and rice varieties. It is called 'Chuvannulli' in
Malayalam and is used in Sambar (a type of curry) and different types of kuzhambu(curry).
Cardamom
Cardamom
True Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)

Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Commelinids
Order: Zingiberales
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genera
Amomum
Elettaria
The name cardamom is used for herbs within two genera of the ginger family Zingiberaceae,
namely Elettaria and Amomum. Both varieties take the form of a small seedpod, triangular in
cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin papery outer shell and small black seeds.
Elettaria pods are light green in color, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown.
Types and distribution

The two main genera of the ginger family that are named as forms of cardamom are
distributed as follows:
Elettaria (commonly called cardamom, green cardamom, or true cardamom) is

distributed from India to Malaysia.
Amomum (commonly known as black cardamom(沙仁), brown cardamom, Kravan,
Java cardamom, Bengal cardamom, Siamese cardamom, white or red cardamom) is
distributed mainly in Asia and Australia.
The Sanskrit name for cardamom is "elā" or "truṭ ī." In Urdu/Hindi/Gujarati and some
Southern Indian languages, it is called "elaichi" or "elchi." In Malayalam, it is "Aelam". In
Telugu & Tamil, it is "elakkai" and in Kannada it is "yelakki"
Varieties
There were initially three natural varieties of cardamom plants.
1. Malabar (Nadan/Native) - As the name suggests, this is the native variety of Kerala.
These plants have pannicles which grow horizontally along the ground.
2. Mysore - As the name suggests, this is a native variety of Karnataka. These plants
have pannicles which grow vertically upwards.
3. Vazhuka - This is a naturally occurring hybrid between Malabar and Mysore varieties,
and the pannicles grow neither vertically nor horizontally, but in between.
Recently a few planters isolated high yielding plants and started multiplying them on a large
scale.
The most popular high yielding variety is Njallani. Njallani, also known as "rup-ree-t" is a
unique high-yielding cardamom variety developed by an Indian farmer Sebastian Joseph at
Kattappana in the South Indian state of Kerala. Sebastian Joseph and his son Regimon let
bees cross-pollinate the cardamom plants and came up with a new high-yielding variety that
he named Njallani, after his ancestral home. This variety yields 1500 kg/hectare as compared
to the conventional 200 kg/ha. The increased yield revolutionised cardamom cultivation in
the state of Kerala.[1][2][3][4]
Uses
Green and black cardamom
Both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings in both food and drink, as cooking spices and
as a medicine. Elettaria cardamomum (the usual type of cardamom) is used as a spice, a
masticatory, and in medicine; it is also smoked sometimes; it is used as a food plant by the
larva of the moth Endoclita hosei.
Food and drink
Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic fragrance. Black cardamom
has a distinctly more astringent aroma, though not bitter, with a coolness similar to mint,
though with a different aroma. It is a common ingredient in Indian cooking, and is often used
in baking in Nordic countries, such as in the Finnish sweet bread pulla or in the Scandinavian
bread Julekake. Green cardamom is one of the most expensive spices by weight but little is
needed to impart the flavor. Cardamom is best stored in pod form because once the seeds are
exposed or ground they quickly lose their flavor. However, high-quality ground cardamom is
often more readily (and cheaply) available and is an acceptable substitute. For recipes
requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1½
teaspoons of ground cardamom.
In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes as well as
traditional flavouring in coffee and tea. Cardamom pods are ground together with coffee
beans to produce a powdered mixture of the two, which is boiled with water to make coffee.
Cardamom is also used in some extent in savoury dishes. In Arabic, cardamom is called al-
Hayl. In Persian, it is called hel. In Hebrew, it is also called hel (‫)לה‬. In Gujarati (a derivative
of Sanskrit), it is "Ē-lī-chē". In some Middle Eastern countries, coffee and cardamom are
often ground in a wooden mortar and cooked together in a mihbaz, an oven using wood or
gas, to produce mixtures that are as much as forty percent cardamom.
In South Asia, green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in Masala chai
(spiced tea).
Black cardamom is sometimes used in garam masala for curries. It is occasionally used as a
garnish in basmati rice and other dishes. It is often referred to as fat cardamom due its size
('Moti Elaichi'). Individual seeds are sometimes chewed, in much the same way as chewing-
gum. It has also been known to be used for gin making.
In traditional medicine
Green cardamom in South Asia is broadly used to treat infections in teeth and gums, to
prevent and treat throat troubles, congestion of the lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis,
inflammation of eyelids and also digestive disorders. It also is used to break up kidney stones
and gall stones, and was reportedly used as an antidote for both snake and scorpion venom.
Amomum is used as a spice and as an ingredient in traditional medicine in systems of the
traditional Chinese medicine in China, in Ayurveda in India, Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
Species in the genus Amomum are also used in traditional Indian medicine. Among other
species, varieties and cultivars, Amomum villosum cultivated in China, Laos and Vietnam is
used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat stomach-aches, constipation, dysentery, and
other digestion problems. "Tsaoko" cardamom Amomum tsao-ko is cultivated in Yunnan,
China and northwest Vietnam, both for medicinal purposes and as a spice. Increased demand
since the 1980s, principally from China, for both Amomum villosum and Amomum tsao-ko
has provided a key source of income for poor farmers living at higher altitudes in localized
areas of China, Laos and Vietnam, people typically isolated from many other markets. Until
recently, Nepal has been the world's largest producer of large cardamom. Guatemala has
become the world's largest producer and exporter of cardamom, with an export total of
US$137.2 million for 2007.
Gallery
Green cardamom pods and seeds

Cardamom fruit and seeds A jar of green cardamom
Notes
1. ^ Unsung Hero: Tale of an ingenious farmer. Rediff.com, 30 May 2007 [1]

2. ^ New cardamom variety. Njallani. National Innovation Foundation [2]
3. ^ Poor rainfall may hit cardamom crop. The Hindu Business Line, 06 July 2007
[3]
4. ^ Cardamom: Scientists, Njallani developers fight. CommodityOnline, 08 Jan
2008 [4]
Bibliography
1. Mabberley, D.J. The Plant-book: A Portable Dictionary of the Higher Plants.

Cambridge University Press, 1996.
2. Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages: Cardamom
3. Plant Cultures: botany and history of Cardamom
4. Pham Hoang Ho 1993, Cay Co Vietnam [Plants of Vietnam: in Vietnamese], vols.
I, II & III, Montreal.
5. Buckingham, J.S. & Petheram, R.J. 2004, Cardamom cultivation and forest
biodiversity in northwest Vietnam, Agricultural Research and Extension Network,
Overseas Development Institute, London UK.
6. Aubertine, C. 2004, Cardamom (Amomum spp.) in Lao PDR: the hazardous
future of an agroforest system product, in 'Forest products, livelihoods and
conservation: case studies of non-timber forest products systems vol. 1-Asia,
Center for International Forest Research. Jakarta, Indonesia.
7. Álvarez, L., Gudiel, V. 2008. 'Cardamom prices leads to a re-emergence of the
green gold'. [5]
Star anise
Star anise
Star anise fruits (Illicium verum)fdaf

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Austrobaileyales
Family: Illiciaceae
Genus: Illicium
Species: I. verum
Binomial name
Illicium verum
Hook.f.
Star anise, star aniseed, badiane or Chinese star anise, (Chinese: 八角, pinyin: bājiǎo, lit.
"eight-horn"; Malayalam: ) or hoa hồi (Vietnamese) is a spice that closely
resembles anise in flavor, obtained from the star-shaped pericarp of Illicium verum, a small
native evergreen tree of southwest China. The star shaped fruits are harvested just before
ripening. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, in Indian cuisine where it is a major component
of garam masala, and in Malay–Indonesian cuisine. It is widely grown for commercial use in
China, India, and most other countries in Asia. Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional
five-spice powder of Chinese cooking. It is also a major ingredient in the making of phở, a
Vietnamese noodle soup. It is used as a spice in preparation of Biryani in Andhra Pradesh, a
state of southern India. In Marathi, it is called BarDan ( ) which literally means
"spice with twelve( ) seeds ( )".
Usages
Culinary uses
Star anise contains anethole, the same ingredient which gives the unrelated anise its flavor.
Recently, star anise has come into use in the West as a less expensive substitute for anise in
baking as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liquor
Galliano. It is also used in the production of Sambuca, pastis, and many types of absinthe.
Medicinal uses
Star anise has been used in a tea as a remedy for rheumatism, and the seeds are sometimes
chewed after meals to aid digestion. As a warm and moving herb, Ba Jiao is used to assist in
relieving cold-stagnation in the middle jiao, according to TCM.
Shikimic acid, a primary feedstock used to create the anti-flu drug Tamiflu, is produced by
most autotrophic organisms, but star anise is the industrial source. In 2005, there was a
temporary shortage of star anise due to its use in making Tamiflu. Late in that year, a way
was found of making shikimic acid artificially. Roche now derives some of the raw material
it needs from fermenting E. coli bacteria. The 2009 swine flu outbreak led to another series of
shortages as stocks of Tamiflu were built up around the world, sending prices soaring.[1]
Star anise is grown in four provinces in China and harvested between March and May. Its
also found in the south of New South Wales. The shikimic acid is extracted from the seeds in
a ten-stage manufacturing process which takes a year. Reports say 90% of the harvest is
already used by the Swiss pharmaceutical manufacturer Roche in making Tamiflu, but other
reports say there is an abundance of the spice in the main regions - Fujian, Guangdong,
Guangxi and Yunnan.
Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum), a similar tree, is not edible because it is highly
toxic (due to containing sikimitoxin); instead, it has been burned as incense in Japan. Cases
of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star
anise tea may be a result of using this species. Japanese star anise contains anisatin, which
causes severe inflammation of the kidneys, urinary tract and digestive organs.
Using Star Anise as a remedy for colic is dangerous as referenced here.
Standardization of its products and services

ISO 676:1995 - contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and
cultivars [2]
Identification
Refer to the 4th edition of the European Pharmacopoeia [1153].
Differentiation with other species
Joshi et al. have tried the techniques of fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography[3] to
distinguished the species, while Lederer et al. employed the state of the art which combines
the technology of TLC with HPLC-MS/MS.[4]
Specifications
ISO 11178:1995 - a specification for its dried fruits[5]

GB/T 7652:2006 - a Chinese standard of the product[6]
Notes & References

1. ^ Louisa Lim, "Swine Flu Bumps Up Price Of Chinese Spice", NPR, 18 May
2009
2. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 676:1995 Spices and
condiments -- Botanical nomenclature".
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber
=4844. Retrieved 8 June 2009.
3. ^ Joshi, Vaishali C. et al. (2005). "Rapid and Easy Identification of Illicium
verum Hook. f. and Its Adulterant Illicium anisatum Linn. by Fluorescent
Microscopy and Gas Chromatography". Journal of AOAC International (AOAC
International) 88 (3): 703–706. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0058. PMID 15492355.
http://www.atypon-link.com/AOAC/doi/abs/10.5555/jaoi.2005.88.3.703.
Retrieved 10 November.
4. ^ Lederer, Ines et al. (2006). "Combination of TLC and HPLC-MS/MS Methods.
Approach to a Rational Quality Control of Chinese Star Anise". Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry (American Chemical Society) 54 (6): 1970–
1974. doi:10.1021/jf058156b.
5. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 11178:1995 Star anise
(Illicium verum Hook. f.) -- Specification".
http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=19183. Retrieved 8 June
2009.
6. ^ 供销总杜南京野生植物综合利用研究院. "GB/T 7652-2006 八角".
http://www.chinaios.com/BZ-shuju/standshow.asp?table=gbtwo&id=18357.
Retrieved 8 June 2009.
Bibliography
ITIS 505892
FDA Issues Advisory on Star Anise "Teas"
Cumin
Cumin
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Cuminum
Species: C. cyminum
Binomial name
Cuminum cyminum
L.[1]
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, pronounced /ˈkjuˈmɪ n/ or UK: /ˈkʌ mɪ n/,

US: /ˈkuˈm ɪ n/, and sometimes spelled cummin) is a flowering plant in the family
Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to East India.
Etymology
The English "cumin" derives from the French "cumin", which was borrowed indirectly from
Arabic "‫ "نومك‬Kammūn via Spanish comino during the Arab rule in Spain in the 15th century.
The spice is native to Arabic-speaking Syria where cumin thrives in its hot and arid lands.
Cumin seeds have been found in some ancient Syrian archeological sites. The word found its
way from Syria to neighbouring Turkey and nearby Greece most likely before it found its
way to Spain. Like many other Arabic words in the English language, cumin was acquired by
Western Europe via Spain rather than the Grecian route. Some suggest that the word is
derived from the Latin cuminum and Greek κύμινον. The Greek term itself has been
borrowed from Arabic. Forms of this word are attested in several ancient Semitic languages,
including kamūnu in Akkadian.[2] The ultimate source is believed to be the Sumerian word
gamun.[3]
A folk etymology connects the word with the Persian city Kerman where, the story goes,
most of ancient Persia's cumin was produced. For the Persians the expression "carrying
cumin to Kerman" has the same meaning as the English language phrase "carrying coals to
Newcastle". Kerman, locally called "Kermun", would have become "Kumun" and finally
"cumin" in the European languages.
In Northern India and Nepal, cumin is known as jeera (Devanagari ) or jira, while in
Iran and Pakistan it is known as zeera (Persian nrehtuoS ni ;(‫زي ره‬India it is called Jeerige (
in (Kannada)) or jeeragam or seeragam (Tamil
( / )) or jilakarra (Telugu); in Sri Lanka it is known as duru, the white
variety being suduru and the large variety, maduru; in Iran and Central Asia, cumin is known
as zireh; in Turkey, cumin is known as kimyon; in northwestern China, cumin is known as
ziran (孜然). In Arabic, it is known as al-kamuwn (‫)نومكلا‬. Cumin is called kemun in
Ethiopian, and is one of the ingredients in the spice mix berbere.
Description
Cumin is the dried seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum, a member of the parsley family. The
cumin plant grows to 30-50 cm (1-2 ft) tall and is harvested by hand.
Cumin seeds resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and
yellow-brown in colour, like other members of the Umbelliferae family such as caraway,
parsley and dill.
History
Cumin Seeds
Cumin has been in use since ancient times. Seeds, excavated at the Syrian site Tell ed-Der,
have been dated to the second millennium BC. They have also been reported from several
New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites.[4]
Originally cultivated in Iran and Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the Bible in
both the Old Testament (Isaiah 28:27) and the New Testament (Matthew 23:23). It was also
known in ancient Greece and Rome. The Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own
container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in Morocco.
Cumin fell out of favour in Europe except in Spain and Malta during the Middle Ages. It was
introduced to the Americas by Spanish colonists.
Since returned to favour in parts of Europe, today it is mostly grown in Iran, Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, India, Syria, Mexico, and Chile.
Folklore
Superstition during the Middle Ages cited that cumin kept chickens and lovers from
wandering. It was also believed that a happy life awaited the bride and groom who carried
cumin seed throughout the wedding ceremony.
Medical Usage
Cumin is said to help in treatment of the common cold, when added to hot milk and
consumed. In South Asia, cumin tea (dry seeds boiled in hot water) is used to distinguish
false labour (due to gas) from real labour. In Sri Lanka, toasting cumin seeds and then boiling
them in water makes a tea used to soothe acute stomach problems.
Cuminum cyminum Linn.
It is an herbaceous annual plant, with a slender branched stem 20-30 cm tall. The leaves are
5-10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink,
and borne in umbels. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4-5 mm long, containing
a single seed. Cumin seeds are similar to fennel and anise seeds in appearance, but are
smaller and darker in colour.
Today, cumin is the second most popular spice in the world after black pepper.[5][unreliable
source?]
Cumin seeds are used as a spice for their distinctive aroma, popular in Indian,
Pakistani, North African, Middle Eastern, Sri Lankan, Cuban, Northern Mexican cuisines,
and the Western Chinese cuisines of Sichuan and Xinjiang. Cumin can be found in some
Dutch cheeses like Leyden cheese, and in some traditional breads from France. It is also
commonly used in traditional Brazilian cuisine. Cumin can be an ingredient in (often Texan
or Mexican-style) Chili powder, and is found in achiote blends, adobos, sofrito, garam
masala, curry powder, and bahaarat.
Cumin's distinctive flavour and strong, warm aroma is due to its essential oil content. Its main
constituent and important aroma compound is cuminaldehyde (4-isopropylbenzaldehyde).
Important aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the substituted pyrazines, 2-ethoxy-3-
isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine.
Cumin can be used to season many dishes, either ground or as whole seeds, as it draws out
their natural sweetnesses. It is traditionally added to chili, enchiladas, tacos, curries, and other
Middle-Eastern, Indian, Cuban and Mexican-style foods. Cumin has also been used on meat
in addition to other common seasonings. Contrary to popular belief in the US, the spice is not
very common in Mexican cuisine. However, the spice is a familiar taste in Tex-Mex dishes. It
is extensively used in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent. Cumin was also used heavily in
ancient Roman cuisine. Cumin is typically used in Mediterranean cooking from Spanish,
Italian and Middle Eastern cuisine. It helps to add an earthy and warming feeling to cooking
making it a staple in certain stews and soups as well.
Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of 3–4 months, with daytime temperatures
around 30°C (86°F); it is drought-tolerant, and is mostly grown in mediterranean climates. It
is grown from seed, sown in spring, and needs fertile, well-drained soil.
Nutritional value
Cumin seeds
- Sugars 2.25 g
Fat 22.27 g
- saturated 1.535 g
Protein 17.81 g
Water 8.06 g
Calcium 931 mg 93%
Iron 66.36 mg 531%
Magnesium 366 mg 99%
Phosphorus 499 mg 71%
Potassium 1788 mg 38%
Sodium 168 mg 7%
Zinc 4.8 mg 48%
Cumin seeds contain a relatively large percentage amount of iron. However, unless one
would eat about 15 grams (1/2 oz) per day, cumin is not likely to be a significant dietary
source of iron.
Confusion with other spices
Black Cumin seeds
Cumin is hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than caraway (Carum carvi), another
umbelliferous spice that is sometimes confused with it. Many European languages do not
distinguish clearly between the two. For example, in Czech caraway is called 'kmín' while
cumin is called 'římský kmín' or "Roman caraway". The distinction is practically the same in
Hungarian ("kömény" for caraway and "római kömény" [Roman caraway] for cumin). In
Polish the difference is even less significant- caraway is 'kminek' and cumin is 'kmin
rzymski', which is even more confusing as 'kminek' is a diminutive of 'kmin' (notice the -ek
suffix, as in 'kot' - a cat and 'kotek' - a small cat). In Swedish, caraway is called "kummin"
while cumin is "spiskummin", from the Swedish word "spisa", to eat, while in German
"Kümmel" stands for caraway and "Kreuzkümmel" denotes cumin. Some older cookbooks
erroneously name ground coriander as the same spice as a ground cumin.[6]
The distantly related Bunium persicum and the unrelated Nigella sativa are both sometimes
called black cumin (q.v.).
Not related to curcumin, a chemical found in turmeric.
Aroma profile
beta-Pinene[7][8][9]
Cuminal[7][clarification needed]
Gamma-terpinene[7][8][9]
Images
Whole cumin seeds and
Commercially Close up of dried cumin
ground cumin
Dry, whole cumin fruit seeds
packaged whole
(or seed)
and ground cumin
seeds
Notes and references

1. ^ "Cuminum cyminum information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.ars-
grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12617. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
2. ^ "Kamūnu." premiumwanadoo.com.
3. ^ "KMN." American Heritage Dictionary (Fourth Edition), 2000.
4. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford:
University Press, 2000), p. 206
5. ^ http://www.foodreference.com/html/fcumin.html
6. ^ Growingtaste.com
7. ^ a b c Li, Rong; Zi-Tao Jiang (2004). "Chemical composition of the essential oil of Cuminum
cyminum L. from China". Flavour and Fragrance Journal 19 (4): 311 - 313. doi:10.1002/ffj.1302.
8. ^ a b Wang, Lu et al. (2009). "Ultrasonic nebulization extraction coupled with headspace single
drop microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for analysis of the essential oil
in Cuminum cyminum L.". Analytica Chimica Acta 647 (1): 72 - 77.
doi:10.1016/j.aca.2009.05.030.
9. ^ a b Iacobellis, Nicola S. et al. (2005). "Antibacterial Activity of Cuminum cyminum L. and
Carum carvi L. Essential Oils". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53 (1): 57 – 61.
doi:10.1021/jf0487351.
Ginger
Ginger
Color plate from Köhler's Medicinal Plants.
Conservation status
Secure
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Commelinids
Order: Zingiberales
Genus: Zingiber
Species: officinale
Binomial name
Zingiber officinale
[1]
Roscoe
Ginger is a tuber which is consumed whole as a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It is the

rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale.
It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of this plant
family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal.
Ginger cultivation began in Asia and is now also grown in India, West Africa and the
Caribbean.[2] It is sometimes called root ginger to distinguish it from other things that share
the name ginger.
Chemistry
The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture of zingerone, shogaols and
gingerols, volatile oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of fresh ginger. In
laboratory animals, the gingerols increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have
analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial properties.[3] Ginger oil has been shown to
prevent skin cancer in mice[4] and a study at the University of Michigan demonstrated that
gingerols can kill ovarian cancer cells.
Ginger section
Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant essential oil whose main constituents are
sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main component. Smaller amounts of other
sesquiterpenoids (β-sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a small
monoterpenoid fraction (β-phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified.
The pungent taste of ginger is due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds,
particularly gingerols and shogaols, which form from gingerols when ginger is dried or
cooked. Zingerone is also produced from gingerols during this process; this compound is less
pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.[5] Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because
of this was used as a horse suppository by pre-World War I mounted regiments for feaguing.
Ginger has a sialagogue action, stimulating the production of saliva, which makes swallowing
easier.
Use
Culinary use
Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a very mild taste. They are often pickled in
vinegar or sherry as a snack or just cooked as an ingredient in many dishes. They can also be
stewed in boiling water to make ginger tea, to which honey is often added; sliced orange or
lemon fruit may also be added. Mature ginger roots are fibrous and nearly dry. The juice from
old ginger roots is extremely potent[citation needed] and is often used as a spice in Indian recipes
and Chinese cuisine to flavor dishes such as seafood or goat meat and vegetarian cuisine.
Ginger acts as a useful food preservative,[6] and has been proven to kill the harmful bacteria
salmonella. Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of 6 to 1, although the
flavors of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different. Ginger is also made into candy.
Powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread,
cookies, crackers and cake, ginger ale, and ginger beer.
Fresh ginger may be peeled before being eaten. For storage, the ginger can be placed in a
plastic bag and refrigerated, or frozen for longer term storage.
[edit] Regional use
In India, ginger is called Aada in Bengali, Adrak, in Gujarati, Shunti in the Kannada language
of Karnataka, Allam ( ) in Telugu, Inji in Tamil, enchi in Malayalam, Alay in
Marathi, and Aduwa in Nepali.
Fresh ginger is one of the main spices used for making pulse and lentil curries and other
vegetable preparations. It is used fresh to spice tea especially in winter. Ginger powder is also
used in certain food preparations particularly for pregnant or nursing women, the most
popular one being Katlu which is a mixture of gum resin, ghee, nuts, and sugar.
In South India, ginger is used in the production of a candy called Inji-murappa meaning
ginger candy in Tamil. This candy is mostly sold by vendors to bus passengers in bus stops
and in small tea shops as a locally produced item. Candied or crystallised ginger (ginger
cured with sugar) is also common. Additionally, in Tamil Nadu, especially in the Tanjore
belt, a variety of ginger which is less spicy is used when tender to make fresh pickle with the
combination of lemon juice or vinegar, salt, and tender green chili peppers. This kind of
pickle was generally made before the invention of refrigeration and stored for a maximum of
4–5 days. The pickle gains a mature flavor when the juices cook the ginger over the first day.
Ginger is also added as a flavoring in tea. Dried ginger (sukku ) is used in tea or
coffee and also in siddha medicine.
In Bangladesh, ginger is called Aadha and is finely chopped or ground into a paste to use as a
base for chicken and meat dishes alongside onion and garlic.
In Burma, ginger is called gyin. It is widely used in cooking and as a main ingredient in
traditional medicines. It is also consumed as a salad dish called gyin-thot, which consists of
shredded ginger preserved in oil, and a variety of nuts and seeds.
In Indonesia a beverage called Wedang Jahe is made from ginger and palm sugar.
Indonesians also use ground ginger root, called jahe as a common ingredient in local recipes.
In Vietnam, the fresh leaves finely chopped can also be added to shrimp-and-yam soup (canh
khoai mỡ) as a top garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger than the chopped
root.
In China, sliced or whole ginger root is often paired with savory dishes such as fish.
However, candied ginger is sometimes a component of Chinese candy boxes, and a herbal tea
can also be prepared from ginger.
In Japan, ginger is pickled to make beni shoga and gari or grated and used raw on tofu or
noodles. It is also made into a candy called shoga no satozuke.
In the traditional Korean kimchi, ginger is finely minced and added to the ingredients of the
spicy paste just before the fermenting process.
In Western cuisine, ginger is traditionally used mainly in sweet foods such as ginger ale,
gingerbread, ginger snaps, parkin and ginger biscuits. A ginger-flavored liqueur called
Canton is produced in Jarnac, France. Green ginger wine is a ginger flavored wine produced
in the United Kingdom, traditionally sold in a green glass bottle. Ginger is also used as a
spice added to hot coffee and tea.
In the Caribbean, ginger is a popular spice for cooking, and making drinks such as sorrel, a
seasonal drink made during the Christmas season. Jamaicans make ginger beer both as a
carbonated beverage and also fresh in their homes. Ginger tea is often made from fresh ginger
as well.
On the island of Corfu, Greece, a traditional drink called τσιτσιμπύρα (tsitsimpira), a type of
ginger beer, is made. The people of Corfu and the rest of the Ionian islands picked up the
drink from the British, during their occupation of the islands.
In Arabic, ginger is called zanjabil and in some parts of the Middle East ginger powder is
used as a spice for coffee.
In the Ivory Coast, ginger is ground and mixed with orange, pineapple and lemon to produce
a juice called Nyamanku.
Medicinal use
The medical form of ginger historically was called Jamaica ginger; it was classified as a
stimulant and carminative, and used frequently for dyspepsia and colic. It was also frequently
employed to disguise the taste of medicines. Ginger is on the FDA's "generally recognized as
safe" list, though it does interact with some medications, including warfarin. Ginger is
contraindicated in people suffering from gallstones as it promotes the production of bile.[7]
Ginger may also decrease pain from arthritis, though studies been inconsistent, and may have
blood thinning and cholesterol lowering properties that may make it useful for treating heart
disease.[8]
Diarrhea
Ginger compounds are active against a form of diarrhea which is the leading cause of infant
death in developing countries. Zingerone is likely to be the active constituent against
enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-induced diarrhea.[9]
Nausea
Ginger has been found effective in multiple studies for treating nausea caused by seasickness,
morning sickness and chemotherapy,[10] though ginger was not found superior over a placebo
for post-operative nausea. Ginger is a safe remedy for nausea relief during pregnancy[11].
Folk medicine
A variety of uses are suggested for ginger. Tea brewed from ginger is a folk remedy for
colds. Three to four leaves of Tulsi taken along with a piece of ginger on an empty stomach is
considered an effective cure for congestion, cough and cold.[citation needed] Ginger ale and ginger
beer have been recommended as stomach settlers for generations in countries where the
beverages are made, and ginger water was commonly used to avoid heat cramps in the United
States. Ginger has also been historically used to treat inflammation, which several scientific
studies support, though one arthritis trial showed ginger to be no better than a placebo or
ibuprofen for treatment of osteoarthritis.[8] Research on rats suggests that ginger may be
useful for treating diabetes.[12][13]
Regional medicinal use
A pack of ginger powder
In the West, powdered dried ginger root is made into capsules and sold in pharmacies for
medicinal use.
In Burma, ginger and a local sweetener made from palm tree juice (Htan nyat) are boiled
together and taken to prevent the flu.
In China, ginger is included in several traditional preparations. A drink made with sliced
ginger cooked in water with brown sugar or a cola is used as a folk medicine for the common
cold.[14]
In Congo, ginger is crushed and mixed with mango tree sap to make tangawisi juice, which is
considered a panacea.
In India, ginger is applied as a paste to the temples to relieve headache and consumed when
suffering from the common cold, people use ginger for making tea, in food etc.
In Indonesia, ginger ("Jahe" in Indonesian) is used as a herbal preparation to reduce fatigue,
reducing "winds" in the blood, prevent and cure rheumatism and controlling poor dietary
habits.
In the Philippines a traditional health drink called "salabat" is made for breakfast by boiling
chopped ginger and adding sugar; it is considered good for a sore throat.
In the United States, ginger is used to prevent motion and morning sickness. It is recognized
as safe by the Food and Drug Administration and is sold as an unregulated dietary
supplement.
Reactions
Allergic reactions to ginger generally result in a rash, and although it's generally recognized
as safe, ginger can cause heartburn, bloating, gas, belching and nausea, particularly if taken in
powdered form. Unchewed fresh ginger may result in intestinal blockage, and individuals
who have had ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease or blocked intestines may react badly to
large quantities of fresh ginger.[15] Ginger can also adversely affect individuals with
gallstones.[8][15] There are also suggestions that ginger may affect blood pressure, clotting,
and heart rhythms.[15]
Horticulture
Ginger field
Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers.
Because of its aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, ginger is
often used as landscaping around subtropical homes. It is a perennial reed-like plant with
annual leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4 feet) tall.
Traditionally, the root is gathered when the stalk withers; it is immediately scalded, or
washed and scraped, in order to kill it and prevent sprouting. Scalding, applied generally to
the older and poorer roots, produces black ginger; washing and scraping gives white ginger.
The natural color of the white scraped ginger is a pale buff; it is often whitened by bleaching
or liming, but this generally reduces its value.
Production trends
India, with over 30% of the global share, now leads in global production of ginger, replacing
China, which has slipped to the second position (~20.5%), followed by Indonesia(~12.7%),
Nepal(~11.5%) and Nigeria(~10%).
Top Ten Ginger Producers — 11 June 2008
Production
Country Footnote
(Tonnes)
India 420,000 F
People's
285,000 F
Republic of China
Indonesia 177,000 F
Nepal 158,905
Nigeria 138,000 F
Bangladesh 57,000 F
Japan 42,000 F
Thailand 34,000 F
Philippines 28,000 F
Sri Lanka 8,270
World 1,387,445 A
No symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate, A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-

official or estimates);
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social
Department: The Statistical Devision
Similar species
Myoga (Zingiber mioga Roscoe) appears in Japanese cuisine; the flower buds are the part
eaten.
Another plant in the Zingiberaceae family, galangal, is used for similar purposes as ginger in
Thai cuisine. Galangal is also called Thai ginger. Also referred to as galangal, fingerroot
(Boesenbergia rotunda), or Chinese ginger or the Thai krachai, is used in cooking and
medicine.
A dicotyledonous native species of eastern North America, Asarum canadense, is also known
as "wild ginger", and its root has similar aromatic properties, but it is not related to true
ginger. The plant also contains aristolochic acid, a carcinogenic compound.
See also
Bu Zhong Yi Qi Wan - contains ginger material
Kaempferia galanga
List of plants used as medicine
Xiao Yao Wan - contains ginger material
References
1. ^ "Zingiber officinale information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.ars-
2. ^ "Spices: Exotic Flavours & Medicines: Ginger".
http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=15. Retrieved 2007-08-
08.
3. ^ MD O' Hara, Mary; & MSt; David Kiefer, MD; Kim Farrell, MD; Kathi Kemper, MD, MPH
(1998). "A Review of 12 Commonly Used Medicinal Herbs". Archives of Family Medicine 7
(7): 523–536. doi:10.1001/archfami.7.6.523. PMID 9821826. http://archfami.ama-
assn.org/cgi/content/full/7/6/523. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
4. ^ Glorious Ginger: Root Out Ailments with This Ancient Spice published by
thefoodpaper.com
5. ^ McGee, Harold (2004). On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen (2nd ed.).
New York: Scribner pp. 425-426.
6. ^ Glorious Ginger: Root out Ailments with this Ancient Spice published by thefoodpaper.com
7. ^ Al-Achi, Antoine. "A Current Look at Ginger Use".
http://www.uspharmacist.com/oldformat.asp?url=newlook/files/Comp/ginger2.htm&pub_i
d=8&article_id=772. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
8. ^ a b c University of Maryland Medical Centre (2006). "Ginger".
http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Gingerch.html. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
9. ^ Chen, Jaw-Chyun; Li-Jiau Huang, Shih-Lu Wu, Sheng-Chu Kuo, Tin-Yun Ho, Chien-Yun
Hsiang (2007). "Ginger and Its Bioactive Component Inhibit Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
Heat-Labile Enterotoxin-Induced Diarrhoea in Mice". Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 55 (21): 8390–8397. doi:10.1021/jf071460f.
10. ^ Ernst, E.; & Pittler, M.H. (01 Mar 2000). "Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a
systematic review of randomized clinical trials" (PDF). British Journal of Anesthesia 84 (3):
367–371. PMID 10793599. http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/84/3/367. Retrieved
2006-09-06.
11. ^ Glorious Ginger: Root Out Ailments with This Ancient Spice published by
thefoodpaper.com
12. ^ Al-Amin, Zainab M. et al. (2006). "Anti-diabetic and hypolipidaemic properties of ginger
(Zingiber officinale) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats". British Journal of Nutrition
(Cambridge University Press) 96: 660–666. doi:10.1079/BJN20061849 (inactive 2008-06-25).
http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=928716.
Retrieved 5 November.
13. ^ Afshari, Ali Taghizadeh et al. (2007). "The effect of ginger on diabetic nephropathy, plasma
antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation in rats". Food Chemistry (Elsevier) 101 (1): 148–
153. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.01.013.
14. ^ Jakes, Susan (2007-01-15). "Beverage of Champions". http://time-
blog.com/china_blog/2007/01/the_beverage_of_champions_1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
15. ^ a b c Mayo Clinic (2006-05-01). "Drugs & Supplements: Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)".
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/ginger/NS_patient-ginger. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 edition of The Grocer's
Encyclopedia.
Turmeric
Turmeric
Curcuma longa
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Zingiberales
Genus: Curcuma
Species: C. longa
Binomial name
Curcuma longa
Linnaeus[1]
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family,
Zingiberaceae.[2] It is native to tropical South Asia and needs temperatures between 20°C and
30°C, and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive[citation needed]. Plants are gathered
annually for their rhizomes, and re-seeded from some of those rhizomes in the following
season.
The rhizomes are boiled for several hours and then dried in hot ovens, after which they are
ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a spice in curries and other
South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine, for dyeing, and to impart color to mustard
condiments. Its active ingredient is curcumin and it has a distinctly earthy, slightly bitter,
slightly hot peppery flavor and a mustardy smell.
In medieval Europe, turmeric became known as Indian Saffron, since it was widely used as
an alternative to the far more expensive saffron spice.
Erode, a city in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the world's largest producer and most
important trading center of turmeric in Asia. For these reasons, Erode is also known as
Yellow City, Turmeric City, or Textile City.[citation needed] Sangli, a town in the southern part
of the Indian state of Maharashtra, is the second largest and most important trading center for
turmeric in Asia.[3]
Usage
Culinary uses
Turmeric powder is used extensively in South Asian cuisine.
Commercially packaged turmeric powder
Turmeric is found everywhere and grows wild in the forests of Malaysia. It has become the
key ingredient for many Malay dishes, not only in curry, but also in masak lemak, rendang,
and many more.
In non-South Asian recipes, turmeric is sometimes used as an agent to impart a rich, custard-
like yellow color. It is used in canned beverages and baked products, dairy products, ice
cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake icings,
cereals, sauces, gelatins, etc.[citation needed] It is a significant ingredient in most commercial
curry powders. Turmeric is mostly used in savory dishes, as well as some sweet dishes such
as the cake Sfouf.
Although usually used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric is also used fresh, much like
ginger. It has numerous uses in Far Eastern recipes, such as fresh turmeric pickle (which
contains large chunks of soft turmeric).
Turmeric (coded as E100 when used as a food additive) is used to protect food products from
sunlight. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. The curcumin/polysorbate
solution or curcumin powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water-containing products.
Over-coloring, such as in pickles, relishes, and mustard, is sometimes used to compensate for
fading.
In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color cheeses, yogurt, dry
mixes, salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Turmeric is also used to give a yellow
color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths and other foods (often as a much
cheaper replacement for saffron).
Turmeric is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Momos
(Nepali meat dumplings), a traditional dish in South Asia, are spiced with turmeric. In South
Africa turmeric is traditionally used to give boiled white rice a golden color.
Medicinal uses
Turmeric plant
Main article: Curcumin
In Ayurvedic practices, turmeric is thought to have many medicinal properties and many in
South Asia use it as a readily available antiseptic for cuts, burns and bruises. It is also used as
an antibacterial agent.
It is taken in some Asian countries as a dietary supplement, which allegedly helps with
stomach problems and other ailments. It is popular as a tea in Okinawa, Japan. Pakistanis also
use it as an anti-inflammatory agent, and remedy for gastrointestinal discomfort associated
with irritable bowel syndrome, and other digestive disorders. In Afghanistan and northwest
Pakistan, turmeric is applied to a piece of burnt cloth, and placed over a wound to cleanse and
stimulate recovery. Indians, in addition to its Ayurvedic properties, use turmeric in a wide
variety of skin creams that are also exported to neighboring countries. It is currently being
investigated for possible benefits in Alzheimer's disease,[4] cancer, arthritis [5] and liver
disorders.[citation needed]
Hidradenitis Suppurativa or Acne Inversa, an uncurable and debilitating disease, is also

treated with turmeric powder. It is unknown why it works, but people[who?] who have suffered
from HS for 30–40 years have reported almost an immediate improvement after consuming
one teaspoon in 1/4 cup of warm water three times a day. Within one week of using turmeric,
these same people have reported almost a complete reduction of boils and purple
scarring.[citation needed]
Turmeric rhizome
In the latter half of the 20th century, curcumin was identified as responsible for most of the
biological effects of turmeric. According to a 2005 article in the Wall Street Journal, research
activity into curcumin is exploding. In that year supplement sales increased 35% from 2004,
and the U.S. National Institutes of Health had four clinical trials underway to study curcumin
treatment for pancreatic cancer, multiple myeloma, Alzheimer's, and colorectal cancer.
Curcumin also enhances the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, or BDNF,
which supports nerve growth.[citation needed]
There is evidence that piperine, found in black pepper, improves the absorption of turmeric.
In 1998 researchers at St. John‘s Medical College, Bangalore, India found that curcumin
taken with 20 mg of piperine increased the absorption of curcumin by 2000%, with no
adverse effects.[6]
This means that a low dose of curcumin (or turmeric for that matter) could have a greater
effect in terms of health benefits when combined with piperine than a large dose of curcumin
or turmeric would.
Snake Bite Anti venin. Curcuram Longa has been identified as acting as an anti venin for
King Cobra snake bites by Dr Eric Lattman of Aston University. Steve Backshall's venom:
poisonous animals in the natural world . This if adopted around the world could turn out to be
the simplest cure for snake bites.
Cosmetics
Turmeric is currently used in the formulation of some sunscreens. Turmeric paste is used by
some Indian women to keep them free of superfluous hair. Turmeric paste is applied to bride
and groom before marriage in some places of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, where it is
believed turmeric gives glow to skin and keeps some harmful bacteria away from the body.
The government of Thailand is funding a project to extract and isolate

tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) from turmeric. THCs (not to be confused with
tetrahydrocannabinol, which is also known as THC) are colorless compounds that might have
antioxidant and skin-lightening properties and might be used to treat skin inflammations,
making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations.
Dye
Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye as it is not very lightfast (the degree to which a dye resists
fading due to light exposure). However, turmeric is commonly used in Indian clothing, such
as saris.
Gardening
Turmeric can also be used to deter ants. The exact reasons why turmeric repels ants is
unknown, but anecdotal evidence suggests it works.[citation needed]
Ceremonial uses
Turmeric is also used in various rituals, such as the turmeric ceremony or gaye holud, part of
the Bengali wedding. It is widely used in all parts of India during wedding ceremony,
particularly in North India and the Deccan Plateau.
It is also used in Pujas to make a form of the elephant God Ganesha. It is made by mixing
turmeric with water and forming it into a cone-like shape.
During the south Indian festival Pongal, a whole turmeric plant with the root is placed as part
of the ceremonial decorations. Also, fresh root is some times tied around the pot boiling the
ceremonial rice.
In southern India, as a part of the marriage ritual, a piece of dried turmeric tied with string is
sometimes used to replace the Thali necklace temporarily or permanently. This happens in
economically lower situations.
Modern Neopagans list it with the quality of fire, and it is used for power and purification
rites.
In Dakshina Kannada (Karnataka state, India) turmeric plant leaf is used to prepare special
sweet dishes by covering rice flour, jaggery, and coconut and cooked in steam.
Automotive
Turmeric is one of the main ingredients in leading radiator stop-leak sealant mixtures.[citation
needed]
Chemistry
Curcumin Keto form
Curcumin Enol form
Turmeric contains up to 5% essential oils and up to 3% curcumin, a polyphenol. It is the

active substance of turmeric and it is also known as C.I. 75300, or Natural Yellow 3. The
systematic chemical name is (1E,6E)-1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1,6-heptadiene-
3,5-dione.
It can exist at least in two tautomeric forms, keto and enol. The keto form is preferred in solid
phase and the enol form in solution.
Turmeric can also be used as an indicator of acidic or basic properties of a substance.
Notes
1. ^ "Curcuma longa information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov.
http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?12676. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
2. ^ Chan, E.W.C. et al. (2009). "Effects of different drying methods on the antioxidant
properties of leaves and tea of ginger species". Food Chemistry 113 (1): 166 - 172.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.07.090. | accessyear = 2009}}
3. ^ Sangli: The Turmeric City of Indian home of brights
4. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1668932.stm
5. ^ [|Ketteler, Judy] (June 2009). "Foods That Help Fight Chronic Pain". AOL Health.
http://www.aolhealth.com/condition-center/heart-disease/surviving-a-heart-attack.
Retrieved June 2009.
6. ^ http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2006-957450 thieme-
connect.de Shoba G, Joy D, Joseph T, Majeed M, Rajendran R, Srinivas PS. Influence
of Piperine on the Pharmacokinetics of Curcumin in Animals and Human Volunteers.
Planta Med. 1998 May; 64(4):353-6.
See also
Alpinia zerumbet
Etlingera elatior
Kaempferia galanga
Candlenut
Candlenut
Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana)

foliage, flowers, and nut
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Subfamily: Crotonoideae
Tribe: Aleuritideae
Subtribe: Aleuritinae
Genus: Aleurites
Species: A. moluccana
Binomial name
Aleurites moluccana
(L.) Willd.
The Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana), is a flowering tree in the spurge family,

Euphorbiaceae, also known as Candleberry, Indian walnut, Kemiri, Varnish tree or
Kukui nut tree.
Its native range is impossible to establish precisely because of early spread by humans, and
the tree is now distributed throughout the New and Old World tropics. It grows to a height of
15–25 metres (49–82 ft), with wide spreading or pendulous branches. The leaves are pale
green, simple and ovate, or trilobed or rarely 5-lobed, with an acute apex, 10–20 centimetres
(3.9–7.9 in) long. The nut is round, 4–6 centimetres (1.6–2.4 in) in diameter; the seed inside
has a very hard seed coat and a high oil content, which allows its use as a candle (see below),
hence its name.
Uses
The nut is often used cooked in Indonesian and Malaysian cuisine, where it is called kemiri in
Indonesian or buah keras in Malay. On the island of Java in Indonesia, it is used to make a
thick sauce that is eaten with vegetables and rice. Outside of Southeast Asia, macadamia nuts
are sometimes substituted for candlenuts when they are not available, as they have a similarly
high oil content and texture when pounded. The flavor, however, is quite different, as the
candlenut is much more bitter. Because the nuts contains saponin and phorbol, they are
mildly toxic when raw.[1]
Several parts of the plant have been used in traditional medicine in most of the areas where it
is native. The oil is an irritant and laxative and sometimes used like castor oil. It is also used
as a hair stimulant or additive to hair treatment systems. The seed kernels have a laxative
effect. In Japan its bark has been used on tumors. In Sumatra, pounded seeds, burned with
charcoal, are applied around the navel for costiveness. In Malaya, the pulped kernels or
boiled leaves are used in poultices for headache, fevers, ulcers, swollen joints, and gonorrhea.
In Java, the bark is used for bloody diarrhea or dysentery. In Hawaiʻi, the flowers and the sap
at the top of the husk (when just removed from the branch) were used to treat eʻa (oral
candidiasis) in children.
Aleurites moluccanus flowers
In Ancient Hawaiʻi, the nuts, named kukui were burned to provide light. The nuts were strung
in a row on a palm leaf midrib, lit one end, and burned one by one every 15 minutes or so.
This led to their use as a measure of time. One could instruct someone to return home before
the second nut burned out. Hawaiians also extracted the oil from the nut and burned it in a
stone oil lamp called a kukui hele po (light, darkness goes) with a wick made of kapa cloth.
Candle nuts are also roasted and mixed into a paste with salt to form a Hawaiian condiment
known as inamona. Inamona is a key ingredient in traditional Hawaiian poke. It is the state
tree of Hawaiʻi.[2]
Hawaiians also had many other uses for the tree, including: leis from the shells, leaves and
flowers; ink for tattoos from charred nuts; a varnish with the oil; and fishermen would chew
the nuts and spit them on the water to break the surface tension and remove reflections,
giving them greater underwater visibility. A red-brown dye made from the inner bark was
used on kapa and aho (Touchardia latifolia cordage). A coating of kukui oil helped preserve
ʻupena (fishing nets). Kukui represents the island of Molokaʻi, whose symbolic color is the
silvery green of the kukui leaf.[3] The nohona waʻa (seats), pale (gunwales) of waʻa
(outrigger canoes) were made from the wood.[4] The trunk was sometimes used to make
smaller canoes used for fishing.[5]
In Tonga, still nowadays, ripe nuts, named tuitui are pounded into a paste, tukilamulamu,
used as soap or shampoo.
Dead wood of candlenut is eaten by a larva of a coleoptera called Agrionome fairmairei. This
larva is eaten by some people.
Modern cultivation is mostly for the oil. In plantations, each tree will produce 30–80
kilograms (66–180 lb) of nuts, and the nuts yield 15 to 20% of their weight in oil. Most of the
oil is used locally rather than figuring in international trade.
Mythology
In Hawaiʻi the candlenut tree is a symbol of enlightenment, protection and peace. The
candlenut was considered to be the physical form of Kamapua'a, the hog-man fertility demi-
god associated with Lono, the god of agriculture. One of the legends told of a woman who,
despite her best efforts to please her husband, was routinely beaten. Finally, the husband beat
her to death and buried her under a kukui tree. Being a kind and just woman, she was given
new life, and the husband was eventually killed.[citation needed]
References
1. ^ Scott, Susan; Craig Thomas (2000). Poisonous Plants of Paradise: First Aid and
Medical Treatment of Injuries from Hawaii's Plants. University of Hawaii Press.
p. 26. ISBN 9780824822514.
http://books.google.com/books?id=99Dr7v8JOKAC&client=firefox-a.
2. ^ State tree of Hawaii
3. ^ "Kukui". Canoe Plants of Ancient Hawaii. http://canoeplants.com/kukui.html.
4. ^ Krauss, Beatrice H. (1993). "Chapter 4: Canoes". Plants in Hawaiian Culture.
University of Hawaii Press. pp. 50-51.
http://books.google.com/books?id=WOdrGIP3zksC&client=firefox-a.
5. ^ Dunford, Betty; Lilinoe Andrews; Mikiala Ayau; Liana I. Honda; Julie Stewart
Williams (2002). Hawaiians of Old (3 ed.). Bess Press. p. 122. ISBN 9781573061377.
http://books.google.com/books?id=PpKyFZXO_jEC.
Black pepper
Black pepper
Pepper plant with immature peppercorns

Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species: P. nigrum
Binomial name
Piper nigrum
L.[1]
Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its
fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit, known as a
peppercorn when dried, is a small drupe approximately five millimetres in diameter, dark red
when fully mature, containing a single seed. Peppercorns, and the powdered pepper derived
from grinding them, may be described as black pepper, white pepper, green pepper, and very
often simply pepper. The terms pink peppercorns, red pepper (as in bell or chile), and green
pepper (as in bell or chile) are also used to describe the fruits of other, unrelated plants.
However, green peppercorns are simply the immature black peppercorns.
Black pepper is native to South India (Tamil:milagu, ; Kannada:meNasu, ;

Malayalam:kurumulaku, ; Telugu:miriyam, ; Konkani:miriya konu,
Marathi: Miri ) and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions.
Black pepper is also cultivated in the Coorg area of Karnataka.
Dried ground pepper is one of the most common spices in European cuisine and its
descendants, having been known and prized since antiquity for both its flavor and its use as a
medicine. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine. It may be found on
nearly every dinner table in some parts of the world, often alongside table salt.
The word "pepper" is ultimately derived from the Sanskrit pippali, the word for long
pepper[2] via the Latin piper which was used by the Romans to refer both to pepper and long
pepper, as the Romans erroneously believed that both of these spices were derived from the
same plant.[citation needed] The English word for pepper is derived from the Old English pipor.
The Latin word is also the source of German Pfeffer, French poivre, Dutch peper, and other
similar forms. In the 16th century, pepper started referring to the unrelated New World chile
peppers as well. "Pepper" was used in a figurative sense to mean "spirit" or "energy" at least
as far back as the 1840s; in the early 20th century, this was shortened to pep.[3]
Varieties
Black and white peppercorns
Black pepper is produced from the still-green unripe berries of the pepper plant. The berries
are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat
ruptures cell walls in the pepper, speeding the work of browning enzymes during drying. The
berries are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper around
the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer. Once dried, the spice is called
black peppercorn.
White pepper consists of the seed only, with the skin of the pepper removed. This is usually
accomplished by process known as retting, where fully ripe peppers are soaked in water for
about a week, during which the flesh of the pepper softens and decomposes. Rubbing then
removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Alternative processes are used
for removing the outer pepper from the seed, including decortication, the removal of the outer
layer from black pepper from small peppers through mechanical, chemical or biological
methods.[4]
In the U.S., white pepper is often used in dishes like light-coloured sauces or mashed
potatoes, where ground black pepper would visibly stand out. There is disagreement
regarding which is generally spicier. They have differing flavor due to the presence of certain
compounds in the outer fruit layer of the berry that are not found in the seed.
Black, green, pink (Schinus terebinthifolius), and white peppercorns
Ground black pepper and pepper shaker
Green pepper, like black, is made from the unripe berries. Dried green peppercorns are
treated in a manner that retains the green colour, such as treatment with sulfur dioxide or
freeze-drying. Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe berries preserved in brine or
vinegar. Fresh, unpreserved green pepper berries, largely unknown in the West, are used in
some Asian cuisines, particularly Thai cuisine.[5] Their flavor has been described as piquant
and fresh, with a bright aroma.[6] They decay quickly if not dried or preserved.
A product called orange pepper or red pepper consists of ripe red pepper berries preserved in
brine and vinegar. Ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving
techniques used to produce green pepper.[7] Pink pepper from Piper nigrum is distinct from
the more-common dried "pink peppercorns", which are the fruits of a plant from a different
family, the Peruvian pepper tree, Schinus molle, and its relative the Brazilian pepper tree,
Schinus terebinthifolius. In years past there was debate as to the health safety of pink
peppercorns, which is mostly no longer an issue.[8] Sichuan peppercorn is another "pepper"
that is botanically unrelated to black pepper.
Peppercorns are often categorised under a label describing their region or port of origin. Two
well-known types come from India's Malabar Coast: Malabar pepper and Tellicherry pepper.
Tellicherry is a higher-grade pepper, made from the largest, ripest 10% of berries from
Malabar plants grown on Mount Tellicherry.[9] Sarawak pepper is produced in the Malaysian
portion of Borneo, and Lampong pepper on Indonesia's island of Sumatra. White Muntok
pepper is another Indonesian product, from Bangka Island.[10]
Plant
Piper nigrum from an 1832 print
The pepper plant is a perennial woody vine growing to four metres in height on supporting
trees, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing stems touch the
ground. The leaves are alternate, entire, five to ten centimetres long and three to six
centimetres broad. The flowers are small, produced on pendulous spikes four to eight
centimetres long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening to seven to 15 centimeters as the
fruit matures.[11] Black pepper is grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to
flooding, moist, well-drained and rich in organic matter. The plants are propagated by
cuttings about 40 to 50 centimetres long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at
distances of about two metres apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with
smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are
cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The
roots are covered in leaf mulch and manure, and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry
soils the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first
three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and typically continue to bear
fruit for seven years. The cuttings are usually cultivars, selected both for yield and quality of
fruit. A single stem will bear 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or
two berries at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when
full grown and still hard; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency, and ultimately fall off
and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns
are stripped off the spikes.[11]
Black pepper is native to India.[12][13] Within the genus Piper, it is most closely related to
other Asian species such as Piper caninum.[13]

History
Pepper before ripening
High resolution picture
Peppercorn close-up
Pepper has been used as a spice in India since prehistoric times. Pepper is native to India and
has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE.[14] J. Innes Miller notes that while
pepper was grown in southern Thailand and in Malaysia, its most important source was India,
particularly the Malabar Coast, in what is now the state of Kerala.[15] Peppercorns were a
much prized trade good, often referred to as "black gold" and used as a form of commodity
money. The term "peppercorn rent" still exists today.
The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of long
pepper, the dried fruit of closely related Piper longum. The Romans knew of both and often
referred to either as just "piper". In fact, it was not until the discovery of the New World and
of chile peppers that the popularity of long pepper entirely declined. Chile peppers, some of
which when dried are similar in shape and taste to long pepper, were easier to grow in a
variety of locations more convenient to Europe.

Until well after the Middle Ages, virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the
Middle East, and North Africa travelled there from India's Malabar region. By the 16th
century, pepper was also being grown in Java, Sunda, Sumatra, Madagascar, Malaysia, and
elsewhere in Southeast Asia, but these areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper
locally.[16] Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in
other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean.
Black pepper, along with other spices from India and lands farther east, changed the course of
world history. It was in some part the preciousness of these spices that led to the European
efforts to find a sea route to India and consequently to the European colonial occupation of
that country, as well as the European discovery and colonisation of the Americas.[17]
Ancient times
Black peppercorns were found stuffed in the nostrils of Ramesses II, placed there as part of
the mummification rituals shortly after his death in 1213 BCE.[18] Little else is known about
the use of pepper in ancient Egypt, nor how it reached the Nile from India.
Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the 4th century BCE,
though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford.
Trade routes of the time were by land, or in ships which hugged the coastlines of the Arabian
Sea. Long pepper, growing in the north-western part of India, was more accessible than the
black pepper from further south; this trade advantage, plus long pepper's greater spiciness,
probably made black pepper less popular at the time.
A possible trade route from Italy to south-west India
By the time of the early Roman Empire, especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30
BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea directly to southern India's Malabar Coast was
near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. According to the Roman geographer Strabo, the early Empire
sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual one-year trip to India and back. The fleet timed
its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable monsoon winds.
Returning from India, the ships travelled up the Red Sea, from where the cargo was carried
overland or via the Nile Canal to the Nile River, barged to Alexandria, and shipped from
there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would
dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come.

With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, black pepper was now travelling a shorter
trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. Pliny the Elder's Natural History tells
us the prices in Rome around 77 CE: "Long pepper ... is fifteen denarii per pound, while that
of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains "there is no year in which
India does not drain the Roman Empire of fifty million sesterces," and further moralises on
pepper:
It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in
other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their
appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a
recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency;
and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial
of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare
himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? (N.H. 12.14)[19]
Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the Roman
Empire. Apicius' De re coquinaria, a 3rd-century cookbook probably based at least partly on
one from the 1st century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. Edward Gibbon
wrote, in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, that pepper was "a
favourite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".
Postclassical Europe
Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as collateral or even currency. The taste for
pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see
Rome fall. It is said that Alaric the Visigoth and Attila the Hun each demanded from Rome a
ransom of more than a ton of pepper when they besieged the city in 5th century. After the fall
of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the spice trade, first the Persians and then the
Arabs; Innes Miller cites the account of Cosmas Indicopleustes, who travelled east to India,
as proof that "pepper was still being exported from India in the sixth century".[20] By the end
of the Dark Ages, the central portions of the spice trade were firmly under Islamic control.
Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolised by Italian powers, especially
Venice and Genoa. The rise of these city-states was funded in large part by the spice trade.
A riddle authored by Saint Aldhelm, a 7th-century Bishop of Sherborne, sheds some light on
black pepper's role in England at that time:
I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,

Yet within I bear a burning marrow.
I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table,
Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen.
But you will find in me no quality of any worth,
Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.[21]
It is commonly believed that during the Middle Ages, pepper was used to conceal the taste of
partially rotten meat. There is no evidence to support this claim, and historians view it as
highly unlikely: in the Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item, affordable only to the
wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available as well.[22] In addition, people of the
time certainly knew that eating spoiled food would make them sick. Similarly, the belief that
pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable: it is true that piperine, the

compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the
concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small.[23] Salt is a much
more effective preservative, and salt-cured meats were common fare, especially in winter.
However, pepper and other spices probably did play a role in improving the taste of long-
preserved meats.
A depiction of Calicut, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade
Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages—and the monopoly on the trade held by Italy—
was one of the inducements which led the Portuguese to seek a sea route to India. In 1498,
Vasco da Gama became the first person to reach India by sailing around Africa; asked by
Arabs in Calicut (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative
replied, "we seek Christians and spices." Though this first trip to India by way of the southern
tip of Africa was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers
and used their superior naval firepower to eventually gain complete control of trade on the
Arabian sea. It was given additional legitimacy (at least from a European perspective) by the
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, which granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world
where black pepper originated.
The Portuguese proved unable to maintain their stranglehold on the spice trade for long. The
old Arab and Venetian trade networks successfully smuggled enormous quantities of spices
through the patchy Portuguese blockade, and pepper once again flowed through Alexandria
and Italy, as well as around Africa. In the 17th century, the Portuguese lost almost all of their
valuable Indian Ocean possessions to the Dutch and the English. The pepper ports of Malabar
fell to the Dutch in the period 1661–1663.
Pepper harvested for the European trader, from a manuscript Livre des merveilles de Marco
Polo (The book of the wonders of Marco Polo)
As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value
of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an
item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those
of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.[24]

China
It is possible that black pepper was known in China in the 2nd century BCE, if poetic reports
regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by Emperor Wu to what is
now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called jujiang or
"sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of Shu, an area in what is now the
Sichuan province. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made
from betel leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long
or black.[25]
In the 3rd century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as
hujiao or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing
to appear in a 4th-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's
southern border, including long pepper.[26] By the 12th century, however, black pepper had
become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the
place of China's native Sichuan pepper (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant).
Marco Polo testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China when he relates what he is
told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay (Zhejiang): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by
one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for
consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to
223 lbs."[27] Marco Polo is not considered a very reliable source regarding China, and this
second-hand data may be even more suspect, but if this estimated 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) a
day for one city is anywhere near the truth, China's pepper imports may have dwarfed
Europe's.
As medicine
'There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!' Alice said to herself, as well as she could for
sneezing. — Alice in Wonderland (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper
mill.
Like many eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long
pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used.
Black peppercorns figure in remedies in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani medicine in India. The
5th century Syriac Book of Medicines prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for such
illnesses as constipation, diarrhea, earache, gangrene, heart disease, hernia, hoarseness,
indigestion, insect bites, insomnia, joint pain, liver problems, lung disease, oral abscesses,

sunburn, tooth decay, and toothaches.[28] Various sources from the 5th century onward also
recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often by applying salves or poultices made with
pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments
has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly
damaging.[29]
Pepper is known to cause sneezing. Some sources say that piperine, a substance present in
black pepper, irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing;[30] some say that it is just the effect
of the fine dust in ground pepper, and some say that pepper is not in fact a very effective
sneeze-producer at all. Few, if any, controlled studies have been carried out to answer the
question. It has been shown that piperine can dramatically increase absorption of selenium,
vitamin B, beta-carotene and curcumin as well as other nutrients.[31]
As a medicine, pepper appears in the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta, chapter five, as one of
the few medicines allowed to be carried by a monk.[32]
Pepper contains small amounts of safrole, a mildly carcinogenic compound.[31] Also, it is

eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers because of its
irritating effect upon the intestines, being replaced by what is referred to as a bland diet.
Flavor
A handheld pepper mill
Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from the piperine compound, which is found both in the
outer fruit and in the seed. Refined piperine, milligram-for-milligram, is about one percent as
hot as the capsaicin in chilli peppers. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains
important odour-contributing terpenes including pinene, sabinene, limonene, caryophyllene,
and linalool, which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in
white pepper, which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper can gain some different
odours (including musty notes) from its longer fermentation stage.[33]

Pepper tree in Kolli Hills in India.
Pepper loses flavor and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve
pepper's original spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavor when exposed to light, which
can transform piperine into nearly tasteless isochavicine.[33] Once ground, pepper's aromatics
can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns
immediately before use for this reason. Handheld pepper mills (or "pepper grinders"), which
mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this, sometimes instead of
pepper shakers, dispensers of pre-ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found
in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but the mortar and pestle used earlier for
crushing pepper remained a popular method for centuries after as well.[34]
World trade
Black peppercorns
Peppercorns are, by monetary value, the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting
for 20 percent of all spice imports in 2002. The price of pepper can be volatile, and this figure
fluctuates a great deal year to year; for example, pepper made up 39 percent of all spice
imports in 1998.[35] By weight, slightly more chilli peppers are traded worldwide than
peppercorns. The International Pepper Exchange is located in Kochi, India.
As of 2008, Vietnam is the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper, producing 34%
of the worlds Piper nigrum crop as of 2008. Other major producers include Indonesia (9%),
India (19%), Brazil (13%), Malaysia (8%), Sri Lanka (6%), Thailand (4%), and China (6%).
Global pepper production peaked in 2003 with over 355,000 t (391,000 short tons), but has
fallen to just over 271,000 t (299,000 short tons) by 2008 due to a series of issues including

poor crop management, disease and weather. Vietnam dominates the export market, using
almost none of its production domestically; however its 2007 crop fell by nearly 10% from
the previous year to about 90,000 t (99,000 short tons). Similar crop yields occurred in 2007
across the other pepper producing nations as well.[36]
Notes
1. ^ "Piper nigrum information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov. http://www.ars-
2. ^ Pippali is Sanskrit for long pepper. Black pepper is marica. Ancient Greek and
Latin borrowed pippali to refer to either.
3. ^ Douglas Harper's Online Etymology Dictionary entries for pepper and pep.
Retrieved 13 November 2005.
4. ^ "Cleaner technology for white pepper production". The Hindu Business line. 2008-
03-27.
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2008/03/27/stories/2008032751741300.htm.
5. ^ See Thai Ingredients Glossary. Retrieved 6 November 2005.
6. ^ Ochef, Using fresh green peppercorns. Retrieved 6 November 2005.
7. ^ Katzer, Gernot (2006). Pepper. Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages. Retrieved 12 August
2006.
8. ^ pink peppercorn Definition in the Food Dictionary at Epicurious.com
9. ^ Peppercorns, from Penzey's Spices. Retrieved 17 October 2006.
10. ^ Pepper varieties information from A Cook's Wares. Retrieved 6 November 2005.
11. ^ a b "BLACK PEPPER" (PDF). The Philippine Department of Agriculture. 2006-11-
20.
http://www.da.gov.ph/wps/wcm/resources/file/ebb81841763712b/black%20pepper.pd
f. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
12. ^ "Piper nigrum Linnaeus". Flora of China.
http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200005581.
13. ^ a b Jaramillo, M. Alejandra (2001), "Phylogeny and Patterns of Floral Diversity in
the Genus Piper (Piperaceae)", American Journal of Botany 88: 706,
doi:10.2307/2657072, PMID 11302858,
http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/88/4/706
14. ^ Davidson & Saberi 178
15. ^ J. Innes Miller, The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1969), p. 80
16. ^ Dalby p. 93.
17. ^ Jack Turner (2004-08-10). Spice. Random House. ISBN 0375407219.
18. ^ Stephanie Fitzgerald (2008-09-08). Ramses II, Egyptian Pharaoh, Warrior, and
Builder. Compass Point Books. p. 88. ISBN 075653836X.
http://books.google.com/books?id=J8mGcvFkatIC&pg=PT24&lpg=PT24&dq=Rame
ses+Peppercorn&source=web&ots=5YpEReILiF&sig=6ESXxaWNnR8x7tpap-
T1Y7I32P0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPT24,M1.
19. ^ From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation. Text online.
20. ^ Innes Miller, The Spice Trade, p. 83
21. ^ Translation from Turner, p 94. The riddle's answer is of course pepper.

22. ^ Dalby p. 156; also Turner pp. 108–109, though Turner does go on to discuss spices
(not pepper specifically) being used to disguise the taste of partially spoiled wine or
ale.
23. ^ H. J. D. Dorman and S. G. Deans (2000). "Antimicrobial agents from plants:
antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils". Journal of Applied Microbiology 88 Issue
2: 308. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2000.00969.x.. Full text at Blackwell website;
purchase required. "Spices, which are used as integral ingredients in cuisine or added
as flavoring agents to foods, are present in insufficient quantities for their
antimicrobial properties to be significant."
24. ^ Jaffee p. 10.
25. ^ Dalby pp. 74–75. The argument that jujiang was long pepper goes back to the 4th
century CE botanical writings of Ji Han; Hui-lin Li's 1979 translation of and
commentary on Ji Han's work makes the case that it was piper nigrum.
26. ^ Dalby p. 77.
27. ^ Translation from The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition,
Vol. 2, Dover. ISBN 0-486-27587-6. p. 204.
28. ^ Turner p. 160.
29. ^ Turner p. 171.
30. ^ U.S. Library of Congress Science Reference Services "Everyday Mysteries", Why
does pepper make you sneeze?. Retrieved November 12, 2005.
31. ^ a b James A. Duke (1993-08-16). CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops. CRC
Press. p. 395. ISBN 0849336201. http://books.google.com/books?id=-
tg7R4hU8hkC&pg=PA395&lpg=PA395&dq=Pepper+safrole&source=web&ots=38F
TJNPPOy&sig=JDE99CMOeifZNgGPIhJoscno5kA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&
resnum=3&ct=result. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
32. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1990-11-30). Buddhist Monastic Code II. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0521367085.
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/bmc2.ch05.html.
33. ^ a b McGee p. 428.
34. ^ Montagne, Prosper (2001). Larousse Gastronomique. Hamlyn. pp. 726. ISBN 0-
600-60235-4. OCLC 47231315 50747863 83960122. "Mill".
35. ^ Jaffee p. 12, table 2.
36. ^ "Karvy's special Reports - Seasonal Outlook Report Pepper". Karvy Comtrade
Limited. 2008-05-15.
http://www.karvycomtrade.com/downloads/karvySpecialReports/karvysSpecialReport
s_20080515_01.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-29.
References
Dalby, Andrew (2002). Dangerous Tastes. Berkeley: University of California
Press. ISBN 0520236742. http://books.google.com/books?id=7IHcZ21dyjwC.
Davidson, Alan (2002). Wilder Shores of Gastronomy: Twenty Years of the Best
Food Writing from the Journal Petits Propos Culinaires. Berkeley: Ten Speed
Press. ISBN 9781580084178.
Jaffee, Steven (2004). "Delivering and Taking the Heat: Indian Spices and
Evolving Process Standards" (PDF). An Agriculture and Rural Development
Discussion Paper (Washington: World Bank).
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETTRADE/Resources/Topics/Standar
ds/IndiaSpices.pdf.
McGee, Harold (2004). "Black Pepper and Relatives". On Food and Cooking
(Revised Edition). Scribner. pp. 427–429. ISBN 0-684-80001-2. OCLC 56590708.
Turner, Jack (2004). Spice: The History of a Temptation. London: Vintage Books.
ISBN 0375707050. OCLC 61213802.
Bell pepper
Bell pepper
Red, yellow and green pepper

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Capsicum
Species: C. annuum
Binomial name
Capsicum annuum
L.

Pepper, sweet, green raw
- Sugars 2.40 g
Fat 0.17 g
Protein 0.86 g
Calcium 10 mg 1%
Iron 0.34 mg 3%
Magnesium 10 mg 3%
Phosphorus 20 mg 3%
Potassium 175 mg 4%
Zinc 0.13 mg 1%
Bell pepper is a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum. Cultivars of the plant
produce fruits in different colors, including red, yellow, green and orange. Bell peppers are
sometimes grouped with less pungent pepper varieties as "sweet peppers". Peppers are native
to Mexico, Central America and northern South America. Pepper seeds were later carried to
Spain in 1493 and from there spread to other European and Asian countries. Today, Mexico
remains one of the major pepper producers in the world.

Nomenclature
The term "bell pepper" is the American name for some fruits of the Capsicum annuum
species of plants. The misleading name "pepper" (pimiento in Spanish) was given by
Christopher Columbus upon bringing the plant back to Europe. At that time peppercorns, the
fruit of Piper nigrum, an unrelated plant, were a highly prized condiment.
The term "bell pepper" or "pepper" or "capsicum" is often used for any of the large bell
shaped capsicum fruits, regardless of their color. In British English, the meat is simply
referred to as a "pepper", whereas in many Commonwealth of Nations countries, such as
Australia, India, Malaysia and New Zealand, they are called "capsicum". Across Europe, the
term "paprika", which has its roots in the word for pepper, is used—sometimes referred to by
their color (e.g., "groene paprika", "gele paprika", in Dutch, which are green and yellow,
respectively). Paprika also refers to the powdered spice made from the same fruit. In France it
is called "poivron", with the same root as "poivre" (meaning "pepper"), or "piment. " In
Japan, the word ピーマン ("pîman, " from the French) refers only to green bell peppers,
whereas パプリカ ("papurika, " from paprika) refers to bell peppers of other colors. In the
United States and Canada, the fruit is often referred to simply as a "pepper" or referred to by
color (e. g. "red pepper", "green pepper"), although the more specific term "bell pepper" is
understood in most regions. In parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania, the fruit is called a
"mango"[1]. Bell peppers are botanically fruits, but are generally considered in culinary
contexts to be vegetables. When cut off, the top of the bell pepper is referred to as a "pepper
pan."
In Russia it is commonly called болгарский перец (bolgarskiy perets), meaning Bulgarian

pepper. In Denmark the bell pepper is referred to as "peberfrugt", meaning pepper-fruit. In
Norway, Sweden, former Yugoslavia and the Netherlands it is known as "paprika".
In Brazil it's commonly called Pimentão, meaning Big pepper. It's widely used in a variety of
dishes, like pasta, rice and other dishes from Cuisine of Brazil.
In Argentina it's called "Morrón", green and red bell peppers are usually found in small
grocery stores, the yellow ones tend to be in the supermarket. Grilled, they may form part of
the traditional barbecue of this country, called "Asado" (Castilian Spanish for 'roasted' or
'grilled').
In Costa Rica it's called "chile dulce" or sweet chili and many typical dished include it as part
of it's ingredients.
In Nepal it's called "bhede khursani". It is eaten with fried noodles, and is cooked and eaten
with any vegetable, but bhede khursani is never eaten raw.
In Sri Lanka it is called "Maalu Miris" in Sinhalese language and used in "curries" as a
vegetable. "Miris" is Chilli, the hotter variety which is used as a hot spice, and "Maalu"
means Vegetable, hence "Maalu Miris" indicates the less spicy version, which is suitable for
cooking as a vegetable, instead of using as a spice. With the similar meaning, bell pepper is
called "kaRi miLakaay" ( ) in Tamil language.

In Egypt it is commonly called "filfil akhdar", where "filfil" means pepper and "akhdar"
means green. It is eaten as a raw snack, in salads, in various soups and stews, and is also
cooked stuffed with a rice and beef filling.
Varieties
The color can be green, red, yellow, orange and, more rarely, white, purple, blue, pink,
rainbow, aqua, violet, maroon, black and brown, depending on when they are harvested and
the specific cultivar. Green peppers are less sweet and slightly more bitter than red, yellow or
orange peppers. The taste of ripe peppers can also vary with growing conditions and post-
harvest storage treatment; the sweetest are fruit allowed to ripen fully on the plant in full
sunshine, while fruit harvested green and after-ripened in storage are less sweet.
Gallery
Green Bell Peppers on A whole and halved

display at a Grocery A variety of colored red bell pepper A whole purple pepper
Store bell peppers
Group of yellow Green, yellow and red

Red bell peppers peppers
peppers Japanese green pepper

Quadrato_d'Asti_Giall
o bell pepper flower
References
1. ^ http://www.foodreference.com/html/fmango.html
How to Roast Peppers

Stuffed Peppers
Growing Peppers
Peppermint
.
Peppermint
Peppermint (Mentha x piperita)

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Mentha
Binomial name
Mentha × piperita
L.
Peppermint (Mentha × piperita, also known as M. balsamea Willd. [1]) is a hybrid mint, a
cross between the watermint (Mentha aquatica) and spearmint (Mentha spicata). The plant,
indigenous to Europe, is now widespread in cultivation throughout all regions of the world[2].
It is found wild occasionally with its parent species.[2][3]

Botany
Peppermint flowers
Peppermint was first described by Carolus Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected
in England; he treated it as a species,[4] but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid.[5]
It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to 30–90 cm (12–35 in) tall, with
smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare
fibrous roots. The leaves are from 4–9 cm (1.6–3.5 in) long and 1.5–4 cm (0.59–1.6 in) cm
broad, dark green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins.
The leaves and stems are usually slightly hairy. The flowers are purple, 6–8 mm (0.24–
0.31 in) long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5 mm (0.20 in) diameter; they are produced in
whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering is from mid to
late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120
recorded.[3][6][7]
Ecology
Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches.
Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively,
spreading by its rhizomes. If placed, it can grow anywhere, with a few exceptions. [3][7]
It is an invasive species in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843[8].

Uses
Peppermint is sometimes regarded as 'the world's oldest medicine', with archaeological

evidence placing its use at least as far back as ten thousand years ago.[citation needed]
Peppermint has a high menthol content, and is often used as a flavouring in tea, ice cream,
confectionery, chewing gum, and toothpaste. The oil also contains menthone and menthyl
esters, particularly menthyl acetate.[9] It is the oldest and most popular flavour of mint-
flavoured confectionery. Peppermint can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which
give the hair a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin.
Freeze-dried leaves
In 2007, Italian investigators reported that 75% of the patients in their study who took
peppermint oil capsules for four weeks had a major reduction in irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS) symptoms, compared with just 38% of those who took a placebo.[10]
Similarly, some poorly designed earlier trials found that peppermint oil has the ability to
reduce colicky abdominal pain due to IBS with an NNT (number needed to treat) around
3.1,[11] but the oil is an irritant to the stomach in the quantity required and therefore needs
wrapping for delayed release in the intestine. Peppermint relaxes the gastro-esophageal
sphincter, thus promoting belching. Restaurants usually take advantage of this effect by

taking advantage of its use as a confectionery ingredient, which they then call "after-dinner
mints."
Peppermint flowers are large nectar producers and honey bees as well as other nectar
harvesting organisms forage them heavily. A mild, pleasant varietal honey can be produced if
there is a sufficient area of plants.
Peppermint oil is used by commercial pesticide applicators, in the EcoSmart Technologies

line of products, as a natural insecticide.[12]
Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an
abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands,
New Zealand,[13] and in the United States.[14]
Cultivation
Peppermint generally thrives in shade and expands quickly by underground stolons. If you
choose to grow peppermint, it is advisable to plant it in a container, otherwise it can rapidly
take over a whole garden. It needs a good water supply, and is ideal for planting in part-sun to
shade areas.
The leaves and flowering tops are the usable portion of the plant. They are collected as soon
as the flowers begin to open and then are carefully dried. The wild form of the plant is less
suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil
content. Seeds sold at stores labelled peppermint generally will not germinate into true
peppermint, but into a particularly poor-scented spearmint plant. The true peppermint might
rarely produce seeds, but only by fertilization from a spearmint plant, and contribute only
their own spearmint genes.
Toxicology
The toxicity studies of the plant have received controversial results. Some authors reported
that the plant may induce hepatic diseases, while others found that it is of protective functions
against the liver damages which are caused by heavy metal inductions [15], [16]. In addition to
that, the toxicities of the plant seem to variate from one cultivar to another [17] and are dose
dependent [15], [18]. This is probably attributed from the content level of pulegone [19]. Some of
the toxic components may come from herbicides [20], [21].
List of the cultivars

A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use:[6]
Mentha × piperita 'Candymint'. Stems reddish.

Mentha × piperita 'Citrata' (Orange Mint, Eau De Cologne Mint). Leaves aromatic,
hairless.
Mentha × piperita 'Crispa'. Leaves wrinkled.
Mentha × piperita 'Lime Mint'. Foliage lime-scented.
Mentha × piperita 'Variegata'. Leaves mottled green and pale yellow.

Mentha × piperita 'Chocolate Mint'. Flowers open from bottom up; reminiscent of
flavour in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection.[22]
Commercial cultivars may include
Dulgo pole [23]

Zefir [23]
Bulgarian population #2 [23]
Clone 11-6-22 [23]
Clone 80-121-33 [23]
Mitcham Digne 38 [24]
Mitcham Ribecourt 19 [24]
Todd's#x2019 [24]
Standaridization of its products and services

ISO 676:1995 - contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and
cultivars [25]
ISO 5563:1984 - a specification for its dried leaves of Mentha piperita Linnaeus [26]
Aromatherapy
Candy cane
Chewing gum
Peppermint oil - ISO 856:2006 [27]
Insect repellent
Mint chocolate
Peppermint tea
Peppermint candy
Notes
1. ^ World Health Organization. "WHO monographs on selected medicinal plants Volume 2".
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545372.pdf. Retrieved 3 June 2009.
2. ^ a b Euro+Med Plantbase Project: Mentha × piperita
3. ^ a b c Flora of NW Europe: Mentha × piperita
4. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species Plantarum 2: 576–577.
5. ^ Harley, R. M. (1975). Mentha L. In: Stace, C. A., ed. Hybridization and the flora of the British
Isles page 387.
6. ^ a b Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
7. ^ a b Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-340-
40170-2
8. ^ "List of invasive species in the Great Lakes Great Lakes United / Union Saint-Laurent Grands
Lacs". http://www.glu.org/en/node/199. Retrieved 2009-02-07.
9. ^ PDR for Herbal Medicines, 4th Edition, Thomson Healthcare, page 640. ISBN 978-1563636783
10. ^ Cappello, G.; et al. (2007). "Peppermint oil (Mintoil) in the treatment of irritable bowel
syndrome: A prospective double blind placebo-controlled randomized trial". Digestive and Liver
Disease 39 (6): 530–536. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2007.02.006.
11. ^ Bandolier Journal: Peppermint oil for irritable bowel syndrome
12. ^ EcoSMART Product label
13. ^ Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk: Mentha x piperita
14. ^ USDA Plants Profile: Mentha x piperita
15. ^ a b Akdogan, Mehmet (2004). "Investigation of biochemical and histopathological effects of
Mentha piperitaLabiatae and Mentha spicata Labiatae on liver tissue in rats". Human &

Experimental Toxicology 23 (1): 21 - 28. http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/23/1/21.
Retrieved 3 June.
16. ^ Sharma, Ambika et al. (2007). "Protective Effect of Mentha piperita against Arsenic-Induced
Toxicity in Liver of Swiss Albino Mice". Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology 100 (4):
249 - 257. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118500486/abstract. Retrieved 3 June.
17. ^ Akdogan, Mehmet (2003). "Investigation of biochemical and histopathological effects of
Mentha piperita L. and Mentha spicata L. on kidney tissue in rats". Human & Experimental
Toxicology 22 (4): 213 - 219. http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/22/4/213. Retrieved 3
June.
18. ^ Akdogan, Mehmet et al. (2004). "Effect of Mentha piperita (Labiatae) and Mentha spicata
(Labiatae) on iron absorption in rats". Toxicology and Industrial Health 20 (6 - 10): 119 - 122.
http://tih.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/6-10/119. Retrieved 3 June.
19. ^ Farley, Derek R.; Valerie Howland (2006). "The natural variation of the pulegone content in
various oils of peppermint". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 31 (11): 1143 - 1151.
doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740311104.
20. ^ Edwards, J.; F.E. Bienvenu (1999). "Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide,
paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia". Australasian Plant
Pathology 28 (3): 212 - 224. doi:10.1071/AP99036.
21. ^ Adamovic, D.S. et al.. "Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and
quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.)". http://www.actahort.org/books/249/249_8.htm.
22. ^ Mountain Valley Growers: Mentha piperita cv. Chocolate Mint
23. ^ a b c d e Stanev, S.; V.D. Zheljazkov. "Study on essential oil and free menthol accumulation in 19
cultivars, populations, and clones of peppermint (Mentha X Piperita)".
http://www.actahort.org/books/629/629_21.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
24. ^ a b c Jullien, Frédéric et al.; F.E. Bienvenu (1998). "An optimising protocol for protoplast
regeneration of three peppermint cultivars ( Mentha x piperita)". Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ
Culture 54 (3): 153 - 159. doi:10.1023/A:1006185103897.
25. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 676:1995 Spices and condiments --
Botanical nomenclature".
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=4844.
26. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 5563:1984 Dried peppermint (Mentha
piperita Linnaeus) -- Specification".
http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=11633. Retrieved 7 June 2009.
27. ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 856:2008 Oil of peppermint (Mentha x
piperita L.)".
http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=32041.

Leek
Leek
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asparagales
Family: Alliaceae
Genus: Allium
Species: A. ampeloprasum
Subspecies: A. ampeloprasum
var. porrum
Trinomial name
Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum
(L.) J.Gay
The leek, Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum (L.), also sometimes known as Allium porrum,
is a vegetable which belongs, along with the onion and garlic, to the Alliaceae family. Two
related vegetables, the elephant garlic and kurrat, are also variant subspecies of Allium
ampeloprasum, although different in their uses as food.
The edible part of the leek plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths which is sometimes called a stem
or stalk.
Form

Rather than forming a tight bulb like the onion, the leek produces a long cylinder of bundled
leaf sheaths which are generally blanched by pushing soil around them (trenching). They are
often sold as small seedlings in flats which are started off early in greenhouses, to be planted
out as weather permits. Once established in the garden, leeks are hardy; many varieties can be
left in the ground during the winter to be harvested as needed.
Cultivars
Leek cultivars can be subdivided in several ways, but the most common types are ―summer
leeks‖, intended for harvest in the season when planted, and overwintering leeks, meant to be
harvested in the spring of the year following planting. Summer leek types are generally
smaller than overwintering types; overwintering types are generally more strongly flavored.
Varieties include King Richard and Tadorna Blue.
Growing
Leek field in Houthulst, Belgium
Leeks are easy to grow from seed and tolerate standing in the field for an extended harvest.
Leeks usually reach maturity in the autumn months, and they have few pest or disease
problems. Leeks can be bunched and harvested early when they are about the size of a finger
or pencil, or they can be thinned and allowed to grow to a much larger mature size. Hilling
leeks can produce better specimens.

Cuisine
Leeks for sale.
The edible portions of the leek are the white onion base and light green stalk. The onion-like
layers form around a core. The tender core may be eaten; but, as the leek ages, the core
becomes woody and very chewy and better replanted than eaten.
Leek has a mild onion-like taste, although less bitter than scallion. The taste might be
described as a mix of mild onion and cucumber. It has a fresh smell similar to scallion. In its
raw state, the vegetable is crunchy and firm.
Leek is typically chopped into slices 5-10mm thick. The slices have a tendency to fall apart,
due to the layered structure of the leek. There are different ways of preparing the vegetable:
Boiled, which turns it soft and mild in taste.

Fried, which leaves it more crunchy and preserves the taste.
Raw, which can be used in salads, doing especially well when they are the prime
ingredient.
A traditional Welsh cawl (a form of soup) is made with leek; the cawl is made using
root vegetables such as swede, carrots and potatoes and different meats. Lamb is the
most popular. Cawl has been enjoyed by the nation since the 14th century and has
great significance to the ancient Welsh King Gruffydd ap Llywelyn.
Leeks are an ingredient of cock-a-leekie soup, leek and potato soup and vichyssoise, along
with leek soup.
Because of their symbolism in Wales (see below), they have come to be used extensively in
that country‘s cuisine, while in the rest of Britain leeks have only come back into favour in
the last fifty years or so, having been overlooked for several centuries[1].

Health Benefits
Mireille Guiliano sang the praises of leeks in her #1 bestseller French Women Don't Get Fat,
providing a now famous "Magical Leek Soup" recipe, as well as other recipes with leeks. In
her book, Guiliano claims that leeks are an important part of the French woman's diet,
pointing out that leeks are a mild diuretic as well as highly flavorful and nutritious. [2]
Historical consumption
Dried specimens from archaeological sites in ancient Egypt, as well as wall carvings and
drawings, led Zohary and Hopf to conclude that the leek was a part of the Egyptian diet
―from at least the 2nd millennium B.C.E. onwards.‖ They also allude to surviving texts that
show it had been also grown in Mesopotamia from the beginning of the 2nd millennium
B.C.E.[3] The leek was the favorite vegetable of the Emperor Nero, who consumed it most
often in soup.
Cultural significance
Raw Leeks, bulb & lower leafs
- Sugars 3.9 g
Fat 0.3 g
- saturated 0.04 g
- monounsaturated 0.004 g
- polyunsaturated 0.166 g
Protein 1.5 g
Water 83 g
Vitamin C 12 mg 20%

Vitamin K 47 μg 45%
Calcium 59 mg 6%
Iron 2.1 mg 17%
Magnesium 28 mg 8%
Phosphorus 35 mg 5%
Potassium 180 mg 4%
Sodium 20 mg 1%
Zinc 0.12 mg 1%

The leek is one of the national emblems of Wales, and is worn—or the daffodil—on St.
David‘s Day. According to one legend, King Cadwaladr of Gwynedd ordered his soldiers to
identify themselves by wearing the vegetable on their helmets in an ancient battle against the
Saxons that took place in a leek field. This story may have been made up by the English poet
Michael Drayton, but it is known that the leek has been a symbol of Wales for a long time;
Shakespeare, for example, refers to the custom of wearing a leek as an ―ancient tradition‖ in
Henry V. In the play, Henry tells Fluellen that he is wearing a leek ―for I am Welsh, you
know, good countryman.‖ The 1985 and 1990 British one pound coins bear the design of a
leek in a coronet, representing Wales.
Perhaps most visibly however is the leek‘s use as the cap badge of the Welsh Guards, a
regiment within the Household Division of the British Army.
Gallery
Two blooming flower A largely spent flower head showing open flowers as well as
heads developing seed pods.

Notes
1. ^ Jane Grigson, Jane Grigson's Vegetable Book, (Penguin Books, 1978, ISBN
0140468595) p 291
2. ^ Guiliano, Mireille. French Women Don't Get Fat. Knopf,.
3. ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third
edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000),p. 195
Celery
Celery
Kingdom: Plantae

Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Apium
Species: A. graveolens
Binomial name
Apium graveolens
L.
Celery, raw
Carbohydrates 3g
- Sugars 2 g
- Dietary fibre 1.6 g
Fat 0.2 g
Protein 0.7 g
Water 95 g
Vitamin C 3 mg 5%
See also: Vallisneria americana
Apium graveolens is a plant species in the family Apiaceae commonly known as celery (var.
dulce) or celeriac (var. rapaceum) depending on whether the petioles (stalks) or roots are
eaten.
Taxonomy
Celery was described by Carolus Linnaeus in Volume One of his Species Plantarum in
1753.[1]
The closely related Apium bermejoi from the island of Minorca is one of the rarest plants in
Europe, with fewer than 100 individuals left.[2]
Uses
Apium graveolens is used around the world as a vegetable, either for the crisp petiole (leaf
stalk) or the fleshy taproot.

In temperate countries, celery is also grown for its seeds. Actually very small fruit, these
"seeds" yield a valuable volatile oil used in the perfume and pharmaceutical industries. They
also contain an organic compound called apiol. Celery seeds can be used as flavouring or
spice, either as whole seeds or ground and mixed with salt, as celery salt. Celery salt can also
be made from an extract of the roots. Celery salt is used as a seasoning, in cocktails (notably
to enhance the flavour of Bloody Mary cocktails), on the Chicago-style hot dog, and in Old
Bay Seasoning.
Celery, onions, and bell peppers are the holy trinity of Louisiana Creole and Cajun cuisine.
Celery, onions, and carrots make up the French mirepoix, often used as a base for sauces and
soups. Celery is a staple in many soups, such as chicken noodle soup. Celery is an important
ingredient in Indian cuisines including in Indian Curry[citation needed].
Celery is widely eaten by guinea pigs, dogs, horses, birds, squirrels, and small rodents.
Medicine
Celery seeds
Cross-section of a Pascal celery rib.
The use of celery seed in pills for relieving pain was described by Aulus Cornelius Celsus ca.
30 AD.[3] Celery seeds contain a compound called 3-N-butyl-phthalide that has been
demonstrated to lower blood pressure in rats.

Nutrition
Celery is valuable in weight-loss diets, where it provides low-calorie dietary fiber bulk.
Celery contains androstenone.[4] Bergapten in the seeds can increase photosensitivity, so the
use of essential oil externally in bright sunshine should be avoided. The oil and large doses of
seeds should be avoided during pregnancy: they can act as a uterine stimulant. Seeds intended
for cultivation are not suitable for eating as they are often treated with fungicides. There is a
common belief that celery is so difficult for humans to digest, that it has negative calories
because human digestion burns more calories than can be extracted.[5] Celery seeds are also a
great source of calcium, and are regarded as a good alternative to animal products.[6]
Allergies
Celery is amongst a small group of foods (headed by peanuts) that appear to provoke the
most severe allergic reactions; for people with celery allergy, exposure can cause potentially
fatal anaphylactic shock.[7] The allergen does not appear to be destroyed at cooking
temperatures. Celery root—commonly eaten as celeriac, or put into drinks—is known to
contain more allergen than the stalk. Seeds contain the highest levels of allergen content.
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis may be exacerbated. An allergic reaction also may be triggered
by eating foods that have been processed with machines that have previously processed
celery, making avoiding such foods difficult. In contrast with peanut allergy being most
prevalent in the US, celery allergy is most prevalent in Central Europe.[8] In the European
Union, foods that contain or may contain celery, even in trace amounts, have to be clearly
marked as such.
History
Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf[9] note that celery leaves and inflorescences were part of the
garlands found in the tomb of pharaoh Tutankhamun (died 1323 BC), and celery mericarps
dated to the 7th century BC were recovered in the Heraion of Samos. However, they note
"since A. graveolens grows wild in these areas it is hard to decide whether these remains
represent wild or cultivated forms." Only by classical times is it certain that celery was
cultivated.
M. Fragiska mentions an archeological find of celery dating to the 9th century BC, at
Kastanas; however, the literary evidence for ancient Greece is far more abundant. In Homer's
Iliad, the horses of the Myrmidons graze on wild celery that grows in the marshes of Troy,
and in Odyssey there is mention of the meadows of violet and wild celery surrounding the
cave of Calypso.[10]
Cultural depictions
A chthonian symbol among the ancient Greeks, celery was said to have sprouted from the
blood of Kadmilos, father of the Cabeiri, chthonian divinities celebrated in Samothrace,
Lemnos and Thebes. The spicy odour and dark leaf colour encouraged this association with
the cult of death. In classical Greece celery leaves were used as garlands for the dead, and the
wreaths of the winners at the Isthmian Games were first made of celery before being replaced
by crowns made of pine. According to Pliny the Elder[11] in Achaea the garland worn by the
winners of the sacred Nemean Games was also made of celery.[10]

The name celery retraces the plant's route of successive adoption in European cooking, as the
English celery (1664) is derived from the French céleri coming from the Lombard term,
seleri, from the Latin selinon, borrowed from Greek.[12] Celery's Mediterranean origins are
still commemorated in the French expression céleri d'Italie.
Celery's surprisingly late arrival in the English kitchen is an end-product of the long tradition
of seed selection needed to reduce the sap's bitterness and increase its sugars. By 1699 John
Evelyn could recommend it in his Acetaria. A Discourse of Sallets: "Sellery, apium Italicum,
(and of the Petroseline Family) was formerly a stranger with us (nor very long since in Italy)
is an hot and more generous sort of Macedonian Persley or Smallage...and for its high and
grateful Taste is ever plac'd in the middle of the Grand Sallet, at our Great Mens tables, and
Praetors feasts, as the Grace of the whole Board".
Cultivation
Apium graveolens grows to 1 m tall. The leaves are pinnate to bipinnate leaves with rhombic
leaflets 3–6 cm long and 2–4 cm broad. The flowers are creamy-white, 2–3 mm diameter,
produced in dense compound umbels. The seeds are broad ovoid to globose, 1.5–2 mm long
and wide.
In North America, commercial production of celery is dominated by the varieties called

Pascal celery.[13] Gardeners can grow a range of cultivars, many of which differ little from the
wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white
and red; the white cultivars being generally the best flavoured, and the most crisp and tender.
The wild form of celery is known as smallage. It has a furrowed stalk with wedge-shaped
leaves, the whole plant having a coarse, earthy taste, and a distinctive smell. The stalks are
not usually eaten (except in soups or stews in French cuisine), but the leaves may be used in
salads, and its seeds are those sold as a spice.[14] With cultivation and blanching, the stalks
lose their acidic qualities and assume the mild, sweetish, aromatic taste particular to celery as
a salad plant.
The plants are raised from seed, sown either in a hot bed or in the open garden according to
the season of the year, and after one or two thinnings out and transplantings they are, on
attaining a height of 15–20 cm, planted out in deep trenches for convenience of blanching,
which is affected by earthing up to exclude light from the stems.
In the past, celery was grown as a vegetable for winter and early spring; it was perceived as a
cleansing tonic, welcomed to counter the salt-sickness of a winter diet. By the 19th century
the season for celery had been extended, to last from the beginning of September to late in
April.[15]
Harvesting and storage

Harvesting occurs when the average size of celery in a field is marketable; due to extremely
uniform crop growth, fields are harvested only once. Petioles and leaves are removed and
harvested celery are packed by size and quality (determined by color, shape, straightness and
thickness of petiole, stalk and midrib length and absence of disease, cracks, splits, insect
damage and rot). Under optimal conditions, celery can be stored for up to seven weeks

between 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F). Inner stalks may continue growing if kept at temperatures
above 0°C (32°F). Freshly-cut petioles of celery are prone to decay, which can be prevented
or reduced through the use of sharp blades during processing, gentle handling, and proper
sanitation.[16]
References
1. ^ (Latin) Linnaeus, C (1753). Species Plantarum: Tomus I. Holmiae. (Laurentii
Salvii)..
2. ^ IUCN Redlist: Apium bermejo.
3. ^ Celsus, de Medicina, Thayer translation [1]
4. ^ Teng CM, Lee LG, Ko SN, et al., (1985) "Inhibition of platelet aggregation by
apigenin from Apium graveolens". Asia Pacific Journal of Pharmacology 3:85
5. ^ snopes.com: Celery and Negative Calories
6. ^ Calcium sources
7. ^ Celestin J, Heiner DC. West J, "Allergy and Immunology: Food-Induced
Anaphylaxis". Western Journal of Medicine 158.6 (June 1993): 610-611.
8. ^ Bublin M, Radauer C, Wilson IBH, Kraft D, Scheiner O, Breiteneder H and
Hoffmann-Sommergruber K Cross-reactive N-glycans of Api g 5, a high molecular
weight glycoprotein allergen from celery, are required for immunoglobulin E binding
and activation of effector cells from allergic patients The FASEB Journal.
2003;17:1697-1699.
9. ^ D. Zohary and M. Hopf, Domestication of Plants in the Old World, (3rd ed. 2000)
p.202.
10. ^ a b Fragiska, M. (2005). "Wild and Cultivated Vegetables, Herbs and Spices in
Greek Antiquity". Environmental Archaeology 10 (1): 73-82.
11. ^ Pliny, Natural History XIX.46.
12. ^ OED, s.v. "Celery".
13. ^ R.L. de Vilmorin (1950) Pascal celery and its origin Journal of the New York
Botanical Garden 51 pp 39-41.
14. ^ "Smallage". Practically Edible: The World's Biggest Food Encyclopedia.
http://www.practicallyedible.com/edible.nsf/pages/smallage. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
15. ^ William Robinson and W. P. Thomson, The Vegetable Garden (3rd ed., 1920), p.
227.
16. ^ Cantwell, M; Suslow, T. (2002-06-10). "Celery: Recommendations for Maintaining
Postharvest Quality". Post-harvest technology research and information center.
http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu/Produce/ProduceFacts/Veg/celery.shtml. Retrieved
2008-03-04.

Sugar
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sucrose. (Discuss)
For other uses, see Sugar (disambiguation).
For the common table sugar, see sucrose.
Magnification of grains of sugar, showing their monoclinic hemihedral crystalline structure.

Sugar, granulated
- Sugars 99.91 g
- Dietary fiber 0 g
Fat 0g
Protein 0g
Water 0.03 g
Calcium 1 mg 0%
Iron 0.01 mg 0%
Potassium 2 mg 0%
Sugars, brown
- Sugars 96.21 g
- Dietary fiber 0 g
Fat 0g
Protein 0g

Water 1.77 g
Calcium 85 mg 9%
Iron 1.91 mg 15%
Magnesium 29 mg 8%
Phosphorus 22 mg 3%
Potassium 346 mg 7%
Sodium 39 mg 2%
Zinc 0.18 mg 2%

Magnified crystals of refined sugar.
Sugar is a class of edible crystalline substances, mainly sucrose, lactose, and fructose.
Human taste buds interpret its flavor as sweet. Sugar as a basic food carbohydrate primarily
comes from sugar cane and from sugar beet, but also appears in fruit, honey, sorghum, sugar
maple (in maple syrup), and in many other sources. It forms the main ingredient in candy.
Excessive consumption of sugar has been associated with increased incidences of type 2
diabetes, obesity and tooth decay.[1] Sugar consumption varies by country depending on the
cultural traditions. Brazil has the highest per capita consumption and India has the highest
per-country consumption.[2]
Terminology

Popular
In non-scientific use, the term sugar refers to sucrose (also called "table sugar" or
"saccharose") — a white crystalline solid disaccharide. In this informal sense, the word
"sugar" principally refers to crystalline sugars.
Humans most commonly use sucrose as their sugar of choice for altering the flavor and
properties (such as mouthfeel, preservation, and texture) of beverages and food.
Commercially produced table sugar comes either from sugar cane or from sugar beet.
Manufacturing and preparing food may involve other sugars, including palm sugar and
fructose, generally obtained from corn (maize) or from fruit.
Sugar may dissolve in water to form a syrup. A great many foods exist which principally
contain dissolved sugar. Generically known as "syrups", they may also have other more
specific names such as "honey", molasses or treacle.
Scientific
Scientifically, sugar refers to any monosaccharide or disaccharide. Monosaccharides (also

called "simple sugars"), such as glucose, store chemical energy which biological cells convert
to other types of energy.
In a list of ingredients, any word that ends with "-ose" (such as "glucose", "dextrose",
"fructose", etc.) will likely denote a sugar. Sometimes such words may also refer to any types
of carbohydrates soluble in water.
Glucose (a type of sugar found in human blood plasma) has the molecular formula C6 H12 O6.
Culinary/nutritional
In culinary terms, the foodstuff known as sugar delivers a primary taste sensation of
sweetness. Apart from the many forms of sugar and of sugar-containing foodstuffs,
alternative non-sugar-based sweeteners exist, and these particularly attract interest from
people who have problems with their blood sugar level (such as diabetics) and people who
wish to limit their calorie-intake while still enjoying sweet foods. Both natural and synthetic
substitutes exist with no significant carbohydrate (and thus low-calorie) content: for instance
stevia (a herb), and saccharin (produced from naturally occurring but not necessarily
naturally edible substances by inducing appropriate chemical reactions).
Etymology
In the case of sugar, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word
"sugar" originates from the Arabic and Persian word shakar,[3] itself derived from Sanskrit
Sharkara.[4] It came to English by way of French, Spanish and/or Italian, which derived their
word for sugar from the Arabic and Persian shakar (whence the Portuguese word açúcar, the
Spanish word azúcar, the Italian word zucchero, the Old French word zuchre and the
contemporary French word sucre). (Compare the OED.) The Greek word for "sugar", zahari,
means "pebble". Note that the English word jaggery (meaning "coarse brown Indian sugar")
has similar ultimate etymological origins (presumably in Sanskrit).

Culinary sugars
Grainier, raw sugar.
The World Health Organisation and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations expert report (WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention
of Chronic Diseases) defines free sugars as all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to
foods by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups
and fruit juices. This includes all the sugars referred to above. The term distinguishes these
forms from all other culinary sugars added in their natural form with no refining at all.
Natural sugars comprise all completely unrefined sugars: effectively all sugars not defined
as free sugars. The WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of
Chronic Diseases approves only natural sugars as carbohydrates for unrestricted
consumption. Natural sugars come in fruit, grains and vegetables in their natural or cooked
form.
Chemistry
Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the
body.
Biochemists regard sugars as relatively simple carbohydrates. Sugars include

monosaccharides, disaccharides, trisaccharides and the oligosaccharides - containing 1, 2, 3,
and 4 or more monosaccharide units respectively. Sugars contain either aldehyde groups (-
CHO) or ketone groups (C=O), where there are carbon-oxygen double bonds, making the
sugars reactive. Most simple sugars (monosaccharides) conform to (CH2O)n where n is
between 3 and 7. A notable exception, deoxyribose, as its name suggests, has a "missing"
oxygen atom. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or
more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of

water (H2O) per bond. Sugars can also be used as monomers to create biopolymers such as
cellulose, which is made of glucose, or DNA, which uses deoxyribose as a backbone.
As well as using classifications based on their reactive group, chemists may also subdivide
sugars according to the number of carbons they contain. Derivatives of trioses (C3H6O3) are
intermediates in glycolysis. Pentoses (5-carbon sugars) include ribose and deoxyribose,
which form part of nucleic acids. Ribose also forms a component of several chemicals that
have importance in the metabolic process, including NADH and ATP. Hexoses (6-carbon
sugars) include glucose, a universal substrate for the production of energy in the form of
ATP. Through photosynthesis plants produce glucose, which has the formula C6H12O6, and
convert it for storage as an energy reserve in the form of other carbohydrates such as starch,
or (as in cane and beet) as sucrose (table sugar). Sucrose has the chemical formula C12H22O11.
Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain forms, the
aldehyde or ketone group remains unfree, so many of the reactions typical of these groups
cannot occur. Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less than
0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form.
Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with other

monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and polysaccharides (such as
starch). Enzymes must hydrolyse or otherwise break these glycosidic bonds before such
compounds become metabolised. After digestion and absorption. the principal
monosaccharides present in the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and
galactose.
The prefix "glyco-" indicates the presence of a sugar in an otherwise non-carbohydrate

substance. Note for example glycoproteins, proteins connected to one or more sugars.
Monosaccharides include fructose, glucose, galactose and mannose. Disaccharides occur

most commonly as sucrose (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose),
lactose (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and maltose (made of two
glucoses). These disaccharides have the formula C12H22O11.
Hydrolysis can convert sucrose into a syrup of fructose and glucose, producing invert sugar.
This resulting syrup, sweeter than the original sucrose,[5] has uses in making confections
because it does not crystallize as easily and thus produces a smoother finished product.
If combined with fine ash, sugar will burn with a blue flame.
Measuring sugar
See also International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis The purity
(sucrose content) of table sugar by polarimetry — the measurement of the rotation of plane-
polarized light by a solution of sugar.
Baking weight/mass volume relationship
Different culinary sugars have different densities due to differences in particle size and
inclusion of moisture.

The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:
Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz

Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz
Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz
Bulk Density[6]
Dextrose Sugar 0.62 g/ml

Granulated Sugar 0.70 g/ml
Powdered Sugar 0.56 g/ml
Beet Sugar 0.80 g/ml
Notes
1. ^ Wuebben, Joseph and Mike Carlson. "Sugar: What Kinds to Eat and When."
http://men.webmd.com/features/sugar-what-kinds-eat-when
2. ^ International sugar statistics
http://www.illovosugar.com/worldofsugar/internationalSugarStats.htm
3. ^ Compare the OED and the Online Etymology Dictionary.
4. ^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III:
Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries, History of Science and Technology
in Islam.
5. ^ scientificpsychic.com: link inaccessible as of 2008-06-04
6. ^ "Engineering Resources - Bulk Density Chart," Powder and Bulk
References
Adas, Michael (January 2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and
Classical History. Temple University Press. ISBN 1566398320. OCLC 44493265.
James, Glyn (2004). Sugarcane. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 063205476X. OCLC
51837990 84251137.
A C Hannah, The International Sugar Trade, Cambridge: Woodhead, 1996. ISBN 1-
85573-069-3
William Dufty, Sugar Blues, ISBN 0-446-34312-9

Brown sugar
Brown sugar crystals.
Brown sugar is a sucrose sugar product with a distinctive brown color due to the presence of
molasses. It is either an unrefined or partially refined soft sugar consisting of sugar crystals
with some residual molasses content or produced by the addition of molasses to refined white
sugar.
Brown sugar contains from 3.5% molasses (light brown sugar) to 6.5% molasses (dark
brown sugar). The product is naturally moist from the hygroscopic nature of the molasses
and is often labelled as "soft." The product may undergo processing to give a product that
flows better for industrial handling. The addition of dyes and/or other chemicals may be
permitted in some areas or for industrial products.
Particle size is variable but generally less than granulated white sugar. Products for industrial
use (e.g. the industrial production of cakes) may be based on castor sugar which has crystals
of approximately 0.35 mm.
Manufacture
Many brown sugar producers produce brown sugar by adding cane molasses to completely
refined white sugar crystals in order to more carefully control the ratio of molasses to sugar
crystals and to reduce manufacturing costs. This also allows the production of brown sugars
to be based predominantly on beet sugar. Brown sugar prepared in this manner is often much
coarser than its unrefined equivalent and its molasses may be easily separated from the
crystals by simple washing to reveal the underlying white sugar crystals; with unrefined
brown there is inclusion of molasses within the crystal which will appear off-white if washed.
This is mainly done for inventory control and convenience.
The molasses usually used is that obtained from sugar cane, because the flavor is generally
preferred over beet sugar molasses. Although in some areas, especially in the Netherlands,
sugar beet molasses is used. The white sugar used can be from either beet or cane as odour
and color differences will be covered by the molasses.
Brown sugar can be made at home by mixing white granulated sugar with molasses, using
one tablespoon of molasses for every cup of white sugar (one-sixteenth or 6.25% of the total
volume). Thorough blending will yield dark brown sugar; for light brown sugar, between one
and two teaspoons of molasses per cup should be used instead. It is, however, simpler to
substitute molasses for an equal portion of white sugar while cooking, without mixing them
separately.

When a recipe calls for "brown sugar" it is usually referring to light brown sugar; dark brown
sugar should be used only when specified.[citation needed] This is relevant primarily when baking
recipes sensitive to moisture and density (such as cakes), because of the difference in
moisture content between the two types. In other applications, substituting dark brown sugar
over light brown will yield a deeper flavor with more caramel, much like adding molasses
would do.
Nutritional value
Brown sugar has a slightly lower caloric value by weight than white sugar due to the presence
of water. One hundred grams of brown sugar contains 373 calories, as opposed to 396
calories in white sugar.[1] However, brown sugar packs more densely than white sugar due to
the smaller crystal size and may have more calories when measured by volume. One
tablespoon of brown sugar has 48 calories against 45 calories for white sugar.[2]
John Yudkin, in his studies (cited in "Pure, White and Deadly" - UK title) that rats fed brown
sugar, as opposed to white sugar, suffered all the same ills from such consumption as did the
control group fed white sugar, while their offspring did not exhibit the same abnormalities
related to the offspring of the rats fed on white sugar. This led to the conclusion that there are
some trace nutritional aspects he was unable to detect in brown sugar that made it less
harmful than white sugar, though the impact could only be detected in their offspring.
Nutritionally, apart from pure carbohydrate, he was not able to detect any nutritional
component to white or brown sugar, and such pure carbohydrate is on the list to avoid in the
World Health Organization and FAO study[3] on obesity and chronic preventable diseases.
Note this study does state that carbohydrates in their intrinsic or unrefined form are
nutritionally highly beneficial and should make up 55-75% of our diet, but they are
fundamentally different from extrinsic carbohydrates such as both white and brown sugar.
History
In the late 1800s, the newly consolidated refined white sugar industry, which did not have
full control over brown sugar production, mounted a smear campaign against brown sugar,
reproducing microscopic photographs of harmless but repulsive-looking microbes living in
brown sugar. The effort was so successful that by 1900, a best-selling cookbook warned that
brown sugar was of inferior quality and was susceptible to infestation by "a minute insect."[4]
Natural brown sugar

A measuring cup containing muscovado (left); on the right is a measuring cup containing
regular (light) brown sugar.
Natural brown sugar is a name for raw sugar which is a brown sugar produced from the
first crystallisation of the sugar cane. As such "natural brown sugar" is free of additional dyes
and chemicals. There is more molasses in natural brown sugar, giving it a higher mineral
content. Some natural brown sugars have particular names and characteristics, and are sold as
Turbinado sugar, Muscovado, or Demerara sugar.
Turbinado sugar is made by crushing freshly cut sugar cane to obtain a juice, which is heated
and evaporated to a thick syrup, which is then crystallized. The crystals are then spun in a
centrifuge (thus "turbin-") to remove the excess juice, resulting in the characteristic large,
light brown, crystals.[5][6]
Muscovado (also moscovado) is an unrefined, dark brown sugar that is produced without
centrifuging and has much smaller crystals than turbinado sugar. The sugar cane extract is
heated to thicken it and then pan-evaporated in the sun and pounded to yield an unprocessed,
damp sugar that retains all of the natural minerals.[7]
Demerara (also spelled "demerera") sugar's name comes from the Demerera River area of
Guyana, where sugar cane was grown. Demerara is another unrefined, centrifuged, large-
crystalled, light brown, cane sugar; it is slightly sticky and sometimes molded into sugar
cubes. Some Demerara is still produced in South America, but most is now produced in
Mauritius, an island off Africa.
References
1. ^ New Scientist. I'm Sweet Enough 21 January 2006
2. ^ Sugar Association
3. ^ http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AC911E/ac911e07.htm#bm07.1.3 fao.org
4. ^ Levenstein, Harvey. Revolution at the Table Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2003. 32-33
5. ^ "Organic Turbinado Sugar".
http://www.wholesomesweeteners.com/brands/Wholesome_Sweeteners/Organic_Tur
binado_Sugar.html. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
6. ^ "Press release describes manufacturing process for organic turbinado sugar".
http://www.csrwire.com/PressRelease.php?id=3026. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
7. ^ "This is how Muscovado Sugar is made.".
http://www.wildernessfamilynaturals.com/muscovado_sugar.htm#sugarmade.

Salt
Salt is mostly sodium chloride (NaCl). This salt shaker also contains grains of rice, which
some use to prevent caking.
Brine being boiled down to pure salt in Zigong, People's Republic of China
Salt is a dietary mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride that is essential for animal
life, but toxic to most land plants. Salt flavor is one of the basic tastes, an important
preservative and a popular food seasoning.
Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as sea salt),
refined salt (table salt), and iodized salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray
in color, normally obtained from sea water or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly
grayish in color because of mineral content.
Chloride and sodium ions, the two major components of salt, are necessary for the survival of
all known living creatures, including humans. Salt is involved in regulating the water content
(fluid balance) of the body. Salt cravings may be caused by trace mineral deficiencies as well
as by a deficiency of sodium chloride itself.[citation needed] Conversely, overconsumption of salt
increases the risk of health problems, including high blood pressure.

History
Main article: History of salt
Table Salt (NaCl) Crystal
Human beings have used canning and artificial refrigeration for the preservation of food for
approximately the last two hundred years, however, in the millennia before then, salt
provided the best-known food preservative, especially for meat.[1] The harvest of salt from
the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China dates back to at least 6000 BC,
making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.[2]:18–19
Salt was included among funereal offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third
millennium BC, as were salted birds and salt fish.[2]:38 From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians
began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon Cedar, glass, and the dye
Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa
throughout their Mediterranean trade empire.[2]:44
Along the Sahara, the Tuareg maintain routes especially for the transport of salt by Azalai
(salt caravans). In 1960, the caravans still transported some 15,000 tons of salt, but this trade
has now declined to roughly a third of this figure.[3]

Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein lie on the river Salzach in central Austria, within a radius of
no more than 17 kilometres. Salzach literally means "salt water" and Salzburg "salt city",
both taking their names from the Germanic root for salt, salz. Hallstatt literally means "salt
town" and Hallein "saltwork", taking their names from hal(l)-, a root for salt found in Celtic,
Greek, and Egyptian.[citation needed] The root hal(l)- also gave us Gaul, the Roman exonym for
the Celts, Halle and Schwäbisch Hall in Germany, Halych in Ukraine, and Galicia in Spain:
this list of places named for Celtic saltworks is far from complete.[4][5][6]
Hallstatt gave its name to the Celtic archaeological culture that began mining for salt in the
area in around 800 BC Around 400 BC, the Hallstatt Celts, who had heretofore mined for
salt, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew
rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine
and other luxuries.[1]
It is widely, though incorrectly,[7] believed that troops in the Roman army were paid in salt.
Even widely-respected historical works repeat this error.[2]:63 The word salad literally means
"salted," and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables.[2]:64
Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100, 000 people on the "Dandi March" or "Salt Satyagraha", in
which protesters made their own salt from the sea, which was illegal under British rule, as it
avoided paying the "salt tax". This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people,
and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist struggle to a national
struggle.
In religion
According to Strong's Concordance, there are forty-one verses which reference salt in the
English translation of the King James Bible, the earliest being the story of Lot's wife, who
was turned into a pillar of salt when she disobediently looked back at the wicked cities of
Sodom (Genesis 19:26). When King Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem he is said to
have "sowed salt on it;" a phrase expressing the completeness of its ruin. (Judges 9:45.) In the
Sermon on the Mount, Jesus referred to his followers as the "salt of the earth". The apostle
Paul also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned
with salt" (Colossians 4:6).
In one of the Hadith recorded in Sunan Ibn Majah, Prophet Muhammad is reported to have
said that: "Salt is the master of your food. God sent down four blessings from the sky - fire,
water, iron and salt"
Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass.[8] Salt is used in the third item (which
includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (cf. Gallican rite) that is employed in the
consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the
Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hindu mythology, and is used in

particular religious ceremonies like housewarmings and weddings.
In many Pagan religions esp. Wicca salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also used as a
purifier of sacred space.

In the native Japanese religion Shinto, salt is used for ritual purification of locations and
people, such as in Sumo Wrestling.
In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt
water.
In order to preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread
in salt.[9]
The Ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and
water. This is thought to be the origin of the Holy Water used in the Christian faith.[9]
In weather
Clouds above the Pacific
Small particles of sea salt are the dominant cloud condensation nuclei well out at sea, which
allow the formation of clouds in otherwise non-polluted air.[10]
Salt is used for Snow removal, to make travel easier and safer and decrease the long term
impact of a heavy snowfall on human populations. Salt and other chloride-based chemicals
eliminate snow and ice from road surfaces and sidewalks by lowering the temperature at
which ice melts.[11]
Forms of salt
Unrefined salt
Main articles: Sea salt, Halite, and Fleur de sel
A commercial pack of sea salt

Different natural salts have different mineralities, giving each one a unique flavor. Fleur de
sel, natural sea salt harvested by hand, has a unique flavor varying from region to region.
Some advocates for sea salt assert that unrefined sea salt is healthier than refined salts.[12]
However, completely raw sea salt is bitter because of magnesium and calcium compounds,
and thus is rarely eaten. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea
and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.[13]
Unrefined sea salts are also commonly used as ingredients in bathing additives and cosmetic
products. One example are bath salts, which uses sea salt as its main ingredient and combined
with other ingredients used for its healing and therapeutic effects.
Refined salt
Salt mounds in Bolivia.
Refined salt, which is most widely used presently, is mainly sodium chloride. Food grade salt
accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialised countries (3% in Europe[14])
although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of salt production.[15] The majority is sold
for industrial use. Salt has great commercial value because it is a necessary ingredient in the
manufacturing of many things. A few common examples include: the production of pulp and
paper, setting dyes in textiles and fabrics, and the making of soaps and detergents.
The manufacture and use of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.[16] Salt can be
obtained by evaporation of sea water, usually in shallow basins warmed by sunlight;[17] salt
so obtained was formerly called bay salt, and is now often called sea salt or solar salt. Today,
most refined salt is prepared from rock salt: mineral deposits high in salt.[citation needed] These
rock salt deposits were formed by the evaporation of ancient salt lakes,[18] and may be mined
conventionally or through the injection of water. Injected water dissolves the salt, and the
brine solution can be pumped to the surface where the salt is collected.
After the raw salt is obtained, it is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling
characteristics. Purification usually involves recrystallization. In recrystallization, a brine
solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and
calcium salts).[19] Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride
crystals, which are kiln-dried.

Salt Crystals at Devil's Golf Course in Death Valley National Park.
Single-serving salt packets.
Since the 1950s it has been common to add a trace of sodium ferrocyanide to the brine in the
United Kingdom; this acts as an anticaking agent by promoting irregular crystals.[20] Sodium
ferrocyanide has been banned in the United States and a similar ban has been discussed in the
United Kingdom, but was determined to be unnecessary.[21][22] Other anticaking agents (and
potassium iodide, for iodised salt) are generally added after crystallization.[citation needed] These
agents are hygroscopic chemicals which absorb humidity, keeping the salt crystals from
sticking together. Some anti-caking agents used are tricalcium phosphate, calcium or
magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts (acid salts), magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide,
calcium silicate, sodium aluminosilicate, and calcium aluminosilicate. Concerns have been
raised regarding the possible toxic effects of aluminium in the latter two compounds[citation
needed]
; however, both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) permit their use.[23] The refined salt is then ready for packing and
distribution.
Table salt
Table salt is refined salt, which may be as little as 60% or as high as 99% sodium
chloride.[24][25][26] It usually contains substances that make it free-flowing (anti-caking agents)
such as sodium silicoaluminate or magnesium carbonate. Some people also add a desiccant,
such as a few grains of uncooked rice,[27] in salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help
break up clumps when anti-caking agents are not enough. Table salt has a particle density of
2.165 g/cm3, and a bulk density (dry, ASTM D 632 gradation) of about 1.154 g/cm3.[28]
Salty condiments
In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.[29] However,
condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high salt content and

fill much the same role as a salt-providing table condiment that table salt serves in western
cultures.
Additives
See also: Iodised salt
Iodized salt (BrE: iodised salt) is table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide,
sodium iodide, or sodium iodate. Iodized salt is used to help reduce the incidence of iodine
deficiency in humans. Iodine deficiency commonly leads to thyroid gland problems,
specifically endemic goiter, a disease characterized by a swelling of the thyroid gland,
usually resulting in a bulbous protrusion on the neck. While only tiny quantities of iodine are
required in the diet to prevent goiter, the United States Food and Drug Administration
recommends (21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)) 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and
women. Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in
countries where it is used.[30] Iodine is important to prevent the insufficient production of
thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism), which can cause goitre, cretinism in children, and
myxedema in adults.
Table salt is mainly employed in cooking and as a table condiment. The amount of iodine and
the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the United
States, iodized salt contains 46-77 ppm, while in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is
recommended to be 10-22 ppm.[31] Today, iodized salt is more common in the United States,
Australia and New Zealand than in the United Kingdom.
In some European countries where drinking water fluoridation is not practiced, fluorinated
table salt is available. In France, 35% of sold table salt contains either sodium fluoride or
potassium fluoride.[32] Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is Folic
acid (Vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color.
In Canada, at least one brand (Windsor salt) contains invert sugar. The reason for this is
unclear.
Health effects
SEM image of a grain of table salt.
Sodium is one of the primary electrolytes in the body. All four cationic electrolytes (sodium,
potassium, magnesium, and calcium) are available in unrefined salt, as are other vital
minerals needed for optimal bodily function. Too much or too little salt in the diet can lead to
muscle cramps, dizziness, or even an electrolyte disturbance, which can cause severe, even
fatal, neurological problems.[33] Drinking too much water, with insufficient salt intake, puts a

person at risk of water intoxication (hyponatremia). Salt is even sometimes used as a health
aid, such as in treatment of dysautonomia.[34]
The risk for disease due to insufficient or excessive salt intake varies because of biochemical
individuality. Some have asserted that while the risks of consuming too much salt are real,
the risks have been exaggerated for most people, or that the studies done on the consumption
of salt can be interpreted in many different ways.[35][36]
Many (though not all scientists)[37] believe that excess salt consumption has been linked to:
exercise-induced asthma.[38]
heartburn.[39]
osteoporosis: One report shows that a high salt diet does reduce bone density in
women.[40] Yet "While high salt intakes have been associated with detrimental effects
on bone health, there are insufficient data to draw firm conclusions." ([41], p3)
Gastric cancer (Stomach cancer) is associated with high levels of sodium, "but the
evidence does not generally relate to foods typically consumed in the UK." ([41], p18)
However, in Japan, salt consumption is higher.[42]
hypertension (high blood pressure): "Since 1994, the evidence of an association
between dietary salt intakes and blood pressure has increased. The data have been
consistent in various study populations and across the age range in adults." ([41] p3). A
large scale study from 2007 has shown that people with high-normal blood pressure
who significantly reduced the amount of salt in their diet decreased their chances of
developing cardiovascular disease by 25% over the following 10 to 15 years. Their
risk of dying from cardiovascular disease decreased by 20%.[43]
left ventricular hypertrophy (cardiac enlargement): "Evidence suggests that high salt
intake causes left ventricular hypertrophy, a strong risk factor for cardiovascular
disease, independently of blood pressure effects." ([41] p3) "…there is accumulating
evidence that high salt intake predicts left ventricular hypertrophy." ([44], p12)
Excessive salt (sodium) intake, combined with an inadequate intake of water, can
cause hypernatremia. It can exacerbate renal disease.[33]
edema (BE: oedema): A decrease in salt intake has been suggested to treat edema
(fluid retention).[33][45]
duodenal ulcers and gastric ulcers[46]
Death. Ingestion of large amounts of salt in a short time (about 1 g per kg of body
weight) can be fatal. Salt solutions have been used in ancient China as a method of
suicide (especially by the nobility, since salt was quite valuable). Deaths have also
resulted from attempted use of salt solutions as emetics, forced salt intake, and
accidental confusion of salt with sugar in child food.[47]
Some scientists believe that excess salt intake has no significant role in hypertension and
coronary heart disease, as adults' kidneys are able to remove excess salt.[37]
Sea salt (an unrefined form of salt made by evaporating sea water) is often sold for use as a
condiment. Sea salt contains trace amounts of other minerals which are removed in the
refining process. Certain sea salts are also used in the production of bath salts and cosmetic
products.

Rock and sea salt is usually referred and sold as Natrum Muriaticum in homeopathy, and
purported by followers to be a deep acting and powerful curative when taken over long
periods of time.
Some isolated cultures, such as the Yanomami in South America, have been found to
consume little salt, possibly an adaptation originated in the predominantly vegetarian diet of
human primate ancestors.[48]
Recommended intake
Sea salt and peppercorns.
A salt mill for sea salt.
In the United Kingdom the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN)

recommended in 2003 that, for a typical adult, the Reference Nutrient Intake is 4 g salt per
day (1.6 g or 70 mmol sodium). However, average adult intake is two and a half times the
Reference Nutrient Intake for sodium. SACN states, "The target salt intakes set for adults and
children do not represent ideal or optimum consumption levels, but achievable population
goals."[41] The Food Safety Authority of Ireland endorses the UK targets.[44]
Health Canada recommends an Adequate Intake (AI) and an Upper Limit (UL) in terms of
sodium,[49] as does the Auckland District Health Board in New Zealand.[50].

The NHMRC in Australia was not able to define a recommended dietary intake (RDI). It
defines an Adequate Intake (AI) for adults of 460-920 mg/day and an Upper Level of intake
(UL) of 2300 mg/day.[51]
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration itself does not make a
recommendation,[52] but refers readers to Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005. These
suggest that US citizens should consume less than 2,300 mg of sodium (= 2.3 g sodium = 5.8
g salt) per day.[53]
Labeling
UK: The Food Standards Agency defines the level of salt in foods as follows: "High is more
than 1.5g salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium). Low is 0.3g salt or less per 100g (or 0.1g sodium).
If the amount of salt per 100g is in between these figures, then that is a medium level of salt."
In the UK, foods produced by some supermarkets and manufacturers have ‗traffic light‘
colors on the front of the pack: Red (High), Amber (Medium), or Green (Low).[54]
USA: The FDA Food Labeling Guide stipulates whether a food can be labelled as "free",
"low", or "reduced/less" in respect of sodium. When other health claims are made about a
food (e.g. low in fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the food exceeds
480 mg of sodium per 'serving.'[55]
Campaigns
In 2004, Britain's Food Standards Agency started a public health campaign called "Salt -
Watch it", which recommends no more than 6g of salt per day; it features a character called
Sid the Slug and was criticised by the Salt Manufacturers Association (SMA).[56] The
Advertising Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its adjudication.[57] In
March 2007, the FSA launched the third phase of their campaign with the slogan "Salt. Is
your food full of it?" fronted by comedienne Jenny Eclair.[58]
The Menzies Research Institute in Tasmania, Australia, maintains a website[59] dedicated to

educating people about the potential problems of a salt-laden diet.
Consensus Action on Salt and Health (CASH)[60] established in 1996, actively campaigns to
raise awareness of the harmful health effects of salt. The 2008 focus includes raising
awareness of high levels of salt hidden in sweet foods and marketed towards children.[61]
Salt substitutes
Main article: Salt substitute
Salt intake can be reduced by simply reducing the quantity of salty foods in a diet, without
recourse to salt substitutes. Salt substitutes have a taste similar to table salt and contain
mostly potassium chloride, which will increase potassium intake. Excess potassium intake
can cause hyperkalemia. Various diseases and medications may decrease the body's excretion
of potassium, thereby increasing the risk of hyperkalemia. Those who have kidney failure,
heart failure or diabetes should seek medical advice before using a salt substitute. One
manufacturer, LoSalt, has issued an advisory statement[62] that those taking the following

prescription drugs should not use a salt substitute: Amiloride, Triamterene, Dytac,
Spironolactone (Brand name Aldactone), Eplerenone and Inspra.
Production
Salt output in 2005
Salt is produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from other sources, such as brine wells
and salt lakes, and by mining rock salt, called halite. In 2002, total world production was
estimated at 210 million tonnes, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million
tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).[63] Note that these
figures are not just for table salt but for sodium chloride in general.
Salt disturbance in coastal industries

The omnipresence of salt posts a problem in any coastal coating application. Salts that are
trapped under a coating cause great problems in coating adhesion. Costs can reach staggering
amounts. Naval authorities and ship builders keep a close eye on salt concentrations on
surfaces during construction. Maximum salt concentrations on surfaces are dependent on the
authority and application. The IMO regulation is mostly used and sets salt levels to a
maximum of 50 mg/m2 soluble salts measured as sodium chloride. These measurements are
done by means of a Bresle test.
Notes
1. ^ a b Barber 1999:136
2. ^ a b c d e Kurlansky 2002
3. ^ Onbekende Wereld by Wim Offeciers (based on Doucan Gersi's travels)
4. ^ Included among the other, less well-known continental salt sites with hal(l)- in their
names are Reichenhall and Schwäbisch Hall in Germany, and Hall in Austria. (Barber
1999:137)
5. ^ Barber 1999:135–137
6. ^ Kurlansky 2002:52–55
7. ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition".
Answers.com. http://www.answers.com/salary. Retrieved 2008-12-14.
8. ^ "Salt". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Salt.

9. ^ a b "10+1 Things you may not know about Salt", Epikouria Magazine, Fall/Winter
2006
10. ^ B. J. Mason (2006-12-19). "The role of sea-salt particles as cloud condensation
nuclei over the remote oceans". The Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological
Society 127 (576): 2023-2032.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/114028130/abstract. Retrieved 2009-07-
08.
11. ^ David A. Kuemmel (1994). Managing roadway snow and ice control operations.
Transportation Research Board. p. 10. ISBN 9780309056663.
http://books.google.com/books?id=I3gxuwTE5_MC&pg=PA10&lpg=PA10&dq=effe
ct+of+snowfall+on+infrastructure&source=bl&ots=kmDWQqfCno&sig=yMOXi2gv
5_LJf_o3qNA36e0FSO8&hl=en&ei=nKxUSt-
pAY7ElAeIoZXkCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1. Retrieved 2009-
07-08.
12. ^ Sea Salt is good for you
13. ^ References on food salt & health issues. Salt Institute.
14. ^ European Salt Producers' Association http://www.eu-salt.com/index3.htm
15. ^ Roskill Information Services http://www.roskill.com/reports/salt
16. ^ Salt made the world go round
17. ^ Nauticus - Weather Curriculum
18. ^ UK Salt Manufacturers' Association http://www.saltsense.co.uk/aboutsalt-
what01.htm
19. ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt
uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry
20. ^ The Salt Manufacturers Association ::: saltsense, salt history, salt manufacture, salt
uses, sodium. Key information on salt from the Salt Industry
21. ^ Halen Môn sea salt information page
22. ^ Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt
23. ^ HE-620
24. ^ Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt, from Tesco Stores Ltd (UK)
states 38.9% sodium by weight which equals 98.9% sodium chloride
25. ^ Calculating the listed 590mg of Sodium in a 1.5g serving size (of Smart & Final
iodized salt), it is clear that it is not 99% sodium chloride since pure NaCl should
contain about 870mg of Sodium
26. ^ Table
27. ^ "Rice in Salt Shakers". Ask a Scientist.
http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01420.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
28. ^ What is Salt?, Salt Institute, 2008
29. ^ The Seattle Times: Pacific Northwest Magazine
30. ^ Iodized Salt
31. ^ Iodized Salt
32. ^ http://www.afssa.fr/Ftp/Afssa/26447-26448.pdf
33. ^ a b c Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Salt
34. ^ Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center Dysautonomia page
35. ^ Why Files article Salt and other wounds
36. ^ Gary Taubes, "The (Political) Science of Salt", Science, 14 August 1998, Vol. 281.
no. 5379, pp. 898 - 907
37. ^ a b http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/medical_notes/393201.stm
38. ^ Exercise-induced asthma more clearly linked to high-salt diet
39. ^ Everybody Study adds salt to suspected triggers for heartburn

40. ^ High salt diet reduces bone density in girls
41. ^ a b c d e Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health (PDF)
42. ^ Salt raises 'stomach cancer risk'
43. ^ Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium
reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of
hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334(7599):885. PMID 17449506 Free
full-text
44. ^ a b Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health: Review of the Scientific
Evidence and Recommendations for Public Policy in Ireland
45. ^ Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Fluid retention
46. ^ BBC High-salt diet link to ulcer risk 22 May 2007
47. ^ Elisabeth Elena Türk, Friedrich Schulz, Erwin Koops, Axel Gehl and Michael
Tsokos. Fatal hypernatremia after using salt as an emetic—report of three autopsy
cases. Legal Medicine 2005, 7, 47-50. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2004.06.005
48. ^ Yanomami Indians in the INTERSALT study, (accessed13 January 2007)
49. ^ Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes
50. ^ Auckland District Health Board Public Health Nutrition Advice (PDF)
51. ^ NHMRC Reference Nutrient Values, Sodium
52. ^ U. S. Food and Drug Administration A Pinch of Controversy Shakes Up Dietary
Salt
53. ^ Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Department of
Agriculture (USDA) Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 "Sodium and Potassium"
54. ^ Understanding labels
55. ^ Food and Drug Administration A Food Labeling Guide--Appendix A
56. ^ Salt Manufacturers Association press release New salt campaign under attack
57. ^ Advertising Standards Authority Broadcast Advertising Adjudications: 20 April
2005 (PDF)
58. ^ Salt TV ads
59. ^ Salt Matters
60. ^ "CASH Consensus Action on Salt". http://www.hyp.ac.uk/cash/.
61. ^ "Child health fears over high salt levels in sweet foods". 28 January 2008.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/jan/28/foodanddrink.healthandwellbeing.
62. ^ LoSalt Advisory Statement (PDF)
63. ^ Susan R. Feldman. Sodium chloride. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical
Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published online 2005.
doi:10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2
References
Kurlansky, Mark (2002), Salt: A World History, New York: Walker & Co., ISBN
0802713734, OCLC 48573453.
Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999), The Mummies of Ürümchi, New York: W.W.
Norton & Co., ISBN 0393320197, OCLC 48426519.
Further reading
Kurlansky, Mark, and S. D. Schindler. The Story of Salt. New York, NY: G.P.
Putnam's Sons, 2006. ISBN 0399239987—a children's book about salt.

Laszlo, Pierre. Salt: Grain of Life. Arts and traditions of the table. New York:
Columbia University Press, 2001.
Department of Health, Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for
the UK: Report of the Panel on DRVs of the Committee on the Medical Aspects of
Food Policy , The Stationery Office.
Salt and health
Government bodies
Many other government bodies are listed in the References section above.
Ireland: Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health

UK: Food Standards Agency Salt campaign
UK: Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health (PDF) and
Salt Subgroup minutes
UK: Why 6g? A summary of the scientific evidence for the salt intake target
Medical authorities
The Cochrane Collaboration "Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood

pressure"
Menzies Research Institute Salt Matters Web Site
Charities and campaigns
British Nutrition Foundation article "Salt in the Diet"

Consensus Action on Salt and Health (UK charity)
Action on Salt and Health
CSPI page Salt: The Forgotten Killer
Irish Heart Foundation booklet Time to cut down on salt (PDF format)
Journalism
BBC article "Salt: friend or foe?"

BBC medical notes "Salt"
Guardian article The sceptic
Ockham's Razor Salt matters - talk by Dr Trevor Beard, Menzies Research Institute
(ABC Radio National 4 February 2007)
Salt industry
EuSalt Position papers

LoSalt (salt substitute manufacturer)
Salt Manufacturers' Association Salt and health
Salt Institute Sodium and health
^ Bloch, David: Economics of NaCl: Salt made the world go round.

Thai pepper
Thai pepper / Bird's Eye Chili
Bird's Eye Chili

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Capsicum
Species: C. frutescens
Thai pepper (Thai: , phrik khi nu(lit. mouse dropping chili)) refers to any of three
cultivars of chili pepper, found commonly in Thailand, as well as in neighbouring countries,
such as Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. It can also
be found in India, mainly Kerala, where it is used in traditional dishes of the Kerala cuisine
(pronounced in Malayalam as kanthari mulagu).
Non-pungent "Thai Pepper"
"Thai pepper" can also refer to black pepper, as it is a literal translation of the Thai word for
it, phrik thai. This term refers to the peppercorns used in many Thai dishes, as well
as ground black or white pepper and derives from the distinction between peppercorns being
traditionally Thai versus chili peppers, which only arrived in Thailand in the sixteenth
century.

Cultivars
Bird's eye chili pepper
The main Thai pepper seen in South-East Asian cuisine. These tiny fiery chilis
characteristically point upward from the main plant, and can be found with colors maturing
from green to red. They can commonly be found in many South-East Asian countries, but are
more frequently seen in Thailand and Cambodia.
Although small in size compared to other types of chili, the chili padi is relatively strong at
50,000 to 100,000 on the Scoville pungency scale.
Proverb
Bird's eye chili can be found in South-East Asian markets alongside larger chilies, often times
surprising people who are unaware that such a small pepper can be much hotter than the
larger ones. This is the source of a proverb heard in many South-East Asian countries that
roughly translates to "small like the bird's eye chili," which can best be described by the
English equivalent, "Big things come in small packages."
" " Thai

"Kecil-kecil cili padi" Malaysian
"Kecil-kecil cabe rawit" Indonesian
Common Names
A basket of Chilli Padi displayed in supermarket
The chilies may also be referred to as cili padi (cili pronounced "chili") in Malay because
their small size reminds people of the small grained rice eaten as a staple in the region.

As well as the Malay word, Thai chilies can also be referred to as cabe rawit (Indonesian),
phrik khii nuu ( , Thai), Thai hot, Thai dragon (due to its resemblance to claws),
Siling Labuyo (Filipino), Ladâ, and boonie pepper (the Anglicized name).
Thai Ornamental
Thai Ornanmental hot peppers growing wild on Saipan.
The more decorative, but slightly less pungent variety, sometimes known as Thai
Ornamental, has peppers that point upward on the plant, and go from green to yellow,
orange, and then red. It is the basis for the hybrid Numex twilight, essentially the same but
less pungent and starting with purple fruit, creating a rainbow effect, and among the group of
capsicum annuum. These peppers can grow wild in places like Saipan and Guam. The
Chinese in SE Asia call this pepper 'the chili that points to the sky'.
v•d•e
Capsicum Cultivars
Aleppo · Anaheim · Ancho · Banana pepper · Bell pepper · Cascabel · Cayenne
· Chilaca · Chiltepin · Cubanelle · De árbol · Dundicut · Fresno · Guajillo ·
C.
Hungarian wax · Italian sweet · Jalapeño · Japanese · Mirasol · Macho · Mulato
annuum
· New Mexico (Anaheim) · Pasilla · Pepperoncini · Piquín · Pimento · Poblano
· Puya · Serrano · Tien Tsin
C. Adjuma · Ají Limo · Ají dulce · Datil · Fatalii · Habanero · Red Savina ·
chinense Madame Jeanette · Naga Jolokia · Scotch bonnet
C.
African birdseye · Malagueta · Thai pepper · Tabasco · Demon Red
frutescens
C
Ají · Piquanté
baccatum
C.
Rocoto
pubescens
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_pepper"

Categories: Spices | Chili peppers | Thai ingredients | Malaysian ingredients | Indonesian
ingredients | Filipino ingredients | Singaporean ingredients | Indian ingredients
Celeriac
Celeriac
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Apium
Species: A. graveolens
Cultivar Group
Apium graveolens
Rapaceum Group
Celeriac (Apium graveolens Rapaceum Group) is also known as 'celery root,' 'turnip-rooted
celery' or 'knob celery'. It is a kind of celery, grown as a root vegetable for its large and
bulbous hypocotyl rather than for its stem and leaves. The swollen hypocotyl is typically used
when it is about 10–12 cm in diameter; about the size of a large potato. Unlike other root
vegetables, which store a large amount of starch, celery root is only about 5-6% starch by
weight.
Celeriac may be used raw or cooked. It has a tough, furrowed, outer surface which is usually
sliced off before use because it is too rough to peel. Celeriac has a celery flavour, and is often
used as a flavouring in soups and stews; it can also be used on its own, usually mashed, or
used in casseroles, gratins and baked dishes.

The hollow stalk of the upper plant is sometimes cut into drinking straw lengths, rinsed, and
used in the serving of tomato-based drinks such as the Bloody Mary cocktail. The tomato
juice is lightly flavoured with celery as it passes through the stalk.
Celeriac soup.
Celeriac is not as widely used as some other root vegetables, perhaps because it is harder to
prepare and clean.
There are a number of cultivars available, especially in Europe. Among them are 'Prinz',
'Diamant', 'Ibis', and 'Kojak', which all received Royal Horticultural Society Award of Garden
Merit designation in the trial in 2000.
Celeriac normally keeps well and should last three to four months if stored between 0°C (32
degrees Fahrenheit) and 5°C (41 degrees Fahrenheit) and not allowed to dry out.
Celeriac, raw
Carbohydrates 9.2 g
- Sugars 1.6 g
Fat 0.3 g
Protein 1.5 g
Water 88 g
Phosphorus 115 mg16%

Eggplant
Eggplant / Aubergine
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species: S. melongena
Binomial name
Solanum melongena
L.
Synonyms
Solanum ovigerum Dunal
Solanum trongum Poir.
and see text
The eggplant, aubergine, or brinjal (Solanum melongena), is a plant of the family

Solanaceae (also known as the nightshades) and genus Solanum. It bears a fruit of the same
name, commonly used as a vegetable in cooking. As a nightshade, it is closely related to the
tomato and potato and is native to India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
It is a delicate perennial often cultivated as an annual. It grows 40 to 150 cm (16 to 57 in) tall,
with large coarsely lobed leaves that are 10 to 20 cm (4-8 in) long and 5 to 10 cm (2-4 in)
broad. (Semi-)wild types can grow much larger, to 225 cm (7 ft) with large leaves over 30 cm
(12 in) long and 15 cm (6 in) broad. The stem is often spiny. The flowers are white to purple,

with a five-lobed corolla and yellow stamens. The fruit is fleshy, less than 3 cm in diameter
on wild plants, but much larger in cultivated forms.
The fruit is botanically classified as a berry, and contains numerous small, soft seeds, which
are edible, but are bitter because they contain (an insignificant amount of) nicotinoid
alkaloids, unsurprising as it is a close relative of tobacco.
History
Solanum melongena, flower
The plant is native to India.[1][2] It has been cultivated in southern and eastern Asia since
prehistory[citation needed] but appears to have become known to the Western world no earlier than
ca. 1500 CE. The first known written record of the plant is found in Qí mín yào shù, an
ancient Chinese agricultural treatise completed in 544 CE.[3] The numerous Arabic and North
African names for it, along with the lack of ancient Greek and Roman names, indicate that it
was introduced throughout the Mediterranean area by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages.
The scientific name Solanum melongena is derived from a 16th century Arabic term for one
variety.
The name eggplant, used in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada refers to
the fact that the fruits of some 18th century European cultivars were yellow or white and
resembled goose or hen's eggs. The name aubergine, which is used in British English, is an
adoption from the French word (derived from Catalan albergínia, from Arabic al-badinjan,
from Persian bad'en-j'aan, from Sanskrit vatin-ganah). In Indian and South African English,
the fruit is known as a "brinjal." Aubergine and brinjal, with their distinctive br-jn or brn-jl
aspects, derive from Persian and Sanskrit. In the Caribbean Trinidad, it also goes by the Latin
derivative "meloongen".
Because of the plant's relationship with the Solanaceae (nightshade) family, the fruit was at
one time believed to be extremely dangerous.

Cultivated varieties
Three varieties of eggplant
In Thai cuisine small and round varieties are preferred.
Different varieties of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape and color, especially
purple, green, or white. There are even orange varieties.
The most widely cultivated varieties (cultivars) in Europe and North America today are
elongated ovoid, 12–25 cm wide (4 1/2 to 9 in) and 6–9 cm broad (2 to 4 in) in a dark purple
skin.
A much wider range of shapes, sizes and colors is grown in India and elsewhere in Asia.
Larger varieties weighing up to a kilogram (2 pounds) grow in the region between the Ganges
and Yamuna rivers, while smaller varieties are found elsewhere. Colors vary from white to
yellow or green as well as reddish-purple and dark purple. Some cultivars have a color
gradient, from white at the stem to bright pink to deep purple or even black. Green or purple
cultivars in white striping also exist. Chinese varieties are commonly shaped like a narrower,
slightly pendulous cucumber, and were sometimes called Japanese eggplants in North
America.
Oval or elongated oval-shaped and black-skinned cultivars include Harris Special Hibush,
Burpee Hybrid, Black Magic, Classic, Dusky, and Black Beauty. Slim cultivars in purple-
black skin include Little Fingers, Ichiban, Pingtung Long, and Tycoon; in green skin
Louisiana Long Green and Thai (Long) Green; in white skin Dourga. Traditional, white-
skinned, egg-shaped cultivars include Casper and Easter Egg. Bicolored cultivars with color
gradient include Rosa Bianca and Violetta di Firenze. Bicolored cultivars in striping include

Listada de Gandia and Udumalapet. In some parts of India, miniature varieties (most
commonly called Vengan) are popular. A particular variety of green brinjal known as Matti
Gulla is grown in Matti village of Udupi district in Karnataka state in India.
Cooking
The raw fruit can have a somewhat bitter taste, but becomes tender when cooked and
develops a rich, complex flavor. Salting and then rinsing the sliced fruit (known as
"degorging") can soften and remove much of the bitterness though this is often unnecessary.
Some modern varieties do not need this treatment, as they are far less bitter. The fruit is
capable of absorbing large amounts of cooking fats and sauces, allowing for very rich dishes,
but the salting process will reduce the amount of oil absorbed. The fruit flesh is smooth; as in
the related tomato, the numerous seeds are soft and edible along with the rest of the fruit. The
thin skin is also edible, so that peeling is not required.
Melanzane alla Parmigiana, or Eggplant Parmesan.
The plant is used in cuisines from Japan to Spain. It is often stewed, as in the French
ratatouille, the Italian melanzane alla parmigiana, the Arabian moussaka, and Middle-Eastern
and South Asian dishes. It may also be roasted in its skin until charred, so that the pulp can be
removed and blended with other ingredients such as lemon, tahini, and garlic, as in the
Middle Eastern dish baba ghanoush and the similar Greek dish melitzanosalata or the Indian
dishes of Baigan Bhartha or Gojju. In Iranian cuisine, it can be blended with whey as kashk e-
bademjan, tomatoes as mirza ghasemi or made into stew as khoresh-e-bademjan. It can be
sliced, battered, and deep-fried, then served with various sauces which may be based on
yoghurt, tahini, or tamarind. Grilled and mashed and mixed with onions, tomatoes, and spices
it makes the Indian dish baingan ka bhartha. The fruit can also be stuffed with meat, rice, or
other fillings and then baked. In the Caucasus, for example, it is fried and stuffed with walnut
paste to make nigvziani badrijani. It can also be found in Chinese cuisine, braised
(紅燒茄子), stewed (魚香茄子) or stuffed (釀茄子).
As a native plant, it is widely used in Indian cuisine, for example in sambhar, chutney,
curries, and achaar. Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive
Indian food, it is often described (under the name brinjal) as the 'King of Vegetables'. In one
dish, Brinjal is stuffed with ground coconut, peanuts, and masala and then cooked in oil.
In Bangladesh, it is called Begun ( ). It, along with the fish Hilsa, is used to cook a famous
wedding dish[citation needed]. Slices of eggplant are marinated with salt and chilli powder,

covered with a batter of bashone and deep-fried and eaten as a snack. This is called Beguni
( ).
Cultivation
In tropical and subtropical climates, eggplant can be sown directly into the garden. Eggplant
grown in temperate climates fares better when transplanted into the garden after all danger of
frost is passed. Seeds are typically started eight to ten weeks prior to the anticipated frost-free
date.
Many pests and diseases which afflict other solanaceous vegetables, such as tomato, pepper
(capsicum), and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should not be
planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. Four years should separate
successive crops of eggplants. Common North American pests include the potato beetle, flea
beetle, aphids, and spider mites. Many of these can be controlled using Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt), a bacterium that attacks the soft-bodied larvae. (Adults can be removed by hand, though
flea beetles can be especially difficult to control.) Good sanitation and crop-rotation practices
are extremely important for controlling fungal disease, the most serious of which is
Verticillium.
Spacing should be 45 cm (18 in.) to 60 cm (24 in.) between plants, depending on cultivar, and
60 cm to 90 cm (24 to 36 in.) between rows, depending on the type of cultivation equipment
being used. Mulching will help conserve moisture and prevent weeds and fungal diseases.
The flowers are relatively unattractive to bees and the first blossoms often do not set fruit.
Hand pollination will improve the set of the first blossoms. Fruits are typically cut from the
vine just above the calyx owing to the semi-woody stems. Flowers are complete, containing
both female and male structures, and may be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated. [4]
Statistics
A purple eggplant which has been sliced in half, showing the inside. The flesh surrounding
the seeds is already beginning to oxidize and will turn brown just minutes after slicing.
Production of eggplant is highly concentrated, with 85 percent of output coming from three
countries. China is the top producer (56% of world output) and India is second (26%); Egypt,
Turkey and Indonesia round out the top producing nations. More than 4 million acres

(2,043,788 hectares) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplant in the world.[5] In the United
States, New Jersey is the largest producing state.
Top ten eggplant/aubergine producers — 11 June 2008

Production
Country Footnote
(Tonnes)
People's
Republic of 18 033 000 F
China
India 8 450 200
Egypt 1 000 000 F
Turkey 791 190
Indonesia 390 000 F
Iraq 380 000 F
Japan 375 000 F
Italy 271 358
Sudan 230 000 F
United
198 000 F
Kingdom
World 32 072 972 A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-
official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or
estimates);
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social
Department: The Statistical Devision[not in citation given]
Health properties
Eggplant, raw
Carbohydrates 5.7 g
- Sugars 2.35 g
Fat 0.19 g
Protein 1.01 g

Vitamin C 2.2 mg 4%
Calcium 9 mg 1%
Iron 0.24 mg 2%
Magnesium 14 mg 4%
Phosphorus 25 mg 4%
Potassium 230 mg 5%
Zinc 0.16 mg 2%
Manganese 0.25 mg
Studies of the Institute of Biology of São Paulo State University, Brazil, would have shown
that eggplant is effective in the treatment of high blood cholesterol[citation needed]. Another study
from Heart Institute of the University of São Paulo found no effects at all and does not
recommend eggplant as a replacement to statins.[6]
It helps to block the formation of free radicals and is also a source of folic acid and
potassium.[7]
Eggplant is richer in nicotine than any other edible plant, with a concentration of 100 ng/g (or
0.01 mg/100g). However, the amount of nicotine from eggplant or any other food is
negligible compared to passive smoking.[8] On average, 20lbs (9 kg) of eggplant contains
about the same amount of nicotine as a cigarette.
Allergies
Case reports of itchy skin and/or mouth after handling and/or eating eggplant have been
reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also oral allergy syndrome). A
recent (2008) study of a sample of 741 people in India (where eggplant is commonly
consumed) found that nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming
eggplant, while 1.4% showed symptoms in less than 2 hours.[9] Contact dermatitis from
eggplant leaves[10] and allergy to eggplant flower pollen[11] have also been reported.
Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to hypersensitivity, such as hayfever) are
more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be due to the fact that eggplant is high
in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as
potential allergens.[12] Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some
individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process.

Varieties
Solanum melongena var. esculentum common eggplant (Ukrainian Beauty)[13]
Solanum melongena var. depressum dwarf eggplant
Solanum melongena var. serpentium snake eggplant
Synonyms
The eggplant is quite often featured in the older scientific literature under the junior
synonyms S. ovigerum and S. trongum. A list of other now-invalid names have been uniquely
applied to it:[14]
Melongena ovata Mill.

Solanum album Noronha
Solanum insanum L.
Solanum longum Roxb.
Solanum melanocarpum Dunal
Solanum melongenum St.-Lag.
Solanum oviferum Salisb.
An inordinate number of subspecies and varieties have been named, mainly by Dikii, Dunal,
and (invalidly) by Sweet. Names for various eggplant types, such as agreste, album,
divaricatum, esculentum, giganteum, globosi, inerme, insanum, leucoum, luteum, multifidum,
oblongo-cylindricum, ovigera, racemiflorum, racemosum, ruber, rumphii, sinuatorepandum,
stenoleucum, subrepandum, tongdongense, variegatum, violaceum and viride, are not
considered to refer to anything more than cultivar groups at best. On the other hand, Solanum
incanum and Cockroach Berry (S. capsicoides), other eggplant-like nightshades described by
Linnaeus and Allioni respectively, were occasionally considered eggplant varieties. But this
is not correct.[14]
The eggplant has a long history of taxonomic confusion with the Scarlet and Ethiopian
eggplants, known as gilo and nakati and described by Linnaeus as S. aethiopicum. The
eggplant was sometimes considered a variety violaceum of that species. S. violaceum of de
Candolle applies to Linnaeus' S. aethiopicum. There is an actual S. violaceum, an unrelated
plant described by Ortega, which used to include Dunal's S. amblymerum and was often
confused with the same author's S. brownii.[14]
Like the potato and Solanum lichtensteinii—but unlike the tomato which back then was
generally put in a different genus—the eggplant was also described as S. esculentum, in this
case once more in the course of Dunal's work. He also recognized varieties aculeatum,
inerme and subinerme at that time. Similarly, H.C.F. Schuhmacher & Peter Thonning named
the eggplant as S. edule, which is also a junior synonym of Sticky Nightshade (S
sisymbriifolium). Scopoli's S. zeylanicum refers to the eggplant, that of Blanco to S.
lasiocarpum.[14]

Image gallery
Japanese eggplant
Matti Gulla Japanese eggplant flower
fruit Purple eggplants
The fruit of the Thai

The flowers of the eggplant. The white A long slender
Eggplant flower
Thai eggplant residue on the leaves is eggplant.
common.
Footnotes
1. ^ Tsao and Lo in "Vegetables: Types and Biology". Handbook of Food Science,
Technology, and Engineering by Yiu H. Hui (2006). CRC Press. ISBN 1574445510.
2. ^ Doijode, S. D. (2001). Seed storage of horticultural crops (pp 157). Haworth Press:
ISBN 1560229012

3. ^ Fuchsia Dunlop (2006), Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan
Province, Ebury Press, pp. 202
4. ^ Westerfield, Robert (2008-11-14). "Pollination of Vegetable Crops" (pdf).
http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/C934.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-01.
5. ^ "FAOSTAT". FAO. 2008-11-11.
http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor. Retrieved
2007-04-24.
6. ^ Juliana Marchiori Praça, Andréa Thomaz, Bruno Caramelli. "Eggplant (Solanum
melongena) Extract Does Not Alter Serum Lipid Levels". Arq Bras Cardiol, volume
82 (nº 3), 273-6, 2004.
7. ^ Health24.com - Aubergine
8. ^ Edward F. Domino, Erich Hornbach, Tsenge Demana, The Nicotine Content of
Common Vegetables, The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 329:437
August 5, 1993 Number 6
9. ^ B. N. Harish Babu * , P. A. Mahesh † and Y. P. Venkatesh * A cross-sectional
study on the prevalence of food allergy to eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) reveals
female predominance. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 38(11):1795-1802, 2008
10. ^ Kabashima K, Miyachi Y. Contact dermatitis due to eggplant Contact Dermatitis
2004;50(2):101-102
11. ^ Gerth van Wijk R, Toorenenbergen AW, Dieges PH. Occupational pollinosis in
commercial gardeners. [Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1989;133(42):2081-3
12. ^ SN Pramod,* YP Venkatesh. Allergy to Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Caused by
a Putative Secondary Metabolite. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; Vol. 18(1):
59-62
13. ^ Solanum melongena var. esculentum 'Ukrainian Beauty' PlantFiles
14. ^ a b c d Solanaceae Source [2008]
References
SOLANACEAE SOURCE [2008]: Solanum melongena. Retrieved 2008-SEP-25.
Categories: Eggplants | Flora of the Maldives | Native crops of India | Tropical fruit | Fruits
originating in Asia

Tomato
Tomato
Cross-section and full view of a ripe

tomato
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species: S. lycopersicum
Binomial name
Solanum lycopersicum
L.
Synonyms
Lycopersicon lycopersicum
Lycopersicon esculentum
The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum, syn. Lycopersicon lycopersicum & Lycopersicon

esculentum[1]) is a herbaceous, usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family
that is typically cultivated for the purpose of harvesting its fruit for human consumption.
Savory in flavor (and accordingly termed a vegetable; see section Fruit or vegetable below),
the fruit of most varietals ripens to a distinctive red color. Tomato plants typically reach to 1–
3 metres (3–10 ft) in height, and have a weak, woody stem that often vines over other plants.
The leaves are 10–25 centimetres (4–10 in) long, odd pinnate, with 5–9 leaflets on petioles,[2]
each leaflet up to 8 centimetres (3 in) long, with a serrated margin; both the stem and leaves
are densely glandular-hairy. The flowers are 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) across, yellow, with
five pointed lobes on the corolla; they are borne in a cyme of 3–12 together. It is a perennial,
often grown outdoors in temperate climates as an annual.
The tomato is native to South America. Genetic evidence shows that the progenitors of
tomatoes were herbaceous green plants with small green fruit with a center of diversity in the
highlands of Peru.[3] These early Solanums diversified into the dozen or so species of tomato
recognized today. One species, Solanum lycopersicum, was transported to Mexico where it

was grown and consumed by prehistoric humans. The exact date of domestication is not
known. Evidence supports the theory that the first domesticated tomato was a little yellow
fruit, ancestor of L. cerasiforme,[citation needed] grown by the Aztecs of Central Mexico who
called it xitomatl (pronounced [ʃ iˈˈtomatɬ ]), meaning plump thing with a navel, and later
called tomatl by other Mesoamerican peoples. Aztec writings mention tomatoes were
prepared with peppers, corn and salt, likely to be the original salsa recipe.
Many historians[who?] believe that the Spanish explorer Cortez may have been the first to
transfer the small yellow tomato to Europe after he captured the Aztec city of Tenochtítlan,
now Mexico City in 1521. Yet others[who?] believe Christopher Columbus, an Italian working
for the Spanish monarchy, was the first European to take back the tomato, earlier in 1493.
The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in a herbal written in
1544 by Pietro Andrea Mattioli, an Italian physician and botanist, who named it pomo d‘oro,
golden apple.
The word tomato comes from a word in the Nahuatl language, tomatl. The specific name,
lycopersicum, means "wolf-peach".
Aztecs and other peoples in the region used the fruit in their cooking; it was being cultivated
in southern Mexico and probably other areas by 500BC. It is thought that the Pueblo people
believed that those who witnessed the ingestion of tomato seeds were blessed with powers of
divination.[4] The large, lumpy tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller vegetable ,
originated and was encouraged in Mesoamerica. Smith states this variant is the direct
ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes.[5]
According to Andrew F Smith's The Tomato in America,[5] the tomato probably originated in
the highlands of the west coast of South America. However, Smith notes there is no evidence
the tomato was cultivated or even eaten in Peru before the Spanish arrived.
Two modern tomato cultivar groups, one represented by the Matt's Wild Cherry tomato, the
other by currant tomatoes, originate by recent domestication of the wild tomato plants
apparently native to eastern Mexico[citation needed].
Spanish distribution
After the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Spanish distributed the tomato
throughout their colonies in the Caribbean. They also took it to the Philippines, whence it
moved to southeast Asia and then the entire Asian continent. The Spanish also brought the
tomato to Europe. It grew easily in Mediterranean climates, and cultivation began in the
1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as
food by the early 1600s in Spain. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was
published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from
Spanish sources. However, in certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, the fruit was used
solely as tabletop decoration before it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th
or early 18th century.
In Britain
Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s, according to Smith. One of the earliest
cultivators was John Gerard, a barber-surgeon.[6] Gerard's Herbal, published in 1597 and

largely plagiarized from continental sources, is also one of the earliest discussions of the
tomato in England. Gerard knew that the tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy.[6] Nonetheless,
he believed that it was poisonous[6] (tomato leaves and stems actually contain poisonous
glycoalkaloids, but the fruit is safe). Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was
considered unfit for eating (though not necessarily poisonous) for many years in Britain and
its North American colonies.[6]
But by the mid-1700s, tomatoes were widely eaten in Britain; and before the end of that
century, the Encyclopædia Britannica stated that the tomato was "in daily use" in soups,
broths, and as a garnish. In Victorian times, cultivation reached an industrial scale in
glasshouses, most famously in Worthing. Pressure for housing land in the 1930s to 1960s saw
the industry move west to Littlehampton, and to the market gardens south of Chichester. Over
the past 15 years, the British tomato industry has declined as more competitive imports from
Spain and the Netherlands have reached the supermarkets.
Middle East
The tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in
Aleppo c. 1799 – c. 1825[7][8] Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are
uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881 it is described as only eaten in the
region, ―within the last forty years.‖[9]
The tomato entered Iran through two separate routes[citation needed]. One route was through
Turkey and Armenia and the second route was through the Qajar royal family's frequent
travels to France. The early name used for tomato in Iran was "Armani Badenjan" (Armenian
Eggplant). The Spanish tomato dish, Paella, is called "Istanbuli Polao" (Istanbul Pilaf) by
Iranians. Currently, the name used for tomato in Iran is "Gojeh Farangi" (Foreign Plum).
North America
The earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when
herbalist William Salmon reported seeing them in what is today South Carolina. They may
have been introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on
some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast as well. It is possible
that some people continued to think tomatoes were poisonous at this time; and in general,
they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. Thomas Jefferson, who ate
tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America.
Because of their longer growing season for this heat-loving crop, several states in the US Sun
Belt became major tomato-producers, particularly Florida and California. In California
tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both the fresh fruit market and for canning and
processing. The University of California, Davis (UC Davis) became a major center for
research on the tomato. The C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center at UC Davis is a
genebank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and miscellaneous genetic stocks of
tomato.[10] The Center is named for the late Dr. Charles M. Rick, a pioneer in tomato genetics
research.[11] Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato
Research Institute in Escalon, California.
Production trends

125 million tons of tomatoes were produced in the world in 2008. China, the largest producer,
accounted for about one quarter of the global output, followed by United States and Turkey.
For processing tomatoes, California accounts for 90% of U.S. production and 35% of world
production.[12]
According to FAOSTAT, the top producers of tomatoes (in tonnes) in 2007 were:
Top Tomato Producers — 2007

(in tonnes)
China 33 645 000
United States 11 500 000
Turkey 9 919 673
India 8 585 800
Egypt 7 550 000
World Total 126 246 708
Source:
UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)[13]
This file is a candidate for speedy deletion. It may be deleted after Friday, 18 September 2009.
The tomato is now grown worldwide for its edible fruits, with thousands of cultivars having
been selected with varying fruit types, and for optimum growth in differing growing
conditions. Cultivated tomatoes vary in size from tomberries, about 5mm in diameter,
through cherry tomatoes, about the same 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) size as the wild tomato,
up to "beefsteak" tomatoes 10 centimetres (4 in) or more in diameter. The most widely grown
commercial tomatoes tend to be in the 5–6 centimetres (2.0–2.4 in) diameter range. Most
cultivars produce red fruit; but a number of cultivars with yellow, orange, pink, purple, green,
black, or white fruit are also available. Multicolored and striped fruit can also be quite
striking. Tomatoes grown for canning and sauces are often elongated, 7–9 centimetres (3–
4 in) long and 4–5 centimetres (1.6–2.0 in) diameter; they are known as plum tomatoes, and
have a lower water content. Roma-type tomatoes are important cultivars in the Sacramento

Valley where a 120-acre Morning Star cannery handles 1.2 million pounds[14] of tomatoes an
hour during the harvest season where the fields yield about 40 tons to the acre.[15]
Tomatoes are one of the most common garden fruits in the United States and, along with
zucchini, have a reputation for outproducing the needs of the grower.
As in most sectors of agriculture, there is increasing demand in developed countries for

organic tomatoes, as well as heirloom tomatoes, to make up for flavor and texture faults in
commercial tomatoes.[16] Quite a few seed merchants and banks provide a large selection of
heirloom seeds. Tomato seeds are occasionally organically produced as well, but only a small
percentage of organic crop area is grown with organic seed[citation needed]. The definition of an
heirloom tomato is vague, but unlike commercial hybrids, all are self-pollinators who have
bred true for 40 years or more.[17]
Varieties
See List of tomato cultivars
There are many (around 7500) tomato varieties grown for various purposes. Heirloom
tomatoes are becoming increasingly popular, particularly among home gardeners and organic
producers, since they tend to produce more interesting and flavorful[citation needed] crops at the
cost of disease resistance,[18] and productivity.[19] Hybrid plants remain common, since they
tend to be heavier producers and sometimes combine unusual characteristics of heirloom
tomatoes with the ruggedness of conventional commercial tomatoes.
A variety of heirloom tomatoes
Tomato varieties are roughly divided into several categories, based mostly on shape and size.
"Slicing" or "globe" tomatoes are the usual tomatoes of commerce; beefsteak are large
tomatoes often used for sandwiches and similar applications - their kidney-bean shape makes
commercial use impractical along with a thinner skin and being not bred for a long shelf life;
globe tomatoes are of the category of canners used for a wide variety of processing and fresh
eating; oxheart tomatoes can range in size up to beefsteaks, and are shaped like large
strawberries; plum tomatoes, or paste tomatoes (including pear tomatoes), are bred with a
higher solid content for use in tomato sauce and paste and are usually oblong; pear tomatoes
are obviously pear shaped and based upon the San Marzano types for a richer gourmet paste;

cherry tomatoes are small and round, often sweet tomatoes generally eaten whole in salads;
and grape tomatoes which are a more recent introduction are smaller and oblong used in
salads; campari tomatoes are also sweet and noted for their juiciness, low acidity, and lack of
mealiness; they are bigger then cherry tomatoes, but are smaller than plum tomato.
Early tomatoes and cool-summer tomatoes bear fruit even where nights are cool, which
usually discourages fruit set.[20] There are also varieties high in beta carotenes and vitamin A,
hollow tomatoes and tomatoes which keep for months in storage.[21]
Tomatoes are also commonly classified as determinate or indeterminate. Determinate, or

bush, types bear a full crop all at once and top off at a specific height; they are often good
choices for container growing. Determinate types are preferred by commercial growers who
wish to harvest a whole field at one time, or home growers interested in canning.
Indeterminate varieties develop into vines that never top off and continue producing until
killed by frost. They are preferred by home growers and local-market farmers who want ripe
fruit throughout the season. As an intermediate form, there are plants sometimes known as
"vigorous determinate" or "semi-determinate"; these top off like determinates but produce a
second crop after the initial crop. The majority of heirloom tomatoes are indeterminate,
although some determinate heirlooms exist.
A variety of specific cultivars, including Brandywine (biggest red), Black Krim (lower left
corner), Green Zebra (top right), et cetera.
Most modern tomato cultivars are smooth surfaced, but some older tomato cultivars and most
modern beefsteaks often show pronounced ribbing, a feature that may have been common to
virtually all pre-Columbian cultivars. While virtually all commercial tomato varieties are red,
some tomato cultivars - especially heirlooms - produce fruit in colors other than red,
including yellow, orange, pink, black, brown, ivory, white, and purple, though such fruit is
not widely available in grocery stores, nor are their seedlings available in typical nurseries,
but must be bought as seed, often via mail-order. Less common variations include fruit with
stripes (Green Zebra), fuzzy skin on the fruit (Fuzzy Peach, Red Boar), multiple colors
(Hillbilly, Burracker's Favorite, Lucky Cross), etc.
There is also a considerable gap between commercial and home-gardener cultivars; home
cultivars are often bred for flavor to the exclusion of all other qualities, while commercial
cultivars are bred for such factors as consistent size and shape, disease and pest resistance,

and suitability for mechanized picking and shipping, as well as their ability to be picked
before fully ripening. The most commonly home grown tomato is the Beefsteak variety. [22]
Tomatoes grow well with 7 hours of sunlight a day. A fertilizer with the ratio 5-10-10, often
sold as tomato fertilizer or vegetable fertilizer can be used for extra growth and production,
but manure or compost work well, too.
Diseases and pests
Main article: List of tomato diseases
Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on
improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants. One common tomato disease is
tobacco mosaic virus, and for this reason smoking or use of tobacco products are discouraged
around tomatoes, although there is some scientific debate over whether the virus could
possibly survive being burned and converted into smoke.[23] Various forms of mildew and
blight are also common tomato afflictions, which is why tomato cultivars are often marked
with a combination of letters which refer to specific disease resistance. The most common
letters are: V - verticillium wilt, F - fusarium wilt strain I, FF - fusarium wilt strain I & II, N -
nematodes, T - tobacco mosaic virus, and A - alternaria.
Another particularly dreaded disease is curly top, carried by the beet leafhopper, which
interrupts the lifecycle, ruining a nightshade plant as a crop. As the name implies, it has the
symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally.
Some common tomato pests are stink bugs, cutworms, tomato hornworms and tobacco
hornworms, aphids, cabbage loopers, whiteflies, tomato fruitworms, flea beetles, red spider
mite, slugs,[24] and Colorado potato beetles.
Pollination
The flower and leaves are visible in this photo of a tomato plant.
In the wild, original state, tomatoes required cross-pollination; they were much more self-
incompatible than domestic cultivars. As a floral device to reduce selfing, the pistils of wild
tomatoes extended farther out of the flower than today's cultivars. The stamens were, and
remain, entirely within the closed corolla.
As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators, (probably a
species of halictid bee) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility (or self-pollenizing)

became an advantage and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this
trait.
This is not the same as self-pollination, despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That
tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse
situations where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants (one
brand of vibrator is a wand called an "electric bee" that is used manually), or more often
today, by cultured bumblebees.
The anther of a tomato flower is shaped like a hollow tube, with the pollen produced within
the structure rather than on the surface, as with most species. The pollen moves through pores
in the anther, but very little pollen is shed without some kind of outside motion.
The best source of outside motion is a sonicating bee such as a bumblebee or the original
wild halictid pollinator. In an outside setting, wind or biological agents provide sufficient
motion to produce commercially viable crops.
Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivation
Tomatoes are often grown in greenhouses in cooler climates, and there are cultivars such as
the British 'Moneymaker' and a number of cultivars grown in Siberia that are specifically
bred for indoor growing. In more temperate climates, it is not uncommon to start seeds in
greenhouses during the late winter for future transplant.
Hydroponic tomatoes are also available, and the technique is often used in hostile growing
environments as well as high-density plantings.
Picking and ripening
Unripe tomatoes
Tomatoes are often picked unripe (and thus colored green) and ripened in storage with
ethylene. Unripe tomatoes are firm. As they ripen they soften until reaching the ripe state
where they are red or orange in color and slightly soft to the touch. Ethylene is a hydrocarbon
gas produced by many fruits that acts as the molecular cue to begin the ripening process.
Tomatoes ripened in this way tend to keep longer but have poorer flavor and a mealier,
starchier texture than tomatoes ripened on the plant. They may be recognized by their color,
which is more pink or orange than the other ripe tomatoes' deep red, depending on variety.
In 1994 Calgene introduced a genetically modified tomato called the 'FlavrSavr' which could
be vine ripened without compromising shelf life. However, the product was not commercially
successful (see main article for details) and was only sold until 1997.

Recently, stores have begun selling "tomatoes on the vine", which are determinate varieties
that are ripened or harvested with the fruits still connected to a piece of vine. These tend to
have more flavor than artificially ripened tomatoes (at a price premium), but still may not be
the equal of local garden produce.
Slow-ripening cultivars of tomato have been developed by crossing a non-ripening cultivar

with ordinary tomato cultivars. Cultivars were selected whose fruits have a long shelf life and
at least reasonable flavor.
Modern uses and nutrition
Red tomatoes, raw

Carbohydrates 4g
- Sugars 2.6 g
- Dietary fiber 1 g
Fat 0.2 g
Protein 1g
Water 95 g
Vitamin C 13 mg 22%
Tomatoes are now eaten freely throughout the world, and their consumption is believed to
benefit the heart among other things. They contain lycopene, one of the most powerful
natural antioxidants. In some studies lycopene, especially in cooked tomatoes, has been found
to help prevent prostate cancer[25] but other research contradicts this claim.[26] Lycopene has
also been shown to improve the skin's ability to protect against harmful UV rays.[27] Natural
genetic variation in tomatoes and their wild relatives has given a genetic treasure trove of
genes that produce lycopene, carotene, anthocyanin, and other antioxidants. Tomato varieties
are available with double the normal vitamin C (Doublerich), 40 times normal vitamin A
(97L97), high levels of anthocyanin (P20 Blue), and two to four times the normal amount of
lycopene (numerous available cultivars with the high crimson gene).
Though it is botanically a berry, a subset of fruit, the tomato is nutritionally categorized as a

vegetable (see below). Since "vegetable" is not a botanical term, there is no contradiction in a
plant part being a fruit botanically while still being considered a vegetable.
Tomatoes are used extensively in Mediterranean cuisine, especially Italian and Middle
Eastern cuisines. The tomato is acidic; this acidity makes tomatoes especially easy to
preserve in home canning whole, in pieces, as tomato sauce, or paste. Tomato juice is often
canned and sold as a beverage; Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to

make salsa, or pickled. The fruit is also preserved by drying, often by sun, and sold either in
bags or in jars in oil.
Cultural impact
The town of Buñol, Spain, annually celebrates La Tomatina, a festival centered on an

enormous tomato fight. Tomatoes are also a popular "non-lethal" throwing weapon in mass
protests; and there was a common tradition of throwing rotten tomatoes at bad performers on
a stage during the 19th century; today it is usually referenced as a mere metaphor (see Rotten
Tomatoes). Embracing it for this protest connotation, the Dutch Socialist party adopted the
tomato as their logo.
Known for its tomato growth and production, the Mexican state of Sinaloa takes the tomato
as its symbol.[28]
In October 1965, Reynoldsburg Ohio City Council dedicated a plaque commemorating a

proclamation from the Franklin County Historical Society that named Reynoldsburg as the
birthplace of the commercial tomato
Storage
Most tomatoes today are picked before fully ripened. They are bred to continue ripening, but
the enzyme[clarification needed] that ripens tomatoes stops working when it reaches temperatures
below 12.5 °C (54.5 °F). Once an unripe tomato drops below that temperature, it will not
continue to ripen.[citation needed] Once fully ripe, tomatoes can be stored in the refrigerator but
are best kept at room temperature. Tomatoes stored in the refrigerator tend to lose flavor but
will still be edible;[29] thus the "Never Refrigerate" stickers sometimes placed on tomatoes in
supermarkets.
Botanical description
Tomato plants are vines, initially decumbent, typically growing six feet or more above the
ground if supported, although erect bush varieties have been bred, generally three feet tall or
shorter. Indeterminate types are "tender" perennials, dying annually in temperate climates
(they are originally native to tropical highlands), although they can live up to three years in a
greenhouse in some cases. Determinate types are annual in all climates.
Tomato plants are dicots, and grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the
tip that does the actual growing. When that tip eventually stops growing, whether because of
pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into other, fully functional, vines.[30]
Tomato plant vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. These
hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the
ground and moisture, especially if there is some issue with the vine's contact to its original
root.
Most tomato plants have compound leaves, and are called regular leaf (RL) plants. But some
cultivars have simple leaves known as potato leaf (PL) style because of their resemblance to
that close cousin. Of regular leaves, there are variations, such as rugose leaves, which are

deeply grooved, variegated, angora leaves, which have additional colors where a genetic
mutation causes chlorophyll to be excluded from some portions of the leaves.[31]
Their flowers, appearing on the apical meristem, have the anthers fused along the edges,
forming a column surrounding the pistil's style. Flowers tend to be self-fertilizing. This is
because they are native to the Americas, where there were no honeybees (which are native to
the old world). Similarly, many plants of the Americas are self-fertilizing,[32] while others are
pollinated by flies, butterflies, moths, other insects, or other external forces that present in the
Americas, that made it possible for some new world plants to originally require biotic
pollination.
Tomato fruit is classified as a berry. As a true fruit, it develops from the ovary of the plant
after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains hollow spaces
full of seeds and moisture, called locular cavities. These vary, among cultivated species,
according to type. Some smaller varieties have two cavities, globe-shaped varieties typically
have three to five, beefsteak tomatoes have a great number of smaller cavities, while paste
tomatoes have very few, very small cavities.
The seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and be dried/fermented before germination.
Botanical classification
In 1753 the tomato was placed in the genus Solanum by Linnaeus as Solanum lycopersicum
L. (derivation, 'lyco', wolf, plus 'persicum', peach, i.e., "wolf-peach"). Other species in that
family are potatoes, chili peppers, tobacco, eggplant and the poisonous belladonna. However,
in 1768 Philip Miller placed it in its own genus, and he named it Lycopersicon esculentum.
This name came into wide use but was in breach of the plant naming rules. Technically, the
combination Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H.Karst. would be more correct, but this name
(published in 1881) has hardly ever been used (except in seed catalogs, which frequently used
it and still do). Therefore, it was decided to conserve the well-known Lycopersicon
esculentum, making this the correct name for the tomato when it is placed in the genus
Lycopersicon.
However, genetic evidence (e.g., Peralta & Spooner 2001) has now shown that Linnaeus was
correct in the placement of the tomato in the genus Solanum, making the Linnaean name
correct;[1] if Lycopersicon is excluded from Solanum, Solanum is left as a paraphyletic taxon.
Despite this, it is likely that the exact taxonomic placement of the tomato will be
controversial for some time to come, with both names found in the literature. Two of the
major reasons that some still consider the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves
are markedly different from any other Solanum), and the biochemistry (many of the alkaloids
common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent in the tomato). The tomato can
with some difficulty be crossed with a few species of diploid Potato with viable offspring that
are capable of reproducing. Such hybrids provide conclusive evidence of the close
relationship between these genera.
The Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research began sequencing the tomato genome in
2004 and is creating a database of genomic sequences and information on the tomato and
related plants.[33] A draft version of the full genome expected to be published by 2008. The

genomes of its organelles (mitochondria and chloroplast) are also expected to be published as
part of the project.
Breeding
Active breeding programs are ongoing by individuals, universities, corporations, and
organizations. The Tomato Genetic Resource Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture's
Agricultural Research Service-Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN)[2],
AVRDC, and numerous seed banks around the world store seed representing genetic
variations of value to modern agriculture. These seed stocks are available for legitimate
breeding and research efforts. While individual breeding efforts can produce useful results,
the bulk of tomato breeding work is at universities and major agriculture related corporations.
University breeding programs are active in Florida, North Carolina, New York, Oregon, and
several other states as well as in numerous countries worldwide. These efforts have resulted
in significant regionally adapted breeding lines and hybrids such as the Mountain series from
North Carolina. Corporations including Heinz, Monsanto, BHNSeed, Bejoseed, etc, have
breeding programs that attempt to improve production, size, shape, color, flavor, disease
tolerance, pest tolerance, nutritional value, and numerous other traits.
Fruit or vegetable?
Botanically, a tomato is the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant: therefore it is
a fruit. However, the tomato is not as sweet as those foodstuffs usually called fruits and, from
a culinary standpoint, it is typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, as are
vegetables, rather than at dessert in the case of most fruits. As noted above, the term
vegetable has no botanical meaning and is purely a culinary term. Originally the controversy
was that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices. Tomatoes are acidic
enough to be processed in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as "vegetables" require.
This argument has had legal implications in the United States. In 1887, U.S. tariff laws that
imposed a duty on vegetables but not on fruits caused the tomato's status to become a matter
of legal importance. The U.S. Supreme Court settled the controversy on May 10, 1893 by
declaring that the tomato is a vegetable, based on the popular definition that classifies
vegetables by use, that they are generally served with dinner and not dessert (Nix v. Hedden
(149 U.S. 304)).[34] The holding of the case applies only to the interpretation of the Tariff Act
of March 3, 1883, and the court did not purport to reclassify the tomato for botanical or other
purpose. Tomatoes have been designated the state vegetable of New Jersey. Arkansas took
both sides by declaring the "South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato" to be both the state
fruit and the state vegetable in the same law, citing both its culinary and botanical
classifications. In 2006, the Ohio House of Representatives passed a law that would have
declared the tomato to be the official state fruit, but the bill died when the Ohio Senate failed
to act on it. However, in April 2009 a new form of the bill passed, making the tomato the
official fruit of the state of Ohio. Tomato juice has been the official beverage of Ohio since
1965. A.W. Livingston, of Reynoldsburg, Ohio, played a large part in popularizing the
tomato in the late 1800s.
Due to the scientific definition of a fruit, the tomato remains a fruit when not dealing with US
tariffs. Nor is it the only culinary vegetable that is a botanical fruit: eggplants, cucumbers,
and squashes of all kinds (such as zucchini and pumpkins) share the same ambiguity.

Pronunciation
The pronunciation of tomato differs in different English-speaking countries; the two most
common variants are /təˈmɑ ˈtoʊ / and /təˈmeɪ toʊ /. Speakers from the British Isles, most
of the Commonwealth, and older generations among speakers of Southern American English
typically say /təˈmɑ ˈtoʊ /, while most American and Canadian speakers usually say
/təˈmeɪ ɾ oʊ /.
The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin's 1937 song
"Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" (You like /pə‫ر‬teɪ toʊ / and I like /pə‫ر‬tɑ ‫ر‬toʊ / / You like
/tə‫ر‬meɪ toʊ / and I like /tə‫ر‬mɑ ‫ر‬toʊ /) and have become a symbol for nitpicking
pronunciation disputes. In this capacity it has even become an American and British slang
term: saying /təˈmeɪ toʊ , təˈmɑ ˈtoʊ / when presented with two choices can mean
"What's the difference?" or "It's all the same to me."[original research?]
Safety
Plant toxicity
The leaves, stems, and green unripe fruit of the tomato plant,[35] as a member of the plant
genus Solanum (Nightshade), contain the poison Solanine, which is toxic to humans and
animals. Children have been poisoned by a tea produced from the leaves of the tomato plant.
The fresh fruit is, however, harmless.[35]
2006
A sign posted at a Havelock, North Carolina Burger King telling customers that no tomatoes
are available due to the salmonella outbreak.
On October 30, 2006, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) announced
that tomatoes might have been the source of a salmonella outbreak causing 172 illnesses in
18 states.[36] The affected states included Arkansas, Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky,
Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, North Carolina, New Hampshire, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Virginia, Vermont and Wisconsin. Tomatoes have
been linked to seven salmonella outbreaks since 1990 (from the Food Safety Network).[37]
2008

A 2008 salmonella outbreak caused the removal of tomatoes from stores and restaurants
across the United States and parts of Canada.[38] As of July 8, 2008, from April 10, 2008, the
rare Saintpaul serotype of Salmonella enterica caused at least 1017 cases of salmonellosis
food poisoning in 41 states throughout the United States, the District of Columbia, and
Canada. As of July 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration suspected that the
contaminated food product was a common ingredient in fresh salsa, such as raw tomato, fresh
jalapeño pepper, fresh serrano pepper, and fresh cilantro. It is the largest reported
salmonellosis outbreak in the United States since 1985. New Mexico and Texas were
proportionally the hardest hit by far, with 49.7 and 16.1 reported cases per million,
respectively. The greatest number of reported cases occurred in Texas (384 reported cases),
New Mexico (98), Illinois (100), and Arizona (49).[39] There were at least 203 reported
hospitalizations linked to the outbreak, it caused at least one death, and it may have been a
contributing factor in at least one additional death.[40] The CDC maintains that "it is likely
many more illnesses have occurred than those reported." Applying a previous CDC estimated
ratio of non-reported salmonellosis cases to reported cases (38.6:1), one would arrive at an
estimated 40,273 illnesses from this outbreak.[41]
Tomato records
The tomato tree as seen by guests on the Living with the Land boat ride at Epcot, Lake Buena
Vista, Florida.
The heaviest tomato ever was one of 3.51 kg (7 lb 12 oz), of the cultivar 'Delicious', grown
by Gordon Graham of Edmond, Oklahoma in 1986.[citation needed] The largest tomato plant
grown was of the cultivar 'Sungold' and reached 19.8 m (65 ft) length, grown by Nutriculture
Ltd (UK) of Mawdesley, Lancashire, UK, in 2000.[citation needed]
The massive "tomato tree" growing inside the Walt Disney World Resort's experimental
greenhouses in Lake Buena Vista, Florida may be the largest single tomato plant in the world.
The plant has been recognized as a Guinness World Record Holder, with a harvest of more
than 32,000 tomatoes and a total weight of 1,151.84 pounds (522 kg). It yields thousands of
tomatoes at one time from a single vine. Yong Huang, Epcot's manager of agricultural
science, discovered the unique plant in Beijing, China. Huang brought its seeds to Epcot and
created the specialized greenhouse for the fruit to grow. The vine grows golf ball-sized
tomatoes which are served at Walt Disney World restaurants. The world record-setting
tomato tree can be seen by guests along the Living With the Land boat ride at Epcot.
On August 30, 2007, 40,000 Spaniards gathered in Buñol to throw 115,000 kilograms
(250,000 lb) of tomatoes at each other in the yearly Tomatina festival. Bare-chested tourists
also included hundreds of British, French and Germans.[42]

Varieties commonly grown by home gardeners include[citation needed]:
'Beefsteak VFN' (a common hybrid resistant to Verticillium, Fusarium, and

Nematodes)
'Big Boy' (a very common determinate hybrid in the United States)
'Black Krim' (a purple-and-red cultivar from the Crimea)
'Brandywine' (a pink, indeterminate beefsteak type with a considerable number of
substrains)
'Burpee VF' (an early attempt by W. Atlee Burpee at disease resistance in a
commercial tomato)
'Early Girl' (an early maturing globe type)
'Gardener's Delight' (a smaller English variety)
'Juliet' (an oblong cherry tomato)
'Marmande' (a heavily ridged variety from southern France; similar to a small
beefsteak and available commercially in the U.S. as UglyRipe)
'Moneymaker' (an English greenhouse strain)
Mortgage Lifter (a popular heirloom beefsteak known for gigantic fruit)
'Patio' (bred specifically for container gardens)
'Purple Haze' (large cherry, indeterminate. Derived from Cherokee Purple,
Brandywine and Black Cherry)
'Roma VF' (a plum tomato common in supermarkets)
'Rutgers' (a commercial variety but considered an heirloom)
'San Marzano' (a plum tomato popular in Italy)
'Santa F1' (a Chinese grape tomato hybrid popular in the U.S. and parts of southeast
Asia)
'Shephard's Sack' (a large variety popular in parts of Wales)
'Sungold F1' (orange cherry variety with distinctive candy like sweetness)
'Sweet 100' (a very prolific, indeterminate cherry tomato)
'Yellow Pear'' (a yellow, pear-shaped heirloom cultivar)
'Cherry' Small, cherry shaped
Many varieties of processing tomatoes are grown commercially, but just five hybrid cultivars
grown in California constitute over 60% of total production of processing tomatoes.[12]
Heritage and heirloom varieties include:
'Aunt Ruby's German Green' (spicy green beefsteak type)

'Azoykcha' (Russian yellow variety)
'Andrew Rahart Jumbo Red' (red beefsteak)
'Backfield' (deep red indeterminate beefsteak type)
'Black Cherry' (black/brown cherry)
'Box Car Willie' (red beefsteak)
'Brandywine' (red beefsteak, Sudduth strain)
'Cherokee Purple' (purple beefsteak)
'Crnkovic Yugoslavian' (red beefsteak)
'Earl‘s Faux' (pink/red beefsteak)
'Elbe' (orange beefsteak)
'German Johnson (sweet beefsteak type)
'Great Divide' (red beefsteak)
'Ispolin' (pink Siberian strain)

'Lucky Cross' (bi-color red/orange)
'Marianna‘s Peace' (red beefsteak)
'Mortgage Lifter' (red beefsteak, various strains)
'Red Pear' (pear shaped salad cherry type with beefsteak flavor)
'Rose' (very large sweet Amish beefsteak type)
'Urbikany' (Siberian variety)
Gallery
Unripe tomatoes on a
vine, good for Small cherry tomatoes Tomato slices.
pickling. in Korea. Tomatoes on a vine.
Tomato plants in the Heirloom tomatoes in

Tomato Flower.
Young tomato plant. garden. Pico de gallo.
Tomato fruit. 'P20 blue tomato from

Vine Ripened Tomato OSU'
Culinary uses

Pa amb tomàquet
Suquet de peix (Catalan cuisine)
Barbecue sauces
Bloody Mary
Bruschetta
Fried green tomatoes (food)
Gazpacho (Andalusian cuisine)
Insalata Caprese Neapolitan cuisine
Ketchup
Pa amb tomàquet (Catalan cuisine)
Pizza
Esqueixada
Salsa
Tomato juice
Tomato paste
Tomato pie
Tomato purée
Tomato sauce (common in Italian cuisine)
Tomato soup
References

Smith, A. F. (1994). The Tomato in America. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-
252-07009-7.
Peralta, I. E. & Spooner, D. M. (2001). Granule-bound starch synthase (Gbssi) gene
phylogeny of wild tomatoes (Solanum L. section Lycopersicon Mill. Wettst.
Subsection Lycopersicon). American Journal of Botany 88 (10): 1888–1902 (available
online).
Footnotes
1. ^ a b "Molecular phylogenetic analyses have established that the formerly segregate
genera Lycopersicon, Cyphomandra, Normania, and Triguera are nested within
Solanum, and all species of these four genera have been transferred to Solanum." See:
Natural History Museum, Solanaceae Source: Phylogeny of the genus Solanum.
2. ^ Acquaah, G. (2002). Horticulture: Principles and Practices. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
3. ^ Tomato history
4. ^ "Killer Tomatoes - The East Hampton Star - Food & Wine". Easthamptonstar.com.
October 26, 2008.
http://www.easthamptonstar.com/dnn/Archive/Home20080814/FoodWine/Seasons/ta
bid/6280/Default.aspx. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
5. ^ a b Smith, Andrew F (1994). The tomato in America: early history, culture, and
cookery. Columbia, S.C, USA: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-5700-
3000-6.
6. ^ a b c d The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture, and Cookery, Andrew F.
Smith, 1994, p.17, webpage: books-google-TTp17.
7. ^ "British Consuls in Aleppo - Your Archives".
Yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk. 2009-01-26.
http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=British_Consuls_in_Alep
po. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
8. ^ Syria under the last five Turkish Sultans, Appletons' journal Published by D.
Appleton and Co., 1876, p. 519 [1]
9. ^ The Friend, 1881, p. 223
10. ^ "C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center". Tgrc.ucdavis.edu.
http://tgrc.ucdavis.edu/. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
11. ^ "UC Newsroom, UC Davis Tomato Geneticist Charles Rick Dies at 87. (2002-05-
08)". Universityofcalifornia.edu. 2002-05-08.
http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/article/4319. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
12. ^ a b Hartz, T. et al. Processing Tomato Production in California. UC Vegetable
Research and Information Center.
13. ^ http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567
14. ^ "http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html".
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-tomatoes.html. Retrieved
December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 56:
"This 120-acre facility is the largest of its type in the world. During the three months
of the local harvest, it handles more than 1.2 million pounds of tomatoes every hour."
December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 57:
"...five tons to the acre, or about one-eighth of a Morning Star harvest from one acre."

16. ^ "A Passion for Tomatoes | Science & Nature | Smithsonian Magazine".
Smithsonianmag.com. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/passion-for-
tomatoes.html. Retrieved 2009-04-02.
December 11 2009. In the August 2008 issue of Smithsonian magazine, page 60: "The
definition of an heirloom is somewhat vague, but all are self-pollinators that have
been bred true for 40 years or more."
Heinz 2401 is also bred for resistance to tomato pathogens, of which there are many:
beetles and nematodes, fungi such as fusarium and verticillium, and viruses such as
yellow leaf curl and spotted wilt, which are carried in the wind, the soil or the mouths
of pests such as whitefly and thrips. Because it doesn't really matter what processing
tomatoes look like, they require fewer applications of pesticides than do fresh-market
varieties. The Romas I saw being harvested had been sprayed only once."
plants are still growing, and Brait will be happy if they yield as little as five tons to
the acre, or about one-eighth of a Morning Star harvest from one acre."
20. ^ http://www.plants.am/wiki/Tomato#Early_tomatoes
21. ^ http://www.plants.am/wiki/Tomato#Novelty_tomatoes
22. ^ http://www.ufseeds.com/All-About-Tomatoes_a6fd3933f91c4.html
23. ^ Tomato-Tobacco Mosaic Virus Disease Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved June 30,
2006.
24. ^ Slugs in Home Gardens Extension.umn.edu. Retrieved July 14, 2006.
25. ^ "Health benefits of tomatoes".
http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=44. Retrieved 2007-
05-24.
26. ^ "No magic tomato? Study breaks link between lycopene and prostate cancer
prevention". http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-05/aafc-nmt051607.php.
27. ^ "Tomato dishes 'may protect skin'". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7370759.stm.
28. ^ "Gobierno del Estado de Sinaloa". Sinaloa.gob.mx. http://www.sinaloa.gob.mx.
29. ^ "Selecting, Storing and Serving Ohio Tomatoes, HYG-5532-93". Ohioline.osu.edu.
http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5532.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
30. ^ "Crop Profiles - Tomato". Ncsu.edu.
http://www.ncsu.edu/sustainable/profiles/bot_tom.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
31. ^ "Are there different types of tomato leaves?". Faq.gardenweb.com.
http://faq.gardenweb.com/faq/lists/tomato/2004111539004321.html. Retrieved 2008-
10-27.
32. ^ "Tomato Anatomy Home". Plb.ucdavis.edu. http://www-
plb.ucdavis.edu/labs/rost/Tomato/tomhome.html. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
33. ^ Krishna Ramanujan (30 January 2007). "Tomato genome project gets $1.8M".
News.cornell.edu. http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Jan07/SolanacaeNSF.kr.html.

34. ^ "Vegetarians in Paradise/Tomato History, Tomato Nutrition, Tomato Recipe".
Vegparadise.com. http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch8.html. Retrieved 2009-
04-02.
35. ^ a b Pittenger, Dennis R. (2002). California Master Gardener Handbook. ANR
Publications. p. 643. ISBN 1879906546, 9781879906549.
http://www.google.com/books?id=WhWjHB1Zjf8C&pg=PA643. Retrieved 2009-07-
21.
36. ^ "CDC Probes Salmonella Outbreak, Health Officials Say Bacteria May Have
Spread Through Some Form Of Produce - CBS News". Cbsnews.com.
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/10/30/national/main2138331.shtml. Retrieved
2008-10-27.
37. ^ "Food Safety Network: Researchers > From the Food Safety Network > Food
Safety Network Publications and Documents &gt Articles > A selection of North
American tomato related outbreaks from 1990-2005". Foodsafetynetwork.ca.
http://www.foodsafetynetwork.ca/en/article-details.php?a=3&c=32&sc=419&id=953.
38. ^ "Tomatoes taken off menus". Nationalpost.com.
http://www.nationalpost.com/news/canada/story.html?id=585498. Retrieved 2008-10-
27.
39. ^ "Cases infected with the outbreak strain of Salmonella Saintpaul, United States, by
state". http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/saintpaul/map.html.
40. ^ "August 8, 2008: Investigation of Outbreak of Infections Caused by Salmonella
Saintpaul | Salmonella CDC". Cdc.gov. http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/saintpaul/.
41. ^ Voetsch, et al. (2004-04-15). "FoodNet Estimate of the Burden of Illness Caused by
Nontyphoidal Salmonella Infections in the United States". Clinical Infectious
Diseases, 2004; 38:S3. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/381578.
42. ^ "ITN.co.uk, "Spain's tomato fighters see red"". Itn.co.uk. 2007-08-30.
http://itn.co.uk/news/9a5a1671ceba4f43741dc008f237c1ea.html. Retrieved 2009-04-
02.
Nutmeg
Nutmeg

Myristica fragrans
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Magnoliids
Order: Magnoliales
Family: Myristicaceae
Genus: Myristica
Gronov.
Species
About 100 species, including:
Myristica argentea
Myristica fragrans
Myristica inutilis
Myristica malabarica
Myristica macrophylla
Myristica otoba
Myristica platysperma
Nutmeg or Myristica fragrans is an evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the
Moluccas of Indonesia, or Spice Islands. Until the mid 19th century this was the world's only
source. The nutmeg tree is important for two spices derived from the fruit, nutmeg and
mace.[1]
Nutmeg is the actual seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and about 20 to 30 mm (0.8 to 1 in)
long and 15 to 18 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) wide, and weighing between 5 and 10 g (0.2 and 0.4 oz)
dried, while mace is the dried "lacy" reddish covering or arillus of the seed. This is the only
tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices.
Several other commercial products are also produced from the trees, including essential oils,
extracted oleoresins, and nutmeg butter (see below).
The outer surface of the nutmeg bruises easily.
The pericarp (fruit/pod) is used in Grenada to make a jam called "Morne Delice". In
Indonesia, the fruit is also made into jam, called selei buah pala, or sliced finely, cooked and
crystallised to make a fragrant candy called manisan pala ("nutmeg sweets").
The most important species commercially is the Common or Fragrant Nutmeg Myristica
fragrans, native to the Banda Islands of Indonesia; it is also grown in Penang Island in
Malaysia and the Caribbean, especially in Grenada. It also grows in Kerala, a state in the
south part of India. Other species include Papuan Nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea,
and Bombay Nutmeg M. malabarica from India, called Jaiphal in Hindi; both are used as
adulterants of M. fragrans products.

Culinary uses
Nutmeg and mace have similar taste qualities, nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a
more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, saffron-
like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is a tasty addition to cheese sauces and is best grated fresh (see
nutmeg grater). Nutmeg is a traditional ingredient in mulled cider, mulled wine, and eggnog.
In Penang cuisine, nutmeg is made into pickles and these pickles are even shredded as
toppings on the uniquely Penang Ais Kacang. Nutmeg is also blended (creating a fresh,
green, tangy taste and white colour juice) or boiled (resulting in a much sweeter and brown
juice) to make Iced Nutmeg juice or as it is called in Penang Hokkien, "Lau Hau Peng".
In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet as well as savoury dishes (predominantly in
Mughlai cuisine). It is known as Jaiphal in most parts of India and as Jatipatri and Jathi
seed in Kerala. It may also be used in small quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is
also smoked in India.[citation needed]
In Middle Eastern cuisine, nutmeg grounds are often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In
Arabic, nutmeg is called Jawzt at-Tiyb.
In Greece and Cyprus nutmeg is called μοστοκάρσδο (moschokarydo) (Greek: "musky nut")
and is used in cooking and savoury dishes.
In European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in potato dishes and in processed
meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked goods. In Dutch cuisine nutmeg
is quite popular, it is added to vegetables like Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and string beans.
Japanese varieties of curry powder include nutmeg as an ingredient.
In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks such as the Bushwacker, Painkiller, and
Barbados rum punch. Typically it is just a sprinkle on the top of the drink.
Essential oils
Nutmeg seeds

Nutmeg
The essential oil is obtained by the steam distillation of ground nutmeg and is used heavily in
the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells
and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the oleochemical
industry, and is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and
sweets. It replaces ground nutmeg as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also
used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in toothpaste, and as a major
ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used
for illnesses related to the nervous and digestive systems.
Nutmeg butter
Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. It is semi-solid, reddish brown in
colour, and tastes and smells of nutmeg. Approximately 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is
trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid, a 14-carbon fatty acid which can be used
as a replacement for cocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats like cottonseed oil or palm oil,
and has applications as an industrial lubricant.
History
Mace (red) within nutmeg fruit
There is some evidence to suggest that Roman priests may have burned nutmeg as a form of
incense, although this is disputed. It is known to have been used as a prized and costly spice
in medieval cuisine, used as flavourings, medicines, preserving agents, that were at the time
highly valued in European markets. Saint Theodore the Studite ( ca. 758 – ca. 826) was

famous for allowing his monks to sprinkle nutmeg on their pease pudding when required to
eat it. In Elizabethan times it was believed that nutmeg could ward off the plague, so nutmeg
was very popular.
The small Banda Islands were the world's only source of nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg was
traded by Arabs during the Middle Ages and sold to the Venetians for exorbitant prices, but
the traders did not divulge the exact location of their source in the profitable Indian Ocean
trade and no European was able to deduce their location.
In August 1511, on behalf of the king of Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered

Malacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade. In November of that year, after
having secured Malacca and learning of the Bandas' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition
of three ships led by his good friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either
recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to
Banda, arriving in early 1512.[2] The first Europeans to reach the Bandas, the expedition
remained in Banda for about one month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's
nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade.[3] The first
written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary
Tomé Pires based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. But full control of this trade was not
possible and they remained largely participants, rather than overlords since the authority
Ternate held over the nutmeg-growing centre of the Banda Islands was quite limited.
Therefore, the Portuguese failed to gain a foothold in the islands themselves.
The trade in nutmeg later became dominated by the Dutch in the 17th century. The British
and Dutch engaged in prolonged struggles to gain control of Run island, then the only source
of nutmeg. At the end of the Second Anglo-Dutch War the Dutch gained control of Run in
exchange for the British controlling New Amsterdam (New York) in North America.
The Dutch managed to establish control over the Banda Islands after an extended military
campaign that culminated in the massacre or expulsion of most of the islands' inhabitants in
1621. Thereafter, the Banda Islands were run as a series of plantation estates, with the Dutch
mounting annual expeditions in local war-vessels to extirpate nutmeg trees planted elsewhere.
As a result of the Dutch interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars, the English took
temporary control of the Banda Islands from the Dutch and transplanted nutmeg trees to their
own colonial holdings elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and Grenada. Today, a stylised split-open
nutmeg fruit is found on the national flag of Grenada.
Connecticut gets its nickname ("the Nutmeg State", "Nutmegger") from the legend that some
unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle "nutmeg" out of wood, creating a "wooden
nutmeg" (a term which came to mean any fraud) [2].

World production
Commercial jar of nutmeg mace
World production of nutmeg is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes
(9,800 and 12,000 long tons) per year with annual world demand estimated at 9,000 tonnes
(8,900 long tons); production of mace is estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes (1,500 to 2,000
long tons). Indonesia and Grenada dominate production and exports of both products with a
world market share of 75% and 20% respectively. Other producers include India, Malaysia
(especially Penang where the trees are native within untamed areas), Papua New Guinea, Sri
Lanka, and Caribbean islands such as St. Vincent. The principal import markets are the
European Community, the United States, Japan, and India. Singapore and the Netherlands are
major re-exporters.
At one time, nutmeg was one of the most valuable spices. It has been said that in England,
several hundred years ago, a few nutmeg nuts could be sold for enough money to enable
financial independence for life.
The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting and the trees reach their
full potential after 20 years.
Psychoactivity and toxicity

In low doses, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response. Large
doses can be dangerous (potentially inducing convulsions, palpitations, nausea, eventual
dehydration, and generalized body pain).[4] In large amounts it is reputed to be a strong
deliriant.[5] Users report both negative and positive experiences, involving strong
hallucinations, and in some cases quite severe anxiety. Users may feel a sensation of blood
rushing to the head, or a strong euphoria and dissociation.[citation needed] Nutmeg contains
myristicin, a weak monoamine oxidase inhibitor.

Speculative comparisons between the effects of nutmeg intoxication and MDMA (or
'ecstasy') have been made.[6] However, nutmeg contains amphetamine derivatives and such
are formed in the body of a significant number of people from the main chemical components
of nutmeg.[7] Use of nutmeg as a recreational drug is unpopular due to its unpleasant taste and
its possible negative side effects, including dizziness, flushes, dry mouth, accelerated
heartbeat, temporary constipation, difficulty in urination, nausea, and panic. In addition,
experiences usually last well over 24 hours making recreational use rather impractical.[citation
needed]
A risk in any large-quantity ingestion of nutmeg is the onset of 'nutmeg poisoning', an acute
psychiatric disorder marked by thought disorder, a sense of impending doom/death, and
agitation. Some cases have resulted in hospitalization.[citation needed]
Toxicity during pregnancy
Nutmeg was once considered an abortifacient, but may be safe for culinary use during
pregnancy. However, it inhibits prostaglandin production and contains hallucinogens that
may affect the fetus if consumed in large quantities.[8]
In popular culture
In a Beavis & Butthead episode featuring a music video for the song "Dang" by John Spencer
Blues Explosion, Beavis asks Butthead at the end of the video if he "has any more nutmeg."
This refers to nutmeg's psychoactive properties, as the strange video intentionally makes no
sense yet greatly appeals to the two music video critics.
In his autobiography, Malcom X mentions incidences of prison inmates consuming nutmeg

powder, usually diluted in a glass of water, in order to become inebriated. The prison guards
eventually catch on to this practice and crack down on nutmeg's use as a psychoactive in the
prison system.
See also
Run (island): Seventeenth-century British-Dutch rivalry for a source of nutmegs.
Footnotes
1. ^ [1]
2. ^ Hannard (1991), page 7; Milton, Giles (1999). Nathaniel's Nutmeg. London:
Sceptre. pp. 5 and 7. ISBN 978-0-340-69676-7.
3. ^ Hannard (1991), page 7
4. ^ "BMJ". http://emj.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/22/3/223.
5. ^ "Erowid". http://www.erowid.org/plants/nutmeg/.
6. ^ "MDMA". http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=5469.
7. ^ Beyer J., Ehlers D., Maurer H.H. (2006). Abuse of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans
houtt.) : Studies on the metabolism and the toxicologic detection of its ingredients
elemicin, myristicin, and safrole in rat and human urine using gas chromatography/
mass spectrometry. Therapeutic drug monitoring. 28(4):568-575.
8. ^ Herb and drug safety chart Herb and drug safety chart from BabyCentre UK

References
Shulgin, A. T., Sargent, T. W., & Naranjo, C. (1967). Chemistry and
psychopharmacology of nutmeg and of several related phenylisopropylamines. United
States Public Health Service Publication 1645: 202–214.
Gable, R. S. (2006). The toxicity of recreational drugs. American Scientist 94: 206–
208.
Devereux, P. (1996). Re-Visioning the Earth: A Guide to Opening the Healing
Channels Between Mind and Nature. New York: Fireside. pp. 261–262.
Milton, Giles (1999), Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the
Course of History
Erowid Nutmeg Information
Monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate
[show]
IUPAC name
Identifiers
CAS number 142-47-2
PubChem 85314
EC-number 205-538-1
[show]
SMILES
ChemSpider ID 76943
Properties
Molecular formula C5H8NNaO4
Molar mass 169.111 g/mol
Appearance white crystalline powder
Melting point 225 °C, 498 K, 437 °F
Solubility in water 74g/100mL
(what is this?) (verify)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in
their standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)
Infobox references

Crystalline monosodium glutamate
Monosodium glutamate, also known as sodium glutamate and MSG, is a sodium salt of
the non-essential amino acid glutamic acid. It is used as a food additive and is commonly
marketed as a flavour enhancer. It has the HS code 29224220 and the E number E621. Trade
names of monosodium glutamate include Ajinomoto, Vetsin, and Accent. It was once
predominantly made from wheat gluten, but is now mostly made from bacterial fermentation;
it is acceptable for celiacs following a gluten-free diet.[1][2][3][4]
Although traditional Asian cuisine had often used seaweed extract, which contains high
concentrations of glutamic acid, MSG was not isolated until 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda. MSG
was subsequently patented by Ajinomoto Corporation of Japan in 1909. In its pure form, it
appears as a white crystalline powder; when immersed in water or saliva, it rapidly
dissociates into sodium cations and glutamate anions (glutamate is the anionic form of
glutamic acid, a naturally occurring amino acid).
Production and chemical properties

MSG is normally obtained by the fermentation of carbohydrates, using bacterial or yeast
species from genera such as Brevibacterium, Arthrobacter, Microbacterium, and
Corynebacterium. Yields of 100 g/litre[citation needed] can be prepared in this way. From 1909 to
the mid 1960s, MSG was prepared by the hydrolysis of wheat gluten, which is roughly 25%
glutamic acid. Glutamic acid is one of the least soluble amino acids, which facilitates its
purification.[5]
Like the sodium salts of other amino acids, MSG is a stable colourless solid that is degraded
by strong oxidizing agents. It exists as a pair of mirror image stereoisomers (enantiomers),
but only the naturally occurring L-glutamate form is used as a flavour enhancer.
Commercialization
The Ajinomoto company was formed to manufacture and market MSG in Japan; the name
'Aji no moto' translates to "essence of taste". It was introduced to the United States in 1947 as
Ac'cent flavor enhancer.[6]

Modern commercial MSG is produced by fermentation[7] of starch, sugar beets, sugar cane, or
molasses. About 1.5 million tonnes were sold in 2001, with 4% annual growth expected.[8]
MSG is used commercially as a flavour enhancer. Although once associated with foods in
Chinese restaurants, MSG is now used by most fast food chains and in many foodstuffs,
particularly processed foods.[9][not in citation given]
Examples include:
Pre-prepared stocks often known as stock cubes or bouillon cubes.

Condiments such as barbecue sauce and salad dressing.
Canned, frozen, or dried prepared food
Common snack foods such as flavoured jerky, flavoured potato chips and flavoured
tortilla chips.
Seasoning mixtures
Only the L-glutamate enantiomer has flavour-enhancing properties.[10] Manufactured MSG

contains over 99.6% of the naturally predominant L-glutamate form, which is a higher
proportion of L-glutamate than found in the free glutamate ions of naturally occurring foods.
Fermented products such as soy sauce, steak sauce, and Worcestershire sauce have levels of
glutamate similar to foods with added MSG. However, glutamate in these brewed products
may have 5% or more of the D-enantiomer.[10]
Health concerns
Main article: Glutamic acid (flavor)#Research into health effects
MSG as a food ingredient has been the subject of health studies. A report from the Federation
of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) compiled in 1995 on behalf of the
FDA concluded that MSG was safe for most people when "eaten at customary levels."
However, it also said that, based on anecdotal reports, some people may have an MSG
intolerance which causes "MSG symptom complex" — commonly referred to as Chinese
restaurant syndrome — and/or a worsening of asthmatic symptoms.[11] Subsequent research
found that while large doses of MSG given without food may elicit more symptoms than a
placebo in individuals who believe that they react adversely to MSG, the frequency of the
responses was low and the responses reported were inconsistent, not reproducible, and were
not observed when MSG was given with food.[12] While many people believe that MSG is the
cause of these symptoms, a statistical association has not been demonstrated under controlled
conditions, even in studies with people who were convinced that they were sensitive to
it.[12][13][14][15] Adequately controlling for experimental bias includes a placebo-controlled
double-blinded experimental design and the application in capsules because of the strong and
unique after-taste of glutamates.[13]
United States
Monosodium glutamate is one of several forms of glutamic acid found in foods, in large part
because glutamic acid is pervasive in nature, being an amino acid. Glutamic acid and its salts
can also be present in a wide variety of other additives, including hydrolyzed vegetable
proteins, autolyzed yeast, hydrolyzed yeast, yeast extract, soy extracts, and protein isolate,
any one of which may appear as "spices" or "natural flavorings." The food additives disodium

inosinate and disodium guanylate are usually used along with monosodium glutamate-
containing ingredients, and provide a likely indicator of the presence of monosodium
glutamate in a product. For this reason, the FDA considers labels such as "No MSG" or "No
Added MSG" to be misleading if the food contains ingredients that are sources of free
glutamate, such as hydrolyzed protein.
In 1993, the FDA proposed adding the phrase "(contains glutamate)" to the common or usual
names of certain protein hydrolysates that contain substantial amounts of glutamate.
In the 2004 version of his book, On Food and Cooking, food scientist Harold McGee states
that "[after many studies], toxicologists have concluded that MSG is a harmless ingredient for
most people, even in large amounts."
Asia
The INTERMAP Cooperative Research Group conducted a study of 752 healthy Chinese
(48.7% women), age 40–59 years, randomly sampled from three rural villages in north and
south China and determined that MSG intake may be positively correlated to an increased
BMI (Body Mass Index).[16]
Australia and New Zealand
Standard 1.2.4 of the Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code requires the presence
of MSG as a food additive to be labeled. The label must bear the food additive class name
(e.g. flavour enhancer), followed by either the name of the food additive, MSG, or its
International Numbering System (INS) number, 621.
References
1. ^ http://www.celiac.com/articles/181/1/Safe-Gluten-Free-Food-List-Safe-
Ingredients/Page1.html
2. ^ Leung, Albert Y.; Foster, Steven (August 2003). "Monosodium Glutamate".
Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients: Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics
(2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 373-375. ISBN 978-0-471-47128-8. "Monosodium
glutamate can generally be produced by three methods: (1) hydrolysis of proteins such
as gluten or proteins present in sugar beet wastes, (2) synthesis, and (3) microbial
fermentation. In the hydrolysis method, the protein is hydrolyzed with a strong
mineral acid to free amino acids, and the glutamic acid is then separated from the
mixture, purified, and converted to its monosodium salt, [monosodium glutamate].
This used to be the major method of [monosodium glutamate] manufacture. Currently
most of the world production of [monosodium glutamate] is by bacterial fermentation.
In this method bacteria (especially strains of Micrococcus glutamicus) are grown
aerobically in a liquid nutrient medium containing a carbon source (e.g., dextrose or
citrate), a nitrogen source such as ammonium ions or urea, and mineral ions and
growth factors. The bacteria selected for this process have the ability to excrete
glutamic acid they synthesize outside of their cell membrane into the medium and
accumulate there. The glutamic acid is separated from the fermentation broth by
filtration, concentration, acidification, and crystallization, followed by conversion to
its monosodium salt [monosodium glutamate].".

3. ^ http://www.celiac.ca/Articles/Fall1990-1.html
4. ^ http://www.jstor.org/stable/3421360
5. ^ Kawakita, Tetsuya; Sano, Chiaki; Shioya, Shigeru; Takehara, Masahiro;
Yamaguchi, Shizuko (2005). "Monosodium Glutamate". Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a16 711.
6. ^ Sand, Jordan (2005). "A Short History of MSG". Gastronomica 5 (4): pp. 38–49.
doi:10.1525/gfc.2005.5.4.38.
7. ^ "Production process". Encyclopedia of Amino Acids. Anjimoto Co., Inc.
http://www.ajinomoto.com/amino/eng/product.html.
8. ^ http://www.ajinomoto.co.jp/ajinomoto/A-
Company/company/zaimu/pdf/fact/food_biz.pdf
9. ^ Moskin, Julia (2008-03-05). "Yes, MSG, the Secret Behind the Savor". New York
Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/05/dining/05glute.html?_r=1&oref=slogin.
10. ^ a b Rundlett, Kimber L; Armstrong, Daniel W (1994). "Evaluation of free D-
glutamate in processed foods". Chirality 6 (4): pp. 277–282.
doi:10.1002/chir.530060410.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uid
s=7915127&dopt=Abstract.
11. ^ http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/msg.html
12. ^ a b Geha RS, Beiser A, Ren C, et al. (April 2000). "Review of alleged reaction to
monosodium glutamate and outcome of a multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled
study". J. Nutr. 130 (4S Suppl): 1058S–62S. PMID 10736382.
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10736382.
13. ^ a b Tarasoff L., Kelly M.F. (1993). "Monosodium L-glutamate: a double-blind study
and review". Food Chem. Toxicol. 31 (12): 1019–1035. doi:10.1016/0278-
6915(93)90012-N. PMID 8282275.
14. ^ Freeman M. (October 2006). "Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate:
a literature review". J Am Acad Nurse Pract 18 (10): 482–6. doi:10.1111/j.1745-
7599.2006.00160.x. PMID 16999713.
15. ^ Walker R (October 1999). "The significance of excursions above the ADI. Case
study: monosodium glutamate". Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 30 (2 Pt 2): S119–S121.
doi:10.1006/rtph.1999.1337. PMID 10597625.
16. ^ He, Ka; Zhao, Liancheng; Daviglus, Martha L; Dyer, Alan R; Van Horn, Linda;
Garside, Daniel; Zhu, Linguang; Dongshuang, Guo; Wu, Yangfeng; Zhou, Beifan;
Stamler, Jeremiah (August 2008). "Association of monosodium glutamate intake with
overweight in Chinese adults: the INTERMAP Study". Obesity (The Obesity Society)
16 (8): pp. 1875–1880. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.274. PMID 18497735.

Soy sauce
Soy sauce
A bottle of Japanese soy sauce.
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 1. 醬油
2. 荳油
3. 豉油
Simplified Chinese 1. 酱油
2. 豆油
3. 豉油
[show]Transliterations
Filipino name
Tagalog toyo
Japanese name
Kanji 醤油
Hiragana しょうゆ
Korean name
Hangul 간장

Thai name
Thai
Vietnamese name
Quốc ngữ xì dầu or nước tương
Soy sauce (US and UK), soya sauce (Commonwealth) is produced by fermenting soybeans
with the molds Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus soyae[1] along with roasted grain, water,
and salt. Soy sauce was invented in China, where it has been used as a condiment for close to
2,500 years. In its various forms, it is widely used in East and Southeast Asian cuisines and
increasingly appears in Western cuisine and prepared foods.
History
Soy sauce originated in China and spread from there to East and Southeast Asia.[2]
Records of the Dutch East India Company first list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, when
seventy-five large barrels were shipped from Dejima, Japan to Batavia (present-day Jakarta)
on the island of Java. Thirty-five barrels from that shipment were forwarded by ship to the
Netherlands.[3]
In the 18th century, Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce or shōyu (醤油
shōyu?) in Japan. Although many earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in
the West, this was amongst the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese
version. [4]
By the mid-19th century, "soy sauce" became synonymous with the Chinese product. The
volume of Chinese production overwhelmed all other competitors in the Western market.
Europeans of that time were unable to make soy sauce because they didn't understand the
function of a crucial ingredient – kōji.[5]

Production
Soy sauce is made from soybeans.
Traditional
Authentic soy sauces are made by mixing the grain and/or soybeans with yeast or kōji (麹,
the mold Aspergillus oryzae or A. sojae) and other related microorganisms. Traditionally soy
sauces were fermented under natural conditions, such as in giant urns and under the sun,
which was believed to contribute to additional flavours. Today, most of the commercially-
produced counterparts are instead fermented under machine-controlled environments.
Although there are many types of soy sauce, all are salty and "earthy"-tasting brownish
liquids used to season food while cooking or at the table. Soy sauce has a distinct basic taste
called umami by the Japanese (旨味, literally "delicious taste"). Umami was first identified as
a basic taste in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda of the Tokyo Imperial University. The free glutamates
which naturally occur in soy sauce are what give it this taste quality.
Artificially hydrolyzed
Many cheaper brands of soy sauces are made from hydrolyzed soy protein instead of brewed
from natural bacterial and fungal cultures. These soy sauces do not have the natural color of
authentic soy sauces and are typically colored with caramel coloring, and are popular in
Southeast Asia and China, and are exported to Asian markets around the globe[citation needed].
They are derogatorily called Chemical Soy Sauce ("化學醬油" in Chinese), but despite this
name are the most widely used type because they are cheap. Similar products are also sold as
"liquid aminos" in the US and Canada.
Some artificial soy sauces pose potential health risks due to their content of the
chloropropanols carcinogens 3-MCPD (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) and all artificial soy sauces

came under scrutiny for possible health risks due to the unregulated 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloro-2-
propanol) which are minor byproducts of the hydrochloric acid hydrolysis [6].
Types
Soy sauce has been integrated into the traditional cuisines of many East Asian and Southeast
Asian cultures. Soy sauce is widely used as a particularly important flavoring in Japanese,
Thai, Korean, and Chinese cuisine. Despite their rather similar appearance, soy sauces
produced in different cultures and regions are very different in taste, consistency, fragrance
and saltiness. Soy sauce retains its quality longer when kept away from direct sunlight.
Chinese soy sauce
Chinese soy sauce (simplified Chinese: 酱油; traditional Chinese: 醬油; pinyin: jiàngyóu; or
豉油 chǐyóu) is primarily made from soybeans, with relatively low amounts of other grains.
There are two main varieties:
Light or fresh soy sauce (生抽 shēngchōu; or 酱清 "jiàng qing"; ): A thin (non-
viscous), opaque, lighter brown soy sauce. It is the main soy sauce used for seasoning,
since it is saltier, but it also adds flavour. Since it is lighter in color, it does not greatly
affect the color of the dish. The light soy sauce made from the first pressing of the
soybeans is called tóuchōu (simplified Chinese: 头抽; traditional Chinese: 頭抽),
which can be loosely translated as first soy sauce or referred to as premium light soy
sauce. Touchōu is sold at a premium because, like extra virgin olive oil, the flavor of
the first pressing is considered superior. An additional classification of light soy
sauce, shuānghuáng (雙璜), is double-fermented to add further complexity to the
flavour. These latter two more delicate types are usually for dipping.
Dark/old soy sauce (老抽 lǎochōu) : A darker and slightly thicker soy sauce that is
aged longer and contains added molasses to give it its distinctive appearance. This
variety is mainly used during cooking since its flavour develops under heating. It has
a richer, slightly sweeter, and less salty flavour than light soy sauce. Dark soy sauce is
partly used to add color and flavour to a dish.
In traditional Chinese cooking, one of the two types, or a mixture of both, is employed to
achieve a particular flavour and colour for the dish.
Another type, thick soy sauce (醬油膏 jiàngyóugāo), is a dark soy sauce that has been
thickened with starch and sugar. It is also occasionally flavored with MSG. This sauce is not
usually used directly in cooking but more often as a dipping sauce or poured on food as a
flavorful addition.

Japanese soy sauce
Koyo organic tamari sauce
Buddhist monks introduced soy sauce into Japan in the 7th century, where it is known as
"shōyu". The Japanese word "tamari" is derived from the verb "tamaru" that signifies "to
accumulate", referring to the fact that tamari was traditionally from the liquid byproduct
produced during the fermentation of miso. Japan is the leading producer of tamari.[citation needed]
Japanese soy sauce or shō-yu (しょうゆ, or 醤油), is traditionally divided into 5 main
categories depending on differences in their ingredients and method of production. Most but
not all Japanese soy sauces include wheat as a primary ingredient, which tends to give them a
slightly sweeter taste than their Chinese counterparts. They also tend towards an alcoholic
sherry-like flavor, due to the addition of alcohol in the product. Not all soy sauces are
interchangeable.[citation needed]
Koikuchi (濃口?, "strong flavor")

Originating in the Kantō region, its usage eventually spread all over Japan. Over 80%
of the Japanese domestic soy sauce production is of koikuchi, and can be considered
the typical Japanese soy sauce. It is produced from roughly equal quantities of
soybean and wheat. This variety is also called kijōyu (生醤油) or namashōyu
(生しょうゆ) when it is not pasteurized.
Usukuchi (淡口?, "light flavor")
Particularly popular in the Kansai region of Japan, it is both saltier and lighter in color
than koikuchi. The lighter color arises from the usage of amazake, a sweet liquid made
from fermented rice, that is used in its production.
Tamari (たまり?)
Produced mainly in the Chūbu region of Japan, tamari is darker in appearance and
richer in flavour than koikuchi. It contains little or no wheat; wheat-free tamari is
popular among people eating a wheat free diet. It is the "original" Japanese soy sauce,
as its recipe is closest to the soy sauce originally introduced to Japan from China.
Technically, this variety is known as miso-damari (味噌溜り), as this is the liquid
that runs off miso as it matures.
Shiro (白?, "white")
A very light colored soy sauce. In contrast to "tamari" soy sauce, "shiro" soy sauce
uses mostly wheat and very little soybean, lending it a light appearance and sweet
taste. It is more commonly used in the Kansai region to highlight the appearances of
food, for example sashimi.

Saishikomi (再仕込?, "twice-brewed")
This variety substitutes previously-made koikuchi for the brine normally used in the
process. Consequently, it is much darker and more strongly flavored. This type is also
known as kanro shoyu (甘露醤油) or "sweet shoyu".
Shoyu (koikuchi) and light colored shoyu (usukuchi) as sold in Japan by Kikkoman, 1 litre
bottles.
Newer varieties of Japanese soy sauce include:[citation needed]
Gen'en (減塩?, "reduced salt")

Low-salt soy sauces also exist, but are not considered to be a separate variety of soy
sauce, since the reduction in salt content is a process performed outside of the
standard manufacture of soy sauce.
Amakuchi (甘口?, "sweet flavor")
Called "Hawaiian soy sauce" in those few parts of the US familiar with it, this is a
variant of "koikuchi" soy sauce.
All of these varieties are sold in the marketplace in three different grades according to how
they were produced:[citation needed]
Honjōzō hōshiki (本醸造方式?)

Contains 100% naturally fermented product.
Shinshiki hōshiki (新式方式?)
Contains 30–50% naturally fermented product.
Tennen jōzō (天然醸造?)
Means no added ingredients except alcohol.
All the varieties and grades may be sold according to three official levels of quality:[citation
needed]
Hyōjun (標準?)
Standard pasteurized.
Tokkyū (特級?)
Special quality, not pasteurized.

Tokusen (特選?)
Premium quality, usually implies limited quantity.
Other terms unrelated to the three official levels of quality:[citation needed]
Hatsuakane (初茜?)
Refers to industrial grade used for flavoring, powder.
Chōtokusen (超特選?)
Used by marketers to imply the best.
Indonesian soy sauce
Kecap manis Indonesian thick and sweet soy sauce is nearly as thick as molasses.
In Indonesia, soy sauce is known as kecap (also ketjap or kicap) (a catchall term for
fermented sauces) from which according to one theory the English word "ketchup" is derived.
Two main varieties exist:
Kecap asin
Salty soy sauce, which is very similar to Chinese light soy sauce, but usually
somewhat thicker and has a stronger flavor; it can be replaced by light Chinese soy
sauce in recipes.
Kecap manis
Sweet soy sauce, which has a thick, almost syrupy consistency and a pronounced
sweet, treacle-like flavor due to generous addition of palm sugar. It is a unique
variety; in a pinch, it may be replaced by molasses with a little vegetable stock stirred
in.

Kecap manis sedang
Medium sweet soy sauce, which has a less thick consistency and a more saline taste
than Manis.
Kecap inggris
("English fermented sauce"), or saus inggris ("English sauce") is the Indonesian name
for Worcestershire sauce.
Kecap Ikan
is Indonesian fish sauce.
Malaysian soy sauce
In Singapore and Malaysia, soy sauce in general is dòuyóu (豆油); dark soy sauce is called
jiàngyóu (醬油) and light soy sauce is jiàngqīng (醬清). Angmo daoiu (紅毛豆油, lit.
"foreigners' soy sauce") is the Hokkien name for Worcestershire sauce.
Malaysia, which has language and cultural links with Indonesia, uses the word 'kicap' for soy
sauce. Kicap is traditionally of two types: kicap lemak and kicap cair. Kicap lemak is similar
to kecap manis but with very much less sugar while kicap cair is the Malaysian equivalent of
kecap asin.
Korean soy sauce
Korean soy sauce, (called Joseon ganjang, 조선간장, in Korean) is a byproduct of the
production of doenjang (Korean fermented soybean paste). Joseon ganjang, thin and dark
brown in color, is made entirely of soy and brine, and has a saltiness that varies according to
the producer. Wide scale use of Joseon ganjang has been somewhat superseded by cheaper
factory-made Japanese style soy sauce, called waeganjang (hangul: 왜간장/倭간장).
According to the 2001 national food consumption survey in Korea, traditional fermented
ganjang comprised only 1.4% of soy sauce purchases.[7]
Taiwanese soy sauce
The history of soy sauce making in Taiwan can be traced back to southeastern China, in the
provinces of Fujian and Guangdong. Later, the cultural and political separation between
Taiwan and China since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, when China ceded
Taiwan to Japan, brought changes to traditional Chinese soy sauce making in Taiwan. Some
of the top Taiwanese makers have adopted the more sophisticated Japanese technology in
making soy sauce for the domestic market and more recently foreign markets as well.
Taiwanese soy sauce is perhaps most markedly known for its black bean variant, known as
black bean soy sauce (黑豆蔭油). Most major soy sauce makers in Taiwan such as
KimLan(金蘭), WanJaShan(萬家香), President-Kikkoman(統萬) make exclusive soybean
and wheat soy sauce. A few other makers such as WuanChuang(丸莊), O'Long(黑龍),
TaTung(大同) and RueiChun(瑞春) make black bean soy sauce, which takes longer to
produce (about 6 months). Founded in 1909, WuanChuang(丸莊) is the oldest brand in
Taiwan today and is the only one that maintains major production for both soybean/wheat
and black bean soy sauces.[8][9][10]
Vietnamese soy sauce

Vietnamese soy sauce is called xì dầu derived from Cantonese name 豉油, nước tương, or
sometimes simply tương.
Philippine toyo
A type of soy sauce based product which is a popular condiment in the Philippines, it is
called toyo (pronounced TOH-yoh), and is usually found beside other sauces such as patis
(fish sauce, pronounced pah-TEES) and suka (sugar cane vinegar, pronounced SOO-kah).
The flavor of Philippine soy sauce is a combination of ingredients made from soybeans,
wheat, salt, and caramel, is interestingly milder compared to its Asian counterparts—possibly
an adaptation to the demands of the Filipino palate and its cuisine. It is thinner in texture and
has a saltier taste compared to its Southeast Asian counterparts, much more similar to the
Japanese shōyu. It is used as a staple condiment to flavor many cooked dishes and as a
marinade during cooking, it is also a table condiment, and is usually mixed and served with
kalamansi (a small Asian citrus-lime).
Health
Positive
A study by National University of Singapore shows that Chinese dark soy sauce contains 10
times the antioxidants of red wine, and can help prevent cardiovascular diseases.[11] Soy
sauce is rich in lactic acid bacteria and of excellent anti-allergic potential. [12][13]
Negative
Soy sauce does not contain a level of the beneficial isoflavones associated with other soy
products such as tofu or edamame[14]. It can also be very salty, having a salt content of
between 17%-19%[15] so it may not be a suitable condiment for people on a low sodium diet.
Low-sodium soy sauces are produced, but it is impossible to make soy sauce without using
some quantity of salt.
Carcinogens in artificial soy sauces
In 2001 the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency found in tests of various low-
grade soy sauces (those made from hydrolyzed soy protein, rather than being naturally
fermented) that some 22% of samples contained a chemical called 3-MCPD (3-
monochloropropane-1,2-diol) at levels considerably higher than those deemed safe by
the European Union. About two-thirds of these samples also contained a second
chemical called 1,3-DCP (1,3-dichloropropane-2-ol) which experts advise should not
be present at any levels in food. Both chemicals have the potential to cause cancer and
the Agency recommended that the affected products be withdrawn from shelves and
avoided.[6] Furthermore, the latter unregulated chemical can cause genetic damage to
be passed on to offspring who never consumed the sauces.[16]
Britain's Food Standards Agency (FSA) issued a Public Health Advice leaflet[17] in
June 2001 to warn against a small number of soy sauce products having been shown
to contain high levels of potentially cancer-causing chemicals. The leaflet singled out
brands and products (some by batch numbers) imported from Thailand, China, Hong

Kong and Taiwan. Although the leaflet primarily looked at soy sauce, the leaflet does
include oyster sauce, marinades and other types of sauces, that affected the brands
Golden Mountain, King Imperial, Pearl River Bridge, Jammy Chai, Lee Kum Kee,
Golden Mark, Kimlan, Golden Swan, Sinsin, Tung Chun and Wanjasham. Despite
these being small in number in the UK, they are the dominant brands in their
respective nations.[citation needed]
In Vietnam, 3-MCPD was found in toxic levels (In 2004, the HCM City Institute of
Hygiene and Public Health found 33 of 41 sample of soya sauce with high rates of 3-
MCPD, including six samples with up to 11,000 to 18,000 times more 3-MPCD than
permitted, an increase over 23 to 5,644 times in 2001) [18] in soy sauces there in 2007,
along with formaldehyde in the national dish Pho, and banned pesticides in vegetables
and fruits. A prominent newspaper Thanh Nien Daily commented: "Health agencies
have known that Vietnamese soy sauce, the country's second most popular sauce after
fish sauce, has been chock full of cancer agents since at least 2001."[19] (See 2007
Vietnam food scare.)
In March 2008, some Australian soya sauces were found to contain carcinogens and
consumers were advised to avoid consumption.[20]
Soy sauce and allergies
Further information: Soy allergy
Most varieties of soy sauce also contain wheat. Individuals with a wheat allergy, Celiac
disease, or a gluten intolerance should avoid soy sauce that is made with wheat.[1]
Notes
1. ^ 'Microbiology Laboratory Theory and Application.' Michael Leboffe and Burton
Pierce, 2nd edition. pp.317
2. ^ Tanaka, Norio. "Shōyu:The Flavor of Japan," The Japan Foundation Newsletter
Vol. XXVII, No. 2 (January 2000), p. 2.
3. ^ Tanaka, p. 6.
4. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1781). "Bereiding van de Soya" ("Producing Soy Sauce"),
Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap (Transactions of the Batavian
Academy), Vol. III. OCLC 9752305
5. ^ Tanaka, p. 7.
6. ^ a b Food Standards Agency (2001-06-20). "Some Soy Sauce Products To Be
Removed". Press release.
http://www.food.gov.uk/news/pressreleases/2001/jun/soysaucerecall. Retrieved 2008-
01-07.
7. ^ Jung, Soon Teck• and Kang, Seong-Gook (2002). "The Past and Present of
Traditional Fermented Foods in Korea". http://www.miyajima-
soy.co.jp/science/kouenkai/kouenkai.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-07.
8. ^ http://www.smartfood.com.tw/web/SG?pageID=21609
9. ^ http://www.gmp.org.tw/newsdetail.asp?id=7598
10. ^ http://www.tcoc.org.tw/60anniversary/century-gofun.aspx#

11. ^ Daniells, Stephen (2006-06-06). "Antioxidant-rich soy sauce could protect against
CVD". nutraingredients.com.
http://www.nutraingredients.com/news/ng.asp?id=68196-soy-sauce-cvd-isoflavones.
12. ^ Tanasupawat, et al, Somboon (2002-06-18). "Lactic acid bacteria isolated from soy
sauce mash in Thailand". Journal of General and Applied Microbiology (The
Microbiology Research Foundation) 48 (4): 201–209. doi:10.2323/jgam.48.201.
PMID 12469319.
13. ^ Kobayashi, Makio (2005-04-18). "Immunological Functions of Soy Sauce:
Hypoallergenicity and Antiallergic Activity of Soy Sauce". Journal of Bioscience and
Bioengineering (Society for Biotechnology, Japan) 1 (2): 144–151.
doi:10.1263/jbb.100.144. PMID 16198255.
14. ^ Shahidi, Fereidoon; Naczk, Marian (2003), Phenolics in food and nutraceuticals,
Edition 2, Florence, Kentucky: CRC Press, p. 103, ISBN 1587161389,
http://books.google.com/books?id=vHOJKw4umikC
15. ^ Bamford, Charles W (2005). Food, fermentation and micro-organisms. Hoboken,
New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 186. ISBN 0632059877.
16. ^ barchronicle(Philippine government)
17. ^ UK UK Food Standards Agency: Soy advice leaflet.
18. ^ Soya sauce stirs worry and discontentment among public
19. ^ Toxic soy sauce, chemical veggies -- food scares hit Vietnam
20. ^ 'Cancer chemical' in soy sauce

Olive oil
Olive oil
A bottle of olive oil
Fat composition
Palmitic acid: 7.5–20.0%
Stearic acid: 0.5–5.0%
Arachidic acid: <0.8%
Saturated fats
Behenic acid: <0.3%
Myristic acid: <0.1%
Lignoceric acid: <1.0%
Unsaturated fats yes
Monounsaturated Oleic acid: 55.0–83.0%
fats Palmitoleic acid: 0.3–3.5%
Linoleic acid: 3.5–21.0 %
Polyunsaturated fats
Linolenic acid: <1.5%
Properties
Food energy per 100g 3,700 kJ (880 kcal)
Melting point −6 °C (21 °F)
Boiling point 300 °C (572 °F)
190 °C (374 °F) (virgin)
Smoke point
210 °C (410 °F) (refined)
Specific gravity at 20
0.9150–0.9180 (@ 15.5 °C)
°C
Viscosity at 20 °C 84 cP
1.4677–1.4705 (virgin and
Refractive index
refined)

1.4680–1.4707 (pomace)
75–94 (virgin and refined)
Iodine value
75–92 (pomace)
maximum: 6.6 (refined and
Acid value pomace)
0.6 (extra-virgin)
184–196 (virgin and refined)
Saponification value
182–193 (pomace)
20 (virgin)
Peroxide value
10 (refined and pomace)
Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive (Olea europaea; family Oleaceae), a traditional
tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor and spread
from there as far as southern Africa, Australia, Japan and China.[1] It is commonly used in
cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. Olive
oil is used throughout the world, but especially in the Mediterranean.
Market
Over 750 million olive trees are cultivated worldwide, 95% of which are in the
Mediterranean region. Most of global production comes from Southern Europe, North Africa
and the Near East.
World production in 2002 was 2.6 million tonnes,[2] of which Spain contributed 40% to 45%.
In 2006, Turkey accounted for about 5% of world production, similar to the Spanish province
of Jaén alone, well known for the biggest olive groves in the world.[3] Of the European
production, 93% comes from Spain, Italy and Greece.
Greece devotes 60% of its cultivated land to olive growing. It is the world's top producer of
black olives and has more varieties of olives than any other country. Greece holds third place
in world olive production with more than 132 million trees, which produce approximately
350,000 tons of olive oil annually, of which 82% is extra-virgin[4] (see below for an
explanation of terms). About half of the annual Greek olive oil production is exported, but
only some 5% of this reflects the origin of the bottled product{fact}. Greece exports mainly
to European Union (EU) countries, principally Italy, which receives about three-quarters of
total exports. Olives are grown for oil in Greece, with Peloponnese being the source of 65%
of Greek production, as well as in Crete, the Aegean Islands and Ionian Islands. The most
prized Greek olive variety for oil production is the Korōnéiki, originating from the area of
Korōnē in Messenia. This variety grows well on mountain slopes and produces very small
fruit; the high ratio of skin to flesh giving the oil its coveted aromatic qualities. The variety is
also suited to the production of agourélaio, oil from olives that are slightly unripe. When
crushed in presses that are not capable of grinding the stone, this oil is entirely free of acidity
and possesses top-tier organoleptic characteristics. Because not crushing the stones reduces
oil yield, production of agourélaio is limited to "boutique" presses run by entrepreneurs and
small coöperatives.
Among the many different olive varieties or cultivars in Italy are Frantoio, Leccino
Pendolino, and Moraiolo; in Spain the most important varieties are the Picual, Alberquina,
Hojiblanca, and Manzanilla de Jaén; in Greece, Koroneiki; in France, Picholine; in

California, Mission; in Portugal, Galega; in Croatia, Oblica and Leccino. The oil from the
varieties varies in flavour and stability (shelf life).
In North America, Italian and Spanish olive oils are the best-known, and top-quality extra-
virgin oils from Italy, Spain, Croatia and Greece are sold at high prices, often in "prestige"
packaging. A large part of US olive oil imports come from Italy, Spain, and Turkey. The US
imported 47,800,000 US gallons (181,000 m3) of olive oil in 1998, of which
34,600,000 US gallons (131,000 m3) came from Italy.[5]
The Republic of South Africa also produces extra virgin olive oil, with production increasing
to meet demand.[6]
Regulation and adulteration

Main article: Olive oil regulation and adulteration
International Olive Oil Council building
The International Olive Oil Council (IOOC) is an intergovernmental organization based in

Madrid, Spain, with 23 member states. It promotes olive oil around the world by tracking
production, defining quality standards, and monitoring authenticity. More than 85% of the
world's olives are grown in IOOC member nations.[7] The United States is not a member of
the IOOC, and the US Department of Agriculture does not legally recognize its classifications
(such as extra-virgin olive oil). The USDA uses a different system, which it defined in 1948
before the IOOC existed. The California Olive Oil Council, a private trade group, is
petitioning the USDA to adopt IOOC rules.[8]
The IOOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over
the rest. IOOC terminology is precise, but it can lead to confusion between the words that
describe production and the words used on retail labels. Olive oil is classified by how it was
produced, by its chemistry, and by its flavor. All production begins by transforming the olive
fruit into olive paste. This paste is then malaxed to allow the microscopic oil droplets to
concentrate. The oil is extracted by means of pressure (traditional method) or centrifugation
(modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains
a small quantity of oil.
The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils.

US Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on
the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable
size letters so as not to mislead the consumer.[9][10] Yet most major US brands continue to put
―imported from Italy‖ on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very
small print.[11] These products are a mixture of olive oil from more than one nation and it is
not clear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin. This practice makes it
difficult for high quality, lower cost producers outside of Italy to enter the US market, and for
genuine Italian producers to compete.
An article by Tom Mueller in the August 13, 2007 issue of the The New Yorker alleges that
regulation, particularly in Italy, is extremely lax and corrupt. Mueller states that major Italian
shippers routinely adulterate olive oil and that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra
virgin" actually meets the specification.[12] In some cases, colza oil with added color and
flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.[13] This extensive fraud prompted the Italian
government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under
which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it
was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.[14] In
February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU
rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.[15] Under EU rules, olive oil
may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.[14]
In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil," arresting 23
people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to
relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.[16] In April 2008, another operation
impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and
southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil and selling it as extra
virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad. 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and
prevented from being exported.[17]
Adulterated oil is usually no more serious than passing off inferior, but safe, product as
superior olive oil, but there are no guarantees. Almost 700 people died, it is believed, as a
consequence of consuming rapeseed (canola) oil adulterated with aniline intended for use as
an industrial lubricant, but sold in 1981 as olive oil in Spain (see toxic oil syndrome).[18]
Commercial grades
The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of physical means and no chemical
treatment. The term virgin oil referring to production is different from Virgin Oil on a
retail label (see next section).
Refined means that the oil has been chemically treated to neutralize strong tastes
(characterized as defects) and neutralize the acid content (free fatty acids). Refined oil
is commonly regarded as lower quality than virgin oil; the retail labels extra-virgin
olive oil and virgin olive oil cannot contain any refined oil.
Pomace olive oil means oil extracted from the pomace using chemical solvents,
mostly hexane, and by heat.
Quantitative analysis can determine the oil's acidity, defined as the percent, measured by
weight, of free oleic acid it contains. This is a measure of the oil's chemical degradation; as

the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free
acidity and thereby increasing rancidity. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is
the organic peroxide level, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized, another
cause of rancidity.
In order to classify it by taste, olive oil is subjectively judged by a panel of professional

tasters in a blind taste test. This is also called its organoleptic quality.
Retail grades in IOOC member nations
In countries which adhere to the standards of the IOOC[19] the labels in stores show an oil's
grade. The US is not a member.
Extra-virgin olive oil comes from virgin oil production only, contains no more than
0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste. Extra Virgin olive oil accounts for
less than 10% of oil in many producing countries. Used on salads, added at the table
to soups and stews and for dipping.
Virgin olive oil comes from virgin oil production only, has an acidity less than 2%,
and is judged to have a good taste.
Pure olive oil. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are usually a blend of refined
and virgin production oil.
Olive oil is a blend of virgin and refined production oil, of no more than 1.5% acidity.
It commonly lacks a strong flavor.
Olive-pomace oil is refined pomace olive production oil possibly blended with some
virgin production oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as
olive oil. Olive-pomace oil is rarely sold at retail; it is often used for certain kinds of
cooking in restaurants.
Lampante oil is olive oil not suitable as food; lampante comes from olive oil's long-
standing use in oil-burning lamps. Lampante oil is mostly used in the industrial
market.
Refined olive oil is the olive oil obtained from virgin olive oils by refining methods
which do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity,
expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its
other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. This
is obtained by refining virgin olive oils which have a high acidity level and/or
organoleptic defects which are eliminated after refining. Over 50% of the oil
produced in the Mediterranean area is of such poor quality that it must be refined to
produce an edible product. Note that no solvents have been used to extract the oil but
it has been refined with the use of charcoal and other chemical and physical filters. An
obsolete equivalent is "pure olive oil"
Retail grades in the United States from the USDA
As the United States is not a member, the IOOC retail grades have no legal meaning in that
country; terms such as "extra virgin" may be used without legal restrictions.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) currently lists four grades of olive oil. These
grades were established in 1948, and are based on acidity, absence of defects, odor and
flavor:[20]

U.S. Grade A or U.S. Fancy possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than
1.4% and is "free from defects";
U.S. Grade B or U.S. Choice possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than
2.5% and is "reasonably free from defects";
U.S. Grade C or U.S. Standard possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than
3.0% and is "fairly free from defects";
U.S. Grade D or U.S. Substandard possesses a free fatty acid content greater than
3.0% and "fails to meet the requirements of U.S. Grade C".
These grades are entirely voluntary and are available from the USDA on a fee-for-service
basis.[20]
Label wording
A cold press olive oil machine in Israel.
Olive oil vendors choose the wording on their labels very carefully.
"100% Pure Olive Oil" is often the lowest quality available in a retail store: better
grades would have "virgin" on the label.[citation needed]
"Made from refined olive oils" means that the taste and acidity were chemically
controlled.[citation needed]
"Light olive oil" means refined olive oil, with less flavour. All olive oil has
120 kcal/tbsp. (34 kJ/ml).[citation needed]
"From hand-picked olives" implies that the oil is of better quality, since producers
harvesting olives by mechanical methods are inclined to leave olives to over-ripen in
order to increase yield.[citation needed]
"First cold press" is generally a purely commercial wording with no factual meaning.
It suggests that the oil in bottles with this label is the "first oil that came from the first
press" of the olives and that no heat is used. This is incorrect.
First of all, "cold" does not define any precise temperature. A certain exception is
made for the European regulation which requires that the processing temperature be
below 27 °C in order to be named "cold pressed".[citation needed] In cooler regions like
Tuscany or Liguria the olives collected in November and ground often at night are too
cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above
the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10-15 °C, in order to extract
the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like
Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures
although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as
possible (generally below 35 °C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold

pressed".
Furthermore there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" is
meaningless.
The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This
does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may
sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from more
than one country.[11]
Global consumption
Olive tree in Portugal
Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, over 26 liters per
year; Spain and Italy, around 14 l; Tunisia, Portugal and Lebanon, around 8 l. Northern
Europe and North America consume far less, around 0.7 l, but the consumption of olive oil
outside its home territory has been rising steadily.
Global market
The main producing and consuming countries are:
Consumption Annual per capita

Country Production (2005)[21]
(2005)[21] consumption (kg)[22]
Spain 36% 20% 13.62
Italy 25% 30% 12.35
Greece 18% 9% 23.7
Tunisia 8% 2% 11.1
Turkey 5% 2% 1.2
Syria 4% 3% 7
Morocco 3% 2% 1.8
Portugal 1% 2% 7.1
United States 0% 8% 0.56

France 0% 4% 1.34
Lebanon N/A 3% 1.18
Extraction
Main article: Olive oil extraction
Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical
means. Green olives produce bitter oil, and overripe olives produce rancid oil, so for good
extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened.
1. First the olives are ground into paste using large millstones (traditional method) or
steel drums (modern method).
2. If ground with mill stones, the olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30–40
minutes. A shorter grinding process may result in a more raw paste that produces less
oil and has a less ripe taste, a longer process may increase oxidation of the paste and
reduce the flavor. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fiber disks, which are
stacked on top of each other in a column, then placed into the press. Pressure is then
applied onto the column to separate the vegetal liquid from the paste. This liquid still
contains a significant amount of water. Traditionally the oil was shed from the water
by gravity (oil is less dense than water). This very slow separation process has been
replaced by centrifugation, which is much faster and more accurate. The centrifuges
have one exit for the (heavier) watery part and one for the oil. Olive oil should not
contain significant traces of vegetal water as this accelerates the process of organic
degeneration by micro organisms. The separation in smaller oil mills is not always
perfect, thus sometimes a small watery deposit containing organic particles can be
found at the bottom of oil bottles.
3. In modern steel drum mills the grinding process takes about 20 minutes. After
grinding, the paste will then be stirred slowly for another 20–30 minutes in a
particular container (malaxation), where the microscopic oil drops unite to bigger
drops which facilitates the mechanical extraction. The paste is then pressed by
centrifugation, the water is thereafter separated from the oil in a second centrifugation
as described before.
The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described is called virgin
oil. Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical and
organoleptic criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects).
4. Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that
may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil has
not been filtered, suggesting a different taste.
The remaining paste (pomace) still contains a small quantity (about 2-6%) of oil that cannot
be extracted by further pressing but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialised
chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is not "virgin" but "pomace oil". The
sometimes found term "first press" is technically meaningless as there is no "second" press.
Constituents

Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed triglyceride esters of oleic acid and palmitic acid
and of other fatty acids, along with traces of squalene (up to 0.7%) and sterols (about 0.2%
phytosterol and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of
harvest, and extraction process.
Olive oil contains a group of related natural products with potent antioxidant properties
which give extra-virgin unprocessed olive oil its bitter and pungent taste and which are esters
of tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol, including oleocanthal and oleuropein.[23]
Nutrition
Olive oil
Carbohydrates 0g
Fat 100 g
- saturated 14 g
- monounsaturated 73 g
- polyunsaturated 11 g
- omega-3 fat <1.5 g
- omega-6 fat 3.5-21 g
Protein 0g
Vitamin E 14 mg 93%
100 g olive oil is 109 ml
Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that a higher proportion of monounsaturated

fats in the diet is linked with a reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease.[24] This is
significant because olive oil is considerably rich in monounsaturated fats, most notably oleic
acid.
In the United States, producers of olive oil may place the following health claim on product
labels:
Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 2 tbsp.
(23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the
monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to
replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories
you eat in a day.[25]

This decision was announced November 1, 2004, by the Food and Drug Administration after
application was made to the FDA by producers. Similar labels are permitted for foods rich in
omega-3 fatty acids such as walnuts and hemp seed.[26]
There is a large body of clinical data to show that consumption of olive oil can provide heart
health benefits such as favourable effects on cholesterol regulation and LDL cholesterol
oxidation, and that it exerts antiinflamatory, antithrombotic, antihypertensive as well as
vasodilatory effects both in animals and in humans.[27]
But some clinical evidence suggests that it is olive oil's phenolic content, rather than its fatty
acid profile, that is responsible for at least some of its cardioprotective benefits. For example,
a clinical trial published[28] in 2005 compared the effects of different types of olive oil on
arterial elasticity. Test subjects were given a serving of 60 g of white bread and 40 ml of
olive oil each morning for two consecutive days. The study was conducted in two stages.
During the first stage, the subjects received polyphenol-rich oil (extra virgin oil contains the
highest amount of polyphenol antioxidants). During the second phase, they received oil with
only one fifth the phenolic content. The elasticity of the arterial walls of each subject was
measured using a pressure sleeve and a Doppler laser. It was discovered that after the subjects
had consumed olive oil high in polyphenol antioxidants, they exhibited increased arterial
elasticity, while after the consumption of olive oil containing fewer polyphenols, they
displayed no significant change in arterial elasticity. It is theorized that, in the long term,
increased elasticity of arterial walls reduces vascular stress and consequentially the risk of
two common causes of death—heart attacks and stroke. This could, at least in part, explain
the lower incidence of both diseases in regions where olive oil and olives are consumed on a
daily basis.
Another health benefit of olive oil seems to be its property to displace omega-6 fats, while
not having any impact on omega-3 fats. This way, olive oil helps to build a more healthy
balance between omega-6 fats and omega-3 fats.[citation needed]
Unlike the high amount of animal fats typical to the American diet, olive oil lowers
cholesterol levels in the blood.[29] It is also known to lower blood sugar levels and blood
pressure.[30]
Olive oil contains the monounsaturated fat, oleic acid which has antioxidants such as vitamin
E and carotenoids, and oleuropein, a chemical that prevents the oxidation of LDL particles. It
is these properties that are thought to contribute to the health benefits of olive oil.[citation needed]
As they are the least processed forms of olive oil, extra virgin or virgin olive oil have more
monounsaturated fat than olive oil. These types of olive oil contain more polyphenols,
leading to a healthier heart and lower "bad" cholesterol.[31]
Research indicates olive oil prevents peptic ulcers and is effective in treatment of peptic ulcer
disease,[32] and may be a factor in preventing cancer.[33]

Uses
Culinary use
Olive oil is the main cooking oil in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
Extra-virgin olive oil is mostly used for salad dressings and foods to be eaten cold. Used cold,
its strong flavor is able to stick out while not being compromised by heat. It is also used for
sauteing ingredients.
The higher the temperature to which the olive oil is heated, the more one should prefer the
use of refined olive oils. When extra-virgin olive oil is heated above 350 °C (662 °F), the
unrefined particles within the oil get burned. This leads to deteriorated taste and even
toxicity[citation needed]. Also, the pronounced taste of extra-virgin olive oil is not a taste most
people like to associate with their deep fried foods. Refined olive oils are perfectly suited for
deep frying foods and should be replaced after several uses.[citation needed].
Choosing a cold-pressed olive oil can be similar to selecting a wine. The flavor of these oils
vary considerably and a particular oil may be more suited for a particular dish. Also, people
who like lots of tannins in their red wines might prefer more bitter olive oils.
An important issue which is often not realized in countries that do not produce olive oil is
that the freshness makes a big difference. A very fresh oil, as available in an oil producing
region, tastes noticeably different from the older oils available elsewhere. In time, oils
deteriorate and become stale. One-year old oil may be still pleasant to the taste, but it is
surely less fragrant than fresh oil. After the first year olive oil should be used for cooking, not
for foods to be eaten cold, like salads.
The taste of the olive oil is influenced not only by the soil that the olive trees grow on, but
also by the moment when the olives have been harvested and ground.
Olive oil has more uses than just consuming, it also works as a natural and safe lubricant. For
example, lubricating the machinery that is used within the kitchen (grinders, blenders,
cookware, etc.)
Comparative properties of common cooking fats (per 100g)

Total Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated
Protein
Fat Fat Fat Fat
Butter 81g 51g 21g 3g 1g
Vegetable Shortening
71g 23g 8g 37g 0g
(hydrogenated)
Olive Oil 100g 14g 73g 11g 0g
Lard 100g 39g 45g 11g 0g

Skin care
In addition to the internal health benefits of olive oil, topical application is quite popular with
fans of natural health remedies. Extra Virgin Olive Oil is the preferred grade for moisturizing
the skin, especially when used in the oil cleansing method (OCM). OCM is a method of
cleansing and moisturizing the face with a mixture of extra virgin olive oil, castor oil (or
another suitable carrier oil) and a select blend of essential oils. Olive oil is also used by some
to reduce ear wax buildup.[34]
Olive oil can be used as an effective shaving oil to shave facial and other body hair giving
results that are equivalent to expensive commercial products.[35]
Studies on mice showed that application of olive oil immediately following exposure to UVB
rays has a preventive effect on the formation of tumors and skin cancer.[36][37]
Jeanne Calment, who holds the record for the longest confirmed lifespan, reportedly
attributed her longevity and relatively youthful appearance to olive oil, which she said she
poured on all her food and rubbed into her skin.[38]
Medicinal use
Olive oil is unlikely to cause allergic reactions, and as such is used in preparations for
lipophilic drug ingredients. It does have demulcent properties, and mild laxative properties,
acting as a stool softener. It is also used at room temperature as an ear wax softener. Olive oil
is also a potent blocker of intestinal contractions, and can be used to treat excessive
Borborygmus.
Oleocanthal from olive oil is a non-selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase (COX) similar to

classical NSAIDs like ibuprofen. It has been suggested that long-term consumption of small
quantities of this compound from olive oil may be responsible in part for the low incidence of
heart disease associated with a Mediterranean diet.
Other
Olive oil is also used in soap making and as lamp oil. It is also good for the management of
pain. it is also a good natural anti-inflammatory agent.
History

Olive press in Pompeii (79 AD)
Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in what is now Kilizman,Turkey
The Manufacture of Oil, drawn and engraved by J. Amman in the Sixteenth Century.
Homer called it "liquid gold." In ancient Greece, athletes ritually rubbed it all over their
bodies. Olive oil has been more than mere food to the peoples of the Mediterranean: it has
been medicinal, magical, an endless source of fascination and wonder and the fountain of
great wealth and power.
Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious rituals, medicines, as a fuel in oil lamps,
soap-making, and skin care application. The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen
in the fact that the English word oil derives from c. 1175, olive oil, from Anglo-Fr. and
O.N.Fr. olie, from O.Fr. oile (12c., Mod.Fr. huile), from L. oleum "oil, olive oil" (cf. It. olio),
from Gk. elaion "olive tree",[39] which may have been borrowed through trade networks from
the Semitic Phoenician use of el'yon meaning "superior", probably in recognized comparison
to other vegetable or animal fats available at the time.

The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were collected by Neolithic
peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC.[40] The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor[41]
in modern Turkey.
It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated: in Asia Minor in the 6th
millennium;[42] along the Levantine coast stretching from the Sinai Peninsula to modern
Turkey in the 4th millennium;[40] or somewhere in the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent in the
3rd millennium.[43]
A widespread view exists that the first cultivation took place on the island of Crete. The
earliest surviving olive oil amphorae date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the
production of olive is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. An alternative view retains
that olives were turned into oil by 4500 BC by Canaanites in present-day Israel.[44]
Ancient oil press

Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey
Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple
wild populations, but a detailed history of domestication is not yet understood.[45]
Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the
Roman period are still in use today.[citation needed]
Eastern Mediterranean
Over 5,000 years ago oil was being extracted from olives in the Eastern Mediterranean. In the
centuries that followed, olive presses became common, from the Atlantic shore of North
Africa to Persia and from the Po Valley to the settlements along the Nile.[citation needed]
Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the
ancient city-state Ebla (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian
city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and the
queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked
in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in
Tanakh.[citation needed]
Dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil
was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs

over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea. Sinuhe, the
Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan about 1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive
trees.[46]
Until 1500 BC, the eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated.
Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and
perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.[47] The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became
particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's
economy. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal
product of the Minoan civilization, where it is thought to have represented wealth. The
Minoans put the pulp into settling tanks and, when the oil had risen to the top, drained the
water from the bottom.[citation needed]. Olive tree growing reached Iberia and Etruscan cities well
before the 8th century BC through trade with the Phoenicians and Carthage, then spread into
Southern Gaul by the Celtic tribes during the 7th century BC.
The first recorded oil extraction is known from the Hebrew Bible and took place during the
Exodus from Egypt, during the 13th century BC.[dubious – discuss] During this time, the oil was
derived through hand-squeezing the berries and stored in special containers under guard of
the priests. A commercial mill for non-sacramental use of oil was in use in the tribal
Confederation and later in 1000 BC., the fertile crescent, and area consisting of present day
Palestine, Lebanon, and Israel. Over 100 olive presses have been found in Tel Miqne (Ekron),
where the Biblical Philistines also produced oil. These presses are estimated to have had
output of between 1,000 and 3,000 tons of olive oil per season.
Olive trees were planted in the entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the Roman
republic and empire. According to the historian Pliny, Italy had "excellent olive oil at
reasonable prices" by the first century AD, "the best in the Mediterranean", he maintained, a
claim probably disputed by many ancient olive growers. Thus olive oil was very common in
Hellene and Latin cuisine. According to legend, the city of Athens obtained its name because
Athenians considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess Athena (an
olive tree) over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt water gushing out of a cliff).
The Spartans were the Hellenes who used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the
gymnasia. The practice served to eroticise and highlight the beauty of the male body. From
its beginnings early in the seventh century BC, the decorative use of olive oil quickly spread
to all of Hellenic city states, together with naked appearance of athletes, and lasted close to a
thousand years despite its great expense.[48][49]
Religious use
In Jewish observance, olive oil is the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched
Menorah (not a candelabrum since the use of candles was not allowed) in the Mishkan
service during the Exodus of the tribes of Israel from Egypt, and later in the permanent
Temple in Jerusalem. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and
was consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests, which is where the expression pure
olive oil originates, stored in special containers. A menorah similar to the Menorah used in
the Mishkan is now used during the holiday of Hanukkah that celebrates the miracle of the
last of such containers being found during the re-dedication of the Temple (163 BC), when its
contents lasted for far longer then they were expected to, allowing more time for more oil to
be made. Although candles can be used to light the hanukkiah, oil containers are preferred, to

imitate the original Menorah. Another use of oil in Jewish religion is for anointing the kings
of the Kingdom of Israel, originating from King David. Tzidkiyahu was the last anointed
King of Israel. One unusual use of olive oil in the Talmud is for bad breath, by creating a
water-oil-salt mouthwash.[citation needed]
Olive oil also has religious symbolism for healing and strength and to consecration—God's
setting a person or place apart for special work. This may be related to its ancient use as a
medicinal agent and for cleansing athletes by slathering them in oil then scraping them. The
Catholic and Orthodox Churches use olive oil for the Oil of Catechumens (used to bless and
strengthen those preparing for Baptism) and Oil of the Sick (used to confer the Sacrament of
Anointing of the Sick). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent like balsam is consecrated by
bishops as Sacred Chrism, which is used to confer the sacrament of Confirmation (as a
symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of Baptism and the ordination of
priests and bishops, in the consecration of altars and churches, and, traditionally, in the
anointing of monarchs at their coronation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
(Mormons) and a number of other religions use olive oil when they need to consecrate an oil
for anointings.
Eastern Orthodox Christians still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners and in
the cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass containing a half-inch of water and
filled the rest with olive oil. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the
wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the
float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by
soaking a ball of cotton in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns
until all the oil is consumed, at which point the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a
usual offering to churches and cemeteries.
In Islam, olive oil is mentioned in the Quranic verse: "God is the light of heavens and earth.
An example of His light is like a lantern inside which there is a tourch, the tourch is in a glass
bulb, the glass bulb is like a bright planet lit by a blessed olive tree, neither Eastern nor
Western, its oil almost glows, even without fire touching it, light upon light." The Qur‘an also
mentions olives as a sacred plant: "By the fig and the olive, and the Mount of Sinai, and this
secure city."[50] Olive oil is also reported to have been recommended by the Prophet
Muhammad in the following terms: "Consume olive oil and anoint it upon your bodies since
it is of the blessed tree." He also stated that it cures 70 diseases.
References
1. ^ International Olive Oil Council. "The Olive Tree, The Origin and Expansion of the
Olive Tree". http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-
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http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_34_18/ai_92084047.
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http://www.southafrica.info/business/trade/export/olive-oil-270705.htm.
7. ^ International Olive Oil Council International Olive Council
8. ^ United States Department of Agriculture Site
9. ^ Durant, John. US Customs Department, Director Commercial Rulings Division
Country of origin marking of imported olive oil; 19 CFR 134.46; ―imported by‖
language 2000-09-05.
10. ^ United States International Trade Commission Rulings See reference to HQ 560944
ruling of the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) on April 27, 1998 "blending of
Spanish olive oil with Italian olive oil in Italy does not result in a substantial
transformation of the Spanish product" 2006-02-28.
11. ^ a b McGee, Dennis. "Deceptive Olive Oil Labels on Major Brands (includes
photos)". http://oliveoilonly.org/impurity/olive-oil-labels-false-labeling.htm.
12. ^ Mueller, Tom. Slippery Business The New Yorker. 2007-08-13.
13. ^ "EUbusiness.com". http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/.
14. ^ a b "Telegraph article".
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/07/nfood07.xml.
15. ^ "Eubusiness.com". http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1204304521.23/.
16. ^ "Italian police crack down on olive oil fraud - Telegraph".
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/05/witaly105.xml.
17. ^ "Forty arrested in new 'fake' olive oil scam - Scotsman.com News".
http://news.scotsman.com/world/Forty-arrested-in-new-39fake39.4005000.jp.
18. ^ Riding, Alan (1989-05-21). "Trial in Spain on Toxic Cooking Oil Ends in Uproar".
The New York Times (H. J. Raymond & Co.).
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F948260. Retrieved 2008-11-16.
19. ^ "www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/corp/institution/aa-institution-
ini.html". http://www.internationaloliveoil.org/web/aa-ingles/corp/institution/aa-
institution-ini.html.
20. ^ a b "United States Standard for Grades of Olive Oil". United States Department of
Agriculture.
http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011889.
21. ^ a b United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Site
22. ^ "California and World Olive Oil Statistics"" PDF at UC Davis.
23. ^ The phenolic compounds of olive oil: structure, biological activity and beneficial
effects on human health E. Tripoli, M. Giammanco, G. Tabacchi, D. Di Majo, S.
Giammanco, and Maurizio La Guardia. Nutrition Research Reviews 18, 98–112
(2005) DOI: 10.1079/NRR200495
24. ^ Keys A, Menotti A, Karvonen MJ, et al. (December 1986). "The diet and 15-year
death rate in the seven countries study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 124 (6): 903–15. PMID
3776973. http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3776973.
25. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration Site
26. ^ New York Times, November 2, 2004, "Olive Oil Makers Win Approval to Make
Health Claim on Label"
27. ^ Covas MI (March 2007). "Olive oil and the cardiovascular system". Pharmacol.
Res. 55 (3): 175–86. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.010. PMID 17321749.

28. ^ Turner R, Etienne N, Alonso MG, et al. (January 2005). "Antioxidant and anti-
atherogenic activities of olive oil phenolics". Int J Vitam Nutr Res 75 (1): 61–70.
doi:10.1024/0300-9831.75.1.61. PMID 15830923.
29. ^ Mayo Clinic. "Olive Oil: Which Type Is Best?." ScienceDaily 14 August 2007. 19
November 2007
30. ^ Ferrara LA, Raimondi AS, d'Episcopo L, Guida L, Dello Russo A, Marotta T. (27
March 2000). "Olive oil and reduced need for antihypertensive medications.".
Archives of Internal Medicine 160 (6): 837-842. PMID 10737284.
Olive Oil and Reduced Need for Antihypertensive Medications archinte.ama-assn.org
31. ^ Mayo Clinic
32. ^ Romero C, Medina E, Vargas J, Brenes M, De Castro A (February 2007). "In vitro
activity of olive oil polyphenols against Helicobacter pylori". J Agric Food Chem. 55
(3): 680–6. doi:10.1021/jf0630217. PMID 17263460.
"New Potential Health Benefit Of Olive Oil For Peptic Ulcer Disease." ScienceDaily
14 February 2007
33. ^ Machowetz A, Poulsen HE, Gruendel S, et al. (January 2007). "Effect of olive oils
on biomarkers of oxidative DNA stress in Northern and Southern Europeans". Faseb
J. 21 (1): 45–52. doi:10.1096/fj.06-6328com. PMID 17110467.
"New Year's Resolution No. 1: Prevent Cancer, Use Olive Oil." ScienceDaily 12
December 2006.
34. ^ "www.tchain.com/otoneurology/disorders/hearing/wax2.html".
http://www.tchain.com/otoneurology/disorders/hearing/wax2.html.
35. ^ http://www.videojug.com/film/how-to-shave-with-olive-oil
36. ^ [1] Arief Budiyanto, Nazim U. Ahmed, An Wu, Toshinori Bito, Osamu Nikaido,
Toshihiko Osawa, Masato Ueda, Masamitsu Ichihashi, "Protective effect of topically
applied olive oil against photocarcinogenesis following UVB exposure of mice",
Carcinogenesis, Vol. 21, No. 11, pp. 2085-2090, Nov. 2000.
37. ^ [2] Ichihashi, M : Ahmed, N U : Budiyanto, A : Wu, A : Bito, T : Ueda, M : Osawa,
T, "Preventive effect of antioxidant on ultraviolet-induced skin cancer in mice. ", J-
Dermatol-Sci., Vol. 23, Suppl. 1S45-50, Mar. 2000.
38. ^ "Quite Interesting - Telegraph".
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007/08/04/nosplit/ftqi104.xml.
39. ^ Random House Unabridged Dictionary, s.v. "olive" and "oil"
40. ^ a b Davidson, s.v. Olives
41. ^ International Olive Oil Council International Olive Council
42. ^ Rosenblum, p. "[10 INSERT TITLE]". 10.
43. ^ Pagnol, p. "[19 INSERT TITLE]". 19.
44. ^ Ehud Galili et al., "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged
Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel", Journal of Archaeological Science
24:1141–1150 (1997); Pagnol, p. 19, says the 6th millennium in Jericho, but cites no
source.
45. ^ Guillaume Besnarda, André Bervillé, "Multiple origins for Mediterranean olive
(Olea europaea L. ssp. europaea) based upon mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms",
Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences—Series III—Sciences de la Vie
323:2:173–181 (February 2000); Catherine Breton, Michel Tersac and André
Bervillé, "Genetic diversity and gene flow between the wild olive (oleaster, Olea
europaea L.) and the olive: several Plio-Pleistocene refuge zones in the
Mediterranean basin suggested by simple sequence repeats analysis", Journal of
Biogeography 33:11:1916 (November 2006)

46. ^ "Ancient Egyptian texts: The Tale of Sinuhe".
http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/sinuhe.htm.
47. ^ F.R. Riley, "Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties,
Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil", Oxford Journal of
Archaeology 21:1:63–75 (2002)
48. ^ Thomas F. Scanlon, "The Dispersion of Pederasty and the Athletic Revolution in
sixth-century BC Greece", in Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity
and in the Classical Tradition of the West, ed. B. C. Verstraete and V. Provencal,
Harrington Park Press, 2005
49. ^ Nigel M. Kennell, "Most Necessary for the Bodies of Men: Olive Oil and its By-
products in the Later Greek Gymnasium" in Mark Joyal (ed.), In Altum: Seventy-Five
Years of Classical Studies in Newfoundland, 2001; pp119–33
50. ^ "www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/tafsir/syed_qutb/Surah_95.htm".
http://www.youngmuslims.ca/online_library/tafsir/syed_qutb/Surah_95.htm.
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Watermelon seed oil

Saffron
Saffron crocus
C. sativus flower with red stigmas

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asparagales
Family: Iridaceae
Subfamily: Crocoideae
Genus: Crocus
Species: C. sativus
Binomial name
Crocus sativus
L.
Saffron (IPA: [ˈsæf.ɹ ən] / [ˈsæf.ɹ ɒ n]) is a spice derived from the flower of the saffron
crocus (Crocus sativus), a species of crocus in the family Iridaceae. A C. sativus flower bears
three stigmas, each the distal end of a carpel. Together with their styles—stalks connecting
stigmas to their host plant—stigmas are dried and used in cooking as a seasoning and
colouring agent. Saffron, for decades the world's most expensive spice by weight,[1][2] is
native to Southwest Asia.[2][3]
Saffron is marked by a bitter taste and an iodoform- or hay-like fragrance; these result from
the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal.[4][5] A carotenoid dye, crocin, allows saffron to impart
a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Saffron has further medicinal applications.

The word saffron stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th-century Old French term
safran. Safranum is related to the Italian zafferano and Spanish azafrán.[6] Safranum derives
from the Arabic word aṣ far ( ), which means "yellow," via the Persian paronymous
[5][7]
za‫ر‬farān( ).
Biology
The domesticated saffron crocus (C. sativus) is an autumn-flowering perennial plant
unknown in the wild. It is a sterile triploid form, possibly of the eastern Mediterranean
autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus[8][9][10] that originated in Crete—not, as was once
generally believed, in Central Asia.[5] The saffron crocus resulted when C. cartwrightianus
was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. Being
sterile, the plant's purple flowers fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction depends on
human assistance: corms, underground bulb-like starch-storing organs, must be dug up,
broken apart, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, reproducing via this division
into up to ten "cormlets" that yield new plants.[8] Corms are small brown globules up to
4.5 centimetres (1.8 in) in diameter and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibers.
Morphology
→ Stigma
→ Stamens
→ Corolla
→ Corm
After aestivating in summer, the plant sends up five to eleven narrow and nearly vertical
green leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. In autumn, purple buds appear. Only in
October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued
flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated
mauve.[11] Upon flowering, plants average less than 30 cm (12 in) in height.[12] A three-
pronged style emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma
25–30 mm (0.98–1.2 in) in length.[8]

Cultivation
Saffron crocus flowers in Osaka Prefecture, Japan
Saffron crocus thrives in climates similar to that of the Mediterranean maquis or the North
American chaparral, where hot, dry summer breezes blow across arid and semi-arid lands.
The plant can nonetheless tolerate cold winters by surviving frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F)
and short periods of snow cover.[8][13] Irrigation is required if not grown in moist
environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm (39–59 in);
saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in)
are far drier. Rainfall timing is key: generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal.
Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during
flowering spurs disease and low yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm crops,[14]
as do the digging actions of rabbits, rats, and birds. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose
other threats.
Plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight; they fare poorly in shady conditions. Planting
is thus best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern
Hemisphere), maximizing sun exposure. Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern
Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7 to 15 centimetres (2.8–5.9 in) deep. Planting depth
and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors affecting yields. Mother corms
planted more deeply yield higher-quality saffron, though they produce fewer flower buds and
daughter corms. Italian growers have found that planting corms 15 centimetres (5.9 in) deep
and in rows spaced 2–3 cm apart optimizes thread yields, whereas planting depths of 8–10 cm
optimizes flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers have devised
different depths and spacings to suit their local climates.
Saffron crocuses grow best in friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained
clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Raised beds are traditionally used to promote
good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–
30 tonnes of manure per hectare. Afterwards—and with no further manure application—
corms were planted.[15] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up
their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower.
Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as
the day passes.[16] Furthermore, saffron crocuses bloom within a period of one or two
weeks.[17] Approximately 150 flowers yield 1 gram (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to
produce 12 g of dried saffron (72 g freshly harvested), 1 kg of flowers are needed (1 lb for

0.2 oz of dried saffron). One fresh-picked flower yields an average 30 milligrams (0.46 gr) of
fresh saffron or 7 milligrams (0.11 gr) of dried saffron.[15]
Chemistry
Crocin
Esterification reaction between crocetin

and gentiobiose
— β-D-gentiobiose
— Crocetin
Picrocrocin and safranal
Chemical structure of picrocrocin[18]
— Safranal moiety
— β-D-glucopyranose
derivative
Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many
nonvolatile active components,[19] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin,
lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is
primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester
(systematic (IUPAC) name: 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid). This means that the crocin
underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[19] Crocins
themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl
polyene esters of crocetin.[19] Meanwhile, crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid
that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble
gentiobioses (which are sugars), a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-
crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The
two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based (non-fatty) foods
such as rice dishes.[20]

Chemical composition
Component Mass %
carbohydrates 12.0–15.0
water 9.0–14.0
polypeptides 11.0–13.0
cellulose 4.0–7.0
lipids 3.0–8.0
minerals 1.0–1.5
miscellaneous
40.0
non-nitrogenous
Source: Dharmananda 2005
Proximate analysis
Component Mass %
Water-soluble
53.0
components
→ Gums 10.0
→ Pentosans 8.0
→ Pectins 6.0
→ Starch 6.0
→ α–Crocin 2.0
→ Other carotenoids 1.0
Lipids 12.0
→ Non-volatile oils 6.0
→ Volatile oils 1.0
Protein 12.0
Inorganic matter
6.0
("ash")
→ HCl-soluble ash 0.5
Water 10.0

Fiber (crude) 5.0
Source: Goyns 1999, p. 46
The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical
formula: C16H26O7; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6- trimethylcyclohex-1-
ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal (systematic
name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1- carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has
insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron.
Significantly, picrocrocin is a truncated version (produced via oxidative cleavage) of the
carotenoid zeaxanthin and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal. The reddish-
coloured[21] zeaxanthin is, incidentally, one of the carotenoids naturally present within the
retina of the human eye.
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits
picrocrocin to yield D-glucose and a free safranal molecule.[18] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives
saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[4][22] Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may
comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.[21] A second element
underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, the scent
of which has been described as "saffron, dried hay like".[23] Chemists found this to be the
most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance despite its being present in a lesser quantity
than safranal.[23] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks
down chemically in the presence of light and oxidizing agents. It must therefore be stored
away in air-tight containers in order to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is
somewhat more resistant to heat.
Crocus sativus has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active ingredients are
crocin and safranal.[24]
History
Main article: History of saffron
A detail of the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco from the "Xeste 3" building. The fresco is one of
many dealing with saffron that were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri,
Santorini.

The history of saffron cultivation reaches back more than 3,000 years.[25] The wild precursor
of domesticated saffron crocus was Crocus cartwrightianus. Human cultivators bred wild
specimens by selecting for unusually long stigmas. Thus, a sterile mutant form of C.
cartwrightianus, C. sativus, emerged in late Bronze Age Crete.[26] Experts believe saffron
was first documented in a 7th century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under
Ashurbanipal. Since then, documentation of saffron's use over the span of 4,000 years in the
treatment of some 90 illnesses has been uncovered.[27]
Mediterranean
Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1500–1600 BC, showing saffron's use
as a therapeutic drug.[28][29] Later, Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia. There,
adventurers hoped to procure what they believed was the world's most valuable saffron.[30]
Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed
into the original saffron crocus.[31] Ancient Mediterranean peoples—including perfumers in
Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,[32] and the Greek hetaerae courtesans—
used saffron in their perfumes, ointments,[33] potpourris, mascaras, divine offerings, and
medical treatments.[33]
This ancient Minoan fresco from Knossos, Crete shows a man (stooped blue figure) gathering
the saffron harvest.
In late Hellenistic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be
more pleasurable.[34] Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of
gastrointestinal ailments.[35] Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levant cities as
Sidon and Tyre.[36] Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds,
cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.[37] Such was the Romans' love of saffron
that Roman colonists took their saffron with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where
it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories state that saffron only
returned to France with 8th century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th
century AD.[38]

Asia
The 17.8 metres (58 ft) monolith of Gomateshwara, dating to 978–993 AD, is anointed with
saffron every 12 years by thousands of devotees as part of the Mahamastakabhisheka festival.
Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000 year-old depictions of prehistoric beasts
in what is today Iraq.[39][40] Later, the Sumerians used wild-growing saffron in their remedies
and magical potions.[41] Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan
palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron
(Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbena, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC.
At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,[42] ritually offered to divinities, and
used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.[43] Thus, saffron threads would be
scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-
Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.[44]
During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice,
and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops mimicked the practice and
brought saffron-bathing back to Greece.[45]
Theories explaining saffron's arrival in South Asia conflict. Traditional Kashmiri and Chinese
accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago.[46][47][48] Meanwhile,
historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,[49]
attributing it to either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and
parks[50] or to a Persian invasion and colonization of Kashmir. Phoenicians then marketed
Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy.[44] From there, saffron use in foods
and dyes spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks in India adopted saffron-coloured
robes after the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama's death.[51] However, the robes were not dyed
with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit.[52]
Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of
Persia.[53] On the other hand, saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including
the forty-volume Shennong Bencaojing (神農本草經—"Shennong's Great Herbal", also
known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao) pharmacopoeia, a tome dating from 200–300 BC.
Traditionally attributed to the legendary Yan ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) Shennong, it
documents 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.[51][54] Yet
around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri
provenance. For example, Wan Zhen, a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of

saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also
reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a
few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be
used to aromatise wine."[48]
Europe
Medieval European illuminated manuscripts, such as this 13th century depiction of

Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket's assassination, often used saffron dyes to provide
hues of yellow and orange.
In Europe, saffron cultivation declined steeply following the Roman Empire's fall. Saffron
was reintroduced when the Islamic civilization "Al-Andalus" spread to Spain, France, and
Italy.[55] During the 14th century Black Death, demand for saffron-based medicine
skyrocketed, and much saffron had to be imported via Venetian and Genoan ships from
southern and Mediterranean lands[56] such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by
noblemen sparked the fourteen-week long "Saffron War".[56] The conflict and resulting fear
of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in Basel, which grew
prosperous.[57] Cultivation and trade then spread to Nuremberg, where epidemic levels of
saffron adulteration brought on the Safranschou code, under which saffron adulterators were
fined, imprisoned, and executed.[58] Soon after, saffron cultivation spread throughout
England, especially Norfolk and Suffolk. The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its
new specialty crop, emerged as England's prime saffron growing and trading center.
However, an influx of more exotic spices such as chocolate, coffee, tea, and vanilla from
newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of
saffron to decline.[59][60] Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation
endure.[61]
Europeans brought saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder
Church left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had
widely grown saffron in Europe.[62] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch were cultivating saffron
throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of
this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the
Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold.[63] The trade with the
Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-
transporting merchant vessels were destroyed.[64] Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to

grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or
trout dishes.[65] American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in Lancaster
County, Pennsylvania.[62]
Trade and use

Main article: Trade and use of saffron
Saffron is one of the three essential ingredients in the Spanish paella valenciana, and is
responsible for its characteristic brilliant yellow colouring.
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with

grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter.
Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used
in Iranian (Persian), Arab, Central Asian, European, Indian, Turkish, and Cornish cuisines.
Confectionaries and liquors also often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include
safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa")
and turmeric (Curcuma longa). Medicinally, saffron has a long history as part of traditional
healing; modern medicine has also discovered saffron as having anticarcinogenic (cancer-
suppressing),[19] anti-mutagenic (mutation-preventing), immunomodulating, and antioxidant-
like properties.[19][66][67] Early studies show that saffron may protect the eyes from the direct
effects of bright light and retinal stress apart from slowing down macular degeneration and
retinitis pigmentosa.[68][69][70] Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China
and India, and in perfumery.[71]
World saffron cultivation patterns
— Major growing regions
— Major producing nations

— Minor growing regions
— Minor producing nations
— Major trading centres (current)
— Major trading centres (historical)
Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the Mediterranean in the west to
Kashmir in the east. Annually, around 300 tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide.[5] Iran,
Spain, India, Greece, Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy, in decreasing order of production, are
the major producers of saffron.
A pound of dry saffron requires 50,000–75,000 flowers, the equivalent of a football field's
area of cultivation (110,000-170,000 flowers or two football fields for a kilogram).[72][73]
Some forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.[74] Stigmas are dried quickly
upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.[75] Saffron prices at wholesale
and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound (US$1,100–11,000/kg)—
equivalent to £250/€350 per pound or £5,500/€7,500 per kilogram. In Western countries, the
average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2,200/£1,100/€1,550 per
kilogram).[2] A pound comprises between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson
colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of
fresh saffron.
Cultivars
Saffron threads (red-coloured stigmas) mixed with styles (yellow) from Iran
Several saffron cultivars are grown worldwide. Spain's varieties, including the tradenames
'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are
graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than
Spanish, while the most intense varieties tend to be Iranian in origin. Westerners may face
significant obstacles in obtaining saffron from India. For example, India has banned the
export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available
from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries,

some organically grown. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy
notes—is marketed in small quantities.[62][76]
Close-up of a single crocus thread (the dried stigma). Actual length is about 20 millimetres
(0.79 in).
Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (zafferano
dell'Aquila)—defined by high safranal and crocin content, shape, unusually pungent aroma,
and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's
Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from
Inquisition-era Spain. But in Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is
in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia. There, saffron is grown on 40 hectares (60% of Italian
production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the
Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the
most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in
Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices. Kashmiri saffron
is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which
suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.
Grade
Minimum saffron colour
grading standards (ISO 3632)
Crocin-specific
ISO Grade
absorbance (Aλ) score
(category)
(at λ=440 nm)
I > 190
II 150–190
III 110–150
IV 80–110
Source: Tarvand 2005b
Saffron is graded via laboratory measurement of crocin (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and
safranal (fragrance) content. Determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content")
and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading
standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization, a federation of

national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes four
empirical colour intensity grades: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Samples are
assigned grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, revealed by measurements of crocin-
specific spectroscopic absorbance. Absorbance is defined as Aλ = − log(I / I0), with Aλ as
absorbance (Beer-Lambert law) and indicates degree of transparency (I / I0, the ratio of light
intensity exiting the sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light.
Spanish national saffron

grading standards
Grade ISO score
Coupe > 190
La Mancha 180–190
Río 150–180
Standard 145–150
Sierra < 110
Source: Tarvand 2005b
For saffron, absorbance is determined for the crocin-specific photon wavelength of 440 nm in
a given dry sample of spice.[77] Higher absorbances at this wavelength imply greater crocin
concentration, and thus a greater colourative intensity. These data are measured through
spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades
proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190
or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of
stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market
prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores.[77] However, many growers,
traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of
sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to
that practiced by practised wine tasters.[78]
Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron
adulteration—particularly among the cheapest grades—continues into modern times.
Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling
adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.[79] Typical methods include
mixing in extraneous substances like beets, pomegranate fibers, red-dyed silk fibers, or the
saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing
saffron fibers with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil. However, powdered saffron
is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting
fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron
grades.[80] Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper
Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that
has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[81][82]
Notes
Saffron crocuses flowering in a garden in Osaka Prefecture (大阪府), Kansai, Honshū, Japan
A saffron crocus flower
1. ^ Rau 1969, p. 53.

2. ^ a b c Hill 2004, p. 272.
3. ^ Grigg 1974, p. 287.
4. ^ a b McGee 2004, p. 423.
5. ^ a b c d Katzer 2001.
6. ^ Harper 2001.
7. ^ Kumar V (2006). The Secret Benefits of Spices and Condiments. Sterling. pp. 103.
ISBN 1-8455-7585-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=AaTpWEIlgNwC.
8. ^ a b c d Deo 2003, p. 1.
9. ^ DNA analysis in Crocus sativus and related Crocus species
10. ^ M. Grilli Caiola - Saffron reproductive biology
11. ^ Willard 2001, p. 3.
12. ^ DPIWE 2005.
13. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 2–3.
14. ^ Deo 2003, p. 2.
15. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 3.
16. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 3–4.
17. ^ Willard 2001, p. 4.
18. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 4.
19. ^ a b c d e Abdullaev 2002, p. 1.
20. ^ McGee 2004, p. 422.
21. ^ a b Leffingwell 2001, p. 1.
22. ^ Dharmananda 2005.
23. ^ a b Leffingwell 2001, p. 3.
24. ^ "Antidepressant effect of Crocus sativus L. stigma extracts and their constituents,
crocin and safranal, in mice.". www.cababstractsplus.org.
http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20043148643. Retrieved
2008-03-02.

25. ^ Deo 2003, p. 1.
26. ^ Goyns 1999, p. 1.
27. ^ Honan 2004.
28. ^ Ferrence 2004, p. 1.
29. ^ Honan 2004.
30. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 2–3.
31. ^ Willard 2001, p. 2.
32. ^ Willard 2001, p. 58.
33. ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 41.
34. ^ Willard 2001, p. 55.
35. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 34–35.
36. ^ Willard 2001, p. 59.
37. ^ Celsus, de Medicina, ca. 30 AD, transl. Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1935 [1]
38. ^ Willard 2001, p. 63.
39. ^ Willard 2001, p. 2.
40. ^ Humphries 1998, p. 20.
41. ^ Willard 2001, p. 12.
42. ^ Willard 2001, p. 2.
43. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 17–18.
44. ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 41.
45. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 54–55.
46. ^ Lak 1998b.
47. ^ Fotedar 1998–1999, p. 128.
48. ^ a b Dalby 2002, p. 95.
49. ^ McGee 2004, p. 422.
50. ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256.
51. ^ a b Tarvand 2005.
52. ^ Finlay, Victoria (30 December 2002), Colour: A Natural History of the Palette,
Random House, p. 224, ISBN 0-8129-7142-6
53. ^ Fletcher 2005, p. 11.
54. ^ Hayes 2001, p. 6.
55. ^ Willard 2001, p. 70.
56. ^ a b Willard 2001, p. 99.
57. ^ Willard 2001, p. 101.
58. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 103–104.
59. ^ Willard 2001, p. 117.
60. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 132–133.
61. ^ Willard 2001, p. 133.
62. ^ a b c Willard 2001, p. 143.
63. ^ Willard 2001, p. 138.
64. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 138–139.
65. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 142–146.
66. ^ Assimopoulou 2005, p. 1.
67. ^ Chang, Kuo & Wang 1964, p. 1.
68. ^ http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/3/1254
69. ^ http://vision.edu.au/news/acevs%20saffron.pdf
70. ^ http://www.vision.edu.au/AnnualReports/ACEVS%20Report%202007.pdf
71. ^ Dalby 2002, p. 138.
72. ^ Hill 2004, p. 273.
73. ^ Rau 1969, p. 35.

74. ^ Lak 1998.
75. ^ Goyns 1999, p. 8.
76. ^ Willard 2001, p. 201.
77. ^ a b Tarvand 2005b.
78. ^ Hill 2004, p. 274.
79. ^ Willard 2001, pp. 102–104.
80. ^ Tarvand 2005.
81. ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2003.
82. ^ Hussain 2005.
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(Crocus sativus).", Cancer Letters 57 (2). PMID 2025883
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Olive
Olive Tree
Olea europaea, Dead Sea, Jordan

Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Oleaceae
Genus: Olea
Species: O. europaea
Binomial name
Olea europaea
L.
19th century illustration

The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of a small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the
coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean Basin, from Lebanon, Syria and the maritime parts
of Turkey and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. Its fruit, the olive, is of
major agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil.
Description
The olive tree is an evergreen tree or shrub native to the Mediterranean, Asia and parts of
Africa. It is short and squat, and rarely exceeds 8–15 meters in height. The silvery green
leaves are oblong in shape, measuring 4–10 cm long and 1–3 cm wide. The trunk is typically
gnarled and twisted.
The small white flowers, with ten-cleft calyx and corolla, two stamens and bifid stigma, are
borne generally on the last year's wood, in racemes springing from the axils of the leaves.
The fruit is a small drupe 1–2.5 cm long, thinner-fleshed and smaller in wild plants than in
orchard cultivars. Olives are harvested at the green stage or left to ripen to a rich purple
colour (black olive). Canned black olives may contain chemicals that turn them black
artificially.
History
See also: Olive oil#History
The olive is one of the plants most cited in recorded literature. In Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus
crawls beneath two shoots of olive that grow from a single stock,[1] and in the
Iliad,(XVII.53ff) is a metaphoric description of a lone olive tree in the mountains, by a
spring; the Greeks observed that the olive rarely thrives at a distance from the sea, which in
Greece invariably means up mountain slopes. Greek myth attributed to the primordial
culture-hero Aristaeus the understanding of olive husbandry, along with cheese-making and
bee-keeping.[2] Olive was one of the woods used to fashion the most primitive Greek cult
figures, called xoana, referring to their wooden material; they were reverently preserved for
centuries.[3] It was purely a matter of local pride that the Athenians claimed that the olive
grew first in Athens.[4] In an archaic Athenian foundation myth, Athena won the patronship of
Athens from Poseidon with the gift of the olive. Though, according to the 4th-century BC
father of botany, Theophrastus, olive trees ordinarily attained an age of about 200 years,[5] he
mentions that the very olive tree of Athena still grew on the Acropolis; it was still to be seen
there in the second century AD;[6] and when Pausanias was shown it, ca 170 AD, he reported
"Legend also says that when the Persians fired Athens the olive was burnt down, but on the
very day it was burnt it grew again to the height of two cubits;"[7] indeed, the olive suckers
readily from the stump, and the great age of some existing olive trees shows that it was
perfectly possible that the olive tree of the Acropolis dated to the Bronze Age. The olive was
sacred to Athena and appeared on the Athenian coinage.
The Roman poet Horace mentions it in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very
simple: "As for me, olives, endives, and smooth mallows provide sustenance."[8] Lord
Monboddo comments on the olive in 1779 as one of the foods preferred by the ancients and
as one of the most perfect foods.[9].

The leafy branches of the olive tree - the olive leaf as a symbol of abundance, glory and
peace - were used to crown the victors of friendly games and bloody wars. As emblems of
benediction and purification, they were also ritually offered to deities and powerful figures;
some were even found in Tutankhamen's tomb.
Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient
Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the "eternal flame" of the
original Olympic Games. Victors in these games were crowned with its leaves. Today, it is
still used in many religious ceremonies.
Over the years, the olive has been the symbol of peace, wisdom, glory, fertility, power and
pureness. The olive tree and olives are mentioned over 30 times in the Bible, in both the New
and Old Testaments. It is one of the first plants mentioned in the Bible, and one of the most
significant. For example, it was an olive branch that a dove brought back to Noah to
demonstrate that the flood was over. The Mount of Olives east of Jerusalem is mentioned
several times. The Book of Jacob 5, in regard to the scattering and gathering of Israel,
compares the Israelites and gentiles to tame and wild olive trees. The olive tree itself, as well
as olive oil and olives, play an important role in the Bible.[10] The olive is praised in the
Quran as a precious fruit.
The olive tree seems to have been native in the Mediterranean region and Western Asia and
spread to nearby countries from there. It is estimated the cultivation of olive trees began more
than 7000 years ago. As far back as 3000 BC, olives were grown commercially in Crete; they
may have been the source of the wealth of the Minoan Civilization.[11] The ancient Greeks
used to smear olive oil on their bodies and hair as a matter of grooming and good health.
Theophrastus, in On the Nature of Plants, does not give as systematic and detailed an account
of olive husbandry as he does of the vine, but he makes clear (in 1.16.10) that the cultivated
olive must be vegetatively propagated; indeed, the pits give rise to thorny, wild-type olives,
spread far and wide by birds. Theophrastus reports how the bearing olive can be grafted on
the wild olive, for which the Greeks had a separate name, kotinos.[12]
After the 16th century, the Europeans brought the olive to the New World, and its cultivation
began in Mexico, Peru, Chile and Argentina, and then in the 18th century in California. It is
estimated that there are about 800 million olive trees in the world today, and the vast majority
of these are found in Mediterranean countries.[citation needed]

Old olive trees
Olive tree ―Olea europea‖ on Bar, Montenegro which is over 2000 years old
Olive tree on Ithaca, Greece that is claimed to be over 1500 years old
Olive trees are very hardy, drought-, disease- and fire-resistant, and can live for very long. Its
root system is very robust and capable of regenerating the tree even if the latter is destroyed.
The older an olive tree is, the broader and gnarlier its trunk appears. Many olive trees in the
groves around the Mediterranean are said to be several centuries old, and in some cases this
has been verified scientifically.
Pliny the Elder told of a sacred Greek olive tree that was 1600 years old. Several trees in the
Garden of Gethsemane (from the Hebrew words "gat shemanim" or olive press) in Jerusalem
are claimed to date back to the time of Jesus.[13] Some Italian olive trees are believed to date
back to Roman times, although identifying progenitor trees in ancient sources is difficult.
One olive tree in Bar, Montenegro, is claimed to be over 2000 years old [14].
The age of an olive tree in Crete, claimed to be over 2,000 years old, has been determined on
the basis of tree ring analysis.[15] Another well-known olive tree on the island of Brijuni
(Brioni), Istria in Croatia, has been calculated to be about 1,600 years old. It still gives fruit
(about 30 kg per year), which is made into top quality olive oil.[16]
An olive tree in west Athens, named "Plato's Olive Tree", was rumored to be a remnant of the
grove within which Plato's Academy was situated, which would date it to approximately

2,400 years ago. The tree was a cavernous trunk from which a few branches were still
sprouting in 1975, when a traffic accident caused a bus to fall on and uproot it. Since then the
trunk is preserved and displayed in the nearby Agricultural University of Athens. A
supposedly even older tree, called the "Peisistratos Tree", is located by the banks of the
Cephisus River, in the municipality of Agioi Anargyroi, and is said to be a remnant of an
olive grove planted by Athenian tyrant Peisistratos in the 6th century BC.
According to a recent scientific survey, there are tens of ancient olive trees throughout
Biblical Israel, 1600-2000 years old,[17] from even before the rise of Islam. Specifically, two
giant olive trees in the Arab town of Arraba and five trees in Deir Hanna, both in Galilee
region, have been determined to be over 3000 years old. All seven trees continue to produce
olives.[17]
A tree located in Santu Baltolu di Carana in Sardinia, Italy, named with respect as the
Ozzastru by the inhabitants of the region, is claimed to be 3000 to 4000 years old according
to different studies. In the same natural garden, a few other millenary trees can be admired.

For more details on this topic, see Olive (fruit).
An example of black olives
A selection of olives in a market in Tel Aviv, Israel
The olive tree has been cultivated for olive oil, fine wood, olive leaf, and the olive fruit.
While it is not known when olives were first cultivated for harvest, the earliest evidence for
the domestication of olives comes from the Chalcolithic Period archaeological site of Teleilat
Ghassul in what is today modern Jordan.
Farmers in ancient times believed olive trees would not grow well if planted more than a
short distance from the sea; Theophrastus gives 300 stadia (55.6 km) as the limit. Modern
experience does not always confirm this, and, though showing a preference for the coast, it
has long been grown further inland in some areas with suitable climates, particularly in the
southwestern Mediterranean (Iberia, northwest Africa) where winters are mild.
Olive plantation in Andalucia, Spain
Olives are now cultivated in many regions of the world with Mediterranean climates, such as
South Africa, Chile, Australia, the Mediterranean Basin, Israel, Palestinian Territories and
California and in areas with temperate climates such as New Zealand, under irrigation in the
Cuyo region in Argentina which has a desert climate. They are also grown in the Córdoba
Province, Argentina, which has a temperate climate with rainy summers and dry winters
(Cwa).[18] The climate in Argentina changes the external characteristics of the plant but the
fruit keeps its original characteristics.[19]
Considerable research supports the health-giving benefits of consuming olives, olive leaf and
olive oil (see external links below for research results). Olive leaves are used in medicinal
teas.
Olives are now being looked at for use as a renewable energy source, using waste produced
from the olive plants as an energy source that produces 2.5 times the energy generated by
burning the same amount of wood. The smoke released has no negative impact on neighbors
or the environment, and the ash left in the stove can be used for fertilizing gardens and plants.
The process has been patented in the Middle East and the US.[20]
Subspecies
There are at least five natural subspecies distributed over a wide range:
Olea europaea subsp. europaea (Europe)

Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (from Eritrea and Ethiopia south throughout East
Africa, also in Iran to China)
Olea europaea subsp. guanchica (Canaries)
Olea europaea subsp. maroccana (Morocco)
Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei (Algeria, Sudan, Niger, India)

Cultivars
Small olive tree
Large olive tree
Olive tree leaves

Olive tree trunk
Olive flowers
A young olive plant, germinated from a seed

Cailletier cultivar, with an olive harvest net on the ground
Monumental tree in Apulia Region - Southern Italy
There are thousands of cultivars of the olive. In Italy alone at least three hundred cultivars
have been enumerated, but only a few are grown to a large extent. None of these can be
accurately identified with ancient descriptions, though it is not unlikely that some of the
narrow-leaved cultivars most esteemed may be descendants of the Licinian olive. The Iberian
olives are usually cured and eaten, often after being pitted, stuffed (with pickled pimento,
anchovies, or other fillings) and packed in brine in jars or tins.
Since many cultivars are self sterile or nearly so, they are generally planted in pairs with a
single primary cultivar and a secondary cultivar selected for its ability to fertilize the primary
one. In recent times, efforts have been directed at producing hybrid cultivars with qualities
such as resistance to disease, quick growth and larger or more consistent crops.
Some particularly important cultivars of olive include:
'Amfissa', excellent quality Greek table olive grown in Amfissa, Central Greece near
the oracle of Delphi. Amfissa olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin)
status and are equally good for olive oil extraction. The olive grove of Amfissa, which
consists of 1,200,000 olive trees is a part of a protected natural landscape.
'Bosana', the most common olive grown on Sardinia. It is used mostly for oils.
'Manzanilla', a large, rounded-oval fruit, with purple-green skin, originating in Dos
Hermanas, Seville, in southern Spain. Rich taste and thick pulp. A prolific bearer,
grown around the world.

'Frantoio' and 'Leccino'. These cultivars are the principal participants in Italian olive
oils from Tuscany. Leccino has a mild sweet flavour while Frantoio is fruity with a
stronger aftertaste. Due to their highly valued flavour, these cultivars are now grown
in other countries.
'Arbequina', a small, brown olive grown in Catalonia, Spain, good for eating and for
oil.
'Cornicabra', originating in Toledo, Spain, comprises about 12% of Spain's
production. It is mainly used for oil.
'Empeltre', a medium-sized black olive grown in Spain, good for eating and for oil.
'Hojiblanca', originating in the province of Córdoba, Spain, its oil is widely
appreciated for its slightly bitter flavour.
'Kalamata', a large, black olive with a smooth and meatlike taste, named after the city
of Kalamata, Greece, used as a table olive. These olives are usually preserved in
vinegar or olive oil. Kalamata olives enjoy PDO (Protected designation of origin)
status.[21]
'Koroneiki', originating from the southern Peloponese, around Kalamata and Mani in
Greece. This small olive, though difficult to cultivate, has a high yield of olive oil of
exceptional quality.
'Picholine' or 'pecholine', originating in the south of France. It is green, medium size,
and elongated. The flavour is mild and nutty.
'Picual', originating in southern Spain (province of Jaén), it is the most widely
cultivated olive in Spain, comprising about 50% of Spain's olive production and
around 20% of world olive production. It has a strong but sweet flavour, and is widely
used in Spain as a table olive. Moreover, its oil has some of the best chemical
properties found in olive oil, being the richest in oleic acid and E vitamin.[citation needed]
'Lucques', originating in the south of France (Aude département). They are green,
large, and elongated. The stone has an arcuated shape[clarification needed]. Their flavour is
mild and nutty.
'Souri', originating in Lebanon(the town of Sur (Tyre)) and widespread in the Levant.
It has a high oil yield and exceptionally aromatic flavour.
'Nabali', a Palestinian cultivar[22] also known locally as 'Baladi', which, along with
'Souri' and 'Malissi', is considered to produce among the highest quality olive oil in
the world.[23]
'Barnea', a modern cultivar bred in Israel to be disease-resistant and to produce a
generous crop. It is used both for oil and for table olives. The oil has a strong flavour
with a hint of green leaf. Barnea is widely grown in Israel and in the southern
hemisphere, particularly in Australia and New Zealand.
'Maalot' (Hebrew for merits), another modern Israeli, disease-resistant, Eastern
Mediterranean cultivar derived from the North African 'Chemlali' cultivar. The olive
is medium sized, round, has a fruity flavour and is used almost exclusively for oil
production.
'Mission' originated on the California Missions and is now grown throughout the state.
They are black and generally used for table consumption. They are celebrated at Olive
Festivals throughout the state of California. [24]
Growth and propagation
Olive trees show a marked preference for calcareous soils, flourishing best on limestone
slopes and crags, and coastal climate conditions. They grow in any light soil, even on clay if
well drained, but in rich soils they are predisposed to disease and produce poorer oil than in

poorer soil. (This was noted by Pliny the Elder.) Olives like hot weather, and temperatures
below 14 °F (-10 °C) may injure even a mature tree. They tolerate drought well, thanks to
their sturdy and extensive root system. Olive trees can live exceptionally long, up to several
centuries, and can remain productive for as long, if they are pruned correctly and regularly.
Olives grow very slowly, and over many years the trunk can attain a considerable diameter.
A. P. de Candolle recorded one exceeding 10 m in girth. The trees rarely exceed 15 m in
height, and are generally confined to much more limited dimensions by frequent pruning. The
yellow or light greenish-brown wood is often finely veined with a darker tint; being very hard
and close-grained, it is valued by woodworkers.
Olives are propagated in various ways. The preferred ways are cuttings or layers; the tree
roots easily in favourable soil and throws up suckers from the stump when cut down.
However, yields from trees grown from suckers or seeds are poor; it must be budded or
grafted onto other specimens to do well (Lewington and Parker, 114). Branches of various
thickness cut into lengths of about 1 m and planted deeply in manured ground, soon vegetate.
Shorter pieces are sometimes laid horizontally in shallow trenches and, when covered with a
few centimetres of soil, rapidly throw up sucker-like shoots. In Greece, grafting the cultivated
tree on the wild tree is a common practice. In Italy, embryonic buds, which form small
swellings on the stems, are carefully excised and planted under the soil surface, where they
soon form a vigorous shoot.
Occasionally, large branches are marched[clarification needed] to obtain young trees. The olive is
also sometimes grown from seed; to facilitate germination, the oily pericarp is first softened
by slight rotting, or soaking in hot water or in an alkaline solution.
Where the olive is carefully cultivated, as in Languedoc and Provence, the trees are regularly
pruned. The pruning preserves the flower-bearing shoots of the preceding year, while keeping
the tree low enough to allow the easy gathering of the fruit. The spaces between the trees are
regularly fertilized. The crop from old trees is sometimes enormous, but they seldom bear
well two years in succession, and in many cases a large harvest occurs every sixth or seventh
season.
Fruit harvest and processing
Olives are harvested in the fall. More specifically, green olives are picked at the end of
September to about the middle of November. Blond olives are picked from the middle of
October to the end of November and Black olives are collected from the middle of November
to the end of January or early February. In southern Europe, harvesting is done for several
weeks in winter, but the time varies in each country, and with the season and the cultivar.
Most olives today are harvested by shaking the boughs or the whole tree. Using olives found
lying on the ground can result in poor quality oil. Another method involves standing on a
ladder and "milking" the olives into a sack tied around the harvester's waist.[citation needed] A
third method uses a device called an oli-net that wraps around the tree trunk and opens to
form an umbrella-like catcher from which workers collect the fruit. Another method uses an
electric tool, the oliviera, that has large tongs that spin around quickly, removing fruit from
the tree. This method is used for olives used for oil. Table olive varieties are more difficult to
harvest, as workers must take care not to damage the fruit; baskets that hang around the
worker's neck are used. In some places in Italy and Greece, olives are harvested by hand

because the terrain is too mountainous for machines. As a result, the fruit is not bruised,
which leads to a superior finished product. The method also involves sawing off branches,
which is healthy for future production. [25]
The amount of oil contained in the fruit differs greatly by cultivar; the pericarp is usually 60–
70% oil. Typical yields are 1.5-2.2 kg of oil per tree per year.[26]
Traditional fermentation and curing
Green & Black Olive
Olives are a naturally bitter fruit that is typically subjected to fermentation or cured with lye
or brine to make it more palatable.
Green olives and black olives are typically washed thoroughly in water to remove oleuropein,
a bitter carbohydrate. Sometimes they are also soaked in a solution of food grade sodium
hydroxide in order to accelerate the process.
Green olives are allowed to ferment before being packed in a brine solution. American black
("California") olives are not fermented, which is why they taste milder than green olives.
Freshly picked olive fruit is not palatable because it contains phenolic compounds and
oleuropein, a glycoside which makes the fruit too bitter although not unhealthy.[25] (One
exception is the Thassos Olive, which can be eaten fresh.) There are many ways of
processing olives for eating. Traditional methods use the natural microflora on the fruit and
procedures which select for those flora that ferment the fruit. This fermentation leads to three
important outcomes: the leaching out and breakdown of oleuropein and phenolic compounds;
the creation of lactic acid, which is a natural preservative; and a complex of flavoursome
fermentation products. The result is a product which will store with or without refrigeration.
One basic fermentation method involves a 10% solution of salt and vinegar in water. The
ratio is 10 kg olives to 7 liters of water, 800 g salt and 300 ml of vinegar. Fresh are often sold
at markets. Olives can be used green, ripe green (a yellower shade of green, or green with
hints of colour), through to full purple black ripeness. Olives should be selected for general
good condition and for firmness if green. The olives are soaked in water to wash, then
drained. 7 litres (7 kg) of room temperature water is added to a container, plus 800 g of sea
salt and one cup (300 g) of white wine or cider vinegar. Each olive is slit deeply with a small
knife; large fruit (e.g., 60 fruit per kg) should be slit in multiple places. After some weeks, the

salinity drops from 10% to around 5 to 6% once the water in the olives moves into solution
and the salt moves into the olives. The olives are weighed down with an inert object such as a
plate so they are fully immersed and lightly sealed in their container. The gases of
fermentation should be able to escape. It is possible to use a plastic bag partially filled with
water, and lay this over the top as a venting lid which also provides a good seal. The
exclusion of oxygen is helpful, but not as critical as when fermenting grapes to produce wine.
The olives are edible within 2 weeks to a month, but can be left to cure for up to three
months. They can be tasted at any time because the bitter compounds are not poisonous, and
oleuropein is a useful antioxidant in the human diet.
Curing can be done by several methods: lye-curing, salt-curing, brine-curing and fresh water-
curing. Lye-curing, an unnatural method, results in the worst taste as it leeches much of the
fruits' flavor. Salt-curing (also known as dry-curing) involves packing the olives in plain salt
for at least a month, which produces a salty and wrinkled olive. Brine-curing involves placing
the olives in a salt water solution for a few days or more. Fresh-water curing involves soaking
the olives in a succession of baths, of which the water is changed daily.[25] Green olives are
usually firmer than black olives.
Olives can also be flavoured by soaking them in various marinades, or removing the pit and
stuffing them. Popular flavourings are herbs, spices, olive oil, feta, capsicum (pimento), chili,
lemon zest, lemon juice, garlic cloves, wine, vinegar, juniper berries and anchovies.
Sometimes, the olives are lightly cracked with a hammer or a stone to trigger fermentation.
This method of curing adds a slightly bitter taste.
Pests, diseases, and weather

A fungus, Cycloconium oleaginum, can infect the trees for several successive seasons,
causing great damage to plantations. A species of bacterium, Pseudomonas savastanoi pv.
oleae[27], induces tumour growth in the shoots. Certain lepidopterous caterpillars feed on the
leaves and flowers. More serious damage is caused by olive-fly attacks to the fruit.
A pest which spreads through olive trees is the black scale bug, a small black beetle that
resembles a small black spot. They attach themselves firmly to olive trees and reduce the
quality of the fruit; their main predators are wasps. The curculio beetle eats the edges of
leaves, leaving sawtooth damage.[28]
Rabbits eat the bark of olive trees and can do considerable damage, especially to young trees.
If the bark is removed around the entire circumference of a tree it is likely to die.
In France and north-central Italy, olives suffer occasionally from frost. Gales and long-
continued rains during the gathering season also cause damage.
Production
Olives are the most extensively cultivated fruit crop in the world.[29] Cultivation area tripled
from 2.6 to 8.5 million hectares between 1960 and 2004. The ten largest producing countries,
according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, are all located in the Mediterranean
region and produce 95% of the world's olives.

Main countries of production (Year 2003)
Production Cultivated area Yield
Rank Country/Region
(in tons) (in hectares) (q/Ha)
— World 17,317,089 8,597,064 20.1
1 Spain 6,160,100 2,400,000 25.7
2 Italy 3,149,830 1,140,685 27.6
3 Greece 2,300,000 765,000 31.4
4 Turkey 1,800,000 594,000 30.3
5 Syria 998,988 498,981 20.0
6 Tunisia 500,000 1,500,000 3.3
7 Morocco 470,000 550,000 8.5
8 Egypt 318,339 49,888 63.8
9 Algeria 300,000 178,000 16.9
10 Portugal 280,000 430,000 6.5
11 Lebanon 275,000 250,000 6.5
As an invasive species
Since its first domestication, Olea europaea has been spreading back to the wild from planted
groves. Its original wild populations in southern Europe have been largely swamped by feral
plants.[30]
In some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, most notably South Australia,
the olive has become a major woody weed that displaces native vegetation. In South
Australia its seeds are spread by the introduced red fox and by many bird species including
the European starling and the native emu into woodlands where they germinate and
eventually form a dense canopy that prevents regeneration of native trees.[31]
References
1. ^ Homer, Odyssey, book 5".
2. ^ "He learned from the Nymphai how to curdle milk, to make bee-hives, and to
cultivate olive-trees, and was the first to instruct men in these matters." (Diodorus
Siculus, 4. 81. 1).
3. ^ Towards the end of the second century AD the traveler Pausanias saw many such
archaic cult figures.
4. ^ "Indeed it is said that at that [ancient] time there were no olives anywhere save at
Athens." (Herodotus, 5. 82. 1 ).
5. ^ Theophrastus, On the Causes of Plants,, 4.13.5., noted by Signe Isager and Jens
Erik Skydsgaard, Ancient Greek Agriculture, An introduction, 1992, p. 38.
6. ^ "...which is still shown in the Pandroseion" (pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke,
3.14.1).
7. ^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 1. 27. 1.

8. ^ "Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, Odes 1.31.15, ca 30
BC
9. ^ Letter from Lord Monboddo to John Hope, 29 April, 1779; reprinted by William
Knight 1900 ISBN 1855062070
10. ^ Balfour, John Hutton, "Plants of the Bible" 1885. Available through Google Books
11. ^ Gooch, Ellen, "10+1 Things you may not know about olive oil", Epikouria
Magazine, Fall/Spring (2005)
12. ^ Isager and Skydsgaard 1992, p. 35.
13. ^ Lewington, A., & Parker, E. (1999) Ancient Trees., pp 110–113, London: Collins &
Brown Ltd. ISBN 1-85585-704-9
14. ^ Muncipality Bar, "Kod Starog Bara u Tombi (Mirovica) nalazi se maslina stara više
od 2000 godina"- Near the Old Bar in Tombi, there is an olive tree which is 2000
years old
15. ^ O. Rackham, J. Moody, The Making of the Cretan Landscape, 1996, cited in F. R.
Riley (2002). Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties,
Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil. Oxford Journal of
Archaeology 21 (1): 63–75
16. ^ "Old Olive Tree". Brijuni National Park.
http://www.brijuni.hr/Home.aspx?PageID=151. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
17. ^ a b M. Kislew, Y. Tabak & O. Simhoni, Identifying the Names of Fruits in Ancient
Rabbinic Literature, Leshonenu (Hebrew), vol. 69, p.279
18. ^ Enciclopedia Universal Europeo Americana. Volume 15. Madrid. 1981. Espasa-
Calpe S.A. ISBN 84-239-4-500-6 (Complete Encyclopedia) and ISBN 84-239-4-515-
4 (Volume 15 )
19. ^ Discriminación de variedades de olivo a través del uso de caracteres morfológigos y
de marcadores moleculares. 2001. Cavagnaro P., J. Juárez, M Bauza & R.W.
Masuelli. AGRISCIENTA. Volume 18:27-35
20. ^ [1]
21. ^ Fotiadi, Elena "Unusual Olives", Epikouria Magazine (Spring/Summer 2006)
22. ^ Belaj et al. (September 2002). "Genetic diversity and relationships in olive (Olea
europaea L.) germplasm collections as determined by randomly amplified
polymorphic DNA". TAG Theoretical and Applied Genetics (Springer Berlin /
Heidelberg) (vol. 105, Number 4).
http://www.springerlink.com/content/dlb533pw9cbwc59e/. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
23. ^ PFTA & Canaan Fair Trading. "A Brief Study of Olives and Olive Oil in Palestine".
Zatoun. http://www.zatoun.com/study.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
24. ^ http://www.pasoroblesolivefestival.com/
25. ^ a b c "Unusual Olives", Epikouria Magazine, Spring/Summer 2006
26. ^ Riley, op.cit.
27. ^ Janse, J. D. 1982. Pseudomonas syringae subsp. savastanoi (ex Smith) subsp. nov.,
nom. rev., the bacterium causing excrescences on Oleaceae and Nerium oleander L.
Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 32:166–169.
28. ^ Burr, M. 1999. Australian Olives. A guide for growers and producers of virgin oils,
4th edition.
29. ^ "FAO, 2004". Apps3.fao.org. http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/olive/intro.jsp. Retrieved
2009-05-18.
30. ^ Lumaret, R. & Ouazzani, N. (2001) Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests.
Nature 413: 700

31. ^ Dirk HR Spennemann & Allen, L.R. (2000) Feral olives (Olea europaea) as future
woody weeds in Australia: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture
40: 889–901.
Tarragon
Tarragon
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Tribe: Anthemideae
Genus: Artemisia
Species: A. dracunculus
Binomial name
Artemisia dracunculus
L.
Tarragon or dragon's-wort (Artemisia dracunculus L.) is a perennial herb in the family

Asteraceae related to wormwood. Corresponding to its species name, a common term for the
plant is "dragon herb." It is native to a wide area of the Northern Hemisphere from
easternmost Europe across central and eastern Asia to India, western North America, and
south to northern Mexico. The North American populations may however be naturalised from
early human introduction.
Tarragon grows to 120-150 cm tall, with slender branched stems. The leaves are lanceolate,
2-8 cm long and 2-10 mm broad, glossy green, with an entire margin. The flowers are
produced in small capitulae 2-4 mm diameter, each capitulum containing up to 40 yellow or
greenish-yellow florets. (French tarragon, however, seldom produces flowers.[1])

Cultivation
Dried tarragon leaves
French tarragon is the variety generally considered best for the kitchen, but cannot be grown
from seed. It is normally purchased as a plant, and some care must be taken to ensure that
true French tarragon is purchased. A perennial, it normally goes dormant in winter.[1] It likes
a hot, sunny spot, without excessive watering.[1]
Russian tarragon (A. dracunculoides L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in
flavour when compared to the French variety.[1] However, Russian tarragon is a far more
hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This tarragon
actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as strongly
aromatic and flavoursome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves from early
spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. The young stems in early
spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Grow indoors from seed and plant out in the
summer. Spreading plant can be divided easily.
Health
Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole, a
known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed that the
danger of estragole is minimal even at 100-1000 times the typical consumption seen in
humans.[2]
Usage
Culinary use
Tarragon is one of the four fines herbes of French cooking, and particularly suitable for
chicken, fish and egg dishes. Tarragon is one of the main components of Béarnaise sauce.
Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon may be steeped in vinegar to impart their flavor.
Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Armenia,
Georgia and, by extension, Russia and Ukraine. The drink—named Tarhun (թարխուն,
pronounced [tarˈxuˈn] ; Тархун), which is the Armenian, Persian and Russian word for
tarragon—is made out of sugary tarragon concentrate and colored bright green.

Cis-Pellitorin, an isobutylamide eliciting a pungent taste, has been isolated from Tarragon
plant.[3]
In Slovenia, tarragon is used as a spice for sweet pastry called potica.
References
1. ^ a b c d McGee, Rose Marie Nichols; Stuckey, Maggie (2002). The Bountiful
Container. Workman Publishing.
2. ^ Surburg, Horst; Johannes Panten (2006). Common Fragrance and Flavor
Materials: Preparation, Properties and Uses. Wiley-VCH. pp. 233. ISBN
9783527607891.
3. ^ Gatfield IL, Ley JP, Foerstner J, Krammer G, Machinek A. Production of cis-
pellitorin and use as a flavouring. World Patent WO2004000787 A2
Salvia officinalis
Salvia officinalis
Flowers
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Salvia
Species: S. officinalis
Binomial name
Salvia officinalis
L.

Salvia officinalis (Sage, Common sage, Garden sage, Kitchen sage, Culinary sage,
Dalmatian sage, Purple sage, Broadleaf sage, Red sage) is a small perennial evergreen
subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers. It is a member of
the mint family, Lamiaceae. It is native to the Mediterranean region and commonly grown as
a kitchen and medicinal herb or as an ornamental garden plant. The word sage or derived
names are also used for a number of related and non related species.
Uses
Common sage is also grown in parts of Europe, especially the Balkans for distillation of an
essential oil, though other species, such as Salvia fruticosa may also be harvested and
distilled with it.
Painting from Koehler's Medicinal Plants (1887)
Culinary
As an herb, sage has a slight peppery flavor. In Western cooking, it is used for flavoring fatty
meats (especially as a marinade), cheeses (Sage Derby), and some drinks. In the United
States, Britain and Flanders, sage is used with onion for poultry or pork stuffing and also in
sauces. In French cuisine, sage is used for cooking white meat and in vegetable soups.
Germans often use it in sausage dishes, and sage forms the dominant flavoring in the English
Lincolnshire sausage. Sage is also common in Italian cooking. Sage is sautéed in olive oil and
butter until crisp, then plain or stuffed pasta is added (burro e salvia). In the Balkans and the
Middle East, it is used when roasting mutton.

Medicinal
Sage leaves
The top side of a sage leaf - trichomes are visible.
The underside of a sage leaf - more trichomes are visible on this side.
The Latin name for sage, salvia, means ―to heal". Although the effectiveness of Common
Sage is open to debate, it has been recommended at one time or another for virtually every
ailment. Modern evidence supports its effects as an anhidrotic, antibiotic, antifungal,
astringent, antispasmodic, estrogenic, hypoglycemic, and tonic.[1] In a double blind,
randomized and placebo-controlled trial, sage was found to be effective in the management of
mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.[2]
The strongest active constituents of Sage are within its essential oil, which contains cineole,
borneol, and thujone. Sage leaf contains tannic acid, oleic acid, ursonic acid, ursolic acid,
cornsole, cornsolic acid, fumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, niacin, nicotinamide,
flavones, flavonoid glycosides, and estrogenic substances.[1]

Caution is indicated when used in conjunction with central nervous system stimulants or
depressants.[1] Sage is used as a nootropic for its acetylcholinesterase inhibitor properties. An
"Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor" promotes the availabilty of Acetylcholine.
History
Salvia officinalis has been used since ancient times for warding off evil, snakebites,
increasing women's fertility, and more. The Romans likely introduced it to Europe from
Egypt. Theophrastus wrote about two different sages, a wild undershrub he called sphakos,
and a similar cultivated plant he called elelisphakos. Pliny the Elder said that the latter plant
was called "Salvia" by the Romans, and used as a diuretic, a local anesthetic for the skin, a
styptic, and for other uses. During the Carolingian Empire of the early Middle Ages,
monastery gardens were cultivating the plant. Walafrid Strabo described it in his poem
Hortulus as having a sweet scent and being useful for many human ailments—he went back
to the Greek root for the name and called it Lelifagus.[3]
The plant had a high reputation throughout the Middle Ages, with many sayings referring to
its healing properties and value.[4] It was sometimes called S. salvatrix (Sage the Savior), and
was one of the ingredients of Four Thieves Vinegar, a blend of herbs which was supposed to
ward off the plague. Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen all recommended sage as a diuretic,
hemostatic, emmenagogue, and tonic.[3]
Cultivars
There are a number of cultivars, with the majority grown as ornamentals rather than for their
herbal properties. All are valuable as small ornamental flowering shrubs, and for low ground
cover, especially in sunny dry environments. They are easily raised from summer cuttings.
Named cultivars include:
'Purpurascens', a purple-leafed cultivar, considered by some to be strongest of the

garden sages,
'Tricolor', a cultivar with white, yellow and green variegated leaves,
'Berggarten', a cultivar with large leaves,
'Icterina', a cultivar with yellow-green variegated leaves,
'Alba', a white-flowered cultivar,
'Extrakta', has leaves with higher oil concentrations.
'Lavandulaefolia', a small leaved cultivar.
References
1. ^ a b c "Sage". OBeWise Nutriceutica. Applied Health.
http://www.appliedhealth.com/nutri/page8453.php. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
2. ^ Akhondzadeh S, Noroozian M, Mohammadi M, Ohadinia S, Jamshidi AH, Khani
M. (2003). "Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to
moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled
trial". J Clin Pharm Ther 28 (1): 53–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2710.2003.00463.x. PMID
12605619.

3. ^ a b Kintzios, Spiridon E. (2000). Sage: The Genus Salvia. CRC Press. pp. 10-11.
ISBN 9789058230058.
4. ^ An anglo-saxon manuscript read "Why should man die when he has sage?"
Kintzios, p. 10
Sources
The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses, Deni Bown
(New York: DK, 2001)


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COOKING INGREDIENTS

Laurus nobilis, known as bay leaf, from

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California bay leaf

"Indian bay leaf" (also tej pat, tejpat, tejpata or Tamalpatra

"Indonesian bay leaf" or "Indonesian laurel" (salam leaf)

Taste and aroma

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Fresh leaves and leaf of Laurus nobilis A Laurus nobilis bush.

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Common thyme, Thymus vulgaris.

Shavings of the thyme herb.

any or all members of the plant genus Thymus,

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Thymus × citriodorus (Citrus Thyme; hybrid T. pulegioides × T. vulgaris) is also a popular

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English thyme—the most common

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curly leaf parsley

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Percentages are relative to US

Furanocoumarins in parsley's seed coat may be responsible for parsley's problematic

In addition, the consumption of parsley is thought to contribute to sweet smelling breath.

The produce code for parsley is 4899, or 4900. "Parsley on plucodes.com".

Parsley Bush Flat Parsley white

Dried oregano for culinary use.

Oregano growing in a field.

Oregano is an important culinary herb. It is particularly widely used in Turkish, Greek,

Oregano growing in a pot.

Other plants called oregano

In the Philippines, oregano, Plectranthus amboinicus, is not commonly used as a cooking

Etymology and history

Cultivation and uses

Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available in the UK

Florence fennel bulbs

Fennel tea, also employed as a carminative, is made by pouring boiling water on a

Blood and urine

Cinnamon foliage and flowers

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum, synonym C. zeylanicum) is a small evergreen tree

Nomenclature and taxonomy

In Marathi, it is known as "DalChini ( )". In Bengali, it is called "Darchini"

Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants (1887)

Quills of true cinnamon bark and ground cinnamon.

Leaves of a wild Cinnamon

Type 1 Sinhala: Pani Kurundu, Pat Kurundu or Mapat Kurundu

Cinnamon and cassia

Cinnamon bark is widely used as a spice. It is principally employed in cookery as a

Percentages are relative to US

Allergies and eye irritation

Onion and shallot output in 2005

Brown and white onions Yellow onions Flower head of a yellow

Onion field during harvest, Vale, Oregon (USA).

Potential medicinal use

Onion fields near Elba, Onions cooked in a Onion weighing and

Allium sativum, known as garlic, from

Origin and distribution

Garlic output in 2005.

Top Ten Garlic Producers — 11 June 2008

Garlic being crushed using a garlic press.

Garlic being rubbed using a garlicboss

Ready peeled garlic cloves sold in a plastic container