Digital Species E Book

Digital Compendium of
Forestry Species of
Cambodia
Digital Species

Phnom Penh, Cambodia
2008

www.digitalspecies.blogspot.com
Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia
:: Digital Species ::
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.]
Supported by: German embassy, DED
Datasheet Report
Powered by: Natural Technology Systems
[Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.
B. English name (s) ³ northern black wattle, Darwin black wattle, ear-pod wattle,
tan wattle [1], auri, black wattle, ear leaf acacia, earleaf
acacia, Papuan wattle, wattle [8], coast wattle, Japanese
acacia [9]
C. Synonym ³ Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex Benth., Racosperma
auriculiforme (A. Cunn. ex Benth.) Pedley [1]
D. Other1 ³ northern black wattle (Trade name) [1] - akashmoni,

Australian babul, kasia, sonajhuri (India) [1] - ngarai, unar
(Papua New Guinea) [1] - Japanese acacia, auri (Philippines)
[1, 9] - akasai, akasia, kasia, ki hia (Indonesia) [9] - akasia
kuning, kasia (Malaysia) [9] - mkesia (East Africa) [9] -
krathin-narong (Thailand) [9] - smach’té:hes (Vietnam) [9]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ GakasüasøwktUc

Source: [3]
Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ smach’tehs [4], acacia sleuk touch [6]
G. Taxonomic position(complete)³
Kingdom: Viridiplantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Sub-Phylum : Angiospermae
Class : Dicotyledonae
Other : Fabales
Family: Fabaceae (Subfamily: Mimosoideae)
Gunus: Acacia
Species: Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex
Benth.
1
Source :[ 1]
H. Botanical characteristics :
[General]: A. auriculiformus is a deciduous or evergreen, leguminous tree which reaches on favorable
sites a total height of 25-35 m [1] (25-30 m [3], 30-40 m [2], 15-30 m [9]) with a straight bole which has
a stem height of 12-15 m [3] (up to 12 m [9]) and a maximum DBH of 60-80 cm [3] (80-100 cm [2], 50
cm [9]). However, more commonly it is a small to medium-sized tree of 8-20 m [1, 2] or a shrub with 3-
5 m [1] (2-8 m [4]) which is heavily branched with a short bole. It has a spreading, deep [8] (shallow
[9]) and dense root system. The crown is large, spreading and dark green with dense foliage. Young
branches are slightly depressed, angular, hairless and green.
[Bark]: The bark is grey to black-grey or brown sometimes blackened at the base, 2-3 mm thick [3],
smooth in young trees, becoming rough and deeply longitudinally fissured with age. The inner bark is
white-grey and 7-9 mm thick [3].
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple flattened phyllodes (= leafstalks which function as a true leaf), sickle-
shaped, alternate, spear-shaped or oblong, bow-like, becoming progressively thinner at both ends,
10-16 x 1.5–2.5 cm [8] (7-17 x 1.5-2.7 cm [3], 8-20 cm x 1.0-4.5 cm [1]), thick leathery, greyish green
and hairless. There are 3 prominent parallel veins [1] (6-8 veins [3], 3-8 veins [9]) running together
towards the lower margin or in the middle near the base, with many fine secondary veins and a
distinct gland at the base of the leaf. The leaves mostly remain on the tree during the dry season; their
average life is about 1 year [1] in West Java.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence is an axillary, interrupted spike to 8.5 cm long [1] in pairs at the leaf

bases. The flowers are 0.3 cm long [8], light-golden to yellow in color, bisexual, tiny, sessile and
fragrant. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused together into an up to 0.1 cm long [1] tube
which is shortly lobed and hairless. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) form a corolla which is up to
0.2 cm long [1] with many stamens (=male organs) which are about 0.3 cm long [1]. The ovary
(=female organ) is small and densely covered with hairs. Flowers are pollinated by insects. Flowering
and fruiting occurs irregularly from July to October [3]. In many places the tree can flower and fruit
continuously all year round [3]. However, "there is usually a distinct peak flowering season which may
vary considerably with location. In the Northern Territory of Australia, flowering occurs from April to
July with ripe seed available some 4-5 months later in August to October. Sedgley et al. (1992) found
that peak flowering occurred in February to May at Atherton in Queensland (Australia), and near
Kuala Lumpur in Peninsular Malaysia, and Tawau in Sabah, with ripe seed pods available between
October and April. In Java (Indonesia), peak flowering occurs in March to June." [1].
[Fruits]: "Mature seeds can be collected between August and February in Thailand" [1]. The fruit
(=thin compressed pod) has a size of 7-8 x 1.2- 1.4 cm [3] (6.5 x 1.5 cm [1], 6-8 x 1-1.5 cm [8]), is
strongly curved, flat, flexible but hard, rather woody, covered with a whitish, waxy bloom, hairless,
transversely veined with undulate margins. Fruits are initially straight or curved, but on maturity
become twisted with irregular spirals. The fruit-stalk is 1.2 cm long [3]. Each pod contains 5-7 [3] shiny
2
black seeds which are broadly ovate to elliptical, 0.4-0.6 x 0.3-0.4 cm [1] in size (5 mm long [8]) and
each is encircled by a long red, yellow or orange seed-stalk.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is large-sized and straight. The sapwood is white to yellow with
inconspicious ribs and the heartwood is light brown to dark red, straight grained and reasonably
durable. A. auriculiformis wood has a high basic density with 0.5-0.65 g/cm³ [1, 3, 9] and a calorific
value of 4,700-4,900 kcal/kg [1] (4,500-4,900 kcal/kg [9]). The timber is fine-grained, often attractively
figured and finishes well. Wood fibers are relatively short, about 0.85 mm in length [1] and 0.2 µm in
width [1]. "The chemical composition of the wood is 59% cellulose, 24% lignin, 19% pentosan and
0.4% ash. Flavonoid substances are also present" [1]. The heartwood is typically hard and durable,
but the sapwood is highly susceptible to termite and borer attack and requires preservative treatment
when in contact with the soil. Boards may sometimes split when sawn.
[1, 3, 9]
J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation :

Approximate limits: 5°S to 17°S [1]. This species is native to Australia but has been cultivated in many
areas of the world as a forestry tree, especially in South-, Southeast Asia and in Africa and has
escaped from plantings in various places. "Natural stands of A. auriculiformis are found in Australia,
Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia. A. auriculiformis occurs in the lowland tropics growing naturally in
narrow belts along river banks, where it may be dominant or one of the principal species. It also
occurs in small pockets in depressions and in open-forest dominated by various eucalypts and
acacias. It is also found in littoral rain forest behind either mangroves or coastal dunes" [1]. It also has
a strong ability to recolonize wasted land and problem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and
even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1].
Generally it occurs as a scattered tree in riparian habitats (perennial rivers and semi-perennial
creeks), dry deciduous forests, open moist deciduous forests (monsoon forests) and tall savanna
woodland. It is a component of swamp forest, dominated by Melaleuca species, usually on the better
drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these forests include Acacia
mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi. It was recently introduced to Cambodia via
Vietnam, where it is cultivated with eucalyptus for reforestation.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 9]
K. Climate and environmental amplitude :

A. auriculiformis grows from sea level to 400 m [2, 9], but is most commonly found at elevations less
than 80 m [2] (0-500 (-1,000) m [9]). "A. auriculiformis occurs naturally in hot humid and hot subhumid
climatic zones. For the natural distribution of this species, the mean maximum temperature of the
hottest month (November-December) is within the range of 32-34°C, and the mean minimum
3
temperature of the coolest month (May-September) is 17-22°C. Outside the natural distribution, a
wider range of temperatures is tolerated, indicating the adaptability of A. auriculiformis. Frost does not
occur in its natural range, but elsewhere light frost is tolerated. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 760
mm in the Northern Territory of Australia, to 3,400 mm in Papua New Guinea (6,000 mm [9]).
However, for most of the planted and natural distribution, rainfall is generally much lower with up to
2,500 mm (1,000-2,000 mm [3], 700-2,000 mm [2], 650-2,000 mm [9]). It has a summer monsoonal
pattern, with most rain falling from December to March" [1]. A auriculiformis tolerates a dry season of
0-7 months [2] (0-6 months [3]) but also fast drying (=desiccation) and forest fires. Shade is not
tolerated at all, because this tree is a strong light demander and wind tolerance is low, as branches
break easily in strong winds. Also weeds may become a threat in the establishment phase.
[1, 2, 3, 8, 9]
L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

No information available.
M. soil and site conditions :

"In Australia A. auriculiformis grows on dissected lateritic lowlands and alluvial coastal plains, along
drainage channels just above the tidal range, on the edges of sand dunes, behind mangrove swamps,
and along river levees (also on unstable slopes [8]). The soils are frequently yellow earths, but vary
from dune sands and sandy loams to alluvials with a high clay and humus content. The pH usually
ranges from 4.5-6.5, but it also grows on alkaline beach sands with a pH of 8-9 (general pH range:
3.0-9.5 [8], 4.3-9 [9]). In West Timor it is one of the best species for cultivation on highly alkaline soils.
A. auriculiformis is also highly tolerant of acidic conditions. In Australia, Malaysia and the Philippines it

has grown on acid mine spoils of pH 3, while A. auriculiformis is one of the few tree species to
become widely planted on the acid sulphate soils (pH 3) of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. It can also
tolerate saline soils. In an experiment in Thailand, it continued growing under saline conditions
ranging from 0.15 to 7.25 dS/m, in both wet and dry soils. A. auriculiformis was also amongst the best
performing acacias on slightly to moderately saline seasonally waterlogged soils in southeastern
Queensland. They are on shallow well drained sandy loam overlying heavy clay or imperfectly drained
soils subject to temporary or prolonged flooding in the wet season. These soils are strongly acid and
of poor fertility with low values for nitrogen, exchangeable potassium and available phosphorus" [1]. It
can also grow in soils ofproblem areas like papermill sludge (pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH
3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species after 20 years [1]. Generally it will grow on a
wide range of deep and shallow soils with practically no maintenance. Soil types include: Yellowish
red basalt, alluvial soils, compacted clay soils, coral soils, lateritic soils, limestone soils, mine spoil,
podzols, saline soils, sandstone soils, savanna soils, sandy soils and vertisols.
[1, 2, 3, 8, 9]
4
N. Utilization and importance :
[Wood]: This species has been widely planted for fuelwood and charcoal production due its a high
basic density and calorific value of 4,700-4,900 kcal/kg [1] (4,500-4,900 kcal/kg [9]), its fast growth
and adaptibility to a wide range of site conditions, which makes it an ideal tree species for fuelwood
production. The charcoal is not very heavy, glows well and does not smoke or spark. "The annual fall
of leaves, twigs, and branches can amount to 4-6 t/ha, which is useful as household fuel" [1]. Besides
fuelwood the wood is extensively used for paper pulp. "Plantation-grown trees have been found
promising for the production of unbleached kraft pulp and high-quality, neutral, sulphite semi-chemical
pulp. Large-scale plantations have already been established, as in Kerala (India), for the production of
pulp" [9]. "The sulphate process with 13% alkali yields up to 55% of screened pulp. It is less suitable
for high-yield mechanical type pulps although there is significant variation in pulp-making properties
between provenances" [1]. The wood of A. auriculiformis also makes attractive furniture if it is large
sized and straight and is also excellent for toys and handicrafts. It is also used for wood turning (e.g.
framing, flooring), carving, joinery, round wood, posts, stakes, tool handles, boxes, carriage making,
composite boards, wood cement and for construction if trees of suitable girth are available. However,
the crooked and multiple stems which are a common feature of the species largely restrict its use as
poles or other forms of timber that requires reasonable length.
[1, 2, 3, 9]
[Non-wood]: It is not widely used as fodder, but in India 1-year-old plantations are browsed by cattle
[9]. "A preliminary study of fodder values has shown that A. auriculiformis meets the minimum
requirements for certain nutrients and warrants further investigation" [1]. The bark has sufficient
tannins (about 13% [1], 13-25% [9]) for a possible commercial exploitation and is also appreciated as
fuelwood. The bark also contains 6-14% [9] of a natural dye which used in the batik textile industry in
Indonesia. Lac insect culture using the species as host plant is possible. Leaves can be used as
mulch for improving the soil. An edible mushroom (Tylopylus fellus) is common in plantations of A.
auriculiformis in Thailand and Vietnam.
[1, 4, 9]
[Others]: "Plantations of A. auriculiformis improve soil physio-chemical properties such as water-

holding capacity, organic carbon, nitrogen and potassium through litter fall. Its phyllodes provide a
good, long-lasting mulch. Acacia auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating with a range of
Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains. It also has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal
fungi" [9]. Although it is not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and
competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping of A. auriculiformis with peanut, rice, mung beans and
kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has proved to be successful, while intercropping with corn was rather
unsuccessful. It has also been used satisfactorily as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is
sometimes planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or
improve soil fertility. This species is planted to provide shelter along the sea front and to revegetate
mining spoil heaps. The spreading, densely-matted root system can stabilize eroding land. It has been
used widely in revegetation of degraded land and rehabilitation of grassland in India, Indonesia and
5
Vietnam. It also has a strong ability to recolonize wasted land and problem areas like papermill sludge
(pH 9.5 [9]) and even uranium spoils (pH 3.0 [9]) where it has been found as the only tree species
after 20 years [1]. The dense, dark-green foliage, which remains throughout the dry season, makes it
an excellent tree for shade and ornamental purposes in cities where its bright-yellow flowers are
desirable attributes. It is also suitable as a host tree in the nursery propagation of sandalwood
(Santalum album) plantations, or as a secondary or tertiary host when sandalwood is established in
the field. Generally this tree is placed into nurseries for shading and wind protection. "It is also used
for the cultivation of the lac insect in India" [3]. Flowers are a source of bee forage for honey
production.
[1, 2, 3, 8, 9]
O. Cambodian wood classification :
No class [5]
P. Silviculture and management :

[General]: A. auriculiformis occurs generally as a scattered tree in riparian habitats (perennial rivers
and semi-perennial creeks), dry deciduous forests, open moist deciduous forests (monsoon forests)
and tall savanna woodland. It is a component of swamp forest, dominated by Melaleuca species,
usually on the better drained sites. It is also common in littoral forest. Regular associates in these
forests include Acacia mangium, A. aulacocarpa and Melaleuca cajuputi. This species is fast growing,
light demanding and nitrogen fixing, which makes it a popular tree for plantation forestry. It was
recently introduced to Cambodia via Vietnam and is now cultivated with eucalyptus for reforestation
purposes. It has the ability to coppice, but it is not a vigorous sprouter and responses well to

pollarding. It is intolerant to shade and weeds, at least in early development stages.
[Natural regeneration]: "Profuse natural regeneration may appear after fire or on disturbed sites in the
absence of severe weed competition" [1].
[Provenances]: "The crooked stem form and tendency of trees to produce multiple leaders of trees in
plantations currently limits utilization of A. auriculiformis for poles and heavy construction timber.
Careful selection and introduction of provenances which produce a higher proportion of straight stems
should minimize this drawback in the future. Provenances from Queensland (Australia) appear to
have a higher proportion of straight stems in combination with fast growth. Several countries have
genetic improvement programmes aiming to improve these traits simultaneously, and thus enhance
the industrial utility of the species for commodities such as paper pulp and sawn timber" [1]. (For more
information on provenances please have a look at the chapter 'Variation and breeding' in the
'Miscellaneous' category)
[Establishment]: Stands are established successfully by using containerized seedlings or by direct

sowing. Containerized seedlings generally give higher survival rates especially in areas of heavy
weed competition and are especially used for Acacia plantations. In general, 3-4 months [9] are
needed to raise transplantable seedlings that are 25 cm tall [9]. Aerial seeding has sometimes been
successful but appropriate site preparation prior to sowing is required. In the field, weed control is
6
essential especially during the first 1-2 years [2]. A small amount of NPK fertilizer in the first year
helps to improve initial growth. The fertilization rates depend on the site quality. The optimum spacing
for A. auriculiformis depends on utilization and management considerations. Most current plantings
use spacings ranging from 1 x 1 m to 4 x 4 m [1] ( 2 x 2 or 2 x 4 m [2], 2-4 x 2-4 m [9]). "Spacings of 1
x 2 m and 1.5 x 1.5 m are favoured by farmers in China producing fuelwood and poles. In India,
planting takes place during the monsoon into preprepared pits 30 cm³ in size which are filled with
loamy soil mixed with farm yard manure, chemical fertilizers, and insecticides to discourage termites."
[1]. Once established, the tree is quite competitive with weeds. However, good control of weeds in the
first two years is very important, as the species is shade intolerant and young seedlings can easily be
suppressed by weeds. Young seedlings produce 2-3 bipinnate leaves, which are soon followed by
phyllodes (=leafstalk with the shape of a leaf). Seedlings grow quickly and reach a height of 25-30 cm
in 3-4 months [1], 6 m in 2 years [1], and 6-12 m in 3 years [1] under favourable conditions. Flowering
usually starts within 2 years [1] after sowing. Newly emerged seedlings should receive 50% shade [9].
Once they are established, 70% full sunlight [9] is optimal. It often becomes naturalized where
planted.
[Management]: [1] "A number of silvicultural systems are appropriate for A. auriculiformis. In India,
common practice is to clear fell at 10-15 years, followed by natural or artificial regeneration" [1]. The
recommended rotation is 4-5 years for pulp [2] and 12-15 years for timber [2]. One or two thinnings
are required with longer rotations, depending on initial spacing, site quality and tree growth. "Although
A. auriculiformis has the ability to coppice, it is not a vigorous or prolific sprouter and careful
management is required to obtain good results from coppicing. Stump height is an important factor in
sprouting; better results are obtained when stumps are cut 60-100 cm from ground. Age or stump
diameter and season of cutting also affect coppicing ability. The species also responds well to
pollarding. A. auriculiformis is sometimes included in trials of mixed species management systems in

the tropics, where it is grown in combination with various native rain forest species and occasionally
eucalypts. The aim of these systems is to use the nitrogen-fixing ability of the acacia for soil
improvement, and its fast growth, as a cover crop initially and then as an income source through sale
of thinnings, to enhance the economic viability of planting the slower growing species. Plantings in
Imperata grasslands have survived fires, but are generally too severely damaged by fire to make A.
auriculiformis a suitable tree for Imperata control. A. auriculiformis can fix nitrogen after nodulating
with a range of Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium strains in many tropical soils. In the Philippines, 52-
66% of nitrogen uptake was shown to be derived from nitrogen fixation. This nitrogen-fixing potential
may only be realized in many soils if adequate fertilizer, especially phosphorus, is applied. A.
auriculiformis has associations with both ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi. The ecto-mycorrhizal
fungus (Thelephora spp.) forms a beneficial association, and several species of vesicular arbuscular
mycorrhizas, including Glomus etunicatum and Gigaspora margarita, are effective. Many soils on
which A. auriculiformis is planted have low levels of available nutrients and there is usually a positive
response to fertilizer application. For example, a good growth response was achieved in India by
applying fertilizer one month after planting. A dose of 30 g of nitrogen, 25 g of phosphorus and 8 g of
potassium per plant was useful in soils with a high potassium content. Removal of lower branches of
7
young plants has been suggested as a means of improving stem form, but when tried in Thailand was
unsuccessful" [1].
[Yield]: "A. auriculiformis has shown excellent growth under plantation conditions, and an annual
increment in height of 2-4 m in the first few years is common even on soils of low fertility. Under
optimum conditions, A. auriculiformis is vigorous and reaches 15-18 m tall and 15-20 cm diameter at
age 10-12 years. On relatively fertile Javanese soils receiving over 2,000 mm annual rainfall, a mean
annual increment (MAI) of 15-20 m3/hectare is possible, but on less fertile or highly eroded sites the
increment is reduced to 8-12 m³/ha. Yield is further reduced on sites where low rainfall or a prolonged
dry season is a limiting factor. The expected MAI, without fertilizer, on red lateritic soils in a semi-arid
area of India is 2-6 m³/ha. On Imperata grasslands and very infertile soils A. auriculiformis will usually
grow faster than species of Albizia, Eucalyptus, Leucaena and Pinus. Growth differences between
provenances are large. On a well drained site in Thailand receiving about 1,500 mm rainfall annually,
a provenance from Balamuk (Papua New Guinea) produced a total above-ground biomass of 135 t/ha
in 3 years, while a provenance from Springvale (Australia) reached only 60 t/ha" [1].
[Agroforestry]: Although it is not widely used in agroforestry systems because of its spreading and
competitive surface rooting habit, intercropping of A. auriculiformis with peanut, rice, mung beans and
kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) has proved to be successful, while intercropping with corn was rather
unsuccessful. Pruning of A. auriculiformis is recommended to improve light availability to crop plants.
It has also been used succellfully as a nurse tree in tea plantations. A. auriculiformis is sometimes
planted in mixture with eucalypts and other trees which do not fix nitrogen to maintain or improve soil
fertility.
[1, 2, 4, 9]

Q. Propagation :
[Reproduction]: "Acacia auriculiformis is hermaphroditic and pollinated by a wide range of insects
including Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, which forage mainly on
pollen" [9].
[Seed collection and storage]: This species produces large quantities of seed at an early age. Seeds
have a very hard seed coat when fully ripened and keep viable quite well (several years) if stored
properly in airtight containers in a dark, cool room. A pre-germination treatment, such as mechanical
scarification of the seed coat or immersion in boiling water (1 minute immersion is suitable [1], 1-2
minutes [9]), is required to break seed coat dormancy, followed by soaking in cold water overnight or
soaking in warm water for 24 hours. Good results have also been achieved by soaking A.
auriculiformis seed in concentrated sulphuric acid for periods of 6-30 minutes [1]. Germination is rapid
(6-15 days [9]) after suitable treatment and typically exceeds 70% [1] (40-80% [9]). There is an
average of 71,600 viable seeds/kg. [1] (53,000–62,000 seeds/kg [8], 55,000-75,000 seeds/kg [9])
[Propagation]: Seedlings in the nursery require little attention. Newly emerged seedlings should
receive 50% shade [1]; once established 70% full sunlight [1] is optimal. "Methods of vegetative
propagation of A. auriculiformis through juvenile cuttings have been developed and are now a routine
8
and simple operation" [9]. Trees can be pollarded to produce cuttings. Micropropagation techniques
can also be employed. Direct seed sowing by hand has been successful. Plantations are established
using seedlings raised in containers. In general, 3-4 months [2] are needed to raise seedlings to a
plantable size, 25 cm in height [2]. Inoculation with appropriate rhizobia may be beneficial, especially
when seedlings are raised in sterilized soil. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in
Cambodia: 30,000 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 2,500.
Rate of loss: 3,000 (20% in planting site), 3,334 (10% in transit), 4,168 (20% at the nursery).
Germination rate: 60%. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 0.27 kg" [10].
[1, 2, 8, 9, 10]
R. Hazards and protection :

[Pests]: There are several insect pests of A. auriculiformis, but none are limiting the establishment on
appropriate sites at present. Especially stressed trees are susceptible to insect attacks. A beetle
(Sinoxylon sp.) can girdle small stems or branches, causing them to break. "This beetle is of concern
because damage causes the tree to develop multiple leaders and reduces the length of clear bole. In
Australia the wood is attacked by borers and termites, and scale insects are prevalent on young trees.
Experimental results suggest that A. auriculiformis has some resistance to termites. A. auriculiformis
was recorded as host to Xystrocera festiva at two locations in South Sumatra" [1].
[1, 9]
[Diseases]: Also the diseases of A. auriculiformis are not limiting to establishment if this tree.
However, a number of diseases were identified as potential threats to the future productivity of
industrial plantations based on A. auriculiformis. They included stem cankers caused by a range of
pathogens (Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botryosphaeria spp. and Hendersonula sp.) and most often
associated with stem borer damage, pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) which is most prevalent in
high rainfall areas, and phyllode rust (Atelocauda digitata [1], Uromyces digitatus [9] ) which has
impaired the growth of A. auriculiformis in Australia and Indonesia. It is not susceptible to the heart rot
which affects A. mangium. "A root rot fungus, Ganoderma sp., was observed to cause crown dieback
and defoliation in A. auriculiformis plantations in parts of West Bengal (India). A species of Cuscuta
(Convolvulaceae) has also been recorded as a parasite of A. auriculiformis in West Bengal" [1].
Seedlings in the nursery can be infected by powdery mildew (Oidium), especially where there is heavy
shading. The avoidance of problems through careful site and provenance matching is generally
preferred to chemical control measures.
[1, 9]
[Others]: This tree does not tolerate shade and it is quite susceptible to damage by frost and wind, as
branches break easily in strong winds. Another limitation is the relative sensitivity of young trees to
weeds and fire (up to about 20 months [1]), but even trees which are 10-15 years old can be killed by
fire [2].
[1, 2, 9]
9
S. Conservation :
The estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop
on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) is more than 10,000 trees
threatened by logging and more than 1,000 threatened by fire.
[11]
T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :
U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) :

[World Distribution]:
[Native]: Australia (Australian Northern Territory, Queensland), Papua New Guinea, Indonesia (Irian
Jaya, Moluccas).
[1, 2, 3, 8]
[Introduced]:
Asia: (Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam)
Africa: (Benin, Burundi, Congo Democratic Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia,
Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Uganda,
Zimbabwe)
Caribbean: (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago)

Central America: (Costa Rica)
North America: (USA, Hawaii)
South America: (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador)
Oceania: (Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu)
[1, 2, 3]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The generic name acacia comes from the Greek word ‘akis’ meaning a point or a barb
and the specific epithet comes from the Latin ‘auricula’- external ear of animals and ‘forma- form,
figure or shape, in allusion to the shape of the pod" [9].
[Hybrids]: "A. auriculiformis is related to A. polystachya A. Cunn. ex Benth., A. cincinnata F. Muell.

and A. spirorbis subsp. solandri (Benth.) Pedley and more distantly to A. aulacocarpa A. Cunn. ex
Benth. and A. crassicarpa A. Cunn. ex Benth. (Pedley, 1975). It hybridizes readily with A. leptocarpa
A. Cunn. ex Benth. and A. mangium Willd. in nature and in cultivation. The hybrids with A. mangium
10
are intermediate between the two parents in morphology and wood properties. They inherit the
straighter stem form of A. mangium and the self-pruning ability and the stem circularity of A.
auriculiformis. Hybrids tend to have more vigorous growth and are more resistant to heart rot. There is
much interest in the domestication of this hybrid as a result of this combination of commercially
desirable characteristics. Aspects of seed production and vegetative propagation of the hybrids are
covered in Carron and Aken (1992)" [1].
[Variation and breeding]: "A. auriculiformis is predominantly outcrossing and exhibits marked genetic
variation. Isoenzyme studies revealed three distinct clusters of populations corresponding to the
geographic distribution of the species in the Northern Territory, Queensland and Papua New Guinea;
Queensland populations are more closely related to populations from Papua New Guinea than
populations from the Northern Territory. These studies showed about 73% of the isoenzyme variation
was among progenies within populations and indicated that weight should be given to both intra- and
inter-population genetic variability in initial selections in domestication programmes of this species.
These regional groupings were also apparent in differences in seedling morphology. Variation was
examined at 12 months for 28 provenances of A. auriculiformis in a trial in Malaysia. All provenances
had a survival rate of greater than 92%, but differed significantly in their growth performance. At 5
years from planting in Sabah, eight provenances including three from Papua New Guinea and five
from Queensland were identified as superior for height and diameter growth. Provenance trials on
four, low fertility, test sites in Zaire showed variation in growth and morphological characters when
assessed at ages 3, 9, 15 and 21 months. The provenances with the greatest volume production were
from Papua New Guinea. International provenance trials were established in 1989 to examine the
extent of genotype/environment interactions. Results from Australia and Thailand showed that
provenances from Queensland have a higher proportion of straight stems. In a trial on an Imperata
grassland site in South Kalimantan, variation in growth and form at 69 months after planting showed
that the most highly productive A. auriculiformis provenances in this environment were from Papua
New Guinea (MAI up to 35.6 m³/ha), Queensland (MAI up to 30.3 m³/ha) and Northern Territory (MAI
up to 30.2 m³/ha). There were also differences in tree quality with Queensland sources generally
having the lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees. Similar results were obtained 8 months after the
planting of a seedling seed orchard of A. auriculiformis in South Sumatra, where the best height and
diameter growth, and lowest occurrence of multi-stemmed trees were shown by the Wenlock River
provenance from the far north of Queensland. The relative performance of provenances of A.
auriculiformis in provenance trials on several sites in Vietnam has been reported by Nguyen Hoang
Nghia and Le Dinh Kha (1996). Provenance variation in salt and waterlogging tolerance has been
noted in pot trials. Several countries have genetic improvement programmes which aim to produce
better quality seed for future planting programmes. Seed orchards established on Melville Island in
the Northern Territory of Australia have failed to produce worthwhile amounts of seed. The best
clones are being relocated to environments where better seed production can be obtained. The use of
A. auriculiformis as a parent of hybrids, particularly in combination with A. mangium, is of great
potential. Many hybrids show desirable commercial characteristics such as fast growth, fine branching
and straight boles. Sedgley et al. (1992) found that the cross A. auriculiformis x A. mangium was more
11
successful than the reciprocal, but fertile seed was produced following interspecific pollination in both
directions. Vacuum drying of pollen and storage in a deep freeze is recommended for the medium
length storage (3 years) of pollen used in crossing programmes of these species. Experimental A.
mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrid seed orchards have been established in Indonesia to build up a
base for a clonal forestry programme. Outstanding hybrid clones have been selected and mass
propagated for clonal forestry in Vietnam. The Australian Tree Seed Centre of CSIRO Forestry and
Forest Products, Canberra, Australia maintains seed stocks of representative provenances from
throughout the natural range of the species" [1].
W. Further readings5 :
Kamis Awang, Venkateswarlu P, Nor Aini AS, Ådjers G, Bhumibhamon S, Kietvuttinon B, Pan FJ,
Pitpreecha K, Simsiri A, 1994. Three year performance of international provenance trials of Acacia
auriculiformis. Forest Ecology and Management, 70(1/3):147-158; 31 ref.
[1]
Banerjee AK, 1973. Plantations of Acacia auriculaeformis (Benth.) A. Cunn. in West Bengal. Indian
Forester, 99(9):533-540 + 1 pl.
[1]
Boland DJ, 1989. Trees for the tropics. Growing Australian multipurpose trees and shrubs in
Developing Countries. ACIAR Monograph, No. 10:ii + 247 pp.; 11 pp. of ref.

[1]
Boland DJ, Pinyopusarerk K, McDonald MW, Jovanovic T, Booth TH, 1990. The habitat of Acacia
auriculiformis and probable factors associated with its distribution. Journal of Tropical Forest Science,
3(2):159-180; 32 ref.
[1]
Booth TH, Turnbull JW, 1994. Domestication of lesser-known tropical tree species: The Australian
experience. In: Leakey RRB, Newton AC, eds. Tropical trees: The Potential for Domestication and
Rebuilding of Forest Resources. ITE Symposium No. 29, ECTF Symposium No. 1. London, UK:
HMSO, 189-194.
[1]
12
dela Cruz RE, Umali-Garcia M, 1992. Nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizae in acacias on degraded
grasslands. In: Awang K, Taylor DA, eds. Tropical Acacias in East Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings
of a First meeting of COGREDA held in Phuket, Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International
Institute for Agricultural Research, 59-71.
[1]
Doran JC, Guan BV, 1987. Treatments to promote seed germination in Australian acacias. ACIAR
Proceedings, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, No. 16:57-63; [In Australian
acacias in developing countries. Proceedings of an international workshop, Gympie, Qld., Australia, 4-
7 August 1986 [edited by Turnbull, J.W.]]; 5 ref.
[1]
Huang S, Zheng H, 1993. Coppicing of Acacia auriculiformis. ACIAR Forestry Newsletter No. 16, 3.
[1]
Ibrahim Z, 1991. Reproductive biology of Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis. PhD Thesis,
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia.
[1]
Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Studies on natural hybrids of Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis in Vietnam.
In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM, eds. Tree Improvement for
Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO conference, Caloundra, Queensland,
Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Gympie, Australia: Queensland Forestry Research Institute,
328-332.
[1]
Marcar NE, Hussain RW, Arunin S, Beetson T, 1991. Trials with Australian and other Acacia species
on salt-affected land in Pakistan, Thailand and Australia. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 35:229-232;
3 ref.
[1]
Marcar NE, Ganesan SK, Field J, 1991. Genetic variation for salt and waterlogging tolerance of
Acacia auriculiformis.. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 35:82-86; 6 ref.
[1]
13
Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1996. Climatic requirements of some main plantation tree species in Vietnam.
In: Booth TH, ed, Matching Trees and Sites. ACIAR Proceedings No. 63, 43-49.
[1]
Nguyen Hoang Nghia, Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Acacia species and provenance selection for large-scale
planting in Vietnam. In: Dieters MJ, Matheson AC, Nikles DG, Harwood CE, Walker SM, eds. Tree
Improvement for Sustainable Tropical Forestry. Proceedings QFRI-IUFRO conference, Caloundra,
Queensland, Australia, 27 October-1 November 1996. Gympie: Queensland Forestry Research
Institute, 443-448.
[1]
Nor Aini AS, 1993. Recovery of Acacia auriculiformis from fire damage. Forest Ecology and
Management, 62(1-4):99-105; 9 ref.
[1]
Nor Aini AS, Kamis Awang, Venkateswarlu P, Abd Latib Senin, 1994. Three-year performance of
Acacia auriculiformis provenances at Serdang, Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural
Science, 17(2):95-102; 27 ref.
[1]

Nor Aini AS, Kamis Awang, Mansor Mohd Rashid, Abd Latib Senin, 1994. Provenance trial of Acacia
auriculiformis in Peninsular Malaysia: 12-month performance. Journal of Tropical Forest Science,
6(3):249-256; 25 ref.
[1]
Pinyopusarerk K, 1990. Acacia auriculiformis: an annotated bibliography. Winrock International and

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.
[1]
Turnbull JW, Awang K, 1997. Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. In: Faridah Hanum I, van der
Maesen LJG, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11. Auxiliary plants. Leiden, the
Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, 52-56.
[1]
14
Vuthy, C. C. 2004. Study of the effects of potting media on growth performance of Acacia
auriculiformis seedlings in the nursery of Svay Reang Forestry Triage. MSc thesis, Royal University of
Agriculture, Phnom Penh. 78 pp.
[10]
Yantasath K, Anusontpornperm S, Utistham T, Soontornrangson W, Watanatham S, 1993. Acacias

for fuelwood and charcoal In: Awang K, Taylor DA, eds. Acacias for Rural, Industrial and
Environmental Development. Proceedings of the Second meeting of Consultative Group for Research
and Development of Acacias (COGREDA). Udorn Thani, Thailand: Winrock International and FAO,
144-152.
[1]
X. References:
[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM).
[2] NFTA / FACT, 1989-1999: Agroforestry Species and Technologies - a compilation of the
highlights and factsheets. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association (NFTA), Waimanalo Hawaii.
[3] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning
Institute. Hanoi
[4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.
[5] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June
1988. Phnom Penh.
[6] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.
[7] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.
[8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)
[9]
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=
10 (Internet source)
15
[10] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp.
Phnom Penh
[11] FAO:
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.
htm (Internet source)
16
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa]
Datasheet Report
[Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa [4]
B. English name (s) ³ Golden Apple, Bengal quince, bael fruit, bael tree;[4,6,9,19]
C. Synonym ³ Feronia pellucida, Crateva marmelos [9]
D. Other1 ³ Oranger de Malabar (French) [4] bnau, (Cambodia); maja,
maja batu, (Indonesia); toum (Laos); bilak, bila, bel

(Malaysia); opesheet, ohshit (Burma); matum, tum, ma pin
(Thailand); trái mam (Vietnam) [6].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³
Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phnëu [4]

Other : Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Gunus: Aegle
Species: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa
Source :[4 ; 11]
1
[General]: Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 13 m, with slender drooping branches and rather
shabby crown [5]. A small, deciduous tree up to 15 m high and 50 cm diameter with 1-2 cm long
spines on older branches. Trunk usually fluted at base [6], limbs often spiny (9).
[Bark]: Pale brown or greyish, smooth or finely fissured and flaking, armed with long, straight spines,
1.2-2.5 cm, singly or in pairs, often with a slimy sap oozing from cut parts [5,9].
[Leaves]: Trifoliate, alternate, on stalk 2-4 cm long. Each leaflet 5-14 x 2-6 cm, ovate with tapering or
pointed tip and rounded base, untoothed or with shallow rounded teeth. Young leaves pale green or
pinkish, finely hairy, mature leaves dark green , completely smooth. 4-12 pairs of side-veins, joined at
margin, raised above. End leaflet with long stalk, 0.5-3.0 cm, side ones with very short stalks, <0.2
mm [5]. Terminal leaflet is obovate and slightly larger (7.5 x 4.8 cm) [6].
[Flowers]: 1.5-2.0 cm, pale green, or yellowish, sweetly scented, bisexual, in short drooping
unbranched clusters at end of twigs and leaf axils, usually appearing with young leaves. Calyx flat
with 4(5) small teeth, 4(5) petals 6-8 mm, overlapping in bud. Many stamens with short filaments, and
pale brown anthers, style short, ovary bright green, disc inconspicuous [5]. Inflorescence a raceme 4-
5 cm long, axillary panicles (9), from the leaf corner with greenish white flowers, about 2 cm in
diameter [6].
[Fruits]: 5-12 cm, globose or slightly pear-shaped, with thick, hard rind, not splitting. Inside 8-15
sections, filled with aromatic, slimy orange pulp, each section with 6-10 oblong seeds densely clothed
with thick, fibrous hairs [5]. Fruits smooth, irregular roundish, grey or yellowish, 5.0-12.5 cm in
diameter, often with hard woody shell, 6-10 seeds embedded in sweet, orange-colored, clear, sticky
pulp [6,9].

I. Wood properties:
No detailed technological information available; fine grained, but with small dimensions [9]. The wood
is strongly aromatic when freshly cut. It is gray-white, hard, but not durable; has been used for carts
and construction, though it is inclined to warp and crack during curing. [20].

Native of northern Indian Subcontinent, Indian Peninsula [Coromandel), southern parts of the
Himalayas, cultivated elsewhere; nowadays in Sri Lanka, Nepal, Burma, Bangladesh, Thailand,
Vietnam, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines [4,6,12]. Mention of A. marmelos has been found in
writings dating back to 800 BC. It is cultivated throughout India, mainly in temple gardens, because of
its status as a sacred tree; also in Pakistan and northern Malaysia, the drier areas of Java, and to a
limited extent on northern Luzon in the Philippine Islands where it first fruited in 1914. It is grown in
some Egyptian gardens, and in Surinam and Trinidad. Seeds were sent from Lahore in 1909 [20].
The tree grows wild in dry forests of the Indian subcontinent and south of the Himalaya region. In
Cambodia a roadside tree.[4] In India A. marmelos, the golden apple, occurs scattered in dry, open
forests [4,5].
2
Occurs wild in dry forests and less disturbed forests; a hardy, subtropical species tolerating
temperature extremes from minus 7 to plus 49 ºC, growing in swampy as well as dry soils. It flowers
and fruits well only where there is a pronounced dry season, it is a xerophytic tree [6,9]. A. marmelos
grows from 0-1200 m, with mean annual precipitation ranging from 500 to 4000mm/ m², distributed
evenly over two seasons. However, the tree will survive up to 8 months of dry season. While mean
annual temperature may vary between 13ºC and 32ºC, the mean of the hottest month may vary from
30ºC-43ºC, minimum for the coldest month varying between 4ºC and 22ºC. The absolute minimum
temperatures cover an astonishing range of minus 1ºC to minus 22ºC [12].

not determined

A tolerant species, grows on wet as well as dry soils [6]. A. marmelos prefers that soil texture is in the
range medium to heavy, but that free drainage prevails, tolerating seasonal waterlogging. Soil
reaction should be neutral or slightly alkaline, while the soil may be shallow. The species will survive
drought, shade and even frost for a limited time [12]. Soil type: A. marmelos is said to do best on rich,
well-drained soil, but it has grown well and fruited on the oolitic limestone of southern Florida. It also
grows well in swampy, stony or even very alkaline soils having a pH range from 5 to 8. In India it has
the reputation of thriving where other fruit trees cannot survive [20].

[Wood]: Wood suitable for small implements like handles; also suitable as firewood [4,9, 17]; if large
enough suitable for round wood; posts; stakes; piles; building poles; roundwood structures; wood
ware; industrial and domestic wood ware; toys; turnery; furniture; wood based materials, fuelwood and
charcoal [12,17]. Normal use is for carving and small turnery, handles of implements, for pestles and
combs; it can be finely polished [27].
[Non-Wood]: The gum in which seeds are embeddedis most abundant in wild fruit, particularly when
these are still unripe. It is widely used as a household glue while jewelers like it as an adhesive in their
professional work. Occasionally it is used in replacement of soap [27]. Another application is as
additive to plaster used in waterproofing wells but also added to cement when building walls. Artist
mix it with their water colors and use it as a protective coating for paintings [27].
It is cultivated throughout India, mainly in temple gardens, because of its status as a sacred tree; also
in Pakistan and northern Malaysia
A fruit tree, cultivated mostly on Indian subcontinent; ripe fruit is eaten fresh, processed in drinks,
sherbet, syrup or jam; or cut in slices and dried for later use. From mucilage around unripe fruit a
3
household glue is prepared, used as adhesive in jewellery shops. Decorative boxes made from hard
fruit shell and from the wood [6,9].
A. marmelos fruits may be cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm
sugar, eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as
nectar. Beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar makes a popular drink called sherbet in
India. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind [20].
Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. A confection, bael fruit
toffee, is prepared by combining the pulp with sugar, glucose, skimmed milk powder and
hydrogenated fat. Indian food technologists view the prospects for expanded bael fruit processing as
highly promising [20].
The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in
Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink. The food
value per 100 g of fresh bael fruit as analyzed in India and the Philippines is: water 54.96-61.5 g,
protein 1.8-2.62 g, fat 0.2-0.39 g, carbohydrates 28.11-31.8 g, ash 1.04-1.7 g, carotene55 mg,
thiamine 0.13 mg, riboflavin1.19 mg, niacin 1.1 mg, ascorbic acid 8-60 mg and tartaric acid 2.11 mg
[20].
A pungent, mycotoxic oil is extracted from the fruit rind and used in perfumery and soap making [9].
The essential oil of the leaves contains d-limonene, 56% a-d-phellandrene, cineol, citronellal, citral;
17% p-cyrnene, 5% cumin aldehyde. The limonene-rich oil has been distilled from the rind for
scenting hair oil [20].
Tannin or dyestuff: There is as much as 9% tannin in the pulp of wild fruits, less in the cultivated

types. The rind contains up to 20%. Tannin is also present in the leaves. The rind of the unripe fruit is
employed in tanning and also yields a yellow dye for calico and silk fabrics [9,20].
The leaves and twigs are lopped for fodder. [20].
May be used as living hedge because of the spiny branches [9].
Medicine: Leaves, bark, pulp and fruit used in local medicine The leaves are said to cause abortion
and sterility in women. The bark is used as a fish poison in Celebes. Tannin, ingested frequently and
in quantity over a long period of time, is antinutrient and carcinogenic. Leaf extract from A. marmelos
has been found to have insecticidal activity against the brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål),
an important pest of rice plants in Asia [9,20].
A decoction of the unripe fruit, with fennel and ginger, is prescribed in cases of hemorrhoids. It has
been surmised that the psoralen in the pulp increases tolerance of sunlight and aids in the maintaining
of normal skin color. It is employed in the treatment of leucoderma. Marmelosin derived from the pulp
is given as a laxative and diuretic. In large doses, it lowers the rate of respiration, depresses heart
action and causes sleepiness. For medicinal use, the young fruits, while still tender, are commonly
sliced horizontally and sun-dried and sold in local markets. They are much exported to Malaysia and
Europe.
4
Because of the astringency, especially of the wild fruits, the unripe bael is most prized as a means of
halting diarrhea and dysentery, which are prevalent in India in the summer months [20].
There is as much as 9% tannin in the pulp of wild fruits, less in the cultivated types. The rind contains
up to 20%. Tannin is also present in the leaves. The rind of the unripe fruit is employed in tanning and
also yields a yellow dye for calico and silk fabrics [20].
Other products: The fruit pulp has detergent action and has been used for washing clothes. The shell
of hard fruits has been fashioned into pill- and snuff boxes, sometimes decorated with gold and silver.
A cologne is obtained by distillation from the flowers. In the Hindu culture, the leaves are
indispensable offerings to the 'Lord Shiva' [20]. The tree is very sacred in the Hindu religion.
[4,5,6,9,12,19,20]
Aegle marmelos is a species highly adaptable to different environmental conditions. It provides basic
materials for tanning and medicinal applications and fruit as supplement to daily food. This makes it a
suitable component of agroforestry landuse [12].

not included

Stand establishment promises most success by using planting stock or, where available, wildlings A.
marmelos is able to form suckers, to coppice and regenerate rapidly, however, it is not a plantaton
tree in the common sense [12].
Q. Propagation :
Aegle marmelos is planted in low numbers as fruit and cultural tree, by seeds, which are regarded as
recalcitrant [12], or by dividing suckers [9]. Aegle marmelos is commonly grown from seed in
nurseries and transplanted into the field. Seedlings show great variation in form, size, texture of rind,
quantity and quality of pulp and number of seeds. The flavor ranges from disagreeable to pleasant.
Therefore, superior types must be multiplied vegetatively. Experimental shield-budding onto related
species of Afraegle and onto Swinglea glutinosa Merr. has been successful. Occasionally, air-layers
or root cuttings have been used for propagation [20].

The bael fruit seems to be relatively free from pests and diseases except for the fungi causing
deterioration in storage [20].
S. Conservation :
Not a threatened species [9].

Unknown
5
Indian Subcontinent, southern Himalayas, native; Indochina to Indonesia and Philippines, introduced
and naturalized [12].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Rutaceae belong to an order of 16 families known as Sapindales. Aegle belongs to the subfamily of
Aurantioideae which includes the three genera Citrus, Fortunella and Poncirus. Citrus is the most
important genus with 60 mostly cultivated species, among them: lemon (Citrus limon), the citron (C.
medica), the sour or Seville orange (C.aurantium), the edible or sweet orange (C.sinensis), the
mandarins, satsumas, and tangerines (C. reticulata), the limes (C. aurantifolia), and the grapefruit (C.
paradisi). Lesser known fruits include the qumquats, belonging to the genus Fortunella, and the
inedible trifoliate orange, Poncirus trifoliata [11].
Only one species of the Rutaceae has any value as timber, yielding valuable hardwoods, namely the
West Indian Silkwood, Xanthoxylum flavum.[11]
Ahmal,I., Kaur, A.1998: Study on minor seed oils. Journal of Oil Tech. Association of India. 30(3),
114-116, 15 ref.
Alam, M.M., Siddiqui, M.B., Husain,W. 1990: Treatment of diabetes through herbal drugs in rural
India. Fitoterapia 61(3) 240-242, 2 ref.
Ganguli, L.K. 1994: Fungitoxic effect of certain plant extracts against rice blast ( Pyriaelaria oryzae)
and brown spot pathogen (Helminthosporium oryzae): Environment and Ecology 12(3) 731-733, 10

ref.
Singh RV, 1982. Fodder trees of India. Fodder trees of India., xv + 663 pp.; 34 pp. ref.
Singh SP, 1989. Wasteland development. Wasteland development., xx + 227 pp.; 96 ref.
Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1981. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Volume III. Delhi, India; Controller
of Publications.
Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts.
Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts., 446 pp.; [and fig.]; many ref.
Maikhuri, R.K., Semval, R.L., Singh,A.m and Nautiyal, M.C. 1994: Wild fruit as a contribution to
sustainable rural development - a case study from the Garhwal Himalaya. Int. J. of Sust. Dev.& World
Ecology 1(1) 56-58, 19 ref.
Singh, S.P. 1992: Budding in some frruit crops - a review. Advances in Horticulture and Forestry 2:
84-97, 36 ref.
6
X. References:
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House;
Phnom Penh, 915 pp.
5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide to Forest
Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546
pp.
6) Jensen, M. 2001:Trees and Fruit of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,
Bangkok; 224 pp.
9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide.
Thames& Hudson Ltd. London. 484 pp.
12) CABI Forestry Compendium 2003 (on CD)
11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press, New York;
336 pp.
17) Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of
Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859
pp.
19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef
Margraf Publ., Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.
20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree
Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).
27)http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/
BotanicList.
asp
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib]
Datasheet Report
[Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib
B. English name (s) ³ No name available.
C. Synonym ³ Afzelia siamica Craib. [1], Pahudia cochinchinensis Pierre

[3], Pahudia xylocarpa Kurz. [13], Afzelia cochinchinensis
(Pierre) J. Leonard [6], Afzelia siamica Craib [2]
D. Other1 ³ mai te kha, tae kha, kha, go ca te, kha te kha (Laos) [1, 6,
13] - go do, c[af]te, g[ox]d[or], g[ox]t[of]te (Vietnam) [1, 6,
13]- makha-mong, makhaa-hau-kham, makhaa-laung,
makhaa-mong, makhaa-yai (Thailand) [1, 6, 13]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: ebg

Source: [9]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ beng [3], kheng [6]

Other : Fabales
Family: Fabaceae [2]/ Leguminosae [5]
Sub-Family: Caesalpinioidae [12]
Gunus: Afzelia J.E. Smith
Species: Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib
Source :[ 2,5]
1
[General]: A. xylocarpa is a large deciduous, broad-leaved tree species that can reach a height up to
30 m [1] (15-20 sometimes up to 30 m [3, 4, 5, 6]). The stem is branchless for 6-9 m [7, 13] and may
reach a DBH of 80-150 cm [1] (average DBH: 60-100 cm [5], 150-200 cm [7], more than 100 cm [13]).
It has a tendency to be crooked and forked and often produces buttresses. The roots show up on the
ground. The crown is broad and rounded with big and angular branches.
[Bark]: The outer bark is greyish-yellow and rough, with many brown holes. The inner bark is reddish
and forms burls when cut.
[Leaves]: The leaves are pinnate, with 3-5 pairs [1] of rounded, oval and hairless leaflets which are 5-
6 cm long [3, 4] (5-9 cm long [1, 7]) and 4-5 cm wide [1].
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=panicle) bears flowers which are small, with 7-8 fertile (=male organs)
up to 3 cm long [1] and 3 sterile stamens which are shorter. In Vietnam it flowers in March-April [1].
[Fruit]: The tree fruits in September-December [1] (October-December [13], March -May [3]). There is
a masting period every two years. The fruit (=woody pod) is 15-20 cm long and 7-9 cm wide [1],
elliptical-oblong, lignified when mature and of black color. It is dehiscent (=opening spontaneously
when ripe) but can remain for a long time on the tree before it opens. The seeds are large, ovoid,
trasversally arranged, shiny black or dark brown with a thick seed coat. There are 110-160 seeds per
kg [1].
[1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Afzelia wood is heavy and hard. The heartwood is reddish-yellow, red to dirty red-

brown, often with some streaks, and distinctive from the grey-white sapwood. The wood is diffuse-
porous with a density of 0.85-0.9 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content (basic specific gravity: 0.4-0.75 g/cm³
[12]). "The texture is moderately fine to moderately coarse. Planed surfaces are often glossy. The
wood seasons well only with little shrinkage and warping. It is moderately difficult to work, but easy in
comparison with other high-density woods. The wood takes a high finish. It is very durable with a
durability under exposure of about 10 years in tropical conditions. Other wood properties: "For A.
xylocarpa at 15% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 95-125 N/mm², compression parallel to
grain 53-65 N/mm² and shear about 17 N/mm²" [7].
[7, 12]

Approximate limits: 29°N to 10°N [6]. Afzelia xylocarpa is a tree species which occurs on well-drained
flatlands or transitional zones between evergreen and dry open dipterocarp forest in mixed deciduous
forests that stretch from Eastern India across Myanmar to Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. "The upper
canopy layer may reach 30 m or more, a secondary tree layer ranges between 10 and 20 m. Tree
canopies are usually closed and the portion of deciduous trees varies, but is above 50%. Teak
(Tectona grandis) can be the dominant species, increasing the economic importance of these forests"
2
[14]. Other typical species are Xylia spp., Terminalia spp., Dalbergia oliveri, Pterocarpus
macropcarpus, Pentacme spp., Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Tetrameles nudiflora or Lagerstroemia
calyculata. It is also found in lowland primary forest. Trees occur rather scattered manner and do not
usually form pure stands.
[3, 4, 6, 7, 14]

In its natural area of distribution, it grows within an altitude range of 100-650 m a.s.l. [1] (100-600 m
[7], 500–700 m and 900 m [3], above 900 m [4]). It occurs in areas with a uniform rainfall regime with
1,000-1,500 mm/year [1, 6], a dry season of 5-6 months [6]. The mean annual temperature is 20-32ºC
[6], the mean maximum temperature of hottest month is about 27-39ºC [6] while the mean minimum
temperature of coldest month ranges from 12 to 24ºC [6]. The absolute minimum temperature is
>10ºC [6]. A. xylocarpa is a light demanding species but tolerates shade when young.
[1, 4, 6, 7]

Coastal Cardamoms (A), Northern Cardamoms (B), Tonle Sap Floodplain (C), Redlands (c),
Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Central Annamites (G).
[3]
[Seed Source Locations (Projection: UTM; Horizontal Datum: Indian coordinates)]:
Siem Reap (X:420907 Y:1498999), Siem Reap (X:422400 Y:1496105), Siem Reap (X:425135
Y:1492386), Kampong Thom (X:556470 Y:1461143), Kampong Thom (X:572874 Y:1397114), Preah
Vihear (X:507787 Y:1517235), Kratie (X:623145 Y:1419868), Kratie (X:601979 Y:1431509), Kratie
(X:606212 Y:1452676), Kratie (X:621558 Y:1465905), Kratie (X:614679 Y:1442622), Stung Treng
(X:571022 Y:1491570), Kratie (X:583722 Y:1425953), Kratie (X:587427 Y:1382032), Kampong Thom
(X:528689 Y:1436007), Battambang (X:271513 Y:1423836), Battambang (X:295855 Y:1402670),
Ratanak Kiri (X:711945 Y:1539248), Ratanak Kiri (X:710612 Y:1544801), Ratanak Kiri (X:709279
Y:1548799), Ratanak Kiri (X:733268 Y:1516148), Ratanak Kiri (X:734156 Y:1489717), Ratanak Kiri
(X:687735 Y:1516148), Battambang (X:254662 Y:1422695), Battambang (X:236107 Y:1421490),
Battambang (X:260445 Y:1393055), Battambang (X:250325 Y:1397393), Siem Reap (X:399052
Y:1513164), Ratanak Kiri (X:704001 Y:1504648), Stung Treng (X:641566 Y:1522661), Stung Treng
(X:587469 Y:1496461), Ratanak Kiri (X:721623 Y:1515900), Ratanak Kiri (X:704001 Y:1504648),
Kampong Thom (X:556986 Y:1403858), Stung Treng (X:661468 Y:1524695), Kampot (X:427602
Y:1215256), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650), Preah Vihear
(X:513675 Y:1536861), Mondul Kiri (X:714256 Y:1349031).
[3]
3
It thrives on well-drained flats or on slopes with a deep, loamy soil, or sand on clayey or laterite soils
with a neutral pH.
[5, 6, 7]

[Wood]: The hard and durable wood is highly valuable especially in Thailand. The wood is used in
various ways, for round wood, building poles, sawn or hewn building timbers, for heavy and light
construction, beams, flooring, wall panelling, shingles, engineering structures, bridges, railway
sleepers, woodware, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles, musical instruments, wood
carvings, furniture, veneers, boats, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, plywood, fuelwood and
charcoal. The wood burls are specially valued because they form beautiful figures when the wood is
being cut. The wood is so valuable that it is sold by kilograms.
[1, 3 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,13]
[Non-wood]: The bark of A. xylocarpa contains the chemical substances catechol and pyrogallol which
have tanning properties and are used for tanning hides and skins. The bark is also used in local
medicine and veterinary medicine. The fatty cotyledons of young seeds are edible and used for
vegetable oil/fat. The seed pulp serves as an adhesive for cigarettes.
[4, 6, 7]
[Others]: "The tree has been planted in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city zoo-park as an ornamental tree"
[5]. It is nitrogen fixing and suitable in agroforestry and for soil improvement.

[1, 5, 6]

Luxury. [3]

[General]: Afzelia xylocarpa is a light demanding tree species that occurs on well-drained flatlands or
in transitional zones between dense evergreen and dry open dipterocarp forest in mixed deciduous
forests. "The upper canopy layer may reach 30 m or more, a secondary tree layer ranges from 10 to
20 m. Tree canopies are usually closed and the portion of deciduous trees varies, but is above 50
percent. Teak (Tectona grandis) can be the dominant species, increasing the economic importance of
these forests" [14]. Other typical species, for example, are Xylia spp., Terminalia spp., Dalbergia
oliveri, Pterocarpus macropcarpus, Pentacme spp., Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Tetrameles nudiflora or
Lagerstroemia calyculata. It is also found in lowland primary forest. Afzelia occurs in a rather
scattered manner and do not usually form pure stands. It has a good coppice potential and fixes
nitrogen for soil improvement.
4
[Establishment]: Planting is carried out only on a very small scale, mainly for genetic conservation
purposes. Planting stock or stumps are normally used for stand establishment. In the first years it is
quite shade tolerant.
[Management]: A. xylocarpa has good prospects for economic timber production in plantations but the
supply is limited and there is need for more research on improvement and management.
[1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14]
Q. Propagation :
Afzelia xylocarpa is propagated by natural regeneration, plantings and vegetatively by air layering,
cuttings or grafting.
[Seed collection and storage]: The fruits ripen from March to May [3]. Seeds are mature when the pod
has turned brown and the seeds are hard and dark colored. Fruits can be collected from the tree by
climbing or from covers on the ground after shaking the branches. It can remain on the ground for
several months without any damage. After collection the pods are dried in the sun on a tarpaulin until
they have all opened. The seeds can be extracted by shaking or beating the fruits in a bag. "It is
uncertain whether it is necessary to remove the aril before storage to avoid fungal attacks. If the seed
is stored with the aril, it is especially important to make sure the seeds are well dried. Removal of the
aril will reduce the bulk with about 25%" [6]. The seeds are orthodox and should be stored at 8-9% [6]
moisture content. Generally germination ability lasts 1-2 years [4] when seeds are stored in low
temperatures. "From Vietnam it has been reported that at room temperature the seeds can only be
expected to store for one year while cold storage at 5-10°C can prolong storage to 2-3 years" [6].
Each kg of seed contains about 110-160 seeds [3].
[1, 3, 4, 6]
[Nursery]: "The seedcoat of this species is so hard that pretreatment with boiling water may not be
sufficient to break the dormancy. Furthermore, the large aril delays germination and must be
removed. By using a sharp knife, it is possible to cut off the aril together with a small chip of the
seedcoat but care must be taken not to damage the radicle. If the seed coat is not scarified while
removing the aril, the seed should be nicked at the opposite end. After cutting, the seeds are soaked
in water for 12 hours before sowing" [6].

[Pests]: The seeds are susceptible to insect attacks. Known pests include Aristobia spp., Batocera
spp. and Rhaphuma motschulskyi ganglbauere
[6]
[Diseases]: Fungus diseases are caused by Fusarium oxysporum, Phytophthora spp, Pythium spp.
and Rhizoctonia spp.
[6]
[Others]: No information available.
5
S. Conservation :
High levels of timber exploitation and habitat loss are threatening Afzelia xylocarpa. Large trees are
scarce and hard to find. Thus it is in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not
implemented. "Within most of its area of distribution, mature trees have been reduced dramatically
and sometimes it is very difficult to find them for seed collection" [3]. This tree species is still exposed
to intensive logging in Cambodia. Planting is carried out only on a very small scale, mainly for genetic
conservation purposes. Therefore this species is considered as endangered (EN A1cd [14]),
according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened
Trees (='IUCN Red Databook').
[1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 14]

Within Cambodia, this species is found in Kampong Thom, Kratie, Stung Treng, Preah Vihear, Siem
Reap, Battambang, Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri, Kampot and Pursat.
[3]

[World Distribution]
[Native]: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam.
[1, 3, 6, 12, 13]
[Introduced]:
China (Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Yunnan), Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Papua, New

Guinea and Solomon Islands
[6, 12]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Production and international trade]: "The production of wood from A. xylocarpa in Thailand was
25,000 m³ in 1985, 28,000 m³ in 1986, 40,000 m³ in 1987, and 34,000 m³ in 1988. The wood is mostly
used domestically to produce furniture and parquetry. The average price of sawn Afzelia timber in
Thailand was US$ 430/m³ in 1985 and 1986, increasing to US$ 715/m³ in 1988. Production and trade
figures are not available from other countries. Afzelia timber is not important in the trade in South-East
Asia except for Thailand" [7].
Choldumrongkul A, Wasuwanich P, 1994. Insect boring of Afzelia xylocarpa Craib seed and its effect
on seed germination. In: Proceeding of the Forestry Conference, Surat thani. Thailand: Royal Forest
Department, 179-189.
[6]
6
National Academy of Sciences, 1979. Tropical legumes: resources for the future. Tropical legumes:
resources for the future., 328pp., [ref. at ends of chapters].
[6]
Nagamura S, Pitpreecha K, Visaratana T, Kiratiprayoon S, Ganpinyo S, Phathong S, 1991. Growth of

Afzelia xylocarpa, Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea odorata, Dalbergia cochinchinensis seedlings planted
under different relative light intensities created by artificial shading cages. In: Research Activities and
Achievements of the Forest Ecology Section, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand, 93-102.
[6]
Pitpreecha, K., Kiratiprayoon, S., Ganpinyo, S., Sornsathapornkul, P., 1993. Afzelia xylocarpa. In:
Forest tree species planting. Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department, 144-150.
[6]
Piananuruk C, 1994. Cutting position and coppicing ability of Afzelia xylocarpa seedlings. In:
Supplementary papers of the National Forest Conference, Surat thani, Thailand, 21-25 November
1994 (Boontawee B, ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department, 31-35.
[6]
Smittinand T, 1980. Thai plants (botanical names-vernacular names). Bangkok, Thailand: Royal
Forest Department.
[6]
Switachart S, 1972. A study on seed germination of Makha Mong (Afzelia xylocarpa) by soaking in
different concentrations of sulphuric acid. Technical Bulletin, Royal Forest Department, Thailand, No.
R.138:5-10, 3 ref.
[6]
X. References:
[1] DANIDA, 2002: Seed Leaflet - www.dfsc.dk/pdf/Seedleaflets (Internet source)
7
[3] CTSP, 2003: Forest Gene Conservation Strategy - Gene Conservation Strategy, Species
Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM).
[5] Lehmann L. et al., 2003: Forests and trees of the central Highlands of Xieng Khounang, Lao
P.D.R.
[7] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM).
[8] FAO: The State of Forest Management and Conservation in Cambodia -

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm
(Internet source)

[10] Omaliss, K. and Monyrak, M., 2006: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia
[11] Bertram, A., 2006: Own observations.
[12] Inside wood - http://Inside Wood_A.xylocarpa.htm (Internet source)
[13] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng; Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a
field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA.
[14] Stibig, H-J. and Beuchle, R., 2003: Forest Cover Map of Continental Southeast Asia at
1:4,000,000. TREES Publications Series D: Thematic outputs no. 4.
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen, Albizia gamblei Prain]
Datasheet Report
[Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen, Albizia gamblei Prain]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C. Nielsen [4,5, 21]
Albizia gamblei Prain2
B. English name (s) ³
C. Synonym ³ Albizia lucida Benth., Inga lucidior Steud. (basionym),
Mimosa lucida Roxb. Albizia meyeri Ricker, Albizia gamblei

Prain [22].
D. Other1 ³ eBaF×ebg
Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ pôôh bé:ng [4]

Other : Leguminales
Family: Mimosaceae
Gunus: Albizia Durazz. [17]
Species: Albizia lucidior (Steudel) I.C.

Nielsen [4,21]
Source :[5 ; 17]
1
Preliminary remark on the Genus Albizia: It comprises 150 species which occur in Africa,
Madagascar, tropical America and Asia. It is found throughout tropical Asia and 20 species are
indigenous within the Malesian region. Albizia is frequently planted as a shade tree for various crops
like tea or coffee and to improve soil fertility, occasionally as an ornamental tree. Only for the most
frequently occurring and traded species are technological and botanical data available [17].
[General]: Large deciduous tree, up to 30-45m high,[4,5] , with dark green crown;
[Bark]: Thin, grey, with many lenticels [5]..
[Leaves]: 1-2 pairs of side stalks, each with 1-4 pairs of leaflets. 5-10x2-4 cm, rarely to 14x5 cm; top
ones largest, narrowed at both ends; completely smooth, dark green and shiny above [5].
[Flower): Small heads of 6-10 flowers gathered into branched clusters at the ends of twigs, 10-40 cm.
Side flowers with stalks, 0.5-2.0 mm, calyx 1.5-3.0 mm with shallow teeth; corolla 5-7 mm, stamens
about 25 mm; central flower different from others [5].
[Fruit]: 10-30x2.5-3.5 cm, pale yellow or golden brown, very thin, smooth and rather glossy; 2-10
circular dark-brown seeds [5].
I. Wood properties:

Temperate Asia: Cina Guangxi and Yunnan Provinces [21];
Tropical Asia: Bhutan, India, Nepal, INdochina, Burma, Thailand [21

India and Himalayas, South China, Burma, Indochina, [4], Northern Thailand [5].
A. lucidior occurs in evergreen or deciduous forests [4]. Albizia spp. are usually found scattered or in
small groups as a pioneer in open, secondary vegetation or in primary, deciduous or monsoon forest,
savanna and scrub vegetation, from sea level up to 1700 m elevation a.s.l. They occur in areas with a
seasonal climate, often on sandy soils or otherwise well-drained locations [17].

A.lucidior does not occurabove 1200 m elevation, usually in evergreen or deciduous forests [4].

not determined

Several species of Albizia can be planted in rocky and shallow sites with a pronounced dry season of
at least 4 months [17].
2
(Wood]: Used in construction [4], suitable as firewood (17)
[Non-Wood]: Shade tree, more noticeable in tea orchards where it is often left standing because of its
thin crown and soil improving qualities. Not a common tree and easily missed in the dense upper
canopy of evergreen forests, more noticeable in tea (miang) orchards where it is often left because of
its thin crown and soil improving qualities [5] A. lucidior is one of the many understorey Albizia trees,
of ecological but not of economic significance beyond the local level.

not included
Q. Propagation :

not an endangered species
S. Conservation :

unknown

Asia and Southest Asia, from India to Indochina, native
V. Miscellaneous4 :
This species, Albizia lucidior, is one of 118 species indigenous or introduced in Asia; it is not a
common tree. [5].
PROSEA 5/3 p.58-60: Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant
Resources of Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor,
Indonesia, 859 pp.
X. References:
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.
3
pp.
pp.
Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD).
21) Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN):
http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?313246. Internet source
22) International Legume Database and Information Service (ILDIS).

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=Albizia+lucidior. Internet source
4
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth]
Datasheet Report
[Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth
B. English name (s) ³ East Indian walnut, acacia amarilla, English woman's
tongue, fry wood, Indian siris, lebbeck, siris tree, woman's
tongue tree [2]
C. Synonym ³ Acacia lebbeck (L.) Willd., Mimosa lebbeck L. [2],
Mimosa lebbek Blanco., Mimosa sirissa Roxb. [8]
D. Other1 ³ kokko (Trade name) [8] - lebbek (Ethiopia) [8] - daqn el-
Basha, dign el basha, labakh, laebach, lebbek (Arabia) [8] -
sirish, sirisha (Bangladesh) [8] - kokko (Myanmar) [8] -
aninapla, langil (Philippines) [8] - bois noir, bois savane, tcha
tcha (France) [8] - siris, sirs, sirisha (India) [8] - kitoke, tarisi,
tekik (Indonesia) [8] - batai, batai batu, kungkur, oriang
(Malaysia) [8] - kalo siris (Nepal) [8] - acacia chach algarroba
de olor, amor plantico, aroma, aroma fracesca, cabellos de
gel, faurestina, florestina, lengua de mujer, lengua viperina
(Spain) [8] - mkingu (East Africa) [8] - vagai, vagei (Sri
Lanka) [8] - ka `sê (Laos) [8] - cha kham, chamchuri, kampu,
ka se, khago, phruek, suek (Thailand) [1, 8] - bô kêt tây,
h[owj]p hoan, lim xanh, s[os]ng r[aaj]n, trât (Vietnam) [1, 8]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ eRcs

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chrehs [1], chreh [8]

Other : Leguminosales / Fabales

Family: Fabaceae / Mimosaceae [5]
Source :[ -]
1
[General]:Medium to fast-growing, deciduous tree with a height at maturity of up to 30 m [2] and a
DBH of up to 100 cm [2] (maximum). The tree form is fair (in rain forest) to poor (in open pasture)
[Bark]: The bark is grey-violet with rusty brown breathing pores, rough and fissured.
[Leaves]: The leaves are compound, bipinnate, hairless or slightly hairy on the axis. Leaflets in 2-4
pairs, each with 2-11 smaller pairs of oblong leaflets 15-45 x 8-22 mm, shortly stalked. Hairless
glands are raised, elliptical to circular, on the upper side of the stalk close to the base and between
most pairs of leaflets.
[Flowers]: The flower appears shortly after new leaves, white, heavily scented, with the stamens
(=male organ) free above the corolla, in heads 18-36 mm across excluding the stamens, on a stout
stalk 5-7.5 cm long, appearing singly or in small clusters in the leaf axils and in terminal panicles.
Stamens 30-40, yellowish-green on top side, white underside, up to 5 cm long. Flower-stalks up to 5
mm long. The corolla tube is 1 cm long. Flowers are bisexual (=hermaphroditic). In its natural habitat,
flowering occurs from September to October. Flowering (Laos, Vietnam): March to July [4]. Fruiting
(Laos, Vietnam): April to August [4].
[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are of pale-straw to light brown color at maturity, narrow-oblong, 15-26 x 3-
5 cm, papery, leathery, flat and not raised or constricted between seeds. Seeds brown, flat, orbicular
or elliptical, 8-10 x 6-7 mm, crosswise placed with 6-12 in each pod. Mature pods remain on the tree
for long periods and are available between May-July.
[2, 4, 8]

I. Wood properties:
The wood is yellow-brown, with a very distinct boundary between heartwood and sapwood. The
sapwood is pale, the heartwood is dark brown with black streaks and very decorative. It is moderately
heavy and hard, strong and fairly durable, with a specific gravity of 0.5-0.6 g/cm³. The wood seasons
well, works and polishes easily.
[6, 8]

Approximate limits: 31°N to 16°S [5]. A. lebbeck grows in tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa, but
was widely introduced and cultivated all over the tropics. A. lebbeck is a dominant species in semi-
deciduous microphyll vine thicket (monsoon forest) on screes of quartz sandstone mountains and on
the banks of riverine sites, on stabilized dunes or low lateritic ledges above the beach. It also thrives
in broadleaved evergreen forests, coastal plant communities, deciduous forests, moist forests, rain
forests and is in general common in open forests.
[3, 4, 5, 8]
This species occurs between 0-1,800 m a.s.l. [8] (0-750 m a.s.l. [4], 0-1,100 m a.s.l.) in areas with a
mean annual rainfall of 1,300-1,500 mm [8] (500-2,500 mm [5]) and a very dry winter. Mean annual
2
temperature: 19-35°C [8] (10-37°C [2]). After the first year it can withstand cold winters and long, hot,
dry periods which can be 2 to 6 months long [2] (2-7 months [5]).
[2, 4, 5, 8]

Coastal Cardamons (A), Central Lowlands (d), Central Annamites (G).
[7]
Stung Treng (X:613356 Y:1530728), Stung Treng (X:597481 Y:1469874), Ratanak Kiri (X:698999
Y:1507507), Ratanak Kiri (X:704310 Y:1548543), Battambang (X:269027 Y:1440093), Preah Vihear
(X:474543 Y:1582237), Kampong Thom (X:552057 Y:1410894), Stung Treng (X:662546 Y:1523018),
Koh Kong (X:332360 Y:1266062), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300).
[7]

A. lebbeck grows well on a variety of soils, best on deep, fertile, well-drained loamy soils with a pH of
5.5-7.5, but poorly on heavy clays. Tolerates acidity, alkalinity, heavy and eroded soils and
waterlogged soils. Examples of soil types include, shallow sandy soils, laterite and loam laterite. The
species occurs on soils overlying basalt and among sandstone boulders and basalt outcrops on
breakaway slopes.
[2, 8]

[Wood]: Used for veneer, roundwood, furniture, posts, sawn or hewn building timber and light
construction (flooring, panelling), box containers, industrial and domestic woodware, vehicle bodies,
pulp and paper and charcoal. It is also used for making agricultural implements and mine props. A.
lebbeck is an excellent fuelwood species with a calorific value of 5,200 kcal/g [8].
[5, 8, 11]
[Non-wood]: Albizzia is an excellent fodder tree. "The open canopy allows light penetrations for good
grass yields even in low rainfall areas" [2]. "The leaves contain 17-26% crude protein. 100 kg of
leaves yield 11-12 kg of digestible protein, and 37 kg of digestible carbohydrates" [8]. The pods
contain saponin and are not eaten in large amounts by sheep, although cattle eat them readily. The
fragrant flowers are highly regarded by bee-keepers for the light-coloured honey its nectar provides.
The trunk yields a reddish gum that is used as an adulterant of gum arabic. The bark is used locally in
India for tanning fishing nets (tannin content of 7-11% [8]). Leaves and seeds are used as medicine
for eye problems, and the bark to treat boils. Saponin from pods and roots has spermicidal activity.
3
When dried and pounded, the bark can be used for soap. It is also used for mulches, lac and green
manures.
[2, 5, 8]
[Others]:
Erosion control: "Due to its extensive, fairly shallow root system, A. lebbek is a good soil binder and is
recommended for eroded lands and erosion control, for example along river embankments" [8].
Shade or shelter: "The species is commonly grown as a shade tree in pastures, tea, coffee and
cardamom plantations, and along avenues. It can be planted in exposed coastal situations and as
quick-growing shelter for less hardy plants" [8].
Nitrogen fixing: "A. lebbeck is not Rhizobium specific, and native strains are nearly always capable of
producing an abundance of nodules" [8].
Soil improver: "The nitrogen-rich leaves are valuable as mulch and green manure. Ornamental: In
India A. lebbeck is often planted along roads and in homegardens" [8].
The species is of current socio-economic importance in Cambodia (as defined on the National
Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) [11].

Luxury [3]

[General]: A. lebbeck occurs in broadleaved evergreen forests, coastal plant communities, deciduous

forests, moist forests, rain forests, open forests and riparian forests. It is a nitrogen-fixing tree which is
commonly used as a shade tree in tea-, coffee-, and cardamom plantations.
[Establishment]: Typical spacing for fuelwood is 3 x 3 m and 5 x 5 m [8] for timber. Supplementary
watering (10 l/plant [5]) may be required during dry periods in the first year after planting.
[Management]: It coppices well (height: 1-1.5 m/year; basal diameter: 4-6 cm/year [2]), responds to
pollarding, pruning and lopping and will produce root suckers if the roots are exposed. Thinning
should be regulary conducted [5]. Regular weeding of plantings is a standard practice [5]. Fuelwood
plantations spaced at 3 x 3 m and clear felled on a 10-year rotation produce about 50 m³/ha (= 5
m³/ha/year [5]) of stacked fuelwood. "In Queensland, it reaches about 11 m in height and 50 cm DBH
in 30 years. Timber plantations in India clear felled after 25-30 years yield about 10-12 m³/ha per year
of timber, but under semi-arid conditions and on shallow soils, a mean increment of 2-3 m³/ha is
obtained" [8]. "A.lebbeck is probably not productive as a source of fodder under repeated cutting
(more than 2 cuts per year). It does not develop a shrubby habit and is thus not suitable for direct
browsing. However, larger trees can be lopped annually with removal of the entire green crown
without loss of vigour.
[2, 5, 6, 8]
4
Q. Propagation :
Propagation is done by using cuttings, air layering and tissue culture. "It is best established using
potted seedlings, although bare-rooted seedlings, direct seeding and stump cuttings have all been
used successfully. Seed pretreatment involves scarification and immersion in boiling hot water then
cooling and soaking for 24 hours, or acid treatment to break seed-coat dormancy. Germination
improves after storage for 2-4 years [8], but satisfactory germination (50-60%) has been obtained
from fresh seeds. Freshly collected seed has about 70% germination capacity after 1-2 months. About
880 pods weigh 1 kg [8] and will yield about 300 g of seed" [8].
[5, 8]

[Pests]: Leaf- and bark-feeding caterpillars, sap suckers, wood and seed borers and defoliators such
as psyllids can cause damages. In Nigeria, the striped mealy bug, Ferrisia virgata, harms the tree. In
Southeast Asia, leaves are largely unaffected by insects. Stand establishment can be adversely
affected by grazing of young plants by mice, rabbits and other wildlife.
[6, 8]
[Diseases]: "Root rot, stem cankers, heart rot, spot fungi and rust can damage the tree."
[8]
[Others]: The trees are vulnerable to strong winds and are killed by even light fires. Protection from
grass or weed competition will enhance the establishment
[5, 8].
S. Conservation :

In Cambodia, it is found in Stung Treng, Ratanakiri, Koh Kong, Battambang, Preah Vihear and
Kampong Thom
[7]

[Native]: Australia, Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand [2,
8]
[Introduced]: Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Benin, Bolivia, Botswana,
Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile,
Colombia, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, French Guiana, Gabon, Gambia,
Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho,
Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mexico, Morocco,
5
Mozambique, Namibia, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Rwanda,
Sao Tome et Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, St Lucia, St Vincent and the
Grenadines, Sudan, Surinam, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uganda,
Uruguay, Venezuela, Virgin Islands (US), Zambia, Zimbabwe
[8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Agroforestry]: A. lebbeck has good flowers for honey production.
[2]
ICRAF. 1992. A selection of useful trees and shrubs for Kenya: Notes on their identification,
propagation and management for use by farming and pastoral communities. ICRAF.
[8]
MacDicken GK. 1994. Selection and management of nitrogen fixing trees. Winrock International, and
Bangkok: FAO.
[8]
NFTA. 1988. Albizia lebbeck - A promising fodder tree for semi-arid regions. NFTA 88-03. Waimanalo.
[8]
Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S. (eds.). 1998. PROSEA 5(3) Timber trees: lesser known
species. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.

[8]
t Mannetje L, Jones RM. 1992. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 4: Forages. Pudoc Scientific
Publishers, Wageningen.
[8]
Webb DB, Wood PJ, Henman GS. 1984. A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-tropical
plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers No. 15, 2nd edition. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford
University Press.
[8]
Williams R.O & OBE. 1949. The useful and ornamental plants in Zanzibar and Pemba. Zanzibar
Protectorate.
[8]
6
X. References:
[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations.
[2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project.
Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand. Winrock Interational.
320pp.
[3] Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.
[5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). (CD-ROM)
[6] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-ROM)
[7] CTSP, Cambodia Tree Seed Project-Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector, 2003:
Forest Gene Conservation Strategy-Part A: Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. (CD-
ROM).
[8] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database –

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp (Internet
source)
[9] CTSP, Cambodia Tree Seed Project-Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector, 2003:
Gene-Ecological Zonation of Cambodia. (CD-ROM)
[10] FA/CTSP-DANIDA, 2005: Farmers Tree Planting Manual - Guidelines for Site Selection and Tree
Planting. (CD-ROM)
[11] FAO:
(Internet source)
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Albizia myriophylla Benth.]
Datasheet Report
[Albizia myriophylla Benth.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Albizia myriophylla Benth. [4]
C. Synonym ³ Albizia thorelii Pierre [4], Albizia microphylla J.F. Macbr.,
Albizia myriophylla Benth. var. foliolosa Baker, Albizia thorelii

Pierre, Albizia vialeana Pierre var. thorelii (Pierre)P.H.Ho,
Mimosa microphylla Roxb. [23]
D. Other1 ³ liane sucrée, bois sucré (French)
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ RtnMGaGUt eQIEGm

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ aèm vör, aém chhë [4]

Other : Leguminosales
Family: Mimosaceae
Gunus: Albizia Durrazz.
Species: Albizia myriophylla Benth.
Source :[ 4]
A shrub, upright or climbing, [4]; a perennial, non-climbing shrub [21].
1
Except for chemical- medicinal reserachtnis species has found no further interest concerning
botanical and technological information.
I. Wood properties:

All over Southeast Asia, in evergreen or deciduous forests along rivers and creeks [4].
Albizia spp. are usually found scattered or in small groups as a pioneer in open, secondary vegetation
or in primary, deciduous or monsoon forest, savanna and scrub vegetation, from sea level up to 1700
m elevation a.s.l. They occur in areas with a seasonal climate, often on sandy soils or otherwise well-
drained locations [17]. In tropical Asia on Indian Subcontinent: India, in Indochina, Burma, Thailand,
Malaysia [23].

tropical climate

not determined

Several species of Albizia can be planted in rocky and shallow sites with a pronounced dry season of
at least 4 months. [17]

[Wood]: Availabel wood could be used as fuelwood [17].
[Non-Wood]: The bark is sweet and often used as a condiment for cooking. In commerce a so-called
fermentation cake is produced for starting fermentation in the production of rice alcohol.
In medicine the fermentation cake is used in the preparation of medication against cough and
bronchitis. Pounded or chewed leaves are used to stop bleeding [4]. A. myriophylla is one of the many
understorey Albizia trees, of ecological but not of economic significance beyond the local level. In
ecent times A. myriophylla has been the subject of intensive chemical and medical research. The
results were reported by the Sotheast Asian Journal of tropixcal Medicine and Public Health in 2006
[23].

not included
2
Q. Propagation :
S. Conservation :

unknown

Southeast Asia
V. Miscellaneous4 :
A. myriophylla is one of 118 tropical Albizias, 9 of which occur in northern Thailand. They comprise
mostly deciduous trees with spreading crowns. Here, A. myriophylla is described as a shrub or
climbing tree.
Bark]: Smooth bark without thorns. Other common features within the genus Albizia are:
[Leaves]: Bi-pinnate with opposite leaflets and raised glands along the stalks.
[Flower]: In fluffy heads with many long stamens which are much more obvious than the corolla. The
central flower in the head is often very different from the others with much shorter and thicker
stamens. Pods straight and flat with thin walls, often swollen over the seeds becoming completely dry
and usually splitting open when ripe.[5]
X. References:
4 Di Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.
pp.
pp.
23) National Agricultural Library (NAL)http:77agricola.nal.usda. gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?Search-

Arg=Albizia+myriophylla
3
4
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell.]
Datasheet Report
[Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ cow tamarind, raintree, monkey pod, saman, French
tamarind, cow bean tree, saman tree (Engl.) [9,13,27], .
C. Synonym ³ Enterolobium saman Prain ex King, Samanea saman (Jack.)
Merr., Inga saman (Jacq.) Willd., Inga salutaris Kunth.,

Mimosa saman Jacq.; Pithecellobium saman (Jacq.
Benth.[4,6,8,12,27].
D. Other1 ³ arbre parasol, saman, gouannegoul (French), Regenbaum
(German) [4,13]; kam kram, cham cha (Thailand); acacia

(Philippines); Sam sa (Laos); còng, me tây (Vietnam) [6,8],
algarrobo, carreto negro (Spanish) [26]..
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ GMBil)araMg

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ âmpil´ barang´ [4]

Other : Fabales
Family: Mimosoideae
Gunus: Albizia Durazz. [17] (Samanea Merr.[8]
Species: Albizia saman (Jack.) F. Muell.
1
Source :[4 ; 11 ; 17]
[General]:Large deciduous or semi-deciduous tree, up to 30 m high, diameter up to 100 cm, large tree
up to 45 (60) m high and 200 cm diameter, very wide, umbrella-shaped crown, up to 30-60 m
diameter [6,8,13]. Fast-growing but with the trunk branching out at low height. Stem and branches
frequently covered by small epiphytes [13]. Branchlets puberulous to tomentose. Stipules present. [8]
[Bark]: Brown to black, developing ridges with age [6].
[Leaves]: Leaves evenly bipinnate, up to 15-30 cm long with 8-12 pinnae. Leaflets are 1.5-6.0 cm long
and 0.4-7.0 cm wide, blunt at base and tip, with a minute point at the tip and a short point at the base.
Leaflets are larger at apical end of pinnae than at base and number 12-16 in outer pinnae and 6-10 in
lower [6].
Leaves: Rhachis 15-40 cm long, with gland(s) just below the junction of the basal pair of pinnae and
distally at all other pairs of pinnae, circular, concave, c.(ca.=about) 0.5 mm diameter, pinnae 3-9 pairs,
11 cm long, with gland(s) at the junction of the leaflets. Leaflets opposite, the lowest pair ovate or
elliptic, middle pairs rhomboid, terminal pair obliquely obovate, 1.5-2.5 by 3-5 cm, 2-10 pairs per
pinnae, base half rounded and half truncate, apex rounded or obtuse, often emarginate or mucronate,
main vein diagonal, lateral veins densely reticulate, raised, upper surface glabrous, lower surface
densely short-pubescent [8].
Leaves bipinnate, oviform, folding up during the night or rainfall [13].
[Flowers]: Flowers are numerous, pink, alone or in sub-globose heads from the leaf corners, 5-7 cm in

diameter [6 ].
Inflorescence peduncles densely shortly yellowish pubescent, 2-5 together in the distal leaf axils, 5-10
cm long, bearing a terminal corymb. Flowers usually heteromorphic, marginal flowers, c. 3 cm long,
pedicellate, central flowers with 7 or 8 perianth segments. Calyx funnel-shaped 5-7 mm long,
tomentose or wooly, teeth 5, broadly triangulate, acute, 0.5-1.0 cm long. Corolla red or yellowish-red,
funnel-shaped, 10-12 mm long, distal part tomentose or wooly. Lobes triangular ovate, c. 2 mm long.
Stamens white at base, purple towards the top, 20-35 mm long, tube shorter than the corolla tube.
Ovary sessile, glabrous. Central flower sessile. Calyx 8-9 mm long, broadly tubular, tomentose-wooly,
teeth 7-8, 0.5-1.0 mm long, triangular, acute. Corolla c. 12 mm long, tubular, inside glabrous, outside
tomentose-wooly. Staminal tube longer than corolla [8].
Flowers small delicate brush-like flower heads, attractive by the numerous white filaments with pink
pollen bags.[13]
[Fruit]: Pods with fleshy pulp, 12-25 cm long, 2 cm wide with sweet, brown pulp [6].
2
Pod strap-like, 15-30 by 1.5-2.3 cm long, straight, indehiscent, outside black when mature, inside
transversely septate. Seeds with pleurogram, elliptic, strongly biconvex, c. 8 by 5 by 4 mm, brown,
areole elliptic, c. 7 by 3 mm [8]. A ribbed pod, dehiscent, seeds embedded in sweetish pulp [9].
Flowering and fruiting June to January [8].
Flowering March to May and towards the end of the year. Foliage and flowers renewed twice annually
[13].
I. Wood properties:
Sapwood thin and yellowish, freshly cut heartwood brown, turning golden-brown on exposure. The
wood is soft and light-weight and very durable against rot and termites [9].
"The wood of S. saman is strong, durable or very durable, with a specific gravity of 420-640 kg/m³, a
light yellow sapwood and rich dark chocolate-brown heartwood. The rich colour and beautiful but
subtle grain of the heartwood, resembling black walnut (Juglans nigra), makes wood from larger trees
highly prized for furniture making (for example in Malaysia and Trinidad), panelling, decorative
veneers, and for turning for bowls, platters, and other handicrafts. In Hawaii and Thailand the wood is
used to make the famous, albeit mis-named, 'monkey-pod' bowls. The wood is often very cross-
grained, making it difficult to work unless when green." [12]
The wood is often turned when green, and this is feasible because the wood shrinks so little on drying
that products do not warp [12].

A. saman originates from the grasslands of Central and northern South America [4,8,13,20], it is
widely cultivated and naturalized in Asia, Southeast and East Asia, [6] and Africa [4]; now occuring all
over the Asian tropics in India, Burma, Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia [8]. At least in
Central and South America the actual distribution has been much influenced by the introduction of
horses and cattle as seed spreaders [12]. A. saman occurs in broadleaved evergreen forests, dry
forests, riparian forests, even savanna woodlands and savannas. It is a truly tropical species growing
best in the seasonally dry and wet regions, but grows faster where mean annual precipitation exceeds
1,000 mm/ m². Within the limits of the area of distribution it grows in seasonally dry deciduous and
semi-deciduous forests as well as moist evergreen woodlands [12]. Geograpical limits are indicated
as 15º N-3º N [12].

Sandy coastal areas, along roadsides; up to1300-1500- 1800 m elevation [27,12,8], up to 700 m [6],
mean annual temperature 22 ºC, annual rainfall between 600 and 2500(-3000) mm, dry season less
than 6 months; light demanding but tolerates a wide range of soils. [6,27] The altitudinal range is
given as 0-1500 m, mean annual rainfall 600-3,000 mm/ m², with a bimodal summer rainfall regime.
The mean annual temperature range is 20-28ºC, (20-35ºC) the absolute minimum temperature must
not drop below 8ºC [12,26].
3
not determined

Sandy coastal areas [8] , tolerates a wide range of soils [6,9] Albizia (Samanea) saman needs well-
drained alluvial, fertile, neutral to moderately acid (>pH 4.6) soils for best growth (Franco et al., 1995),
but can also tolerate heavy clays (vertisols) and infertile, or seasonally waterlogged soils [12].
Tolerance towards alluvials, cambisols, regosols, vertisols and tropical soils [12].

In tWood]: Hard and heavy, used in construction, suitable for tool handles, crates and boxes, carving
furniture, boats, veneer and plywood [6,8,17]. With its rich dark-and-light pattern, the wood is highly
prized for carvings, furniture and panelling. The wood shrinks so little that products may be carved out
of green wood without fear of splitting or warping as the wood dries. In Hawaii, bowls and other craft
products made from the wood are in such high demand that the local wood supply is supplemented by
imports from Indonesia and the Philippines. A moderately durable wood, it is also used in boat
building. The beautiful, high-quality wood is used for interior trim, crafts, boxes, veneer, plywood and
general construction [20].
[Non-Wood]: Planted as solitary tree or roadside tree, as a shade tree but also for ornamental
reasons. In the humid tropics Albizia saman is also employed as a shade tree for various cultivated

plants, e.g., cocoa, coffee, tea or pepper plantations [13].
The fruit forms 20-30 cm long pods with the seeds making a suitable fodder for cattle, pigs and goats
[8,13], the reason why in English the tree is also called cow tamarind. Pods, which fall to the ground
when ripe, have a crude protein content of 12-18% (dry matter) with 41% digestibility for goats, and
are popular with cattle, horses, goats and other animals. Some South American countries have begun
exporting the pods. Although the leaves are nutritious, they are not considered an important fodder
[20].
Fuel: The facts that A. saman wood produces 5200-5600 kcal/kg when it burns and that it regrows
vigorously after lopping or pollarding make it a valuable source of high-quality firewood and charcoal.
However, where there is a strong market for wood carvings, the wood is considered too valuable to be
used as fuel [20].
Fruit edible, leaves eaten raw in times of scarce food supplies [4] The bark also contains gum and
resin [6,20].
In traditional medicine a decoction of the inner bark and fresh leaves is applied as treatment for
diarrhoea, while a brew of small sections of the bark is taken to treat stomach-ache. A crude aqueous
4
or alcoholic extract of the leaves is observed to have an inhibiting effect on Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.

not included
The characteristic spreading tree form of S. saman with a short bole, extremely heavy branching and
a wide, spreading crown mean that it is not adaptable to plantation conditions and has rarely been
planted successfully at close spacings (Raintree, 1987; Little and Wadsworth, 1989; Roshetko, 1995)
[12]. It is a light-demanding species and generally has a very extensive shallow root system. It is,
however, highly compatible with pasture and it is in extensive silvopastoral systems that S. saman
fulfils its true potential. It tolerates weeds, is suitable for coppicing and pollarding and is able to fix
nitrogen. (Raintree, 1987; Escalante, 1985; 1997; Roshetko, 1995). Planted at wide spacings (10 to
20 trees/ha), it provides shade and dry season fodder [12].
Wide spacings, however, can still be compatible with timber production. Given the preference for
heartwood, the demand for large girths and the specialist uses of S. saman wood (which never
produces clear sawlogs), wide spacing encourages rapid diameter growth and a thick bole with plenty
of heartwood. Branch wood is also often of sufficient diameter to be used. A. saman trees resprout
vigorously and can be managed for fuelwood by pollarding in agricultural areas, as in the Philippines
(Raintree, 1987) [20]. If trees are planted at close spacing, e.g. 1.5-2 m x 2 m, they will carry less
branches and form a better stem. Under favourable conditions the trees can attain 18cm dbh
(diameter at breast height) within 5 years. Mean annual increment is estimated to lie around 25m³/ha.
Due to the organic input under the trees the grass does not lose dry in matter content but contains
more protein. A. saman coppices well and reacts to pollarding with strong growth so that it can be
managed as a source of fuelwood [26].
Q. Propagation :
Seeds of A. saman are usually widely available and easily collected. Seed extraction however,
requires pounding of the hard dry pods and subsequent winnowing to separate the seeds from pod
fragments. There are between 4,400 and 7,700 seeds/kg. Seed requires pretreatment, or
scarification, prior to sowing. Hot water pretreatment by pouring boiled water (5 times the volume of
seed) over the seeds, soaking for two minutes then draining the hot water and soaking the seed
overnight in cold water before sowing is the most widely used method (Nitrogen Fixing Tree
Association, 1989). Mechanical scarification - by manual nicking (Roshetko, 1997), the hot wire
method (Robbins, 1986; Poulsen and Stubsgaard, 1995) or using the seed gun (Poulsen and
Stubsgaard, 1995) - are likely to be equally, or more (Roshetko, 1997), effective, though more tedious
and time-consuming. Container stock is normally used for successful establishment. Large bags (10 x
5
20 cm) are used with a potting mixture of 3 parts soil, 1 part sand and 1 part compost. In the first 2-4
weeks seedlings are kept in partial shade. It generally takes 3-5 months to produce seedlings 20-30
cm tall [20]. Propagation is commonly done through potted seedlings, although cuttings and stump
cuttings may also be used [20].
Albizia saman has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Trees have been shown to nodulate
effectively in Hawaii, Malaysia and the Philippines with a wide range of strains of Rhizobium (reviewed
by Allen and Allen, 1981). Seedlings therefore do not require inoculation with specific strains of
Rhizobium [20].

In most places, A. saman is free from pests and diseases. Many defoliators, including the Leucaena
leucocephala psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana, attack the tree in various countries, but usually do not
cause severe stress problems. Cicadas also feed on A. saman [20]. A number of minor insect pests
affect S. saman in different areas, but none of these have, so far caused serious problems. The bean
maggot, Hylemya platura [Delia platura] infests cotyledons of S. saman seedlings and may kill them in
nurseries in Haiti (Timyan, 1996). In Costa Rica, parrots may harvest up to a third of the expanded
green fruits of S. saman (Janzen, 1982) [12].
Insect pests recorded are: Acizzia acaciaebaileyanae, Delia platura, Delia platura, Heteropsylla
cubana, Merobruchus columbinus (1), Pammene theristis (2), Psylla acaciabaileyanae (3),
Rastrococcus iceryoides (4), Stator limbatus (5)
Nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita (6)
Fungus diseases: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. passiflorae (7), Fusarium pallidoroseum (8)

Footnotes: 1. damages seeds, 2. in Maharashtra, India, 3. non-preferred name of Acizzia
acaciaebaileyanae, 4. In Africa and Asia, this pest attacks cocoa, mango, cotton and A. lebbek as well
as A. saman, 5. a bruchid, which damages seeds, 6. nursery seedlings in Cuba were susceptible to
damage, 7. causes stem canker and gumnosis in Orissa, India, 8. non-preferred name for F.
pallidoroseum [12].
Roots threaten to lift up road and sidewalk cover [9].
S. Conservation :
not an endangered species[9]

in the lowlands

Native of Central and South America, occures in Guatemala, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, but has been
introduced or naturalized in most tropical countries [5], e.g. in Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua
6
New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands Tonga, in Africa in Tanzania and Kenya, also in Southeast
Asia, in India, Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia, Philippines etc. [26].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
This tree is called raintree because even on dry days it may “rain” below its crown. This rain is caused
by a minute cicada, Ptyleus grossus, protecting itself with foam against drought. The insects tap the
branches for its liquor and then excrete considerable amounts of water. This may be enough to cause
the formation of puddles below the tree [13].
Hensleigh, T.E.& HolawayB.K. 1988: Agroforestry species for the Philippines. AJA Printers, Malabon,
404 pp.
Akkasaeng,R, Gutteridge,RC, Wanapat, M,1989: Evaluation of trees and shrubs for forage and
fuelwood in northeast Thailand. Int. Tree Crops Journal 5(4): 20-220; 3 ref.
Hunter, IR, Stewart, JL ,1993: Foliar nutrient and nutritive content of Central American multipurpose
tree species growing at Comayagua, Honduras. Comm. For. Review 72(3): 193-197; 19 ref.
MacDicken GK, 1994: Selection and management of nitrogen-fixing trees. Winrock International and
FAO Bangkok.
Perry LM 1980: Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia: attributed properties and uses.; MIT
Press. South East Asia.
Poulsen, KM, Stubsgaard, F 1995: Three methods of mechanical scarification of hardcoated seeds.
Tech. Note 27, DANIDA Forest Seed Center, Humlebaek, Denmark
Roshetko, JM 1995:Albizia saman: Pasture improvement, shade, timber and more NFT highlites. No.
95-02. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Arkansas; USA. Winrock International
Ahn JH, Robertson BM, Elliott R, Gutteridge RC, Ford CW, 1989. Quality assessment of tropical
browse legumes: tannin content and protein degradation. Animal Feed Science and Technology,
27(1-2):147-156; 25 ref.
Sunand, C., Sharmiastha, D, Bhaduri, SK, Dharmadas, S, 1993: Chemical evaluation of leaf fibre from
4 tropical trees; a social forestry resource. Bioresource Technology 46(3):259-261; 19 ref.
Takeda, S, 1990: Lac cultivation and host tree plantations in northern Thailand. South East Asian
Studies 28(2): 182-205; BIDC
Taylor DH and MacDicken KG 1990: Research on multipurpose treespecies in Asia. Proceedings

Int.Workshop, November 19-23, 1990, Los Banos
Thole, NS, Joshi, AL, Rangnekar, DV 1992: Nutritive evaluation of raintree (Samanea saman) pods.
Ind. J. of Animal Sciences 62(3): 270-272; 6 ref.
7
Chicco CF, Garbati ST, Muller-Haye B, 1973. A note on the use of saman fruit (Pithecellobium
saman) in pig food rations. Agronomia Tropical (Maracay, Venezuela), 23: 263-267.
X. References:
6) Jensen, M. 2001: Trees and Fruit of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,
Bangkok; 224 pp.
8) Sam, H. V., Nanthavong, Kh. and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field
guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr.
, Nat. Herbar. Nederlande, Univ. Leiden, Branch. Leiden The Netherlands, 349 pp.
9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide
Thames & Hudson Ltd.,London. 484 pp.
336 pp.

12) CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (on CD ROM)
13) BAERTELS, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical
Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ.,
Stuttgart,Germany, illustrated, 384 pp.
pp.
Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).
8
26) World Agroforestry Centre: http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Oroducts/AFDbases/AF/asp/
BotanicList.asp? (Internet source).

9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Anacardium occidentale L.]
Datasheet Report
[Anacardium occidentale L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Anacardium occidentale L.
B. English name (s) ³ cashew [1] , cashew nut [2]
C. Synonym ³ Cassuvium pomiferum [4], Acajuba occidentalis
Gaertn. [7]
D. Other1 ³ cajou, anacardier, acajou, cachou, pomme de
cajou (France) [1, 2] - jambu monyet, jambu mede

(Indonesia) [1] - gajus, jambu monyet (Malaysia) [1] - kasoy,
balubad, balogo, kasui (Philippines) [1, 2] - thiho thayet si
(Myanmar) [1] - mamuang himmaphan, yaruang, mamuang
letlor (Thailand) [1] - [dd][af]o l[ooj]n h[ooj]t, [dd]i[eef]u, cay
dieu, dao lon hot (Vietnam) [1, 2] - anacardo, casa,
maranjon, merci, pajuil (Spain) [2] - kazu badam
(Bangladesh) [2] - yao kuo (China) [2] - andipapuppa,
andiparuppu, balia, bojan, gera-bija, gerybija, godambe,
hijali-badam, hijuli, jidi-mamidi, jidivate, kaju, kashu-mavu,
kempu geru bija, lanka-ambo, mindiri, mundri, muntha-

mamidi (India) [2] - kashu nattsu (Japan) [2] - caju, kaju,
montinkai (Sri Lanka) [2]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: sVaycnÞI

Source: [9]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ svaay chantii [1, 11], chanty, kchov [3]
1
Other : Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Anacardium
Species Anacardium occidentale L.
Source :[ 2]
[General]: Small to medium-sized, evergreen shrub or tree with a height of up to 12 m [1] (6-15 m [2],
4-10 m [4], 2-8 m [14], 0-6 m [12]). Bole is 0.5-1.5 m short [1], stout and crooked with a DBH of 25 cm
[2] (30-45 cm [13]) and has few irregularly orientated branches usually near the base, giving a
spreading appearance. Bark resinous, light grey or brown, smooth in the young stages but becoming
rough with abundant warts with age. The middle part of the bark has a tinge of brown with red sticky
and caustic fibers. Taproots are up to 3 m deep [1], persistent. Lateral roots are spreading beyond the
crown projection, with sinker roots to a depth of 6 m [1]. Crown dome-shaped, wide, early branched
and densely foliated. The leaves are commonly crowded at the ends of the branches.
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, simple, thick and leathery, hairless, opposite egg-shaped or
oblong, often notched at the apex, purplish-green or red-brown when young, later shining dark green
with entire margin and hairless. The leaf blade is 6-24 x 4-15 cm [2] (6-25 cm × 5-15 cm [8]) with
prominent midrib and veins, lateral veins pinnately spreading with 10-20 [2] bow-like pairs. The leaf

stalk is short (1-2 cm [2]), swollen at the base and flattened on the upper surface.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence is polygamous with ca. 60 hermaphrodite and 10 male flowers [8]. "The
inflorescence is a slightly branched lax terminal, drooping, many-flowered panicle, with the branches
at 90° to the axis" [8]. It is up to 25 cm long with fragrant male and hermaphrodite flowers. Flowers are
small, regular, sweet-scented, white to light green at flower growth, later turning to pinkish-red. The
size of flowers varies from 1-2 mm for male and 6-12 mm for hermaphrodite flowers [2]. The structure
of both types of flowers is similar except that the female organ is either absent or rudimentary in the
staminate flowers. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are green spear-shaped to oblong, 4-15 mm x
1-2 mm [8] and hairy. The 5 inner flower-leaves (petals) are linear, spear-shaped, 7-13 mm x 1-1.5 (-
2) mm [2, 8], reflexed in open flowers, pale greenish-cream with red strips at the time of flower growth
and later turning to red. There are 10 stamens (=male organs). The male flowers have 7-9 short (2-3
mm [2], 4 mm [8]) and 1-3 long (6-9 mm [2], 6-10 mm [8]) stamens, the female or hermaphrodite
flowers have 9 short and 1 long stamen projecting just above corolla [2]. Flower buds and fully open
flowers may be found in the same tree. In general, flowering normally occurs at the beginning of the
dry period and varies with latitude (Flowering season SE-Asia: January-May [12]). The flowers are
pollinated by insects (honey bees, flies, possibly also ants). Both cross- and self-pollination occur, but
there is evidence of some self-incompatibility. The fruiting starts in April [12].
2
[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is a kidney-shaped nut, about 3 x 1.2 cm [1] (3-5 x 2-3.5 cm [2], 2-3 x 1 cm
[4], 2-3 x 1.5-2.5 cm [8]), with a greyish green to grey-brown, resinous hard fruit coat. The fruit is
embedded in an enlarged and swollen flower stalk called a cashew apple (false fruit), which is pear-
shaped, 10-20 cm x 4-8 cm [1], waxy, red to yellow, soft and juicy. Seed kidney-shaped with reddish-
brown seed coat, two large white cotyledons and a small embryo. The kernel remaining after removal
of the testa is the cashew nut of commerce.
[1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is reddish brown, light and hard but crooked. "The timber has an
unusual feature, in that wood density and fiber length decrease with tree age" [2].
[5, 13]

Approximate limits: 27°N to 28°S [2] (20°N to 24°S. [5]). Cashew's high adaptability is characterized
by its omnipresence in diverse latitudes. As a naturalized exotic it occurs in dry forests, dunes,
grasslands, savanna woodlands, savannas, coastal plant communities and is also found growing wild
in other situations. Cashew is a well-known backyard tree in South-East Asia.
[1, 2, 5, 12]

Cashew grows well from 0-1,200 m a.s.l. [2, 8] (0-1,000 m [5, 7] but is best suited to lower altitudes.
Normally an altitude of 600 m a.s.l. [5, 13] is the limit for commercial cashew cultivation. It tolerates
both uni- and bimodal rainfall regimes but the latter one is more appreciated. The distribution of
rainfall within the rainy season is more important than quantity. However it can be grown in arid, semi-
arid and humid climates with annual rainfall range of 500-3,500 mm/yr [7] (500-3,700 mm [2], 500-
4,000 mm [5], 800-1,500 mm [8], 1,200-2,200 mm [13]). Heavy rains and cloudy weather during
flowering adversely affect nut yield. A dry season length of 3-5 months [8] (4-5 months [5], 4-6 months
[2]) is needed for a good flower flushing, fruit- and root development. It can also adapt to very dry
conditions as long as the root system has access to soil moisture. Cashew requires high
temperatures, the optimal temperature for growth is 22-26ºC [8]. It thrives in areas with a mean
annual temperature of 22-35ºC [2] (17-38 ºC [7]), a mean maximum temperature of 35-48ºC [2] in the
hottest month and a mean minimum temperature of 16-24ºC [2] in the coldest month. The absolute
minimum temperature is above 0ºC [2] because cashew is susceptible to frost damage [8, 15]. Other
sources mention cashew as a very frost resistant species [1]. A. occidentale is a strongly light-
demanding species and readily colonizes open ground. It does not tolerate excessive shade. However
it tolerates strong winds and termites.
[1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 13, 15]
3

Cashew can adapt itself to varying soil conditions, from the sandy sea coast to laterite hill slopes,
even soils which are too stony or too dry for other crops. It also grows well in soils which are very poor
in nutrients. However, it prefers shallow, fertile, well-drained to dry, bare sandy soils, hard laterite soils
and deep red loamy soils or soils rich in organic matter. The species can bear heavy, waterlogged
clay soils or saline soils but with an extreme poor growth. Brackish soils near seashores and
inundated or swampy soils are not suited. It prefers slightly acidic to neutral (pH 6.3-7.3 [2]) soil
conditions. "In drier areas (annual rainfall 800-1,000 mm), a deep and well drained soil without
impermeable layers is essential. A simple water budget with the aid of pan evaporation figures will
show the required soil depth." [1]. Suitable soils for growth include: ferrallitic, lateritic, rocky soils,
coastal sandy soils, luvisols, fluvisols and red soils.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15]

[Wood]: A. occidentale is not really a timber species due to its low-quality timber. Unless trees are old
or uneconomical for nut production, they are not felled for timber or fuelwood purposes. However it
produces wood that can be used for round wood, sawn or hewn building timbers, light construction,
house- and shed posts, fencing poles and even for building boats. It produces excellent fuelwood and
charcoal. The wood pulp is used to fabricate corrugated and hardboard boxes or crates.

[1, 2, 5, 13]
[Non-Wood]: Food: The nutritious kernel (=cashew nut) is the main economic product of the species,
the world trade in cashew ranks third after almond and hazelnut. The nut is highly regarded as food,
usually roasted. Cashew nuts are also used as snack foods, in confectionery and baked products.
They are often marketed in cans of mixed nuts. Cashew apple is a good source of vitamin C, and can
be eaten fresh or mixed in fruit salad or squeezed to make fresh juice. In Cambodia the cashew apple
is eaten fresh with salt. Also the young leaves, buds and shoots are eaten raw in salads or cooked,
especially in time of shortage. The juice of cashew apple is slightly fermented and distilled to make
strong alcoholic drinks in Brazil, Guatemala, India and Mozambique.
Oil: The nut contains a high quality oil and the cake remaining after extraction serves as an animal
feed. However, due to the current high price of the kernels the oil is not usually extracted. By-products
of the nut collection are seed-coats which can be used as poultry feed and shells which are utilized as
a source of fuel and yield cashew nut shell liquid oil (CNSL). CNSL is used as a waterproofing agent
and a preservative e.g. to treat wooden structures and fishing nets and in the manufacture of
numerous industrial products. Distilled and polymerized the oil is used in insulating varnishes and in
4
the manufacture of typewriter rolls, oil- and acid proof cements and tiles, brake linings, inks, etc..
CNSL has also been used to produce several pesticides, dyes and drugs.
Medicine: All parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine to treat wounds, toothache, dysentery,
scurvy, sores, warts, ringworm and psoriasis. "The leaves contain flavonoids, mainly glycosides of
quercetin, kaempferol and hydroxybenzoic acid. The bark contains anacardic acid, anacardol, cardol
and ginkol. The caustic liquid in the shell contains about 39% anacardic acid, which is a mixture of
alkyl salicyclic acid derivates. The bark and leaves are used as an infusion for tooth aches and sore
gums. The infusion may also be used as a febrifuge in malaria. Anacardic acid is bactericidal against
Staphylococcus aureus as well as being fungicidal. Extracts of the leaves have reportedly shown to
be hypotensive in rats. Infusion of the dried leaves have reputed anti-hyperglycaenic and anti-
ulcerative properties" [4]. The fruit sap is used as a medicine for leucoderma. Fruit and kernel can
also be used as an antidote against skin diseases and leprosy.
Tannins and dyes: The bark is used in the tanning industry, and the resinous sap from the bark yields
an indelible ink. The wounded bark exudes a yellow gum which has insecticidal properties and can be
used as an adhesive (woodwork panels, plywood, bookbinding).
[1, 2, 4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15]
[Others]: In Cambodia's past Cashew was rather cultivated as an ornamental than as a fruit tree. It is
also grown as a shade tree, as a hedge and for dune stabilization. It is also suitable for shelterbelts
and windbreaks, for afforestation of barren, slash-and-burned farmland and coastal saline sandy
lands and for the rehabilitation of degraded lands.
[2, 8, 14]

No class. [6]
[General]: A. occidentale occurs in dry forests, dunes, grasslands, savanna woodlands, savannas,
coastal plant communities and is also found growing wild in other situations. As a well-known
agroforestry species it is often intercropped with coconut, citrus, banana, cassava and maize. Cashew
is a multipurpose species suitable for shelterbelts and windbreaks, for afforestation of barren, slash-
and-burned farmland and coastal saline sandy lands and for the rehabilitation of degraded lands. The
tree is easily cultivated, vigorous and requires little care. It is a strongly light-demanding and does not
tolerate excessive shade. It coppices easily.
[Establishment]: A.occidentale can be planted in the full sun. In general planting holes are 30 x 30 cm
[2] in size. On heavy or compact soils planting holes should be 50 x 50 x 50 cm [5] in size and refilled
with a soil-manure mix. Two or three seeds are planted per hole at a depth of 5-8 cm [2]. After
germination only one seedling is retained. For initial spacing 3.4 x 3.4 to 5 x 5 m [5] (6 x 6 m to 10 x
10 m [2]) is recommended to suppress weeds and maintain soil moisture. The seedling emerges 3
5
weeks after sowing. The root grows fast, maintaining a depth of 1.5 times the height of the shoot [1].
The shoots grow in flushes that follow the onset of the rainy season. The seedling stem soon
branches and pruning may be needed to attain a trunk height of 0.5-1.5 m [1]. Fertilizer application is
not a common practice. The juvenile phase lasts only 3 or 4 years.
[Management]: To ensure a uniform stand, moisture should be stored (e.g. by mulching, terracing,
half-moon basin making), soil aeration should be improved by soil tillage, root penetration should be
eased by digging appropriate pits. Careful weeding - cleaning the area within 1 m of the trunk and
slashing the remainder - is essential until the trees shade out most of the weeds. "Weed control and
erosion prevention can be done by cover cropping (using legumes like Pueraria phaseoloides,
Calopogonium mucunoids, Mucana sp., Mimosa invisa etc.)" [5]. The wider spacing allows mixed- or
intercropping making this species ideal for agroforestry systems, esp. hedgerow systems. Fertilizers
promote growth of the seedlings and advance the onset of flowering in young trees, however it is not
necessary where only nuts are harvested. "Since A. occidentale has a low-spreading branching habit,
at about 2 years old trees may be pruned to form a strong scaffold, which removes dead,
unproductive and diseased branches. Trees are shaped by removing the lower branches and any
shoots arising from the base of the tree during the first 3 years. Thereafter little or no pruning is
necessary" [2]. After 5 years thinning is required to reduce competition. In closely spaced plantations,
thinning may be carried out to obtain 120 trees/ha [2] (44-69 trees/ha [1]). Final spacing varies from 8
x 8 to 20 x 20 m [5] (12 x 12 to 15 x 15 m). "Spacing experiments have shown that at ten years of age
productivity in plots with 44, 69, 111, 135 and 278 trees/ha was about 450 kg/ha. The larger tree size
compensated for smaller numbers of trees. Thus, only the canopy surface area determines
productivity. Hedged rows of trees planted at 2-3 m x 12-15 m almost double the canopy surface area
per ha and increase the yield over the first 10 years. The optimum width of the interrows depends on

climatic conditions and on planting material" [1]. The growth and development is relatively fast and
trees normally start bearing fruits from the 4th year. Trees reach maximum production at about age 10
years [2], and maximum productive rates can continue for a further 20 years [2] (25 years [1]).
"Replanting is costly and leads to loss of income for at least five years. Thus, cashew raising in
hedgerows is a good alternative. The resulting high productivity can be maintained by coppicing
alternate rows at 50-75 cm when adjacent hedges come within 1 m distance of each other. Tree rows
may also be grubbed out and replaced with superior selections. The replanted rows come into
production after 5 years. However, during that time the remaining hedges can expand fully and reach
top yields. When the gap between hedges again becomes less than 1 m the rows of unchecked trees
should be cut back, giving room for expansion of the rejuvenated/replanted rows. This system allows
continuous cropping at higher than normal productivity and gradually improving yield levels" [1]. After
the tree starts bearing, it is important to apply fertilizers and spray against pests and diseases.
[Harvest]: Harvest is seasonal and lasts 2-3 months [1]. Best quality is attained where freshly fallen
nuts are dried and stored immediately. Nuts should be gathered at least weekly. The area under the
tree should be weed-free and swept clean to facilitate nut collection. After removal of the cashew
apple the nuts are sun-dried to reduce moisture from 25% to below 9% [1]. With proper drying, the
kernel retains its quality, in particular the flavour. The nuts should not absorb moisture during storage.
6
The equilibrium moisture content is about 9% at 27ºC and a relative humidity of 70% [1]. The cashew
apples ripen before the raw nuts are mature. Ripe apples for fresh use should be picked almost daily.
[Yield]: Yields of seedling trees are low in South-East Asia, usually in the range of 400-600 kg/ha/year
[1], the global average is slightly higher with 670-1,350 kg/ha/year [2]. "Average yields per tree
increase from 3 kg at ages 3-5, to 4 kg at ages 6-10, 4.7 kg at ages 11-15 and 5.3 kg from the 16th-
20th year" [1]. Farmers in southern Myanmar reported a productivity at 6.1 kg/tree [1]. In general a
mature tree can yield 45-100 kg [2] of cashew apple and 9-8 kg [2] (some trees up to 45 kg [2]) of nuts
annually.
[1, 2, 5, 7, 12]
Q. Propagation :
Natural regeneration occurs when animals such as bats eat the cashew apple and scatter the nut. A.
occidentale is also a fairly good coppicer and also produces root suckers, therefore natural
regeneration may also occur vegetatively by coppice shoots and root suckers. However coppicing can
not be duplicated on a huge field scale. For commercial production cashew is propagated by seed.
Nuts are collected from heavily and regularly bearing trees with known parentage. Only fully mature,
medium-sized nuts of good shape with a high specific gravity are used. It is also a common practice to
select only those seeds which do not float in water or do not give a rattling sound. They give a higher
germination percentage and rate of growth. Seeds are collected during April and May [10]. Seeds with
a low moisture content are viable for 12 months [10] if stored in air tight containers. After 14 months
the seeds completely loose their viability. The number of viable seeds per kilogram varies from 120 to
250/kg [2] (120-125/kg [5], 150-200/kg [10]). Purity percent: 100% [10]. Moisture percentage: 6.5%
[10]. Germination percentage: 80-90% [10]. Plant percent: 50% [10]. No. of seedlings per kg of seed:
150 [10]. Pretreatment is not required. Seeds are sown in polybags with the stalk end facing upwards
and in a slanting position. Three to four kg of seeds/ha are needed for a layout of 7 x 7 m [4].
"Germination starts in about 10-30 days [2] (10-20 days[10]) and is completed within 2 months. As
trees propagated by seed vary considerably in growth rate, yield and quality due to outcrossing,
vegetative propagation can be used to produce planting materials from selected mother trees or
superior phenotypes. Techniques used include split- and wounded cuttings, air- and ground-layering
(most successful method), patch and forked budding (about 30% take), veneer, side, whip, cleft and
tip grafting" [2]. "Recently the first successes with propagation through tissue culture have been
obtained at Gembloux, Belgium" [1].
[1, 2, 5, 7, 10]

[Pests]: The Helopeltis bug or tea mosquito (Helopeltis antonii) is a major pest and causes severe
damage to tender shoots and inflorescences, leading to drying up of the inflorescences and shedding
of fruits. This can cause a severe economic loss. It can be controlled by contact insecticides.
"Application of endosulfan and dimethoate at the time of emergence of new flushes and panicles has
been suggested. However, because A. occidentale is insect pollinated, extensive use of pesticides is
not recommended. Resistant accessions have been observed in India"[2]. Similarly other pests may
7
be locally destructive, e g. wood borers, stem girdlers or sucking pests such as thrips. Other pests
include Acrocercops syngramma, Conopomorpha syngramma Meyrick, Crimissa cruralis, Hypatima
haligramma Meyrick, Lamida moncusalis Walker, Nephopetryx sp., Metanastria hyrtaca Cramer,
Monolepta longitarsus Jac., Oligonychus mangiferus Ratman, Paradasynus rostratus Distant,
Plocaederus ferrugineus, Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna, Selenothrips rubrocinctus and
Thylocoptila panrosema Meyrick.
[1, 2].
[Diseases]: Under hot and humid conditions anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) attacks
young shoots and flowers, which dry up and are shed. Infections of the fruits also cause necrosis and
shedding. This disease is often associated with insects and/or other fungi. Control is done by
removing and burning infected parts and selection of resistant material, the use of fungicides is
generally uneconomic. Another disease is powdery mildew (Oidium anacardii) which occurs in
plantations, esp. with humid environment and densely planted trees. Affected plant parts become
covered with white fungal growth. Leaves and flowers may shrivel, dry up and be shed. It can be
controlled by sulphur. Other fungi like Capnodium sp. (Sooty Mould), Corticium salmonicolor,
Cylindrocladium scoparium (Seedling Blight), Diplodia natalensis Evans. (Gummosis), Glomerella
cingulata, Gloeosporium mangiferae P. Henn., Oidium anacardii (Powdery Mildew), Phomosis
anacardii, Phytium ultimum Tron. (Seedling Root Rot), Pestalotia paconiae Servazzi (Leaf Spots),
Pestalotia dichatae (Leaf Spots), Phytophthora palmivora (Damping off) have been recorded.
[1, 2, 5]
S. Conservation :

[In-Situ Conservation]: "Field gene banks are maintained in Brazil (130 accessions), India (the NRCC
maintain 213 accessions, with 600 accessions in other parts of India), Mozambique (530 clones),
Thailand (744 cashew types) and the Philippines with 1,300 cashew accessions" [2].

Cashew is cultivated extensively throughout the regions of Cambodia as a commercial product. [4]
It is especially found in Phnom Penh, Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, Kp. Thom, Kp. Cham, Kandal, Svay
Rieng, Kp. Saom, Battambang, Siem Reap, Pursat, Prey Veng. [16]
[Native]: Brazil
[Introduced]:Asia (Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,

Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam),
Africa (Angola, Benin, British Indian Ocean Territory, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo
Democratic Republic, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi,
Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda,
Zambia),
8
Caribbean (Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and
Tobago),
Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama),
North America (Mexico),
South America (Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela)
Oceania (Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea)
[1, 2, 5, 11]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[History]: It was one of the first fruit trees from the New World to be widely distributed throughout the
tropics by the Portuguese and Spanish. [15]
[Nutrients]: "With a production of 420 kg of raw nuts per ha, 13 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of P2O5 and 3 kg
of K2O are removed." [1]
[Nut properties]: The seed contains 21% protein and between 35 and 45% oil. [2]
[Nut-processing in Asia]: "The small-scale production in South-East Asia is suited to manual

processing, often followed by sorting and packaging procedures in central plants." [1]
[Pollination and seed dispersal]: "Is pollinated primarily by honey bees (Apis mellifera). Ants and flies
of the genera Ligyra and Helophilus also visit the flowers. Wind may also disperse pollen, although it
plays little part in pollination. It is a self-compatible species with a high level of outcrossing. However,
pollination is ineffective with pollen collected from staminoid flowers. A. occidentale produces floral,
panicle and leaf nectaries. Fruit-set under natural conditions ranges from 5 to 10%. In India,
pollination was not efficient and fruit-set has been increased by artificial pollination, whereas in
Tanzania, pollination and fruit-setting are efficient and do not normally limit yield. Seed dispersal
occurs through water (seashores, by ocean currents), by large fruit-eating birds (for example, toucans,
Ramphastidae) or by fruit bats such as Epomophorus wahlbergi." [2]
Aiyadura SG, Premanad PP. 1965. Can cashew become a more remunerable plantation crop? India
Cashew Journal. 4(1):2-7.
[7]
Food and Agriculture Organization, 1982. Fruit-bearing forest trees: technical notes. FAO Forestry
Paper, No. 34:v + 177 pp.
[2]
French JH, Tingsabadh C, Taylor D, Byrnes F, Pan FJ, Wood H, Chung HH, Kamis Awang, Lasco
RD, Bhumibhamon S, Latimer W, 1994. Growing multipurpose trees on small farms. Growing
multipurpose trees on small farms., Ed. 2:li + 315 pp.; 69 ref.
9
[2]
Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. Multipurpose trees for
agroforestry and wasteland utilisation., xv + 562 pp.; [18 pp. of ref + refs in text].
[2]
Johnson DV, 1973. The botany, origin, and spread of the cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. Journal
of Plantation Crops, 1:1-7.
[2]
Nayak MG, 1996. Training and pruning practices for cashew. Cashew, 10(2):5-9; [3 pl.].
[2]
Ohler JG, 1979. Cashew. Communication, Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, No. 71:260 pp.
[2]
Northwood PJ. 1966. Some observations on flowering and fruit setting in the cashew (Anacardium
occidentale L.). Trop. Agriculture, Trin. 43(1).
[7]
Verheij E.W.M. Coronel R.E. (1991) PROSEA - Plant Resources of South-East Asia; 2 - Edible fruits
and nuts.

[8]
Villachica H. Carvalho J. E. U. de. Müller C. H. Camilo Diaz, S. Almanza M. (1996) Promising

Amazonian Fruits and Vegetables.
[8]
X. References:
Planting. (CD-ROM).
[4] Kham, L., 2004: Medicinal Plants of Cambodia - Habitat, Chemical Constituents and
Ethnobotanical Uses.
10
[5] Mandal, R.C., 2000: Cashew - Production and Processing Technology.
[6] FA, 2002 (draft), List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of
Commercial Woods, unpublished.
[7] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database -

source).
[8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?Plant=401&entityType=PL****&entityDisplayCategory=full

(Internet source)
[9] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species.
[10] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture (Internet source).
[11] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe/spd?spd=352&tx=PL&sub=0

(Internet source).
[12] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/Individual.php?id=447 (Internet source)

[13] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.
[15] Purseglove, J-W., 1968: Tropical Crops - Dicotyledonae 1. London. 332 pp.
11
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Anisoptera costata Korth.]
Datasheet Report
[Anisoptera costata Korth.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Anisoptera costata Korth
B. English name (s) ³ No information available.
C. Synonym ³ Anisoptera cochinchinensis Pierre (1886), Anisoptera

marginatoides Heim (1902), Anisoptera mindanensis Foxw.
(1918) [1], Anisoptera oblonga Dyer, Anisoptera
cochinchinensis Pierre, Anisoptera robusta Pierre,
Anisoptera glabra Pierre, Shorea nervosa Kurz. [4]
D. Other1 ³ mai bak, mersawa (Trade Name) [12] - mersawa kesat
(Brunei) [1] - masegar, mersawa daun lebar, ketimpun

(Indonesia) [1] - mersawa kesat, mersawa terbak, pengiran
kesat (Malaysia) [1] - Mindanao palosapis, balingan
(Philippines) [1] - kaban-thangyin (Myanmar) [1] - bak, maiz
bak (Laos) [1] - krabak, krabak khok, krabak daeng
(Thailand) [1] - v[ee]n v[ee]n, v[ee]n v[ee]n tr[aws]ng, v[ee]n
v[ee]n xanh (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: epþók

Source: [8]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phdiek, phdiek krâham, phdiek sâ [1]

Other : Malvales
Family: Dipterocarpaceae
Gunus: Anisoptera Korth.
Species: Anisoptera costata Korth.
1
Source :[ 1,4]
[General]: A large to very large tree up to 50 (-65) m tall [1] (-20 m [10], 30-40 m [12]). Bole cylindrical,
straight, branchless for up to 35 m and with a DBH up to 150 cm [1] (100 cm [10], 170 cm [5], 200 cm
[2], 50-80 cm [12]). Few buttresses of up to 4 m high, thick, rounded, straight and spreading out up to
2.5 m, continuing up the bole as ribs up to 10 m high [5] ; (no buttresses are present [2]). Branches
thick, flat or angular and densely yellow stellate hairy.
[Bark]: The bark is greyish brown to light yellow, smooth and hairless when young, deeply fissured
when old and shedding off into small rectangular patches. Inner bark leathery and lamellated, up to 3
cm [5] (1-2 cm [12]) thick, with a cream yellow to brown yellow color.
[Leaves]: The leaves are single, alternate, leathery with a dull yellowish or greenish lepidote beneath.
Leaf shape elliptical to opposite egg-shaped, 6-20 x 3-11 cm [5] (6-18 cm x 7-11 cm [1], 10-15 x 5-8
cm [2]). Apex with a short blunt point, base rounded or nearly heart-shaped, hairless on upper
surface, star-shaped hairs on the lower surface, venation pinnate, secondary veins 15-20 pairs [5] (8-
22 pairs [1]), intramarginal vein present.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence is conical, axillary or terminal, 10-15 cm long, with star-shaped hairs.
Flower cream colored. Outer flower-leaves 5, hairy, lobes triangular. Inner flower-leaves 5, blunt,
narrow elliptic. Stamens (male organs) 25-35 [5] (30-35 [2]). Ovary (female organ) cylindrical, 2-
locular (2 ovules = immature seed). Flowering from November to March [5] (February-March [2],
December-March [12]).

[Fruits]: Fruiting from February to May [5] (April-May [2]). Fruit globular, brown, 1-1.5 cm in diameter,
with two large wings 10-12 x 1.5-2 cm [2] (10-16 x 1-1.5 cm [5]) and three short wings 1.5-2.5 x 0.2-
0.5 cm .
[1, 2, 5, 10]
I. Wood properties:
Medium weight hardwood with a white yellow color and indistinctive sapwood and heartwood. [12].
However other sources describe the sapwood and heartwood as very distinctive, with a pale yellowish
white sapwood and a pale yellow heartwood having a fine texture [1, 2]. Annual rings are not clear
cut, usually 5-7 mm wide. Resin conducted tubes and simple vessels are scattered. The wood-resin is
soft at first, then becomes hard, grey and strongly smelling. Wood density of 0.46-0.85 g/cm³ [1] at
15% moisture content. The specific density of dry wood is 0.64 g/cm³ [2] (0.61-0.71 g/cm³ [12]).
Volume shrinkage coefficient 0.49, fiber situation point 28%. Pressure strength along the grain 504
kg/cm². Static bending strength 1,150 kg/cm². Splitting strength 17.5 kg/cm. Collision bending strength
1.17. The wood is easy to saw, but makes the saw blunt because of its high content of calcium-oxate
crystals in the heartwood.
[1, 2, 5, 12]
2
Approximate limits: From 15°N southwards. Occurs in moist tropical evergreen rain forests, semi-
evergreen and dry evergreen forests of the lowlands. In natural forest it grows together with species
like Diperocarpus alatus, D.kerri, D. jourdanii, Hopea odorata, Hopea ferrea, Shorea spp.,
Lagerstroemia spp., Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Afzelia xylocarpa and Peltophorum
ferrugincum. Occasionally it is also associated with bamboos. A. costata always occupies ecologically
dominant storey or predominant storey in the layered structure. Sometimes it grows gregariously in
pure stands.
[1, 2, 5, 7, 11, 12]

Occurs up to an altitude of 700 m a.s.l. in humid areas with a mean annual rainfall of 1,500-2,200 mm
and an average annual humidity of 75-85%. The mean annual temperature is 25-27°C. The dry
season can last for 4-6 months.
[1, 2, 11]


It is suitable to degraded grey soil or yellowish brown soil on old alluvium or basalt tuff which can be
low in nutrients. It occurs from coastal to hillside areas, by streams, and lowland disturbed areas.
Water logging is not tolerated. Soil where it is distributed is usually poor in nutrients. It can also be
found gregariously in dry seasonal areas, where the trees can be shortly deciduous and relatively
small in size.
[2, 11]

[Wood]: The wood (traded as 'mersawa') is of high commercial value and suitable for veneer,
plywood, furniture, flooring, interior finish, ship planking, general construction, telefone posts, wooden
tanks and tight cooperage.
[1, 2, 5, 10, 12]
[Non-wood]: The nut is edible.
[11]
[Others]: Shade and shelter-tree. Potential tree for soil- and water conservation and amenity. This
species is of current socio-economic importance in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop
on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000).
[9]
3
2nd class. [3]

[General]: A. costata occurs naturally in moist tropical evergreen rain forests, semi-evergreen and dry
evergreen forests of the lowlands which can contain a considerable amount of deciduous tree species
(20-50%) forming forests that are usually 25-30 m tall, with closed canopies and a lower tree stratum
of 5-17 m in height. In natural forest it grows together with species like Diperocarpus alatus, D.kerri,
D. jourdanii, Hopea odorata, H. ferrea, Shorea spp., Lagerstroemia spp., Pterocarpus macrocarpus,
Xylia xylocarpa, Afzelia xylocarpa and Peltophorum ferrugincum. Occasionally it is also associated
with bamboos. A. costata always occupies ecologically dominant storey or predominant storey in the
layered structure. Sometimes it grows gregariously in pure stands.
[2, 5, 7,11]
[Establishment]: For stand establishment it is advisable to plant this species on grey soil generated on
old alluvium or basalt tuff or in secondary forest soil still covered by forest vegetation. Pure plantations
can be raised under the crowns of Indigofera teysmanii at 600 trees/ha density (3-6 m) or can be
planted mixed in 15-20 m wide rows with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. At an early stage
of the plantation it needs a slight shading, thus Indigofera teysmanii of Hopea odorata are suitably
used as support species. Planting is conducted during the first rains of the rainy season (June-July in
Vietnam).
[Management]: Tending should be carried out in 7 consecutive years. In the first to third year mainly
weeding, heaping soil to tree base, breaking the hard pan and cutting of climbers (twice a year, one
before and the other after the rainy season). In the 4th-5th year: Shoots thinning, stem shaping. In the

th th
6 -7 year: Canopy opening, adjustment of density (final density is 300 trees/ha). There must be fire
control in the dry season.
[2]
Q. Propagation :
The species flowers and fruits very irregularly (once every 3-4 years). Thus seeds must be stored and
seedlings must be maintained for annual forest planting plans. After collection the seeds must be
treated an sown directly because they loose their germinability quickly. Seeds are sown in seedbeds
and then planted in P.E. pots (20 x 25 cm) (pot mixture consists of surface layer soil (80%) and
decomposed farmyard manure (20%). Seedlings are planted when they have attained a mean height
of 0.6-0.8 m and are 12-14 months old.
[2]

4
S. Conservation :
A. costata is a rare and threatened tree species according to the IUCN -1994 EN-category. The
estimated number of individuals threatened by logging in Cambodia (as defined on the National
Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) are >10,000 [9].
[6, 9, 10]


[Native]: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia (Sumatra, W-Java, Borneo), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (S-Vietnam).
[1, 2, 5, 10]
[Introduced]: No information available.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Forest Genetics]: "A. costata is a very variable species which possibly hybridizes with A. curtisii" [1].
Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960. Muséum National d'Histoire
Naturelle, Paris.
[1]
Masano, A.H., 1988. Perkecambahan benih Anisoptera costata Korth. [Seed germination of
Anisoptera costata Korth.]. Buletin Penelitian Hutan 498: 11-21.
[1]
X. References:
[1] PROSEA, 1997: Handbook of Plant Resources of South-East Asia, Nos. 1-4, 5(1), 6-8. (CD-
ROM).
[2] JICA, 2003: Use of indigenous tree species in reforestation in Vietnam.
[4] Gardner,S.; Sidisunthorn, P.; Anusarnsunthorn, V., 2000: A Field Guide to Forest Trees of
Northern Thailand.
5
[6] Keo Omaliss and Meng Monyrak: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia: Status, Issues and
Prospects
[9] FAO: http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm

(Internet source)
[10] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-

bin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1869852&spd=5062&tx=PL (Internet source)
[11] Dipterocarpaceae in Thailand - Taxonomic and Biogeographical Analysis:

http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Anisoptera.htm (Internet
source)

6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Annona muricata L]
Datasheet Report
[Annona muricata L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Annona muricata L. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ soursop, custard apple, [4,9]
C. Synonym ³ Annona bondplaniana Kunth ; Annona cearaensis Barb.

Rodr.; Annona macrocarpa Werkl.; Guanabanus muricata
(L.) Gomez. [26]
D. Other1 ³ guayabano, soursop (Engl.) anone, cachiman épineux,
corossol, corosselier, (French); tiëp bânla, tiep barang
(Cambodia); sirsak, nangka belanda, nangka seberng
(Indonesia); khan thalot, khièp thét (Laos); durian belanda,
durian benggala, durina makkah (Malaysia); duyin awza
(Burma); guayabano, atti (Philippines); thurian thet, rian nam,
thurian khaek (Thailand); mang câu xiêm (Vietnam) [6,26].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eTob)araMg

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tiëp barang, tiëp bânla [4]

Other : Magnoliales
Family: Annonaceae [4]
Gunus: Annona
Species: Annona muricata L. [4]
Source :[ 4 ; 6 ]
1
[General]: A tree , 5-9 m high, branching from near base [6]. A tree up to 7 m high [9]. Slender,
evergreen tree, 5-10m high, diameter up to 15 cm.; trunk straight [26].
[Bark]: Smooth, dull grey or grey brown, rough and fissured with age; inner bark pinkish and tasteless;
branches at first ascending with the crown, forming an inverted cone, later spreading; crown at
maturity spherical due to lack of apical dominance; twigs brown or grey, bearing minute, raised
lenticels; root system extensive and superficial, spreading beyond the diameter of the crown, although
shallow rooted. Juvenile plants have a taproot that is eventually lost [26].
[Leaves]: Alternate, short stalked, oblong-ovate, entire, 7-20 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, pointed at both
ends, dark green and shiny above, yellowish-green below, badly smelling when crushed [6]. Leaves
aromatic, rich, green, laurel-like, growing compactly [9]. Leaves alternate, 7.6-15.2 cm long, 2.5-7.6
cm wide, leathery, obovate to elliptic,glossy on top, glabrous on underside, simple, stipules absent;
blade oblanceolate, green on top, paler and dull on underside with 3-10 mm long fine, lateral nerves;
exuding a strong, pungent odour; petioles short [26].
[Flowers]: Large, yellowish-green, strong smelling, 1 or 2 together; flower stalk with short dense hairs
[6]. Flowers cauliflorous, forming on trunk and branches; with 3 triangular, fleshy petals which fall
immediately after pollination. Flowers have an unpleasant smell attracting flies and other insects, the
main pollinators [9]. Flower terminal or lateral, large; stalks stout, green, 1.3-1.9 cm long; 3 sepals,
minute, inconspicuous, broad, green, 3mm long, triangular; petals yellowish-green, 6 in 2 whorls of 3,
outer petals larger, ovate-acute, valvate, cordate with pointed apex (heart-shaped), 4-5 x 3.4 cm, 3
mm thick and fleshy, fitting together at edges in bud, rough on the outside; 3 inner petals, narrow,
smaller, 3.8 cm long, thinner, rounded, concave with fingernail-shaped base and overlapping edges;

stamens numerous, shield-shaped, united below; anthers parallel and opening longitiudinallly; carpels
numerous, overtopping the stamens, each with 1 ovule; pistils white, narrow, 5 mm long, with sticky
stigmata [26].
[Fruit]: Tender with leathery skin and soft, curved spines. Flesh whitish, very juicy with hard, dark-
brown seeds [6]. Fruit a syncarp, a multiple fruit composed of many united pistils, each ending in a
fleshy spine which grows from the old style. Each of the white, fleshy, sweetly aromatic segments
contains a single, black, shiny seed. The large, thin-skinned fruit has a light or bright green colour,
heart- or kidney-shaped, up to 3 kg in weight, up to 35 cm long [9]. Fruit 14-40 x 10-18 cm, weighing
up to 7 kg, ovoid, heart-shaped, an oblong syncarp composed of numerous united pistils; pistils end in
fleshy spine or short base of spine, 1.5 mm or more in length which grows from the style, often
asymetric due to incomplete fertilization of the ovules. Epidermis often shining, dark green with short
fleshy spines covering each carpel; pulp white, fibrous and juicy; seeds shiny, dark, brown or black,
oblong, up to 2 cm long, 0.7 cm wide [26].
2
I. Wood properties:
The wood makes suitable firewood. The soft, whitish wood is sometimes used for construction
applications. Sapwood is whitish and heartwood brown. The wood is soft, light (specific gravity of
400kg/m³), not durable; it is rarely used as construction timber but has been used for ox yokes [26].

A. muricata is thought to be a native of tropical America, including the West Indies, although its origin
is not definitely known. It is now widely distributed in lowlands of the tropics [6]. Cultivated today in the
tropical and subtropical Americas, in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Australia, with the
geographical limits approximately at 23º N and 25º S [12]. A. muricata thrives in the humid tropical
and subtropical lowlands. It is common on the coast and is found on slopes. Planted for its fruit, it has
become wild or naturalized in thickets, pastures and along roads [26].

A. muricata grows in tropical climates below 1000 m a.s.l. with a minimum of 1000 mm/m² of annual
rainfall; however, it tolerates up to 6 months of drought [6]. A. muricata will grow between 0-1000 m
elevation a.s.l., annual precipitation ranging from 1000 to 2500 mm/m², mean annual temperature
from 18ºC-25ºC, t minimum >5ºC [12]. The species is commonly cultivated in home gardens and is
found in rural garden areas on volcanic and raised limestone islands where it is occasionally
naturalized. Trees are not found on atolls. They withstand very little frost. A. muricata occurs
throughout the West Indies except in the Bahamas, and from Mexico to Brazil [26].

not determined

A. muricata does not tolerate water-logging but needs well drained, not too acid soil (6), high
tolerance to alkaline soils of light texture, otherwise tolerant [9,12].

[Wood]: Can be used as fuelwood [17].
[Non-Wood]: Annona muricata is a fruit tree; the ripe fruit is eaten fresh or made into juice, preserve,
jam or jelly. A. muricata is the only Annona fruit that can be processed into preserves. It is high in
vitamins B and C and and is an important fruit in Southeast Asian cooking where the unripe fruit is
prepared in coconut milk. A. muricata can be consumed fresh for dessert when fully ripe or mixed with
ice cream or milk to make a delicious drink, as is done in Java and in Cuba and other parts of
America. However, more often the puree is consumed after squeezing the pulp through a sieve. It can
be made into fruit jelly, juice (with sugar added), nectar or syrup. In Indonesia a sweetcake (‘dodol
sisrak’) is made by boiling A. muricata pulp in water and adding sugar until the mixture hardens. In the
3
Philippines, young fruits with seeds that are still soft are used as a vegetable. Mature but firm fruits
may be made into candy of delicate flavour and aroma. A. muricata fruit consists of about 67.5%
edible pulp, 20% peel, 8.5% seeds and 4% core by weight. Sugars constitute about 68% of the total
solids. The fruit is a good source of vitamins B (0.07 mg/100g) and C (20 mg/100 g) and a poor to fair
source of calcium and phosphorus. The most desirable characteristics of the fruit are its extremely
pleasing fragrance and flavour [26]. In traditional medicine many applications have developed: The
crushed leaves are applied to mature boils and abscesses or are used as a remedy for distention and
dyspepsia, scabies and skin diseases, rheumatism, coughs and colds. The leaves may also be used
to make a decoction, which is taken orally with salt for digestive tract ailments and to relieve fatigue. A
crushed leaf and seed decoction is taken orally for intestinal malaise. A massage of the leaves is
good for nervous shock, while a leaf or bark decoction is used for anxiety attacks. Flower or flower
bud tea is mixed with honey for colds, chest pain and nerve disorders, and the bark and young fruits,
which contain tannin, are used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. The green bark is rubbed on wounds
to stop bleeding [26].
A. muricata is an early bearing tree suitable for intercropping between larger fruit trees like mango or
avocado. When these achieve crown closure the Annonas can be removed. So far the yield is on the
average low and seldom exceeds 12 to 24 fruit per tree. However, a 35 year-old plantation in Hawaii
has shown that the mean number of fruit /tree can be much higher, e.g. 33, 34, and 70 fruit/tree during
the years 4,5,and 6, respectively [12].
Leaves and roots are used in traditional medicine [6].
The pungent leaves are said to be sleep-inducing [9];

fruit pulp and leaves are used to treat diarrhoea, fever and scurvy [9].
Green fruit, leaves and and seeds are said to have insecticidal properties, the seeds are considered
to be poisonous for humans [9].
Annonaceae comprise a large number of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs. Species of genus Rollinia
have only local importance but from the genus Annona, A. muricata L., soursop, and A. reticulata L.,
the bullock´s heart are particularly grown in Central America and the West Indies. Until now the 2
species of commercial importance are A. cherimola Mill., cherimoya, and A. squamosa L., the custard
apple, and the crosses between these, called the atemoyas. Cherimoya originates from the highlands
of Peru and Ecuador and grows only in tropical highlands and in the subtropics. Cherimoya sold in
Europe originates mostly from Spain and Israel [19].

not included [18]
4
Seeds may be sown directly into the field or in a nursery bed. Within 20-30 days 85-90% of the seeds
should germinate, and seedlings can be planted out after 6-8 months. Spacing in orchards should be
3 x 4 m to 4 x 6 m [26]. Commercial plantations in Brazil were a failure. It is not clear whether the
reasons were low yield, or limited storage potential. There are reports concerning inadequate
pollination and subsequent low yields. But also customers complained over the large amount of
seeds. Evidently more and coordinated research on higher yields and less numerous seeds is needed
[12]. Stand establishment possible by using direct sowing, but better with planting stock [12]. The area
around the base of the tree should be kept free from weeds or covered with mulch to avoid
dehydration of the shallow roots during the dry season. Annona muricata can tolerate dry soil
conditions, but the trees shed too many leaves if they experience prolonged drought, and in that
situation they would benefit from supplementary watering. Moderate application of fertilizer and
manure increases fruit production. This is necessary during the early stages of growth so as to
increase the slow growth rate. Trees usually assume a satisfactory form, but in some cases it is
necessary to limit the tree to a single trunk by cutting out competing twigs as early as possible [26].
Q. Propagation :
Flowers are protandrous, and the pollen is shed as the outer petals open towards the evening. The
inner petals open much later and only very slightly, admitting small insects attracted by the fragrance
of the flowers. Beetles of several species are important in carrying out natural pollination. Presumably
these insects effect cross-pollination, though rather inadequately, for few flowers set fruit and many
fruits are misshapen since numerous ovules are not fertilized. Hand pollination is effective in
improving fruit yield and quality. Fruiting starts in the 2nd year, and 5-year-old trees produce 10-50
fruits, depending on pollination efficiency and nutrient status. Sporadic flowering and fruiting can occur
all year round in favourable conditions [26]. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox, and the seeds
tolerate desiccation to 5%. Long-term storage under ideal conditions is possible [26].
The tree can be propagated clonally, in particular through various budding and grafting techniques on
seedling stock, as is the practice in parts of America. Only the most productive trees should be
selected for propagation; they should be planted 5 m apart. However, A. muricata is commonly raised
from seed. Seedlings are acceptable because populations are fairly uniform -seeds of the sweet type,
for instance, are generally true to type -and because the juvenile phase lasts only 2-4 years. Seeds
may be sown directly into the field or in a nursery bed [26].

A. muricata trees are susceptible to seed borers which drill holes from outside into the seeds in the
fruit, killing it that way. Other noxious insects are scale insects and mealy bugs [9]. Caterpillars
(Diacotrichia, Pingasa and Pseudoterpna) attack the flowers and young leaves [26].Insect pests
include Bephata maculicollis, Ceconata annonella, Talponia backeri, Thecla ortygnus, scale insects
and Mediterranean fruit fly. The trunk borer Cratasomus spp. is a serious pest, as are many fruit
5
borers in the orders Coleoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. Mousebirds also attack the tree. In the
Caribbean region A. muricata is attacked heavily by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and, in
the Manaus, Brazil, region by Pellicularia spp. [26].
S. Conservation :
Not a threatenend species

In private house gardens and small fruit orchards

Tropical Central America and West Indian Islands native, Southeast Asia introduced [26]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Seeds considered poisonous for humans and an eye irritant [9]. Powder of dried leaves and sap from
fresh ones are useful in destroying vermin. A powder or oil from the seeds has been used to kill lice
and bedbugs. All tree parts have insecticidal properties and can be used, with fruit as bait, to kill fish
[26].
Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia. No.2, Edible fruits
and nuts. Pudoc, Wageningen, 446 pp.
Trinh Thuong Mai, 1995: Fruit trees in Vietnam. Chronica Horticultura 35(3): 8-9; 3 pl.
Granadino CA, Cave RD 1994: Inventory of arthropods and pathogenic fungi Annona in 4 localities of

Honduras. Turrialba 44(3): 129-139; 5 ref.
Chan, YK 1992: Breeding and varietal improvement of tropical fruits at MARDI. Acta Horticulturae No.
321:138-151; 12 ref.
Williams, L.O. 1981: The Useful Plants of Central America. Ceiba 24(1-4):1-381.
Fouque,A. 1976: Espèces Fruitières dÁmérique Tropicale. Institut Franais de Recherches Fruitières
Outre-Mer, Paris.
Carbajal D, Casaco A, Arruzazabala L, González R, Fuentes V, 1991. Pharmacological screening of

plant decoctions commonly used in Cuban folk medicine. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 33(1-2):21-
24; 7 ref.
6
X. References:
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh, 915 pp.
6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.
Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.
13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas Tropical
Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.
19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics. Josef
Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.
26) World Agroforestry Centre

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp?
(Internet source)
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Annona squamosa L]
Datasheet Report
[Annona squamosa L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Annona squamosa L. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ sweetsop, custard apple, sugar apple [4,6,9]
C. Synonym ³ Annona biflora Moç & Sessé, Annona cinerea Dunhal.,
Annona forskahlii DC. [26].
D. Other1 ³ pomme cannelle, achiman cannelle, attier (French);
chirimoya, anona (Spanish); tiep baay, tiep srok (Cambodia);

sirkaja, sarikaja, atis (Indonesia); khieb (Laos); non sari kaya,
buah nona, sri kaya (Malaysia); awza (Burma); atis
(Philippines); noina, mak khiap, lanang (Thailand); na mang
câu ta, na (Vietnam) [4,6,9,26].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ eTobRsuk eTob)ay

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tiëp ba:y, tiëp srôk [4]

Other : Magnoliales
Family: Annonaceae
Gunus: Annona
Species: Annona squamosa L.
Source :[ 4 ; 11 ]
1
[General]: Shrub or small tree, 3-6 m high [6]; small deciduous tree, young branches densely
pubescent [12]. A small semi-deciduous tree, 3-7 m high, with broad, open crown or irregularly
spreading branches [26].
[Bark]: Bark light brown with visible leaf scars, smoothly to slightly fissured into plates; inner bark light
yellow and slightly bitter. Twigs become brown with light brown dots (lenticels) [26].
[Leaves]: Oblong to narrow elliptic, 7-17 cm long, 3.5-5.0 cm wide, slightly hairy or smooth beneath
[6]. Leaves alternate, ovate-oblong or elliptic oblong, thin, sparsely downy, dark green above, 8-15 cm
long, 2-5 cm wide. Pubescent when young with peculiar smell when crushed. Petiole 1.0-1.5 cm long
[12]. Leaves occur singly, 6-17 x 3-6 cm, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, pale green on both
surfaces, and glabrate or nearly so; sides sometimes slightly unequal, edges without teeth,
inconspicuously hairy at least when young, minutely dotted on examination with a lens; thin dull green
to dark green on top surface, and pale blue-green and covered with bloom on underside; apex short
or long pointed, base short pointed or rounded; petioles 0.6-1.3 cm long green, slightly pubescent
[26[.
[Flowers): In groups of 2-4 or sometimes alone, on slender stalks on young branchlets. Outer 3 petals
oblong to 2.5 cm long, green with purple base whereas inner 3 petals are reduced or absent [6]. Small
pendulous flowers singly or in pairs, in the leaf axils of young shoots or opposite leaves. Pedicel 1.5-
2.5 cm, hairy. The 3 sepals are short, deciduous, densely or thinly pubescent, 0.2-0.3 cm long. The 6
petals are biseriate, the 3 outer petals are lanceolate, thick, fleshy, trigonous, finely pubescent,
yellowish-green on the outside, yellowish-white inside, 2.0-2.5 cm long, 0.5-1.0 cm wide. The 3 inner

petals alternate the outer ones and are minute, sometimes absent, ovate and never more than 0.5-1.0
cm long. The stamens are numerous, yellowish-white in many rows in the glabrous, raised receptacle
(torus) 0.12-0.15 cm long and crowded in a whorl around the gynoecium. The pistils are also
numerous, dark violet, finely pubescent, found above the stamens. The stigmas are sessile, stuck
together and deciduous. The stamens and pistils form a cone-shaped structure at the center of the
flower [12]. Flowers greenish-yellow, fragrant, on slender, hairy stalks, produced singly or in short
lateral clusters about 2.5 cm long, 2-4 flowers, but not at the base of the leaves; sepals pointed, hairy,
green, about 1.6 cm long; 3 outer petals oblong, thick, and rounded at the tips, fleshy, 1.6-2.5 cm
long, 0.6 cm wide, yellow green, slightly hairy, inside light yellow, and keeled with a purplish or
reddish spot at the thin, enlarged base; inner petals 3, minute, ovate, pointed scales; stamens very
numerous, crowded, white, less than16 mm long; ovary light green, styles white, crowded on the
raised axis [26].
[Fruit]: The fruit is a syncarp formed by the fusion of numerous ovaries. It is irregularly heart-shaped
about 5-20 cm in diameter. The ripe fruit is yellowish green or purple. The flesh is white, soft, juicy,
with a mild agreeable flavour. The numerous seeds are obovoid or elliptic, dark brown or black, shiny,
slightly compressed, 1.0-1.5 cm long, 0.5-0.8 cm wide, each enclosed in the edible pulp [12].
2
Fruit globose, 5-10 cm in diameter, greenish-yellow with powdery surface [6]. Fruit globose, with egg-
shaped soft scales, and grey-green skin, rapidly turning black when only slightly pressed. The flesh is
creamy, yellowish-white and tastes aromatic and sweet [13]. The aggregated fruit, formed from the
numerous pistils of a flower which are loosely united, is soft and distinct from other species of the
genus. Each pistil forms a separate tubercle, mostly 1.3-1.9 cm long and 0.6-1.3 cm wide [26]. The
fruit is round, heart-shaped, ovate or conical, 5-10 cm in diameter, with many round protuberances;
greenish-yellow when ripe, with a white powdery bloom. The pulp is white, edible and sweetly
aromatic; in each carpel is a seed embedded, oblong, shiny and smooth, blackish or dark-brown, 1.3-
1,6 cm long, numerous [26].
Commercial hybrids with A. cherimola are called atemoya or custard apple [6](the name custard apple
is in contradiction to [19] which states that this name applies solely to A. squamosa)
I. Wood properties:
The light yellow sapwood and brownish heartwood are soft, light in weight and weak [12,26].

Originates from tropical America and West Indian Islands, reached India, spread over Southeast Asia,
now distributed world-wide in lowland tropics especially in Asia and the South Pacific. Geographically
the limits of the area of distribution are given as 16ºN -18º S. A. squamosa is native of tropical
America and the West Indies, but its original home is uncertain [26].

Grows in tropical climates, generally below 1,000 m elevation a.s.l., with minimum annual precipitation
of 1,000 mm/m² [6]. The following conditions have been specified: Elevation 0-1200 m a.s.l., 750-4500
mm/m² annual precipitation, rainfall bimodal, dry season of 2-5 months, mean annual temperature 29-
32ºC, minimum t of >18ºC [12]. Like many other fruit trees young plants need shade but later require
full sunlight. Trees do well in hot and relatively dry climates such as those of the low-lying interior
plains of many tropical countries. A. squamosa has the reputation, particularly in India, of being a
hardy, drought-resistant crop. This is only partly correct. Although the rest period and leaf fall enable
the tree to bridge a severe dry season, it requires adequate moisture during the growing season,
responding well to supplementary irrigation. The importance of moisture is shown by the fact that in
India as well as Southeast Asia, fruit set is largely limited to the onset of the rains, not withstanding
the prolonged flowering season [26].

not determined

A.squamosa is xerophytic and tolerates prolonged drought but it does not like water-logging, requires
well-drained [6], but no too acid soils [9]. It makes generally low demands on soil and water. Soil
properties required are good drainage, sandy or silty loams, clays. Best yields were obtained from
3
sandy loams, or soils which are slightly acidic in the range of pH 5.5-6.5 [19,26]. The root system is
relatively shallow, so that it does not require very deep soil. In India, A. squamosa predominantly
inhabits hillocks, gravelly soils and waste land [12].

[Wood]: Dead trees or broken branches can serve as fuelwood [17,20]. The light yellow sapwood and
brownish heartwood is soft, light in weight and weak, but the main reason for being rarely used is the
lack of a regular supply of wood with usable dimensions [26].
[Non-Wood]: A. squamosa is distributed throughout the tropics and is in first place a desert fruit. The
largest volume of fruit produced is eaten fresh, only a small portion is used as a flavouring or for
producing nectar [6]. Custard apple, A.squamosa, is the commercially most important Annona
species. It is commercially grown in Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines, but also in other
countries, China or India, where large quantities are taken to local markets. In India the greater part of
the harvest originates from wild trees [19]. The pulp can be used as a flavouring in ice cream.
Between 50-80% of the fruit is edible. The vitamin C content is appreciable (35-42 mg/100 g) and
slightly higher than in grapefruit. The nutrient value of thiamine, potassium and dietary fibre is also
significant [26].
Applications in traditional medicine comprise macerated bark in rice alcohol for treatment of diarhoea;
crushed leaves mixed with water taken to treat malaria(20 leaves per adult, 10 leaves for a child) [4].
Leaves, shoots, bark and roots have been reported to have medicinal properties. The unripe fruit is
astringent, and the root is a drastic purgative [12,20]. Leaves, shoots, bark and roots have been
reported to have medicinal properties. Green fruits, seeds and leaves have effective vermicidal and

insecticidal properties [20].
A. squamosa can be planted as a shade or shelter tree as well as an ornamental, the attractive tree is
grown in gardens. The trees are grown as intercrop with mango, banana and coffee trees [26].

not included

In Australia and other regions A.squamosa is grafted onto A. glabra stock to avoid insect attacks.
However, A. glabra has become invasive in Northeast Queensland where it is forming pure thickets
[9].
Trees are planted 5-6 m apart or 10-12 m when grown with mango trees. This slow-growing tree must
be protected from browsing animals. If well looked after, it will start producing fruit after about 2 years.
Regular watering and weeding are required for good fruit production. Soil needs to be fertilized
generously for better fruit yield. Commercial fertilizer containing 3% nitrogen, 10% phosphoric acid
and 10% potash is recommended. A mature tree, 5 m high, produces several dozen fruits in a
4
season. Biological control and chemicals including malathion and dimethoate acephate are used to
control pests. Trees are sprayed with bordeaux, fermate, phygon, and zerlate to control anthracnose
disease [26].
Q. Propagation :
Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. If kept dry, seeds retain their viability for several years. No loss in
viability occurs during 6 months hermetic storage at -20ºC and 1.5% m.c., but loss in viability occurs if
seeds are stored at room temperature [26].
A.squamosa can be directly sown. Freshly harvested seeds are collected from mother trees, washed
in tap water, air dried and sown into seed boxes, 1 cm deep , 2-3 cm apart, with planting soil
composed of 2 parts of fine sand and 1 part of garden soil. Germination of 90-95% can be achieved,
setting in after 20 days. When 4-6 pairs of leaves have fully grown transplanting can be done, where
the leaves are cut in half to reduce transpiration and the tip of the main root is cut to encourage
formation of side roots. Propagation with cuttings was not so successful [12].

Seed borers , which are a common problem of A.squamosa, and mealy bugs are the dominating
insect pests. Larvae of the moth Anonaepestis bengalella are boring into the wood, the root grub of
Anomal sp..and 2 mealy bugs, Ferrisia virgata, and Planococcus lilacinus cause damge but can be
contained with insectides. Furthermore two fungi affect inflorescences and leaves but can equally be
controlled with fungicides and by burning affected branches and stems [12].
The most common pests of A. squamosa are mealy bugs (Planococcus spp.), fruit flies (Dacus spp.),
spotting bugs (Amblypelta spp.) and scales (Parasaissetia spp.). All these can be controlled in an
integrated pest management programme. In the Philippines, a fruit-boring moth (Annonaepestis
bengalella) is the most destructive insect. Another serious pest is a eurytomid wasp whose larvae
bore into the fruits.Insect pests include Bephata maculicollis, Ceconata annonella, Talponia backeri,
Thecla ortygnus, scale insects and Mediterranean fruit fly. The trunk borer Cratasomus spp. is a
serious pest, as are many fruit borers in the orders Coleoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera. Mousebirds
also attack the tree. In the Caribbean region A. muricata is attacked heavily by the fungus
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and, in the Manaus, Brazil, region by Pellicularia spp.
The trees are susceptible to Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and are attacked by Aleurocanthus
woglumi. The major root rot disease is bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum). Symptoms are
collar rot, dark internal discoloration of the root and the wood tissue, tree decline and eventual death.
Chemical control of the disease is not possible. A. squamosa rootstocks are highly susceptible. The
major fruit diseases are black canker (Phomopsis spp.), diplodia rot (Botryodiplodia spp.) and purple
blotch (Phyphthora spp.). The incidence of these fruit diseases increases under moist or wet
conditions. They can all be controlled by a regular spray programme using either mancozeb or copper
oxychloride [26].
5
S. Conservation :
Not a threateneed species

In house gardens and small fruit orchards

Central America, West Indies, Mexico, native; introduced to Australia, China, India, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand [26].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
As with Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit , also A. muricata and A. squamosa are difficult to store and
transport due to their weight and soft skin. Ripe fruit is highly sensitive to damage and spoils rapidly.
Hensleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.K. (Eds.) 1988: Agroforestry Species for the Philippines. US Peace
Corps, Manila, Philippines.
Purseglove, J.W. 1974: Tropical Crops-Dicotyledons. Longman, Essex, England
Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia. No.2, Edible fruits
Joughin, J.1986: The Market for Processed Tropical Fruit. G 196. Trop. Devel. Res. Inst.
London

Joy, C. 1987: Selected European Markets for Specialty and Tropical Fruit and Vegetables.G 201,
Trop.Devel. Res. Inst., London
Broughton, W.J. and Tan, G. 1979: Storage conditions and ripening of the custard apple Annona
squamosa L.. Sciencia Hortic. 10:73-82.
Hocking,D. 1993: Trees for Drylands. Trees for drylands. xiii+370 pp. Oxford and IHB Publishing, New
Delhi
Filipino Farm 1954: How to plant santol, atis, soursop and tamarind. Filip. Farm 1(7):17
Verkataratanam L, Satyanaranaswamy G, 1956. Studies on genetic variability in Annona squamosa.

Indian Journal of Horticulture, 15:228-238.
Little EL, Wadsworth FH. 1964. Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agricultural
Handbook. No. 249. US Department of Agriculture. Washington DC.
Mbuya LP et al. 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: Identification, Propagation and
Management for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU),
Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).
6
Popenoe W. 1974. Manual of the tropical and subtropical fruits. The Macmillann Company.
Smith JHN et. al. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell University Press.
Viñas RC, 1972. Atis (Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae). In: Cultural directions for Philippine
Agricultural Crops. Vol. 1 (Fruits). Manila, Philippines: Public Affairs Office Press, Bur. Plant Indus,
31-36.
X. References:
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,
915 pp.
6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234
pp.
9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic

Guide. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London, 484 pp.
11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press,
New York; 336 pp.
13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Colour Atlas
Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.
19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics.
Josef Margraf, Publ. Scientific Books; Weikersheim, Germany, 552 pp.

(Internet source)
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte .]
Datasheet Report
[Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte .]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte
B. English name (s) ³ agarwood, aloeswood, eaglewood, Indian aloewood [2],
argar wood, aloe wood [3]
C. Synonym ³ Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. [1], Aquilaria malaccensis
Lam., Agallochum malaccense (Lam.) Kuntze, Aquilaria

agallocha Roxb., Aquilaria ovata Cav., Aquilariella
malaccensis (Lam.) Tiegh. [2], Aquilaria crassna Pierre [3],
Aloexylum agallochum Lour., Aquilaria secundaria DC. [7]
D. Other1 ³ bois d' aigle, bois d'aloès (France) [11] - ketsana (Laos)
[1] - tram, tram huong, do do bau [1], kanankoh [2] (Vietnam)

- agor (Bangladesh) [2] - alambac, tengkaras, alim, halim,
karek (Indonesia) [2] - agaru, sasi (India) [2] - akyaw
(Myanmar) [2] - gaharu, karas, calambac, tengkaras,
calambac, tengkaras (Malaysia) [2]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: c½nÞRksña

Source: [12]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chan crassna, changkrassna, chankrosna [3], daem chan
kroessnäa [6]
Other : Thymelaeales
Family: Thymelaeaceae
1
Genus: Aquilaria
Species: Aquilaria crassna
Source :[ 2]
[General]: Medium-sized to large, evergreen tree with a general height of 15-20 m [3] but sometimes
up to 30 m [1] (-40 m [2]). Stem straight with a DBH of up to 40-50 cm [3] ( -60 cm [7], -100 cm [1]).
Crown thin with nearly horizontal branches.
[Bark]: Bark brownish grey, shallowly fissured and flaking in thin strips. Inner bark pale yellow, wet
with much water and with patches of fragrant, dark colored resin in old trees.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, spirally and alternate arranged with oval shape, 5-11 x 3-6 cm, base
broadly wedge-shaped, margin entire but often wavy, apex acuminate or acute. Upper surface glossy
and dark green or purple green, shining, lower surface light colored and hairless. Veins in 15-20 pairs,
more conspicuous beneath, veins and veinlets slender. Leaf-stalks 3-7 mm, hairy.
[Flowers]: Inflorescence umbellate, axillary or terminal. Flowers small and fragrant, yellowish green [1]
(snow-white [7], pale blue-yellow [9]). Flower stalks (=pedicles) 5-6 mm, densely yellow grey hairy.
Outer flower leaves (=sepals) in a tube, narrowly bell shaped, 5-6 mm, densely hairy on both sides,
lobes 5, egg-shaped. Inner flower leaves (=petals) 10, scale like, inserted on the throat of the outer
flower leaves, densely hairy. Stamens (=male organs) 10 in two rows, filaments 1 mm long, anthers
oblong. Ovary (=female organ) ovoid, densely with greyish white hairs, 2-locular, style absent or very
short, stigma head-like. Trees begin to flower at an age of 6-8 years from April to June [1] (March-

April [3]). Fruiting from July to September [1] (June-July [3].
[Fruits] The fruits (=capsule) are green and egg-shaped, 3 x 4 cm in size [9] (2-4 x 2-3 cm [1], 3.5-5
cm wide [7]), hard when dry, with short greyish yellow hair. The outer flower-leaves (=sepals) are still
persistent at the base. One capsule contains 1 or 2 seeds which are 5 x 10 mm in size, egg-shaped
and brown.
[1, 2, 3, 7, 9]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood properties]: Wood soft and very fragrant, consisting of irregular patches of dark wood in which
heavily scented oleoresins are concentrated. These patches develop as a result of physological
disturbances.
[1, 2, 11]

Approximate limits: 27°N to 5°S [2]. A.crassna is widely distributed in South Asia and Southeast Asia
and occurs wild and sparsely in primary- and secondary forests on plains, hillsides and ridges. In
Cambodia it occurs especially in the mountainous regions.
2
[1, 2, 3, 6, 9]

Grows at an altitude of 29-1,000 m a.s.l [2] (0-1,000 m [1], 300-800 m [3], 0-850 m [7]) with regional
differences. In Malaysia it can be found up to 750 m [7]. Some individuals have even been discovered
at 2,000 m [3]. A. crassna grows in rainfall summer regimes with a precipitation of 1,500 - 6,500
mm/yr [2] and a dry season length of 0-4 months [2]. The mean annual temperature is 22-28ºC [2]
(20-22ºC [7]), mean maximum temperature of the hottest month, 22-40ºC [2] and mean minimum
temperature 14-22ºC [2] of the coldest month. 5ºC [2] is the absolute minimum temperature. It is a
light demanding tree, but shade tolerant when young and can regenerate under a forest canopy of
0.4-0.6 shading [1, 3]. However other sources define A. crassna as a neutral tree, only inclined
towards light demanding [9].
[1, 2, 3, 7, 9]

Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Central Lowlands (d), Southern Annamites (g)
[3]
Pursat (X:290299 Y:1326205), Koh Kong (X:295591 Y:1318268), Pursat (X:335014 Y:1341815), Koh
Kong (X:368336 Y:1255832), Mondul Kiri (X:718332 Y:1353508), Koh Kong (X:286900 Y:1314675),
Pursat (X:349462 Y:1337891), Sihanouk Ville (X:352571 Y:1166659), Kampong Speu (X:379751
Y:1292040)
[3]

A. crassna occurs on acid to neutral deep sandy clay soils (light to medium texture), ferralitic soils with
shallow to moderately deep layers and a free soil drainage. However it is well adapted to various
habitats including rocky, sandy or calcareous well-drained slopes, ridges and land near swamps.
[1, 2, 3, 7, 9]

[Wood]: This species is of high commercial value. "The wood is very fragrant and has been traded
since biblical times for use in religious, medicinal and aromatic preparation" [3]. It is used for general
furniture, round wood, plywood, posts, stakes, sawn or hewn building timbers, for light construction,
carpentry/joinery, containers, crates, musical instruments, wood based materials, fuelwood and
charcoal. In Cambodia the fragrant wood (especially the root) is used as incense for funeral
ceremonials.
[1, 2, 3, 9]
3
[Non-wood]: A.crassna frequently becomes infected with a fungus and begins to produce a very
aromatic resin commonly called 'aloeswood', 'agarwood' and 'oud' or 'chankrosna' in Khmer language.
The fungus and decomposition processes continue to generate a very rich and dark resin to form
within its heartwood. The resin is created as an immune response to the fungus infection and makes
one of the most sacred oils on the planet. In Japan it is used to anoint the dead and serves as a major
ingredient in many Buddhist incense mixtures. In Buddhism, it is considered one of the three incenses
integral to Buddhist practice together with sandalwood and cloves. The best quality is called 'Kyara'.
'Kyara' comes in four types: 'Green', 'Iron', 'Purple', and 'Black'. Agarwood can be extremely valuable
depending on the oleoresin content of the wood. It is also used for producing high quality cosmetics.
In Ayurvedic medicine it is used to treat a wide range of mental illnesses, it is a remedy for nervous
disorders such as neurosis, obsessive behavior and exhaustion and is believed to drive evil spirits
away. In Indochina the resin is used as a traditional medicine to treat asthma, chest congestion, colic,
diarrhea, diuretic, kidney problems, nausea, thyroid cancer, and lung tumors. "In traditional
Cambodian medicine, the wood is mixed with other drugs and used against malaria. Another variety
called A. sinensis is used in medicine for its active principles baimuxol and dehydrobaimuxol" [6]. "It is
also believed to be a very powerful aphrodisiac. In many cultures the women imbue their clothes as
well as themselves in the fragrance of it" [7]. Fibers if the bark are used for hammock making, clothing
articles and paper pulp.
[1, 2, 6, 7, 11]
[Others]: In Cambodia the tree can be used for amenity and aesthetic purposes and is also important
for ethical values. This species is of current socio-economic importance in Cambodia (as defined on
the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000).

[8]
rd
3 class [4]

[General]: A. crassna grows wild in deep primary- and secondary forests in the mountainous regions
of Cambodia. Generally it is found on plains, hillsides and ridges.
[Management]: It has not been widely established in plantations because of production uncertainties
of its main product, agarwood and little is known so far regarding tree management. "However,
plantations have mainly been established in parts of NE-India and Bangladesh. A trial was also
established in Peninsular Malaysia in 1928. After 67 years the trees had attained a diameter of 56 cm"
[2]. Further research is needed on conservation of natural resources, selection of appropriate material
and management in plantations, and induction of agarwood formation through artificial injury and or
inoculation with fungi. Also initial trial results in Cambodia showed that Aquilaria crassna is easy to
plant and very suitable for plantings under the canopies of mixed stands.
[2, 3, 6]
4
Q. Propagation :
Distribution of the species is scattered, and it is very difficult to find mature trees for seed collection.
Seeds are collected directly from the tree or from the ground after shaking the branches. "In seed-
source areas, the ground is usually cleared and sometimes burnt to prepare for seed collection. To
ease collection, a cover can be spread out on the ground. The optimal time of collection is reached
when the fruits have changed in color from green to brownish. Maturity can be confirmed by a cutting
test" [3]. "In Cambodia some local people in the districts of Thmar Beng, Modulsima, and Sre Ambil
(Koh Kong Province) have collected seeds in natural forests or villages to produce seedlings in home
gardens. The seedlings have been distributed to neighboring villages in order to plant on farmland. At
present, these plantations exhibit good growth" [3]. The seed storage is recalcitrant. Stands can be
established by using natural regeneration and planting stock. "Seed requirements per hectare for
open plantations in Cambodia: 4,000 seeds/kg. Planting spacing: 2.5 x 2.5 m. Net seedlings required
per hectare: 1,600. Rate of loss: 1,920 (20% in planting site), 2,134 (10% in transit), 2,668 (20% at
the nursery). Germination rate: 60%. Purity: 95%. Total seed requirement: 1.18 kg" [5].
[2, 3, 5]

[Pests]: No information available.
[Diseases]: The fungus Phialophora parasitica has been recorded as the disease causing the
formation of 'chankrosna' oil inside the agarwood. No other pests and diseases are known so far.
[2]
S. Conservation :
Due to the high value and the high demand of the 'chankrosna' wood in global markets, this species is
over-exploited and in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented.
"Since its natural genetic variability is now endangered, there is need for research on improvement
and management. Distribution of the species is scattered, and it is very difficult to find mature trees for
seed collection. In Southeast Asia, agarwood collection is reportedly becoming more difficult year-by-
year as supplies of mature trees dwindle. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene
Conservation Strategy defined Aquilaria crassna Pierre as a priority species in need of immediate
conservation interventions and appropriate protection" [3]. The species is officially protected
worldwide under the CITES (Convention of the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora) convention, is listed in CITES Appendix II (species which may become threatened if
trade is not controlled and monitored) [2, 7] and is classified as CR A1cd (=vulnerable) according to
IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees. Estimated
number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species
Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000): >10,000 [8] threatened by logging.
[2, 3, 7, 8]
5
This species generally occurs in the nothwestern and southwestern parts of Cambodia.
[6]
Pursat, Koh Kong, Mondulkiri, Sihanoukville, Kampong Speu, Kampot, Rattanakiri
[3, 10]

[Native]: Northern India, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam.
[7]
[Introduced]: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand.
[2, 7]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Production and trade]: "In 2000, the resin-wood cost US$ 800-1,500 for 1 kg. High demand,
particularly in Middle Eastern and Asian markets, combined with a decreasing supply, has pushed
prices progressively higher to the extent that top grade resin can sell for over US$ 10,000/kg in end-
use markets."
[3]

Barden A. Awang Anak N. Mulliken T. Song M. (2000) Heart of the Matter: Agarwood Use and Trade
and CITES Implementation for Aquilaria malaccensis.
[7]
Chaudhari DC, 1993. Agarwood from Aquilaria malaccensis, (A. agallocha, Roxb.). MFP News,
3(4):12-13.
2]
Gibson IAS, 1977. The role of fungi in the origin of oleoresin deposits (agaru) in the wood of Aquilaria
agallocha Roxb. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 6(1):16-26; [2 pl.]; 13 ref.
[2]
LaFrankie JV, 1994. Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products.
Economic Botany, 48(3):301-309; 28 ref.
[2]
6
Lok EngHai, Ahmed Zahaidi Yahya, 1996. The growth performance of plantation grown Aquilaria
malaccensis in Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 8(4):573-575; 6 ref.
[2]
Rahman MA, Basak AC, 1980. Agar production in agar tree by artificial inoculation and wounding.
Bano Biggyan Patrika, 9(1/2):87-93; 8 ref.
[2]
Rahman MA, Khisa SK, 1984. Agar production in agar tree by artificial inoculation and wounding. II.
Further evidences in favour of agar formation. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 13(1/2):57-63; 14 ref.
[2]
Rao KR, Dayal R, 1992. The secondary xylem of Aquilaria agallocha (Thymelaeaceae) and the
formation of 'agar'. IAWA Bulletin, 13(2):163-172; 15 ref.
[2]
Singadan, M., Yelu, W., Beko, J., Bosimbi, D. and Boland, D., 2001(draft), Some Aspects of the
Eaglewood Trade in Papua New Guinea.
[3]
Sumadiwangsa S, 1997. Agarwood as a high-value commodity in East Kalimantan [Kayu gaharu

komoditi elit di Kalimantan Timur]. Duta Rimba, 20 (205/206): 33-40.
[2]
Zich, F.A. and Compton J., 2001, The Final Frontier: Towards Sustainable Management of Papua
New Guinea's Agarwood Resource. TRAFFIC Oceania, WWF South Pacific Programme.
[3]
X. References:
7
Planting. (CD-ROM).

(Internet website)
[8] FAO:
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm(Inter
net source)
[10] Petri, M. (DED) 2006: Own observations.

8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg]
Datasheet Report
[Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg [4]
B. English name (s) ³ breadfruit tree [4]
C. Synonym ³ Artocarpus communis J.R. Forst.& G. Forst., Artocarpus

incisus L.f. [4]
D. Other1 ³ breadfruit, arbre a pain, [4] Brotfruchtbaum[13], sakéé,
khnaôr samlo (Cambodia); sukun (seedless), kelur, timbul
(seeded), (Indonesia, Malaysia); paung-thi, (Burma); rimas
(seedless), kamansii (seeded) sake (seedless), (Philippines);
khanun-sampalor (Thailand); sakê (Vietnam) [6,16].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ saek/ xñúrsmø

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ saké, khnaö(r), sâmlâ [4]

Other : Urticales
Family: Moraceae
Gunus: Artocarpus J.R. Forster & J.G. Forster [16]
Species: Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson)

Fosberg. [4]
Source :[ 4 ; 16]
1
[General]: A tall, beautiful, evergreen tree, reaching 15 to 20m, with diameter sometimes exceeding
60cm (1); terete, 6-15m tall, introduced and cultivated near villages as ornamental and fruit tree.[4]. All
parts exude a milky, bitter-tasting latex when cut [1,13]. The bole is normally straight, the crown
consisting of only a few large branches [1]. An evergreen or deciduous tree, up to 30 m tall and 180
cm in diameter, often buttressed; branches very thick [6].
[Bark]: The bark is smooth, brown with numerous corky lenticels [1].
[Leaves]: Evergreen, with alternate, stipulate leaves, which are deeply cut (7-11 lobes). Leaves large
up to 30-90 cm long. Upper surface glabrous except along principal nerves [1]. The leaves are large,
often deeply lobed, rough and leathery on the surface, upper side shiny green (13). Leaves alternate,
ovate to elliptical in form, 20-60 cm x 20-40 cm, first undivided, later deeply pinnately cut into 5-11
lobes, thick, leathery, dark green and shiny above, pale green and rough below. Leaf stalk 3-5 cm
long [6].
[Flowers]: Numerous, very small, monoecious, (meaning the same tree bears separately male and
female flowers). Male flowers arranged in cylindrical spikes 12-35 cm long; the female inflorescence is
ellipsoid or circular, 6-7cm long [1]. Male and female inflorescences separate, but on same tree,
axillary on 4-8 cm long flower stalks. Male stands drooping, club-shaped, 15-25 cm long and 3-4 cm
wide, spongy and yellow. Female stands upright, globose or cylindrical, 8-10 x 5-7 cm, with numerous
green flowers embedded in a receptacle [6]. Inflorescences on short twigs emanating from the stem.
Female flowers in inflorescences with hundreds of flowers [13].
[Fruit]: Two varieties of breadfruit trees exist: one is seed bearing the other sterile, which is the one

cultivated and considered as the breadfruit proper. The fruit is a globose or an ovoid syncarp (many
small fruit grown together into a large one) weighing between 0.5 and 3.0 kg. It is usually more
regarded as a vegetable than a fruit. There exist many cultivars, some produce seedless fruit [1]. The
fruit is formed from the entire female inflorescence, cylindrical to globose, 10-30 cm in diameter,
yellow-green, sometimes with short spines. All tree parts exuding white latex when cut [6]. Fruit a
globose syncarp of 10-20 cm diameter, green and warty on the outside. Inside a soft yellow-white
mass forms with the onset of maturity. Seeds resembling chestnuts, 2-3 cm in diameter [13].
I. Wood properties:
Specific gravity for A. altilis is given as 270 kg/m³. Sapwood yellow or brownish yellow, heartwood
orange with golden speckles. However, the wood can be used for a variety of light construction
purposes, e.g. structural elements in boats. The golden yellow colour darkens with age. The wood is
on average medium heavy (density 505-645 kg/m³ at 15% mc), durable, soft, but quite resistant in
spite of its low(?) specific gravity [20]. (this must be an error, low specific gravity or light weight ends
between 330-400kg/m³ (KayPanzer) A. heterophylla (jackfruit) and A. altilis (breadfruit) are
predominantly cultivated for fruit, not for wood [13,16].
2
Artocarpus altilis most likely was cultivated in New Guinea a few thousand years ago. It is a plant of
the Pacific Islands but long since to be considered native in Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and
Malaysia [27]. Today it is a common sorce as the average family´s staple or supplementary food in
countries of South and Central America America, West Indian Islands, Caribbean Islands, West and
East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and many more [20].
The dissemination of seedless types beyond Oceania is well documented and involves only a handful
of cultivars, primarily Tahitian. A. altilis as a fruit and survival tree has been an the representing tree
species of Oceania since Europeans first ventured into the region in the late 1600s. Originally from
the Pacific Islands and Polynesia, A. altilis is at home and naturalized in practically all tropical regions
as fruit and ornamental tree. It occurs semi-wild in numerous places at altitudes below 700 m asl
[1,4,13]. Artocarpus comprises about 50 species, distributed from Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan and
Indochina towards the Malesian Archipelago and the Solomon Islands; 16 species occur in Peninsular
Malaysia [16].

A. altilis thrives in humid tropical environment, at low altitude, at 0-2500m elevation asl, particularly
under an island climate; it requires between 1,500 and 2,500 mm, 1000-5000mm/ m² of annual
precipitation with a temperature range of 21ºC to 32 ºC, 23-27ºC [1,12]. A wet tropical species,
preferring 20-40 ºC, 2000-3000 mm/ m² annual rainfall disributed evely during the summer with two
peaks [6]. The limits of the area of distribution are approximately from 20º N to 20º S in north-south
direction [12].
Young plants require little shade but grown plants need full sunlight for best production. [1]

not determined

Shallow or water-logged soils are not tolerated, otherwise not a demanding species. A. altilis is the
dominant species in riverine swamp forests of New Guinea; however, most species prefer a clayey
soil [1,16]. A. altilis prefers moist, rich, well-drained soils at altitudes below 600 m asl.[6]

A. altilis is a multipurpose tree cultivated for its highly nutritious, carbohydrate-rich fruit. It is now
grown worldwide as an indispensable food resource in under-supplied rural areas. The Solomon
Islands and Vanuatu presumably dispose of the richest diversity of seeds and few-seeded cultivars,
whereas the greatest range of seedless cultivars is found in eastern Polynesia,-Society Islands,
Marquesas, Pohnpei, and Chuuk in Micronesia. There exist hundreds of cultivars adapted to varying
climatic and soil conditions (Ragone 1997). A serious problem in local, regional and international
3
marketing is the strongly limited storage time of ripe breadfruit. Even in the area of production it has to
be harvested a few days ahead of maturity to allow for local transportation without degrade to the fruit.
When over-ripe, the flesh becomes mealy and loses taste.The dried fruit can be converted to flour for
various usus in daily cooking [1].
Similar fruit-producing species of the Artocarpus genus are A. integer, cultivated in the Malay
Archipelago, with a fruit more similar to jackfruit, softer and slightly more aromatic. On the island of
Kalimantan (Borneo) and in the Philippines A. odoratissima is grown. The fruit is sweet and juicy and
seeds are roasted for consumption [13].
[Wood]: Although it is little utilized because its light weight (270kg/m³) it is firm and could be used for
boats, crates and boxes and in light construction. It has been used occasionally for surfboards in
Haiti[1]. Traditionally it was widely used for construction of houses and canoes because of its
resistance to termites and marine worms. The wood is used in Haiti to make bowls, carvings, and
furniture. [20] The trees are an important source of firewood on the atolls of the Pacific [20].
Timber narkets in the area are trading various Artocarpus species, but in limited volumes. With the
exception of the 4 fruit-bearing species, A. altilis, A. heterophyllus, A. integer and A. odoratissima
most Artocarpus species are used as a source of timber. In the timber trade distinction is made on the
basis of specific weight and 2 trade groups are formed: terap, light-weight hardwood, comprising A.
elasticus, A, scortechinii, timber of Parartocarpus spp. and Antiaris toxicaria, which is similar in
properties and uses. The second group is called keledang, medium-weight hardwood, with A.
anisophyllus, A. dadah, A. lanceifolius. Separation is not always easy and an arbitrary limit of
640kg/m³ at 15% m.c. has been set. Trade in 1992 was around 10,000 cubic meters, from Sabah,
Sarawak and Papua New Guinea. More recent figures are not available but it is evident that trade will

remain at the regional level. However, several species could become economically important because
they are fast-growing and the wood is suitable for a variety of uses [16].
[Non-Wood]: In first place the breadfruit tree is an important source of food [13]. Predominantly the
seedless varieties are cultivated. The fruit is cooked or baked. Fresh fruit are easily digestible but are
also cut into slices and dried in open air or copra ovens for conservation and later use. Seeds are
cooked, boiled, fried and roasted in different ways. Fruit should be harvested about three months after
flowering in an unripe state to allow for transportation and marketing in good condition [1]. Bark fibres
are used as binding and plaiting material. [16].The latex can be used for trapping birds, the foliage as
animal feed in times of drought. By burying the entire fruit in the ground the pulp starts fermenting,
yielding a product comparable to cheese [13].
Breadfruit is versatile and can be cooked and eaten at all stages of its development. It can be eaten
raw, boiled, steamed or roasted. Very small fruits, 2-6 cm or larger in diameter, can be boiled and
have a flavour similar to that of artichoke hearts. They can also be pickled and marinated. As
breadfruit is a seasonal crop that produces much more than can be consumed fresh, Pacific Islanders
have developed many techniques to use large harvests and extend availability of the fruit. The most
common method of preservation is by preparing the fermented, pit-preserved breadfruit called ma,
masi, mahr, furo or bwiru. In many areas, the male inflorescence is pickled or candied [20].
4
Compared with other staple starch crops, breadfruit is a better source of protein than is cassava; it is
comparable to sweet potato and banana. It is a relatively good source of iron, calcium, potassium and
riboflavin. Fermented breadfruit and breadfruit paste are both traditional products. Processing
breadfruit into a snack such as chips, flour, pulverized starch or even freeze-drying it are all common
methods of consuming or preserving it. [20]
The seeds are cooked with the raw breadfruit or removed and roasted or boiled. They are firm, close-
textured and have a sweet, pleasant taste that is most often compared with chestnuts. Both fresh and
cooked seeds contain about 8% protein. The seeds are low in fat, compared with tree nuts such as
almond, brazil nut and macadamia nut, which contain 50-70% fat. They are a good source of minerals
and contain more niacin than cashews, almonds, macadamia nuts, brazil nuts, pecans, black walnuts
or chestnuts [20].
The food value is given as follows (in percent):
water 79.5
protein 1.5
lipids 0.2
sugar&starch 17.9
minerals 0.9
cellulose -
calcium 0.04
phosphorous 0.03
iron 0,5
carotene 15/100g(I.U.)
The calorific value of the fruit is 75-80cal/100 g. [1].
"Leaves are eaten by livestock and can be fed to cattle, goats, pigs and horses. They have even been
reported to be good food for elephants. Horses will eat the bark, young branches and shoots.
Therefore, it seems wise to keep horses away from new plantings. Excess ripe breadfruit, seeds,
cores and other breadfruit waste are fed to pigs and other animals.
Cordage can be made by combining the male flower spikes with fibre of paper mulberry (Broussonetia
papyrifera) to make elegant loincloths. The inner layer of bark, or bast, was used to make bark cloth
(tapa). Traditionally it had ceremonial and ritual uses, was also used for beddings and items of
clothing such as cloaks, loincloths and robes. Breadfruit bast makes good cordage with a diverse
range of uses such as harnesses for water buffalo and nets for catching sharks [20,26].
Various plant parts have medicinal uses [6]. Toasted flowers are rubbed on the gums around aching
teeth to ease pain. Latex is massaged into the skin to treat broken bones and sprains and is
bandaged on the spine to relieve sciatica. It is commonly used to treat skin ailments and fungal
5
diseases such as thrush. The latter is also treated with crushed leaves. Diluted latex is taken internally
to treat diarrhoea, stomach-ache and dysentery. Latex and juice from the crushed leaves are both
traditionally used in the Pacific Islands to treat ear infections.
The root is an astringent and is used as a purgative; when macerated it was used as a poultice for
skin ailments. The bark is used in several Pacific Islands to treat headache. In the West Indies, the
yellowing leaf is brewed into a tea and taken to reduce high blood pressure. The tea is also thought to
control diabetes.
Leaves are used in Taiwan to treat liver diseases and fevers, and an extract from the flowers was
effective in treating ear oedema. Bark extracts exhibited strong cytotoxic activities against leukaemia
cells in tissue culture, and extracts from roots and stem barks showed some antimicrobial activity
against Gram-positive bacteria and may have potential in treating tumours [20,26].
A yellow dye can be extracted from chips of A. altilis wood. Leaves and fallen fruit make good aimal
feed (9).
[Others]: A. altilis gum is used to caulk canoes to make them watertight and can be used as an
adhesive to seal and prepare wooden surfaces for painting [20].
A sticky latex is present in all parts of the tree and has many uses. It is used as a chewing gum in the
Caribbean and elsewhere. The sap is widely used throughout the Pacific and other areas as birdlime
to catch birds for food and their feathers. In Korea, the latex is mixed with coconut oil for trapping
houseflies.
The inflorescence was used in Hawaii to make a yellow tan to brown dye.
The fat extracted from the seed is a light yellow liquid, viscous at room temperature, with a

characteristic odour similar to that of peanuts. It has a chemical molecular number and physical
properties similar to those of olive oil.
In Vanuatu and Hawaii the dried, hard flowers are burned as mosquito repellent" [20,26].
The leaves are frequently used for wrapping food for cooking. Senescent, ripe leaves develp a rough
surface and are sed for polishing and nuts used on strings as decoration [20].
A. altilis produces a lot of mulch for soil improvement, it is also a good shade tree and as such a
valuable component in agroforestry landuse, where black pepper, coffee but also yams and other root
crops and bananas are interplanted. In some Pacific Islands A. altilis serves as support for yam vines.
[26].

not included
6
Young trees grown from stumps can be transplanted to orchards or planted along road side after
taking root and sprouting. Artocarpus requires good soil conditions and can grow rather rapidly. Partial
shade should be provided until the plants are well established. Spacing should be between 8x8 m
minimum and up to 10x10 m [1]. In plantations Artocarpus soon forms a closed canopy. Natural
pruning is satisfactory as the species is characterized by dense crowns which also greatly reduces
growth of weeds. The large amounts of litter, which easily decompose, also reduces weed
development.[16]
Q. Propagation :
The following description of cultivation techniques applies only to the sterile variety, which is
propagated by suckers, layers or root cuttings. Generally seeds germinate easily, about 85% for A.
altilis. Root suckers produced by A. altilis can be used for air-layering, however, the taking of root
cuttings is the more common method of propagation [16]. For these, sections of 2 cm diameter and
10-15 cm length are cut. They are planted at an angle in sandy soil, covered by a layer of 1 cm of
material and frequently watered [1] Seeds are usually rated as recalcirant and lose their viability
rapidly, meaning 0% germination after only 2 weeks for some species. Germination starts between 2
and 4 weeks but may last for up to 9 weeks after sowing[16].
A. altilis, A. hirsutus Lamk, A. integer, A. rigidus and A. sercicarpus can serve as rootstock for air
layering, budding and grafting of other major fruit producing species of Artocarpus.
Seeds are extracted from ripe fruits and immediately planted, as they lose viability within a few weeks.
They are planted about 5 cm apart and 1 cm deep. They germinate about 2 weeks after sowing.
Fresh seeds germinate easily, with a rate of about 85%. The germination bed should be kept moist.
Seedlings can be transplanted into individual containers as soon as they sprout. They grow quickly
and are ready for planting in the field when they are about 1 year old.
A. altilis is generally propagated vegetatively. Root suckers produced by the tree can be used for air-
layering. However, using root cuttings is the more common method of propagation. The time for
collecting roots is the most important factor for successful propagation. Best collection is during the
dormant season immediately preceding the renewal of growth, or at the beginning of that period,
when carbohydrate stores in roots are highest. The dormant period (2-3 months) begins immediately
after the crop ripens. A. altilis has also been successfully propagated using inarching, budding, stem
cuttings and marcotting [20].

Rastrococcus invadens, or commonly known as mango mealybug. Several species of Artocarpus are
attacked by the fungi Corticium salmonicolor and Phellinus lamaoensis, while larvae of the moth
Glyphodes caesalis bore into shoots, flower buds and young fruit. However, these threaten primarily
A. heterophyllus, the jackfruit tree; no mention is made of attacks of A. altilis [16]. Breadfruit is a hardy
tree and is relatively free of diseases and pests, although scale insects, mealy bugs and Cercospora
leafspot may be seen on many trees. Pest problems seem to be regional [20]. Fruits may be affected
7
by Phytophthora, Colletotrichum (anthracnose) and Rhizopus (soft rot), but these can be controlled by
prompt harvest of mature fruits and removal of diseased fruit [20].
S. Conservation :
Not a threatened species [1,16].

Occurring everywhere in the lowlands of the country

Cultivated in the humid tropics world-wide[6], native in New Guinea, Malaysia and Philippines,
introduced elsewhere.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
A close relative is the African breadnut tree, Treculia africana, also from the family Moraceae,grows in
rain forests of West Africa but also along rivers. The female flowers develop into a composite, globose
fruit with knobbly skin which may weigh up to 15 kg. It contains many seeds which are ounded into a
meal or eaten roasted or fried [9].
Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of sSoutheast Asia.No.2, Edible fruits
Little, E.L. Jr.& Wadsworth, F.H. 1964: Common trees of >Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.

Agricultural Handbook no. 249. USDA. 548 pp.
Ragone,D,1977: Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis(Parkinson) Fosberg. Promoting the conservation and

use of under-utilized and neglected crops.. INstitute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant research.
Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resource Nstitute, Rome.
Ragone, D 1995: Description of Pacific Island breadfruit cultivars..Acta Horticulturae 413;92-98; 8 ref.
Reeve, RM, 1974; Histological structure and commercial dehydration potential of breadfruit. Economic
Botany 28: 82-96.
Suharban M, Philip S, 1987: Fruit rot of breadfruit (Artocarpus incisa L. South Indian Horticulture.
35(5):397;
Waterhouse, DF, 1991: Possibilities of biological control of the breadfruit mealybug Icerya aegyptiaca
on Pacific Island Atolls. Micronesica No 3, Supplement:117-122; 11 ref.
Cambie RC, Ash J, 1994. Fijian medicinal plants. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation, Australia.
8
Matthews RF, Bates RP, Graham HD, 1986. Utilization of breadfruit in the tropics. Proceedings of the
Interamerican Society for Tropical Horticulture, 30:83-94; [34th Annual Meeting, San José, Costa
Rica, 28 Jul.-2 Aug., 1986]; 15 ref.
Ragone D, 1990. Conservation and use of breadfruit in the Pacific Islands. In: Harris W, Kapoor P,
eds. Contributions to an international Workshop on Ethnobotany. Botany Division, DSIR,
Christchurch, New Zealand, 82-85.
Rajendran R, 1991. Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg. In: Plant resources of South-East Asia.
No. 2. Edible Fruits and Nuts (Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, eds.). PROSEA foundation, Bogor,
Indonesia, 83-86.
Wootton M, Tumaalii F, 1984. Breadfruit production, utilisation and composition - a review. Food
Technology in Australia, 36(10):464-465; 19 ref.
Cobley L.S & Steele W.M. 1976. An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops. Longman Group
Limited.
Hong TD, Linington S, Ellis RH. 1996. Seed storage behaviour: a compendium. Handbooks for
Genebanks: No. 4. IPGRI.
Ragone D. 1997. Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized
and neglected crops. 10. Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research,
Gatersleben/International Plant Genetic Resources institute, Rome, Italy.
Raynor B. 1991. Agroforestry systems in Pohnpei. Practices and strategies for development. Forestry
Development Programme.
X. References:
1) FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177 pp.
4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,
Cambodia, 915 pp.,
6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide. Orchid Press,
Bangkok, 234 pp.
9) Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees: A Worldwide Encyclopaedic Guide
Thames & Hudson Ltd.,London. 484 pp.
9
12) CABI Forestry Compendium Edition 2003 (CD)
13) BAERTELS, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical
Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart, Germany, illustrated, 384 pp
16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of
Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia,
655 pp.
pp.
18) Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and
English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp.
26) World Agroforestry Centre:

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicList.asp (Internet source)
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam]
Datasheet Report
[Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam
B. English name (s) ³ jackfruit [2], jack [4]
C. Synonym ³ Artocarpus brasiliensis Gomez (1812), Artocarpus

integer (Thunb.) Merrill, Artocarpus integra Merr., Artocarpus
integrifolia L.F, Artocarpus integrifolia L.F & A. integra Merr.,
Artocarpus maxima Blanco (1837)., Artocarpus philippensis
Lamk (1789), Artocarpus integrifolia auct. [7], Artocarpus
integrifolius auct. [4]
D. Other1 ³ jaca, jacueiro (Spain) [4] - jacquier (France) [4] - kathal

(Bangladesh) [4] - Jackfruchtbaum (Germany) [4] - nangka,
nongko (Indonesia) [4] - alasa, halasu, kathal, kathar,
phanas, pila, pilavu (India) [4] - miiz, miiz hnang (Laos) [4] -
jak (Sri Lanka) [4] - khnaôr, peignai (Myanmar) [4] - nangka
(Malaysia) [4] - kapiak (Papua New Guinea) [4] - jak, langka,
nangka (Philippines) [4] - banun, khanum, makmi, nangka
(Thailand) [4] - mít (Vietnam) [4]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: xñúr

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khnaôr [5]

Other : Urticales
Family: Moraceae [4]
Source :[ -]
1
[General]: Small tree with a height of 10-20 m [2] at maturity and a DBH of 30-60 cm [2]. Bole straight
but branching begins quickly. [2]
[Leaves]: The leaves are 4-25 x 2-12 cm [6], leathery, glossy, usually hairless. The upper surface is
dark green, the lower surface pale green. Leaves may be flat, wrinkled or with upcurled sides,
arranged alternately on horizontal branches, and spirally on ascending branches with 2/5 phyllotaxis;
broadest at or above the mid-portion; pinnately nerved, with 5-12 pairs of veins. [6]
[Flowers]: No information available.
[Fruits]: The fruits grow from the trunk and branches.The fruit (=syncarp) is barrel- or pear-shaped,
30-100 cm × 25-50 cm [7], with short pyramidal protuberances or warts. The fruit-stalk is 5-10 x 1-1.5
cm. The outer fruitwall is approx. 1 cm thick, together with the central core receptacle inseparable
from the waxy, firm or soft, golden yellow, fleshy perianths surrounding the seeds. The fruit have both
sexes occuring on one tree but separately. The seeds are numerous, oblong-ellipsoid, 2-4 cm × 1.5-
2.5 cm [7], enclosed by horny endocarps and subgelatinous exocarps. Fruit flesh thin and leathery;
embryo with ventral radicle, cotyledons fleshy, unequal; endosperm very small or absent. "A well-
developed fruit may contain up to 500 seeds, each weighing 3-6 g" [7].
[2, 6, 7]
I. Wood properties:
The timber is classified as a medium hardwood. It is resistant to termite attack, fungal and bacterial
decay, easy to season and takes polish beautifully. The wood is yellow at first, later becoming red,
with a specific gravity of 0.6-0.7 g/cm³ [6] but not as strong as teak.

[5, 6]

It fruits in latitudes between 30°N and S in frost-free areas and bears good crops between 25°N and
S. Jackfruit is native to Malaysia where it is found mainly in evergreen forests but cultivated
everywhere in the tropics and subtropics for its edible fruits.
[3, 7]

In its original habitat jackfruit is found at altitudes of 400-1,200 m a.s.l. [5]. Elsewhere it grows at 0-
1,600 m a.s.l. [4] (0-1,000 m a.s.l. [2, 7]). For optimum production it requires a warm, humid climate
and evenly distributed rainfall. Mean annual temperature: 16-22°C [6] (16-35°C [2]), Mean annual
rainfall: 1,000-2,400 mm [6] (1,100-2,400 mm [4], 900-4,000 mm [2]). It extends into much drier and
cooler climates than Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg and Artocarpus integer. It has moderate
wind tolerance and does not tolerate drought or flooding [6] (it has some drought tolerance [7]). It can
also withstand lower temperatures and frost [2] (it has poor cold tolerance [7]). A dry season of 3-4
months [2] (2-4 months [4]) is tolerated.
[2, 4, 6, 7]
2

Jackfruit thrives well in deep, alluvial, sandy-loam or clay loam soils of medium fertility, good drainage
and a pH of 5-7.5. "It flourishes in rich soils of medium or open texture and grows even in the poorest
soils, including gravelly or lateritic soils, shallow limestone, shallow light soils, and sandy or stony
soils. It exhibits moderate tolerance to saline soils."
[6]

[Wood]: A. heterophyllus wood is considered superior to teak (Tectona grandis) for furniture,
construction, turnery and inlay work, masts, oars, implements, fuelwood and musical instruments.
[6]
[Non-wood]: Edible fruit, immature fruits used as vegetation in cooked dishes such as curries. The
seeds, rich in vitamin A, sulphur, calcium and phosphorus, are eaten after boiling or roasting, dried
and salted as table nuts, or ground to make flour that is blended with wheat flour for baking. Fodder is
not good, but leaves and fruit rinds usable. The bark gives a dark, water-soluble resinous gum that
contains 3.3% tannin. The latex yields 71.8% resin, consisting of 63.3% fluavilles (yellow) and 8.5%
albanes (white). When boiled with alum, the sawdust or chips of the heartwood produce a rich yellow
dye used for silk and the cotton robes of Buddhist priests. In Nepal, the root is used as a medicine to
relieve diorrhea and unripe fruit as a laxaive [2]. Arils can be fermented and distilled to produce an
alcoholic beverage.
[6]
[Others]:
Erosion control: "A. heterophyllus can be planted to control floods and soil erosion in farms" [6].
Shade or shelter: "Trees planted at a close spacing act as a windbreak and are sometimes used as
shade for coffee" [6].
Boundary or barrier or support: "The trunk is occasionally used as living support for pepper" [6].
Intercropping: "In the Philippines, A. heterophyllus is planted with coconut groves. In Malaysia, trees
have been used as an intercrop in durian orchards, and in India the trees are intercropped with mango
and citrus. Young A. heterophyllus orchards may be intercropped with annual cash crops such as
banana, sweet corn and groundnut" [6].
It is also used for soil improvement, revegetation and land reclamation.
[4, 6]
3
No class. [1]

[General]:A. heterophyllus grows naturally in evergreen forests.
[Establishment]: For stand establishment, the area should be cleared of all vegetation before digging
planting holes (60-80 x 40-50 cm [5]). During the stand development, trees should be thinned to a
spacing of 7.5-12 m because a lack of thinning may lead to die-back.
[Management]: "Pruning is limited to thinning the shoots when the trees are planted and some
clearing of the bearing branches to facilitate access to the fruit for wrapping up and harvesting [5]".
Dead branches should be removed from the interior of the tree so that sufficient light is obtained for
the developing fruit and to check the spread of pests. Both interrow- and circle weeding are applied to
suppress weed growth; mulching may be suitable and also conserves soil moisture. Watering of trees
during the dry season is recommended, however the soil at the base of the plant should be raised and
drainage pathways need to be constructed to avoid waterlogging. Fertilizer should be applied twice
per year before and after the rainy season. "The recommended rates vary from 1 kg compound
fertilizer per tree per application (Peninsular Malaysia) to 2-3 kg (the Philippines)" [5]. Coppicing
abilities are poor while height growth of 5 m in 5 years is possible [2]. Increment rates of 3-5 m³/ha/yr
can be observed. "In the Philippines, A. heterophyllus is planted with coconut groves. In Malaysia,
trees have been used as an intercrop in durian orchards, and in India the trees are intercropped with
mango and citrus. Young A. heterophyllus orchards may be intercropped with annual cash crops such
as banana, sweet corn and peanut" [6].

[2, 5, 6]
Q. Propagation :
Trees are propagated by grafting, direct sowing and using planting stock. The tree regenerates
rapidly."Seeds should be obtained from outstanding mother trees. Only large seeds are used.
Extraction includes thorough washing to remove the slimy coating around the seeds, and removal of
the horny part of the pericarp" [6]. The seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant. Viability is maintained
for 2 years in moist storage at 15°C [6]. Seeds are kept in polythene bags filled with perlite at 6°C [6].
There are about 430 seeds/kg [6]. Under suitable conditions, germination begins within 10 days, and
80-100% germination is achieved within 35-40 days after sowing. Soaking seeds in water or
gibberellic acid solution promotes germination. Seeds are laid flat or with the hilium facing down to
hasten germination.It is possible to grow seedlings from cuttings, and clonally propagated plants
produce fruits very early. Seedlings and vegetative propagules should be raised in containers and
arranged in rows in the nursery to minimize crowding and facilitate management. For rapid growth,
propagules may be grown in a mixture of compost and clay loam soil, and nitrogen fertilizers may be
applied every 2-3 months [6] with regular watering. The propagules thrive best under partial shade of
50-70% full sunlight [6]. Seedlings can be planted out when 20-25 cm tall. Grafted or budded plants
can be planted out 2-5 months after the operation, or when flushes in the scion part have matured.
Air-layered plants should be planted out 2-3 months after the rooted layer is severed from the plant.
4
The seedlings should be moved by the time 4 leaves have appeared; a more advanced seedling, with
its long and delicate taproot is difficult to plant out successfully. In general, propagules should be
planted out before the roots grow outside the container and would be disturbed, as this can adversely
affect growth and development of the plant.
[4, 6]

[Pests]: Bactrocera dorsalis, Bactrocera umbrosa, Batocera rubus, Batocera rufomaculata,
Cosmoscarta relata, Glyphodes caesalis, Indarbela tetraonis, Ochyromera artocarpi.
[6]
[Diseases]:
Fungi: Corticium salmonicolor, Phomopsis artocarpina, Rhizoctonia koleroga, Rhizopus artocarpi ,

Rhizopus stolonifer, Septoria artocarpi.
Bacteria: Erwinia carotovora
Fungicide is commonly sprayed to protect trees from diseases.
[6]
S. Conservation :


[Native]: Bangladesh, India, Malaysia
[6]
[Exotic] : Algeria, Angola, Australia, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape
Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, China, Comoros, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic
of Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau, Indonesia, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi,
Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Philippines,
Rwanda, Sao Tome et Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka,
Sudan, Surinam, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
[6]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[History of cultivation]: "A. heterophyllus reportedly originated in the rainforests of India and Malaysia.
The species then spread to neighbouring Sri Lanka, southern China, Southeast Asia, and further to
5
tropical Africa, including Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Mauritius and Madagascar. A. heterophyllus was
probably introduced in the Philippines in the 12th century, and domestication of the crop started
thereafter. It is commonly planted on smallholder Indian cane farms, in home gardens in Fiji, and
occasionally in rural gardens and home gardens in other areas of the Pacific."
[6]
Acedo AL. 1992. Multipurpose Tree Species Network Series: Jackfruit biology, production, use, and
Philippine research. Forestry/Fuelwood Research and Development Project.`
[1]
Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC (eds.). 1995. Plant Resources of South-east Asia. No
5(2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
[1]
Perry LM. 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia : attributed properties and uses. MIT
[1]
Roshetko JM and Evans DO. 1997. Domestication of Agroforestry trees in Southeast Asia.
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
[1]

Verheij EWM, Coronel RE (eds.). 1991. Plant Resources of South East Asia No 2. Edible fruits and
nuts. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
[1]
X. References:
Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock Interational.
320pp.

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp
6
7
[7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Averrhoa bilimbi L.]
Datasheet Report
[Averrhoa bilimbi L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Averrhoa bilimbi L. [6]
B. English name (s) ³ Billimbi, cucumber tree [6], tree sorrel [26]
C. Synonym ³
D. Other1 ³ tralong tong (Cambodia); belimbing asam, belimbing wuluh,
belimbing buluk (Indonesia, Malaysia); tayok zaungya

(Burma ); kamias, iba (Philippines); taling pling, kaling pring
(Thailand); khe tau (Vietnam) [6] cornichon des Indes,
zibeline, blinblin, blimblim (French) grosella china, mimbro
(Spanish) [26].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Rtlwgtwg

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ trôlüng tüng [4]

Other : Geraniales
Family: Oxalidaceae[4], (Averrhoaceae)[11]
Gunus: Averrhoa
Species: Averrhoa bilimbi L.
Source :[11]
1
[General]: A shrub, [4]; a small tree with few, upright branches, 6-9 m high [6]. tree, 5-10 m high, short
trunk, dividing soon into a number of branches [26].
[Leaves]: Leaves pinnate, usually with 7-19 pairs of 5-12 cm long ovate leaflets and a single terminal
leaflet [6]. Leaves mainly clustered at the branch tips, alternate, imparipinnate; 30-60 cm long, with
11-37 alternate or subopposite leaflets, ovate or oblong, with rounded base and pointed tip; downy;
medium green on the upper surface, pale on the underside; 2-10 cm long. 1.20-1.25 cmwide [26].
[Flowers]: Axillary or cauliflorous, with red-purple-colored free petals, 10-22 mm long . Flowers small,
fragrant, auxiliary (axillary?) or cauliflorous, 5-petalled, yellowish-green or purplish marked with dark-
purple, 10-22mm long, borne in small hairy panicles emerging directly from the trunk and oldest,
thickest branches and some twigs, as do the clusters of curious fruits [26].
[Fruit]: Fruit is a yellowish-green berry, slightly lobed and up to 10x5 cm [6]. Fruit ellipsoid, obovoid or
nearla cylindrical faintly 5-sided, 4-10 cm long; capped with a thin, star-shaped calyx at the stem-end
and tipped with 5 hair-like floral remnants at the apex. Crispy when unripe the fruit turns from bright
green to yellowish-green, ivory or nearly white when ripe and falls to the ground. The outer skin is
glossy, very thin, soft and tender, and the flesh green, jelly-like, juicy and extremely acid. There may
be a few (6-7)flattened, disc-like seeds, 6 mm wide, smooth, brown [26]. Flowering begins in February
and continues flowering and fruiting until December [26].
I. Wood properties:
The wood is whitish, soft and can be used as firewood.[6] The wood is white, soft but tough, even-
grained, and weighs abot 560kg/m³. It is seldom available in adequate dimensions for carpentry [26[.

Perhaps a native of the Moluccas, A. bilimbi is cultivated throughout Indonesia, it is cultivated and
semi-wild everywhere in the Philippines and is much grown in Sri Lanka and Myanmar. It is very
common in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, frequent in gardens across the plains of India, and has
run wild in all the warmest areas of that country. It is much planted in Zanzibar. Introduced into
Queensland around 1896, it was readily adopted and commercially distributed to growers [26].
It can be found everywhere in Southeast Asia but is now being cultivated all over the humid tropics
[6]..

Prefers seasonal humid climates with a drier season but not drought. Tolerates slightly saline soils,
but not flooding or permanent salinity. A. bilimbi is a tropical tree, more sensitive to cold than A.
carambola, especially when very young. Ideally, it prefers seasonally humid climates, rainfall should
be rather evenly distributed throughout most of the year but there should be a 2-3 month dry season.
The tree makes slow growth in shady or semi-shady situations. It should be in full sun [26].
2
not determined

The tree does best in rich, moist, slightly acidic, well-drained soil, but also grows and fruits quite well
on sand or limestone, it will tolerate slightly saline soil [6].

[Wood]: Predominantly used as firewood [6]
[ Non-Wood]: The fruit is much more acid (ph 4.5) than A. carambola. It is less consumed fresh and
more processed into curries [26]. Fruit consumed fresh or processed as jam, curries or pickled [19].
They yield 44.2% juice having a pH of 4.47, and the juice is popular for making cooling beverages.
Mainly, the bilimbi is used in place of mango to make chutney, and it is much preserved. To reduce
acidity, it may be first pricked and soaked in water overnight, or soaked in salted water for a shorter
time; then it is boiled with much sugar to make a jam or an acid jelly. The latter, in Malaysia, is added
to stewed fruits that are oversweet. Half-ripe fruits are salted, set out in the sun, and pickled in brine
and can be thus kept for 3 months. The flowers are sometimes preserved with sugar [26].
There are several different medical uses known in traditional medicine, e.g. in the Philippines, the
leaves are applied as a paste or poulticed on itches, swellings of mumps and rheumatism, and on skin
eruptions. Elsewhere, they are applied on bites of poisonous creatures. Malaysians take the leaves
fresh or fermented as a treatment for venereal disease. A leaf infusion is a remedy for coughs and is
taken after childbirth as a tonic. A leaf decoction is taken to relieve rectal inflammation. A flower
infusion is said to be effective against coughs and thrush. In Java, the fruits combined with pepper are
eaten to cause sweating when people are feeling "under the weather". A paste of pickled bilimbis is
smeared all over the body to hasten recovery after a fever. The fruit conserve is administered as a
treatment for coughs, beri-beri and biliousness. Syrup prepared from the fruit is taken as a cure for
fever and inflammation and to stop rectal bleeding and alleviate internal hemorrhoids It is taken as
laxative based on the content of oxalic acid. [1,6,26].
A. bilimbi is frequently planted as an ornamental tree [1].
[Other]: The high acidity of oxalic acid makes it possible to clean Kris (the traditional dagger) from rust
stain, to bleach rust stain from hands and white cloth, and also to clean tarnished brass items [26].

not included
3
Q. Propagation :
With seeds, or by layering, cuttings [1] Propagated by seed, by layering and also by budding on 1-
year-old seedlings. The seedlings are transplanted into polyethylene bags and, after 6-12 months in
the nursery, outplanted with 4mx6m spacing, similar to A. carambola [6]

Not unlike with A.carambola since the 2 species are closely related. A significant difference is that A.
bilimbi is considerably less cold tolerant [26].
S. Conservation :
not a threatened species

unknown

grown all over the humid tropics [6] native in Malaysia and Indonesia, introduced in South America,
West Indian Islands, United States of America, Australia, Philippines [26].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Ecology, distribution, uses quite similar to A. carambola [6]

Mackeen MM, Ali AM, El Sharkawy SH, Manap MY, Salleh KM, Lajis NH, Kawazu K. 1997.
Antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of some Malaysian traditional vegetables (ulam). International
Journal of Pharmacognosy. 35(3): 174-178
Morton J. 1987. Bilimbi. p. 128-129. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, Florida.
Nagy S, Shaw PE, Wardowski WF (eds.). 1991. Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin: composition,
properties and uses. Florida Science Source, Inc. Lake Alfred, Florida.
Warren JM, Emamdie DZ, Kalai. 1997. Reproductive allocation and pollinator distributions in
cauliflorus trees in Trinidad. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 13(3): 337-345.
4
X. References:
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,.
915 pp.
6) Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of Southeast Asia. An illustrated field guide.
Orchid Press, Bangkok, 234 pp.

19) Rehm, S. and G. Espig 1991: The cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics.

(Internet source)
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Averrhoa carambola L.]
Datasheet Report
[Averrhoa carambola L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Averrhoa carambola L. [6]
B. English name (s) ³ star fruit, carambola, (English and Spanish) [6]
C. Synonym ³
D. Other1 ³ spü (Cambodia); fuand (Laos); belimbing manis (Malaysia,

Indonesia); zaung ya (Burma); balimbing (Philippines); ma
fuang (Thailand); khe (Vietnam). Carambolier (French) [1,6)
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ s<W

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ spü [4]

Other : Geraniales
Family: Oxalidaceae (Averrhoaceae) [11]
Gunus: Averrhoa
Species: Averrhoa carambola L. [6]
Source :[4 ; 6 ; 11]
1
[General]: A small evergreen, multistemmed tree 3-5 m, exceptionally 10 m high; diameter about 15
cm at base [1]; small tree or shrub [13]. A small, usually much branched tree up to 15 m tall. Bushy
growth, usually with drooping branches [6].
[Bark]: Light brown, smooth or finely fissured.
[Leaves]: Alternate, pinnate, 15-25 cm long, disposed in a more or less horizontal plane; shortly
petiolate with 7-9 pendant leaflets. Leaf sensitive to contact in the same way as certain of Mimosa
spp. [1]. 3-6 pairs of 4-10 cm long, ovate leaflets and a single terminal leaflet [6]. Leaves
imparipinnate [13].
[Flowers]: They arise in panicles 2-5 cm long in axils of old or fallen leaves. Flowers are pentamerous
with a calyx of 5 pink petals surrounding the purple corolla. The androecium contains 5 fertile stamens
and 5 staminodes. The gynocium bears 5 slender, united styles [1).
Flowers grow in axillary panicles, with joined petals, up to 8 mm in length, light red with purple center;
erect inflorescences, panicles in leaf axils and on tips of sprouts , pink to purple, individual flowers up
to 2.5 cm long [13].
[Fruit]: A large indehiscent berry, between 5-8 cm long, with a characteristic shape in its section which
resembles a 5-pointed star. The colour is yellowish green, becoming orange-yellow when ripe. The
fruit has a sweet-acid taste (oxalic acid). Each cell of the fruit contains 5 arillate seeds [1]. Up to 12
cm long, ovoid 5-ridged, yellow fruit with a star-shaped cross-section, containing 10 t0 12 seeds. The
pulp of fresh fruit of cultivars is crisp and juicy, mildly acid, aromatic and refreshing. Wild forms have a
higher content of oxalic acid making them more sour.[13]. Fruit is 12x6 cm, shiny yellow-green when

ripe, with 5 pronounced ribs. Many cultivars have been produced, flowering and fruiting continue
throughout the year [6].
I. Wood properties:
The wood is whitish, soft and can be used as firewood.

A native of tropical Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia, introduced in China, India, Burma,
Indochina, Thailand, Philippines, Australia; exotic in South America, West Indian Islands, Africa and
United States of America [1,26). It spread to many tropical countries as ornamental and fruit tree, but
increasingly it is also planted in subtropical regions [1].

A. carambola is planted throughout the tropics, from low to medium altitude up to 900 m elevation
a.s.l. It tolerates short cold periods, but young plants will die under frost. A. carambola prefers a
seasonal humid climate with a drier season but not drought. It can grow on slightly acid soil but does
not tolerate flooding or saline soils. [6]
2
not determined

Tolerates slightly acid soil but not stagnant water or saline soil. A. carambola prefers deep, well-
drained clay loams but can grow successfully on sandy soils and heavy clays [26].

Averrhoa carambola has been spread to many countries, but principally as an ornamental tree, it
appears that its value as a fruit tree has been less important [26].
[Wood]: Wood only suitable as fuelwood, because of lack of larger dimensions. The soft, whitish wood
is sometimes used for making small implements [26].
[ Non-Wood]: Fruit consumed fresh or processed as jam, curries or pickled [19], fruit juice added to
fruit salad to impart sweet-sour flavour [13].
Unripe fruit of A. carambola contains potassium oxalate, which is used in dyeing [26].
Fruit and fruit juice are used as laxative based on the content of oxalic acid [1]; it is also used in
traditional medicine for skin disorders and fevers [26].
[Other]; The acid fruit juice is used in some countries for cleaning rusty metal, (acid dissolves
corroded spots), and removing spots from linnen textiles [1].
extracted oil used in manufacture of cosmetcs [6].


[not included

A. carambola is insect pollinated, the pollinators being honeybees and Diptera species. Flowering
continues throughout the year and fruit is available most of the year. Seedling varieties should crop in
3-8 years, selected grafted varieties in only 1-2 years [26]. When young, A. carambola is delicate and
requires careful attention. Because it is a fast-growing tree, it requires pruning and thinning of excess
fruit at an early stage. Good crops are harvested from grafted varieties when they are 2-3 years old.
Yields of up to 900 kg/ha and year are common for 10-year-old trees [26].
Q. Propagation :
Seed storage behaviour is intermediate. The lowest safe moisture content is 12.3%; further
desiccation reduces viability. Cool temperatures damage the seeds. Viability can be maintained for 6
months with partially dried seeds at 5ºC. There are approximately 15, 000 seeds/kg [26].
3
Propagated by seed, by layering and also by budding on 1-year-old seedlings. The seedlings are
transplanted into polyethylene bags and, after 6-12 months in the nursery, outplanted with 4 m x 6 m
spacing. The species flowers and fruits continuously provided the dry season is not too severe [1].

Caterpillars (Diacotrichia, Pingasa and Pseudoterpna) attack the flowers and young leaves. A.
carambola fruit suffers from fruit fly maggots, particularly Dacus dorsalis (Southeast Asia), and fruit-
piercing moth (Othreis spp., Australia); bagging prevents infestation. Leaf spot (Cercospora averrhoa)
and pink diseases (Corticium) affect the tree in Southeast Asia, but postharvest rots are more serious:
the slightest blemish invites infection by Ceratocystis, Colletotrichum, Dothoriella and Phomopsis
fungi [26].
S. Conservation :
not a threatened species

unknown

Native species all over Southeast Asia, but inroduced to many other tropical and subtropical countries
V. Miscellaneous4 :

Nicholson B.E, Harrison S.G, Masefield G.B & Wallis M. 1969. The Oxford Book of Food Plants.
Oxford University Press.
Rice RP, Rice LW, Tindall HD. 1987. Fruit and vegetable production in warm climates. Macmillan
Press, London.
Sedgley M, Griffin AR. 1989. Sexual reproduction of tree crops. Academic Press. London.
Tankard G. 1987. Tropical fruit. A guide to growing and using exotic fruits. Viking O’Neil.
Timyan J. 1996. Bwa Yo: important trees of Haiti. South-East Consortium for International
Development. Washington D.C.
Protectorate.
4
X. References:
Bangkok, 234 pp.

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source).
Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Azadirachta indica A. Juss]
Datasheet Report
[Azadirachta indica A. Juss]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Azadirachta indica A. Juss
B. English name (s) ³ neem [2], cornucopia, Indian cedar, Indian lilac,
margosa tree, neem tree [8]
C. Synonym ³ Antelaea azadirachta (L.) Adelb., Azadirachta indica
var. siamensis Valenton, Azedarach fraxinifolia Moench,
Melia azadirachta L., Melia fraxinifolia Adelb., Melia indica
(A. Juss.) Brandis, Melia pinnata Stokes [5]
D. Other1 ³ neem (Trade name) [8] - kinin (Ethiopia) [8] - neem, nim
(Arabia) [8] - nim, nimgach (Bangladesh) [8] -
bowtamaka, tamabin, tamaka, tamar, tamarkha,
thinboro (Myanmar) [8] - bevu, kohomba, nimba
(China:Cantonese) [8] - azadirac de l’Inde, margosier,
margousier, neem, nim (France) [8] - balnimb, neem,
nim, nind, nimba (India) [8] - imba, intaran, membha,
mempheuh, mimba, mind (Indonesia) [8] - ka dao,
kadau (Laos) [8] - baypay, mambu, sadu, veppam
(Malaysia) [8] - neem (Nepal) [8] - mkilifi, mwarubaini,
mwarubaini kamili (East Africa) [8] - vembu, vepa,
veppam, veppu (Sri Lanka) [8] - cha-tang, kadao,
khwinin, sadao, sadao India, saliam (Thailand) [8] -
s[aaf]u d[aa]u, saafu daau, sเu-dเu (Vietnam) [8]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: esþA

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sdau [8]

G. Taxonomic position(complete)³:
Other : Rutales
Family: Meliaceae
Gunus: Azadirachta
1
Species: Azadirachta indic
Source :[ 5]
[General] Medium-size tree with a height of 15-20 m. Bole, short (2-5 m long) with a DBH up to 100
cm, and a girth of 1.5-3.5 m. Crown rounded or erect oval with wide spreading branches up to 15-20
m diameter in old, free-standing trees. The rooting system consists of a strong taproot and well-
developed laterals. "Superficial laterals may extend 18 m. VAMs (vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae)
are associated with the rootlets" [9].
[Bark]: The bark is moderately thick (1.25-2.5 cm), grey to reddish-brown. The outer rind is rough,
woody, very much fissured, often peeling in thick slices. The sap is grayish-white.
[Leaves]: The leaves are unpaired pinnate, 20-40 cm long, crowded towards the ends of the
branches. Medium to dark green leaflets 9-15 but up to 31, sub-opposite, obliquely lanceolate
(=spear-shaped) or hooked, acuminate (=with a pointed tip), coarsely serrate (=saw-like, with notched
edges) and 3-8 cm long. The terminal leaflet is often missing. Leaf stalk very short, young leaves are
reddish to purple.
[Flowers]: The inflorescences bear about 150 flowers, occasionally 250. The flower is white, fragrant,
4-6 mm long and 8-11 wide in branched hairless axillary, more or less drooping panicles up to 25 cm
long. Calyx 5 and petals (=inner flower leaves) 5 (5 mm by 2) spoon shaped to oblong, slightly hairy
outside. Anthers 10, ovary (=female organ) hairless, 3-celled. The nectary is annular and fused at the
base of the ovary. It flowers from April to May (Pakistan).

[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is hairless and olive-like 1.4-2.8 x 1.0-1.5 cm when mature and egg-shaped
to oblong, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Green when young, greenish-yellow to yellowish-red when ripe.
Exocarp thin, bittersweet mesocarp yellowish-white and very fibrous, 0.3-0.5 cm thick. The white, hard
endocarp of the seed encloses 1, rarely 2 and very rarely 3 elongated seeds having a brown testa.
They are 0.9-2.2 x 0.5-0.8 cm; with kernels 0.8-1.6 x 0.4-0.5 cm.
[2, 9]
I. Wood properties:
Heartwood reddish, hard and durable. The density of the wood is 0.72-0.93 g/cm³ at 12% moisture
content [8]. It shows some characteristics of a cabinetry wood, its grain is rough and does not polish
well. The wood is also tolerant against termites.
[8, 9]

Approximate limits: 28°N to 30°S [8]. A. indica is said to grow ‘almost anywhere’ in the lowland
tropics. "It is considered to be native to dry areas in India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan,
Bangladesh and China. It is cultivated as well as naturalized in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia" [5].
It occurs generally in dry forests, deciduous forests, moist forests and mixed forests. In India and
2
Pakistan, A. indica occurs naturally in mixed dry deciduous- and thorn forests with Acacia spp. and
Dalbergia sissoo. "In Indonesia, it is naturalized in lowland monsoon forest. In Africa, it is found in
evergreen forest and in dry deciduous forest" [8]. It is not a forest dweller but grows where there has
been human interaction. Under natural conditions, it does not grow gregariously.
[5, 8, 9]

Occurs at an altitude of 0-1,500 m a.s.l. [5] with an optimum at 700-800 m a.s.l. [9] mainly on plains
and low-lying undulating land (but not montane areas) in the drier tropical and subtropical zones.
Mean annual rainfall: 400-1,200 mm [8] (450-1,500 mm [2]). "With less than 400 mm it depends on
ground water and under such conditions can survive with ca. 130 mm" [9]. It tolerates long dry
seasons (1-8 months [5]). Mean annual temperature: 21-32°C [9]. Temperature range: 9.5-37°C [2]
(4-50°C [9]). Temperatures below 4°C may result in death of the plant. "In north Pakistan mature trees
seem better adapted to low temperatures, even tolerating 0°C" [9]. "Adult A. indica tolerates some
frost, but seedlings are more sensitive. A. indica requires large amounts of light, but it tolerates fairly
heavy shade during the first few years" [8].
[5, 8, 9]


A. indica grows on a wide variety of neutral to alkaline soils but performs better than most species on
shallow, stony, sandy soils, or in places where there is a hard calcareous or clay pan not far below the
surface. It thrives best on well-drained, deep sandy soils. Optimum pH is 6.2-7.0 [9, 8] (5-7 [2]) with
extremes of 5.9-10.0 [9]. "It can grow on alkaline or saline soils but does not tolerate seasonally
waterlogged soils or deep sands with deep water table (It does not grow on saline soils [2]. In
Mogadishu, Somalia, tubewell irrigation water for neem seedlings is saline (EC 4.25 dS/m, total solids
2763 mg/l)" [9].
[2, 8, 9]

[Wood]: Used for fuelwood, timber (very durable wood), excellent for charcoal [2]. Sawn wood, posts,
fences, wooden tools, shipbuilding and construction.
[2, 8]
[Non-wood]: A. indica oil has long been produced in Asia on an industrial scale for soaps, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals and other non-edible products. The seed oil yield is sometimes as high as 50% of
the weight of the kernel. Neem oil is valued at about US$ 700/t (1990) [7]. Seeds from the neem tree
contain a compound called azadirachtin. Extracts can be made from leaves and other tissues, but the
3
seeds contain the highest concentrations of the compound. People use azadirachtin along with other
neem compounds to make pesticides. Such pesticides are environmentally safe and can help control
more than 250 pests, including aphids, mites, locusts and stem borers on young plants. These
homemade remedies are often very effective in repelling pests or acting on insects as a feeding
deterrent. The strength of homemade preparations can vary due to the concentration of azadirachtin
and other compounds in the seed, which can in turn depends on the genetic source of the seeds.
Manufacturers also use neem tree parts in such products as soap, toothpaste, and acne ointment.
The bark has high tannin content (12-14%) [2]. Leaves are poor in fodder but valued in parts of India.
[2, 7, 8].
[Others]:
Erosion control: "Being drought resistant with a well-developed root system capable of extracting
nutrient from the lower soil levels, it is a suitable tree for dune-fixation. The large crown of A. indica
makes it an effective shade and shelter tree, planted widely as an avenue tree in towns and villages
and along roads in many tropical countries. Because of its low branching, it is a valuable asset for use
as a windbreak" [8].
Soil improver: "Farmers in India use neem cake (the residue left after extracting oil from the seeds) as
an organic manure and soil amendment. It is believed to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizers
by reducing the rate of nitrification and inhibiting soil pests including nematodes, fungi, and insects. A.
indica leaves and small twigs are used as mulch and green manure" [8].
Agroforestry: "Intercropping A. indica with pearl millet, Pennisetum glaucum, has given good results in
India" [8].

[8]

No class. [1]

[General]: A. indica can be widely grown in the lowland tropics. Under natural conditions, it does not
grow gregariously. It occurs generally in dry forests, deciduous forests, moist forests and mixed
forests. [8]
[Management]: Weeding of plantations in dry areas is essential, as the tree cannot withstand
competition, especially from grasses. It responds well to chemical and organic fertilizers. Trees
coppice freely with a rapid regeneration of 5-11 m in 8 years [2] and early growth from coppice is
faster than growth from seedlings. A. indica withstands pollarding well, but seed production is
adversely affected when trees are lopped for fodder. The best economic rotation for wood production
is considered to be 23 years [5].
[5, 8]
4
Q. Propagation :
A. indica is propagated primarily through seed. The seed weight is about 550g/1,000 seeds [9] with a
considerable variation. Seeds are recalcitrant and are shed at relatively high moisture content, making
them susceptible to dehydration and chilling injuries. They have a short viability of 3-4 weeks [5].
Seeds stored at 4°C [5] show a high germination percentage. To maintain viability of the seeds, the
drupes must be cleaned properly by depulping, either manually or mechanically under a stream of
water to provide stones. Drying stones in shade is the most appropriate method although drying in the
sun, an oven or vacuum provides acceptable results more quickly. Stones give better germination
rates than seeds. A. indica is raised in the nursery and planted out as potted plants or seedlings.
Direct sowing of fresh seeds in the shelter of existing vegetation has also proved successful. No seed
pretreatment is required, although depulping and cleaning of seeds considerably improves the
germination rate. Mature seeds germinate within a week, with a germination percentage of 75-90%
[8]. Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering, grafting, marcotting, tissue culture.
Stands are established by using stump plants, direct sowing, planting stock, wildlings.
[5, 8, 9]

[Pests]: Recorded insect pests are Aonidiella orientalis and Solenopsis sp.
[5]
[Diseases]:
Foliage diseases: The fungus Odium azadirachtae causes a powdery mildew of neem foliage and
several bacteria, including Pseudomonas viticola, P. azadirachtae and Xanthomonas azadirachtii,
cause leaf spot diseases.
Root diseases: Root rot is caused by the fungus Ganoderma lucidum. Sporadic infections occur in
young plantings of this species when stumps and roots of the previous tree crop are not removed from
the site. The fungus attacks the sapwood and causes a white spongy rot. Symptoms of infection are
pale, thin foliage and branch dieback. Fruiting bodies often occur at the base of the stem .
Stem diseases: A. indica is one of many plants affected by pink disease caused by the fungus
Corticium salmonicolor. The earliest sign of infection is the presence of white or pink pustules on dead
bark. A conspicuous pink layer of fungus mycelium spreads over the bark. In time, the bark may be
entirely destroyed and the outer layers of wood killed. Branches are killed quickly causing the foliage
to wilt and turn black.
Other fungus diseases include Fusarium oxysporum, Glomerella cingulata, Pseudocercospora

subsessilis.
[5]
S. Conservation :
5

[Native] : India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Thailand
[2, 8]
[Introduced] : Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Barbados, Benin,
Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia [1], Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African
Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji,
French Guiana, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti,
Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Rwanda, Sao Tome et Principe, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles,
Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan,
Surinam, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uganda, United States of
America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Virgin Islands (US), Zambia, Zimbabwe
[8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Leaf properites]: "Leaves contain 12.4-18.3% crude protein, 11.4-23.1 crude fiber, 43.3-66.6 N-free
extract, 2.27-6.24 ether extract, 7.7-8.4 total ash, 0.89-3.96 calcium and 0.1-0.3% phosphorus" [9].

Boa E.R. (1995) A Guide to the Identification of Diseases and Pests of Neem (Azadirachta indica)
[9]
Childs FJ et.al. 2001. Improvement of Neem and its potential benefits to poor farmers. HYDRA
Publishing.
[9]
Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG (eds.). 1997. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11.
Auxillary Plants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.
[9]
Hocking D. 1993. Trees for Drylands. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi.
[9]
[9]
National Research Council. 1992. Neem. A tree for solving global problems. National Academy Press,
Washington D. C.
[9]
6
[9]
Read M.D. French J.H. (1993) Genetic improvement of neem: strategies for the future.
[9]
Schmutterer H. (1995) The Neem Tree Azadirachta indica A. Juss. and Other Meliaceous Plants.
Sources of unique natural products for integrated pest management, medicine, industry and other
purposes.
[9]
Stoney C. 1998. Use of neem as a biological pest control agent. A publication of the Forest, Farm,
and Community Tree Network (FACT Net). Winrock International, Morrilton, Arkansas, USA.
[9]
Tewari D.N. Gahlot R.P.S. - Ed. (1992) Monograph on neem.
[9]
X. References:
[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations.
320pp.
[7] World Book 2004 (Deluxe)

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp. (Internet
source).
[9] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep. (Internet source).
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.]
Datasheet Report
[Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. [4].
B. English name (s) ³ Burmese grape[4,6, 17],
C. Synonym ³ Baccaurea sapida (Roxb.) Muell. Arg., B. cauliflora Lour., B.

oxycarpa Gagnep., Pierardia sapida Roxb., B. wrayi King ex
Hook.f.[2,4,8,17].
D. Other1 ³ phnkiew (Cambodia); kanazo (burma); mafai setambun,
tajam molek (Indonesia); pupor, tampoi, tempui setambun,

tajam molek, (Malaysia-Peninsular); fái (Laos); mafai, mafai
farang, mafai ka, omfai, hamkang,khi mi,khrua sae, pha yio
(Thailand-NE); giau gia dat, giau tien, dz[aa]u, mi[ee]n,
dz[uw] [ows]i, gi[aa]lu, ti[ee]n d[aa]lt, Dâu quà nhon
(Vietnam) [2,8,17,27].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ ep¶óv

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phni:ëw [4]

Other : Euphorbiales/Malphigiales [27]

Family: Euphorbiaceae/Phyllanthaceae [27]
Gunus: Baccaurea Lour.
Species: Baccaurea ramiflora Lour.
Source :[4 ; 11 ; 27]
1
[General]: An evergreen tree 10-15 m high and 20-30 cm in diameter, branches covered with
appressed velvety pubescence [2]. Tree, 10-20 m tall [4]; small evergreen tree up to 10 m high, with
dense spreading crown and crooked trunk, becoming slightly fluted at base; branching pattern
strongly sympodial [5]. Trees up to 15 m high, up to 40 cm diameter [8].
[Bark]: Pale creamy or orange-brown, smooth or slightly flaking, thin [5]. Bark-orange-brown, inner
bark softly fibrous, often reddish-brown. Branches (sub)-glabrous. Crown rather dense [8].
[Leaves]: Simple, alternate, clustered at the tip of branchlets, obovate or lanceolate, rarely falcate,
when dry red-fulvous, papyraceous. Lateral nerves 6-8 pairs, stipules 5-6 mm long, velvety,
pubescent, early caducous [2].
Leaf 10-22 x 5-10 cm, spirally-clustered at intervals along twigs, narrowly elliptic or obovate with
shortly tapering tip and pointed base, untoothed or with scattered shallow teeth near the top. Young
leaves reddish, finely brown hairy, mature leaves dark green and shiny above, completely smooth. 6-
11 pairs of arched side-veins, joined at margin, raised above. Stalks 3-7 cm long and slender, swollen
at top [5].
Blade elliptic to obovate, 7.0-25.5 by 3.0-8.8 cm, papery, base attenuate to cuneate, margin entire,
apex cuspidate, upper surface glabrous, except for midrib, lower surface glabrous, veins 4-9 per side.
Petioles 1-5 cm long, kneed at both ends. Stipules 2.5-6.0 mm, pubescent, caducous [8.]
[Flowers]: Inflorescences are axillary to cauliflorous spikes, densely covered with red fulvous
pubescence. Male inflorescence 4-16 cm long, narrowly thyrsoid, usually 3-flowered. Pedicel very

short, pubescent. Male flower 1 mm wide, calyx obovoid, hat-shaped, 1.5 mm long or more. Stamens
6-7, anther 0.4 mm, free; filaments 0.5- 0.9 mm long, straight. Pistillode 0.6 mm high, terete. Female
inflorescence about 16 cm long, reddisch-fulvous pubescent. Bracts triangular, 2 mm long. Flower 3
mm long [2].
Flower small, pale orange or yellow-green, sometimes with violet tinge, male and female flowers on
different trees. Males in slender, unbranched clusters, slightly behind leaves, up to 10 cm long.
Individual flowers with short stalks and lanceolate bracts at base, 4 overlapping sepals, ± 2 mm,
incurved tips, densely grey hairy, no petals; 4-8 free stamens. Females in longer, drooping clusters on
older branches and on main trunk, up to 30 cm long. Individual flowers without stalks, sepals ± 6 mm.
Style short with forked stigmas, ovary brown, hairy [5].
Inflorescences axillary to cauliflorous racemes; densely covered with red-fulvous pubescence, bracts
triangular, 1.5-4.0 mm long. Male inflorescence up to 15.5 cm long, usually 3 flowers per bract. Male
flowers 1.1-4.0 mm diameter, yellow, pedicel 0.8-2.6 mm long; sepals 4 or 5, different in shape, 1.0-
2.4 mm long, stamens 5-9, free, filaments 0.5-0.9 mm long, straight. Female inflorescence just below
the leaves or really cauliflorous, up to 16 cm long, 1-3 flowers per bract. Female flowers 3-8 mm in
diameter, yellow; pedicel 1.5-3.0 mm long, sepals 4 or 5, elliptic, 3.5-5.0 mm long; ovary (2-) or 3- or
4-locular, ovules 2 per locule, stigmas sessile, not lobed [8].
2
[Fruit]: A berry, ovoid, red when mature, 2.2-3.0 cm high, 1-2 cm wide. Seeds 1-2, 10 mm long and 4-
6 mm thick, red [2]. Fruit 2.5-3.5 cm, pale orange, ripening reddish or purplish, ovoid or ellipsoid,
hanging in long, string-like clusters from older branches and main trunk. Outer layer leathery, smooth
or indistinctly hairy, eventually splitting. 2-4 large seeds surrounded by a juicy translucent or pinkish
pulp [5]. Fruits globose to ovoid berries, 19-32 by 14-25 mm, red to orange to pink to purplish outside,
creamy inside, (sub)glabrous outside. Seeds 9-15 by 9-11 mm, arillode white [8]. Fruit oval, yellowish,
pinkish to bright red, or purple, 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter, glabrous, with 2-4 large, purple-red seeds.,
with white aril [27]. Importance of frit of Baccaurea marginal, used and sold locally [27].
Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent, leafy, often bilobed; hypocotyl elongated;
first pair of leaves opposite or alternate, subsequent ones arranged spirally [17].
Flowering in March-April, fruiting in August-September [2,8,]. In Shishuangbanna, Yunnan Province of

china, people flock to the Botanical Garden to see the Baccaurea tress full of fruit, in green, yellow or
red , in such great number that the branches are bending down. The "famous wild tropical (fruit) tree"
is evergreen, up to 12 m highwith up to 60 cm diameter…" [27].
I. Wood properties:
Baccaurea species yield a medium-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 630-950 kg/m³ at 15%
m.c. Heartwood yellowish brown, darkening to brown with an orange-yellow to purple-red tinge, not
clearly differentiated from the sapwood. Grain straight or interlocked, texture moderately fine and
uneven due to wide rays, wood with slight silver grain on quarter-sawn surface. Growth rings
indistinct, sometimes suggested by darker colored tissue; vessels moderately small to medium-sized,
angular, solitary and in radial multiples of 2-4(-more), tyloses sparse; parenchyma abundant,
apotracheal diffuse-in-aggregates; rays of 2 kinds, very fine or medium-sized to moderately broad;
ripple marks absent.
Shrinkage is moderate and the wood dries moderately slowly without serious degrade. The wood is
moderately hard and moderately strong. It is reputed to be durable and can be treated with
preservative [17]. As the supply of Baccaurea timber is limited the wood is traded and utilized only on
a local scale [17].

Baccaurea ramiflora occurs from India, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, to Burma, China-
Canton/Yunnan/Hainan, Indochina, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, in dense
tropical evergreen or semi-deciduous forests; along stream banks, in valleys usually mixed with
Pometia pinnata, Dracontomelum mangiferum, Deutzianthus tonkinensis and Phoebe sp. [2,8]. A tree
growing in the dense forests of tropical Asia [4]. A common understory tree of fire-free forests [5].
It is found in primary and secondary rain forests, below 1000 m [8]. There are about 55 Baccaurea
species occuring from India to Indochina, southern China, Andaman Islands, Thailand, throughout the
Malesian region, and towards Pacific Islands [17]. In southern China it occurs in mountain valley
forest and on hill sides [27]..
3
A tree of tropical climate, occurs below 1000 m [2,8]; a neutral tree, tending towards shade-
demanding [2]. Baccaurea species are generally uncommon, but may locally occur as an important
element of the lower storey of primary lowland rain forests [5]. Found in well drained as well as
swampy sites up to 1000 (-1800) m altitude, on a wide range of soils in primary and secondary
evergreen rain forest, kerangas and peat-swamp forest [17].

not determined

Occuring on wide range of soils, alluvial sediment, ferrallitic or sandy soils with a medium to deep
layer, moist and well drained; along stream banks [2, 8, 17].Often cultivated on sand, granite, moist
and well-drained, in valleys or on hill sides [8,17].

Baccaurea is widely cultivated only in INdia and Malaysia. It is primarily and fruit tree which, according
to soil, climate and ecological environment, may grow into a tree over 20 m high or remain a small
tree not higher than
[Wood]: The wood is valuable and used in construction, manufacturing of household utensils [2,8].
The excellent wood is used for posts in house and boat construction and furniture manufacture[4].

[Non-Wood]: The trees are also planted as shade trees or as support tree in rattan cultivation [6].
Fruits are sour-sweet, edible but their quality is not as good as those of Baccaurea harmandii [2].
Several Baccaurea species are frequently cultivated for their generally sour-tasting fruits: B. dulcis, B.
motleyana, B. racemosa and B. ramiflora. Most other species have edible but less tasty fruits, also the
flowers are edible [19]. The arillode is edible, with a taste between sweet and sour [8].
Baccaurea species are also considered good support trees for rattan cultivation. The cultivated
species are used as shade and roadside trees.
The bark of a few species, together with other ingredients is used for dyeing or to coloring silk yellow,
red or mauve. The bark is also applied to treat skin diseases and inflammation of eyes [4,17]. Leaves
were analyzed in search of medicinal application and bio-active phenols were identified [27].

not included
4
Q. Propagation :
Baccaurea can be propagated by seed but some fruit-producing species are also vegetatively
propagated by air-layering of female trees. Seeds of several species usually germinate after 2-6
weeks with a rate of over 65%. The germination rate of seed sown with adhering pulp is less
predictable and may range from 3-100% in approximately the same time. [17]

Genetic erosion is feared in some of the fruit-producing species but no impact is seen from harvesting
timber[17].
S. Conservation :

unknown

East and Southeast Asia, native
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Verheij E.W.M. & Coronel, R.E. (Eds.) 1991: Plant Resources of sSoutheast Asia.No.2, Edible fruits
and nuts. Pudoc, Wageneingen, 446 pp.
Bois, D 1922-27: Plantes alimentaires. 4 vos. Lechevalier, Paris.
Burkill, IH 1966: A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 2 vols., Min. of
Agriculture and Co-Operatives; Kuala Lumpur.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research 1948-76. The Wealth of India. Raw Materials. ii vols., 2nd
Ed. 1985. Publications and Information Directorate CSIR, New Delhi.
5
X. References:
2) Nguyen et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.
pp.
Bangkok, 234 pp.
8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field
guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr.
49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands
16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. and W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of
655 pp.

pp.
27) Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Bombax ceiba L]
Datasheet Report
[Bombax ceiba L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Bombax ceiba L
B. English name (s) ³ Indian bombax, red cotton tree, silk cotton tree [2], red
silk cotton [5], cotton wood [13]
C. Synonym ³ Gossampinus heptaphylla Bakh., Bombax malabaricum DC.
[1], Bombax malabaricum DC., Gossampinus malabarica
(DC.) Merr., Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott & Endl. [2],
Bombax malabricum Linn. [5], Bombax thorelii Gagnep. [12]
D. Other1 ³ fromager, faux kapokier, kapokier du Malabar (France)
[2, 5, 11] - simul (Bangladesh) [2] - kapok kalingi, kapuk

hutan, randu agung (Indonesia) [2] - borla, boruga, bouro,
burajal, bural, burga, burgu, buroh, buruga, ilavu, ilavum,
kantesavar, kantysenbal, mocha, mullilapoola, mullilavu,
pagun, parutte, poola, ragat-senbal, rokto-simul, salmali,
saur, sauri, sawar, sayar, semal, semul, senur, shemolo,
shevari, shimul, shirlan, simal, simalo, simbal, simlo, somr,
tula, vamadruma (India) [2] - katu-imbul (Sri Lanka) [2] -
letpan (Myanmar) - kapok, tambaluang (Malaysia) [2] -
bombax, kapok (Papua New Guinea) [2] - babui-gubat,

bobor, bubui-gubat, malabulak, tag-linau, taglinan, taroktok
(Philippines) [2] - ngui, ngui ban (Thailand) [2] - ngiu pa, ngiu
deng (Laos) [12] - gao, moc mien (Vietnam) [12]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: rka

Source: [6]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ ro-ka [6]

1
Other : Malvales
Family: Bombacaceae
Gunus: Bombax
Species: Bombax Ceiba L.
Source :[ 2]
[General]: Large deciduous tree up to 30-35 m [3, 10] tall (-45 m [2], 10-20 m [5, 11]) with a large and
lax spreading crown. The bole is cylindrical and straight with a DBH of up to 150 cm [2] (340 cm [12])
and covered with moderately prominent buttresses. Side branches are horizontal and straight in
young trees, usually in whorles, often as thick as the central trunk, giving the tree a layered
appearance. Branchlets are usually covered with stout prickles, although smooth-barked variants are
also known. The tuberous roots contain mucilaginous matter (a cell tissue that swells in contact with
water) that may be responsible for the remarkable hardiness in this species.
[Bark]: The bark is pale brownish grey, ash grey or cream colored, studded with sharp conical thorns
when young and rough with irregular cracks but becoming smooth when old.
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, digitately compound with 5-9 leaflets [2]. The leaflets have a size
of 12-20 x 5-8 cm [2] (8-15 x 4-5 cm [3]), are elliptic, kidney- or spear-shaped, tapering at both ends.

The leaf surface is completely smooth or partly hairy with a leaflet stalk, 1-2 cm short [2] (1.5-2.5 cm
[3]) and 15 pairs of lateral nerves. The main stalk is 15-25 cm [2] in length (10-19 cm [3]). In South-
East Asia, the leaves turn yellow and begin to fall in December. Then the trees are leafless for
approximately 3-4 months until foliage appears in March-April [2].
[Flowers]: B. ceiba generally produces flowers after 8-10 years of growth [2]. The flowers are
hermaphrodite and protandrous (=producing pollen before the female organs are receptive), with 3
floral morphs, yellow, red and intermediate crimson. The flowers are solitary, sometimes paired,
usually towards the apex of leafless branchlets, 5-12 cm in length [2] (8-10 cm [3]). Flower stalk 1-1.5
cm in length [2], hairless. Calyx thick, 1.5-3.5 x 2-5 cm [2] (1.5-2 cm [3]), bright green, cup shaped
with 5 short, pointed lobes [3] (2-4 lobes [2]), hairless outside. Inner flower leaves (=petals) bright red
(yellow and orange are also recorded), 4.5-11 x 1.8-4 cm [2], thick and fleshy, elliptic-opposite egg-
shaped, pointed and hairy outside towards the apex. The stamens (=male organs) are approximately
80 in 3 whorls [2] (50 in 2 whorls [3]), the outer whorl in 5 fascicles of 10 each, the middle whorl
consist of 20 and inner whorl of 10, filaments 3-7 cm in length, basally fused to form a short tube,
filaments of innermost whorl slightly longer than the outer whorls. The ovary (=female organ) is 5-
celled, style filiform, 5-lobed. The flowers appear in February-March [7] (December-February [2],
India: March-April [9], Laos/Vietnam: February to April [12]) when the tree is usually leafless.
2
[Fruits]: Fruits ripen from March to May [2, 7] (India: April [9], Laos/Vietnam: May-July [12]). The fruit
(=capsule) is oblong, straight and hairless, 9-15 x 2.5-3.5 cm [2] (10-17 x 4-6 cm [3]), without ridges
but often with 5 shallow grooves. Seeds are many, smooth and oily, 0.5 cm [2] in length, embedded in
white silky floss.
[2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]
I. Wood properties:
The wood of B. ceiba is creamy or pinkish-white, very soft and very light with an air-dry density of
about 0.385 g/cm³, with a straight grain and coarse texture. The heartwood is usually absent,
however, in some logs occasionally the central portion is reddish-brown. The wood is not durable if
exposed, but fairly durable under cover and lasts well under water. After felling, the timber requires
cutting and drying as soon as possible, because it is susceptible to sap stain and decay. It is also not
resistant to termites.
[2, 10]
J. Geographic distribution and vegetation :

Approximate limits: 33°N to 24°S [2]. Bombax ceiba is a common tree found along the streets of
towns and provinces in Cambodia and in other countries of South- and Southeast-Asia. It also grows
abundantly in deciduous forests, mixed deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, evergreen rain
forests and savanna woodlands from the lowland to high elevations [10] (lowland to mid elevations
[8]). It can also be commonly found on tank bunds or on agricultural boundaries. In Vietnam it is found
scattered in natural forest. In Thailand it is rather uncommon in the forest.
[2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12]

The tree grows from sea level up to 1,200 m in altitude [2] (0-800 m [10, 12]). In its natural habitat
rainfall is bimodal (500-4,500 mm/year) and best growth is obtained in regions where the dry season
lasts less than 5 months [2]. However, it is not severely affected by drought and, once established, it
is fire resistant due to its thick bark. The mean annual temperature is 20-30ºC, the mean maximum
temperature of the hottest month 30-37ºC and the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month
10-24ºC. It is resistant to slight frost, the absolute minimum temperature however is -2ºC. Temporary
flooding is also tolerated.
[2, 3, 10]


Good growth of this species is obtained in deep young alluvial soils of valleys and hill slopes having a
considerable portion of sandy loam or sand with a good drainage but good moisture supply.
3
Especially soil derived from granite is recommended. It is also found on stony sandstone soils and on
iron rich lateritic soils. However, it is growing in a wide variety of situations and is found on almost all
soil types except heavy clay soils, marshy soils and soils of mined limestone regions. Soils with an
acid to neutral pH are suitable. Suitable soil types include acid soils, alluvial soils, ferralsols, granite
soils, grassland soils, lateritic soils, sandstone soils, sandy soils, silty soils, tropical soils and ultisols.
[2, 7, 9, 10, 12]

[Wood]: Generally the wood is used for veneers, sawing boards, splints, packing cases, tea and
rubber boxes, planking, building poles, fishing floats, fishing boats, dugouts, toys, scabbards, wooden
shoes, coffins, well-curbs and fuelwood. Other common uses include boarding, shingles, brush
handles, cheap plywood, light cooperage, musical instruments and frames. "In India the primary use
of the wood is for match boxes and pencils" [2]. B. ceiba is also suitable for wood wool-cement board,
mechanical and chemical pulp, fibre boards, particle boards and paper, however with only short fibers.
[1, 2, 10, 12]
[Non-wood]: B.ceiba is important as a tannin producing plant: The bark exudes a gum known as
'semul gum' or 'morcharus', which contains tannic and gallic acids. The gum may also be mixed with
ashes and castor oil, and is used as a cement for caulking iron saucepans. The silky cotton floss
(=seed cover) is suitable for stuffing lifebelts, cushions, pillows, upholstery and quills. Cushion and
mattress are stuffed with the silky cotton floss and considered to be vermin proof. It is also used as an
insulating material for refrigerators and soundproofing. Staples of the fruits are sometimes used to
pad the wood for planks and drums. The inner bark yields good fibers which are suitable for cordage.

The oil obtained from the seeds is edible and is used as a substitute for cottonseed oil or soap for
illumination. The seed cake is rich in protein and is an excellent cattle-feed. The tender leaves and
flower buds are eaten as vegetables, and the young shoots and leaves are also used as fodder. In
India, the prickles found on young stems are chewed as a substitute for betlenut (seed of Areca
catechu). The flowers are made into a conserve by boiling with poppy seed, sugar and goats milk, or if
dried and powdered are made into bread. Young roots have a high starch content, and are eaten
either raw or roasted. The flowers are a good source for honey. Many parts are used for medicinal
purposes: The flowers may be used as an astringent, as a cooling agent, or to treat cutaneous
troubles. The young roots are used to treat cholera, tubercular fistula and as a diuretic, for cough,
urinary complaints, nocturnal pollution, abdominal pain due to dysentery and a tonic for impotency.
Even the gum is edible with astringent, tonic and demulcent properties, it is used to treat dysentery,
haemoptysis in pulmonary tuberculosis, influenza and menorrhagia. "A decotion of the shoots have
reputedly been used to treat ulcers of the palate, enlarged spleen (with roots of Moghania
macrophylla, fruit of Terminalia chebula and borax), oedema (with Capparis zeylanica and Carissa
carandas), corns on foot (with fenugreek), syphilis, leprosy and spider or snake bite. The exudations
are effective in scabies (with mustard, tumeric and sulphur). The knots or stem are used on bleeding
gums (cooked with bark of Zyzyphus rugosa and Ichnocarpus frutescens in mustard oil and given to
4
eat). The bark is reputedly used against cholera (with many plants), pleurisy, stings and as a diuretic"
[5]. It is used in bandages for lasting fractures or given in infusion for toothache before visiting the
dentist. "The seedlings have reputed antipyretic activity (ground with a few leaves of fistula and
Semecarpus anacardium), carbuncle (with Vitis sp.), for white discharge in urine, haematuria (with
Terminalia alata) and menorrhagia. Infusion of the leaves are reported to have hypotensive and
hypoglycaemic properties" [5].
[1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11]
[Others]: Bombax is fire resistant and used for revegetation in areas prone to fire. It has been
introduced as an agroforestry species in homesteads and farmlands. It is also commonly planted as
an ornamental tree due to its attractive flowers.
[1, 2, 10, 12]

No class. [4]

[General]: Bombax grows frequently in deciduous forests, mixed deciduous forests, dry deciduous
forests, evergreen rain forests and savanna woodlands from the lowland to high elevation [10]
(lowland to mid elevation [8]). Typically this species is raised in plantations and agroforestry systems
of the tropics but it is also grown as an ornamental tree. It produces root suckers, which survive only if
the parent trees are young and many die after 2-3 years. B. ceiba coppices only as a young adult.
[Establishment]: This species is a fast growing strong light demander, requiring full growing space
throughout its life for good development. In the beginning some aftercare is needed. Especially poor
drainage may cause dieback in seedlings, so excessive watering should be avoided. After two years
growth it is able to compete with weeds. In Assam (India) initial spacing is 6.7 x 6.7 m (225 plants/ha)
[2], whereas a spacing of 2.7 x 2.7 m has been used in Kerala (India). In savannas, seedlings and
saplings are repeatedly burnt back due to natural or man-made fires, but tend to recover well. In Java
(Indonesia), Bombax has been interplanted with Bischofia javanica using a spacing of 1 x 3 m [13].
[Management]: Generally, 3-4 weedings are conducted in the first year and 2-3 in the second year [2].
Due to its light demanding characteristics, thinning is important in plantations and should be
conducted in two or more stages during the rotation. In Assam (India), after the final thin spacings are
approximately 13.4 x 13.4 m (55 trees/ha) [2]. In Kerala (India), where trees are planted at 2.7 x 2.7
m, two thinnings are conducted after 8 and 12 years growth [2]. However, no definite regime for
thinning in mixed plantations has been reported. "In natural forests, B. ceiba is managed by selection
felling, with an exploitable DBH of 38-77 cm and a felling cycle of 15-30 years [2]. In plantations the
best system is clearfelling followed by artificial regeneration on a rotation of 25-40 years. The growth
rate of B. ceiba under suitable conditions is very rapid, both in the natural forest and in plantations. On
good sites, a DBH of 38 cm after 10 years growth and a 58 cm DBH after 20 years growth have been
recorded [2]. Other sources mention a DBH of 20-30 cm after 12 years [10]. Mature trees with a DBH
5
of 57 cm may have a crown diameter of 12-15 m [2]. In Peshawar (Pakistan), stump-planted B. ceiba
under irrigation reached approximately 25.2 cm DBH and 12.95 m in height after 7 years growth.
"General standard volume tables for B. ceiba are given by Chaturvedi (1973) providing timber
volumes (without bark), and under-bark volume of stem timber and branch timber" (see chapter:
further readings [2].
[2, 8, 9, 10, 13]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection]: B. ceiba produces seeds regularly. Ripe fruits are collected before they open,
generally in April-May [7] and are dried in the sun to open and release the seeds with cotton. Each
fruit contains 200-400 seeds [2] which are highly viable and are dispersed by wind and will regenerate
naturally on favourable sites. The seeds are separated from the floss by putting them in gunny bags
and thrashing with a stick. Only fresh seeds are used for germination. They do not require any
pretreatment. However, other sources recommend a soaking into water for 12 hours [9].
Approximately 100 dry capsules weigh 2 kg, and the number of seeds varies from 21,430-38,500/kg
[2, 7].
[Propagation]: Propagation is done by direct sowing and transplanting of seedlings or stumps. In case
of sowing germination, success rates vary from 14-75% [2] and plant survival rate is 6-31% [2], with
highest rates found in fresh seeds. Stump planting is regarded as the best method to ensure success
in plantations, both direct sowing and branch cuttings have low success rates. In nursery a standard
bed of 12 x 1.2 m is sown with approximately 0.7 kg of seed in rows which are 15 cm apart. Standard
beds of this size are expected to produce approximately 3,000 seedlings. The germination period is
between 10-25 days. When seedlings attain 5 cm in height, they are transplanted into polythene bags

of varying sizes filled with soil mixture which has been successfully used for planting. After one years
growth, seedlings are suitable for transplanting or stump planting. Planting can be done in crow bar
holes or in pits 30 x 30 cm [2] filled with well-worked soil.
[2, 7, 9, 10]

[Pests]: Known insect pests are Dysdercus cingulatus, Lohita grandis and Tonica niviferana.
[2]
[Diseases]: Fungus diseases include Corticium rolfsii, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Macrophomina

phaseolina, Myrothecium roridum and Thanatephorus cucumeris.
[2]
[Others]:"In heavily grazed areas, the saplings may successfully establish where they are protected
from cattle. Dense weeds deter seedling development" [2].
S. Conservation :
6

[Native]: Bangladesh, India, China, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
[2]
[Introduced]: Bhutan, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand,

Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Tropical America
[2, 8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Alexander TG, Mary MV, Thomas TP, Balagopalan M, 1983. Influence of site factors in Bombax
plantations. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 17:ii + 19 pp.; 12 ref.
[2]
Chaturvedi AN, 1973. General standard volume tables for Semal (Bombax ceiba L.). Indian Forest
Records, Silviculture, 12(7):1-7.
[2]
Forest Research Institute, 1973. Indian Timbers - Semul. Information series. Dehra Dun, India: Forest
Research Institute.
[2]
Ghose TP, 1943. Indian Kapok. Indian Forester, 69:155-166.

[2]
Nair NR, 1971. Commercial volume tables for the forest trees of Kerala. Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
India: Kerala Forest Department.
[2]
Nicolson DH, 1979. Nomenclature of Bombax, Ceiba (Bombacaceae) and Cochlospermum

(Cochlospermaceae) and their type species. Taxon, 28:367-373.
[2]
Robyns AG, 1963. A monographic study of the genera Bombax s. l. (Bombacaceae). [Essai de
monographie du genere Bombax s. l. (Bombacaceae)], Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux., 83:1-316.
[2]
7
Sehgal RN, Venkaiah K, Satish Kumar, Khosla PK, 1991. Variation in wood specific gravity in different
morphoforms of Bombax ceiba Linn (Semul). Journal of the Indian Academy of Wood Science,
22(2):13-16; 16 ref
[2]
Venkatesh CS, Arya RS, 1980. Establishment, management and productivity of Bombax ceiba L.
grafted seed orchards. Indian Journal of Forestry, 3(2):103-110; [1 pl.]; 9 ref.
[2]
X. References:
Northern Thailand.

[7] Andhra Pradesh Forest Department: http://forest.ap.nic.in/Silviculture. (Internet source).

bin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=846002139&spd=4473&tx=PL. (Internet source).
[9] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/GenInfo.php. (Internet source)
8
[13] PROSEA, 1998: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (3) Timber trees: Lesser-known timbers.
[14] Petri, M (DED), 2006: Own observations.

9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Borassus flabellifer L]
Datasheet Report
[Borassus flabellifer L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Borassus flabellifer L
B. English name (s) ³ fan palm, palmyrah, toddy, toddy palm, palmyra
palm, wine palm, sea apple [1]
C. Synonym ³ Borassus flabelliformis L. (1774), Borassus sundaicus
Becc. [1]
D. Other1 ³ palmier à sucre, rondier, rônier, borasse (France) [1]
- palmira (Portugal) [1] - Fächerpalme, Lontaropalme,
Palmyrapalme (Germany) [1] - lontar, siwalan, tal, tala
(Indonesia) [1] - palma da ventagli (Italy) [1] - tan bin
(Myanmar) [1] - tan (Laos) [6] - wine palm (Philippines) [6] -
lontar, tah, tai (Malaysia) [1] - not, tan, tan-yai (Thailand) [1] -
loost, noost, thoost, thoost noot (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: etñat

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ thnaot, thnaôt [1], thnot [10]

Other : Arecales
Family: Arecaceae
Gunus: Borassus
Species: Borassus flabellifer
Source :[ 1]
1
[General] A large, solitary and evergreen palm tree with a height of 25 m [1] (10-20 m [2], -30 m [5],
25-40 m [6]). It can become very old (over 150 years), but its economic lifetime is about 80 years [11].
Stem massive, straight, up to 1 m [6] in diameter at base, conical up to about 4 m [6] high, thereafter
cylindrical and 40-50 cm [6] in diameter, occasionally branched, covered by leaf bases when young,
rough and ringed with leaf scars when older, fringed at the base with a dense mass of long
adventitious roots. Crown circular with fan shaped leaves. Under optimal ecological conditions 14
leaves unfurl per year, or one leaf per 26 days [11]. Less leaves are produced under marginal
conditions (8 per year or 1 per 45 days). "The Borassus, occurring in Indonesia from East Java
eastwards, differs slightly from B. flabellifer (Outer flower leaves (petals) in fruit imbricate at the base,
absence of scales on the leaf blades, less branched male inflorescence) and has been described as a
different species: B. sundaica Beccari" [6].
[Leaves]: The leaves (30-60 [5] per tree) are arranged spirally. Leaf-blade leathery, grey green, nearly
round and flat to fan-shaped, 1-1.5 m [6] (1.3 m [5]) in diameter and folded along the midrib. The
leaves are divided to the center into 60-80 regular, linear-spear-shaped, 0.6-1.2 m long [5], stiff single-
fold segments that are about 3 cm broad at base. Leaf stalks are strong and grooved, 1-1.2 m long
[5], black at the base and black-margined when young and edged with hard spines.
[Flowers]: Inflorescence located between the leaves, with flower stalk, shorter than the leaves, the
male and female dissimilar. Male and female inflorescences are carried on separate trees. The male
inflorescence is massive, up to 2 m long, consisting of about 8 partial inflorescences of three small
inflorescence axis each with are spike-like, fleshy, 30-45 cm long, bearing spirally arranged
overlapping reduced flower leaves, fused laterally and distally to form large pits, each containing
about 30 flowers, exserted singly in succession from the pit mouth. Flowers 3-merous with 6 stamens

(=male organs). Female inflorescence unbranched or with a single first order branch, covered with
sheath-like reduced flower leaves. Flower stalk massive, fleshy, thicker than the male one, bearing
large cupular bracts, the first few empty, the subsequent ones each subtending a single female flower
with several empty reduced flower leaves above the flowers; flowers larger than male ones, 3-merous,
tricarpellate. The palm starts flowering and fruiting 12-20 years after germination, usually in the dry
season. Male palms begin to develop the inflorescence in November or December while the female
ones commence one to two months later. Each palm may bear from eight to fifteen inflorescences per
year. The male inflorescence lasts approximately 45 to 60 days and the female 60 to 70 days.
(Flowering: March to April [8], February to April [9]). Fruiting: August to September [8] (May to October
[9]).
[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is coconut-like, three-sided when young, becoming rounded or more or less
oval, 12-15 cm wide [6] (17.5 cm [9]) and 1.5-2.5(-3) kg [6] in weight. The outer covering is smooth,
thin and leathery of brown color turning dark purple to black after harvest. Inside is a juicy mass of
long, tough, coarse, white fibers coated with yellow or orange fragrant pulp. Seeds are shallowly to
deeply bilobed, pointed. Within the mature seed is a solid white kernel similar to coconut meat but
much harder. When the fruit is very young, this kernel is hollow, soft as jelly, and translucent like ice,
2
and is accompanied by a watery liquid, sweetish and potable. Each palm may bear 8-15 bunches of
fruit with a total of about 80 pieces of fruit per year.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 11]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The lowest 10 m of the trunk has hard and strong wood which is heavy, very
durable, with an air dry density of 1.02-1.14 g/cm³. Very resistant to termites, insect borers and decay
fungi.
[1, 6]

Approximate limits: 25°N to 30°S. B.flabellifer is indigenous or naturalized throughout tropical and
subtropical South and Southeast Asia. It is particularly abundant in India, Myanmar and Cambodia,
where it is frequently planted. It is occupying large areas of wasteland, forming pure crops in the drier
parts of its geographical range, where the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merrill) and the
coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) cannot compete, or it is intermixed with the wild date palm (e.g. India).
Usually it can be found by the side of roads on tank bunds or on agricultural boundaries, occasionally
found in the forest areas. In Cambodia it grows wild between the paddy fields.
[1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11]

Prefers altitudes around sea level but grows up to 800 m a.s.l. [6, 11] (0-300 m [1]). It is very hardy
and can grow on the poorest conditions. B.flabellifer is usually grown in strictly seasonal tropical or
subtropical climates with a winter- or bimodal rainfall regime and an annual precipitation of 500-900
mm/yr [6] in dry areas and up to 5,000 mm/yr [6] in per-humid areas. The palm is very adaptable,
growing well in dry areas and is quite drought resistant, tolerating a dry season length of 4-8 months
[1]. The optimum mean annual temperature is around 30ºC [6] (20-29ºC [1]), the mean maximum
temperature of hottest month 32-45ºC [1] and the mean minimum temperature of coldest month 18-
25ºC [1], but it can withstand extreme temperatures of 8ºC [1] (0ºC [11]. Seedlings and juvenile trees
are frost- and fire-sensitive.
[1, 2, 6, 11]


B.flabellifer may be grown on almost all soils with light to heavy texture and acid to alkaline pH, even
on the poorest conditions regarding nutrient supply. However it prefers soils of coastal areas and
black soils, rich in organic matter wit a free drainage. It also survives waterlogging quite well.
[1, 2, 6, 8, 11]
3
[Wood]: The whole trunk is used by removing the soft middle part. The lowest 10 m of the trunk has
hard and strong wood which is suitable for round wood, transmission poles, posts, piles, building
poles for buildings or bridges, carpentry/joinery, engineering structures and beams. The softer middle
part can be split into boards or used for wood based materials, block board, charcoal and fuel wood.
"The whole trunk can also be made into a small boat capable of carrying at least three people" [4].
[1, 4, 11]
[Non-wood]: Every part of the palm is a useful resource. In India it is called the tree with 800 uses.
Sugar products: The most important product of the toddy palm is the sap or juice, which is obtained
from tapping the inflorescences. The naturally fermented palm juice (teck thnot chhu) is a common
alcoholic beverage especially in rural areas with 5-6% [11] alcohol content and may later be converted
into distilled ethanol (arrack) with an alcohol percentage of 20-60% or vinegar. To make vinegar the
palm wine must be kept in a cool and dark spot for some time. Sugar palm juice is traditionally
processed into three types of sugar: Liquid sugar (sugar palm syrup), crystalline palm sugar and block
sugar. The most common type consumed in rural areas is sugar palm syrup which has about 80% dry
matter. A sugar palm sap-soybean-freshwater spinach (Ipomoea acuatica) mix is commonly used to
feed pigs.
Handicrafts: Almost all households in rural areas use palm leaves not only for thatching but also for
the walls. "In Cambodia 25 to 36 leaves are harvested twice a year from the palms that are not used
for tapping" [4]. The top young leaves are made into hats, boxes to store rice, baskets, fans, etc. In

the past they were used as writing materials, especially by the monks. The fibers of young leaves can
be woven into delicate patterns. Leafstalks are often used as poles for fencing or as fuelwood and can
be split into fiber to be used for weaving and matting. The bark is a source for making strong ropes.
Food: The edible fruits are much appreciated either for cakes or jelly. The young solid or gelatinous
endosperm of the seeds is also eaten fresh or prepared as a sweet with sticky rice and in syrup. The
top part of immature fruit is also cooked as a vegetable. The fresh pulp around the kernels is reported
to be rich in vitamins A and C. The mature fruit is soaked in water after which the wiry fibers are
extracted. The yellow pulp is mixed with rice starch, folded inside a banana leaf and later steam-
cooked. The tender mesocarp of young fruits is cooked in curry. The soft upper 10 m of the trunk
contains some starch, which may be harvested in times of food scarcity. The growing point of the
palm (palm heart or palm cabbage) is also edible. Seedlings can be peeled and eaten fresh or sun-
dried, raw, or cooked in various ways. In Myanmar they are considered a delicacy but they are slightly
toxic. "They also yield starch, which is locally made into gruel, with rice, herbs, chili peppers, fish, or
other ingredients added. It has been proposed for commercial starch production" [5]. The nectar of the
palm is also an important source for honey production.
Medicine: Many parts of B.flabellifer (fruits, roots, flowering stalks, bark and juice) are used in
traditional medicine: "The young plant is said to relieve biliousness, dysentery and gonorrhea. Young
4
roots are diuretic and anthelmintic, and a decoction is given in certain respiratory diseases. Dried
roots can also be smoked to heal nasal complaints. The ash of the flower is taken to relieve heartburn
and enlarged spleen and liver. The bark decoction, with salt, is used as a mouth wash, and charcoal
made of the bark serves as a dentifrice. Sap from the flower stalk is prized as a tonic, diuretic,
stimulant, laxative and anti phlegmatic and amebicide. Sugar made from this sap is said to counteract
poisoning and it is prescribed in liver disorders. Candied, it is a remedy for coughs and various
pulmonary complaints. Fresh toddy, heated to promote fermentation, is bandaged onto all kinds of
ulcers. The cabbage, leaf petioles, and dried male flower spikes all have diuretic activity. The pulp of
the mature fruit relieves dermatitis" [5]. "It is also useful as an anti-inflammatory and for dropsy and
gastric conditions. Also has potential immuno-suppressive action. Constituents are: gum, fat and
albuminoids" [2].
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11]
[Others]: In India, Myanmar and Cambodia, toddy palms are often planted as a windbreak on plains or
to delimit rice fields. The palm also provides natural shelter to animals like birds and monkeys and
plants (ferns, orchids).
[5, 6, 11]

No Class [3]

B.flabellifer is occupying large area of wastelands, forming pure crops in the drier parts of its
geographical range, where the sugar palm (Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merrill) and the coconut (Cocos
nucifera L.) cannot compete, or it is intermixed with the wild date palm (e.g. India). Usually it can be
found by the side of roads on tank bunds, or on agricultural boundaries, occasionally found in the
forest areas. Toddy palm can be planted in the full sun and does not require much attention once it
has established. It responds well to water supply and manure. The trunk grows about 30 cm [6] in
height per year. However it has a relatively long juvenile growth period (8-14 years [1]) which may
limit its usefulness. In plantations thinnings are recommended to favor more productive female trees.
"In Myanmar and Cambodia, toddy palm is usually cultivated by smallholders as a cash crop in
addition to their main product, rice. Working time has to be divided between the two crops. Rice
usually requires most labor in the wet season, toddy palm in the dry season" [6]. In Cambodia and
Myanmar smallholders own 30-40 toddy palms on average (25 male, 15 female trees) [6] but at least
10 [4]. Harvesting and tapping normally starts when the palm is 25-30 years old and may continue for
80 years [6]. Less-productive palm trees are cut for timber when they are more than 10 m high and
between 70-100 years old [4].
[Tapping]: Both male and female inflorescences are tapped for juice collection. Although both male
and female inflorescences of B. flabellifer are tapped, the latter are preferred because they also have
5
inflorescences during the rainy season allowing higher yields. "Cambodian tappers have developed a
technique to conserve inflorescences to be tapped after the normal harvest period" [4]. They use long
bamboo ladders for climbing. Every 6-12 months the ladders are removed for safety reasons. "When
the trees are located close to each other, one or two long bamboo poles are used as an aerial
'stairway' to facilitate movement between the trees, thus avoiding the need to descend and ascend
each tree and permitting the tapper to use his time more productively. The tapper must climb the palm
trunk just before the inflorescences open. To tap the inflorescences, some leaves are cut away for
easy access. In male palms a number of partial inflorescences (usually about 12) are tied together
after the flower buds have been stripped off. The stalks of these inflorescences are then
systematically squeezed with tongs daily. In female palms the inflorescences are handled individually.
Flowers are broken off and the flowering stalks are then squeezed for a number of days with larger
tongs to enhance the sap flow. After three days the tops of the stalks of the inflorescences are cut off.
The juice is channelled into a bamboo or plastic vessel, called an 'ampong', which can contain 2 to 4
kg of juice [4]. For each tree an average of four to six collection vessels are used according to the
number of inflorescences being processed at the one time. The sap flow of an individual tree may
continue for 3-6 months/year [6]. For each tapping a new slice as thin as possible is cut off from the
tapped end of the stalk with a razor- sharp knife kept especially for this purpose. The nightly flow of
sap is nearly double that of the flow in daytime. Collection is carried out twice daily (morning and
afternoon) in order to limit exposure of the juice to contamination by yeast and other fermenting micro-
organisms. Small pieces of bark from various tree species containing tannins (e.g. Shorea
cochinchinensis, Shorea roxburghii G. Don, Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill), or the leaves of
Anacardium occidentale L. and Schleichera oleosa (Loureiro) Oken are used as a anti-fermentation
agent and are placed in the collection vessel while the juice is being collected. Also slaked lime

(Ca(OH)2) is put into the vessels to prevent fermentation and deterioration. However, this affects the
flavor of the sap. If bamboo buckets are used, they are placed on a fire for a moment after thorough
cleaning.
[Production] Tappers are capable of tapping 20-30 palm trees twice a day [4] (30-40 palms/working
day [6]) if an assistant is available at the base of the trunk to receive the collected juice. The more
skillful the tapper is in climbing and tapping, the better the yield. Sap yields can be as high as 6 l per
day and palm. The annual production of palm sap amounts to 100-600 l/palm [6]. Other sources
mention a production of 169-246 l/year. Palm sugar yields up to 16-70 kg/palm or 19 t/ha/year at a
density of 275 palms per ha [6]. Fruit yields are 200-350/palm (if cultivated only for fruits) or up to 130
t/year if there are 275 female trees/ha [6]. However the yield varies greatly between palms. For the
production of 1 kg palm syrup about 4 kg [4] (5 kg [6]) of fuelwood is needed. Most Cambodian
farmers continue producing palm syrup and sugar because they can still find free fuelwood and it is
their main income during the dry season. However in areas where wood is already a limiting factor
(e.g. in Myanmar and parts of Cambodia) opportunity costs for fuelwood often exceed the value of the
syrup produced. Palms are cut down when they become too tall to be climbed easily.
[Processing]: "After harvest the sap may be boiled down into brown palm sugar. It is strained through
a coconut leaf sheath sieve to remove debris and the added bark or leaf parts, and is then poured into
6
an open pan that is heated. When the liquid thickens it is poured into half coconut shells and allowed
to cool and solidify. This sugar is highly hygroscopic, as it contains all the dry matter from the sap.
The quality of the sugar is good. In Indonesia for example, the fine toddy palm sugar from Madura is
superior to that made from Arenga in West Java and commands better prices on Javanese markets."
[6]
[1, 4, 6, 9]
Q. Propagation :
It is easily propagated by using direct sowing, natural regeneration and sometimes planting stock. The
seeds are collected from August to September and have a long viability. Seed storage is recalcitrant.
Number of seeds/kg: 15-20. Germination percentage: 80%. Plant percent: 80%. Number of
seedlings/kg seed: 12-16 [8]. As a pretreatment large healthy seeds are soaked in cow dung and
water for a week and weathered in a pit. Then they are sown 7-10 cm [8] (10 cm [6]) or hammered
deep into the soil (preferably during rain) with a spacing of 3-6 m directly in the field because
seedlings are difficult to transplant [6]. Normally when planted, seed of toddy palm starts to germinate
within 30-60 days [8] (45-60 days [6] ). During germination a tubular sprout emerges from the seed,
protected by a cotelydonary sheath and grows down into the soil up to 90-120 cm depth. When
growth continues the tuberous part sends forth roots, separates from the sheath and begins to grow
upright. In 9-12 months the tip emerges above the ground, after which true leaves follow. After a
rosette stage of 4-6 years the trunk formation starts. They are usually planted in groups, in order to
facilitate tapping.
[1, 6, 8, 11]

Toddy palm hardly suffers from diseases and pests.
[Pests]: Termites may occasionally attack seedlings. Certain beetle species (Oryctes and
Rhynchophorus) feed on dead plant material, but may at dense populations become harmful for living
palms. It is therefore necessary to clean stands of all kind of debris.
[Diseases]: Palms growing in rich black soil or soil liable to flooding may succumb to bud-rot, caused
by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora which also occurs on coconut. First symptoms are spots on
green leaf blades, which spread inwards to the bud. The bud then starts to rot and putrifies. The
fungus can successfully be combated by killing and burning diseased palms. Another fungus disease
is caused by Stigmina palmivora [1].
[Others]: Snakes and other venomous creatures sheltering in the crown may present a hazard to the
tapper.
[6]
7
S. Conservation :
"Toddy palm is under pressure in all the countries where it is grown. In areas where coconut can be
grown, toddy palm may be substituted for phytosanitary reasons. For example in Thailand stands are
nearly eradicated."
[6]

Central Cambodia.
[6]
Kp, Speu, Takeo, Pursat, Kp. Chnnang, Kp. Cham, Kandal, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Kp. Thom,
Battambang, Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey, Phnom Penh.
[7]

[Native]: India
[10]
[Introduced (since long)]: Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam
[10]
[Introduced (recently)]: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, French Polynesia, Papua New Guinea
[1]

V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Properties]: "Palm sugar is much more nutritious than crude cane sugar, containing 1.04% protein,
0.19% fat, 76.86% sucrose, 1.66% glucose, 3.15% total minerals, 0.861 % calcium, 0.052%
phosphorus; also 11.01 mg iron per 100 g and 0.767 mg of copper per 100 g" [5]."The fresh sap is
reportedly a good source of vitamin B complex and contains 17-20% dry matter. It has a pH of 6.7-6.9
(-7.5) and per litre contains some proteins and amino acids (360 mg N), sucrose 13-18%, P 110 mg,
K 1900 mg, Ca 60 mg, Mg 30 mg, vitamin B3.9 IU, and vitamin C 132 mg. The 7-9 g/l reducing sugars
are probably formed through enzymatic or microbiological reactions immediately after tapping. The
ash content of the sap os to 4-5g/l. A rather large, fresh fruit may weigh 2790 g (100%); perianth lobes
175 g (6.3%), exocarp 120 g (4.3%), mesocarp fiber 66 g (2.4%), mesocarp edible pulp 1425 g (51%)
and 3 seeds 1004 g (36%). The 3 seeds consist of shell 394 g, endosperm 609 g and embryo 1 g"
[11].
[World production and trade]: "Toddy palm is mainly grown for subsistence and is primarily produced
by smallholders. Surplus production may be sold on local markets. Sri Lanka (10 milion palms on
25,000 ha), India (60 milion palms), Myanmar (2.5 milion palms on 25,000 ha), Central Cambodia (1.8
8
milion palms), Indonesia (0.5 million palms on 15,000 ha). In 1968 the toddy palm sugar production in
Cambodia was estimated at 35,000 t per year, and the national consumption at 10,000 t.
[6]
[History]: "It is almost generally assumed that B.flabellifer is a selection by man from the more
dieverse B.aethiopum Mart. of Africa. Its distribution probably followed Indian trade routes in
prehistoric times."
[11]
Davis TA, Johnson DV, 1987. Current utilization and further development of the palmyra palm
(Borassus flabellifer L., Arecaceae) in Tamil Nadu State, India. Economic Botany, 41(2):247-266; 27
ref.
[1]
Flach, M. & Paisooksantivatana, Y., 1996. Borassus flabellifer L. In Flach, M & Rumawas, F. (Eds.):
Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 9. Plants yielding non-seed carbohydrates. Prosea
Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 59-63.
[6]
Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India:
Oxford & IBH.
[1]
Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands., xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by
Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref.
[1]
Jagadeesh HN, Damodaran K, Padmanabhan S, Aswathanarayana BS, Xavier F, Kamal SZM,

Guruva Reddy H, 1993. Studies on palmyrah wood. IPIRTI Research Report, No. 69:22 pp.; 6 ref.
[1]
Jagadeesh HN, Damodaran K, Aswathanarayana BS, 1996. Palmyrah wood - a potential source of
wood raw material. Wood News, 6(2):20-23; 1 ref.
[1]
Jambulingam R, Fernandes ECM, 1986. Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands in Tamil Nadu
State (India). Agroforestry Systems, 4(1):17-32; 7 ref.
[1]
Kovoor A, 1983. The palmyrah palm: potential and perspectives. FAO Plant Production and Protection
Paper, No. 52:v + 77 pp.; [6 pl.]; 90 ref.
[1]
Khieu Borin. 1996. The sugar palm tree as the basis of integrated farming systems in
Cambodia.Contribution to Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds. Livestock Feed
Resources within Integrated Farming Systems.
[4]
9
Khieu Borin & Preston, T.R. 1995. Conserving biodiversity and the environment and improving the
well-being of poor farmers in Cambodia by promoting pig feeding systems using the juice of the sugar
palm tree (Borassus flabellifer). Livestock Research for Rural Development, (7)2: 25-30.
[4]
Khieu Borin, Preston, T.R. & Lindberg, J.E. 1996. Juice production from the sugar palm tree
(Borassus flabellifer) in Cambodia and performance of growing pigs fed sugar palm juice. In
Sustainable Tropical Animal System, p. 1-11. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala,
Sweden. (M.Sc. thesis)
[4]
Mahendran S, 1994. The activities of the Palmyrah Development Board and some aspects of
agronomic research and development needs of the organization. Journal of the National Science
Council of Sri Lanka, 22(SUP A):S47-S53; 5 ref.
[1]
Morton JF, 1988. Notes on distribution, propagation, and products of Borassus palms (Arecaceae).
Economic Botany, 42(3):420-441; [12 pl.]; 81 ref.
[1]
Reddy ANY, Yekantappa K, Somesh Korcher, 1988. Nursery technique of Borassus flabellifer Linn.
Myforest, 24(2):114-116 + 2 pl.
[1]
X. References:

[4] Khieu Borin: Sugar palm (Borassus flabellifer): Potential feed resource for livestock in small-scale
farming systems (internet source)
[5] Morton, J.F.,1988: Notes on Distribution, Propagation and Products of Borassus Palms
(Arecaceae). Economic Botany (1988) 42(3): 420-441

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.as (Internet source)
[9] Auroville TDEF: http://www.auroville-tdef.info/Individual.php?id=443. (Internet source).
[11] PROSEA, 1996: Plant Resources of South East Asia 9 - Plants yielding non-seed
carbonhydrates.
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub]
Datasheet Report
[Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. [4].
B. English name (s) ³ lacquer tree, Bengal kino tree, flame of the forest [4].
C. Synonym ³ syn B. frondosa Roxb. ex Willd.[4], Erythrina monosperma
Lam.[20].
D. Other1 ³ giéng giéng (Vn)[2]
Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ cha:r [4]

Other : Fabales
Family: Papilionaceae
Gunus: Butea
Species: Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub
Source :[ 2 ; 4 ; 5]
[General]: A small tree, 6-10 m, 25–40 cm in diameter, frequently short-boled, trunk striated like
Lagerstroemia tomentosa, crooked and twisted; crown open [2]. Tree, 8-10 m tall, [4]. Deciduous tree,
up to 15 m, irregular crown and crooked trunk. [5]. Easily recognized when flowering because of the
brilliant red flowers [2]; with pubescent branches; deciduous [13].
1
[Bark]: Greyish to pale brown, smooth or slightly flaking, rough, nodose, 0.5 cm thick, red-brown
beneath, fibrous, exuding red, adstringent resin or gum when cut. Old branches crooked, young
branches densely hairy [2].
[Leaves]: Compound, trifoliate, consisting of 3 leaflets, rhachis 12-20 cm, slender, pubescent when
young, canaliculate above. The central leaflet greater than the lateral ones. Petiole 2.5–4.0 cm long, a
ring of filiform stipules near the leaf base. Lamina shortly rhomboid, green, 6-12 by 6-12 cm. Lateral
veins 5-6 pairs ascending, branched near the margin, venules reticulate. Lateral leaflets orbiculate, 5-
10 cm long and 4-5 cm wide[2]. Leaf trifoliate, central leaflet slightly larger than others, 10-17 cm,
broadly obovate with blunt or rounded tips and slightly tapering base; side leaflets narrower, ovate,
blunt at both ends. Young leaves with fine silky hairs, mature leaves leathery, smooth above, thinly
hairy below with 1 main vein and 7-8 regularly spaced side-veins. Main stalk 7.5 to 15.0 cm, side
leaflets stalks ± 1 cm [5].
[Flowers]: In clusters of 2-3 on young branches densely pubescent. Peduncle 3-4 cm long, pubescent
with 2 caducous bracts. The flowers are red, large, 4-6 cm long. Sepals connate, into a campanulate
(bell-shaped) tube, 1.5 cm wide and 1 cm long with 3 short lobes. Petals 5, long, red. Stamens 10,
diadelphous(9)+1), pubescent. Ovary ovoid, style silvery-white, pubescent, ovules 4-6 [2]. Flowers 5-6
cm, bright orange, densely clustered on short woody stumps along all branches, appearing after the
old leaves have fallen. Individual stalks 1.5-3.5 cm, twice as long as calyx. 5 silky petals, similar in
size, the lowest one strongly curved and hiding the stamens. There are 10 stamens, 1 free and 9
fused into a tube, 1 long curved style [5]. Flowers big, 3 to 5 cm wide, spectacularly shining blood-red
to orange, occasionally yellow papilionaceous flowers with enlarged alae [13].
[Fruit]: Large, 12-16 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, oblong, compressed, winged around, covered with silvery-

white hairs, reticulately veined. Pericarp coriaceous, slightly stiff. Seed elliptic, 2.5 cm long,
compressed and red-brown [2]. Fruit 15-20 by 4-6 cm, oblong, often slightly curved, rather thick and
woody, densely covered with very short, silky hairs, abruptly narrowed at base with persistent calyx,
stalks 1.2-2.5 cm [5]. Fruit: Forming flat pods containing 1 seed [13]. Flowering takes place in April [2].
I. Wood properties:
The wood is red, hard and durable, but not straight-grained [2]. Most of the trees are rather crooked.
The soft and not durable wood is light, about 570 kg/m³ air dry, white or yellowish-brown when fresh,
but often turning greyish because of susceptibility to sap stain. It is not of great value but is sometimes
used for utensils [20].

B. monosperma occurs from India to Burma, Sri Lanka; in the premontane Himalayas up to 1200 m
elevation asl.. Natural distribution in dry forests, from India through SE Asia to Indonesia. Usually
growing in nearly pure stands or mixed with other species in the dry Dipterocarp forest such as D.
obtusifolius, Shorea siamensis, and Terminalia corticosa. It is not common in the wild, usually it can
be found in very degraded fire-damaged areas [2,5]. Occurs naturally widely in Indonesia, usually in
2
lowland monsoon forest where it is associated with Azadirachta indica, Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.)
Willd., Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. and Cassia fistula L. [16].

B. sperma sheds its leaves during the dry season.It is short-boled with pubescent branches. It ccurs
naturally in the dry forests of Sri Lanka, Burma and India. This species prefers a climate with a distinct
dry and rainy season at elevaions between 200-500m asl. A light-demanding tree growing best on old
alluvial accreted soil, also on red basaltic soils [2].

not determined

Old alluvial soils and weathered red basalts [2], however, it grows on a wide variety of soils including
shallow, gravelly sites, black cotton soil, clay loams, and even saline or waterlogged soils. Seedlings
thrive best on a rich loamy soil with pH 6-7 under high temperature and high relative humidity [20].

This species, Butea monosperma, is one of the most versatily usable small trees. The species is able
to thrive under quite variable and often rather poor conditons. In first place mention is made of its
spectecular bright red or orange flowers. But in rural India, Sri Lanka or Thailand it is the other uses
that rest in the center of interest. There is the strongly adstringernt Kino resin that assists in closing
wounds, the tannin and 2 colors of dyes and last not least the use of branches with leaves involved in
a process of clay agglomeration for reducing the salt content of water in ricefields. Finally, Butea
monosperma is one of two high quality-yielding feed tree species for scale insects producing shellack.
[Wood]: Valued for construction, but it is difficult to find straight pieces of lumber [4]. The wood makes
a fuel of moderate quality, however, it yields durable charcoal of high calorific content [2].
Leaves are sometimes used as a fuel. The wood is burnt for gunpowder charcoal.
[Non-Wood]:Bark is rich in tannin, also yields resin and gum. A bright yellow to deep orange-red dye,
known as butein, prepared from the flowers, is used especially for dyeing silk and sometimes for
cotton. This dye is used by Hindus to mark the forehead [20].
B. monosperma is also frequently planted as an ornamental tree because of the spectacular orange
flowers.
Young roots are edible
B. monosperma is used for producing a red dye from the roots and yellow dye from the flowers [13].
Binding material and ropes and footwear can be produced from the bark fibres [4].
3
This coarse fibrous material obtained from the inner bark is used for cordage, caulking the seams of
boats and making paper [20].
Butea is also a well-known medicinal plant. For a long time the plant was the main source a most
effective adstringent. By cutting the bark a rapidly drying sap, the Butea or Benghal kino can be
obtained. In former times this was one of the most important adstringent compounds available for
application in medicine [13].
Together with the species Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken, Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) O.Kuntze
Butea monosperma is said to be one of the best feed plants for the semi-domesticated scale insect
Laccifer lacca Kerr, a small scale insect feeding on the sap and exuding a resin-like compound traded
under the name of shellack. There are still other species but Butea is among the best and Butea and
Flemingia are easier to cultivate. Only India and Thailand are still producing and exporting the end
product, shellac, in significant quantities.[19] A report from Dak Lac Province in Vietnam indicates that
the sticklac harvested from this tree is thicker and more brightly red than from other host tree species
[2].
Other: Seedlings and green branches are also spread in ricefields as a salt-filtering agent and green
manure. Leaf-decomposing bacteria produce a slime that is able to aggregate clay particles. In the
course of this process micro-cavities are formed loosening the compacted soil and allowing leaching
of noxious salts from the soil solution.So, B. monosperma is also an effective green manure and soil
improving plant [13].
IButea monosperma is revered by the Hindus and frequently grown around houses [4].

not included

Cultivated as lac insect feed tree in India[2], raised elsewhere as an ornamental tree, no information
on plantations in India
Q. Propagation :
Natural regeneration is strong under open forest canopy [2]. Natural regeneration by both seed and
root suckers is profuse. Artificial propagation is chiefly from direct-sown seeds, sown 25-30 cm apart
in lines 3-5 m apart. The taungya system is often used, as weeding during the first 1-2 years is
essential for the proper development of the plants. Root suckers and nursery seedlings can also be
used for propagation. Because of the good coppicing power of this species, it is also a reliable method
of natural propagation. Germination, which starts in about 10-12 days, is completed in 4 weeks. Fresh
seeds have a good germinative capacity (about 63%) at optimum germination temperature of about
30 ºC. Germination is hypogeous [20].
4
Seedlings and saplings are browsed and damaged by cattle. Rats and porcupines feed on fleshy
roots, killing the sapling.
Insect pests attack different parts of the tree. Several defoliators belonging to the families Arctiidae,
Eucosmidae, Lasiocampidae, Lymantriidae, Noctuidae, Notodontidae, Pieridae, and Sphingidae have
been recorded. Insects of the family Coccidae feed on the sap. The larvae of some insects of the
family Lycaenidae feed on the flowers [20]. Xanthomonas buteae causes black leaf spots, which in
case of a severe infection may cover the entire leaf surface and cause premature defoliation.
Phomopsis buteae and Pseudodiplodia buteae have also been recorded on the leaves [20].
S. Conservation :

unknown

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Southeast Asia,native; Indonesia, Vietnam, introduced
V. Miscellaneous4 :
This tree is not easily found in the wild, commonly in very degraded, fire-damaged areas. Frequently
planted for its fabulous flame-colored flowers [5].
Shellac is produced in large quantities only in India and Thailand, it is an important export product
(1991). Shellac is the resinous exudation of the scale insect Laccifer lacca Kerr., which is raised on a
variety of trees. The trees must be pruned and allowed to rest to ensure regular and high yields.
Indian Farming 1976: Special Issue on Lac. Indian Farming 27(8): 3-35
Ganeshaiah KN, Shaanker RU, 1991. Seed size optimization in a wind dispersed tree Butea
monosperma: a trade-off between seedling establishment and pod dispersal efficiency. Oikos,
60(1):3-6; 32 ref.
Kumar P, 1989. Vegetative propagation in palas (Butea monosperma) through air layering. Indian
Journal of Forestry, 12(3):188-190; 3 ref.
Lal S, Ram M, Singh BP, Shrivastava SC, 1976. Bhalia: a versatile lac host plant. Indian Farming,
27(8):9-11; [3 pl.].
5
Pathak PS, Patil BD, 1985. Seed weight affecting early seedling growth of Butea monosperma (Lam.)
Taub. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 3:23-24.
Sharma SK, 1993. Butea monosperma with abnormal leaves. Indian Forester, 119(11):948.
Vershney RK, 1967. Some observations on the stink bug (Cyclopelta siccifolia)- a pest of Butea
monosperma. Indian Forester, 93(11):765-767.
Viswanath S, Kaushik PK, Chand S, Pandey DK, 1994. The butea tree - for lac and rice production in
India. Agroforestry Today, 6(2):10.
afar R, Parminder Singh, Siddiqui AA, 1989. Antimicrobial and preliminary phytochemical studies on
leaves of Butea monosperma Linn. Indian Journal of Forestry, 12(4):328-329; 5 ref.
X. References:
2) Nguyen et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997, 788 pp.
915 pp.

pp.
13) Baertels, A. 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical
Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp]
Datasheet Report
[Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp
B. English name (s) ³ pigeon pea, Congo pea [2]
C. Synonym ³ Cajanus bicolor DC. [5], Cajanus flavus DC., nom. illeg.
[5], Cajanus indicus Spreng., nom. illeg. [5], Cytisus cajan L.
[5], Cajanus cajan forma bicolor (DC.) Baker. [10], Cajanus
cajan var. bicolor (DC.) Purseglove [10], Cajanus cajan var.
flavus (DC.) Purseglove [10], Cajanus indicus Sprengel [10],
Cajanus indicus var. bicolor (DC.) Kuntze [10], Cajanus
indicus var. flavus (DC.) Kuntze [10], Cajanus indicus var.
maculatus Kuntze [10], Cajanus luteus Bello [10]
D. Other1 ³ ambrévade, pois d'Angole (France) [5] - kacang Bali,

kacang gude, kacang kayu (Indonesia) [5] - adhaki, arhar,
kandulu, thovaray, thuvara, togare, tur, tuvari, tuvarika, tuver
(India) [5] - thwàx h'ê (Laos) [5] - kacang, kacang dal, kacang
hiris (Malaysia) [5] - kardis, kidis, tabios (Philippines) [5] - ma
hae, thua maetaai, thua rae (Thailand) [5] - cay dau chieu,
dau sang (Vietnam) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: sENþkkøigÁ/ sENþkRKab;-s

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sânndaèk khloëng, sânndaèk krôab sa: [1]
Other : Leguiminosales / Fabales

Family: Leguminosae / Papilionceae
Gunus: Cajanus
Species: Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
1
Source :[ 5]
[General]: Cajanus cajan is a small, perennial tree or shrub with a height of 3-4 m [2] (up to 4 m [10],
0.5-4 m [9]) and a compact, open or bushy crown with slender branches. The stems have only a
diameter of up to 15 cm [9]. It is short living with only 1-5 years [5].
[Roots]: It has a strong deep taproot with thin roots up to 2 m deep [9]. "The primary structure of the
roots is usually tetrarch. In the cortex of young roots mycorrhizae can sometimes be observed within
the cells. The root system is well developed and well spread. It has well developed lateral roots in the
superficial layers of the soil. Root growth continues during the reproductive phase and the total length
approximately doubled after the onset of the flowering. There were about 1,500 m of roots beneath
each square meter of soil surface by the end of the reproductive phase" [10].
[Nodules]: "Pigeon pea is nodulated by Rhizobia of the cowpea group. The nodules on the roots of
plants grown on vertisols are generally small. The majority is on the upper 30 cm of the root system,
but some can be found even below 120 cm. The nodules of plants grown on alfisols are generally
larger and better developed than those on vertisols; plants on alfisols have also been found to have a
higher nitrogen fixation as estimated by the acetylene reduction technique" [10].
[Leaves]: The first two leaves of a twig are simple and opposite. The subsequent leaves consist of 3
narrow leaflets which are spirally arranged, green above and silvery green underneath. The main stalk
of the leaflet is 1-2 cm long [9] the secondary stalk half as long or less. The stipules are pointed 2.5-5
mm long [9] and persistent. The leaflets are spear-shaped or narrowly elliptic, covered with hairs on

both sides, the largest up to 7.5-8 x 2.8-3.5 cm [9] (10 x 3 cm [10]) with a pointed leaftip. Veins form a
parallel network and are prominent underneath. There are over ten times more stomata on the lower
than the upper surface of the leaves. Leaves also contain oil producing glands which are responsible
for the fragrance of pigeon pea plants. These oil producing glands are clearly visible under a
microscope.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=raceme) is 4-12 cm long [10] and grows axillary from a single stalk,
terminating at the insertion of 1-2 flowerstalks [9] or continuing for 1-3 additional nodes [9], rarely
branching, usually slightly shorter than the leaves and mostly with 2-6 flowers [9]. Flowers are red and
yellow with a total length of 2 cm [10] and flowerstalks to about 0.9 cm long [9]. The outer
flowerleaves (=sepals) are fused into a tube which is 3-5 mm long [9], with many hairs and glands and
a 4 mm long [9] lower lobe. The inner flower leaves (=petals) are hairless and about 14 mm long [9],
with a claw about 4 mm long [9]. "The majority of the flowers open between 11 am and 3 pm. They
are visited by bees and other insects" [10].
[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are green, green with purplish blotches, or purplish, linear egg-shaped with
a blunt or pointed tip, compressed and depressed between the seeds, about 4 x 1 x 0.3-0.4 cm [9] (3-
10 cm long [10]). The pods contain more number of oil producing glands than the leaves. There is
little or no shattering of dried pods in the field. Each pod contains 1-5 compressed egg-shaped or oval
2
seeds [9] (2-3 or 8-9 seeds depending on cultivar [10]) of various colors, about 6 x 4 x 1.5 mm [9].
Seeds are smooth and coated, with a white, greyish, brown, red, purplish or speckled color. The
whole seeds contain 18-29% protein and 48- 59% starch [10].
[2, 9, 10]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood properties]: "The energy content of the wood averages 1,450 kJ/100 g" [6].

Approximate limits: Cajanus cajan is probably indigenous to NE-Africa [10] or South Asia [2, 9] but is
now cultivated throughout the tropics at latitudes between 30°N and 30°S [10] (28°N to 15°S [5]). The
species is not found truly in the wild, thus its natural habitat conditions are uncertain. It prefers grassy
habitats in savannas, shrubland and wasted land and is not common in forests.
[2, 3, 5, 9, 10]

This species is normally grown at altitudes between sea level and 2,000 m a.s.l. [6, 9, 10] (200-2,000
m [5]), but in Venezuela some cultivars can be found as high as 3,000 m [13]. The annual rainfall
range for growth is reported to be 400 in semi-arid climate to 4,000 mm in humid climate [10] with the
optimum between 600-1,500 mm [10] (400-2,500 mm [9], 600-2,000 mm [5], 600-1,000 mm [6]). A dry
season of up to 6 months [5] is tolerated. The temperature range for growth is reported to be 10-45°C
[9] (15-40°C [2], 13-32ºC [5]) with the optimum between 18-38°C [6, 9, 10] (20-29ºC [5]). The absolute
minimum temperature should be more than 10ºC [5] and it is easily damaged by frost.
[2, 5, 6, 9, 10]


C. cajan is grown in a wide range of soils with varying physical and chemical characteristics. It thrives
in well drained, medium deep to deep sandy loams but will also grow in heavier soils. The major soils
are alluvials, vertisols and alfisols, with a pH range from 5 to 7 or more [6, 9] (the pH for successful
growth is reported to be 4.5-8.4 [10] with the optimum between 5.0 and 7.0 [10]). It is sensitive to
salinity and has not been produced on saline soils. The plant tolerates an electrical conductivity
(salinity) from 0.6 to 1.2 S/m [6]. It is also susceptible to waterlogging for more than 3-4 months [2, 9].
Poor fertility, sandy soils, and low moisture are however tolerated very well.
[2, 5, 6, 9, 10]

[Wood]: Cajanus cajan has a life span of 1-5 years [5], thus producing only timber in small
dimensions. The sticks are an important household fuel in many areas. "The heat value with 1,450
3
kJ/100 g [6] is about twice as high as the same weight of coal, and it has several advantages over
traditional trees, such as its rapid growth potential, possibility of producing other crops on the same
land, and production of a seed crop. Farmers sow it instead of grain because of its wood. Its
productivity levels more than make up for the comparatively poor fuel characteristics" [9]. Other uses
include light construction such as roofing, wattling on carts and tubular wickerwork lining for wells and
baskets (e.g. India). "On an experimental basis, C. cajan has been found to produce a pulp for paper
similar to that of hardwoods, and the pulp might be suitable for making good-quality writing and
printing paper" [9].
[5, 6, 9]
[Non-wood]: Food: "The seeds of C. cajan can be used as a vegetable. Very young pods are
harvested before the seeds are distinct and are cooked in curries or used to make relishes. The dry
seeds have several products such as tempe (a traditional Indonesian food prepared by fermenting
with a Rhizopus mould then soaked, dehulled and cooked legume seeds), and 'ketchup' (pigeonpea
sauce, a replacement for soy sauce in Indonesia that is made by fermenting C. cajan with Apergillus
oryzae). C. cajan flour (mixed with wheat to improve the protein level of baked products) and clear
noodles of a quality higher than that of mung bean are made from dehulled seed. Fresh seeds contain
vitamins, especially provitamin A and vitamin B complex. Per a 100 g edible portion, dry seeds
contain 7-10.3 g water, 14-30 g protein, 1-9 g fat, 36-65.8 g carbohydrates, 5-9.4 g fiber and 3.8 g
ash." [9].
Oil: "An essential oil can be collected by the steam distillation of pigeonpea leaves and other aerial
organs. It contains a mixture of compounds including the terpenoid alpha - copaene. The function of
this glandular secretion is unknown. It may have some insect repellent role. Such glandular hairs are

found on all aerial parts of the plants, except some parts of flowers such as petals and stamens" [9].
Fodder: "C. cajan fodder alone may be a bit low in energy. The leaves can provide a good substitute
for alfalfa in animal feed formulations, particularly in areas not suitable for alfalfa. The pods are used
as cattle feed but are limited by their low protein (15-24% of protein [2]) and high fiber content. They
have therefore been used as a roughage source for cattle. C. cajan grain has been successfully used
for poultry feed. In Hawaii, a mixture of equal quantities of cracked pigeonpea and cracked maize has
been proved the best poultry ration" [9].
Medicine: "It has many traditional uses as medicine. In Java, for example, the young leaves are
applied to sores, herpes and itches" [9].
[2, 9]
[Others]: It is often grown near houses to make fences and is useful as a tall hedge on dry soil and on
the bunds of paddy fields. It is often grown as a shade crop, cover crop or windbreak. "The root
system is reported to break plough pans, thus improving soil structure, encouraging infiltration,
minimizing sedimentation and smothering weeds. Leaf fall at maturity adds to the organic matter in
the soil and provides additional nitrogen. It seems to have special mechanisms to extract phosphorus
4
from black vertisol soils. Using the nitrogen-balance method, it has been proved in northern India that
long-duration C. cajan can fix up to 200 kg N/ha over a 40-week period" [9].
[5, 9, 13]

No class [1]

[General]: Cajanus cajan is not found truly in the wild, thus its natural habitat conditions are uncertain.
It prefers grassy habitats in savannas, shrubland and wasted land and is not common in forests. It
shows fair to good coppicing abilities and fixes nitrogen very well.
[Establishment]: Stand are established by using primarily direct sowing but also natural regeneration,
planting stock and wildlings. For monocropping systems, seeds should be sown in high densities
(50,000+ seeds/ha [2]) on well-prepared fields. Gaps may be filled later with seedlings grown from
containers.
[Management]: Cajanus cajan is usually grown as an annual [5] but also perennial [10] shrubby
legume. "For hedgerow intercropping, the hedges should be cut at height of 0.5-1 m when the grain
crop is fully mature. The hedges can be cut 2-3 times a year in areas where the dry season lasts 4-6
months. At pod maturity, branches of C. cajan are cut at about 0.5 m. Higher levels of pruning can
result in higher and unacceptable levels of plant mortality. As a field crop, C. cajan may be typified as
rather undeveloped. The tall genotypes particularly are cumbersome in cultivation. Weeds must be
controlled to prevent slow initial growth. Wind may bend the plants, but staking is not practised. In
intensive cropping of short-duration cultivars, irrigation may be required. C. cajan’s response to

fertilizers is rarely economic; a phosphate dressing is generally recommended at 20-100 kg/ha." [9]
[Pea harvesting and processing]: "Entire air-dried plants are threshed, usually by hand or with cattle,
and seed is cleaned. Clean bins prevent insect attack, which can be considerable. Storage as split
peas reduces bruchid attack. Processing includes dhal making,either wet (after sprinkling heaps of
seed) or dry, by milling. In the West Indies, canning and freezing of fresh pigeon peas is a million-
dollar export business, for instance to the United States" [6].
[Timber yield]: "In perennial crops, 2-10 tons/ha/yr [2] of woody stalks are harvested" [10].
[Seed yield]: "Pigeonpea is a relatively low yielding crop. The growth of pigeonpea is greatly
influenced by temperature. In traditional cropping systems, the highest pigeonpea yields, exceeding 4
tons per ha are obtained with late maturing cultivars, which grow well in frost free regions of north
central and north west India. The most important variable determining yield is pod number per plant,
or rather pod number per unit area. Earlier formed pods, are produced at the more basal nodes of the
branches and later formed pods at the more apical nodes. They contain almost the same number of
seeds. Moreover the seeds of the almost the same average weight. This indicates that the plants set
just as many or few pods as they are capable of filling." [10]
5
[Agroforestry]: "In Southeast Asia, C. cajan is grown as a support for vanilla. Due to its hardiness,
ability to grow on residual soil moisture, and slow early growth, C. cajan is an ideal, non-competitive
crop to plant with cereals. In traditional cropping systems, it is mixed with cereals, oil seeds, short-
season pulses or cotton, with the cereal as the main crop and C. cajan as the bonus crop. In Kenya, it
is an important food legume, cultivated commercially for dry seed and as a green vegetable. In
Zambia, smallholder farmers generally grow it in their backyards and around the fields of annual
crops. In Uganda, it is combined with millet in a cropping system. Also honeybees collect nectar from
the plant, which is an important honey source. The honey has a distinctive greenish hue in the comb.
C. cajan serves as a host for silkworm (in Madagascar) or the lac insect (in northern Bengal and
Thailand)" [9].
[2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: The pods are picked when the seed has reached physiological maturity
and is just beginning to lose its bright green color. There are 5,000-14,000 seeds/kg [9] (4-24 g/100
seeds [10]). Seed storage behavior is orthodox with no problems for long-term storage under
preferred conditions. They can be stored up to 4 months [2] in humid tropics, longer in drier regions.
No pregermination treatment of seeds is needed. Seedlings show no dormancy problems and the
hypogeal germination is generally good except in cool conditions. The most rapid germination of
seedlings occurs between 29 and 36°C [10]. Emergence is complete 2-3 weeks [9] after sowing.
[Propagation]: Direct seeding is the best method, however stand establishment is also possible by
using natural regeneration, planting stock and wildlings. Stem cuttings rarely succeed.
[2, 5, 9, 10]

[Pests]: "Because of its long flowering period, damage by pests such as agromyza fruitflies and
heliothis borers may be compensated for by renewed flushes. Chemical control is cumbersome and
expensive in the tree’s tall, indeterminate forms" [9]. Nodules can also be damaged by the larva of a
fly Rivellia angulata. The seed oil of Cajanus cajan is slightly sticky in nature, probably one of the
reasons why egg parasitoids have not been very successful in controlling the pod borers in pigeon
pea. Other insect pests include: Exelastis atomosa, Helicoverpa armigera and Melanagromyza
obtusa.
[9, 10]
[Diseases]: "C. cajan has more than 100 pathogens. They include fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes
(cyst nematode, reniform nematode, root-knot nematode) and mycoplasm-like organisms. A disease
of economic importance is fusarium wilt (Fusarium udum), which is found in Bangladesh, Ghana,
Grenada, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritius, Nepal and Tanzania. Control measures include
cultural practices like rotation with tobacco over several years and breeding for resistance. Sterility
mosaic is the most important disease of C. cajan in India and Nepal. Others include phytophthora
blight and cercospora leafspot" [9]. Other fungi are Gibberella indica and Heterodera cajani.
6
[9]
S. Conservation :

[Native]: India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan
[9]
NE-Africa
[10]
[Introduced]:
Afghanistan, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Brazil,
Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, El Salvador, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Fiji, Ghana, Grenada, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritius, Nepal, New
Zealand, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Thailand, Uganda, United States of America,
Zambia, Zanzibar, Zimbabwe.
[9]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Growth Analysis]: "The growth rate is linearly related to Leaf Area Index (LAI) and is greatest at the
highest population density. On the other hand, dry matter and leaf number per plant declined at
increasing population densities. In intercropping systems in which pigeonpea is shaded by a faster
growing companion crop such as sorghum, the growth rate and LAI are, not surprisingly, much lower
than in comparable pigeonpea grown as a sole crop. However, after the harvest of the intercrop, the
amount of light available to the plants is greatly increased. In an intercropping system, the roots of
different species have been found to intermingle freely with each other" [10].
[Photosynthesis]: "The rates of photosynthesis and transpiration in pigeonpea is relatively low. Light
saturation of photosynthesis occurs at only 1/3 full sunlight in young leaves and at less than 1/4 full
sunlight in old leaves. Peak photosynthesis occurred at lower light levels as the leaf aged, at around
800 microE/m²/sec in young leaves and 400 microE/m²/sec in old leaves. Pigeon pea leaves of all
ages had a similar efficiency of carbon fixation of 0.27 mg CO2/m²/(microE/m²) at very low light levels.
CO2 is fixed more slowly at low light levels, and transpiration rates is also reduced. During the dark
hours, pigeonpea leaves lose 0.25 micro grams H2O/cm²/sec/KPaVPD, equivalent to more than 5 g of
water per 100 cm² of leaf for a night with 80% relative humidity. Photosynthesis declines between -10
and -11 bars (1.0 amd 1.1 Mpa) leaf water potential and at -20 bars was close to zero. At -50 bars, tip
death of some branches results limited to leaves that were unfolding or younger" [10].
7
[Nutrient Uptake]: "Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium uptake takes place throughout the vegetative
phase and continue during the reproductive phase. During the growing season, the percentage
content of these elements in the various vegetative and reproductive organs declines. Nitrogen
percentage in the leaves declined from a maximum of around 5% to 1.5% at the time of abscission,
and of phosphorus from 0.3% to less than 0.1% showing that over two - thirds of the content of these
elements were remobilized during the process of leaf senescence. Remobilization from the leaves can
account for most of the nitrogen in the seeds and for at least half the phosphorus" [10].
[Pod set]: "As many as 90% of the flowers of Pigeon pea are shed without setting pods. Potential
fertile flowers in pigeonpea do not bear pods unless others are removed. Moreover due to the
perennial nature of pigeonpea, sufficient amount of nutrients must be retained for their survival and
continued growth of the vegetative structures. The relatively small proportion of assimilates partitioned
into the reproductive structures of pigeonpea, reflected in low harvest indices, may be related to their
intrinsic prenniality" [10].
Ali SI, 1973. Flora of Pakistan. Caesalpiniaceae. Karachi, Pakistan: University of Karachi.
[9]
Borkar SL, Patil PP, Ingle SN, 1996. Infestation of pod borers in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) as
influenced by different pesticides and spraying schedules. Journal of Soils and Crops, 6(2):146-
150.
[9]

Katayama K, Ito O, Matsunaga R, Adu-Gyamfi JJ, Rao TP, Anders MM, Lee KK, 1995. Nitrogen
balance and root behavior in four pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan]-based intercropping systems [in
India]. Fertilizer Research, 42(1/3):315-319; 14 ref.
[9]
Prasad K, 1995. Weed control in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) maize (Zea mays) intercropping system
under rainfed condition. Journal of Research, Birsa Agricultural University, 7(1):57-59; 4 ref.
[9]
Purseglove J.W. (1984) Tropical Crops - Dicotyledons

http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=527687
[9]
Rai RK, Singh KP, 1995. Efficacy of certain oilcake amendments on Heterodera cajani, Fusarium
udum and associated wilt of pigeonpea. International Journal of Tropical Plant Diseases,
13(2):213-219.
8
[9]
Rao DLN, Gill HS, 1995. Biomass production and nutrient recycling through litter from pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.). Bioresource Technology, 54(2):123-128; 8 ref.
[9]
Reed W, Lateef SS, 1990. Pigeonpea: pest management. The pigeonpea., 349-374; 27 ref.
[9]
Swaminathan C, 1996. Effect of bark leachates of multipurpose trees on germination and seedling
growth of maize, pigeonpea and sesame. Allelopathy Journal, 3(1):77-80; 8 ref.
[9]
Vandenbeldt RJ. 1988. Cajanus cajan: it’s more than just a pulse crop. NFT Highlights. Waimanalo,
USA.
[9]
van der Maesen, L.J.G., 1985. Cajanus DC. and Atylosia W. & A. (Leguminosae). A revision of all
taxa closely related to the pigeonpea, with notes on other related genera within the subtribe
Cajaninae. Agricultural University Wageningen Papers 85-4. 225 pp.
[9]
X. References:
Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock
Interational. 320pp.
[7] CTSP (Cambodia Tree Seed Project), 2003: Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed
Sector , Dec. 2003, Forest Gene Conservation Strategy-Part A: Conservation of Forest
Genetic Resources.
[8] Various Authors, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th), Muséum
National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
9
(Internet source)
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr.]
Datasheet Report
[Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. [2]
B. English name (s) ³ False kelat, freshwater mangrove, corkwood
C. Synonym ³ Carallia integerrima DC., Carallia lucida Roxb., Carallia

scortechinii King [26].
D. Other1 ³ meransi, sabar buku (Brunei); kitamiyang (Indonesia-
Sundanese); ringgit darreh (Indonesia-Sumatra-Kubu);
sepat, meransi (Indonesia Java); meransi, (Malaysia-
Peninsular); rabong, radipah (Malaysia-Sarawak); bakawan-
gubat (Philippines-general); anosep (Philippines-tagalog);
katolit (Philippines-Iloko); maniawga-yat (Burma); tra meng
(Cambodia); bong nang, halay, koueum (Laos); chiang phra
nang aer (Thailand-general);
ma m[ax], s[aw]ng, m[ar], sen d[ow], xâng mâ nguyên
(Vietnam) [2,17].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ RTEmg

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tromê:ng [4]

Other : Myrtales
Family: Rhizophoraceae
Gunus: Carallia Roxb. [17].
Species: Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. [17]
Source :[ 11 , 17]
1
[General]: Although Carallia brachiata belongs to the family Rizophoraceae and occasionally develops
stilt roots it is not a mangrove species. However, distribution in the coastal forests of northern
Australia and its name of sweetwater mangrove indicate that it is a species tolerant of stagnant water.
The lack of extensive information is partly due to the fact thatit occurs throughout its area of
distribution but remains a rare species.
A tree, 20-25 m high, sometimes up to 30 m; up to 50-60 cm in diameter. Trunk straight and

cylindrical; young branchlets flat , opposite, green, then turning brown-red [2]. A shrub or tall tree, 8-
30 m, occasionally with a few aerial roots, 1.0-1.5 m from the trunk´s bottom[4]. Evergreen tree, up to
20 m high, usually much smaller [5]. Shrubs or small to fairly large trees up to 36 (-50) m tall; bole up
to 50 cm in diameter, occasionally with small buttresses (up to 1 m high), sometimes with small stilt
roots or aerial roots at base[17].
[Bark]: Bark green-brown, thin and glabrous; inner bark red-brown [2]. Pale creamy-brown to warm
red-brown, quite smooth with many lenticels [5]. Bark surface smooth to finely cracking or shallowly to
deeply fissured, lenticillate, often hoop-marked, grey to reddish-brown or dark brown, inner bark
striate, yellowish-brown to pinkish-brown [17].
[Leaves]: Simple, opposite, stipulate. Leaf blade 4-10 cm long, 2.5-4.5 cm wide, variable in shape:
obovoid, oval or elliptic, apex mucronate, base cuneate, margin entire, dark green, glossy above,
greenish and obviously red-brown dotted beneath; penninerved. Petiole stout, 0.5 cm long. Stipule
subulate, embracing 2 young leaves at the branch tip; leaving a brown scar ring when falling [2].
Leaves 4-17 x 2.5-8.0 cm, simple, opposite-planar, oval to broadly obovate with blunt or abrupt tip and

slightly pointed base, untoothed or with scattered fine teeth. Mature leaves leathery, completely
smooth, glossy dark green above, yellow green with many tiny dark dots below. At least 15 pairs of
side-veins with many intermediate ones, looped near margin, mid-vein sunken above. Stalks 0.4-1.0
cm, stout. Buds narrowly conical, thinly coated with resin, enclosed by a pair of large (1-2 cm)
stipules, which fall early, leaving distinct ring scars. Twigs dark brown slightly swollen at nodes [5].
Leaves decussate, simple, elliptical to obovate or narrowly obovate, margin entire to dentate or
serrate, often with black dots beneath; stipules interpetiolar, lanceolate [17].
[Flowers]: Bisexual, minute, white clustered in axillary cimes, consisting of 3-5 flowers. Calyx
campanulate, with 4-8 irregular lobes. Petals 4-8, stalked, inserted at the margin of the disc. Filament
filiform, anther oblong. Ovary inferior, tetra-locular, style filiform [2].
Flower ±0.6 cm,white or pale yellow-green, bisexual, in head-like clusters (cymes), at leaf axils.
Individual flowers without stalk; main stalks 1.0-2.5 (-6) cm. Calyx bell-shaped with 5-8 short teeth, 5-8
free petals with short stalks, 10-16 slender stamens, petals and stamens attached to top of calyx tube
around a thin disc, 1 slender style with 3-4 lobed stigma, all parts completely smooth [5]. Flowers in a
sessile or peduncled cyme or solitary; bisexual, sessile or stalked, with 2 bracteoles; calyx (4-)5-8
2
lobed, petals 5-8, free, clawed; stamens twice the number of petals, generally free, unequal in length;
disc annular; ovary inferior or semi-inferior, 5-8 locular with 10-12 ovules in each cell (rarely 1-locular
with 10-12 ovules), stigma discoid or capitate [17].
[Fruit): A globose capsule, 0.5 cm in diameter, calyx persistent at the tip, orange when mature [2].
Fruit 0.5-1.0 (1.8) cm, pale reddish-orange to dark red-purple, globose with persistent calyx teeth at
top, slightly grooved fleshy with 1(2) large kidney-shaped seeds surrounded by a thin orange coating
(aril) [5]. Fruit a 1-celled berry, small, pulpy, crowned by floral remains, 1(-5)-seeded, pink to red when
ripe. Seed ellipsoid or reniform. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy, green, hypocotyl
elongated; all leaves opposite, in some species densely and sharply dentate [17]. Flowering March-
April in Thailand, fruiting September-November in Northern Australia [17].
I. Wood properties:
The species Carallia is a medium-weight to nearly heavy-weight hardwood, with specific gravity of
640-1050 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood buff or reddish-yellow, indistinct to moderately distinctly
demarcated from the paler, sometimes yellowish-white sapwood. Grain straight, interlocked or slightly
wavy; texture coarse and uneven due to the presence of large rays; wood with conspicuous silver
grain on radial surfaces. Growth rings indistinct or absent; vessels medium-sized to moderately large,
mostly solitary, but also in radial or tangential multiples of 2-3, usually blocked by tyloses, white
deposits common; parenchyma moderately abundant to abundant; paratracheal aliform to confluent,
and apotracheal in broad wavy bands, which often branch and diffuse but are not conspicuous; rays
of 2 distinct sizes, medium-sized to very broad, the broad ones conspicuous; ripple marks absent [17].
Shrinkage upon air-drying is low and the wood seasons well, but end splitting and surface checking
should be prevented by protecting the ends against rapid drying out. It takes 2 and 5 months,
repectively, to air-dry boards 13 mm and 38 mm thick. The wood is strong and it is easy to saw and
plane and takes a good finish. Immediately after sawing the timber should be treated with anti-stain
chemicals. To obtain the attractive silver grain, boards must be quarter-sawn, which limits their width
to about 20 cm. The wood is durable under cover, but in contact with the ground or when used outside
it is considered non -durable. It is susceptible to termite and marine borer attack. The absorption of
preservatives is moderate (95-130kg/m³); the sapwood is attacked by Lyctus [17].

Carallia encompasses 15 species which occur in Madagascar and from Sri Lanka and India to
Indochina and the Malesian region. However, most species have limited areas of distribution, but C.
brachiata occurs throughout the area of distribution [17].
Occurs in Madagascar, India, Indochina and Malesia and towards the Solomon Islands and Northern
Australia. In Vietnam C. brachiata occurs sparsely in tropical evergreen forest, particularly in
secondary forests of most provinces; it needs humid soils and grows along stream banks. In China,
India, Philippines, Malaysia and Vietnam [2]; in dense forests of plains and hills, clear water or salt
water formations [4]. It is a rare tree growing scattered in moist evergreen forests and in swamp
forest, in lowland to montane forests up to 1800 m elevation a.s.l. Also found in primary, less often in
3
secondary forests, in mixed dipterocarp forest, freshwater swamp forest, kerangas (heath forest), on
hills and ridges but mostly on peat soils or podsolic soils, rarely in savannas [17].

Occurs up to 1800 m elevation, in primary, less in secondary forests, rarely in savannas. Occurs
along margins of streams and swamps

not determined;

Preferably on peat soils or podsolic soils, needing humidity

[Wood]: Wood moderately valued, used in construction and general implement manufacture [2].
Applications in general construction, house building, posts, cabinet work, furniture, flooring, musical
insstruments, handles of spears or choppers, picture frames, ornamental veneers, panelling,
packaging and boxes. Suitable for railway sleepers, transmission posts and all kinds of novelty items.
Yields good fuelwood and charcoal [17].
[Non-Wood]: Applications in traditional medicine, e.g. juice generated by lacerating leaves believed to
reduce fever; pulverized bark rubbed on body in case of smallpox. Leaves and bark used to treat
sapraemia and and itching [17].

:3rd class [4]
Q. Propagation :
Carallia may be propagated by by seed or by cuttings, however, it seems that seed soon loses its
viability. Seed of C. brachiata achieved between 45% and 100% of germination in 1-3.5 months
including one seed lot which did not start to germinate until after 52 days. Seedlings may be kept in
the nursery for 2 years before outplanting in the field. Direct sowing was unsuccessful because of the
sensitivity of seedlings against drought. Seedlings require shade and outplanting into open sites will
be risky. Carallia coppices well and reproduces freely from root suckers [17].
4
S. Conservation :
Not an endangered species [17].

unknown

Native in Madagascar, Sri Lanka, India, Indochina through Malesia to northern Australia, introduced in
Papaua New Guinea .
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia
5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 859 pp.
X. References:
2) Nguyen, N.C. et al.: Vietnam Forest Trees, Hanoi 1997 788 pp.
915 pp.
336 pp.
pp.
20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor B, and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

(Internet source)
27) Wikipedia http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/species name (Internet source)
34) www.townsville.qld.gov.au/nad/PlantDisplay.asp?species (Internet source).
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Carica papaya L.]
Datasheet Report
[Carica papaya L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Carica papaya L.
B. English name (s) ³ papaya, pawpaw, melon tree [4]
C. Synonym ³
D. Other1 ³ lhong, doeum lahong (Cambodia); papaya, gedang, kates
(Indonesia); houng (Laos); papaya, betek,ketalah,

(Malaysia); thimbaw (Burma); papaya, kapaya, lapaya
(Philippines; malakor, loko mak uaithet (Thailand); du du
(Vietnam) [6], papaye (French); lechoza (Venezuela, Puerto
Rico, Philippines); fruta bomba (Cuba); mamâo (Brazil) [19].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ lðúg

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ lhông [4]

Other : Violales
Family: Caricaceae
Gunus: Carica
Species: Carica papaya L.
Source :[4 , 11]
1
[General]: A shrub, 2-8 m tall [4]; a fast-growing tree-like herb, 2-10 m high, 10-30 cm in diameter;
usually no branches, but it will branch if the top is cut off [6]; a tree, 6-8m tall, rarely branched, with a
green, soft-wooded stem, covered by triangle-shaped scars and a leaf cluster on the top [13]. A large-
leaved, fast-growing tree with soft wood, most varieties are dioecious, most important export variety is
"solo", with female and hermaphrodite flowers. Dioecious varieties need one male tree for 25 females
to insure sufficient fruit generation [19].
[Leaves]: Spirally arranged, clustered towards top of stem, with up to 1 m long leaf stalks and palmate
or deeply lobed leaf plates, 25-75 cm in diameter, smooth, prominently veined and toothed [6]. Very
large leaves on long stalks, digitally lobed [13].
[Flowers]: Cream-white to yellow, male, female or hermaphrodite on separate individuals and looking
somewhat different [6]. Mostly dioecious, inflorescences in leaf axils, male ones branched and
drooping, with narrow, funnel-shaped piped flowers, 4 cm long. Female inflorescences short and
branched fork-style, flowers larger, yellowish white [13].
[Fruit]: A fleshy berry, 7-30 cm long and weighing up to 10 kg. Skin thin, smooth, turning from green to
yellowish or orange when ripening. Flesh yellow to orange, soft, edible and sweet, with grey-black
seeds along central cavity [6]. Fruit melon-like in form, quite different sizes, from 500g to 1000g, but
also up to 10kg and more. The fruit varies in shape between globose-elliptic and oblong cucumber-
shaped. The flesh is whitish, deep yellow, orange or red with large differences in taste and a butter-
like consistency. The inner part of the fruit cavity is covered by pepper-corn-sized, grey-black seeds
with a taste resembling cresse-weed [13].

I. Wood properties:
The stem does not lignify and has no wood-technologically usable properties [13].

Carica originated in Central America, in Mexico and Brazil. From both countries exist prehistorical
descriptions of the fruit and its many medicinal uses. It occurs from the moist tropics to the subtropics
as far as located outside frost temperatures [19]. It reached Asia by the end of the 18th century, today
it is cultivated all-over Southeast Asia, Western Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. Not a
forest species but widely cultivated in plantations and on farms [6,13].

C. papaya is being cultivated in tropical and warm subtropical countries worldwide today [6,13]. Water
requirements are high, minimum is 1500 mm/m² equally distributed over the year. But under drier
climates mulching of the root area is recommended. Carica should be protected by windbreaks were
winds or storms occur to prevent breaking of the stem [19]. It thrives in warm areas with sufficient
rainfall and a temperature range of of 21-33ºC and occurs up to 1600 m or below the frost-risk zone
[6].
2
Not determined

C. papaya tolerates any kind of well-drained and not too dry soil, but it is sensitive to waterlogging and
flooding [6].

[Wood]: The stem does not produce wood [6].
[Non-Wood]: The ripe fruit is eaten fresh or used in salads, drinks, jam, candies. The green fruit is
finely cut and used in salads or cooked as vegetable [13,19].
Through scarifying of the green fruit one obtains an alkaloid, carpaine [6] and also latex from which
papain is extracted, purified and exported. Papain is the dried milky latex, it is a protein-spitting
enzyme. A single plant can produce up to 500 g/year, but the usual quantity is 100-150g. Selling fresh
fruit is economically more rewarding but papain is produced when fruit has no markets. It is normally
used in stabilizing beer, tenderizing meat, in dental and practical medicine, as a vermifuge and for
adding no-shrinkage properties to woolen and silk textiles [13,19]. The black seeds are edible, they
have a sharp, spicy taste [27].
Nutritional value per 100g [27].
Energy: 40kcal 160 kJ

Sugars 5.9 g
Dietary fibre 1.8
fat 0.14 g
protein 0.61 g
vitamin A 55 micro gram 6%
ß-carotene 276 microgram 3%
thiamin vitamin B1 0.04mg 3%
riboflavin vitamin B2 0.0mg 3%
niacin vitamin B3 0.338 mg 2%
vitamin B6 0.1mg 8%
vitamin C 61.8 mg 103 %
calcium 24 mg 2%
iron 0.10 mg 1%
3
magnesium 10 mg 3%
phosphorous 5 mg 1%
potassium 257 mg 5%
sodium 3 mg 0%
Tea prepared from flowers and leaves is applied in cases of food poisoning and as antidote in case of
poisoning. Damaged fruit as well as leaves make fodder for pigs. Leaves find pharmaceutical use
because of the content of the alcaloid carpain which is administered against amoebes and bacterial
infections [19]. Stem, leaves and roots are eaten in times of extreme food scarcity [4,19]. Papaya is
said to have supporting action on fat combustion and also to increase production of hormons including
sexual hormons in males and females [12]. In India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and other parts of the
world papaya has been longtime used as a contraceptive and for abortion. These effects were
confirmed in medical research with monkeys [27]. In ethnomedicine further uses are for the ripe fruit
as treatment against ringworm, green fruit against high blood pressure and aphrodisiac. The fruit can
be directly applied to superficial skin sores. The seeds are anti-inflammatory and analgesic and for the
treatment of stomach ache. The roots are used as an analgesic [27].

Not included [18]

Planting space is variable according to soil and site conditions, between 2x3m to 2x3.5 m. In
plantations the first fruit can be harvested towards the end of the first year. In the tropics flowering and

fruiting occur almost continuously, while in subtropical climate the cold season interrupts fruit
production. Yields are highest in the second year and may attain up to 60-80 t/ha under most
favourable conditions. Yields decline, reaching 50t/ha in the third year,and harvesting gets more
difficult with increasing height of stems. In commercial plantations trees are therefore kept for only 3-5
years [19]. Because of the softness of fruit and susceptibility to pressure they are predominantly
consumed in the producing countries [13,19].
Q. Propagation :
Normally papaya is propagated from seed. With fast-growing varieties 5 seedlings are set per planting
hole or adequate number of seeds. As soon as the first flower buds appear after 5 months seedlings
are thinned to leave just the desired number of male plants.

Carica papaya is threatened by a considerable number of noxious agents such as bacterial infections,
canker, rots, fungal infections, damping off, fruit rot (Monilia sp.), nematodes, phytoplasmal diseases,
as enumerated by the American Phytopathological Society [27].
4
S. Conservation :
Not a threatened species

All over the country on suitable soils

In tropical and warm subtropical climates the world over, native of Central America, introduced
elsewhere.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Becker S, 1958: The production of papain - an agricultural industry of tropical America. Economic
Botany, 12:62-79.
Brücher H, 1989: Useful plants of neotropical origin and their wild relatives. Useful plants of
neotropical origin and their wild relatives., 296 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters, many fig., many pl.].
Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991: Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts.
Nair PKR, 1980: Agroforestry species. A crop sheets manual. Agroforestry species. A crop sheets
manual., ix + 336 pp.; [1 fig., 20 pl. Publication no. ICRAF 003e]; many ref.
Conover RA, Litz RE, Malo SE, 1986: 'Cariflora' - a papaya ringspot virus tolerant papaya for South
Florida and the Caribbean. Hortscience, 21:1072.
5
X. References:
Bangkok, 234 pp.
336 pp.
pp.

(Internet source)

6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Cassia fistula L.]
Datasheet Report
[Cassia fistula L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Cassia fistula L. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ golden shower, golden rain tree, pudding-pipe tree; Indian
laburnum [4,6, 9,13].
C. Synonym ³ C. excelsia Kunth[9]; C.rhombifolia Roxb.; Cathartocarpus
fistulus (L.) Pers. [6]. Bactyrilobium fistula Willd., Cassia

bonplandiana DC., Cassia fistuloides Collad., Cathartocarpus
excelsus G. Don, Cathartocarpus fistuloides (Collad.) G.
Don, Cathartocarpus rhombifolius G. Don
D. Other1 ³ caneficier, casse en baton (French); riechhpühss(Cambodia);
ngu, ngu sahwe, pwabet (Burma); khuun, rajaphruek

(Thailand); khoun (general), Lom Leng (Sayaburi Prov.-
Laos); muóng hoà ng yén, bò cap nuóc (Vietnam) [2, 6].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ raCq<ws

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ riëch chhpühss [4]

Other : Fabales
Family: Caesalpinioideae
Gunus: Cassia L.
Species: Cassia fistula L.
Source :[2 ; 8 ; 13]
1
[General]: An evergreen or deciduous tree, 10-15 m high, 40-50 cm diameter [2,4, 6,9]. Deciduous
tree with rather narrow, deep crown and slender drooping branches [5]. Small to moderate-size tree
up to 15 m tall [6]. Deciduous tree up to 20 m high, up to 50 cm diameter, with large crown; branches
glabrous, spreading and drooping [8,13].
[Bark]: Bark pale brown, smooth or slightly cracked [5]. Bark greenish grey when young later turning
reddish brown and peeling off in in scales [6]. Bark pale brown or dark grey, smooth or slightly
cracked; inner bark reddish brown. Stipules small, usually falling early. Petioles 6-10 cm long, rhachis
15-20 cm long [8].
[Leaves]: Paripinnately compound, alternate, 15-25 cm long. Leaflets opposite, 3-8 pairs broad-elliptic
to oblong elliptic, 7-12 cm long, 4-6 cm wide, top acute, rarely obtuse, base broadly cuneiform,
glabrous on older trees. Petiole 7-10 cm long, petiolule 5-10 mm. Stipule small, caducous [2]. Leaf 30-
40 cm, with 3-8 pairs of leaflets, 7-12 x 4-8 cm, ovate-oblong, blunt at both ends, with silky hairs when
young, but completely smooth when mature, without glands. [5]. Compound leaves 30-60 cm long on
7-10 cm long stalks, with 3-8 pairs of leathery leaflets, each about 12 cm long and 6 cm wide [6].
Leaves paripinnate, 30-40 cm long. Leaflets opposite, 3-8 pairs, broadly ovate-elliptic, 7-18 by 4-8 cm,
base cuneate to obtuse, with silky hairs when young, glabrous when mature, without glands;
secondary veins numerous; petiolules 4-10 mm long [8].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, racemose, pendulous. Bract 8-10 cm long, caducous. Pedicel 15-25
mm long, glabrous. Sepals elliptic 5-10 mm long, tomentose outside. Petals yellow, broad elliptic, 30-
35 mm long, 10-15 mm wide, with short claw. Stamens 10, anthers and filaments unequal, anthers

pubescent. Ovary and style pubescent, stigma small [2]. Flower 3.5-5.0 cm, bright yellow, in drooping,
unbranched clusters, 20-40 cm long, usually on old branches, appearing just before the young leaves
sprout. Stamens 3 cm long, with a swelling in the middle of the filaments, 3 cm long, other stamens 5-
10 mm long, anthers smooth. Ovary and style with silky hairs [5]. Inflorescences axillary, clustered
racemes, 20-40 cm long, pendent, lax. Bracts 8-10 mm long, caducous. Pedicels 15-35 mm long,
glabrous. Flowers bright yellow. Sepals 5, ovate elliptic, 5-10 mm long, velutinous outside. Petals 5,
broadly ovate, 20-35 by 10-15 mm, subequal, claw short. Stamens 10, unequal, 3 long ones with
filaments 3-4 cm long, anthers 5 mm long opening by apical and basal slits, 4 shorter ones with
filaments 6-10 mm long, anthers opening by basal pore, reduced stamens 3 with filaments 3-5 mm
long and minute anthers. Ovary and style velutinous, stigma small [8].
[Fruit]: A pod, cylindrical, green when young, blackish-brown and indehiscent when mature, 20-60 cm
long, 1.5-2.0 cm wide, glabrous, pendulous [2,6,13].
Fruit a pod, 20-60 x 1.5-2.0 cm, black, smooth, usually hanging straight downwards like tubes, not
splitting, falling as one piece and breaking up into many small sections on the ground [5]. Pods,
pendulous, terete, tube-like, 20-60 cm long, 1.5-2.0 cm in diameter, indehiscent, glabrous, black.
Seeds numerous, 25-100, flat, elliptic, hard, 8-9 mm long. 5 mm wide, brown, glossy [2]. Seeds
separated by spongy septa, elliptic, flattened, 8-9 by 4-6 mm, glossy, brown [8]. The orange seeds are
2
tightly packed in a sweet, sticky pulp, eaten by birds and monkeys [9]. Flowering June-July [2];
flowering April to July, fruiting May to August [8]; main flowering season March-Mai [13].
I. Wood properties:
Sapwood and heartwood distinct, hard, heavy and durable [2,9]. Sapwood white, heartwood
yellow.[17] Specific gravity amounts to 835kg/m³ at 12% m.c.; grain straight to slightly interlocked,
difficult to season, cracks, splits, warps, difficult to work (with traditional tools); used for manufacture
and repair of traditional rural tools and implements, cart wheels, shafts, spokes, tool handles, posts for
houses, rice pounders, axe handles, plates for machinery, haarows,ploughs, boat spars, tent poles
toy and carvings. C.fistula yields good charcoal. Due to the limited availability of timber the trade is
also limited to local markets [12,17]. The wood is heavy to very heavy, very hard and strong with
straight to slightly interlock-grained and medium coarse-textured. It is diffuse porous with fairly distinct
growth rings. The heartwood is yellowish-red to brick-red or reddish-brown. The wood is difficult to
season, as it develops cracks, splits and warps; green conversion and stacking under cover is
recommended . The timber is very durable but it is also difficult to work, saw and machine [12].

Presumably a native species of the forests of Burma, India and Sri Lanka (9,13); distributed in Egypt,
India, Nepal, China, Indochina, Laos and Vietnam [2], Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia [8,12]. The limits
in north-south direction are approximately 30ºN to 10ºS. A tree of the open forest formations of
tropical Asia, occurring in moist forest, mixed deciduous and dry deciduous dipterocarp forest,and
coniferous forest, often cultivated as roadside tree [4,5,8,12].
In Indonesia found in lowland monsoon forests associated with Acacia leucophloea, (Roxb.) Willd.,
Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr., and Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. [16] but also in dry-deciduous
forest [9].

C. fistula grows in a dry (sub)tropical climate, with average annual temperature of 25ºC., mean annual
rainfall over 1200 mm/m², 4 months dry season. It is a neutral tree inclined towards light-demanding,
young trees slightly shade-demanding and drought-tolerant. Occurs from sea level up to 1,000 m asl
[2,8]. Altitudinal range 0-1200 with 500-3000 mm/ m² of rain distributed over the summer with 2 peaks.
The dry season should last 4-5 months with a mean annual temperature of 18ºC-29ºC [12]. C.fistula is
adaptable and will tolerate, at least survive, drought, fire, weeds, shade, and react with formation of
suckers or coppicing after having been cut [12].

not determined
3
The soil tecture should be medium with unimpeded drainage, and a slightly acid soil reaction. Suitable
soils are granitic, lateritic, sandstone or tropical soils, but C.fistula will survive in areas with brackish
water. C.fistula occurs in dry forest and in moist forest, it develops a shallow root system, it is drought
but not frost hardy, it can survive wind, fire, drought weeds and shade [2,8,12].

[Wood]: The reddish heartwood is used in construction, for implements, and agricultural tool-making.
[2,8,9]. The wood is used for ploughing tools and pillars [4]. C. fistula provides a useful timber which is
widely used on a local scale within its natural area of distribution. The wood is used for wheels and
shafts of carts, turnery, tool handles, ploughs, harrows and rollers, house building posts, rice
pounders, bows, for boat spars, and bed plates for machinery; also for tent poles and tent pegs, toys
and carvings for making high-grade charcoal and for boat building, furniture, pick-axe and axe
handles, mallet heads, railway keys and similar articles where strength and toughness are primary
considerations. Although C. fistula timber has very good properties, its limited availability means that it
is not widely traded on a commercial scale [12,27].
[Non-Wood]: TThe fruits, because of the pleasant smell, are used to perfume tobacco leaves [4]. The
pulp of fruits and the bark are often chewed with betel nut leaves. The marrow is edible and an
additive (manna) to laxatives, as are the dried leaves [13]. Santal people of India eat the flowers.
The bark is rich in tannin and yields a dye. The bark of C. fistula has a tannin content of about 10-12%
(CSIR, 1948). It can be a substitute for wattle (Acacia spp.) tannin [12].

C. fistula is a source of natural dyes. A powder prepared from C. fistula seeds has pesticidal
properties while extracts from the flowers have been reported to have fungicidal properties [12].
C.fistula is also used in local medicine as remedy after scorpion stings and snake bites.[2,4,8]. Pods
and seed used as a laxative in the Middle East and India [8,20].
In Indonesia the flowers and leaves are used as a purgative and the roots for treating scabies and
skin ulcers.[9] Because of the rich and brilliant flowering C. fistula is called the golden shower [9] and
it is frequently planted for ornamental purposes[8,9].
The roots, bark, seeds and leaves of this species are used in traditional medicine. They are reported
to have a wide range of medicinal properties and are used to treat many ailments. Many chemical
compounds have been isolated. An antidiabetic herbal drug preparation from this species has been
tested [12]. In Ayurveda medicine and practice medications are applied which have been
manufactured from the seeds, buds,and fruit. The seeds are said to be an emetic.
Comparable applications in traditional medicine are reported from Zimbabwe and Ghana. In Est Asia
the uncooked pod pulp is used against constipation, in the Caribbean Islands pulp and leaves are
used for treatment of a variety of afflictions [20,22].
4
(Others]: In Sri Lanka the flowers are offered in religious ceremonies in pagodas [12].
The Golden Shower Tree, called Dok Khuen, is the national flower of Thailand, indicating the
appreciation of the people for the rich flowering of this species. It is also the flower of the State of
Kerala in India. In ceremonies in honor of the God Vishnu flowers of C. fistula are part of the ritual [20,
22,27].
C. fistula is an ornamental tree (Venkataramany, 1968) that can also be planted for restoration of
degraded lands. Since C. fistula is not palatable to domestic animals , it may be suitable for
reforestation of areas which have become overgrazed [12].
"Seeds contain 24% crude protein, 4% crude fat, 7% crude fiber, and 50% carbohydrates with a 81%
in vitro digestibility. The foliage contains 16% crude protein, 40% carbohydrates with a 88% in vitro
digestibility [20].

not included

C.fistula is a slow-growing tree, but flowering at an early age [5]. Stand establishment can be
achieved with stump plants, planting stock, also by direct sowing, less fast by natural regeneration.
However, it is seldom raised in plantation and yield data do not exist [12].
Q. Propagation :
C. fistula is not grown in plantations therefore yield information and management experience are
rare[12].
However, direct sowing, stump plants and raising nursery stock from fresh seeds are viable methods.
Planting for ornamental purposes is still the predominant reason for raising planting stock from
seedlings [9].

Of 8 known insect species 2 are really dangerous and need control: Eurema blanda and Xyleutes
persona. E. blanda feeds on young plants in nurseries and at times migrates in large swarms. The
larvae of X. persona, the bee hole borer, bore into the stems of young plants or into branches of older
trees. It occurs in Sri Lanka, Burma and China, the moths emerging from February until October.
Catopsilia pomona form crocale, Catopsilia pomona, Catopsilia pyranthe, Indarbela quadrinotata,
Nephopterix rhodobasalis are controllable. Felling and burning affected trees seems the best control
measure [12]. Three species of fungi can cause damage on leaves of grown trees and seedlings, but
can be controlled with fungicides: Glomerella cingulata, Khuskia oryzae and Phyllactinia guttata, are
causing mildew on leaves [12].
5
S. Conservation :
not an endangered species [9].

unknown

Pan-tropical to subtropical ornamental tree, predominantly in Asia and SE Asia, native,
introduced and naturalized in many tropical countries of America and Africa [5,13].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Genus Cassia is a regular component of open, dry forests. Many of its species produce beautiful
flowers, often the year aound. Besides C. fistula the following are widely planted and cultivated: C.
grandis, a large tree from tropical America, with pink flowers;
C. javanica, a native of Java, with pinkish-white flowers;
C. marginata from Sri Lanka and India, with pink-coloured flowers in July and August;
C. moschata, a tall tree in tropical America, flowers orange to salmon-pink;
C. multijuga, from tropical America, flowers bright yellow in upright racemes;
C. nodosa, from Malaysia, flowers bright pink in large tufts along the entire shoot length [13].
FAO (Gohl, 1981) reports the leaves to contain, on a zero moisture content basis, 17.6 g protein, 66.8
g total carbohydrate, 30.2 g fiber, 7.8 g ash, 3 270 mg Ca, and 330 mg P per 100 g. Flowers contain
ceryl alcohol, kaempferol, rhein, and a bianthroquinone glycoside, which on hydrolysis, yields fistulin

and rhamnose. Leaves contain rhein, rheinglucoside, and sennosides A and B. The rootbark contains
tannin, phlobaphenes, and oxyanthraquinone substances, which probably consist of emodin and
chrysophanic acid; also contains (bark and heartwood) fistuacacidin, barbaloin, and rhein. Stembark
contains lupeol, beta-sitosterol, and hexacosanol" [20].
Murthy VK, Rao TVP, Venkateswaran V 1967: Chemical examination of Cassia fistula L. Tetrahedron
23(1):514-518
Misra TN, Singh RS, Pande HS, Pandey, RP, 1996: Chemical constituents of hexane fraction of
Cassia fistula pods. Fitoterapia 67(2): 173-174;6 ref.
Krishnamurthy T, 1993:Minor forest products of India. New Delhi, India:Oxford&IHB
Vishnava MM, Tripathi AK, Gupta KR 1993: Constituents of Cassia fistula roots. Fitoterapia 64(1):
93;14 ref.
Abraham KJ, Daniel M, Sabins SD, 1988: Phytoalexins of Cassia fistula L. and Morinda tomentosa
Heyme: National Academy of Science Letters 11(4): 101-102;5 ref.
6
Barthakur, NN, Arnold, NP, Alli,I, 1995: The Indian Laburnum(Cassia fistula L.) fruit. an analysis of
chemical constituents. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 47(1):55-62[1 pl]; 22 ref.
Khanna, RK, Subhash, Chandra, 1996: Forest/Domestic waste as a source of natural dyes. J. of
Economic & Taxonomic Botany 20(2):497-500;
Kashiwada Y, Iizuka H, Yoshioka K, Che RF, Nonaka G, Nishioka I 1990: Tannins and related
compounds, XCIII. Occurrence of enantiomeric proanthocyanidins in the Leguminosae plants Cassia
fistula L. and C. javanica. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 38(4):888-893;13 ref.
Fagbayide JA and Fawusi MOA 1994: Comparative studies in seed germination and seedling
management in Cassia fistula L. and Cassia nodosa (Buch-Ham ex Roxb). Indian Journal of
Agriculture Research 28(2):133-140.
Chowdhury SA, Kamal AKMM, Alam MN, Gafur MA, Ray BK, Ahmed K, Faruq O, 1996. Sennoside,
B. rich active concentrate from Cassia fistula. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial
Research, 31(2):91-97.
Irwin HS, 1964. Monographic Studies in Cassia (Leguminosae - caesalpinioidae) I Sect. Xenocalyx
Memoirs, New York Botanical Garden, 12(1):1-114.
IMorimoto S, Nonaka GI, Chen RF, Nishioka I, 1988. Tannins and related compounds. LXI. Isolation
and structures of novel bi- and triflavonoids from the leaves of Cassia fistula L. Chemical &
Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 36(1):39-47; 9 ref.
Prakash A, Rao J, Gupta SP, Behra J, 1993. Evaluation of botanical pesticides as grain protectants
against rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae Linn. Botanical pesticides in integrated pest management., 360-
365; 17 ref.
Pearson and Brown, 1981
Rao and Purkayastha, 1972,
X. References:
2) NGUYEN et al. 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.
4) DY PHON, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915
pp.
pp.
7
Bangkok, 234 pp.
13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical
pp.

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=. (Internet source).

8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Cassia javanica L.]
Datasheet Report
[Cassia javanica L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Cassia javanica L.
B. English name (s) ³ pink shower (Engl.) [17]
C. Synonym ³
D. Other1 ³ Johar (trade name); bobondelan (Indonesia-Sundanese);
boking-boking (Indonesia-Sumatera); trengguli (Indonesia-

Javanese) bebusok, busok-busok; (Malaysia-Peninsular);
antsoan (Philippines-Bikol); bo pruek, (Cambodia); khoun
loy, (Laos); chaiyaphruk, kalapaphruk (Thailand-central);
kalaphruk (Thailand-northern); b[uf] c[aj]p. [17] Muóng Hoa
Dào (Vietnam)[2].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ bURBwk

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ bô prük [4]

Other : Fabales
Gunus: Cassia L.
Species: Cassia javanica L.
Source :[ 17]
1
[General]: A medium-sized tree, deciduous, 7-15 m, [4]; 10-20 m in height, and 60 cm or more in
diameter. Crown large, umbellate [2,5]. A semi-deciduous, small to medium-sized, sometimes fairly
large tree up to 25 (-40) m tall; bole often curved, up to 60 cm in diameter, small buttresses
sometimes present, trunk of young trees and branches either smooth or spiny [17].
[Bark: Brownish grey, not fissured and bearing many lenticels. Inner bark pink, 6-8 mm thick. Twigs
tomentose, then glabrescent and brown [2]. Bark surface smooth sometimes shallowly longitudinally
fissured, greyish to pale brown or red-brown, sometimes blackish mottled, inner bark yellow to orange
[17].
[Leaves]: Paripinnately compound. Leaflets 6-10 pairs, ovate, top obtuse or slightly pointed, few
tomentum when young, then glabrous, 5-6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. Lateral veins 15-18 pairs,
slightly evident; venules reticulate. Petiole 10-15 cm long. Stipule acutely ovate, blade cordate [2].
Leaflets 2.5-5.0x1.5-2.5 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, distichous, with up to 17/-20) pairs of leaflets;
stipules 2-lobed, caducous [17].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, consisting of many corymbs, 15 cm or more, long. Rhachis

pubescent. Bract looks like stipule. Bud globose or ovoid. Sepals nearly equal, sparsely pubescent at
the back. Petals ovate, 20-25 mm long and 9-11 mm wide, apex obtuse or mucronate, light pink.
Stamens 10, unequal. Ovary slightly pubescent, stigma obtuse [2]. Flowers in upright clusters behind
leaves [5].
Flowers in an axillary or terminal, many-flowered, subsessile, distinctly bracteate raceme, 5-merous,

calyx deeply divided, lobes firm, imbricate, reflexed; petals widely spreading, whitish to reddish or

buff; stamens 10, irregularly accrescent towards the abaxial side of the flower, longest ones S-
shaped; ovary superior, linear and curved, stigma terminal or subterminal [17].
[Fruit]: A pod, cylindrical, slightly articulate, 35 cm long or more, 15-20 mm wide, containing a lot of
large, ovate seeds [2]. Pods 20-60 cm, black, cylindrical, not splitting. [5]. Fruit a woody, pendulous,
short-stiped, linear pod with septa between the numerous seeds, indehiscent, dark brown to black.
Seed brown, smooth and glossy, lying transversely in the pod [17].
Seedling with epigeal germination, cotyledons emergent, semi-fleshy; first few leaves arranged
spirally. C. javanica trees show Troll´s architectural model, with sympodial growth and all axes
plagiotropic, the architecture being built by their continual superposition. In East Java C. javanica
flowers in October-December and fruits in the dry season. It has been observed flowering and fruiting
in a mast fruiting year in Peninsular Malaysia [17). Flowering in October-November, fruiting in
February-April [2].
I. Wood properties:
Wood light yellow with coarse grain, with poor resistance to termites and other insects. C. javanica
yields a light-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 400-875kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood pale
yellow when fresh, turning red or pale orange brown with age, demarcated sharply or not sharply from
2
the 2-5 cm wide sapwood; grain is interlocked; texture moderately fine, taste bitter [17]. Growth rings
not always distinct , the boundaries indicated by a fine line of parenchyma forming a more or less
distinct, but interrupted ring; vessels medium-sized to moderately large, solitary and in radial pairs,
reddish gummy deposits in many vessels; parenchyma abundant, apotracheal diffuse, and
paratracheal vasicentric, aliform to confluent, the latter connecting 2-4 vessels; rays very fine, not
visible to the naked eye, ripple marks occasionally locally just discernible.
Shrinkage of the wood is low; it seasons well with little or no degrade. The wood is hard and strong. It
works well and finishes well. The sapwood is very perishable, the heartwood moderately durable
when exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground, but very durable for interior work. The
sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle attack [17].

Cassia in the narrow sense comprises about 30 species with a pantropical distribution. Only a few
species occur naturally in tropical Asia and only 3 in Malesia. It occurs in India, Burma, Indochina,
Southern China, Thailand and throughout Malesia. [2,4,17] (In contrast to the country called Malaysia,
Malesia defines a larger region of homogenous botanical structure including the Malay Archipelago,
Indonesia, Pacific Islands, Thailand, Indochina, Burma, southern China and Queensland in northeast
Australia. (Whitmore, T. C. 1993)). C. javanica has been planted for so long that the natural area of
distribution is difficult to reconstruct. Geographically the north-south limits of the area of distribution
are given as 4ºN to 21ºS. [12]. C. javanica is also planted as an ornamental tree in Central and South
America. C. grandis L.f. and C. fistula L. have been introduced into the Malesian area for ornamental
purposes [17].

C. javanica is usually found in more open sites in the forest, up to 400 m altitude, but can also occur in
closed evergreen primary forest. It is often naturalized in secondary forests close to locations where it
has been planted. C. javanica is not resistant to fire [17].
It is light-demanding and fast growing, occuring along streams, at mountain foots, or at the edges of
tropical evergreen or deciduous forests, below 800 m a.s.l.[2]

unknown

The tree likes humid, deep soil, usually occurs in mixed stands with Alangium kurzii, Schima crenata
and Syzygium zeylanicum [2]. In Java it has been reported from fertile volcanic loams, and from
marshy, sandy and limestone soils [17].
3
[Wood]: Cassia javanica L. is the only species with some importance as a timber tree [17].
The wood of a few Cassia species, particularly C. javanica, is used for general construction, furniture
and cabinet making. The wood is also suitable for posts, sawn or hewn timbers for house
construction, smaller pieces for fuelwood or charcoaling [12]. Some of the introduced ornamental
species may grow into medium-sized trees and may provide timber of larger dimensions when cut.
[Non-Wood]:C. javanica is also an attractive ornamental tree [2,17]. It is extensively used as an

ornamental and roadside tree, particularly forms of subsp. agnes (de Wit.) K. Larsen with larger
flowers.
Some species are highly valued medicinal plants (e.g. C.fistula). The fruit is considered a laxative,
seeds can be chewed with betel. The wood is used in a decoction for young mothers [4]. The pods
and seeds are used in local medicine as a purgative[17].
The bark has been used for tanning leather, although the tannin content is rather low with about 12%
[17]. In another application the bark and seeds are used as antipyretic [22).
In agroforestry land use systems C. javanica can be planted as a shade and fuelwood tree but it is
also valuable in view of its soil improving properties [12].

not included

No data are available on experience gained with the plantations established in Java. C. javanica
tolerates shade and extended drought; it can coppice and pollard; seed storage is orthodox but for a
limited time only. Stand establishmen succeeds best with stump plants, through natural regeneration
or with planting stock [17].
Q. Propagation :
"C. javanica can be propagated by seed or by vegetative means. There are 5700-8400 dry seeds /kg.
Pods can easily be collected from the ground, but have to be opened with a chopping knife. Seed
storage is variable: Fresh seed can only be stored for 6 weeks in airtight containers, but storing dry
seeds for over one year has also been reported. Seeds start to germinate after 7 days and 80% of the
seedlings appear within 14-30 days. The germination rate is about 70%; 50% of the seeds sown yield
good plants. Other records, however, show a germination rate of 20-65% in 5 days to well over 1
year. For India, where late and prolongued germination is a problem, it is reported that mechanical
scarification may be used to overcome seed dormancy. The planting of large cuttings of C. javanica in
the Philippines was unsuccessful as only 10% of the cuttings survived. Air-layering failed altogether
[17].
4
S. Conservation :
not an endangered species nor threatened by genetic erosion [17]

unknown

Pantropical, in India, Burma, Southern China, Indochina, Thailand and throughout Malesia where it is
naturalized; C. javanica is a native species of Java [17].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
"C. javanica trees show Troll´s architectural model, with sympodial growth and all axes plagiotropic,
the architecture being built by their continual superposition. In East Java, C. javanica flowers in
October-December und bears fruit in the dry season. It has been observed flowering and fruiting in a
mast fruiting year in Peninsular Malaysia.
Until the beginning of the 1980´s, Cassia was considered to be a very large genus of over 500
species, but then the genus was split into 3 genera: Cassia s.s. includes far fewer species than the
latter 2 genera, that have approximately 270 and 250 species, respectively. C. javanica is very
polymorphic and several subspecies are distinguished, e.g., C. agnes (de Wit.) Brenan, C. bartonii
F.M." [17]
C. javanica is worth trying as a timber plantation tree. It is considered to grow comparatively fast and
may provide timber of fair quality. In addition it is an attractive tree, offering the potential of combining
its uses as an ornamental and timber tree.
Guzman E de, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED, 1986: Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Resources
Management Center, Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines. Manila,
Philippines: JMC Press Inc.
Gupta RK, 1993: Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India:
Oxford & IBH.
Hocking D, 1993: Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands. xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by Oxford
& IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref.
Luna RK, 1996: Plantation trees. Plantation trees. xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections].
Singh SP, 1989: Wasteland development. Wasteland development. xx + 227 pp.; 96 ref.
5
Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S, eds. 1998: Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No 5(3).
Timber trees: lesser-known timbers. Leiden, Netherlands; Backhuys Publishers.
Todaria NP, Negim AK, 1992: Pretreatment of some Indian Cassia seeds to improve their
germination. Seed Science and Technology, 20(3):583-588; 10 ref.
X. References:
2) NGUYEN et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi, 788 pp.
4) DY Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,. 915 pp.
pp.
13) Baertels, A.1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas Tropical
17) SOSEF, M.S.M., HONG, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of
pp.
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Cassia siamensis (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby]
Datasheet Report
[Cassia siamensis (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Cassia siamensis (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby
B. English name (s) ³ Thailand shower [2], Bombay blackwood, ironwood,

Kassaof tree, kassod tree, Siamese acacia, Siamese senna,
Thai copper pod, yellow cassia [5]
C. Synonym ³ Cassia arayatensis Naves, Cassia florida Vahl, Cassia
siamea Lam., Senna sumatrana Roxb., Senna siamea [5]
D. Other1 ³ cassia (France) [5] - minjiri (Bangladesh) [5] - johar,

johor (Indonesia) [5] - beati, kassod, kilek, manjakonnai,
manje-konna, minjori, minjri, ponavari, sima-tangedu,
simaiavari, simethangadi, vakai, vakoi (India) [5] - khi lek
(Laos) [5] - wa (Sri Lanka) [5] - johor, juah, petai belalang
(Malaysia) [5] - casia (Nepal) [5] - robles, Thailand shower
(Philippines) [5] - minjri (Pakistan) [5] - khi lek ban, khi lek
yai, kilek, phak chili (Thailand) [5] - mu[oof]ng (Vietnam) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: GgÁan

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ angkanh' [1]

Other : Leguminosales/Fabales
Family: Caesalpiniaceae
Gunus: Cassia
Species: Cassia siamensis
Source :[ 5]
1
[General]: Medium-sized evergreen tree with an average height of 20 m [2] (5 m in arid conditions [2]).
Crown dense, round and spreading. Bole 2-3 m tall with a DBH of 50 cm [2] at maturity. Root system
shallow with a radius of 7 m [8] in the 1st year, later up to 15 m [8], which can easily be uprooted by
strong winds.
[Bark] The bark is smooth, grey and slightly longitudinally fissured. .
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, pinnately compound, 23-33 cm [8] (15-30 cm [5]) long, with
slender, green-reddish, tinged axis. Leaflets in 6-12 pairs [8] (6-14 [5]) on short stalks of 3 mm,
oblong, 3-7 cm long, 12-20 mm wide, dark green, rounded at both ends, with a tiny bristle tip.
[Flowers]: The flowers are in clusters, upright at ends of twigs, large branched, 20-30 cm long, 13 cm
broad, with many bright yellow flowers 3 cm across, with five similar flower parts. Outer flower leaves
(=sepals) overlapping like roof tiles, blunt at the apex, inner flower leaves (=petals) subequal to
heteromorphic, yellow. Male organs (=stamens) 10, facing away from the flower axis; filaments
straight and not more than twice as long as the anthers. Female organs (=ovary) superior, linear and
curved. Flowering period is July-December, fruiting January-April.
[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are numerous, long, narrow, 5-25 cm long, 12-20 mm broad, flat, dark
brown, strap shaped, with a long stalk, cylindrical to compressed, dehiscent (=opening spontaneously
when ripe), with partitions between the numerous seeds. Seeds are bean-shaped, shiny, dark brown,
8 mm long, with distinct areole.

[2, 4, 5, 8]
I. Wood properties:
Medium-weight to heavy hardwood with a density of 0.6-1.01 g/cm³ [8] at 15% moisture content. The
heartwood is black-brown with paler streaks, sharply demarcated from the 6 cm wide, pale sapwood.
The grain is interlocked and occasionally straight. Texture is slightly coarse but even. shrinkage of the
wood during seasoning is moderate to high but it seasons with little degradation. Wood is resistant to
termites, strong, durable, difficult to work, with a tendency to pick up in planing and it takes a high
polish. Sapwood is permeable to pressure impregnation. "Wood sawdust can cause irritation when in
contact with the skin" [5]. The sapwood should be removed as soon as possible after felling to prevent
insect attack of the heartwood.
[5, 8]

C. siamensis originates from the secondary forest formation of plains in Southeast Asia but was
cultivated in the other tropical regions of the world in various types of lowland forests. In Cambodia, it
is planted in the big cities as a shading tree.
[3, 4]
2
C. siamensis can grow at altitudes of up to 1,380 m a.s.l. [5] (0-1,000 m [8], 300-500 (-1000 m) [9])
under a wide variety of climatic conditions ranging from humid (mean annual precipitation: 2,800 mm
[5]) to arid (400-500 mm [5, 8]). In India a minimum of 1,000 mm [5] rainfall is recommended for a
good development. However it is particularly suited to lowland tropics with a monsoon climate. It can
endure dry seasons with a length of 4-6 months [5] (4-8 months [8]). Mean annual temperature: 21-
24°C [4] (20-28°C [5]). Absolute maximum temperature is 24-36°C [5]. Regarding light requirements it
is a neutral tree, inclining towards light demanding [4] (it is a strong light demander [5]). It is
susceptible to cold and frost. When mature, it is drought-resistant, but seedlings cannot withstand
prolonged drought, and are also susceptible to fire" [5]. It will grow only when its roots have access to
groundwater.
[4, 5, 8, 9]

Coastal Cardamons (B), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d).
[7]
The tree is able to grow on a variety of soils but prefers moist but well drained, deep and fertile
calcarous soils in flat terrain and hill slopes with a light to medium texture and a pH of 5.5-7.5 [2]. It
grows even fast in comparatively infertile soils. Denuded shallow soils are also tolerated but its growth
will stagnate in arid areas, with the tree becoming stunted after 4 to 5 years. Coppice growth will also
be reduced. It is sensitive to poor drainage but it will grow only when its roots have access to
groundwater. C. siamensis is suitable for use on fluvisols, vertisols, xerosols/calcisols, aerisol/alisols,
alfisols, ferrasols, lateritic soils and nitosol/nitisols according to FAO classification. "In West Bengal, it
has been grown in lateric soil after deep soil working" [5]. It is not suited for infertile soils due to its
inability to fix nitrogen.
[2, 4, 5, 8]

[Wood]: The high quality timber is used for sawn timber, wooden tools, poles, posts, general
construction, cabinetwork, pulpwood, fuelwood and charcoal. In Thailand, heartwood is used as a
tranquilizer and antipyretic for the treatment of venereal diseases.
[2, 3, 5, 9]
[Non-wood]: Leaves and seeds are used as fodder but are toxic for pigs. Young leaves and flowers
are used in curry. Leaves are also used in medicine as a laxative for the treatment of leucorrhoea,
and as a diuretic, flowers as an antihypertensive, tranquilizer and laxative. Especially in Cambodia a
decoction is used against scabies. It provides very useful mulch, especially in alley cropping systems.
3
A well-grown tree can yield 500 kg/year of fresh leaves. The tree is also a source for honey and
tannin.
[2, 9]
[Others]: It is used as a host-tree for sandalwood (Santalum album), and as a nurse crop for
Swietenia mahogani, to reduce borer attack. It is suited for intercropping, hedgerows, windbreaks,
shelterbelts, erosion control planting and for shade cocoa-, coffee- and tea-plantations. It is a common
shade tree, in many South East Asian towns and cities. It has been used to revegetate degraded
agricultural land and is planted in Taungya systems. It may be used as a shade tree for coffee. C.
siamensis does not fix nitrogen through Rhizobium symbiosis in nodules, although there is some
evidence that nitrogen-fixing activity may occur in the warty, lenticellate bark. Thus it is not
recommended for use on infertile soils [5].
[2, 5]

Luxury Class [3]

[General]: C. siamensis originates from the secondary forest formation of plains in Southeast Asia but
was cultivated in the other tropical regions of the world in various types of lowland forests. In
Cambodia, it is planted in the big cities as shading tree.
[Establishment]: Weeding is necessary in the 1st and 2nd year of growth. Moisture conservation (e.g.
trenching, microcatchments) helps in the establishment phase and accelerates the growth for trees

planted in semi-arid areas. In fuelwood plantations, spacing ranges from 1 x 1 m to 1 x 3 m [5] (2 x 2
m = 2,000 seedlings [2]). In hedges used for alley cropping or as a shelterbelt, spacing between
plants in the row should be 0.25-0.5 m.
[Management]: C. siamensis does not fix nitrogen. It is very fast growing. A height increment of 2.5
m/year has been recorded, and in West Bengal it can attain a height of 7.9 m with a stem girth of 24.1
cm in 3 years [5]. It reaches 15 m in height and 15 cm in DBH after 10 years [2]. Unless carefully
pruned, the tree ages ungracefully, the crown is becoming straggling and misshapen with upright and
drooping branches. It shows high coppicing abilities and is suitable for pollarding. In fuelwood
plantations the wood yield amounts up to 10-15 m³/ha/yr [2] or 74-198 t/ha at a rotation of 7-10 years.
It is used as a host-tree for sandalwood (Santalum album), and as a nurse crop for Swietenia
mahogani, to reduce borer attack. It is also important for intercropping, hedgerows, windbreaks,
shelterbelts, erosion control planting and to shade cocoa-, coffee- and tea-plantations.
[2, 3, 4, 5, 8]
Q. Propagation :
Propagation is practiced by stump plants, direct sowing and planting stock. "The seed storage
behaviour is orthodox. There are 35,000-45,000 seeds/kg [8]. Mature seeds have a hard seed coat,
4
and scarification is required. Immersion in concentrated sulphuric acid for 10-30 minutes has been
proven to be effective. With the 1st method, germination is about 90% within 60 days. Germination of
untreated seeds is about 75% in 4-29 days [8] (40% [2]). Viability can be maintained for 3 years in
hermetic storage at room temperature with 11-15% moisture content" [8]. "Net seedlings required per
ha: 2,500. Number of seeds needed: 10,420 seeds or 0.26 kg/ha. Seed purity: 95%. Germination rate:
40%. Rate of seedling-loss: 20% (3,000) in planting site, 10% (3,334) in transit and 20% (4,168) at the
nursery" [2].
[2, 5, 8]

[Pests]: Insect pests: C. siamensis is fairly resistant to termites but is susceptible to scale insects,
caterpillars (Eurema blanda) and defoliating insects. Some of these pests are: Catopsilia crocale,
which defoliates young plants; Xyleutes persona, a bee-hole borer; Indarbela sp., a caterpillar which
damages bark; Celosterna scabrator, which bores tunnels in the stem and roots; and caterpillars of
Labdia sp., which bore into dry pods. Other pests include Catopsilia pyranthe, Diapromorpha belteata,
Eurema blanda, Frankliniella schultzei, Indarbela quadrinotata, Megalurothrips distalis, Scirtothrips
bispinosus, Thrips tabaci, Xyleutes persona, Zeuzera coffeae. "It has been reported that the sapwood
should be removed as soon as possible after felling to prevent insect attack of the heartwood" [8].
[5, 8]
[Diseases]: Fungi: "Among the fungal diseases, Ganoderma lucidum causes spongy-rot and butt rot.
Fomes lucidus is a parasitic wound fungus that invades the tree through the roots, causing a white
soft decay in the lower stem. After the tree dies, the blood red sporophore appears. Phaeolus
manihotis (Polyporus baudonii) is a serious root disease causing dieback" [5].
[Others]: Erianthemum ulugurense has been reported to grow on the tree as a parasitic plant. "The
major disadvantage of the species is that it has a shallow root system, which make it susceptible to
strong winds" [5].
[Protection]: "Suggested control of pests and diseases includes biological control by parasites and
predators, slow release insecticides, use of pheromones and silvicultural methods" [5].
S. Conservation :

It is common in Kompong Thom, Siem Reap and Kampot [7]
5
[Native]:
Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, S-India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam
[Introduced]:
Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana,
Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Kenya, Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Sierra Leone, South Africa, St Lucia, St
Vincent and the Grenadines, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Virgin Islands (US),
Zambia
[3, 5, 8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[History]: It is widely planted throughout the tropics and is locally naturalized. Plantations were
established in the 1920s in Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone, mainly for its quality fuelwood.
[8]
Banik S, Nadaf AB, Bhosale LJ, 1995. Growth performance of Cassia siamea and Acacia
auriculiformis plantations under pit method. Journal of Non-Timber Forest Products, 2(1/2):63-66; 3
ref.
[5]
Faridah Hanum I, van der Maesen LJG (eds.). 1997. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 11.
Auxillary Plants. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands.

[8]
Farnsworth N.R. Bunyapraphatsara N. (1992) Thai Medicinal Plants Recommended for Primary
Health Care System.
[9]
Kannan D, Paliwal K, 1995. Effect of nursery fertilization on Cassia siamea seedling growth and its
impact on early field performance. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 8(2):203-212; 21 ref.
[5]
Kiepe P, 1995. Effect of Cassia siamea hedgerow barriers on soil physical properties. Geoderma,
66(1-2):113-120; 15 ref.
[5]
Kiepe P, 1996. Cover and barrier effect of Cassia siamea hedgerows on soil conservation in semi-arid
Kenya. Soil Technology, 9(3): 161-171.
[5]
6
Padma V, Satyanarayana G, Reddy BM, 1996. Studies on pre-sowing seed treatments in three
species of Cassia. Seed Research, 24(1): 51-54.
[5]
Pradhan PC, Behera BP, 1997. Efficiency of planting methods on establishment of Cassia siamea in
slopy red lateritic soils of Orissa. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 25(1): 86-87.
[5]
Rath B, Pradhan PC, Behera BD, Sahu D, 1997. Efficacy of planting methods and establishment of
Cassia siamea in slopy and red laterite soil of Orissa. Environment and Ecology, 15(1): 49-51.
[5]
[8]
Webb DB, Wood PJ, Henman GS. 1984. A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-tropical
plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers No. 15, 2nd edition. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford
University Press.
[8]
X. References:
[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations

[2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuel wood Research and Development Project.
Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International.
320pp.
[7] AUTHOR, 1973: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-nam (Fascicule 18th). Paris.

source).
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Casuarina equisetifolia L]
Datasheet Report
[Casuarina equisetifolia L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Casuarina equisetifolia L
B. English name (s) ³ coast she-oak, whistling pine, Australian pine,
Australian oak, horsetail beefwood, swamp oak, beefwood,

ironwood [1], redwood tree [2], Australian beefwood, beach
she-oak, beefwood tree, casuarina, common ru, horsetail
casuarina, horsetail tree, ironwood, sea pine, she oak,
swamp she oak, wild pepper [4], bull oak, whistling pine [9]
C. Synonym ³ Casuarina litorea L. [1], Casuarina equisetifolia J.R.
and G. Forster, Casuarina littoralis Salisb., Casuarina littorea

Oken., Casuarina muricata Roxb., Casuarina sumatrana
Jungh. [4]
D. Other1 ³ mu ma huang, pu tong mu ma huang (China) [1] –
casuarine a feuilles de prele, bois de fer, fialo, filao, pich pin,

pin d'Australie (France) [1, 4] - Eisenholz, Keulenbaum
(Germany) [4] - cemara laut, jemara laut, ai samara, aru,
eru, tjemara laut (Indonesia) [1, 4] - casuarina, jangli saru,

jau, savukku (India) [1] - mokumao, ogasawa matsu (Japan)
[1] - son th'ale, `sôn tha lé, pè:k namz, pêk nam², sôn th’ale
(Laos) [1, 4] - kasa ghas (Sri Lanka) [1] - pino australiano,
casuarina (Spain) [10] - tin yu, pink-tinyu, tin-yu (Myanmar)
[1, 4] - ru, ru laut (Malaysia) [1] - yar (Papua New Guinea) [1]
- agoho (Philippines) [1] - son thale, ku, son-thale (Thailand)
[1, 4] - phi lao, c[aa]y phi lao, duong, filao, phi-lao (Vietnam)
[1, 4]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: sav

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ snga:w [4], sngav [3]

1
Other : Casuarinales
Family: Casuarinaceae
Gunus: Casuarina
Species: Casuarina equisetifolia L.
Subspecies: Casuarina equisetifolia
equisetifolia, Casuarina equisetifolia incana

(Benth.) L. Johnson
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Casuarina equisetifolia is a medium-sized to tall evergreen, dioecious or monoecious tree
with a height of 6-35 (60) m [4] (8-16 m in Australia, -35 m in SE-Asia [1], 15-20 m [7], 10-30 [9]) at
maturity. "The subsp. incana is typically a small tree and may be reduced to only a large shrub 6-10 m

tall on poor sites" [1]. This species has a life span of 40-50 years [8] with a fast early growth. Trunk is
straight, cylindrical, usually branchless for up to 10 m, with a DBH of 100-150 cm [4] (20-40 cm [7], 50
cm [1], 100 cm [10]) occasionally with buttresses. "The form in wild populations is very variable, from
crooked low branching trees on exposed seashores to straight stemmed forest trees with a narrowly
conical form in more sheltered situations and in plantations" [8]. Bark is light grey-brown, smooth on
small trunks, becoming rough and thick, furrowed and flaking into oblong pieces on older trees.
Encircling bands of lenticels are prominent on the young bark. The inner bark is reddish or deep dirty
brown and astringent. It contains 6-18% [2] tannin. Crown is finely branched, initially of conical shape
but tends to flatten with age. Twigs are drooping, needle-like, furrowed and entirely green or green
only at their tips. They have a diameter of 1-2.5 mm [1] (0.5-1 mm [4]), are 23-38 cm long [1] and
angular to rounded in cross-section, hairless or sometimes hairy. Although C. equisetifolia is an
evergreen tree species, it sheds a large amount of twigs throughout the year.
[Leaves]: The minute teeth-like reduced leaves are in whorls of 7-8 per node [1].
[Flowers]: Flowers are unisexual (monoecious). Inner- and outer flowerleaves (=petals and sepals, or
perianth) are absent and have been replaced by 2 leaf like structures, the bracteoles. Male flowers
occur on simple terminal, elongated spikes 7-40 mm long [4] and are arranged in whorls with 7-11.5
2
whorls per cm [4] of spike with a single stamen (=male organ). Female flowers are cylindrical, cone-
or globe-shaped, 10-24 x 9-13 mm [1] and are borne on lateral woody branches. "In areas with a
pronounced wet and dry season, flowering and fruiting are more regular once or twice per year.
Where there is no distinct wet or dry season, flowering and fruiting tend to be irregular and may occur
throughout the year" [1]. In India two flowering periods can be observed from February to April and
from September to October with two corresponding fruiting periods in June and December. Casuarina
is wind pollinated.
[Fruits]: The fruits (='pseudo-cones') are woody and globe-shaped to cylindrical, 10-35 mm x 9-15 mm
[1], with pointed bracteoles (=reduced leaves) more or less extending from the surface of the 'cone'.
Fruitlets bear a single, yellow-brown to dull brown winged fruit 6-8 mm long [1]. In subspecies incana
the young shoots and 'cones' are frequently covered in fine white hair. The seeds are solitary.
[1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10]
I. Wood properties:
C. equisetifolia yields a heavy and strong hardwood with an air-density (r15) of 0.9-1.0 g/cm³ [1, 4]
(0.978 g/cm³ [7]). The sapwood is slightly heavier than the heartwood. Green logs have a moisture
content of 40-60%. The heartwood is dull reddish brown, pale red, pale brown to dark red-brown or
reddish grey and cannot be distinguished easily from the yellowish or pale yellow-brown to pinkish
sapwood. Rays are prominent, resin filled and wavy on the radial faces of sawn timber and annual
rings are distinctive. Grain is straight, slightly interlocked or wavy. Fiber are 895-1,230 µm long [1].
Texture fine to moderately fine and even. Shrinkage is moderate to very high, and in the latter case
the wood is difficult to season due to severe warping and cracking. The wood is difficult to use for fine
carpentry. Logs are also very difficult to saw in small circular saw mills and air-dried timber is difficult
to machine because of its density and hardness. The heartwood is highly resistant to pressure
treatment, but sapwood is amenable to such treatment. The wood is so hard that nail holes must be
predrilled. "The wood is very susceptible to attack by the dry-wood termite Cryptotermes brevis and
has only limited durability unless treated with preservatives" [1]. However another source mentions
the heartwood being resistant to dry-wood termites [4]. It also impregnates relatively well and is
suitable for applications involving exposure to water if properly treated. The highly regarded wood
ignites readily even when green and produces little ash which can retain the heat for long periods.
The energy value of wood is 24,000 kJ/kg [1] (5,000 kcal/kg [4]), whereas the value of charcoal
exceeds 33,500kJ/kg [1] (7,000 kcal/kg [4]).
[1, 4, 7, 8, 10]

Approximate limits: 20°N to 32°S [1] (22°N to 22°S [10]). Casuarina equisetifolia is cultivated around
the tropics and beyond, in coastal and semi-arid regions but also in mountainous zones. Subspecies
equisetifolia is commonly confined to a narrow strip adjacent to sandy shores rarely extending inland
to lower hills. It is found on sand dunes, in sands alongside estuaries behind foredunes and gentle
slopes near the sea. It grows at the leading edge of dune vegetation which is subject to salt spray and
inundation with sea water at extremely high tides. Subsp. incana has been recorded growing on rocky
3
headlands. C.equisetifolia may form pure stands on the coastal dunes growing over a ground cover of
dune grasses and salt tolerant broadleaved herbs, or can be part of a richer association of trees and
shrubs collectively termed the 'Indo-Pacific beach flora'. Tree associates in this vegetation include
Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Eugenia sp., Heritiera littoralis, Hibiscus tiliaceus,
Pongamia glabra, Thespesia populnea and Pandanus sp. "In Australia it also grows in narrow belts
adjacent to mangrove forests or scattered in open woodlands dominated by eucalypts" [1]. It may
even occur in mangrove forests and coastal forests [6]. "Under extreme edaphic situations it forms
natural pure stands or mixed stands with Casuarina cunninghamiana, which is native to Australia and
New Caledonia" [10]. In Cambodia the species is spontaneous and grows on sandy coasts in small
groups. "It has the potential to become a weed under certain conditions" [1].
[1, 6, 9, 10]

In its natural habitat C. equisetifolia is commonly confined to a narrow strip of sandy coasts, rarely
extending inland to lower hills near the coastline, Casuarina grows between 0-100 m a.s.l. [1] (0-20 m
[6]). In general it can be found at 0-1,400 m a.s.l. [4, 10] (0-1,500 m [1]), in Tanzania up to 1,800 m
[10] and in the Andes even up to 2,000 m [10]. The climate in its natural range is semi-arid to
subhumid. In most regions there is a distinct dry period of 4-6 months, although this seasonality
decreases towards the equator in Southeast Asia and in the southern parts of its range in Australia.
Subspecies equisetifolia occurs rather in hot humid to hot sub-humid climate, while subspecies incana
grows mainly in the warm sub-humid zone. Generally areas with a mean annual rainfall of 350-5,000
mm [1] (200-3,500 mm [4], 700-2,000 mm [10]) with a distinct wet and dry season are suited. In case
of groundwater access annual precipitations as low as 300 mm are tolerated. The mean annual

temperature ranges between 10 and 35°C [4] (18-26°C [10]). Mean maximum temperature of the
hottest month is in general 30-35°C [1], in India values of 37-47°C [1] have been observed. Mean
minimum temperature of the coldest month is in general 10-20°C [1] and 7-17°C [1] in India.
Subspecies equisetifolia is not frost resistant, while subsp. incana tolerates 1-3 frosts/year [1] within a
few kilometers of the sea. Casuarina is a light demander, shade intolerant and sensitive to fire. Many
areas where the species naturally occurs are susceptible to tropical cyclones or typhoons. Thus
Casuarina shows a general tolerance to strong and even salt-laden winds.
[1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10]


Casuarina grows on well drained and rather coarse textured soils, especially sands more than 2 m [1]
deep, often covering a layer of sandy loam for moisture retention. It may fail on poor sands where the
subsoil moisture conditions are unsatisfactory. The species tolerates both calcareous and slightly
alkaline soils, saline soils and inundated soils but is intolerant of prolonged waterlogging. It grows well
4
in soils with a pH from 5.0 to 9.5 [1]. A high nutrient availability is not required. "It has also been
successfully grown in tin-mine spoils and sterile pumice" [1].
[1, 4, 5, 7, 10]

[General]: Casuarina is a nitrogen-fixing, multipurpose tree-species of considerable social, economic
and environmental importance in many tropical areas of the world, providing a wide range of products
and services for industrial and local end-users [1].
[Wood]: "The wood is highly regarded as a fuel and produces high quality charcoal. The energy value
of the wood is 24,000 kJ/kg (5,000 kcal/kg [4]) and that of the charcoal exceeds 33,500 kJ/kg (7,000
kcal/kg [4])" [1]. It has been used for both domestic and industrial fuel such as for railroad
locomotives. Other wood uses include masts for fishing boats, rafters, boat oars, piles, house posts,
electric poles, furniture, tool handles, wagon wheels and mine props. "In India, the wood is a source of
wood fiber for production of paper pulp using neutral sulfate and semi-chemical processes, and as a
raw material for rayon fibers. The fiber is long, 895-1,230 µm" [1]
. [1, 4, 7]
[Non-wood]: Casuarina is also important as a dye and tannin-producing plant. The bark, contains 6-
18% [2] of tannin which has a red pigment and is used for tanning but also for toughening fishing nets.
"It penetrates the hide quickly and furnishes swollen, pliant, soft leather of pale reddish-brown color"
[4]. "In China, and elsewhere in Asia, leaf litter is often removed from plantations and used as fuel" [1].
Many parts of the tree are used in traditional medicine: Root extracts are used for medical treatment
of dysentery, diarrhea and stomach-ache. In West Malaysia a decoction of the twigs is used for
treating swelling and the powdered bark is used for treating acne.
[1, 2, 4, 6, 10]
[Others]: C. equisetifolia is used to control erosion along coastlines, estuaries, riverbanks and
waterways and also for revegetation. It is widely planted on sandy soils in coastal China and Vietnam,
providing protection against winds and shifting dunes and a stable base for agriculture. "In Sarawak,
Indonesia the species is protected because of its importance in controlling coastal erosion" [4]. In
South China, approximately 1 million ha have been established with Casuarina trees in shelterbelts
along the coastal dunes. The abundance of highly branched twigs absorbs wind energy amazingly
well and the species' general tolerance to strong winds, cyclones and typhoons has encouraged its
use in protective planting. In areas with hot and dry winds the tree protects crops and animal herds.
Casuarina even grows vigorously on barren and polluted sites like former bauxite mines (e.g.
Northern Queensland, Australia) and colonizes sterile tin tailings. The tree is also a nitrogen fixing
species: Root nodules containing the actinorhizal symbiont Frankia enable C. equisetifolia to fix
atmospheric nitrogen. These root nodules can be prolific. Casuarina is commonly grown as an
ornamental along streets, parks and seashores. It is also remarkably suited for boundary planting
5
because it does not intercept much of the incoming solar radiation and yields substantial quantities of
green leaf manure.
[1, 4, 7, 9 ]
No class. [3]

[General]: C.equisetifolia may form pure stands on the coastal dunes growing over a ground cover of
dune grasses and salt tolerant broadleaved herbs, or can be part of a richer association of trees and
shrubs collectively termed the 'Indo-Pacific beach flora'. Tree associates in this vegetation include
Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Eugenia sp., Heritiera littoralis, Hibiscus tiliaceus,
Pongamia glabra, Thespesia populnea and Pandanus sp. Casuarina is highly recommended for
plantations in areas close to the sea on loose sand.
[Establishment]: Plantations are established using containerized seedlings, rooted cuttings or bare-
root seedlings. Plants are typically suitable for outplanting after 3-4 months when they are 25-30 cm
[1] (50 cm [10]) tall. "In Vietnam, however, seedlings 1-1.2 m tall with a strong root ball are preferred
when planting on moving sands" [1]. Seedlings should be planted in well-drained light soils, not clay
soils to decrease the risk of diseases and pests. They are planted 40 cm [1] deep in order to
withstand strong winds. In areas with very low overall precipitation, only planting of container plants is
advisable and it may be necessary to water the young plants until their roots reach the groundwater. A
planting density of 2,500 stems/ha [1] is commonly used, but some farmers in India plant up to 8,000-
10,000 stems/ha [8] for production of fuelwood and small poles. The commonly used spacings are 2 x
2 to 3 x 3 m [10]. When planting to provide protection against soil erosion, closer spacings can be

used. Smaller seedlings are quickly suppressed by more vigorous seedlings. Young trees compete
poorly with weeds, therefore weeding is important during the first two years. They are also susceptible
to drought until their roots reach the groundwater table, which may take up to 2-3 years after planting.
The shoots grow actively throughout the year except during cool and dry months.
[Management]: C. equisetifolia has a life span of 40-50 years [1] and displays rapid early growth rates
(about 2-3 m/year [1] in height) and good form in cultivation. The rotation period ranges from 4-5
years [4] (8-15 years [10]) for fuelwood and 10-15 years [4] for poles. C. equisetifolia is a rather poor
self-pruner. Pruning is necessary up to 2 m [4] in dense plantations to make them accessible for
maintenance. "In China, India and Vietnam, all branches within reach are regularly pruned by farmers
who use them for fuel" [1]. Early thinnings are essential for timber production as trees have a high
demand for light. If close thinnings are used approx 50% of the trees are removed by thinnings at age
5 or 6 [10]. The ability to coppice is limited and is generally restricted to trees up to 4 years old.
However, trees respond reasonably well to hedging. Under favorable sites, it can attain a height of 4-5
m/year [1] (2 m/year [4], >3 m/year [8]) with good tree forms during the first 2 years. At 10 years a
height of 10 m [8] and a diameter of 20 cm [8] may be reached. On good sites an mean annual
volume increment of 6-18 m³/ha [10] (15 m³/ha at 10 years [1]) can be expected. However, mean
annual increments usually fall in the range of 4-5 m³/ha/year [4]. "In central Vietnam, a mean annual
6
increment of 8-12 m³/ha [1] can be obtained from plantations 1.5 x 1 m spacing on 4-7 year rotations.
In Puerto Rico, mean annual increments in height and diameter at breast height recorded for
plantations less than 5 years old are 1.1-4.5 m [1] and 1.3-5.4 cm [1], respectively. Growth rates
reported elsewhere in China, Egypt, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam are within
or higher than these ranges" [1]. "In South China, where an estimated 1 million hectares in
shelterbelts along the coastal dunes have been established since 1954, heights of 7-8 m and
diameters of 5-7 cm are achieved in about 4 years. In India, plantations using 1 x 1 m or 2 x 2 m
spacing on 6-15 year rotations yield 50-200 t/ha [4]. Height growth culminates when the trees are 7
years old and volume increments at about 25 years [10]. The dry weight per tree ranges from 15 to 25
kg [1] at 3 years of age, depending on site quality. In Asia, leaf litter from plantations is often removed
as fuel and this draws heavily upon soil phosphorus and potassium reserves. This can result in
reduced yield in the subsequent rotation.
[Agroforestry]: Casuarina is a species suitable for agroforestry systems especially for arid and semi-
arid areas. It fixes approx 60 kg N/ha/year [10] enhancing soil fertility. Although litter decomposes very
slowly, thus impending the development of the undergrowth this effect is broadly used in Asia for
afforestation of Imperata savannas. "Experiments at Prabhunagar, India, showed citrus trees grew
larger under C. equisetifolia than in pure stands" [4]. In Asia C. equisetifolia also is occasionally mixed
with Leucaena leucocephala or on very poor sites with Vitex spp.
[1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10]
Q. Propagation :
Propagation is done by using seeds and cuttings.
[Seed collection and storage]: The female 'cones' mature about 18-20 weeks [1] after anthesis and
release small winged seeds within 3 days when dried under full sun. Ripe 'cones' are plucked from the
branches before they dehisce, dried in the sun and thrashed to separate the winged seeds. 1 kg of
'cones' (about 250 'cones') yields 20-60 g of seed [1]. There are about 650-760 seeds/g [1] (260
seeds/g [4], 750-1,000 seeds/g [5], 300-800 seeds/g [10]) but on average only 270 seeds or 38% [1]
(50% [4]) are viable. The fruits on one tree do not all mature at the same time often causing a problem
for seed collection. The dried seeds retain their viability for 20 months [5]. Seed storage is classified
as orthodox and airtight storage in cool room is recommended to maintain satisfactory viability for
extended periods. Seeds should rather be stored for 5 years in a cool room (3-5°C) [1] (3°C with 5-9%
mc [4]) or freezer (-16°C) [1] than at room temperature (25°C) [1]. Seed does not require
pretreatment. If stored under these cool and dry conditions the viability of the seeds can be preserved
for 2 years [10] or more.
[Nursery technique - Seedlings]: The seed is usually broadcast on seed beds filled with finely sifted
soil, a mixture of sand and peat moss. Seeds can be sown without pretreatment but should be
protected from ants. In India, primary beds are covered with hay and overhead shade [5]. Germination
is epigeal and starts after 4-10 days [10] (14-21 days [1], 7-20 days [5]). Germination rate: 40-60% [5],
70-80% [10]. The young seedlings are watered at regular intervals and kept lightly shaded. After 4-6
weeks they are approximately 10 cm tall [10] (3-10 cm [4]) and are then transplanted either to
7
polybags, containers or nursery beds, at densities of 100-400 seedlings/m² to obtain bare-rooted
planting stock. Appropriate watering, correct spacing of plants and adequate light should prevent
damping-off in the nursery. Excessive watering should be avoided and 50% shade is suitable until
seedlings are ready for out-planting. Inoculation of the seedlings with pure strains of the mycorrhizal
fungus Frankia is recommended when the species is introduced to a new area. After 5-8 months the
plants have reached a height of about 50 cm [10] and can be field planted on sites that have been
thoroughly prepared beforehand.
[Nursery technique - Cuttings]: Although propagation is mainly by seed, cuttings are increasingly
used. It is easily propagated by rooting of stem cuttings, lateral or side shoots, terminal twigs, heel
cuttings or basal sprouts. Shoots should be 1 year old and can be cut or girdled. Suitable cutting
material is 2 mm in diameter [1] and 10-15 cm in length [1], and rooting is enhanced through use of
the hormones IBA (Indolebutyric acid) or IAA (Indoleacetic acid). "In Southern China, cuttings are
taken from branchlets 1 mm in diameter [4], 5 cm length [4] and soaked in a solution of Napthalyacetic
acid (NAA) before being placed in polythene tubes" [4]. Air layering on branches 1-2 cm in diameter
[1] yields better results than cuttings when propagating clonal material from old trees.
Micropropagation by tissue culture is feasible, but mass production of planting stock by this method is
not practiced.
[1, 4, 5, 7, 10]

C. equisetifolia is only rarely attacked by diseases and pests, unless if grown under unfavorable
conditions.
[Pests]: Over 50 species of insects are known to feed on the species, but serious pest problems have

not occurred. A borer beetle, Sinoxylon anale, girdles small stems (about 1 cm in diameter), causing
them to break at the point of attack. Insect pests include casuarina tussock moth, Lymantria xylina,
white-spotted long-horn beetle, Anoplophora macularia, and cotton locust, Chondracis rosea. Ants
attack fresh seeds. The wood borers Zeuzera spp. and Hypsiptla robusta are known to cause severe
damage to the wood. Another less important pest is Apate monachus.
[Diseases]: The most serious disease is blister bark disease which has been observed in Thailand
and Vietnam. Infected trees die rapidly after exhibiting symptoms of foliar wilt and cracking of the bark
where blisters develop enclosing a black powdery mass of spores. Blister bark disease is associated
with the fungus Trichosporum vesiculosum. Pruning may allow a infection of fungal pathogens,
especially Trichosporium vesiculosum and Formes lucidus. "In India losses of over 75% have been
registered in some stands" [10]. Other fungus diseases include Botryosphaeria ribis, Corticium
salmonicolor, Phellinus noxius and Phomopsis casuarinae. "Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas
solanacearum), causes yellowing foliage and wilting and death has been reported in China and India"
[4]. Other serious recorded diseases include stem cankers and dieback caused by Phomopsis
casuarinae, and Botryosphaeria ribis and pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor). "Brown rot caused by
Phellinus noxius is causing tree decline in Taiwan" [1]. As in other actinorhizal plants,
endomycorrhizal (VAM) infection occurs easily. Another bacterial disease is caused by Ralstonia
8
solanacearum. For disease control, lopping and pruning of branches should be stopped to prevent the
primary establishment of a disease. Diseased trees should be removed as early as possible and
spread of the disease checked by making trenches around groups of diseased trees to avoid root
contact
[Others]: Seedlings are susceptible to browsing by rodents and crabs. C. equisetifolia is not fire
resistant particularly when young making a protection necessary.
[1, 4, 10]
S. Conservation :

In Cambodia the species is spontaneous, met on sandy coasts in small groups. [9]
Kp.Saom, Kep, Kampot, Koh Kong, Phnom Penh [11]

[Native]:
Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Tonga, Vanuatu, Vietnam
[4, 6, 9]
[Introduced]:
Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad,
China, Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican
Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Haiti, India, Israel, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Martinique, Mauritania, Montserrat,
Myanmar, Netherlands Antilles, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, Senegal, Sierra Leone,
Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan,
Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United States of America, Virgin Islands (US),
Zanzibar
[4, 6, 9]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[[Terminology]: "One of the common names of Casuarina species, ‘she-oak’, widely used in Australia,
refers to the attractive wood pattern of large lines or rays similar to oak but weaker. The specific name
is derived from the Latin ‘equinus’, pertaining to horses, and ‘folium’, a leaf, in reference to the fine,
drooping twigs, which are reminiscent of coarse horse hair" [4]. "Casuarina is from the Malay word
‘kasuari’, from the supposed resemblance of the twigs to the plumage of the cassowary bird" [1].
9
Breeding]: "In cultivation, C. equisetifolia hybridizes with C. glauca and C. junghuhniana." [4]
CATIE, 1991. Casuarina equisetifolia, multiple use tree in Central America [Casuarina equisetifolia L.
ex J.R. Forst & G. Forst., árbol de uso múltiple en America Central]. Rep. No. 173, Tech. Series.
Turrialba, Costa Rica: Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigacíon y Enseñanza (CATIE).
[1]
Ha Chu Chu, Le Dinh Kha, 1996. Planting and uses of Casuarina equisetifolia in Vietnam. In:
Pinyopusarerk K, Turnbull JW, Midgley SJ, eds. Recent Casuarina Research and Development.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Casuarina Workshop. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Forestry and
Forest Products, 223-225.
[1]
Dahl N, 1996. Cauarina equisetifolia: its use and future in mine rehabilitation in Northern Australia. In:
Pinyopusarerk K, Turnbull JW, Midgley SJ, eds. Proceedings of the 3rd International Casuarina
Workshop. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, 201_203.
[1]
Kondas S, 1983. Casuarina equisetifolia - a multipurpose tree cash crop in India. In: Midgley SJ,
Turnbull JW, Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Management and Utilization. Proceedings of the
1st International Casuarina Workshop. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 66_76.
[1]
National Research Council, 1984. Casuarinas: nitrogen-fixing trees for adverse sites. Washington,

DC: National Academy Press.
[1]
Phi Quang Dien, 1996. Preliminary results of Casuarina equisetifolia provenance trials in Vietnam. In:
Pinyopusarerk K, Turnbull JW, Midgley SJ, eds. Recent Casuarina Research and Development.
Proceedings of the 3rd International Casuarina Workshop. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Forestry and
Forest Products, 113-118.
[1]
Turnbull JW, 1983. The use of Casuarina equisetifolia for protection forests in China. In: Midgley SJ,
Turnbull JW, Johnston RD, eds. Casuarina Ecology, Management and Utilization. Proceedings of the
1st International Casuarina Workshop. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO, 55-57.
[1]
[4]
10
Bangkok: FAO.
[4]
X. References:
Commercial Woods, unpublished DFSC, 2000, Seed Leaflet No.26

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=477.
(Internet source)

bin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1916179720&spd=5425&sub=0&tx=PL (Internet source).
[8] PROSEA, 1997: Plant Resources of South East Asia 11 - Auxiliary plants.
[10] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ.
11
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn]
Datasheet Report
[Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.[2]
B. English name (s) ³ silk cotton tree, true kapok, white silk cotton tree, [6] kapok
tree,[26]
C. Synonym ³ C. thoningii A.Chev., C. guineensis (Thonn.) A.Chev., C.
casearia L Medicus, Eriodendron anfractuosum DEC.,

Bombax pentandrum, B. guineensis Schum. & Thonn., B.
orientale Sprengel [4,6,20], Eriodendendron caribaeum
G.Don, E.guineense G.Don [20]
D. Other1 ³ koo (Cambodia); kapok, randu, kapu (Indonesia); nguiz
baanz (Laos); kabuk-abu pohon kapok (Malaysia); nun

(Thailand); gòn, gau (Vietnam) [4,6], arbre à boure, fromagier
[26].
Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôor [4]

Other : Malvales
Family: Bombacaceae
Gunus: Ceiba
Species: Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
Source :[4 ; 11 ; 27]
1
[General]: A semi-deciduous, large-sized tree up to 20-30 m high and 80-120 cm in diameter; trunk
cylindrical. Twigs greenish, spiny; inner bark with water-storing parenchyma. Buttresses widely
spreading, often plank-formed [2]. Tree 4-15 m tall [4]. Deciduous tree up to 25 m [5]. A fast growing
deciduous tree with straight bole, sometimes buttressed, reaching 30 m in height (var. pentandra).
Bole and branches more or less covered with conical spines. Branches extending horizontally,
whorled in groups of 3, giving a pagoda-shaped thin crown [6]. Impressively large tree up to 60 m tall
with smooth stem. In the juvenile phase the crown is formed by horizontally arranged branches, when
old occasionally developing strong buttresses several meters high [13].
[Bark]: Bark glabrous, green, with some ridges around the trunk, smooth or covered with large conical
spines.[2]
[Leaves]: Digitately compound, with 5-7 lanceolate leaflets; petiole 7-14 cm long [2]. Leaflets 6-12 x
1.5-3.0 cm, main stalks 8-20 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, with 8-25 cm long petioles, palmately
compound with 5-11 smooth, oblong-lanceolate leaflets, 5-16 cm long [6]. Leaves with 2-9 leaflets,
10-18 cm long, imparipinnate, often coloured red when sprouting on the tip of long shoots [13].
[Flowers]: White or pink, solitary or in short cymes at leaf axil. Calyx cupulate, with 5 unequal lobes.
Sepals 5, oblong-oval, 2.5 cm long, white pubescent outside. Stamens few, adnate at the base, upper
part divided into 5 bundles, anther reniform. Ovary superior, 5-locular, numerous ovules in each
locule, stigma pentafid [2]. Flower 2.0-3.5 cm, creamy-white, petals fused together at base, 5-6
stamens, style with a single tip [5]. The numerous flowers are dirty-white, about 3 cm long, with a
foetid milky smell, appearing in groups at the beginning of the dry season when trees are leafless
[6,9]. After leaf fall flowers form at the end of sprouts , they are dirty-white with numerous stamens in

groups. Sepals up to 3.5 cm long, wooly pubescent. Bats pollinating the flowers [13]. The flowering is
described with the following details: Flowers open after dark and emit a strong odour, emitting nectar
at the base of the large, bisexual flowers. As soon as the flowers are open they are visited by bats
feeding on pollen and nectar. When the morning dawns bees profit from the nectar continuing the
pollination of the flowering tree [26].
[Fruit]: A woody capsule oblong-oval, pendulous, 15 cm long and 3-4 cm wide, dehiscing into 5
segments when mature. Inside of pericarp densely hairy, seeds numerous, round, glossy [2]. Fruit 8-
10 cm, straight, with 5 grooves [5]. Fruits are ellipsoidal capsules, 7.5-30.0 cm long becoming brown
when ripe, opening with 5 valves. Seeds embedded in copious, white, pale yellow or grey floss [6].
Fruit in the form of leathery, elliptic, 10-30 cm long capsules with numerous small black seeds. The
uni-celled, 2-4 cm long seed hairs cannot be spun into a thread because of a thin wall and a large
lumen. They do not arise from the seed shell but are formed by the inner fruit wall epidermis.
Flowering in March-April, fruiting in August-September[2]. The seed capsules split along 5 lines, each
capsule releasing between 120-170 round, black seeds packaged in a mass of grey wooly hair or
fibres. The seeds with hair attached are dispersed by the wind and encounter best starting conditions
on abandoned cultivated land [26].
2
I. Wood properties:
Wood white, soft and light [2]; C. pentandra wood is variable in colour, from white to light brown, but
sap-staining fungi may darken it. The wood is very light, with specific gravity of 250 kg/m³. The wood
machines easily but not satisfactorily. Machining characteristics include excellent planing and sanding
and resistance to splitting when screwed. Shapes and bores poorly but mortises well. Logs and
lumber are very susceptible to insect and fungal attack, but preservative treatment is easy; either
pressure-vacuum systems or open-tank methods give good absorption and penetration. The wood is
easy to peel for veneer. Reported uses of wood include plywood, packaging, lumber core stock, light
construction, pulp and paper products, canoes and rafts, farm implements, furniture and matches [20].

It is believed that this tree originated in Central America, but this happened so long tme ago that the
way of distribution cannot be accurately reconstructed. Because of its wide range of uses it has been
cultivated for a long time and can now be found pantropically between 16º N and 16º S [20]. From
evergreen forests in Brazil and northern South America and dry savannas in Africa [11], it was
introduced into Asia at least 1500 years ago [5]. Distributed in Burma, China, Cambodia, Laos,
Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia; in East, West and Central Africa, and in the tropical zones of the
Americas [2,6,26]. The tree can be found in a variety of forest types, moist evergreen, deciduous, dry
forest and gallery forest. However, as a pioneer species it is most frequently found in secondary
forests of various development stages [26].

A tree of tropical climate, light-demanding, growing under a variety of conditions, but thriving better
below 500 m elevation, and with at least 1000 mm/m² of annual precipitation, particularly during the
vegetation period [6]. Biophysical limits are approximately defined as follows: 0-900 m elevation asl;
between 750-3000 mm/ m² mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature between 18-
38ºC [26].

not determined

Prefers wet, deep, but well-drained soils[2], thrives specifically on deep, permeable volcanic soils, as
found in Java, Indonesia. [26].

[Wood]: Usable for manufacture of ordinary implements, boats and floats [2]. Also for the preparation
of match sticks. Large trees are peeled for rotary veneer which is used as corestock (middle layer) in
plywood production
3
[Non-Wood): Young flowers and fruit consumed as vegetable; resin from the trunk is sold for
preparing a drink, adding sugar and water. From young leaves, crushed with ice, a poultice is
prepared and applied to the forehead against headache; from the bark a remedy for diarrhoea can be
prepared [4].
The seed capsules yield kapok, the floss in the fruit, usable for thermal and accoustic insulation [6].
Kapok fibres consist to 65% of cellulose and hemi-cellulose, they are smooth, water-repellent and of
high elasticity. Under water they exhibit a flotation force of 30 times their own weight. That is why
kapok makes such good insulation and stuffing material and why it had been used for life-belts over a
hundred years until the arrival of synthetic materials. Fibre plantations in Java, Indonesia, yield 130-
150 kg of fibres after3 years and may produce between 2000-4000kg/ha later. In rural areas kapok is
still widely used still used for stuffing seat cushions and matresses [13]. The natural fibre is superior in
comfort to synthetic foam matresses and cushions. Practically the entire supply of kapok is obtained
from Java [16]. Edible oil, also used in soap manufacture, can be extracted from seeds [2,13]. An
other report indicates that C. pentandra seed contains 20-25% non-drying oil, similar to cottonseed oil,
which is used as a lubricant, in soap manufacturing and in cooking [20]. The pressed seed cake
contains around 26% protein and is fed to domestic animals.
There are various medicinal applications, e.g., compressed fresh leaves are used against dizziness;
decoction of the boiled roots is used to treat oedema; gum is eaten to relieve stomach upset; tender
shoot decoction is a contraceptive and leaf infusion is taken orally against cough and hoarse throat.
However, in some people the floss can provoke an allergy irritating eyes and nose [26]. There is also
this application in veterinary medicine: In Tamilnadu, India, the leaves are pounded together with
fermented boiled rice water and the extract is administered to cows orally as a remedy for

reproductive problems. The dose is approx. 500 ml three times a day for three consecutive days [26].
C. pentandra can be used as a roadside tree or shade tree in pepper plantations [2,13];

not included

In agroforestry landuse Ceiba pentendra is planted in a 7.3x7,3 m grid to leave enough space for
intercropping, which may continue over 5 years.
Q. Propagation :
Easily propagated from seeds, fruiting starts after 3-4 years; regeneration after coppicing is strong [2].
Fruit is collected by hooked knives, seeds dried in the sun and separated from the floss by shaking
the dehiscent fruits in a bag. Viability is limited and related to the seed oil which degrades rapidly. It is
estimated that between 10,000 and 45,000 seeds, depending on provenance, are weighing 1 kg.
Generally seed propagated, C. pentandra can also be easily raised by cuttings. Natural reproduction
from seed is occasionally rare, as the fruit is collected for the valuable kapok floss. There is therefore
4
little scope of reproduction from self-sown seeds [20], except where seeds are blown to abandoned
agricultural land [26]..

Insect defoliators include Ephyriades arcas, Eulepidotis modestula, Oiketicus kirbiyi and Pericalia
ricini. The tree is also a host to parasitic plants such as Dendropthoe falcata and Loranthus spp.
Pathogenic fungi that attack the tree include Armillaria, Calonectria, Camillea, Cercospora [20].
S. Conservation :

unknown

In Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia; cultivated in Java; in West-Africa, in tropical America. [2,6]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Bombacaceae is a small family of tropical trees comprising Baobab, balsa, durian and kapok trees.
Most species are found in South America, above all in Brazil, a few occur in Southeast Asia, some
unusual ones in Africa and Madagascar. They live mostly in dense rain forests in South America and
in open savanna and weedy habitats in Africa. Many species are deciduous and their entire, palmate
or digitate leaves and stipules, are shed at the end of the rainy season. During this leafless period the
flowers open. They are massive for most genera of the family and even when they are small they are
showy with white or brightly coloured flowers. They are always bisexual and frequently emerge from
the branches and trunks aand even near the base of the plant in some tropical forest genera like
Durio [11].
The fibre or floss from the inner wall of the fruit is unique in that it combines springiness and resilience
and is resistant to vermin, to make it ideal for stuffing pillows, mattresses and cushions. It is light,
water repellent and buoyant, making it ideal for life jackets, lifeboats and other naval safety apparatus.
It is an excellent material for insulating iceboxes, refrigerators, cold-storage plants, offices, theatres
and airplanes. It is a good sound absorber and is widely used for acoustic insulation; it is
indispensable in localhospitals, since mattresses can be dry sterilized without losing original quality.
White F, 1983. The vegetation of Africa. Natural Resources Research, UNESCO, 20:356 pp.; [Also
available in French]; 50 pp. ref.
Zotz G, Winter K, 1994. Photosynthesis of a tropical canopy tree, Ceiba pentandra, in a lowland forest
in Panama. Tree Physiology, 14(11):1291-1301; 30 ref.
Basilevskaia, 1969. Plantes médicinales de la Guinée. Conakry, Guinea.
5
Berni CA, Bolza E, Christensen FJ, 1979. South American timbers - the characteristics, properties
and uses of 190 species. South American timbers - the characteristics, properties and uses of 190
species., x + 229 pp.; 154 ref.
Dileep M, Sudhakara K, Santhoshkumar AV, Nazeema KK, Ashokan PK, 1994. Effect of seed size,
rooting medium and fertilizers on the growth of seedlings of Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. Indian
Journal of Forestry, 17(4):293-300; 8 ref.
Lamprecht H, 1989. Silviculture in the tropics; tropical forest ecosystems and their tree species,
possibilities and methods for their long-term utilization. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), GmbH, Eschborn, Germany.
Mashingo MSH, Mtenga LA, Lekule FP, 1994. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) seed cake in diets of
fattening pigs. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa, 42(4):311-315; 13 ref.
X. References:
3) Lamprecht, H. 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. Tropical Forest Ecosystems and their Tree
Species - Possibilities and Methods for their long-term Utilization. Paul Parey Publ. Hamburg and GTZ
(English Edition) Eschborn 296 pp.
915 pp.

pp.
Bangkok, 234 pp.
336 pp.
12) CABI Forestry Compendium 2003
pp.
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Chrysophyllum cainito L.]
Datasheet Report
[Chrysophyllum cainito L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Chrysophyllum cainito L. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ star apple, golden leaf tree, cainito [6, 32]
C. Synonym ³ Chrysophyllum acuminatum Lam., C. brachycalix Urb., C.
claraense Urb., C. oliviforme subsp. oliviforme, Achras

caimito Ruiz & Pavon., Cynodendron oliviforme (L.), Baehni.,
Guersentia oliveforme Raf.,Cainito pomiferum Tuss., C.
bonplandii Klotzsch. ex Miq., C. monopyrenum Spreng., C.
sericeum Salisb. [32]
D. Other1 ³ caimitier, pomme de lait (French); caimito, guayabillo
(Spanish); sawo ijo, sawo hejo, sawo kadu (Indonesia); sawo

duren, pepulut (Malaysia); hnin-thagya (Burma); nam nom
(Laos); caimito (Philippines); chicle durian (Singapore); sataa
appoen (Thailand); vú-sùe (Vietnam) [4,6,32].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ TwkedaHeKa

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ oek dâh kôôt [4]

Other : Ebenales
Family: Sapotaceae
Gunus: Chrysophyllum
1
Species: Chrysophyllum cainito L. [4,27,32]
Source :[ -]
[General]: A shrub, 4-8 m tall [4]. An evergreen tree up to 15 (35) m tall and 60 cm in diameter with
white gummy latex. Branchlets numerous, with many brown hairs. [6,26] An evergreen, decorative
tree up to 15 m high [13]. Bole usually straight, cylindrical, often fluted or spurred at the base,
buttresses small or absent [26].
[Bark]: Surface rough, irregularly fissured, brown; inner bark fibrous, orange-white mottled to yellow-
white, exuding white latex. Young twigs reddish-brown and hairy [26].
[Leaves]: Alternate, oblong to obovate, 5-16 cm x 3-6 cm, leathery, rust-red below with almost parallel
secondary nerves. Leaf margins thickened [6]. Leaves alternate, distichous or spirally arranged,
simple, oval or oblong, 7.6-12.7 cm long, 3.8-5.8 cm wide, deep green, hairless and glossy above,
golden-brown with a sheen like satin beneath; exstipulate; apex mostly abruptly short pointed, short
pointed at base, with untoothed edges and slightly thickened; tertiary veins often parallel to the
secondaries and descending from the margin. Petiole 1.3-1.6 cm long, reddish-brown, hairy [26].
[Flowers]: Flowers arising from leaf corners on current season´s shoots, in groups of 5-35 small
yellow to purplish-white, flowers with 5 sepals, 1-4 mm long [6]. Inflorescences axillary, ramiflorous or
cauliflorous. Flowers unisexual or bisexual, fasciculate or, rarely,solitary; small and inconspicuous,

purplish-white, axillary. Calyx a single whorl of 4-6; usually 5 imbricate or quincuncial sepals,
sometimes accrescent in fruit, frequently ciliate. Corolla 5-lobed, globose, campanulate or cylindrical;
tube shorter than, equalling or exceeding the lobes; lobes (min. 4) 5 (max. 8), simple. Stalk slender,
hairy, reddish-brown, 64-95 mm long. Stamens 4-8, usually fixed in the corolla tube; ovary superior,
(min 4) 5 (max. 12)-locular with 1 ovule per cell (axile placentation); style included; anthers extrorse in
bud, hairy or glabrous. Staminodes rarely present, as small lanceolate or subulate structures in the
corolla lobe sinuses, alternating with the stamens; disc absent [26].
[Fruit]: Fruit a berry, 5-10 cm in diameter, obovoid-globose, yellow-green or purplish brown with thin
leathery skin and white or purple, soft juicy flesh [6]. Fruits globose, the size of an apple with soft
flesh, the seed compartment resembles a 9-pointed star when perpendicularly cut. Flesh jelly-like,
sweetish, of a pleasant taste, but without a typical aroma [13]. Fruit is commonly round, sometimes
oblate, and 5-10 cm in diameter. Rind thick, leathery, smooth surfaced, somewhat glossy, dull purple
in some varieties, light green in others; with a gummy latex; flesh white and jelly-like. On cutting the
fruit transversely, it is found differentiated into 2 kinds of flesh; directly under the tenacious skin is a
layerof soft , somewhat granular flesh, concolourous with the skin, and not very juicy; enclosed by this
are 8 translucent, whitish segments in which the seeds are embedded. Normally there is 1 seed in
each segment, but frequently several are aborted, leaving 3-5 in the fruit [26]. Seeds ovate to elliptic
2
in outline, laterally compressed, 2 cm long, hard, brown and glossy with an adaxial scar. When the
fruit is halved transversely, the cut segments present a star-like appearance, giving the tree the
common name of star-apple. Two races are common, one green-fruited and the other purple fruited;
they are not known to differ in flavour or characteristics except colour. The generic name is based on
the Greek words for gold and leaf and refer to the leaves of some species that are often covered with
golden hairs underneath [26].
I. Wood properties:
Wood hard and durable [13]; the tree is cultivated for its fruit, but if felling becomes necessary the
wood is found to be of fine structure, firm and heavy, specific gravity between 650-900kg/m³, straight
grained, pink to dark reddish or brown. Sapwood and heartwood reddish-brown to dark brown, strong,
hard, but not durable, fairly straight-grained [26].

Originates in tropical West Indies Islands and in Central America [6]; in Southeast Asia most common
in the Philippines, but also found in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore;
nowadays cultivated everywhere in warm regions as ornamental and fruit tree [4,6,19].

Warm tropical climates, wet or dry but hot (4, 32), within a wide climatic range in tropical lowlands [6].
Occurs up to 400 m elevation a.s.l [26].

not determined

Grows well in moist soil types;[6]; grows well on almost all soil types: fertile, well-drained and slightly
acid soils are preferred. C.cainito grows well on both sandy soils and on deep clayey loams [26].

[Wood]: Wood suitable for construction and as firewood [6,17]. Suitable for construction, carpentry,
furniture. It dries moderately slow, with slight splits. Moderately difficult to work, but with extraordinary
durability. Suitable for indoor construction, mouldings, light tool handles, joinery, furniture, cabinet -
making. Yields good veneer, but wood of this species will remain rare [26]. Suitable for marine
construction, railway cross ties, factory floors and agricultural implements [32].
[Non-Wood]: Fruit mostly eaten fresh, used in ice cream or processed to jam [6,13,32]. Unripe fruit
contains a sticky, adstringent latex, but a sweet and pleasantly flavoured pulp surrounds the ripe fruit.
Basically the wood fibre is suitable for quality paper-making but raw material is scarce [26]. The bark
yields tannin.
3
Bark, latex and and seeds are used in traditional medicine [6], seeds are diuretic, leaves are
adstringent and used as compress on wounds. The fruit is used against bleeding and cooked against
fever [32]. Undersides of leaves are grated and applied as a poultice on a wound. A leaf decoction is
taken orally for hypoglycaemia. Fruit is used in treating haemorrhage or is cooked and used for fever.
C. cainito is also planted as an ornamental tree because of the bright blue-green colour on the upper
side of leaves and the copper-tone on the underside of the foliage [6,9,26]. Branches are suitable as
an orchid-growing medium [6].
In the Atlantic region of Costa Rica, Central America, C. cainito together with Terminalia amazonia,
Averrhoa carambola, Persea americana Diospyros discolor is planted on abandoned pastures in a
rehabilitation project [32]. Annual growth is described as satisfactory for the fruit trees and for
Terminalia amazonia better than in single species plantations or in secondary forests under shadow
comparable to plots planted with maize (Zea mais) in Taungya systems [32].

Not included [18]

Chrysophyllum cainito is primarily a garden or orchard tree, hence there is little information on
plantation establishment and management. Spacing is established from the beginning, based on a
10x10 m or 12x12 m grid because debranching [pruning) is not required. Weekly watering is required
during the first 6 months, later only during the flowering season. In the West Indies trees are not
fertilized but it is considered useful for increasing yield on poor and infertile soils [32]. Some trees
yield heavy crops of fruit, others bear little. Young trees are sensitive to water stress in their 1st year,

and growth during that time is slow. Once the tree is established, growth rate and development
become more rapid. Deep mulching with straw or lawn clippings, application of fertilizer and frequent
dry-season
watering all seem necessary for success with this species. C. cainito commences to bear fruit in its
3rd to 5th year and usually reaches its full production in its 6th to 7th year. Flowering occurs in the
summer, and the fruits mature from late fall to summer. The fruit ripening season in the West Indies is
April and May; it is reported that trees do not fruit in the Virgin Islands. Bats disperse the fruit [26].
Nutritional analysis gives the following results:
sugar 5%
phosphorous 16mg/100g
calcium 17 mg/100g
iron 0.3-0.68 mg/100g
niacine 1mg/100g [32].
4
Q. Propagation :
Seed storage reaction is intermediate, seeds should not be dried before storage. Viabilitycan be
maintained for 6 months if stored in moist condition at 20 ºC. Germination reaches 81% on
dessiccation to 4% m.c.( which is in equilibrium with 30% of relative humidity). Germination decreases
to 23 % after 14 months of hermetic storage at 10 ºC.; seed weight amounts to 1100seeds /kg [26].
Propagation is usually by seed, which should be sown in light sandy loam. Germination rate is 70% in
14-40 days. Since there is much variation among seedlings, asexual means of propagation, such as
grafting or layering, are preferable. This enables perpetuation of choice varieties that may originate.
Budding will probably prove satisfactory. It is reported that cuttings can be grown if made from well-
ripened shoots and placed over strong moist heat. Natural regeneration is best at about 50% relative
light intensity [26].

Insect pests include twig borers, carpenter moth, mealy bugs, scales and fruit flies. The oriental fruit
fly Dacus dorsalis is a serious pest of ripening fruit and renders the fruit unfit for human consumption.
Wrapping young fruit and collecting and destroying the infested fruit may reduce the damage. Birds,
bats and wild cats can also cause considerable damage. The fungus Lasiodiplodia theobromae
causes dry, sooty rot on fruits, which copper fungicides can control. In Queensland, Australia,
Fusarium solani kills young trees and affects limbs of older trees. An unidentified fungal pathogen
shrivels immature fruit in Florida [26].
S. Conservation :

Not determined, but found in many gardens in Cambodia [4].

Native to Central America and Caribbean Islands; introduced to India, Indochina, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia, Philippines, countries in East and West Africa, and South America. and other tropical
countries [26,32].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Sapotaceae is a large family of tropical trees, occurring pantropically, mainly in lowland and lower-
montane rain forests. [11]
5
Anon. 1986. The useful plants of India. Publications & Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi,
India.
Dassanayake MD, Fosberg FR. 1983. Flora of Ceylon. Vol. 10. Amerind Publishing Co. New Delhi.
Hearne DA. 1975. Trees for Darwin and northern Australia. Australian Government Publishing
Service.
Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmodjo S. (eds.). 1998. PROSEA 5(3) Timber trees: lesser known
species. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
X. References:

Bangkok, 234 pp.
336 pp.
pp.
6
32) http://www.herbaria.plants.ox.ac.uk/adc/downloads (Internet source)

7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Chucrasia tabularis Ant. Juss]
Datasheet Report
[Chucrasia tabularis Ant. Juss]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Chucrasia tabularis Ant. Juss. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ Burma almondwood, chickrassy, chittagong wood [16]

bastard cedar, East Indian mahogany, Indian redwood, white
cedar [12].
C. Synonym ³ Chickrassia tabularis (A.Juss.) Wight&Aen., Dysoxylum
esquirolli H. Lev., Swietenia chickrassia Roxb. (8); Chukrasia
velutina M. Roem., Chukrasia velutina (Wallich) Roemer,
Chukrasia tabularis var. velutina (M. Roem.) W. Theob.,
(Botanists do not agree on whether C. velutina is a separate
species or not) [12,16].
D. Other1 ³ surian batu, trade name in Indonesia and Malaysia; repoh,
cherana puteh, suntang puteh (Malaysia); yinma, tawyinma,
kinthatputgyi, (Burma); vory yong, (Cambodia); nhom, nhom
hin, nhom khao, (Laos); siat ka (Thailand-SE); yom-hin,
(Thai-general), fakdap (Thai-Chanthaburi), lát hoa, Vietnam.
[2,16,20]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ vlø×eyag/ Ereyag

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ rê:-yôô:ng, voë(lli) yôông [4]

Other : Sapindales
Family: Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae
Gunus: Chukrasia A.H.L. Juss. [16]
Species: Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss.
Source :[2 ; 4 ; 8 ; 1 ; 11 ;12]
1
[General]: A tree up to 30 m in height and up to 100 cm in diameter. Trunk straight with large
butresses, branches dense. [2] A tree, 8-20 m tall [4]. Evergreen tree up to 35 m high [5]. Deciduous
trees up to 40 m high, diameter up to 120 cm, buttresses present [8]. Deciduous, monoecious,
medium-sized, sometimes fairly large trees, up to 30(40) m tall; bole branchless for up to 18 (32) m,
with a diameter of up to 110(175) cm, without buttresses [16].
[Bark]: Bark blackish, lenticellate, shortly reddish tomentose [2]. Dark brown, coarsely fissured, inner
bark red [5]. Bark scaling into rectangular blocks. Inner bark reddish-brown or pinkish. Sapwood
straw-colored, heartwood yellow to reddish-brown. Twigs grey.[8] Bark surface rusty brown or deep
brown, with lenticels, inner bark reddish [16].
[Leaves]: Paripinnate compound. Petiole 30-40 cm long, cylindrical. Folioles 7-10 pairs, alternate
sometimes nearly opposite, 10-12 cm long and 5-6 cm wide, ovate or lanceolate, apex mucronate.
Petiolule 0.4-0.8 cm long. Lateral veins 10-15 pairs, a bundle of hairs at axil of veins, venules obvious
beneath [2]. Leaf 30-85 cm, odd-pinnate (5)8-13 pairs of alternate or sub-opposite leaflets, 7-13x3.0-
4.5 cm, narrowly ovate or oblong with tapering tips and oblique base, no teeth. Young leaves finely
hairy, mature leaves completely smooth, 7-10 pairs of side veins. Leaflet stalks 0.3-0.5 cm, main stalk
7-11 cm [5].
Leaves bipinnate with incised or lobed leaflets when young, 30-80 cm long. Petioles 4-9 cm long,
swollen at base, base oblique, margin entire (when mature), apex tapering, venation pinnate,
secondary veins 10-15 pairs, domatia present, petioles 2-6 mm long [8].
Leaves paripinnate with alternate, entire, asymmetrical and acuminate leaflets, impari-pinnate and
lobed or incised when juvenile, glabrous or with simple hairs [16].

[Flowers]: Inflorescence a panicle, terminal, erect, then pendulous, tomentose. Bract oblong,
caducous. Flowers hermaphrodite, yellowish, 1.5 cm long. Pedicel shorter than the flower. Sepals
0.25 cm long, shortly stellate-tomentose outside. Petals 5, 1.5-2.0 cm long, linear, slightly curved then
spreading, margin enrolled, shortly tomentose outside, glabrous inside. Stamens 10, filament connate
into cylindrical tube, glabrous, a little shorter than the petal, slightly swollen at the base. Anthers 10,
glabrous, extrorse (turned to the outside). Ovary tomentose, stigma short, cylindrical [2]. Flower 2.5-
3.0 cm, pale yellow often tinged dull red outside in spreading, branched clusters at or slightly above
leaf axils, sometimes appearing terminal; individual stalks ± 0.3 cm, smooth. Calyx 1-2 mm, densely
brown hairy, 4-5 narrow petals, ± 0.7 cm, curved backwards, minutely velvety. Stamen tube
cylindrical, slightly narrower towards top with 10 anthers on flat or shallowly toothed rim. Ovary
smooth, longer than style, surrounded by thin cup-shaped disc [5].
Inflorescences form panicles, axillary, sometimes terminal. Bracts narrowly triangular, often caducous.
Flowers bisexual, calyx 5-lobed, densely brown hairy. Petals 5, free, slightly curved, spreading, hairy
outside, glabrous inside. Stamen tube cylindrical, slightly narrower towards top, glabrous with 10
anthers attached to the margin. Ovary tomentose [8].
2
Flowers unisexual, in axillary (sometimes appearingly terminal) thyrses, 4- or 5-merous, up to 16 mm
long; calyx lobed, petals free, contorted, reflexed in open flowers, white; staminal tube cylindrical,
narrowing towards the apex, entire or weakly lobed, with the anthers attached to the margin; disc
small, ovary flask-shaped, 3-5 locular, each locule with many ovules, style slender [16].
[Fruit]: Elliptic, slightly mucronate at tip, 4.0-4.5 cm long and 2.5-3.5 cm wide, many seeds piled up in
each fruit-locule. Seed 1.0-1.2 cm long and 0.4 cm wide, endosperm absent [2].
Fruit up to 4 cm, yellow-grey, slightly hairy when young, wrinkled when ripe, splitting into 3 sections,
densely packed with winged seeds [5].
Fruit a capsule, ovoid, woody, dark brown, 2.0-4.5 by 2.0-3.5 cm, opening by 3-5 valves from apex.
Seeds many, 1.0-1.3 cm long, winged [8].
Fruit an erect, woody, ovoid or ellipsoid capsule, opening by 3-5 valves from the apex; valves
separating into a woody outer and inner layer, apex of those of the inner layer deeply bifid; locules
appearing as one locule due to the breaking down of the septae; columella with sharp ridges. Seeds
60-100 per locule, flat, with terminal wings, arranged in layers, alternately "head-to-toe"; embryo with
thin cotyledons. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy; first 2 leaves opposite,
subsequent ones arranged spirally; terminal leaflet present in seedling leaves but abortive in mature
plants [16].
Flowering in July, fruiting in December or following January. Natural regeneration is satisfactory,

flowering in June-July, fruiting in November to following January. C. tabularis flowers and fruits
annually, seeds are ripe in in January-March. The winged fruits are disseminated by the wind [2,8,16].
I. Wood properties:
Chukrasia (surian batu) is a moderately heavy and moderately hard wood.The heartwood is pale
reddish-brown, yellowish-red to red, darkening to dark yellowish-brown, reddish-brown to medium
dark-brown on exposure, sharply differentiated from the yellowish-white, pale yellowish-brown,
pinkish-brown or greyish-brown sapwood. Dark streaks may be rather prominent. The specific gravity
is 625-880 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. The grain is interlocked and sometimes wavy, producing a special
figure, texture moderately fine but uneven. Freshly cut wood has a fragrant odor, but dried wood has
no characteristic odor or taste. Planed surfaces have a high lustrous satiny sheen [16].
At 15% m.c. the modulus of rupture is 82-101 N/mm², modulus of elasticity10,800-14,300 N/mm²,
compression parallel to grain 47-64 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 11-12 N/mm², shear
15-18 N/mm², cleavage c. 60 N/mm² radial and 71 N/mm² tangential and Janka side hardness 8,990-
9,230 N. The rates of shrinkage are rather low: from green to 15% m.c. 1.3% radial and 1.7%
tangential, from green to oven-dry 3.9% radial and 6.0% tangential. Usually the wood dries fairly
rapidly without degrade, but a slight tendency to check and warp and some liability to collapse have
been reported. Fine surface hair checks may develop when drying thick boards. In Malaysia kiln
schedule E is recommended. Tests in Malaysia showed that the wood is difficult to very difficult to saw
and cross cut, slightly difficult to turn, very difficult to bore, but easy to plane. It produces a moderately
3
smooth finish, but some picking up of grain may occur on quartersawn material during planing and
moulding. However, tests in other areas showed that the wood can be easily sawn and machined.
Surian batu has good nailing and screw-holding properties, it can be stained effectively and polished
excellently. The steam bending properties are rated as good. It can be readily peeled and sliced into
veneers and the veneer can be glued satisfactorily into decorative plywood. In Malaysia Chukrasia is
considered as moderately durable under exposed conditions, but elsewhere it is sometimes classified
as non-durable. The resistance against termite attack varies from good to poor. The wood is
moderately to extremely resistant to preservative treatment [12,16].

Chukrasia consists of one or possibly two species and is distributed in Nepal, India, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Southern China, Indochina, (Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam), Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia, Indonesia, (Kalimantan), and Japan [8,12,16]. It is a species of the wet tropics, strongly
localized today because of over-exploitation in the past decennia [12]. It usually grows on limestone
mountains, at altitudes below 800 m, mixed with Dracontomelum dao, Garcinia spp., and Peltophorum
tonkinensis [8]. In Vietnam below 800 m, usually on limestone mountains mixed with Pentace
tonkinensis, Garcinia spp., Amoora gigantea and Dracontomelum duperreanum [2]. C. tabularis grows
also in dense forests of India and the Indochinese and Malay Peninsulas [4]. Chukrasia is usually
found scattered in lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest, moist semi-evergreen forest or
deciduous forest at 300-800 m altitude. In Peninsular Malaysia it occurs occasionally as colonist on
bare land including road cuttings and abandoned shifting cultivation areas [5,16,26]. Major stands of
C. tabularis are found in India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Malaysia. It has been planted in many
countries outside Southeast Asia such as Nigeria, Cameroon, South Africa, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and

Costa Rica [20].

In its natural surroundings the annual precipitation is 1800-3800 mm and more. Minimum temperature
range 2.5-15.5 ºC, maximum 36.0-40.5 ºC [16]. Grows below 800 m, slow growing and light-
demanding but shade tolerant when young [2,8]; also on limestone in Sarawak (East Malaysia) [16].
On average this species thrives at elevations from 0-900 m with mean annual precipitation of 1400-
4000 mm/ m² distributed evenly over the summer months, tolerating a dry season of up to 5 months.
The mean annual temperature should lie in the range of 20-25ºC. C. tabularis will tolerate 850 mm
annual rainfall but react with slow growth. The area of distribution would be confined by a north-south
extension of 27º N to 0º N [12]. Open vegetation provides good growth condition as it is a light-
demanding species tolerating shade only at a young age [12, 26]. Chucrasia has the ability to self-
prune,coppice, pollard, while being tolerant to wind and shade [26].

not determined.
4
Chukrasia usually avoids heavy wet soils, it is found on limestone [8], occasionally on bare land [16].
It will grow on limestone soils, brown forest soils and alluvial soils but remain stunted on infertile
calcareous soils. Soil types may include alfisols, alluvial soils,cambisols and limestone soils [12]. Soil
acidity may vary from pH 4.0 to almost neutral with pH 7.5. Free drainage must prevail, the ground
can be level or steeply sloping, preferrably with a south exposition [12].

[Wood]: Chucrasia wood exhibits some of the beauty of a typical mahogany. It is used in construction
and furniture-making [2]. Highly prized for high grade cabinet work [4]; decorative panelling, interior
applications such as doors, windows, flooring, for carving and turnery. It is also used for railway
sleepers, ship and boat building, furniture, musical instruments, including pianos, packing cases,
sporting goods, truck beds, mallet heads, anvil blocks, brush wares, drawing equipment, rifle butts,
sliced and rotary cut veneer, plywood, wood-based panels and pulp [12]. In India it is also used for
medium heavy construction work, posts, beams, scantlings and planks. [8,16]
[Non-Wood]: Young leaves and bark have a high tannin content and the bark yields a reddish gum
which is sold together with gums from other trees [12.16]. The bark is adstringent and is used in
traditional medicine as a febrifuge. Also. the bark contains 15% of tannin, the leaves even more with
22%. If adequately treated flowers will yield either a yellow or a red dye [12]. In South China an
extract from twigs has been used as a repellent against Pieris rapae, an insect damaging rice plants
[12].
Chucrasi tabularis could make a valuable component of agroforestry landuse. Because of its self-
pruning properties and the straight bole it can be used as an alley tree in combination with banana,
citrus or guave fruit trees as intercrops [12].

First Class [4,18]

Chukrasia has been planted in many countries outside Southeast Asia, e.g. in Nigeria, Cameroon,
South Africa, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Costa Rica. Natural regeneration in the evergreen forests of
India is adequate but it is sparse in the semi-evergreen forests. C. tabularis is regarded as a pioneer
species and common in former shifting cultivation areas. Young trees coppice well [16]. "In India,
growth of seedlings proved moderately fast in the first 2 years. After the first 2 years the plants had
reached a height of 1.2-2.1 m , after 3 years 2.8-3.4 m, with a diameter of 4-5 cm and after 6 years
5.5 m tall and a diameter of 15 cm indicating a mean annual diameter increment of 2.5 cm". Another
source from India records a height of 6.6 m and a diameter of 5.2 cm for 5-year-old plants. A planting
trial in western Java using seeds from Sumatra showed a mean height of 13 m and a mean diameter
5
of 18 cm 10 years after planting. In the arboretum of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia the
largest tree, aged 33 years, had attained a height of 33 m, a clear bole of 16m and a diameter of 66
cm after 40 years. Chukrasia also grows well in plantations on exposed sites and may achieve over 1
cm diameter increment annually [16].
C. tabularis can be propagated vegetatively from stem and root cuttings (Rashid et al., 1986). Stem
cuttings from juvenile material have a 97% success rate, while for root cuttings it is only 50%. About
10,800 seedlings can be produced from a single harvest of shoots from one-year-old stock plants
growing in a hedge bed area of 100 m² (Pandit, 1996) [12].
For plantations, sites are generally prepared by burning after clear felling; however, since seedlings
are sensitive to drought, efforts should be made to reduce the danger of early mortality, such as
providing partial shade with faster-growing species. This technique is used in West Bengal (Forest
Research Institue India, 1974) [12].
At least three weedings during the rainy season are necessary for the first three years. The seedlings
are liable to attack by shoot borers; hence, mixture with other, non-meliaceous, species is desirable.
As it has a tendency to branch and fork, thinnings, especially the early ones, should be comparatively
light. C. tabularis can be badly browsed and debarked by deer and therefore fencing around
plantations is necessary [12].
Q. Propagation :
Shoots from stock plants can be cut every 21-24 days. Juvenile cuttings have been fond suitable for
orchard establishment. Research work with provisionally selected plus-trees from a wild population

was succesfully carried out for the establishment of a clonal orchard by the Chittagong University of
Bangladesh. Equally effective for orchard establishment is patch budding [12]. C. tabularis
regenerates naturally through seed, which is generally satisfactory, as well as through coppice. Ripe
fruits, collected from trees during March and April, are spread out in the sun for 2-3 days to dehisce,
and the seeds are separated by gentle thrashing, care being taken to protect them from being blown
away, or capsules are dried in shade until they split open, and the seeds are released by gentle
tumbling or shaking. An adult tree with a good crown size can produce 8-16 kg of fruits, giving 1-2 kg
of seeds. The number of seeds per kilogram varies from 45,000 to 100,000; germinative capacity
varies from 25 to 90%. Seeds can be stored in gunny bags for about 5 months, being recalcitrant to
intermediate. Direct sun drying should be avoided, as it may cause overheating and desiccation of the
sensitive seeds. Seeds require no pretreatment and are sown with overhead shade in light porous
soil. Germination is fair: in Malaysia 35% of the seeds sown germinated in 1-2.5 weeks, in India 80-
90% in 1-4 weeks. Where seed is plentiful, the best method is broadcast sowing in strips 0.6 m wide
and 1.8 m apart. Best results have been obtained by raising seedlings in well-drained boxes and pots
before transplanting. Seedlings are pricked out and transplanted to the nursery beds when about 1
month old and 6-8 cm high. The species can also be propagated by air-layering, entire transplants or
stumps. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; loss in viability after 1 year of hermetic air-dry storage at
6
room temperature; little loss in viability (by 4%) following 6 months of hermetic storage at 10 deg. C
with 6% mc. Fresh seed retain its viability for a relatively short period, about 3 months. [26].

As a member of the Meliaceae family Chukrasia populations world-wide remain heavily infested by
the shoot borer Hypsipyla robusta. The fact that many trees show the tendency to fork early, indicates
that this may be a trait attributable to the destruction of leader shoot buds by Hypsipyla. Light to
moderate or lateral shading has led to some reduction of Hypsipyla damage. It is evident that, it a a
long-term solution is needed, then it can only be expected from genetics research with Hypsipyla
resistant clones. A related research program has been initiated at the Institute of Forestry and
Environmental Sciences at Chittagong University, Bangladesh. Damage caused by the collar borer
Plagiophleus longiclavis can be controlled by spraying the soil around the stem collar with Furadan
3G, a commercial product on the basis of carbofuran as active ingredient [12].
S. Conservation :
Red-listed because of near-exhaustion of seed trees, therefore an endangered species in Vietnam [2].

unknown

East to Southeast Asia, native: West and South Africa, Central America, introduced [12,16].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Chukrasia is a very distinctive genus among the genera of the tribe Swietenieae of the subfamily
Swietenioideae. It is characterized by the large flowers, the more or less entire staminal tube, and the
arrangement and number of seeds [11,16].
Chudnoff, M., 1980:Tropical timbers of the world.For.Prod. Lab., USDAForest Service pp.591-592.
Gamble JS, 1984. A manual of Indian timbers. (Reprint) Dehra Dun, India: Bishen Singh Mahendra
Pal Singh.
Latif MA, Younus-uzzaman M, Gupta SRD, De BC, 1989. Natural durability of some important timber
species of Bangladesh. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 18(1-2):31-35; 6 ref
Mabberley DJ, 1995. Meliaceae. In: Dassanayake MD, ed. A Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon.
Vol.9. Washington D.C., USA: Smithsonian Institution and National Science Foundation, 229-30
Rai SN, 1985. Notes on nursery and regeneration technique of some species occurring in southern
tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Karnataka (India) Part II. Indian Forester,
111(8):644-657; 3 ref.
7
Sekhar AC, Sharma RS, 1965. Physical and mechanical properties of woods tested at FRI. Report 9.
Indian Forest Records.
Venkataramany P, Rashid MA, Joshi HB, Venkataramanan SV, Ram Parkash, 1981. Troup's The
Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol. 3. India: Govt. of Indian Press, 160-164.
X. References:
2) NGUYEN et al.1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi,
788 pp.
4) DY PHON, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom
Penh,. 915 pp.
5) Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Vilaiwan Anursarnsunthorn, 2000: A Field Guide

to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium Biology Dept. University of Chiang
Mai, Thailand; 546 pp.
8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam:
A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax.
and Plant Geogr. , Nat. Herbar. Nederlande, Univ. Leiden Br. Leiden The Netherlands ,
349 pp.

16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant
Resources of Southeast Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea
Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp.
20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor,B, and Mutua A, 2002:
Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

(Internet source)
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte]
Datasheet Report
[Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte
B. English name (s) ³ Chinese cassia [7]
C. Synonym ³ None known.
D. Other1 ³ cannelier, cannelle (France) [4, 7] - gudatvak (India) [7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eTBirU

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tep porou [1], tep tieru [4], tepirou [5], teep piiruu [7]
Other : Lauraceae
Family: Lauraceae
Gunus: Cinnamomum Schaefer
Species: Cinnamomum cambodianum
Lecomte
Source :[ 5,8]
[General]: Cinnamomum cambodianum is an evergreen large tree with a height of 15-25 m [1] (-17 m
[2], 10-15 m [4, 7]) with a large and dense crown. The trunk is usually straight and cylindrical with a
beautiful form and a DBH of 30-80 cm [1] (30-50 cm [2]). All parts of the stem are aromatic.
1
[Bark]: The outer bark is greyish and sparsely covered with lenticels. The inner bark is 1.2-1.5 cm [2]
thick, yellowish white and aromatic.
[Leaves]: The rounded leaves are opposite and oval, 6-15 x 3-8 cm [1] (9 x 4 cm [7], 12-14 x 7-9 cm
[2]).
[Flowers]: The flowers are small, bisexual (=hermaphrodite), arranged in sub-terminal or axillary stalks
and of light yellow color .
[Fruits]: The fruit is egg-shaped and 6-8 mm [1] in diameter. The color of young fruits is grey-yellow,
turning to red-brown when mature.
[1, 2, 4, 7]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Cinnamomum spp. is a light-weight to medium-weight hardwood. The heartwood
varies in color from greyish green to pinkish, reddish or pale brown, sometimes turning red brown or
walnut brown on exposure (reddish-grey for C. cambodianum [1]) and is usually not distinctly
demarcated from the straw colored pale pink or pale brown sapwood (pale grey for C. cambodianum
[1]. The density is 0.37-0.86 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [9]. Other wood properties: "Modulus of
rupture at 12% mc: 44-93.5 N/mm². Modulus of elasticity 7,315-12,570 N/mm². Compression parallel
to grain: 28-52 N/mm². Compression perpendicular to grain: approx. 5.5N/ mm². Rates of shrinkage
(from green to 12% mc): 1.6% (radial), 4.8% (tangential). Rates of shrinkage (from green to oven dry):
3.3% (radial), 5.7% (tangential)" [9].
[1, 9]

Approximate limits: 30°N to 30°S [8]. This tree species is found in Cambodia and Vietnam, in dense
and moist primary and secondary forests along river- and stream banks in valleys and at the foot of
mountains. There it grows in clusters of 5-10 trees [1] usually mixed with Elaeocarpus dubius,
Actinodaphne pilosa, Polyanthia cerasoides, Michelia balansae and Canarium album. In Cambodia it
can also be found in evergreen hill mountain forests in the upper slopes of Bokor and the Cardamon
Mountains and in Ratanakiri and Kampong Thom.
[1, 2, 7, 8]

Normally it occurs at altitudes of 600-700 m a.s.l. [1, 4] (200-600 m [2]) but in Cambodia it is also
found at altitudes up to 1,500 m a.s.l. [1]. Cinnamomum is adapted to a wide range of climatic
conditions. It tolerates short periods of drought. As a forest tree it is partially shade tolerant, but
mature trees grow well in full sunshine.
[1, 2, 4, 8]
2
Central Annamites.
[1]
Ratanak Kiri (X:732948 Y:1551895), Ratanak Kiri (X:732419 Y:1567241), Ratanak Kiri (X:766785
Y:1500486), Ratanak Kiri (X:701601 Y:1570885), Ratanak Kiri (X:728014 Y:1536309), Kampong
Thom (X:544510 Y:1403022).
[1]
C. cambodianum grows well in deep fertile and moist soils. However it also occurs in well drained
leached hillside soils of low fertility and strong acidity with a pH of 4-6 [8]. It also tolerates short
periods of waterlogging.
[1, 2, 8]
[Wood]: The timber is straight and white and can be used in construction, for sawing boards, columns,
posts and farming implements. It is also used for fuelwood.
[2, 6]
[Non-wood]: The bark is also chewed with betel or is used in the kitchen as food. It also contains an
essential oil that is used in traditional medicine: "Main actions are a warming stimulant, carminative,
anti-spasmodic and antiseptic. It has also been reputedly used for indigestion, tuberculosis and
regulation of menstrual pains. The stem bark is often used as a cardiac tonic, anti flatulent and
relieves fatigue. Steam inhalation of the leaves are used to treat nasal cataracts. Patients treated with
other anti coagulants should be monitored carefully whilst taking this herb, due to the coumarin
contents in the herb" [7].
[1, 2, 4, 6, 7]

No class. [10]

[General]: C. cambodianum grows in dense and moist primary and secondary forests along river and
stream banks in valleys and at foot of mountains. There it occurs in clusters of 5-10 trees [1] usually
mixed with Elaeocarpus dubius, Actinodaphne pilosa, Polyanthia cerasoides, Michelia balansae and
Canarium album. In Cambodia it can also be found in evergreen hill mountain forests. It is a shade
demanding tree when young but mature trees grow well in full sunshine.
[1, 2, 7]
3
Q. Propagation :
Generally, natural regeneration is very good under the forest canopy.
[Seed Collection]: "Seeds are usually collected from the tree or from the ground by shaking the
branches. In seed source areas, the ground is usually cleared and sometimes burnt to prepare for
seed collection. To ease collection, a cover can be spread out on the ground. The optimal time of
collection is reached when the fruits have changed in color from green to brownish. Maturity can be
confirmed by a cutting test" [1].
[1, 2]

[Pests]: "Ceylon cinnamon pests, which have also been reported on other Cinnamomum are
caterpillars of the cinnamon butterfly (Chilasa clytia), leafminers (Acrocerops spp.), caterpillars of a
leafwebber (Sorolopha archimedias), and mole crickets (Gryllotalpha spp.) damaging young
seedlings" [8].
[Diseases]: "Diseases may include stripe canker (Phytophtora cinnamomi), pink disease (Corticium
salmonicolor, Syn: C. javanicum), white rot (Fomes lignosus), rust (Aecidium cinnamomi) and
anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata). A serious witches broom disease has been recently found on
Chinese cassia in Vietnam. Control with the natural antibiotic berberine has been successful" [8].
S. Conservation :
"As the wood is very valuable and in high demand, this species is under high pressure from over-

exploitation and is in danger of extinction unless measures are taken to provide adequate protection
illegal logging. The number of mature trees has been reduced significantly and it is now difficult to find
significant sources of germplasm. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene
Conservation Strategy defined Cinnamomum cambodianum Lecomte as a priority species in need of
immediate conservation intervention and appropriate protection" [1].

It has been found in the upper slopes of Bokor and the Cardamon Mountains and in Ratanakiri and
Kampong Thom in Cambodia. Cinnamomum cambodianum is endemic to Cambodia.
[1, 4]

[Native]: Cambodia, Vietnam [1]
[Introduced]: Apparently this species does not occur yet outside of its natural range.
[3]
4
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Chemical properties]: "Volatile oils up to 4% (cinnamaldehyde 65-75% & eugenol 4-10%), tannins,
coumarins, and mucilage" [7].
X. References:
[3] Bertram, A. (2006): Own observations.

(Internet source)
[8] PROSEA, 1999: Plant Resources of South East Asia 13 - Spices
[9] PROSEA, 1995: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (2) Timber trees: Minor commercial
timbers.
[10] Department of Forestry and Wildlife, 1988: Cambodian Forestry Law No. 35, 25th June 1988.
Phnom Penh.
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle]
Datasheet Report
[Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle
B. English name (s) ³ lime, sour lime, common lime [1]
C. Synonym ³ Limonia aurantifolia Christm. & Panzer (1777), Citrus
javanica Blume (1825), Citrus notissima Blanco (1837) [1],

Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Citrus acida Roxb.,
Citrus hystrix ssp. acida (Roxb.) Engl., Citrus lima Lunan,
Citrus limetta var. aromatica Wester, Citrus medica var.
acida (Roxb.) Hook. f., Limonia acidissima Christm. [2]
D. Other1 ³ lime acide, limettier, limettier acide (France) [1, 4] -
jeruk nipis, jeruk pecel (Indonesia) [1] - limau asam, limau

nipis (Malaysia) [1] - muli (Papua New Guinea) [1] - dayap
(Philippines) [1] - naaw (Laos) [1] - somma nao, manao
(Thailand) [1] - chanh, chanh ta (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: RkUcqµamUl/RkUcqµaExµr/RkUcqµa

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krôôch chhmaa muul [1], kroôch chmâa [4], kro:ch
chma: khmè [7]
Other : Rutales [2] / Sapindales [5]

Family: Rutaceae
Gunus: Citrus
Species: Citrus aurantifolia
1
Source :[ 2]
[General]: Small evergreen tree with a height of 5 m [1] (8 m [4]). Crown is dense and irregularly
branched with armed twigs bearing short stiff and sharp spines. Root suckers and suckers on older
branches are characterized by stout sharp spines and are common. All growing parts of the plant are
deliciously smelling.
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, elliptic to egg-shaped or opposite egg-shaped, 4-8 cm x 2-5 cm [1]
(3-8 cm × 2-5 cm [5]) with a bluntly toothed margin. The leaf-tip is pointed; the leaf-base is rounded,
with gland dots and hairless.
[Flowers]: Inflorescences are short alternate, 1-7(-10)-flowered [1] (7 flowers [4]). The flowers are
either perfect or male, small and often solitary or in few clusters in the axils of the leaves on shoots
which have just flushed. Outer flower leaves are cup-shaped, 4-6-lobed. Inner flower leaves (=petals)
4-6 [1] (4 [4]), each one 8-12 mm long [1] and sweet-smelling. Stamens (=male organ) 20-25(-34) [1].
Ovary (=female organ) 9-12(-15)-celled [1], style abruptly distinct. "The stigma is receptive as the
flower opens and remains so for a few days. Pollen is not released until the flower has opened.
Copious secretion of nectar by a floral disk attracts insects, especially honey bees, which pollinate the
flowers. Self-pollination occurs, but self-incompatibility limits fruit set" [1].
[Fruits]: The fruit (=berry) is globe-shaped to egg-shaped, 3-6 cm in diameter [1] (4-6 cm [5]),
sometimes with apical papillae. The thin skin (peel) is greenish-yellow when ripe, leathery, rough and
contains aromatic oil glands. The segments consist of yellow-green pulp-vesicles which are very acid,

juicy and fragrant. Seeds are small, plump, egg-shaped, pale and smooth with white embryos
(polyembryonic). Generally the 'West Indian' limes from Central America have a larger fruit than in
other regions. The fruit ripens after 5.5-6 months [1].
[1, 4, 5]
I. Wood properties:

The lime grows naturally in the lowland tropics, most commonly in coastal regions and is now
cultivated throughout the tropics and in warm subtropical areas
[1, 5].

It grows up to an altitude of 0-1,000 m a.s.l. [1] or more (0-2,200 m [5]). The tree needs a warm
climate and is sensitive to cold but quite drought resistant.
[1, 5]
2

Limes can even grow on poor soils and tolerates heavier soils than oranges, if good drainage
prevents waterlogging.
[1]
In Cambodia the tree is primarily cultivated for its fruits.
[Wood]: No information available.
[Non-wood]: Limes are an everyday ingredient of the food in South-East Asia. The fruit is used in
nearly every home in South-East Asia mainly to flavor food, but also to prepare drinks. "The rich flavor
and acid taste make lime a favorite for hot and spicy dishes, either fresh or in the form of pickles and
sauces. The refreshing qualities come to the fore in lime juice, lime tea and the use on other fruit, e.g.
papaya. In Malaysia the fruit is preserved in brine and vinegar; it is enjoyed as an appetizer when fried
in oil with sugar added" [1]. In Cambodia fruits are candied and used to flavor poultry-meat dishes. It
is also broadly used in Cambodian medicine: The leaves and fruits have many medicinal uses, some
of which are linked with the belief that limes drive evil spirits away. "The juice and pulp of fruits contain
citric acid and vitamin C. Both young and old leaves contain the coumarin isopimpinellin. The volatile
oils consists of limonene. sabinene, terpinolene, citral, alpha- and beta pinenes, alpha terpinol,
linalool, alpha bergamotene and beta bisabolene. The coumarins include limettin, bergamottin,
bergapten, dimethoxycoumarin and gamma geranoxypsoralen isoimperatoren. This is a main source

of vitamin C. The leaves are steamed with Cymbopogon nardus to relieve the symptoms of cold and
flu. The fresh fruits have reputedly been used as an expecorant and a cough remedy. There is limited
medicinal use of lime, although there have been numerous studies on immuno-modulatory effects.
Lime is commonly used as a photosynthesizer for suntan preparations" [4].
[1, 4, 7]

No class. [3]

[Establishment]: The juvenile phase lasts about 5 years. [5]
[Management]: Lime is an everbearing tree [5]. "Under dry conditions irrigation is necessary to obtain
good quality fruits. Unpruned trees have a dense twiggy canopy and crowded branches may die back
due to competition. Hence, trees are pruned to thin the branches and to remove suckers and limbs
3
infected by canker. To influence the harvest time, irrigation is withheld for 3 weeks in the dry season;
resumption of irrigation triggers a flush which brings on flowering" [1].
[Harvesting]: The fruit needs 5.5-6 months [1] from flowering to harvest. "The fruit is harvested by
hand when it is mature green or yellow. Immature fruits, although less juicy, may be included during
the season of poor supplies. In Thailand there is little fruit in March-April. This may be due to early
ripening (coloring) of the fruit during the cool dry period of December-February. Alternatively, the gap
in supplies may be caused by poor flowering or fruit set during September-October (the second half of
the rainy season)" [1].
[Production]: "Layered trees can produce fruits in the second year after planting, but growers aim at
maximum growth to get a more substantial crop in the third year. The average yield of lime in Thailand
during the 1988/1989 season was 2,400 kg/ha. In India trees are expected to bear 600-1,500 fruits
per year. A single tree in the home garden can meet a family's requirements. Urban people depend
on this fruit which is produced in orchards" [1].
Q. Propagation :
"Unlike other citrus species, limes are rarely propagated by budding. In South-East Asia, air layering
is the normal method, elsewhere the trees are raised from seed. Sturdy twigs, preferably suckers, are
selected for layering and the dust of coconut husk after fiber extraction is the medium used in
Thailand. The layers are potted and nursed for 2-4 weeks before planting" [1].

[Pests]: "The obnoxious citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella) causes leaf malformation and early

leaf fall. The pest affects almost every tree and to the extent that flowering is diminished. Control by
insecticides is difficult because the caterpillars are relatively safe in their tunnels in the underside of
the leaves, and life cycles are short and overlap. The increased use of insecticides seems to have
aggravated the pest, perhaps because predators are more vulnerable" [1].
[Diseases]: "High incidence of bacterial canker is a limiting factor in the wet tropics. Limes are
susceptible to tristeza virus, but the more serious threat is bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris
p.v. citri), which shortens the life of trees by girdling the trunk. The bacteria can infect any part of the
tree through wounds; even the stings of sucking insects afford entry. The bacteria are distributed by
rain. Strict orchard hygiene, i.e. removal of infested branches, spraying with copper early in the rainy
season, and spraying with streptomycin are recommended" [1].
S. Conservation :

It was introduced into Cambodia where the fruit is widely cultivated. [4]
4
[Native]: India
[7]
[Introduced]:
Asia (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Thailand,
Vietnam)
Central America: (Mexico, Dominica)
Africa: (Ghana)
[1, 7]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[World Production]: "According to FAO statistics the world produced 6 million t of limes and lemons
(Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.) in 1988, the figures showing a rising trend. The lime crop is by far the
smaller of the two, but since lemons are hardly grown in South-East Asia, the following FAO figures
must refer to limes: Cambodia 1,000 t, Laos 8000 t, Malaysia 3,000 t, Thailand 1,000 t. Statistical data
from Thailand give a more realistic production estimate of 53,600 t from a total area of 29,100 ha in
1987/1988. Trade statistics show that exports from Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand are
insignificant in relation to domestic consumption. Large-scale production for the international trade in
juice and oil is mainly found in Central America (hence the names Mexican lime or West Indian lime),
Dominica and Ghana" [1]
[Fruit properties]: "The mature yellow fruit usually has a thin rind and a very acid juice: 7-8% citric acid
by weight. The juice extract is about 41% of the fruit weight. Analyses in Thailand give the following
composition per 100 g edible portion: water 91 g, protein 0.5 g, fat 2.4 g, carbohydrates 5.9 g, fibre
0.3 g, vitamin A 17 IU, vitamin C 46 mg; energy value is about 150 kJ per 100 g" [1].
Sethpakdee, R., 1992. Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle. In Coronel, R.E. & Verheij,
E.W.M. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 2: Edible fruits and nuts. Prosea Foundation,
Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 126-128.
[6]
X. References:
5
Commercial Woods, unpublished

(Internet source)
[6] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=18077
(Internet source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Citrus hystrix DC]
Datasheet Report
[Citrus hystrix DC]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Citrus hystrix DC
B. English name (s) ³ Mauritius papeda, leech-lime [1], kaffir lime, kieffer lime
[5], Indonesian lime, wild lime [7]
C. Synonym ³ Citrus papuana Bail. [6]
D. Other1 ³ citron combera, citron ride (France) [1, 3] - jeruk purut, limo
purut, jeruk obat (Indonesia) [1, 5] - limau purut (Malaysia) [1]

- kabuyau, kulubut, kolobot (Philippines) [1] - shouk-pote
(Myanmar) [1] - 'khi 'hout. (Laos) [1] - ma kruut (Thailand) [1]
- tr[us]c, chanh s[as]c (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: RkUcesIc

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krauch soeuch [1]

Other : Rutales [4] / Sapindales [6]

Family: Rutaceae
Gunus: Citrus
Species: Citrus hystrix DC.
Source :[ 4]
1
[General]: Small tree or shrub with a height of 12 m [1] (5-10 m [3, 8], 6-8 m [6]). Trunk crooked and
thin, with slender sharp thorns. There are hybrid forms existing between C. hystrix and C. aurantifolia.
[Leaves]: The leaves and inflorescence are similar to those of C. aurantifolia. The leaves are broadly
egg-shaped or oblong 3-15 cm x 2-6 cm [1] and of shiny dark color with the leaf-shaped leafstalks
sometimes winged together, creating an 'hourglass-shape' of the leaf and leafstalk.
[Flowers]: The flowers are small, white and fragrant.
[Fruits]: The fruit (=berry) is egg-shaped to ellipsoidal, 5-7 cm [1] (4 cm [5], 8 cm [6]) in diameter,
bright green to yellow, with an irregularly rough thick skin and very little edible yellowish green pulp
inside of 10-12 segments. The peel of the fruit is very fragrant and the sap is very sour.
[1, 3, 5, 6, 8]
I. Wood properties:

Citrus hystrix is often grown in home gardens but is not very vigorous.
[1]

The species mainly occurs in lowland areas and is cultivated in the warm regions.
[6, 8]


[Wood]: No information available.
[Non-wood]: In Cambodia it is cultivated for domestic uses. It is widely used in Thai cuisine and Lao
cuisine. Leaves are also popular in the west of Cambodia, but less in Vietnam. The Malay and
Indonesian (especially Balinese) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish. The leaves can
be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen. Although the most common product are its leaves
(which impart a sharp lime/neroli flavor to Thai dishes such as tom yum, and to Indonesian food such
as 'sayur assam' which means sour vegetables). "In Thai cuisine, C.hystrix is frequently combined
with garlic, galanga, ginger and fingerroot, together with liberal amount of chilies. Fresh Thai basil is
needed for the authentic fragrance. The fruit juice, which is very sour and has the same fragrance as
the leaves, is used for seasoning and sometimes added to fish or poultry dishes in Malaysia or
Thailand" [7]. It is also used to prepare drinks. The fruits may be eaten crystallized, but is often used
in slices in religious ceremonies where it is cut in slices and mixed with water. Fruits are also used as
an insecticide, as a shampoo and treating the feet to kill land leeches. The leaves and the peel of the
2
fruit make condiments. They are sold in all Asian groceries shops around the world. "The rind is
sliced, dried slightly and triturated to powder and mixed with Tinospora powder for stomach aches.
The juice is also reputedly used as an expectorant. The fruit peels possess carminative properties.
Antifertility and repellency effects have both been observed in this species of plant" [3]. "Kaffir lime
fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil; main components are limonene
and β-pinene" [7].
[1, 3, 5, 7, 8]

No class [2]


Q. Propagation :

S. Conservation :

C. hystrix is cultivated in the warm regions of Cambodia. [3]

[Native]: Malaysia
[8]
[Introduced]: Cambodia, Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Laos, Brunei, Philippines, Papua New Guinea,
Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.
[1, 9]
3
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The Oxford Companion to Food (ISBN 0192115790) recommends that the name
'kaffir lime' should be avoided in favor of makrut lime because Kaffir is an offensive term in some
cultures, and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However, kaffir lime appears to
be much more common" [5]. "The species name hystrix (Greek hystrix [ὕστριξ] “porcupine”) refers to
the many thorns of the plant".
[7]
[Chemical Properties]: "The compound responsible for the characteristic aroma was identified as (-)-
(S)-citronellal, which is contained in the leaf oil up to 80%. Minor components are citronellol (10%),
nerol and limonene."
[7]
X. References:

[5] Answers.Com: http://www.answers.com/topic/kaffir-lime (Internet source)

(Internet source)
[7] Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages Table of Content page:

http://www.kfunigraz.ac.at/~katzer/engl/Citr_hys.html (Internet source)
4
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr]
Datasheet Report
[Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr
B. English name (s) ³ pummelo, shaddock, pomelo [1], pompelmous [3]
C. Synonym ³ Citrus aurantium L. var. grandis L. (1753), Citrus
grandis (L.) Osbeck (1757), Citrus decumana L. (1767). [1]
D. Other1 ³ pamplemoussier (France) [1] - jeruk besar, jeruk bali
(Indonesia) [1] - jambua, limau betawi, limau bali

(Malaysia) [1] - muli (Papua New Guinea) [1] - lukban,
suha (Philippines) [1] - shouk-ton-oh (Myanmar) [1] -
kièngz s'aangz, ph'uk, sômz 'ôô (Laos) [1] - som-o, ma-
o (Thailand) [1] - b[uw][owr]i (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: RkUcføúg

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krôoch thlông [1]

Other : Rutales
Family: Rutaceae
Gunus: Citrus
Species: Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.
1
Source :[ 4]
[General]: Small to medium-sized low-branching and spiny tree with a height of 5-10(-15) m [1] (10-15
m [3]). Stems of young trees are hairy and occasionally spines are produced. Branches are
spreading, spiny (seed propagation) or spineless (vegetative propagation), with spines up to 5 cm
long also hairy when young.
[Leaves]: The leaves are egg-shaped to elliptical, 5-10 (-20) cm x 2-5 (-12) cm in size [1] with a
rounded base. Leaf margin entire to shallowly wavy, with a pointed leaf tip, glandular dotted. Leaf-
stalk broadly winged, up to 7 cm wide [5], with broad wings.
[Flowers]: Inflorescences axillary, with a cluster of a few flowers or a single flower. Flowers are large,
2-3 cm x 3-5 cm [1] when fully expanded and hairy. Flower leaves are creamy-white. Male organs
(=stamens) 20-25 (-35) [5], female organ (=ovary) with 11-16 loculi. "In the tropics the trees flower 2-4
times per year, mainly in conjunction with shoot growth flushes. The main flowering period follows the
onset of the monsoon rains, unless it is brought forward by irrigation as in Thailand (bloom in January-
February). Fruit matures 7-10 months after flowering, in Thailand mainly from August to October. Most
cultivars are self-sterile" [1].
[Fruits]: The fruit (=berry) is subglobular to pyriform and large with 10-20(-30) cm in diameter [1],
greenish-yellow and densely glandular dotted. The peel is 1-3(-4) cm thick [1] with large segments
that contain pale yellow or pink pulp-vesicles, filled with a sweetish sometimes bitter juice. Each
segment of the fruit is covered by a strong membrane. Seeds are usually few, large, plump, ridged,

yellowish and monoembryonic.
[1, 3, 5, 7]
I. Wood properties:

The pummelo thrives in the lowland tropics and is cultivated in orchards and home gardens for its
fruit.
[1, 7]

C.maxima can be grown up to 900 m a.s.l. [5], however the upper limit for commercial fruit production
is 400 m a.s.l [1, 5]. It is cultivated in areas with an annual rainfall of 1,500-1,800 mm [1] and a dry
season of 3-4 (-5) months [1, 5]. "In Thailand mean monthly temperatures are about 25-30°C with a
few cooler (and dry) months" [1].
[1, 3, 5, 7]
2

C. maxima tolerates a wide range of soils from coarse sand to heavy clay, including brackish and
salty conditions. However, it prefers deep and medium-textured, fertile soils which are free from salts.
The best sites are situated on the banks of current and former river courses.
[1, 5]

[Wood]: The wood is used for tool handles.
[Non-wood]: Pummelo is mainly cultivated for domestic use. In Cambodia the fruits are often eaten
fresh out of the hand or in culinary preparations like fruit salads. The white inner part of the peel can
be candied after the outer peel containing oil glands has been removed. Sometimes the juice is
extracted. "The aromatic flowers are used to make perfume in Vietnam. Even if the fruit is of inferior
quality, the tree may still be grown for the medicinal applications of leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds,
including the treatment of coughs, fevers and gastric disorders, (cholera and epilepsy [3])" [1].
[1, 3, 7]

No class. [2]

[General]: "In South-East Asia pummelo is grown in home gardens, in mixed citrus orchards and in
pure pummelo orchards (Thailand, Philippines). In Thailand the areca palm is also found as intercrop,
or as a border plant along the ditches where the pummelos are grown on raised beds" [1].
[Establishment]: "Trees are spaced 8-10 m x 6-8 m [1], depending on vigor, on well-prepared land;
they are shaded and watered frequently until they are established. The planting material is cut back,
especially if bare-rooted. A banana intercrop can serve as windbreak, shade and source of early
income" [1].
[Management]: "Young trees are pruned to leave 3 main framework branches, the lowest being at
least 30-40 cm [1] off the ground. The trees also need some pruning in later years to keep the tree
interior open, to make sure that fruit on sagging branches does not touch the ground, and to remove
dead wood. Trees that bear well are propped up with bamboo poles. A cover crop suppresses weeds
to some extent, but in the rainy season weeds need to be slashed; early in the dry season the orchard
is hoed or treated with herbicide. Mulching under the trees with rice straw or other material is strongly
recommended to maintain root growth in the topsoil. Irrigation is important betwenn flowering and
3
harvest to supplement rain. During the subsequent dry period irrigation is delayed until the trees show
signs of wilting. It is customary to force early flowering by irrigating the wilting trees, provided the
water supply is secure until the rainy season starts again. Forcing the trees to advance the harvest
has its limitations, as it is difficult to sustain new shoot growth and flowering during the hot dry months
preceding the rains. Fertilizer requirements of citrus also apply to pummelo, including attention to
magnesium and micro-nutrients (Zn, Mn, Cu, B). An annual or biennial dressing with manure forms a
good basis. In Nakhon Prathom (Thailand) growers are advised to apply about 5 kg NPK 16-16-
16/tree/year [1] in bi-monthly applications and foliar fertilizer for every new flush. In the last dressings
before harvest potassium-rich NPK 13-13-21 is used to improve fruit taste. Elsewhere 2 fertilizer
dressings are recommended, the first before flowering and the second 4-6 months later." Yields
depend on cultivar and environment. 70-100 fruit/tree/year (Thailand), 20 t/ha per year (Malaysia)" [1].
Q. Propagation :
"Although many trees in home gardens are raised from seed, the common propagation method in
South-East Asia is air layering. When certified virus-tested mother trees become available, budding is
recommended. Pummelo seedlings of sufficiently uniform populations can be used as rootstocks. In
the Philippines shield budding is already the standard method" [1].

The mixing of different citrus species at the same area complicates crop protection in the orchard. [1]
[Pests]: "All the citrus pests seem to be at home on the pummelo, including the obnoxious leaf miners
Phyllocnistis citrella (in Java it has been recommended to protect young trees with a mosquito net!),
leaf-eating caterpillars, fruit-boring caterpillar (Citripestis sp.), scales, red mites, fruit flies, nematodes

and vermin (rats)" [1].
[Diseases]: "Pummelo is particularly susceptible to bacterial canker, also on the fruit, following fruit fly
stings. Frequent spraying with copper fungicides in Thailand does not give adequate control. Root rot,
gummosis on the trunk and brown rot of the fruit, all caused by Phytophthora fungi, appear to shorten
the life of many trees in South-East Asia, even though pummelo is not rated as very susceptible" [1].
S. Conservation :

Pummelo occurs in the warm regions of Cambodia as an introduced species.
[3]
[Native]: Malaysia
[7]
[Introduced]: Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Myanmar, Laos
[1]
4
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Fruit Properties]: "The edible segments form only a small fraction of the thick-skinned fruit;
Thai sources give the composition per 100 g edible portion as: water 89 g, protein 0.5 g, fat
0.4 g, carbohydrates 9.3 g, vitamin A 49 IU, vitamin B1 0.07 mg, vitamin B2 0.02 mg, niacin
0.4 mg and vitamin C 44 mg. Naringin is the characteristic glucoside found in the fruit" [1].
Chaiwongkeit, D. & Chaireongyod, T., 1988. Som O - The pummelo. Bangkok. 76 pp.
[1]
Chomchalow, N., 1984. Genetic wealth of pummelos in Thailand. IBPGR Newsletter, Regional
Committee for South-East Asia 8(3): 27-29.
[1]
Fachzurozi, L., 1978. Apakah benar jeruk besar (Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck) mulai menghilang? [Is
the pummelo really disappearing?]. Buletin Kebun Raya 3(4): 133-136.
[1]
Martin, F.W. & Cooper, W.C., 1977. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise. Part 3: The
pummelo. ARS-S-157, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans. 17 pp.

[1]
Ochse, J.J., Soule, M.J., Dijkman, M.J. & Wehlburg, C., 1961. Tropical and subtropical agriculture.
Vol. 1. Macmillan, New York, pp. 486-488.
[1]
X. References:
5
(Internet source)
(Internet source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Cocos nucifera L.]
Datasheet Report
[Cocos nucifera L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Cocos nucifera L.
B. English name (s) ³ coconut [2], copra, coconut palm [4]
C. Synonym ³ Calappa nucifera (L.) Kuntze, Cocos nana Griffith [4]
D. Other1 ³ coconut (trade name) [8] - narikel (Bangladesh) [8] –
mak-un, on (Myanmar) [8] - kokoye (Caribbean) [8] - Coco,

Cocos, Cocospalm, Klapperboom (Netherlands) [8] - coco,
cocotier, cocoyer, coq au lait, noix de coco (France) [8] -
Kokospalme (Germany) [8] - kelapa (Indonesia) [8] - kelapa
(Malaysia) [8] - coc, tubab sibo (W-Africa) [8] - coco da
Bahia, coco da India, coqueiro de Bahia (Portugal) [8] - coco,
coco de agua, cocotero, palma de coco, palmera de coco
(Spain) [8] - mnazi (E-Africa) [8] - tennai-maram (Sri Lanka)
[8]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: dUg

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ daung, dong [3]
Other : Palmales / Principes [3] / Arecales [4]
1
Family: Palmae [3] / Arecaceae [4]
Gunus: Cocos
Species: Cocos nucifera
Source :[ 3,4]
[General]: Medium-size to large palm tree, 20-25 m [2] (2-30 m [3]) in height with a cylindrical trunk of
20-40 cm [2] DBH (45 cm [7]). Many rings mark the places of former leaves. "At the summit it bears a
crown of about 20 pinnate leaves that generally curve downward, each of which is about 3 to 4.5 m
(about 10 to 15 ft) long [7].
[Fruits] The fruit is roughly ovoid, up to 5 cm x 3 cm, composed of a thick, fibrous husk surrounding a
spherical nut with a hard, brittle, hairy shell. The nut itself has a size of 2-2.5 cm x 3-4 cm. "Three
sunken holes of softer tissue, called ‘eyes’, are at one end of the nut. Inside the shell is a thin, white,
fleshy layer known as the ‘meat’. The interior of the nut is hollow but partially filled with a watery liquid
called ‘coconut milk’. The meat is soft and jellylike when immature but becomes firm with maturity.
Coconut milk is abundant in unripe fruit but is gradually absorbed as ripening proceeds. The fruits are
green at first, turning brownish as they mature, yellow varieties go from yellow to brown. [8]"
[2, 7, 8]
I. Wood properties:

"The wood is difficult to saw, requiring tungsten carbide teeth" [4]. The central cylinder consists of a
parenchymatic tissue enclosing vascular and fibrous bundles. The vascular bundles of the periphery
have a higher density than those at the center closely packed with just a few layers of thin-walled cells
intervening.
[4, 9]

Approximate limits: 27°N to 25°S [4], 20°N to 20°S (commercial). It generally occurs between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Occasionally (and decoratively) as far as 30°N and S [9] and in
heated glasshouses to 50°+ N and S [9] (note that as the latitude gets higher the altitude limit gets
lower with minimum temperature being the controlling factor). It is found throughout the humid tropics,
originally in coastal areas in the wild but almost anywhere when cultivated, even in considerable
distance inland.
[8, 9]

C.nucifera grows in an altitude of 520-900 m a.s.l. [8] (0-1,000 m [2], 0-1,200 m [4]) but commercially
below 300 m [9]. "At 1,000 m they grow vegetatively but do not set fruit (note that the altitude limit
gets lower as the latitude gets higher and as the minimum temperature gets lower) [9]." A bimodal,
2
uniform rainfall of 1,000-1,500 mm [9] (1,200-2,300 mm [4]) is suitable for cultivation. However, C.
nucifera tolerates a dry season of 0-3 months [2] (0-4 months [4]) resulting in a lower nut production.
After 6 months of drought the palms stop flower production and death can follow a 9 month drought.
Mean annual temperature: 22-35°C [4] (20-28°C [8]) with optimal temperatures at 27-32°C. Mean
maximum temperature of hottest month: 30-38°C [4]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month:
16-23°C [4]. Minimum temperature: >7°C [4]. However, established palms have been reported to
survive even short periods of sub-zero temperatures [9]. It requires medium to high amounts of
sunlight and is intolerant of shade. Precocity (earliness to flower) is delayed by shade and subsequent
flowering and fruit setting is prevented by heavy shade. It is highly resistant to winds and salt winds.
"Coconuts cannot survive in forests" [9].
[2, 4, 8, 9]


Prefers deep, fertile and adequately drained alluvial coastal sands and sandy loams. It will suffer in
clay soils if these are compressed by the movement of vehicles or animals. Rocky, laterite or stagnant
soils are also unsuitable [8]. In case of organic (peat) soils a proper management is required. A pH of
5.5-6.5 [4] is preferred but it can grow from 5.0-8.0 [2]. A high water-table or continually replenished
surface soil moisture is suitable. "C. nucifera is salt tolerant on the sea coast and responds to
fertilization by sodium chloride when inland but it is not a halophile and salt accumulations need
flushing away by movement of ground water, by rain or by irrigation" [9].
[2, 4, 8, 9]

[Wood]: The timber is used for poles, construction, furniture, boxes, fixtures, particle board, paper
pulp, charcoal, and occasionally veneers which are of lower quality.
[4]
[Non-wood]: "Besides its nuts, C. nucifera trees are of enormous general utility. Coconut milk may be
drunk or used as a medium for tissue culture. The copra (dried endosperm) is used for extraction of
oils for use in foods, cosmetics, and medicines. The cori (mesocarp fibres) is used to make
handicrafts like mats, ropes, carpets, brushes, brooms, bags and packaging material. The shell is
used to make bowls, cups, spoons, ladles, smoking pipes, ashtrays, vases, boxes, and toys. The
leaves are used in thatching, and the terminal bud as well as the young green stem may be eaten as
a vegetable. The roots have medicinal properties and are also used for livestock, as a deformer, and
to relieve bloat and constipation. C.nucifera also provides a sweet sucrose-rich liquid known as toddy.
In combination with a slow-release fertilizer the husk from old coir makes a good lightweight potting
3
medium. It is also important as a dye and tannin-producing plant. The nuts are used for dyeing silk
green, and the fruit-stalk is used for coloring teeth black.
[2, 4, 5]

No Class [1]

[Management]: Coconut palms cannot survive in most forests but form an integrated part of many
agroforestry systems [10]. "Intercropping with yams, cassava, taro, coffee, and species is very
common. Interplanting with bananas for the first two years of production or in mixed fruit plantation
with mango (Mangifera indica), cocoa, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), citrus (Citrus spp.) and others.
Cattle may be grazed under the canopy in plantations older than 6-8 years, usually 2-3 head of cattle
per ha. Irrigation during dry period increases fruit yields. Planting cover crops of nitrogen fixing
legumes under the canopy also increases yields. Growth: 20 cm/year after juvenile stage. C. nucifera
is characterized by a slow growth. Relatively high labor costs are created when the edible portion of
the fruit is removed" [2]. It has the ability to self-prune its leaflets. "Fertilizer response to nitrogen on
any soil is by increased leaf and flower production but greater susceptibility to fungal foliar infections.
Phosphate fertilizer is only required on depleted and or sandy soils. Potash is the major nutrient
requirement, improving fruit set and better resistance to leaf infections. Magenesium is required, but
not routinely, and boron only when deficiency symptoms become apparent. Other minor elements are
required on coral atoll soils" [9].
[2, 4, 9, 10]

Q. Propagation :
Naturally its nuts are dispersed by the oceans. In general, C. nucifera is propagated from seeds (the
nuts), which have to be soaked into water for 1-2 weeks and take 8-10 weeks to germinate. There is
no need to shade the nursery. After 30 weeks [4] (20-24 weeks [2]) they reach a planting-out size
after the shoot is well established. The seeds are viable for up to 2 years. Vegetative propagation is
possible by using tissue culture. Stand establishment is conducted by using natural regeneration or
direct sowing.
[2, 4]

[Pests]: Insect pests include Aceria guerreronis, Aleurodicus destructor, Artona catoxantha, Aspidiotus
destructor, Brontispa longissima, Hidari irava, Homaledra sabalella, Oryctes monoceros, Oryctes rhinoceros,
Parasa lepida, Promecotheca, Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus, Rhynchophorus vulneratus, Setora nitens,
Tirathaba, Xylotrupes gideon. A common vertebrate pest is Rattus rattus.
[4]
4
[Diseases]: Fungus diseases are Bipolaris incurvata, Cerastomella paradoxa, Corticium penicillatum, Drechslera
halodes, Ganoderma boninense, Pestalotiopsis palmarum, Phytophthora palmivora, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.
A known virus disease is Cadang-cadang
[4]
S. Conservation :

Sihanoukville, Kampot, Koh Kong, Phnom Penh, Kandal, Siem Reap, Battambang, Kampong Cham,
Kratie, Kampong Speu, Kampong Chnang, Kampong Thom, Pursat, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Banteay
Meanchey, Takeo.
[10]

C. nucifera originated from the Indo-Malayan to Western Pacific region and is now of pan-tropical
distribution.
[4]
[Native]: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
Vietnam.
[8]
[Introduced]: Argentina, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Chile, China,
Colombia, Cook Islands, Cote d'Ivoire, Ecuador, Fiji, French Guiana, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea,
Guyana, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Liberia, Madagascar, Mali, Marshall Islands,
Mauritania, New Caledonia, Niger, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Samoa, Senegal,
Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Surinam, Togo, Tonga, Uganda, United States of America,
Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Zanzibar.
[8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The generic name was derived from the Portuguese word ‘coco’, meaning ‘monkey’"
[8]
[History]: "C.nucifera appeared some 4,000 years ago (the first mention of a coconut palm in China is
found in a Chinese poem of the 20th century B.C.)" [3].
5
Andrew M.H. (1972) A Century of Coconuts.
Anonymous IBPGR (1992) Descriptors for Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.).

Anonymous Coconis (1983) Production physiology in coconut.

Child R. (1974) Coconuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=3328
Edmonson CH, 1941. Viability of coconut seeds after floating in the sea. Bishop Museum. Occasional
Papers 16, No. 2.
Foale M.A. (1986) Tabular descriptions of crops grown in the Tropics. 10. Coconut (Cocos nucifera
L.). http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=7887
Frémond Y. Ziller R. Nucé de Lamothe M. (1966) Le cocotier. G.P.


Gallego VC, San Juan NC, Gallego CE, Concibido EC, Aterrado ED, 1987. Survey and Evaluation of
Coconut Pest and Disease Incidence in the Philippines. PCA-ARDB Annual Report, 77-78.
Grimwood EB. 1975. Coconut palm products. FAO, Rome.
Haas A, Wilson L, 1985. Coconut wood. Processing and use. FAO Forestry Paper, No. 57:ii + 58 pp.;
[18 pl.]; 12 pp. ref.
Harries H.C. (1978) The evolution, dissemination and classification of Cocos nucifera L.
6
IBPGR (1992) Descriptors for coconut.
Menon K.P.V. Pandalai K.M. (1958) The coconut palm, a monograph.

Ohler JG. 1984. Coconut, tree of life. Plant Production and Protection Paper No.57. FAO, Rome.
Ohler J.G. (1999) Modern Coconut Management. Palm Cultivation and Products.
Parrotta JA, 1993. Cocos nucifera (L.) Palmae. SO-ITF-SM-57. USDA Forest service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station, Institute of Tropical Ecology, New Orleans, LA.
Patel J.S. (1938) The Coconut. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=524452
PCARRD, 1993. The Philippine Recommends for Coconut. Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines:
PCARRD-DOST.
Ratnambal M.J. Nair M.K. Muralidharan K. Bhaskara Rao E.V.V. Pillai R.V. (1995) Coconut
descriptors Part 1. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=500163
Thampan P.K. (1981) Handbook on coconut palm.

Thanh-Tuyen NT, Apurillo DI, 1992. Plant Regeneration through Somatic Embryogenesis from
cultured zygotic embryos of coconut. Philippine Journal of Coconut Studies, 17(1):June 1992.
Velasco JR, 1997. Review of studies on the cadang-cadang disease of coconut. Botanical Review 63:
2, 182-196; 33 ref.
7
Watling D. Bennett G. (2005) Palms of the Fiji Islands.
Sources: [1, 4, 5, 9]
X. References:
[2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9), 1994: Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development
Project. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock
Interational. 320pp.
[6] CTSP, Cambodia Tree Seed Project-Institutional Capacity Building of the Tree Seed Sector , Dec
2003, Forest Gene Conservation Strategy-Part A: Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources.
[7] Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2005 © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. (CD-ROM).


source).
[9] EcoPort Report: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source).
[10] Petri, Mathias (DED), 2006: Own observations.
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wallich ex Hook.]
Datasheet Report
[Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wallich ex Hook.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wallich ex Hook. [8,27]
B. English name (s) ³ melur, also called meloor in English, American,(comprising 4
Dacrydium species);
C. Synonym ³ Dacrydium pierrei Hickel [4]; D. junghuhnii Miq.; D. beccarii
Parl. var.subelatum Corner, Juniperus elata Roxb. [8,16,31]
D. Other1 ³ Trade name: melur; in Indonesia all timber of the genus
Podocarpaceae is traded under the name melur(meloor, En),

this includes D. elatum, D. beccarii, D. nidulum; other names
are: cemara gunung, sampinur pali, melur ; sangur
(Indonesia-Sumatera); ekor kuda, ru bukit, (Malaysia-
Peninsular); melor (Malaysia-East); lokinai, (Philippines);
taw-kyet, gale pan, (Burma); long len, hi9ng horm, hing nam
(Laos); srol kraham (Cambodia); samphanpi, (Thailand-NE);
son hang-karok (Thailand-central); phayamakampom
(Thailand-SE); hoàng dàn giâ, (Vietnam).[2,8,16]
Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ srô:l krâhâ:m [4]

Other : Pinales
Family: Podocarpaceae
Gunus: Dacrydium Sol. ex J.G.Forster [16].
1
Species: Dacrydium elatum (Roxb.) Wall. ex
Hook.
Source :[2; 4 ; 11; 16]
[General]: Big tree up to 30 m high, with 80 cm diameter, bole straight [2]; tree, 20-30 m tall with
straight trunk [4]; tree up to 20 m tall [5]; trees up to 40 m high, up to 100 cm diameter, bole straight,
crown a billowy dome with tufts of more or less erect branches [8]. Evergreen, usually dioecious,
small to fairly large trees up to 40 m tall, or less often shrubs (stunted trees). Bole cylindrical; up to 70
(100) cm diameter, with pyramidal shape; branches verticillate, slightly pendulous when young;
branches often ramified, often curving upwards, the ultimate branches aggregated into dense tufts. [8,
16]
[Bark]: Brown, to grey brown, dark or reddish-brown, weathering to grey; slightly flaking, often fluted at
base [5]; bark surface hard, and smooth with fissures, breaking off in plates with many small lenticels
[8,16].
[Leaves]: There are 2 types of leaves(dimorphic): On young trees and on young twigs leaves curvedly
awl-shaped with quadrangular (tetragonal) cross-section, 0.8-1.6 cm long, sometimes 2.0-2.1 cm. On
older trees and branches leaves are shorter and slightly curved Flower and fruit-bearing branches
with-scale-like leaves, slightly curved, imbricate, tip acute, 0.3-0.5 cm long, longitudinally fissured [2].
Leaf 0.8-1.6 cm pressed close to twigs, overlapping, needlelike, with long, tapering tip, shiny. Leaves
near end of fertile twigs much smaller, ± 0.15 cm triangular and scale-like [5]. Leaves dimorphic,

spirally arranged. Young leaves and leaves on young trees awl-shaped, imbricate, 0.8-2.0 cm long.
Leaves and twigs with cones scale-like and triangular, hard, base decurrent , apex often curved [8 ].
Adult leaves imbricate, triangular and scale-like, sharply keeled outside, 1.0-1.5 mm x 0.4-0.6 mmm;
apex of microsporophyll triangular; mature seed completely exposed above short cone bract, 4.0-4.5
mm long [16]. Flower- and fruit-bearing branches with scaly leaves, slightly curved, imbricate, tip
acute, 0.3-0.5 cm long, longitudinally fissured [2].
[Fruit]: Cones monosexual, dioecious, similar to Podocarpus. Male cone solitary and terminal,
cylindrical, 0.7-0.8 cm long . Female cones solitary or arranged in small groups, axillary or terminal,
apex of microsporophyll triangular. Only one carpel and one ovule develop. Seeds ovoid, having
ashen form, 0.4-0.5 cm long by 0.2-0.3 cm wide, 1/3 of base covered with pseudopericarp [2]. Seed
cones 0.5 x 0.3 cm, nut-like ovoid, obliquely seated on dark-red shallow fleshy cup (podophyll) [5].
Seeds ovoid, suberect, 1/3 of the base covered by epimatium [8]. Mature seed completely exposed
above the short cone tract, 4.0-4.5 mm long. Flowering in March, fruiting in October-November [2].
Cones in February to April, mature ones October, November [8].
2
I. Wood properties:
The following technological data are average values applying to the Genus Dacrydium, since no
information is given for selected species due to the limited volume traded. Dacrydium yields a light-
weight to medium-weight softwood. ( In trade softwood generally means coniferous species,
hardwood means broadleaved species. Hence, in principle a softwood may be harder than a
hardwood and vice versa). The heartwood is yellow-brown, pinkish yellow, golden, pale to brown or
red-brown, not clearly demarcated from the sapwood. The specific gravity is 425-720kg/m³ at 15%
m.c. The grain is fine, straight, rarely wavy, texture fine and even, resistant to bending and pressing.
The wood generally lacks figure, occasionally with fine dark streaks giving an attractive appearance;
without taste or odor [16].
A test in Fiji on D. nidulum wood at 12% m.c. provided the following figures: Modulus of rupture 106
N/mm², modulus of elasticity 11590 N/mm², compression parallel to grain (fiber direction) 61.5 N/mm²,
shear 14 N/mm², cleavage 38 N/mm² radial and 54.5 N/mm² tangential; Janka side hardness 5430 N
and Janka end hardness 8635 N.
The rates of shrinkage (indicating dimensional stability when moisture content decreases) are fairly
low to moderate from green to 12% m.c. 2.0% radial and 4.5% tangential. The wood seasons well
with very little collapse, but thicker boards must be dried slowly to avoid surface checking. Warping in
the form of slight to moderate twist may occasionally occur, while backsawn boards may cup to a
slight extent. The recommended kiln schedule (for artificial drying) is at a dry bulb temperature of 65-
80 ºC. Kiln-drying 25 mm (=1 inch English-American measure) of D. nidulum wood from green to 12%
m.c takes about 3-4 days and 50 mm thick boards take about 2 weeks. The timber can also easily be
air-dried under cover. A high humidity treatment should be given to relieve stresses, but when
considerable twist occurs, a saturated steaming treatment for 2-4 hours should be given instead. The
wood is stable in service.
Dacrydium timber is easy to saw and works well with hand and machine tools.The wood turns and
planes well to a smooth surface and takes a high polish. Gluing, nailing and peeling properties of D.
elatum are satisfactory [16].

A rare species found only in a few provinces of Vietnam [2] It occurs on mountains of countries with
monsoonal rains; in India, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Malay Archipelago,
Philippines, Sumatra, western Borneo/Indonesia, Fiji Islands. In Cambodia on Mt. Bokor mixed with
Dacrycarpus imbricatus, however, height of neither of the 2 species exceeded 2-4 m (stunted growth,
dwarf forest) because of the harsh climate and seasonal changes between drought and flooding. It is
also found in low, dense coastal forests but always in a dwarf state.[4] Occurs in montane and heath
forests, often associated with Pinus merkusii, along mountain creeks in high valleys. It seems that
habitat requirements limit its distribution,- this is at least valid for Laos [7].
Genus Dacrydium comprises about 25 species and is distributed from mainland Southeast Asia
through Malesia towards the Pacific Islands, New Zealand and Southern Chile (South America). 5
3
species occur in Peninsular Malaysia; also scattered in moist rain forests at 1300-1700 m a.s.l., but
also found in tropical forests up to 2000 m. [8] It is often associated with Podocarpus spp., and
Agathis spp. [2], also mixed with Castanopsis spp., Cupressus spp., Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Fokienia
hodginsii and Illicium griffithii in evergreen montane forests [4,8, 16].

Dacrydium is found in moist, evergreen montane forests between 500-and 2000 m a.s.l. It is a light
demanding species preferring a cool climate, yellow soil, moist and rich in humus. [2,4, 8]

unknown

D. elatum occurs on limestone soils, or stony soils on mountains, on humid, yellow, humus-rich soils,
but also podsolic heath forests [2,4,7.8]

[Wood]: Dacrydium elatum is probably the main source of sempilor timber in southeast Asia.
Dacrydium timber is red [4], resinous and relatively hard and used for light construction, furniture,
joinery, mouldings, light-traffic flooring, door and window frames, masts, interior finish, veneer and
plywood, and packing cases. It is suitable for pulp and paper production, but also used for bridges,
boats, in shipbuilding, and fine arts.
[Non-Wood]:l An essential oil can be extracted by distillation from the wood. It is used for joss sticks,

but also in some form against rheumatism and abdominal troubles [2,4,8,16].
Dry resinous branches are used as torches.

not included

D. elatum is a light demander. Natural regeneration is abundant in gaps but is sparse elsewhere. It
responds well to to liberation thinning when not too intensive. Regeneration of pure stands is difficult
in the absence of mother trees. [16]
Q. Propagation :
Can be propagated by seed, wildlings or cuttings. Seed requires pre-treatment. Natural regeneration
in gaps, also by planting [7, 16]

Red-listed as a threatened species by IUCN because of over-exploitation and lack of seed trees [27].
4
S. Conservation :

at higher elevations, in dwarf form in coastal forests and on Mt. Bokor

India, Nepal, Burma. Sri Lanka, Indochina, Thailand, Malaysia and parts of Borneo native.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Brown FG, 1955. Forest trees of Sarawak and Brunei and their products. Kuching: Government
Printing Office.
de Laubenfels DJ, 1969. A revision of the Malesian and Pacific rainforest Conifers I. Podocarpaceae,
in part. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 50:274-314.
Burkill IH, 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula (2nd edition). Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives.
de Laubenfels DJ,1988
X. References:
7) Lehmann, L.,Grejmans, M. and Shenman, D., 2003: Forest Trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng
Khouang, Lao P.D.R. – A field guide. DANIDA-DED-NAWACOP, Vientiane-Laos. 246 pp.
8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: A field guide to
100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax. and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p.
201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands
16) Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. And W.C. Wong (Eds.) 1995: Plant Resources of Southeast
Asia 5(2) Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia, 655 pp.
18) Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in Khmer and English)
Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 97 pp.
31) http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/earle/po/ da_m/elatum. htm:(internet source).
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dalbergia cochinchinensis Lanessan,Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre ]
Datasheet Report
[Dalbergia cochinchinensis Lanessan,Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre ]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dalbergia cochinchinensis Lanessan ,
Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre
B. English name (s) ³ Siamese rosewood, Thailand rosewood [1]
C. Synonym ³ Dalbergia cambodiana Pierre [4]
D. Other1 ³ mai ka young [1], khanhung (Laos) [2] - payoong
(Thailand) [1] - trac, suá nam bo (Vietnam) [2] - shisham,

sissoo, biti, eravadi, kalaruk (India) [7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: RkjÚg

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kra-nhourng [4]

Other : Fabales
Family: Fabaceae [1] / Leguminosae [6]
Gunus: Dalbergia
Species: Dalbergia cochinchinensis
Source :[ 1,6]
1
[General]: Large evergreen tree, 8-30 m [5] (15-30 m [2], 25-30 m [4]) high with a DBH of up to 60 cm
[5] (sometimes even 120 cm [5]), profusely branched with a spherical crown.
[Bark]: The bark is light brownish yellow, longitudinally fissured, sometimes peeled off into fragments.
[Leaves]: The leaves are pinnate, with 7-9 leaflets, the upper-most is the largest. Leaves 13-25 cm
long, leathery, egg-shaped, 3-8 (-10) x 1.8-4 (-5) cm, leaf tip blunt or short pointed, leaf base blunt or
rounded, hairless, secondary veins 7-9 pairs, venation below is a fine network. Leaf stalk 3-4 mm
long.
[Flowers]: Inflorescence with axillary or terminal seed head, 10-20 cm long. Flowers are white or
whitish, 5-6 mm long, sparsely hairy. Flowering in May and June.
[Fruits] The fruits (=pods) ripen in November and December. They are very flat, narrow, straight, 4-7.5
x 0.8-1.2 cm, contain 1 or 2 seeds, both margins parallel at the seed areas, wall thin, hairless. Seeds
are kidney-shaped, 6 x 4 mm in the central part, brown or reddish.
[2, 4, 5]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood properties]: Rosewood is very attractive with a distinctive sap- and heartwood. Sapwood
greyish, heartwood brown-red or purplish black with beautiful dark veins. Texture uniform and fine.
Wood very hard, durable and heavy with a density of 1.0-1.8 g/cm³ [4] (1.09 g/cm³ [9], specific gravity
r15 of 0.85 g/cm³ [7]) but easy to work. It produces a very smooth surface and cut wood releases a
rose-like fragrance. High bending and crushing strengths with low stiffness and medium resistance to

shock loads. Resistant to insects and (moderately to) termites. Does not split when dry. Tendency to
produce buttresses and become crooked. Becomes blackish when old.
[1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9].

Approximate limits: Occurs between 22°N and 10°N [1]. Native to Indo-China and adjacent countries.
Grows sparsely in open and semi-deciduous forests, occasionally in pure stands.
[1, 4, 6]

Altitude range: 400-500 m a.s.l. [4, 6] (100-350 m a.s.l. [1]). Prefers an uniform rainfall regime with a
mean annual rainfall of 1200-1650 mm/year. Tolerates a dry season length of 3-6 months. Mean
annual temperature: 20-32ºC. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 27-39ºC. Mean
minimum temperature of coldest month: 12-24ºC. Absolute minimum temperature: >10ºC. Shade
tolerant as a sapling and becomes light demanding. Drought tolerant.
[1, 4, 6]
2
Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d),
Central Annamites (G), Southern Annamites (g)
[4]
Kampong Thom (X:566524 Y:1400818), Kampong Thom (X:535833 Y:1441034), Kampong Thom
(X:551179 Y:1433097), Kampong Thom (X:540066 Y:1423043), Kampong Thom (X:533981
Y:1446062), Kampong Thom (X:530806 Y:1401082), Preah Vihear (X:514728 Y:1535416), Ratanak
Kiri (X:712611 Y:1549021), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348656), Kampong Thom (X:561743 Y:1395530),
Siem Reap (X:400806 Y:1543940), Kratie (X:594844 Y:1446830), Siem Reap (X:430346 Y:1472875),
Kampong Thom (X:534018 Y:1458959), Siem Reap (X:400757 Y:1520273), Koh Kong (X:285400
Y:1263350), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Preah Vihear (X:516893 Y:1536291), Mondul Kiri
(X:720556 Y:1351058).
[4]

D. cochichinensis is able to grow on most soils with no high demand in soil conditions. It prefers deep
sand, clays, or calcareous soils with a medium texture, a free soil drainage and a pH below 7 (acid
soil).
[1, 4, 6, 9]

[Wood]: Very popular wood for the manufacture of luxury and high quality furniture, veneers for
paneling, art handicrafts, musical instruments, cabinetmaking, shop, office and bank fitting, flooring,
beams, woodware, doors, posts, joints, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles, wood
carvings, wood turnery, sewing machines, brake blocks, boat construction and building poles for
heavy construction. The root base and root is also used for high quality art handicrafts. Other uses are
fuelwood and charcoal.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7]
[Non-wood]: No information available.
[Others]: It is able to fix nitrogen and thus improves soil quality. It is also commonly used as an
ornamental tree.
[1]

Luxury [3, 4]
3
[General]: Grows sparsely in open and semi-deciduous forests, occasionally in pure stands. Self-
pruning tree. Stand establishment using natural regeneration or planting stock, used in agroforestry
and revegetation. Classified by the Department of Forestry and Wildlife as a main tree species for
timber production in Cambodia and as tree species for plantations. D. cochinchinesis has quite a slow
growth rate but regenerates well by coppicing.
[1, 6, 8, 9]
Q. Propagation :
It is defined as "long term seedling category" by the Department of Forestry and Wildlife [8]. Seed
storage orthodox, vegetative propagation by cuttings, air layering, grafting and tissue culture.Dark
brown seeds are mature. The pods are collected when color turns from green to yellow to minimize
insect predation. The branches are cut or shaken and the seeds collected from tarpaulin spread on
the ground. After collection, the pods are dried in the sun for about three days. The dry pods remain
closed and must be cut into one-seeded pieces. A seed thresher could probably extract the seeds
effectively, but care should be taken not to damage the seeds. "Weight of 100 seeds is 18.5 g, and
100 g of seed can provide up to 54,000 propagules" [4]. "Seed requirements per hectare for open
plantations: Number of seeds/kg = 40,000. Planting spacing 3 x 3 m. Net seedlings required per ha =
1,112. Rate of loss: 1,335 = 20% (planting site), 1484 = 10% in transit, 1855 = 20% at the nursery.
Germination rate: 50%. Purity: 95%. Total seed requirement is 0.11 kg" [10].
[1, 4, 10]

[Pests]: Insect pests: Apoderus, Aristobia approximator, Aristobia horridula, Hypomeces squamosus,

Plecoptera reflexa, Psilogramma menephron, Sphenoptera, Threnetica lacrymans. [1]
[Diseases]: Fungus diseases: Maravalia pterocarpi, Phyllachora pterocarpi.
[1]
S. Conservation :
IUCN Conservation category: VU A1c,d (Asia Regional Workshop, 1997). Considered vulnerable in
Viet Nam and Thailand. Deforestation and exploitation are threats to this species.
[6]

Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear, Ratanakiri, Pursat, Siem Reap, Kratie, Koh Kong, Stung Treng, and
Mondulkiri.
[4]
[Native]:Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Southern China, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam
[1, 2, 7]
[Exotic]: No information available.
4
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Asia Regional Workshop, 1997. Conservation and sustainable management of trees project workshop
held in Hanoi, VietNam, August 1997
[6]
Chính, N.N, Chung, C.T., Cân, V.V., Dung, N.X., Dung, N.K., Dào, N.K., Hop, T., Oanh, T.T., Quynh,
N.B., Thìn, N.N., 1996. Viet Nam Forest Trees. Forest Inventory and Planning Institute. Agricultural
Publishing House: Hanoi. pp.788.
[6]
Phan Thuc Vat 1996. Red data book of Viet Nam. Volume 2 Plants. Science and Technics Publishing
House.
[6]
Vu Van Dung (Ed.) 1996. Viet Nam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing House, Hanoi.
[6]
X. References:
[2] Sam, Hoang Van; Nanthavong, Khamseng: Kessler, P.J.A., 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam: a
[6] Tree Conservation Information Service : http://www.unep-wcmc.org/trees/trade/dal_coc.htm.

(Internet source).
[7] Rosewood Facts: http://www.1-unicarpenter-oy.com/Wood%20facts/Rosewood%20facts.htm.

(Internet source)
5
[8] Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife, 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.
Planting. (CD-ROM).
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dalbergia oliveri]
Datasheet Report
[Dalbergia oliveri]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dalbergia oliveri
C. Synonym ³ Dalbergia bariensis Pierre, Dalbergia dongnaiensis Pierre,
Dalbergia duperreana Pierre, Dalbergia mammosa Pierre [1]
D. Other1 ³ kham phi leung, padong deng, cam lai, cam lai bong,
cam lai mat (Laos) [1] - trac lai (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: nagnYn

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ neang nuon [2, 4]
Other : Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Dalbergia
Species: Dalbergia oliveri
Source :[ 1,6]
1
[General]: Medium to large deciduous tree, 15-30 m [1] (20-25 m [7], 20-35 m [2]) high with 50-60 cm
[2] (40-60 cm [7], 60-90 cm [1, 6]) DBH. Open spreading crown when mature. Branches stout, slightly
hairy.
[Bark]: Dark grey bark, with white and yellow spots, not fissured, thick, scaly and flaking in small
pieces.
[Leaves]: The leaves are 15-25 (-30) cm long. Leaflets alternate, 13-17 rarely 9-11 or 19-21, egg-
shaped, 4-8 x 1.2-3 cm, lateral and terminal leaflets similar in shape and size, apex blunt or
acuminate, often pointed a the top, base rounded. Clear vein network, secondary veins 9-12 pairs.
Young leaves pale, pink with silky hairs, mature leaves dark grey green, smooth.
[Flowers]: Inflorescenses are axillary or terminal spreading, 10-45 cm long. Inflorescense stalk 8-10
cm long, slightly hairy. Flowers purple in bud, pale purple or white, in branched clusters at end of
twigs, 10-12 mm long.
[Fruits] The fruits ( = pods) are elliptical, 9-14 x 2.5-4.5 cm, flat, bulging over the seeds, fruit stalk 1-
1.5 cm long. Seeds usually 1, sometimes 2 or 3, bean-shaped, 12.5 x 9 mm, in the central part,
flattened, brown or reddish.
[1, 2, 6]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is hard and heavy, with a wood density of 1.07-1.15 g/cm³ [2]. It
produces attractive veins, is easy to polish and is resistant to termites. "Several commercial varieties
can be distinguished by the wood color: Rose-yellow, brown veined, red with black veins and purple

streaked by yellow" [5].
[2, 5]

Trees occur individually or in groups of 5–10 trees, and usually in evergreen tropical forests or semi-
deciduous forests that are dominated by Lagerstroemia and dipterocarps.
[2]

Grows at altitudes up to 1,100 m [5] (1,200 m. [1], <900 m [2]). Trees can tolerate some level of shade
at an early age, but they generally prefer light.
[1, 2, 5]

Northern Cardamons (B), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Lower Mekong
Floodplain (E), Central Annamites (G)
[2]
2
Preah Vihear (X:491881 Y:1560352), Kratie (X:575520 Y:1453205), Kampong Thom (X:570229
Y:1406639), Preah Vihear (X:498262 Y:1514060), Kratie (X:606741 Y:1423572), Kratie (X:631083
Y:1419339), Preah Vihear (X:494558 Y:1517764), Kratie (X:586368 Y:1412724), Kratie (X:594306
Y:1376211), Ratanak Kiri (X:710881 Y:1547976), Preah Vihear (X:511900 Y:1531250), Preah Vihear
(X:519800 Y:1541250), Preah Vihear (X:511900 Y:1534350), Preah Vihear (X:515564 Y:1536686),
Ratanak Kiri (X:704001 Y:1504648), Ratanak Kiri (X:708916 Y:1550449), Kampong Thom (X:561882
Y:1396560), Kratie (X:595445 Y:1447118), Stung Treng (X:636350 Y:1522763), Siem Reap
(X:396300 Y:1539500), Stung Treng (X:589200 Y:1518300), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650), Preah
Vihear (X:494650 Y:1516781), Ratanak Kiri (X:721623 Y:1515900), Siem Reap (X:400757
Y:1520273)
[2]
Occurs generally in moist areas, along streams and rivers, and on hill sides. Grows well on reddish
brown and yellowish-brown ferralitic soil. Avoids very degraded areas.
[2, 6, 7]

[Wood]: The wood resembling Brazilian rosewood is widely used for making high quality furniture,
luxury cabinets, art and handicrafts, decorations etc.
[2, 5]


Luxury
[2, 3]

[General]: Occurs usually sparsly or in groups of 5-10 individuals in primary- and secondary
dipterocarp forest, mixed deciduous forest, tropical evergreen or semi-deciduous forest along
streams.
[1, 7]
[Management]: Trees generally grow slowly in both natural and man-made forests.
[2]
3
Q. Propagation :
Individuals of this species often produce many seeds, but natural regeneration is often poor due to
low germination rates or disadvantageous weather and site conditions. "Seed requirements per
hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: Number of seeds per kg: 5,000. Planting spacing: 3 x 3 m.
Net seedlings required per ha: 1,112. Rate of loss: 1,335 = 20% (planting site), 1,484 = 10% in transit,
1,855 = 20% at the nursery. Germination rate: 50%. Purity: 95%. Total seed requirement: 0.79 kg" [8].
[2, 8]

S. Conservation :
"Due to its economic value, Dalbergia oliveri is facing serious depletion by illegal cutting. The number
of remaining individual trees is very low, and these are disappearing on a local level. In many areas of
its natural range, mature and large sized trees are rarely to be found. Efforts to regenerate the
species on a large scale have been few and limited. The species is facing the possibility of extinction
if no effective protection measures are taken. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene
Conservation Strategy defined Dalbergia oliveri as a priority species, and one that is in need of
immediate conservation interventions and appropriate protection. This species is protected by
Cambodian Forestry Law No.35" [2].

Kratie, Preah Vihear, Kampong Thom, Ratanakiri, Stung Treng, Pursat and Siem Reap.
[2]

[Native]: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar,Thailand, Vietnam.
[1, 2]
[Introduced]: No information available.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
X. References:
field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species. BLUMEA
Monographs, Gene Ecological Zonation, Species Site Matching Model. (CD-ROM)
4
[4] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer)
Northern Thailand.
Planting. (CD-ROM)
[9] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations

5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf.]
Datasheet Report
[Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. [4].
B. English name (s) ³ flame tree, peacock flower, fire tree [4]
C. Synonym ³ basionym: Poinciana regia Bojer ex Hook. [8,20].
D. Other1 ³ seinban (Burma); fang han nhoung, in si (Laos); hang nok

yung farang (Thailand); phuong, diêp bông do, diêp tây
(Vietnam) [6,8], flamboyant, poinciana (French) [20]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ ek¶ak)araMg

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kńgaôk barang [4]

Other : Fabales
Gunus: Delonix
Species: Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf.
[4]
Source :[4 ; 11]
1
[General]: A small to moderate-sized semi-deciduous tree with short trunk, often root-like buttresses
and a wide, spreading, umbrella-shaped crown, reaching 15 m in diameter [6,8]. A tree 10-15
(max.18) m, up to 60 cm diameter; trunk large, buttressed and angled towards the base [26]. Crown
umbrella-shaped, spreading with long, nearly horizontal branches forming a perimeter wider than the
trees height. Twigs stout, greenish, finely hairy when young, becoming brown. Roots shallow [26].
[Bark]: Grey, smooth, stipules pinnately 4 or 5 lobed; with vertical lines of brown spots [6,8]. Bark
smooth, greyish-brown, sometimes slightly cracked and with many dots (lenticels); inner bark light
brown [26].
[Leaves]: The compound leaves are alternate, 20-60 cm long and divided into 15-25 pairs of pinnae,
each of which has about 14-30 pairs of small, oblong leavelets, 8-10 mm long and 3-4 mm wide [6].
Leaves bipinnate, main rhachis 50-60 cm long; pinnae opposite, 9-24 pairs, up to 10 cm long. Leaflets
10-40 pairs per pinna, opposite, subsessile or sessile, narrowly elliptic, 5-15 by 2-5 mm, base slightly
oblique, apex rounded, mucronate, both surfaces finely puberulous, glabrescent [8]. Leaves
biparipinnate, alternate, light green, feathery, 20-60 cm long, 10-25 pairs of pinnae, 5-12 cm long,
each bearing 12-40 pairs of small, oblong-obtuse leaflets that are about 0.5-2.0 cm long and 0.3 cm
wide, petiole stout. The numerous leaflets are stalkless, rounded at the base and apex, entire, thin,
very minutely hairy on both sides, green on the upper surface. At the base of the leaf stalk there are
two compressed stipules that have long, narrow, comb-like teeth [26].
[Flowers]: The numerous showy red flowers with yellow margins grow in dense clusters sometimes
almost entirely covering the crown [6]. Inflorescences axillary racemes, 10-15 cm long, glabrous.
Flowers 5-10. Pedicels 5-8 cm long. Hypanthium shortly bell-shaped. Sepals 5, narrowly elliptic, 4-7

by 2.0-2.5 mm, apex acuminate, reddish inside. Petals 5, unequal, total length 3-7 cm long, blade
orbicular, 3-4 cm wide, narrowed into an up to 3 cm long claw, one yellowish-white and scarlet, the
others only scarlet. Stamens 10, equal in length; filaments up to 4 cm long, red with white base;
anthers elliptic c. 4 mm long. Ovary slightly velutinous; style filiform, glabrous, c. 2.5 cm long; stigma
indistinct [8]. Corymbs 15-30 cm long, borne laterally near the end of the twig, each with loosely
arranged, slightly fragrant flowers. Flowers 5-13 cm across, with 5 equal petals, on slender stalks, 5.0-
7.6 cm long. Petals 5.0-6.5 cm long, 2-3 cm wide, orbicular, broadly spoon-shaped, rounded but
broader than long, slightly wavy-margined or crisp, tapering into claws about 2.5 cm long, widely
extended and bending backwards before falling. Petals 4, orange-red, almost scarlet, 1 longer and
narrower than the others, whitish inside with red spots and streaks; stalk very long, slender and hairy.
Sepals 5, thick, green outside and reddish with yellow border within, reflexed when the flowers open,
pointed, finely hairy, about 2.5 cm long. Stamens 5 with 10 red filaments; pistil has a hairy 1-celled
ovary about 1.3 cm long and slender style about 3 cm long [26].
[Fruit]: The fruit pods are stout, woody, reddish, brown or black, flat and up to 40 cm long [6]. Pods
narrowly elliptic, flat, slightly curved, pendulous, 30-80 by 3.5-7.0 cm, woody-valved, blackish,
beaked. Seeds 20-40, elliptic, compressed, 25 by 8 mm. Fruit green and flaccid when young turning
to dark-brown, hard woody pods, 30-75 cm long, 3.8 cm thick, 5.0-7.6 cm broad, ending in a short
2
beak when mature, with many horizontally partitioned seed chambers inside, indehiscent, finallly
splitting into 2 parts. The conspicuous pods hang down and remain attached most of the year even
when the trees are leafless. Seeds 30-45, hard, greyish, glossy, to 2 cm long, oblong and shaped very
much like date seeds, transversely mottled with a bony testa. They are arranged at right angles to the
length of the pod. The generic name "Delonix", is derived from the Greek "delos" (visible), and onyx
(claw), in an allusion to the conspicuously clawed petals. The specific name "regia" is derived from the
Latin word "regis" (royal, regal, magnificent). Most of its common names are derived from its large,
flame-red flowers [26]. Flowering April-July, fruiting May to August [8].
I. Wood properties:
The sapwood is light yellow, and the heartwood is yellowish to light brown. It is soft, heavy, specific
gravity 800kg/m³ (440kg/m³ [12], coarse grained, weak, brittle, takes good polish and is rather
resistant to moisture and insects although very susceptible to attack by dry-wood termites [20,26].

Endemic to Madagascar. An ornamental tree widely cultivated in the tropics in Africa, South America
and Asia, including Burma, Thailand, Indochina and the Philippines under the name flamboyant or
flame tree [6,8]. The tree is native to Madagascar and has been widely planted for the last 150 years
or more as a garden and avenue tree in both dry and moist regions of tropical India as far as Jammu
in the northwest. It is also one of the most extensively planted ornamental trees in tropical and
subtropical regions throughout the world. In Sri Lanka, the tree is grown as an ornamental; it has been
tried in Cyprus, but it could not stand the winter cold. Trials carried out in Ghana failed, but in addition
to India, it has been grown successfully in Burma, Jamaica, Nigeria, Borneo, South Africa, Egypt,
Tanzania and Uganda. It is also been planted in southern Florida including Florida Keys, southern
California, Bermuda, Mexico, Brazil and throughout the West Indies [26].

Cultivated around villages, buildings, parks, along roads and alleys. It is a quick growing, light
sensitive species that will need about 5 years to bloom [9]. Trees can grow at higher altitudes than
recommended, but flowering becomes erratic. The tree demands light and grows weakly and sparsely
under shade. It grows in areas with both high and scanty rainfall. D. regia has a superficial root
system and competes successfully with the neighbouring shrubs and flowering plants, rendering bare
the ground under its canopy. It should therefore be planted away from other plants in the gardens.
Trees are deciduous only where the dry season is long and pronounced [26]. The altitudinal range is
from 0 to 2000 m a.s.l., annual rainfall should reach from 700mm/m² to 1800mm/m² with a uniform
summer rain distribution. The dry season may last between 1 and 6 months. Mean annual
temperature range is from 14 to 26ºC., but must not drop below 6ºC [12].

Not determined
3
Likes well-drained fertile soil for optimum growth and flowering [9]. D. regia has been planted up to an
altitude of about 2000 m on alluvium, shale and limestone soils and on a wide range of other soil
types. However, optimum growth is obtained on light, well-drained soils. It tolerates slight salinity [12].
Soil texture should be light, with free drainage, soil reaction close to neutral, suitable soil types are
given as alluvials, limestone and saline soils [12].
[Wood]: Delonix regia produces a very durable construction timber but large dimension timber is
rarely available [13]. Wood and pods are suitable as fuelwood [17,26].
[Non-Wood]: D.regia is predominantly planted as ornamental and shade tree [6,8]. Flowers are
reputed to produce bee forage [20,26].
The tree yields a thick mucilage of water-soluble gum in yellowish or reddish-brown warty tears; the
seeds contain gum that may find use in textile and food industries [20,26].A dye and a gum can be
produced from the bark [13].
The seeds edible [8].
Bark has medicinal properties, a leaf decoction presumably has anti-rheumatic effects [4,26]. The
hard, elongated seeds are occasionally used as beads [26].
D. regia bark produces large amounts of a granular, yellowish- or reddish-brown gum. The gum is
soluble in water, forming a thick opalescent mucilage. It contains a large quantity of calcium oxalate

[12].
The seeds can be made into necklaces; they contain a gum which can be used in the textile and food
industries. The pods are edible and have good potential as a dietary protein source for humans and
livestock. The leaves (with 39.5% protein) provide nutritious fodder and browse for livestock. In the
Virgin Islands, the annual dry matter yield of forage from D. regia has been estimated as 13.45 t/ha
and protein as 1.45 t/ha [12].
The aqueous extracts of D. regia contain allelopathic compounds, including phenolic acids, alkaloids
and flavonoids; these can be used as natural herbicides and pesticides to increase the productivity of
agricultural crops. An extract of D. regia leaves has been found to disrupt insect growth and
development [12].
It can be planted as a multipurpose tree on eroded sites for erosion control, and for soil rehabilitation
and improvement through atmospheric nitrogen fixation. In alley cropping studies in the uplands of
Sierra Leone, D. regia trees were very effective in conserving soil moisture and reducing soil
temperature (Karim, 1987). D. regia is planted in tea plantations to provide shade. It is a useful tree in
4
agroforestry, for soil improvement, soil conservation, erosion control, amenity and ornamental planting
[12].

Not included [18].

D. regia can be planted in areas where rainfall is less than the recommended amount, as long as
irrigation is practised. It is fast growing, and pollarding is a suitable practice. Careful pruning will
achieve good crown form. The trees have shallow root systems and the wood is weak; they are
therefore liable to being uprooted during strong storms and broken by strong winds. After the leaves
are shed, the trees are less attractive, with their conspicuous pods remaining on the bare branches
and with prominent tunnels and nests of termites that commonly attack this species. Another
objectionable feature is the surface root system, which sometimes breaks sidewalks and walls.
Because of these undesirable characteristics, some authorities classify flamboyant as a tree that
should not be planted [26].
Q. Propagation :
D. regia is a light-demander and under shady conditions it grows slowly. It is almost evergreen and is
only briefly deciduous during the dry season. It has an extensive superficial root system, which
renders it vulnerable to windthrow during storms. Because of its spreading root system, other plants
are killed through competition, thus rendering the surrounding ground bare [12]. It is naturally
regenerated by seed. D. regia seed is able to germinate at a wide range of soil pH values (4.9-10.6),
but take a long time to germinate and may lie buried in the soil for 2-3 years without germinating. It
grows quickly, reaching a height of up to 8 m in three years. It tolerates severe pruning and salt winds.
It is a nitrogen-fixing species and the roots have mycorrhizas [12].
D. regia is usually grown from seed. There are 1600-3700 seeds per kilogram, with about 10.5%
moisture content. The seed can be stored in a clean dry store for up to 4-5 years without losing
viability. Seed pre-treatment is necessary to hasten and improve germination and several options
exist. The seed is treated with sulfuric acid for about three hours, soaked in hot water for 24 hours or
mechanically scarified before sowing. Soaking in hot water at 90°C for 10 seconds, followed by
soaking for 24 hours under controlled conditions of 28.2°C and 83% relative humidity, gave 80%
germination. Scarification and soaking in 400 ppm gibberellic acid for 48 hours also improved
germination [12].
Seeds are sown in nursery beds, pots or polythene bags without shade. Plants ready for field planting
are obtained in 4 months. These may be allowed to grow for up to 10 months for the production of
stump plants, with 5 cm shoot and 25 cm root portions. Plants raised from seed may have flowers of
different colours. Therefore, vegetative propagation by stem cuttings can be advisable, especially for
propagating trees with scarlet flowers. Under ordinary conditions, rooting of cuttings is poor, but this
can be enhanced by application of growth substances, such as IBA. Rooting of cuttings can also be
5
increased by mist propagation techniques in a chamber. D. regia has been successfully
micropropagated from a number of different explants on suitable media [12].
After seeds are sown in unshaded nursery beds, they germinate within 5-10 days, with a germination
rate of up to 90%; subsequent growth in the nursery is quite fast. Alternatively, the seeds can be
directly sown in polythene bags, 4-5 seeds/bag. Seedlings watered and weeded regularly are planted
out in the rainy season, with total time required in the nursery being 3-5 months. Keeping the plants
for more than 9 months is not desirable, as they become too tall to handle, but seedlings can be
transplanted even when 20-25 cm high. Natural regeneration is common. Young plants are not fire
resistant and should be protected from grazing [20,26].
D. regia is easily propagated from seeds that have a hard, woody testa and take a long time to
germinate. They may lie for 2-3 years in the soil without germinating and usually take 12-349 days to
germinate. To break this dormancy, pretreatment is practised; a small portion of the seed coat is
clipped, or seeds are boiled in hot water, then allowed to soak for 24 hours. Trees can also be
propagated from branch cuttings [20].

Beetles and larvae of Poecilips sierralemensis bore into the pods to release the seeds. Trees are
susceptible to attack by shoot borers and are occasionally defoliated by a caterpillar or an insect;
leaves may be eliminated completely. D. regia is attacked by Ganoderma lucidum root rot, especially
in the high rainfall areas [17]. D. regia plants are susceptible to attack from termites and shoot borers .
Pteroma plagiophleps is a serious pest of avenue plantings of this species. A severe outbreak of the
bostrichid Sinoxylon anale was observed on D. regia in Israel in 1984. Similarly, larvae of the noctuid
Pericyma cruegeri have been observed causing severe defoliation of trees in Nagaland, India .

Acanthopsyche reimeri is a bagworm of tropical Africa. Its larvae are polyphagous, feeding on the
leaves of various dicotyledonous trees, principally open-grown trees and ornamentals. It has caused
severe defoliation of D. regia in Kenya.
Anoplocnemis curvipes is a bowlegged bug and is widely distributed in tropical Africa. Both the adults
and nymphs of this species are polyphagous, feeding on the sap of many agricultural and garden
plants. In Malawi it has been recorded on D. regia, and is a pest of some importance as heavily
infested shoots become disfigured and increment is considerably reduced; it has even been known to
kill 1-year-old plants.
Leptostylus praemorsus has been recorded in Antigua, Bermuda, Dominica and St. Lucia. A longhorn
beetle, known principally as a pest of citrus, it also infests other trees, both dicotyledons including D.
regia, and conifers.
Orthezia insignis is also very widely distributed in the tropics, subtropics and warmer parts of
temperate zones. In Malawi, it is frequently injurious to D. regia and other trees, principally
ornamentals, and often kills seedlings or even fully-grown trees if heavily infested.
6
Oxyrhachis latipes is a tree-hopper, which feeds on the sap of D. regia in Malawi. Records of
infestation are few and it is apparently unimportant. Injury from Schedorhinotermes lamanianus has
been recorded on D. regia. The beetle and larvae of Poecilips sierraleonensis can bore into the pods
of D. regia and damage the seed [12].
A Ganoderma sp. has been observed attacking seedlings of D. regia in Australia. Root rot is caused
by Fusarium oxysporum in the northern Guinea region of Nigeria. Root and butt-rot disease is
characterized by affected parts slowly enlarging and development of a thick, dark brown mycelial
sheath around the bases of infected trees. Wilting and discoloration of the leaves and development of
brown mycelial mats on roots and basal stems, followed by death of D. regia plants, has been
reported.
A fungus, Pleiochaeta setosa, has been noticed on D. regia in India. This attacks the cotyledons of
germinating seedlings and the leaves of young seedlings, causing shrivelling, leaf death and leaf
shedding. The seedlings however, do not die.
The well known root rot fungus Armillaria mellea has a worldwide distribution and extensive host
range, including D. regia. Thick, white mycelia form a felty sheet between bark layers and also
between the dead bark and underlying wood.
Sphaerostilbe repens, known as stinking root disease, affects D. regia. Infection is by waterborne
spores through root contact. It produces dark brown or reddish rhizomorphs beneath the root bark.
The inner surface of the root is bleached and a strong odour is produced due to the combined activity
of fungus and bacteria [12].
S. Conservation :

In most provincial towns, in villages

Introduced and naturalised in all towns and villages in countries with tropical climate [8]. Native to
Madagascar, Zambia; introduced to Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, India,
Jamaica, Kenya, Mexico, Niger, Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Singapore, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan,
Tanzania, Uganda, United States of America [26].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
7
Anon. 1986: The useful plants of India. Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi,
India
Bein E. 1996: Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Nairobi,
Kenya.
Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993: Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil
Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA).
Birnie A. 1997: What tree is that? A beginner's guide to 40 trees in Kenya. Jacaranda Designs Ltd.
Gbadegesin RA, 1993: Root rot of Delonix regia caused by Fusarium oxysporum in the northern
Guinea zone of Nigeria. Discovery and Innovation, 5(3):255-259; 18 ref.
Grant G, More LJ, McKenzie NH, Dorward PM, Buchan WC, Telek L, Pusztai A, 1995: Nutritional and
haemaglutination properties of several tropical seeds. Journal of Agricultural Science, 124(3):437-445;
32 ref.
Hood IA, Ramsden M, Allen P, 1996: Taxonomic delimitation and pathogenicity to seedlings of
Delonix regia and Albizia lebbeck of a species related to Ganoderma lucidum on broadleaf trees in
Queensland. Australasian Plant Pathology, 25(2):86-98; 27 ref.
Hutchinson J, 1964: The genera of the flowering plants. Oxford, UK: The Clarendon Press.
Luna RK. 1996: Plantation trees. International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun, India.

Millat-E-Mustafa M, 1989: Effect of hot water treatment on the germination of seeds of Albizia lebbeck
and Delonix regia.. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 18(1-2):63-64; 4 ref.
Pandey J, Agrawal M, 1994: Evaluation of air pollution phytotoxicity in a seasonally dry tropical urban
environment using three woody perennials. New Phytologist, 126(1):53-61; 56 ref.
Saxena SC, Yadav RS, 1986: A preliminary laboratory evaluation of an extract of leaves of Delonix
regia Raf. as a disruptor of insect growth and development. Tropical Pest Management, 32(1):58-59;
10 ref.
Streets RJ. 1962: Exotic forest trees of the British Commonwealth. Claredon Press, Oxford.
Vogt K. 1995: A field guide to the identification, propagation and uses of common trees and shrubs of
dryland Sudan. SOS Sahel International (UK).
X. References:
8
4) Dy Phon, Pauline, 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House;
Phnom Penh, 915 pp.
8) Sam, H. V.,Nanthavong, Kh.and P.J.A. Kessler 2004: Trees of Laos and Vietnam:
A field guide to 100 economically or ecologically important species.BLUMEA J. Plant Tax.
and Plant Geogr. 49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands,

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University
Press, New York; 336 pp.
Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated,
384 pp.
18) Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife 2003: Cambodia Forestry Statistics to 2002.(in
Khmer and English) Planning & Accounting Off., Statistics Sect., Phnom Penh, Cambodia,
97 pp.
Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ROM).

(Internet source)
9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dimocarpus longan Lour.]
Datasheet Report
[Dimocarpus longan Lour.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dimocarpus longan Lour.
B. English name (s) ³ longan [1], dragon's eye, longan tree, lungan [5]
C. Synonym ³ [for ssp. longan var. longan]: Dimocarpus longan Lour.
(1790), Euphoria longana Lamk. (1792) nom. illeg.,

Nephelium longana Cambess. (1829) [1, 2], Euphoria longan
Steud. [4], Nephelium long-yan Bl. [5]
[for ssp. longan var. longepetiolulatus Leenh.]: Euphoria

morigera Gagnep. (1950) nom. inval. [1]
[for ssp. longan var. obtusus (Pierre) Leenh.]: Euphoria

scandens Winit & Kerr. [1]
[for ssp. malesianus Leenh. var. malesianus]: Nephelium

malaiense Griff. (1854), Euphoria cinerea Radlk. (1878) nom.
illeg., Euphoria malaiensis Radlk. (1879) nom. illeg.,
Euphoria gracilis Radlk. (1913) nom. illeg. [1]
[for ssp. malesianus Leenh. var. echinatus Leenh.]: Euphoria

nephelioides Radlk. (1914) nom. illeg. [1]
D. Other1 ³ longanier, oeil de dragon (France) [1] - lengkeng, buku, ihau,
medaru, kyet mouk (Indonesia) [1, 4] - lengkeng, mata

kucing, isau, sau, kakus (Malaysia) [1] - kyet mouk
(Myanmar) [1] - lam nhai, nam nhai (Laos) [1] - lamyai pa,
lamyai khruer, lamyai tao, lahm-yai (Thailand) [1, 4] -
nh[ax]n, nam:nhan (Vietnam) [1, 4] - mamoncillo chino
(Spain) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: emon

Source: [5]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ mien [1]
1
Other : Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Genus: Dimocarpus
Species: Dimocarpus longan Lour.
Sub-species: Dimocarpus longan longan
Lour. / Dimocarpous longan

malesianus Leenh.
Source :[ 1]
[General]: A small to medium-sized, evergreen tree, in cultivation 9-14 m in height [4] (9-12 m [5], 10-

20 m [3]) and with a round very dense crown that attains a width of 14 m [4]. Unmanaged trees can
become up to 40 m in height [1, 4] (-30 m [2, 8], 20-40 m [11]), but may exceptionally become a
scandent shrub. The trunk, sometimes buttressed, is up to 75-100 cm in diameter [4] (76.2 cm [5], 100
cm [1], 20-40 cm [11]). Branches are long, spreading, slightly drooping, with 5 faint grooves,
sometimes warty lenticellate and heavily foliaged. The roots grow 2-4 m deep [3, 4] to the water table.
[Bark]: The bark is first smooth, later rough and flaking.
[Leaves]: Leaves are alternate, paripinnate, with 4-10 [4, 5] opposite leaflets (2-6 leaflets [1], 6-8
leaflets [11]), elliptic, egg-shaped to oblong or spear-shaped and a blunt tip. The leaflets attain a size
of 10-20 x 3.5-5 cm [5] (3-45 x 1.5-20 cm, 1-5 times longer than wide [1], 9-18 x 3.2-6 cm [8], 7-20 x
2.5 x 5 cm [11]) and are leathery, wavy, glossy-green on the upper surface, minutely hairy and
greyish-green beneath. Young leaves are wine-colored and showy. Each leaf has 14-17 pairs [8] of
side veins (10-14 pairs [11]) that are not joined. The leafstalk is 1-20 cm long [1, 4] (7-12 cm [11]), the
leafletstalk 0.5-35 mm [4] (2-10 mm [8]).
[Flowers]: The inflorescences (=terminal panicles) are 8-40 cm long [1] and densely covered with fine
hair. The flowerheads contain (1-)3-5 flowers [4], male and female mingled, with 1-4 mm long [4]
flowerstalks and 1.5-5 mm long bracts (=reduced leaves) [4]. Flowers consist of a 2-5 mm x 1-3 mm
2
[1] calyx lobe and 5 [1] (5-6 [5]) inner flower leaves (=petals), yellow brown to pale-yellow, 1.5-6 mm x
0.6-2 mm in size [1], densely woolly to hairless and larger than those of the litchi. The male flowers
contain (6-)8(-10) stamens [1] with 1-6 mm long filaments. "Male and female phases of flowering
overlap 4-6 weeks depending on cultivars. Pollination, by insects such as ants, flies and honey bees
(Apis cerana, Apis florea and Apis dorsata) is most effective between 8.00 a.m. and 2.00 p.m. In one
study fruit set per panicle improved greatly with bloom rating for the tree, leading to a sharp
progression in yield per tree (and an obvious risk of biennial bearing). The period from bloom to
harvest is 5-7 months, depending on cultivar and climate. In Thailand it flowers just before or after the
temperature rise at the end of the cold, dry season. Most fruit is harvested in August and September"
[5].
[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) occurs in clusters and is broad-ellipsoid to globular with 1-3 cm [1] in
diameter (1.25-2.5 cm [5]). Its rind is thin, brittle, yellow-brown to light reddish-brown and more or less
roughly pebbled. The flesh (=aril) is moist and sticky, whitish, translucent, with a sweet smell and
taste, "but not as sweet as lychee and with less 'bouquet'" [5]. The seed is round, jet-black or
blackish-brown, shining, with a circular white spot at the base, giving it the aspect of an eye.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The heartwood of ssp. longan is red, hard, not fissured and takes a fine polish,
while the wood of ssp. malesianus is fairly hard and of light brown to yellow color.
[1, 6, 11]

Approximate limits: The optimal latitudinal distribution of D. longan ssp. longan ranges from 15°N to
15°S with 20°N to 20°S as absolute limits [3]. Subspecies malesianus is confined to 10°N and 10°S
[1]. Some authors limit the area of origin to the mountain chain from Myanmar through southern
China; others extend it to south-west India and Sri Lanka, including the lowlands. The crop is mainly
grown in South China, Taiwan and North Thailand with small acreages elsewhere in Indo-China
(Cambodia, Vietnam) as well as Queensland (Australia) and Florida (United States) and scattered
trees at higher elevations in South-East Asia. Subspecies longan grows mainly in the understorey of
primary forests, sometimes secondary forests from lowlands to highlands, where frequent fires are
absent. "In Thailand it occurs mainly in the river basins" [10]. Under cultivation, it does especially well
on high ground near ponds and is more seldom grown under orchard conditions than is the litchi.
Subspecies malesianus occurs all over Indo-China and Malesia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines)
with the greatest variation found in Borneo mainly in the substage or understorey in primary or
sometimes secondary forests.
[1, 2, 4, 8, 10]
3
Subspecies longan occurs from lowland to highland areas and can be grown at elevations up to 1,500
m a.s.l. [1] in SW-India, up to 900 m [1] in Giava and up to 1,300 m [1] in Bengala. Subspecies
malesianus thrives in the humid tropical lowlands near sea level around 150-450 m a.s.l. [5]. "Longan
is a subtropical tree that grows well in the tropics but requires a prominent change of seasons for
satisfactory flowering" [1]. The following climate zones are suitable for cultivation: tropical wet & dry
(Aw), tropical wet (Ar), subtropical humid (Cf) and subtropical dry winter (Cw) [3]. D. longan ssp.
longan requires a rainfall of 1,300-2,000 mm/year [3] (1,500-2,000 mm [1]) for optimal growth and an
absolute rainfall range from 800 to 3,000 mm [3]. The rainfall for ssp. malesianus ranges from 2,500
mm to more than 4,000 mm per year [1] with a relative humidity of 65-95% [1]. It needs an adequate
supply of water and can even stand brief flooding, but not prolonged drought. The temperature range
for growth is 7-36°C [4] with the optimum between 18-30°C [4] [15°C [5]] for ssp. longan and 25-30°C
[1] for ssp. malesianus. Subspecies longan "needs chilling temperatures of about 7-12°C, or a 2-3
months period with temperatures about 15-22°C and a short dry period to stimulate flowering. From
fruit set and onwards night temperatures should not be above 20-25°C" [3]. It cannot stand heavy
frosts. Young trees may be damaged by -0.5º to -1ºC [4] and are killed at just a few degrees lower.
Larger trees show leaf injury at -2º to -3ºC [4], small branch injury at -3º to -4ºC [4], large branch and
trunk show damage symptoms at -4.5°C [4] and sometimes fail to recover. Mature trees will only
tolerate -3 to -5°C [3] for few hours. Regarding the photoperiod it is not sensitive, tolerating short days
(<12 hours [3]), neutral days (12-14 hours [3]) and long days (>14 hours [3]). Young trees need some
shade, whereas older trees thrive in full sunlight.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]


Longan thrives best on deep, well drained rich sandy loam and nearly as well on sand rich in organic
material. It also grows to a large size and bears heavily in oolitic limestone. Poor drainage is tolerated
very well (saturated >50% of the year [3]). The optimal pH for ssp. longan ranges between 5.5 and 6
[3] with an absolute range of 5-8 [3] "In organic muck soils, blooming and fruiting are deficient,
probably because shoot growth continues for too long. In northern Thailand orchards are often
situated on the lighter soils along former river courses, a ribbon of trees winding between the sawahs"
[1]. Additional soil properties: "Optimal soil depth: deep (>150 cm). Absolute soil depth: shallow (20-50
cm). Optimal soil fertility: high. Absolute soil fertility: moderate. Soil salinity: low (<4 dS/m)" [3]. “In
Sarawak, ssp. malesianus grows on alluvial soil, often on river banks. In other areas the trees grow on
a wider range of soil types. A pH range of 4.5-6.5 is common in this region" [1].
[1, 3, 4]
4
[Wood]: D. longan is not often cut for timber. The wood, however, can be used for posts, construction
and agricultural implements. If the timber has a high quality, it can be used for wood carving,
moulding, domestic joinery and furniture. Its value for fuel is limited.
[6, 11, 12]
[Non-wood]: Fruits of this species are mainly eaten fresh. Some sources mention that the fruit is
improved by cooking. "There are substantial canning industries for longan in Thailand, China and
Taiwan" [1]. Large fruits are used, preferably those with small seeds. Fruit can be canned in its own
juice with little or no sugar, due to the high level of soluble solids. "In China, the majority are canned in
syrup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the
past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong and Taiwan" [5]. Canned longans retain their
individual flavor better than rambutan or lychee. Longans can also be preserved dry, either intact or
after removal of the pericarp. For drying, the fruits are first heated to shrink the flesh and facilitate
peeling of the rind. Then the seeds are removed and the flesh dried over a slow fire. The dried
product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare a refreshing drink. A
liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol. The seeds, because of their saponin
content, are used like soapberries (Sapindus saponaria L.) for shampooing the hair. Seeds and fruit
flesh of longan have several medicinal uses: "The flesh is administered as a stomachic, febrifuge and
vermifuge, and is regarded as an antidote for poison. A decoction of the dried flesh is taken as a tonic
and treatment for insomnia and neurasthenic neurosis. In both North and South Vietnam, the 'eye' of
the longan seed is pressed against snakebites in the belief that it will absorb the venom" [5]. The
seeds prevent heavy sweating and the pulverized kernel, which contains saponin, tannin and fat,
serves as a styptic. The leaves, containing quercetin and quercitrin, and flowers are sold in Chinese
herb markets. Dried flowers are also exported to Malaysia for medicinal purposes. The seeds and the
bark are also burnt for fuel "and are part of the payment of the Chinese women who attend to the
drying operation" [6].
[1, 3, 5, 6]
[Others]: "In eastern Thailand ssp. longan var. obtusus is grown as an ornamental climber" [1]. In
Bengal and elsewhere the Longan tree is cultivated as an ornamental and shade tree and is also
considered to be a useful species for agroforestry.
[1, 3, 5]

No class. [9]

[General]: Subspecies longan is a fast growing light demander which can be mainly found in the
understorey of primary forests, sometimes secondary forests from lowlands to highlands, where
frequent fires are absent. "In Thailand it occurs mainly in the river basins" [10]. Under cultivation, it
5
thrives exceptionally well on high ground near ponds and is more seldom grown under orchard
conditions than is the litchi. Subspecies malesianus occurs all over Indo-China and Malesia (Malaysia,
Indonesia, Philippines) with the greatest variation found in Borneo mainly in the understorey of
primary or sometimes secondary forests.
[Establishment]: Tree spacing ranges from 6 m x 6 m to 12 m x 12 m [1]; where the latter spacing may
also be a result of a subsequent thinning of the stand. For orchards the trees may be spaced 10 m x
10 m [1], in a square or hexagonal pattern. In general, there is a trend towards closer spacing.
"Regular bearing would help to limit tree size to fit spacings of 6 m x 8 m to 7 m x 10 m" [1]. "In China,
if the longan is raised on the lowlands it is always put on the edges of raised beds. On high ground,
the trees are placed in pre-enriched holes on the surface" [5].
[Management]: The trees begin to bear fruits 4-5 years [3] after sowing. The economic life-span may
reach about 25 years [3]. Young longan trees are pruned to limit the number of main branches. A tree
can be converted to a preferred cultivar by cutting it drastically back and veneer-grafting the new
shoots. "In bearing trees harvesting is a form of pruning, since the entire panicle is cut. Soon after
harvest this should be followed by cutting out some of the subtending twigs. Cutting out these twigs
completely simplifies the canopy structure and admits more light to the interior of the tree; it also
removes twigs that are least likely to fruit next year, since they have fruited this year. If this is not done
side shoots emerge below the cuts of the harvested panicles. These shoots make the canopy more
dense and come too late to initiate inflorescences for the next crop. According to an old report
growers in Fukien Province in China practise flower thinning in 'on' years. Since prolific bloom in
longan appears to be associated with heavy fruit set, the risk of over-thinning is small and as many as
50% of the panicles may be removed (3/4 = 75% of the flower spikes in the cluster may be removed

[5]). Side shoots emerge below the cuts sufficiently early in the season to mature in time to initiate
flowers for the next crop. Thus alternate bearing is suppressed by thinning. Current pruning practice is
mainly to remove suckers in the interior of the tree as well as branches that have lost vitality and
panicles that remain after harvest; the skirt is maintained at a height of at least 1 m. These pruning
practices do not restrict tree size" [1]. The longan needs an adequate supply of water and can even
stand brief flooding, but not prolonged drought. Irrigation is necessary in dry periods. Moisture is
especially needed from flowering until shortly before harvest and may be preserved by mulching.
"Once the trees become dormant at the end of the growing season, rainfall may trigger a new flush of
shoot growth, upsetting floral differentiation and resulting in failure of flowering. There is no specific
information on fertilizer requirements. Chinese work indicates that high yields are correlated with leaf
nutrient levels as follows: N higher than 1.70%, P 0.12-0.20%, Mg 0.20-0.30%. Levels of 0.60-0.80%
and 1.50-2.50% are recommended for K and Ca, respectively, but no relation to yield has been found.
For 'mata kucing' and related types husbandry is largely limited to harvesting and cutting back of the
fruiting twigs" [1]. The period from bloom to harvest is 5-7 months [5], depending on cultivar and
climate.
[Fruit harvesting]: "Longan fruits, including the fruits of ssp. malesianus, are non-climacteric and have
to be harvested when ripe. Maturity is determined by fruit shape, skin color and taste. Immature fruits
6
are tasteless. The mature longan fruit has a dark, smooth skin, the inside of which is netted and tastes
sweet. Longan trees should be picked twice at an interval of 7-10 days; 'mata kucing' fruit can all be
picked in a single harvest. The whole panicle is cut with a knife or scissors. Panicles should not be
dropped. They are sorted and bunched" [1].
[Yield]: In Thailand the average longan yield ranged from 0.99-1.65 t/ha in 1981 to 1987 [1] (1-6 t/ha
[3]). These average yields are extremely low when compared with well-kept orchards, which should
produce up to 12 t/ha per year [1]. For 10-15-year-old trees yields ranging from 60-190 kg/tree [1]
(120 kg/tree [3]) have been obtained. In East Java the very best trees produce 150-300 kg [1] in a
good year (200-300 kg [3]). In China, full-grown trees given sufficient room–at least 12 m apart–may
yield 180-225 kg [5] in good years. Crops in Florida from trees 6 m tall and broad, have varied from
light (22.5-45 kg [1]) to medium (68-113 kg [1]) and heavy (135-225 kg [1]). Rarely such trees may
produce 272-317 kg [5]. The variation occurs largely due to irregular bearing, often one good year
followed by 1 or 2 poor years [5].
[Handling after harvest]: "Thai growers traditionally pack longan fruits with stalk intact in 35 cm x 50
cm round woven bamboo baskets containing 21-22 kg and lined with longan leaves. Fruit for export,
often detached from the panicles, may be packed in corrugated boxes or plastic baskets. Since
longan fruit have high sugar content, they have a shelf life of a few days only at ambient temperature
(25-31°C). Longan fruit subjected to hydrocooling or forced air cooling can be stored at 5°C for 40-45
days and at 10°C for 20 days with a relative humidity of 85-90%. For long-term storage fruits can be
fumigated with SO2" [1].
[1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 12]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: The seed storage is recalcitrant. Seeds "lose viability at 18% moisture
content. There is 70% survival after 7 weeks storage with anesthetic substances such as moist
storage at 8-10°C with 100% relative humidity and with 80% nitrous oxide + 20% oxygen, but no
viability when water is used; and 67% germination after 250 days moist storage in moist (20 %
moisture content) perlite + 4% chlorthalonil, at 15°C" [5]. Seed viability can also be prolonged for
some time by treatment with a fungicide and keeping the moisture level of the seed above 30% [1].
[Seed Propagation]: Most longan trees are grown from seed. After drying in the shade for 4 days [5],
they should be planted without delay, but no more than 2 cm deep [5], otherwise they may send up
more than one sprout. Germination takes place within 7-10 days [3, 5]. The seedlings are transplanted
to shaded nursery rows the following spring and set in the field 2-3 years [5] later during winter
dormancy. Seedling growth is slow and the juvenile phase lasts about 7 years [3].
[Vegetative Propagation]: In Thailand longans are propagated through air layering, in China through
approach grafting using seedlings of the same cultivar as rootstocks applying the modified Forkert
method. However, slow and uneven budbreak remains a problem. "In the rainy season air layers root
in 2-2.5 months; they are nursed in the shade for 6-12 months after separation. Trees obtained by air
layering are more susceptible to wind than grafted trees; therefore either they are supported by
7
permanent bamboo props, by soil mounded around the trunk, or rooted seedlings are planted close to
the young tree and inarched to improve stability" [1]. "In Kwangtung Province (China), when
vegetative propagation is undertaken, it is mostly by means of inarching, nearly always onto 'Wu
Yuan' trees 3-5 years old and 5 to 6 ft (1.5-1.8 m) high. The union is made no less than 4 ft (1.2 m)
from the ground because it is most convenient. Grafting is uncommon and when it is done, it is a
sandwich graft on longan rootstock, 3 or 4 grafts being made successively, one onto the beheaded
top of the preceding one, in the belief that it makes the graft wind-resistant and that it induces better
size and quality in the fruit. Conventional modes of grafting have not been successful in Florida, but
whip-grafting has given 80% success in Taiwan. Air-layering is frequently done in Fukien Province
(China) and was found a feasible means of distributing the 'Kohala' from Hawaii. Air-layers bear in 2
to 3 years after planting. A tree can be converted to a preferred cultivar by cutting it drastically back
and veneer-grafting the new shoots" [6]. Stem cuttings are rarely used.
[1, 5, 6]

[Pests]: "Numerous pests are found on longan. Of particular importance is the longan stink bug
(Tessaratoma javanica) which can ruin bloom in a year with light flowering. There is also a flower-
eating caterpillar. Chemical control interferes with pollination and the interests of bee keepers; the
stink bug can be controlled by a hymenopterous parasitoid reared on silk-worm eggs. The fruit is
attacked by piercing moths, borer caterpillars and fruit flies. Thai growers (and also Cambodian
growers [13]) sometimes bag the panicles to protect them. The fruit - and that of 'mata kucing' c.s. - is
also eaten by bats; (In Thailand and Cambodia, fruit panicles are sometimes protected with a woven
bamboo basket [13]). A draconian control method is electrocution by a high screen of thin, parallel

electric wires in the orchard" [1]. Another source ([5]) describes longan as a tree which is relatively
free of pests.
[Diseases]: "The only disease of importance in longan in Thailand is rosette shoot or witches' broom,
caused by a mycoplasm. Affected trees show abnormal growth and poor flowering. No cure is known
and affected trees should be grubbed out and burned. Powdery mildew infects inflorescences and
young fruit of 'mata kucing', causing the same kind of damage as in rambutan. Thread blight occurs
on branches and leaves of 'mata kucing'" [1].
[Others]: "At times, there may be signs of mineral deficiency which can be readily corrected by
supplying minor elements in the fertilization program" [5].
S. Conservation :
Due to an extensive cultivation, this species is not considered to be threatened.
[12]
8
[Native]: S-China, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka.
[2, 3, 5]
[Introduced]: Australia (Queensland), Bermuda, Cambodia, China, Cuba, Indonesia (ssp. malesianus
only), Laos, Mauritius, Malaysia (ssp. malesianus only), Puerto Rico, Philippines (ssp. malesianus
only), Reunion, Taiwan, Thailand, United States of America, Vietnam
[2, 4, 5]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Production and international trade]: "Longan production in Thailand was 20,100 t in 1986/1987 and
58,660 t the following year - showing the prominent tendency to biennial bearing - from an area
estimated to be 23,500 ha. The exports of fresh, canned and dried fruit, mainly to Singapore, Hong
Kong and the EC, were 10600, 2950 and 0.4 t respectively in 1986. Elsewhere in South-East Asia
only East Java produces an appreciable quantity of longan. The other fruits, such as 'mata kucing',
are found in their season in some local markets only" [1].
[Fruit properties]: "Food value per 100 g of edible portion: Calories: 61 (fresh), 286 (dried). Moisture:
82.4 g (fresh), 17.6 g (dried) (458 kJ/100 g [1]). Protein: 1.0 g (fresh), 4.9 g (dried). Fat: 0.1 g (fresh),
0.4 g (dried). Carbohydrates: 15.8 g (fresh), 74.0 g (dried) (25.2 g [1]). Fiber: 0.4 g (fresh), 2.0 g
(dried). Ash: 0.7 g (fresh) (0.5 g [1]), 3.1 g (dried). Calcium: 10 mg (2 mg [1]) (fresh), 45 mg (dried).
Phosphorus: 42 mg (fresh) (6 mg [1]), 196 mg (dried). Iron: 1.2 mg (fresh) (0.3 mg [1]), 5.4 mg (dried).
Thiamine: 0.04 mg (dried). Ascorbic Acid: 6 mg (fresh), 28 mg (dried)" [6]. "Vitamin A 28 IU, vitamin
B1 0.04 mg, vitamin B2 0.07 mg, niacin 0.6 mg and vitamin C 8 mg. The composition of 'mata kucing'
fruit is not very different, but carbohydrates - and energy values - are much lower, whereas much
higher figures are given for mineral content" [1].
[Subspecies and cultivars]: "The two subspecies and five varieties of D. longan, listed above, are
distinguished mainly by differences in the leaflets. Within ssp. malesianus, var. malesianus shows the
greatest variation in Borneo. The fruits are globular to slightly oblong and smooth to warty. In
Peninsular Malaysia, the most common form of this taxon is the one with globose smooth fruits which
turn brown when ripe. This is the true 'mata kucing' and has usually been identified as Euphoria
malaiensis. It has a very thin arilloid and is hardly worth eating. This form also exists in Borneo and
Sumatra. The more superior forms are found in Sarawak, all with densely thick warty fruits and thicker
arilloids. These forms can be roughly grouped into three types based on the fruit characteristics: the
'isau' with fruits which are globular and remain green when ripe, the 'sau' with fruits which are slightly
oblong and also remain green when ripe, and the 'kakus' with globular fruits which turn brown when
ripe. The leaves, flowers and tree forms also differ. The 'kakus' is more widespread in Sarawak, while
the 'isau' and 'sau' are mainly confined to the river banks of the Rajang river and to the Bareo valley.
Var. echinatus differs from var. malesianus in that the fruits have rather long spines resembling the
rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.). This variety is found in Sabah where the 'kakus' also exists.
Three edible longan types are distinguished in Thailand, which presumably all belong to ssp. longan.
9
The first one is a large forest tree with small fruits and a very thin aril, possibly of interest for breeding
purposes. The second one is the common longan ('lamyai kraduk'), growing in the northern part of the
country as an erect tree, producing small fruits with large seeds and is recommended as a rootstock
for commercial cultivars. The third type is formed by the commercial cultivars ('lamyai kraloke') which
produce large fruits and small seeds. Important longan cultivars in Thailand are: 'Daw', 'Chompoo',
'Haew', 'Biew Kiew', 'Dang', 'Baidum', 'Luang' and 'Talub Nak'. In China 'Fu Yan', 'Wu Long Ling' (both
in Fujian), 'Wu Yuan' and 'Shi Xia' (both in Guangdong Province) are leading cultivars, in Taiwan
'Yong Tao Ye' and 'Chiau On Diao'" [1].
[Genetic resources]: "Seeds are too short-lived for germplasm collection. Thailand has large tree
collections of longan in Chiang Mai and Lamphun. The Thai cultivars differ in shoot, flower and fruit
characters from the Chinese cultivars, but on the whole, genetic diversity appears to be narrow. There
are several cultivar collections in Australia, the largest being in Kamerunga Horticultural Research
Station near Cairns, Queensland. The University of Agriculture Malaysia with its branch campus at
Bintulu, Sarawak, is now the largest collector of germplasm of D. longan ssp. malesianus. The great
diversity in Sarawak offers a great opportunity to select superior material. Explorations in remote
areas have been regularly made to identify trees with good quality fruit - thick flesh, fruit in
consolidated panicles - and to collect budwood" [1].
[Breeding]: "Seedling progeny are extremely variable and small fruit size appears to be a dominant
characteristic. Therefore through the centuries improved cultivars have resulted merely from selection,
in particular on large fruit size, high edible portion, crisp flesh, good flavor, and high sugar content. In
so doing heavy and regular yields appear to have been sacrificed in comparison with the common
longan in Thailand. Now marketing characteristics, such as early or late harvest, a long shelf life and a

pure white aril for the canned product, must also receive more attention" [1].
[Prospects]: "Small fruit size and biennial bearing is the main constraint for expansion of the crop. The
suggestions made above to ensure more regular bearing are based on piecemeal evidence, but they
are simple to test. It is probably easier to attain good and stable yields of longan than of lychee; since
these fruits substitute for one another this considerably enhances the prospects for longan. If trees
bore regularly, growth would be moderated and it would be easier to prune to keep trees a
manageable size. Small trees, coupled with closer spacing and regular yields would allow production
to be intensified. The superior races of the spp. malesianus, in particular the var. malesianus in
Sarawak and other parts of Borneo, may offer an attractive alternative to longan for the humid tropical
lowlands" [1].
[Fruit storage]: "At room temperature, longans remain in good condition for several days. Because of
the firmer rind, the fruit is less perishable than the lychee. Preliminary tests in Florida indicate that the
fruit can be frozen and will not break down as quickly as the lychee when thawed" [6].
10
Anonymous, 1987. Lychees and longan. Union Offset, Bangkok. pp. 44-71. (Thai).
[1]
Holtum, R.E., 1953. Gardening in the lowlands of Malaya. The mata kucing. The Straits Times Press,
Singapore. pp. 294-295.
[1]
Knight Jr., R.J., Manis, W.E., Kosel, G.W. & White, C.A., 1968. Evaluation of longan and lychee
introductions. Proceedings Florida State Horticultural Society 84: 314-317.
[1]
Leenhouts, P.W., 1971. A revision of Dimocarpus (Sapindaceae). Blumea 19: 113-131.
[1]
Liu, X., Zheng, J., Pan, D. & Xie, H., 1986. An investigation on the leaf nutritional diagnosis criteria of
longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.). Journal of the Fujian Agricultural College 15 (3): 237-247.
[1]
Menzel, C.M., Watson, B.J. & Simpson, D.R., 1989. Longans - a place in Queensland's horticulture?
Queensland Agricultural Journal 113(5): 251-265.
[1]
Morton J. (1987) Fruits of warm climates; Longan.
[4]
Tongdee, S.S., 1977. Study on the characteristics of longans during storage. Kasikorn 50(2): 95-97.
(Thai).
[1]
Verheij, E.W.M. & Koopmans, A., 1984. Flowering and fruiting of longan (Euphoria longana Lam.) in
East Java in 1983. Agrivita 7(1): 14-19.
[1]
11
van Welzen, P.C., Lamb, A. & Wong, W.W.W., 1988. Edible Sapindaceae in Sabah. Nature
Malaysiana 13: 10-25.
[1]
Wong, K.C., Ibrahim Yusof, Pearce, K.G. & Alau Tayan, D., 1988. Isau - A potential tropical longan
(Dimocarpus longan) of Sarawak. Proceedings of the Third National Biology Symposium, Subang
Jaya (in print).
[1]
X. References:
[2] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe (Internet source)
[3] ECOCROP: http://ecocrop.fao.org (Internet source)

[6] Morton, J. 1987: Longan. p. 259–262. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.

Northern Thailand.
Phnom Penh.
[10] Rehm, S.; Espig, G., 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics.
[11] Nguyen et al., 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute. Hanoi
[12] Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees. A Worldwide Encyclopedic Guide.
12
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G. Don [10]
B. English name (s) ³ hairy-leafed apitong [10], Indonesian gurjun [9]
C. Synonym ³ Dipterocarpus gonopterus Turcz., Dipterocarpus lemeslei
Vesque, Dipterocarpus incanus Roxb., Dipterocarpus unesbi

Vesque [4], Dipterocarpus philippinensis Foxw. [7]
D. Other1 ³ keruing yang, keruing (Trade name) [9, 10] - yang-na
(Thailand) [7] - dàu rái, d[aaf]u r[as]i , dau nuoc, dzau con rai
trang, dau con rai (Vietnam) [5, 11, 12, 16] - nha:ng, nha:ng
kha:w, nhang, nhang khao, nhang mouk (Laos) [9, 10] -
hairy-leafed apitong, apinau, ayamban (Philippines) [10] -
keruing, kruen (France) [9] - dulia garjan, garjan
(Bangladesh) [9] - gurjin (India) [9] - kanyin, kanyin-byu
(Myanmar) [9]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eQITalTwk

Source: [15]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhe tiel tuk, chhe tiel thom [3], chhë: ti:ël bângku:ëy,
chhë: ti:ël ba:y [10], chhoeuteal tan, chur tuk, gnang [9],
chheutealteuk [15]
Other : Malvales
1
Gunus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f.
Species: Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. ex G.
Don
Source :[ 9]
[General]: Dipterocarpus alatus is a medium-sized to very large deciduous tree attaining a height of
40 m or more [10, 11] (-45 m [16], 25-40 m [3], 45-53 m [4]). The bole is tall, straight, cylindrical and
branchless for up to 20 m [10] (20-30 m [4]) with a maximum DBH of 150 cm [10, 11, 16] (200 cm
[12], a girth of 3-4 m [4]). The crown is umbrella-shaped. Young twigs are covered with short tangled
hairs. Buds are spear-shaped and covered by yellow hair.
[Bark]: The outer bark is thin, whitish grey and smooth in young trees, later thick when mature with
deep and wide cracks. The epidermis peels off in large patches. The inner bark is yellowish brown
and resinous.
[Leaves]: The leaves are narrowly egg-shaped, egg-shaped or elliptical-oblong, 9-25 x 3.5-15 cm [11]
(10-20 x 6-11 cm [4], 16-20 x 8-10 cm [12], 14-25 x 6-15 cm [16]) with a pale green lower surface. The
leaf-base is wedge shaped to rounded; the leaf-tip is shortly pointed or tapering to a long point.
Secondary veins are in pairs of 11-18(-20) [11] (15 pairs [4], 11-20 pairs [16], sparsely hairy above,
densely hairy beneath. The leafstalk is 2.5-4.5 cm long [11] (2.5 - 3.5 cm [4]), with greyish-yellow
haired stipules. "Leaf and bud production in juvenile trees occurs from January to June, after which

constant temperature and humidity prevent further production; leaf fall occurs in mid-November (at a
time of low temperature and humidity and short day length)" [11].
[Flower]: The inflorescence is axillary and on the top of shoots and twigs. Flowers are large, radially
symmetrical, bisexual and scented. The 5 up to 8 mm broad outer flower-leaves (=sepals) form a
rounded hairless tube around the ovary (=female organ) which is more or less globe-shaped. Two of
the sepals are long, 14 cm x 3 cm [10] (12-15 x 3-5 cm [12]) oblong to spate-shaped, more or less
distinctly 3-veined. Three short ones are 12 mm x 14 mm [10] in size but sometimes all five are short.
The inner flower leaves (=petals) are large, oblong to narrowly oblong, strongly contorted and hairy
outside, cream-white with a prominent pink, red or purple stripe down the center. The fruit has many
stamens (=male organs) with flattened filaments. The ovary (=female organ) is densely hairy, the style
is 1 cm long [4], stout, ribbed and hairy in the lower part. Flowering season is November-December
[12, 16] (Thailand: early December [11]).
[Fruits]: Fruiting season is April-May [12, 16] (Thailand: mid-February [11]). Fruiting occurs almost
every year, and there seems to be a large supply of seeds. The fruit (=nut) is 1.8-2.4 cm long [4] 2-3
cm in diameter [12], with five 8 mm broad [16] ridges, green when young, turning brownish red when
ripe, and thinly covered with star shaped hairs. It is surrounded by a hairless tube formed by the 5
outer flower leaves, 2 larger ones up to 14 cm x 3 cm [11] (12 x 2.5 cm [4], 10-14 x 2-3 cm [16]) and 3
2
shorter ones up to 1.2 x 1.4 cm [11] (1-1.4 x 1-1.3 cm [16]) which form the wings of the fruit. The
wings are red when young.
[3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is medium hard and heavy of bright color and a with distinctive sap- and
heartwood. The sapwood is nearly white or greyish pink, the heartwood is reddish pink or greyish
brown and fairly straight grained. Annual rings are not conspicuous. Simple vessels with a large
diameter are scattered with a small number of vessels per mm² [12]. The wood fiber is of tracheid
form 1.1-1.4 mm long [12] with a thick wall. It has a density of 0.62-0.905 g/cm³ at 15% moisture
content [10] (0.78 g/cm³ of dry wood [12], specific gravity of 0.574 [4], 0.72-0.8 g/cm³ at 12% mc [4]).
Other wood properties: "Shrinkage percentage (green to oven dry): Radial 3.0%, tangential 7.5% and
volumetric 10.8%. Modulus of rupture (kg/cm²): 661.5 (green), 1020.7 (air dry). Modulus of elasticity
(kg/cm²): 103,900 (green), 151,900 (air dry). Maximum crushing stress (kg/cm² ): 318.4 (green), 552.1
(air dry)" [4]. "Volume shrinkage coefficient: 0.51. Grain saturation point: 26%. Pressure strength
(along the grain): 586 kg/cm². Collision bending strength: 0.6." [12].
[4, 10, 12]

Approximate limits: 22°N to 2°N [9] (15°N to 5°N [6]). D. alatus is a native species of Indochina,
Thailand, East India (Andaman Islands), the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines (Luzon). It has
adapted to a wide range of forest types of the lowlands and hills and grows frequently in moist
evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests, dense semi-deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests and
dry deciduous forests. It grows abundantly in small pure stands along streams, on river banks and in
riparian valleys. In tropical evergreen or monsoon forests it is usually mixed with Dalbergia
cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Pterocarpus macrocarpus and Sindora siamensis. In hill
forests it is mainly found in association with Swintonia floribunda and Artocarpus chaplasha while it is
mixed with Shorea cochinchinensis and Irvingia spp. in the transitional belts between evergreen and
deciduous forests which contain a quite dense undergrowth. In dipterocarp forests D. alatus forms an
ecological group of Dipteroarpaceae with Hopea odorata and Anisoptera costata. Sometimes these
species form pure stands in which D. alatus crowns make up a separate ecologically dominant or
emergent storey. "Within the perimeter of the park of Angkor (Siem Reap Province, Cambodia),
Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia spp. and Tretrameles nudiflora are very numerous probably as a
result of shifting cultivation in ancient times" [20]. Generally it is often planted in temples and along
roadsides.
[2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 20]

D. alatus is a tree of hills and lowlands and is confined to an altitude of 0-500 m a.s.l [2, 11, 17] (30-
500 m [9], 0-450 m [6], 300-900 m [3], 0-800 m [5], 200-500(-800) m [16]). A tropical monsoon climate
(tropical wet & dry (Aw) [6]) with an average humidity of 75-85% [12], a mean annual rainfall of 1,100-
3
2,200 mm/yr [9] (1,500-2,200 mm [12], 3,500-4,500 mm (optimal) [6], 3,000-5,200 mm (absolute) [6])
and a maximum dry season length of 3-6 months [9] (4-6 months [12]) is suited. "The habit of the
Philippine populations is more seasonal than usual for those in Indo-China" [11]. The optimal mean
annual temperature for growth is 22-32ºC [6] (20-30ºC [9], 25-27ºC [12]) with a mean minimum
temperature of the coldest month 12-18ºC [9] and an absolute minimum temperature of 10ºC [6, 9]. A
mean maximum temperature of 30-40ºC [9] (36ºC [6]) in the hottest month is tolerated. According to
some sources D. alatus is a shade bearer [4, 9]; others describe it as light demanding tree when
mature but shade tolerant when young [5, 16]. It has adapted to a photoperiod of less than 12
hours/day [6] (short days). Flooding is tolerated, however a susceptibility to fire and wind has been
reported.
[2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17]


This tree prefers well drained, fertile, light loamy to medium loamy or sandy soils along rivers and on
moist, flat land. Water logging is tolerated but only for a short period. Just like Hopea odorata and
Anisoptera costata, D. alatus grows on grey soils on shale, is a rapid colonizer on old sandy alluvium
and ferallit on mica schist or granite. Soils which are relatively poor in humus are also suited. It grows
well on slightly acid soils with a pH of 5-6 [12] and on neutral soils. Additional soil properties: "Optimal
soil depth: deep (>150 cm). Absolute soil depth: medium (50-150 cm). Optimal soil fertility: high.
Absolute soil fertility: moderate. Soil salinity: low (<4 dS/m). Soil drainage: well (dry spells)" [6].

[5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 20]

[Wood]: D. alatus timber is used and traded as 'keruing' when not exploited only for its oily resin and is
one of the most important timber species of Southern- and Southeast Asia, especially South India, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. In Thailand it is the most important timber species next to
teak. The valuable timber can be used for a variety of purposes such as general- and indoor
construction, veneer, plywood, flooring, wall paneling, cabinetwork, pallets, short fiber pulp, posts,
building poles, beams, chemical processing equipment, wood based materials, railway sleepers if
treated, fuelwood and boat building (framework for boats).
[3, 9, 10, 11, 22]
[Non-wood]: "The white oleoresin or wood oil which is obtained from the sapwood is known as 'minyak
keruing', 'damar minyak', 'minyak lagan' or 'balau'. The essential oil obtained from the oleoresin is the
well known 'gurjun balsam'. This is not a balsam in the strict sense, as it does not contain any
cinnamic or benzoic acid" [17]. In Thailand it is considered to be the best oleoresin of any native
species. It is used as a fixative in perfumery, particularly soap perfumes. It is a cheaper substitute for
4
'patchouli oil' obtained from Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth. The oleoresin is still traditionally used
for illumination, for bamboo furniture, to caulk boats, to make baskets watertight and to treat timber
which is exposed to the weather. In traditional medicine it is used as a disinfectant, laxative, diuretic,
mild stimulant and in analgesic liniments. It can be mixed with bee wax and used as an antiseptic in
bandages of ulcerated wounds. The bark of the young tree provided with 2-4 leaves is believed to
have medicinal virtues against rheumatism, diseases of the liver and to stimulate the appetite of
cattle. In modern societies the oil is used for (zinc-based) paint, printing ink industries, varnish for
walls and furniture and lacquer. It can even be used as a fuel in diesel engines.
[3, 9, 11, 12, 13, 17]
[Others]: D. alatus also has also a high potential in agroforestry. "In Thailand the taungya reforestation
method has been practiced primarily in order to rehabilitate wasteland with this tree. The organic
matter and NPK content of soils under the tree canopy have been shown to be higher than in soils
further away from the tree" [11]. It is also commonly intercropped with fruit trees. However studies in
Vietnam showed that intercropping with coffee (Coffea spp.) is not advisable, as people pruned the
young trees severely to promote the growth of coffee [12].
[9, 11, 12]

2nd class [1].

[General]: Dipterocarpus alatus has adapted to a wide range of forest types of the lowlands and hills
and grows frequently in moist evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests, dense semi-deciduous
forests, moist deciduous forests and dry deciduous forests. It grows abundantly in small pure stands
along streams, on river banks and in riparian valleys. In tropical evergreen or monsoon forests it is
usually mixed with Dalbergia cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Pterocarpus macrocarpus and
Sindora siamensis. In hill forests it is mainly found in association with Swintonia floribunda and
Artocarpus chaplasha while it is mixed with Shorea cochinchinensis and Irvingia spp. in the
transitional belts between evergreen and deciduous forests which contain quite dense undergrowth. In
dipterocarp forests D. alatus forms an ecological group of Dipteroarpaceae with Hopea odorata and
Anisoptera costata. Sometimes these species form pure stands in which D. alatus crowns make up a
separate ecologicaly dominant or emergent storey. According to some sources D. alatus is a shade
bearer [4, 9]; others describe it as light demanding tree when mature but shade tolerant when young
[5, 16]. It has the ability to self prune.
[4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 20]
[Natural Regeneration]: In natural forests Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can survive in the
forest for years under heavy shade. Natural regeneration is good, especially along rivers or on moist
flat land. "In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the seedlings
are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth. Many
5
species regenerate well only in primary forest" [17]. Natural regeneration of D. alatus has also been
observed in abandoned agricultural fields and protected forest land after logging.
[4, 11, 16, 17]
[Establishment]: Seedlings for planting should be 12-14 months old [12] with a mean height of 60-80
cm [12]. It is advisable to plant D. alatus on grey soil on old alluvium with pure planting system on
large areas or in bands 15-30 m wide [12]. The topography should be flat with bushes or grasses. In
Southern Vietnam, planting has been done right after the first rains of the rain season (June-July) [12].
It can be planted as pure plantation under the crowns of shade trees, such as Indigofera teysmanii,
Cassia siamensis, Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria with an initial density of 1,000
trees/ha (3 x 3 m) [12] or 600 trees/ha [12] (Cambodia: 625 trees/ha [19]) (4 x 4 m) [12]. Direct sowing
under these trees is also possible if enough shade is provided. Seedlings develop best in association
with ectomycorrhizae of the genus Russula.
[4, 9, 12, 17]
[Management]: "Tending is carried out 7 successive years. 1st to 3rd year: (2x = before and after rainy
season) Weeding, breaking hard pan, liana cutting. 4th to 5th year: Shoot thinning, opening of canopy,
density regulation. In the dry season there must be a fire control. In year 7-10, thinning has to be
carried out leaving a final density of about 280-300 trees/ha (4 x 8 or 6 x 6 m)" [12].
[Resin harvesting]: "The technique for harvesting of the oleoresin from Dipterocarpus is similar
throughout SE-Asia and has not evolved much in the last 100 years. Tapping involves cutting a hole
in the stem with its base sloping down towards the center of the stem. This process is known as
'boxing'. Occasionally a scaffold is constructed to be able to reach above the buttresses of large trees.

D. alatus trees are only tapped when their diameter is over 50 cm, as smaller trees are not sufficiently
productive. The hole is usually triangular and may extend halfway through the stem. It is made on the
side of the trunk where the canopy has the largest concentration of branches and leaves. Boxing is
confined to the lower 2-3 m of the stem and a tree with a diameter of 75 cm usually has 2-3 holes.
Generally, the oleoresin starts to flow within an hour and collects inside the hole. It is removed once
every 7-8 days. After collection, the remaining hardened coat of oleoresin is set on fire to prevent
clogging and to stimulate further flow. The burning takes 20 seconds to 2 minutes, exceptionally up to
20 minutes. After the fire has been extinguished the burnt resin is scraped off the inner wall of the
hole and the oleoresin is left to flow again. When a hole becomes unproductive it is abandoned. The
use of ethrel instead of firing to stimulate oleoresin exudation has been investigated, but did not prove
to be much more efficient or less damaging to the tree. Tapping is done throughout the year, and
although the oleoresin flow is more abundant in the rainy season, the availability of labor then limits
harvesting frequency. Laotian tappers claim that D. alatus trees are productive for 50-80 years.
Tappers exert user rights over individual trees and these rights are inherited. Gregariously growing
trees usually have a single owner. Once the tapping of a tree is abandoned, the tapper loses his rights
over that tree. In Malaysia a refined technique has been developed which gives a somewhat better
product with a higher essential oil content. The 'bark chipping' method involves removing the outer
bark after which a strip of inner bark 2.5 wide is removed to expose the wood. This streak is about 1
6
m long and directed upward at an angle of 30º to the horizontal. An apron and gutter system is fixed
just below the streak and a cup is installed at its bottom. Sulphuric acid is sprayed on the exposed
wood. In 4 experimental trees a concentration of 10% proved best, giving a daily yield of 78-320 g. A
polythene sheet is fixed to cover the apron and gutter system and prevent rain and dirt from
contaminating the exuding oleoresin. Without the application of a stimulant, oleoresin production is
negligible. It is doubtful whether this technique will replace the traditional tapping technique, as it
involves much extra work for little extra gain" [17].
[Handling after harvest]: "In Peninsular Malaysia the harvested oleoresin of Dipterocarpus is filtered
by means of gunny sacks and flour sacks, which are firmly fixed to wooden frames. The essential oil
fraction drips through, while the more viscous fraction settles inside the sacks. During this process,
some of the essential oil evaporates and probably not all essential oil is separated from the resinous
fraction. Distillation with water gives a higher essential oil yield" [17].
[Yield]: The annual production of D. alatus trees in Laos is estimated at 22.5-31 l/tree
[11, 17].
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: D. alatus is a species with annual flowering and fruiting but produces
seed very irregularly, with a periodicity of 1-3 years or 1-6 years [9] depending on the location. Fruit
collection season is from March to April [12] when the fruits turn from green to dark green. Fruits can
be colleted right from the tree or after falling to the ground. However, they have to be colleted in time;
otherwise they will be rotten or destroyed by insects. After collection the fruit wings have to be
removed and they have to be immersed in warm water in about 5-6 h [12]. "The seed storage
behavior is intermediate, lowest safe moisture content is 17%, no seeds survive further drying out to
8% moisture content. At 12% moisture content, only 36% germination occurred after 939 days
hermetic storage at -18ºC compared to 80% viability before storage" [11].
[Seed Propagation]: There are 130-500 seeds/kg [11]. Seeds loose their germination ability quickly
(after 10-15 days germination rate can be reduced to 50% [12]), thus they must be washed clean and
sown right after collection. They are incubated by straw to sprout and then sown in PE pots (15-20 cm
[12]) with pot mixture of which 80-85% [12] is nursery soil and 15-20% decomposed farm yard manure
[12]. In nursery beds germination starts in about 10 days [4] (4-7 days at 25ºC [11]) and continues for
a month and the best germination success obtained is 27% [4]. The germination rate is higher in
shaded beds. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 300 seeds/kg.
Planting spacing: 4 x 4 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 625. Rate of loss: 750 (20% in planting
site), 834 (10% in transit), 1,043 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 50%. Purity: 90%. Total seed
requirement: 7.74 kg" [19].
[Vegetative Propagation]: The irregular production of seeds, and their recalcitrant nature, makes it
difficult to propagate the species sexually. In the 1980s, trees were easily propagated by aided natural
regeneration and artificial regeneration was not practiced at all [4]. Nowadays, however, vegetative
propagation is done by cuttings, air layering and tissue culture. Cuttings taken from coppice shoots
produced after hedging rooted successfully with 44.5% rooting [11] (>75% of rooted cuttings [12])
7
indicating the potential for mass production of rooted cuttings from hedge orchards for reforestation
purposes.
[4, 9, 11, 12, 19]

[Pests]: Known insect pests are Coryphothrips trochiceps and Gynaikothrips siamensis
[9]
[Diseases]: The cerambycid, Celosterna pollinosa sulphurea (Synonym: Cerosterna pollinosa

sulphurea) attacks the tree in Thailand. Celosterna scabrator (Synonym: Cerosterna scabrator) also
damages D. alatus. Other fungus diseases include Croton lucidum, Croton sublyratus, Fomes
albomarginatus and Ganoderma applanatum.
[9, 11]
[Others]: A susceptibility to fire and wind has been reported.
[6]
S. Conservation :
Deforestation and exploitation are a general threat to this species. Thus is has been classified as
endangered (EN A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [2, 7, 12, 18]) according to IUCN (International Union for the
Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees. "Due to seriously abused exploitation in
Vietnam, the ecosystems of this species are almost completely destroyed there. Before 1975 there

was the intention to replant 6,000 ha of D. alatus and D. cochichinensis but due to the war the
intention failed. After 1975 thousands of ha of D. alatus have been planted by state forest enterprises,
as industrial plantation, forest improvement, forest enrichment, agroforestry etc. Many models were
considered successful on large scale such as 300-1,200 ha of plantation" [12]. In Thailand it found
throughout its potential distribution range, with a number of individual trees, but slightly declining. The
estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on
Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) amounts to >10,000 threatened by
logging and >1,000 threatened by fire.
[2, 7, 8, 12, 18, 21]

[World distribution]
[Native]: Cambodia, Laos, E-India (Andaman Islands), N-Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines (Luzon),
Thailand, Vietnam
[11, 13]
8
[Introduced]:Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka
[4, 5, 10, 13]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Taxonomy]: "In 1993 it was discovered that D. alatus and D. philippinensis are conspecific (=of the
same species)" [10].
[Hybrids]: "Dipterocarpus alatus x D. costatus was recently reported from Khong Chiam Ubon
Ratchathani, where the hybrid D. costatus x D. obtusifolius is also known. It occurs in association with
Pinus merkusii in the transition zone between dry deciduous dipterocarp forest dominated by D.
obtusifolius and D. intricatus and dry evergreen dipterocarp forest dominated by D. costatus and D.
alatus. The leaf form and fruit characters including sizes and indumentum are intermediate. The
hybrid Dipterocarpus alatus x D. chartaceus has also been reported occurring by roadsides between
Songkhla and Ranote (Thailand), about 100-200 m behind the beach. The hairs on young twigs and
leaves with narrow keels on calyx tube are the same as in D. alatus, but the 3 smaller calyx lobes are
minute and hairless as in D. chartaceus" [2].
[Resin Production]: "Direct distillation at 255ºC of the oleoresin of D. alatus yields 70% reddish
essential oil and 30% resin. In the 1920s southern Vietnam produced about 1,000 t of oleoresin
annually, all obtained from D. alatus" [17].
[Timber trade]: "The price of round wood in 2003 in the world was about US$ 1,500-2,000/m³" [12].
[Toxicology]: "D. alatus dust causes boils" [11].

Ankarfjard R and Kegl M. 1998. Tapping oleoresin from Dipterocarpus alatus (Dipterocarpaceae) in a
Lao village. Economic Botany. 52(1): 7-14.
[11]
Aniwat C, 1989. Common forest tree diseases in Thailand. Thailand Journal of Forestry, 8:216-226.
[10]
Hans JW, Valeriano SB, 1982. Aspects of Management and Silviculture of Philippine Dipterocarp
Forests. Philippine-German Rain Forest Development Project, Schriftenreihe der GTZ No. 132, 17-34.
[10]
Linington IM, 1991. In vitro propagation of Dipterocarpus alatus and Dipterocarpus intricatus.. Plant
Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 27(1):81-88; 21 ref.
[10]
Namura J, 1986. Forest management in Bangladesh. Tropical Forestry, No. 7:29-35.
9
[10]
Ngampongsai C, Aksornkoae S, Tamanontha P, Sahunalu P, 1967. The Influence of Dipterocarpus

alatus Roxb. on Soil Properties. Research note. Bangkok, Thailand: Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University.
[10]
RAPA, 1985. Dipterocarps of South Asia. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAPA)
Monograph 4/85. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO.
[10]
Sabhasri S, Boonnitee A, 1967. Growth and Development of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. in Natural
Forest. Bangkok, Thailand: Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University.
[10]
Smitinand T, Santisuk T, 1981. Dipterocarpaceae of Thailand with special reference to silvicultural

ecology. Malaysian Forester, 44(2/3):377-385; 9 ref.
[10]
Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ, 1993. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees:
major commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees: major
commercial timbers., 610 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. PROSEA
NUGI 835.]; 817 ref.

[10]
Soonhuae P, Limpiyaprapant S, 1996. Rooting cutting of Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb. and Shorea
roxburghii Roxb. in nonmist propagators. Information note, ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre Project,
Muak-lek, Saraburi, Thailand.
[10]
Watanabe H, Sahunalu P and Khemnark C. 1988. Combinations of trees and crops in the taungya
method as applied in Thailand. Agroforestry Systems. 6(2): 169-177.
[11]
X. References:
Phnom Penh.
10
http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Dipterocarpus.htm (Internet
source)
[3] Dy Phon, 2000, Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia
[4] Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph
1985/4. Regional office for Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.
[7] Forest Herbarium (BKF) National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand –
http://www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)
[8] Sontara, S. (PNSA); Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

ROM).

(Internet source)
[13] ARCBC BISS Species Database: http://arcbc.org/cgi-bin/abiss.exe
Northern Thailand.
11
[17] PROSEA, 2001: Plant Resources of South East Asia 18 - Plant producing exudates.
[19] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh
[20] Rollet, B., 1979: The Vegetation of Cambdia. (Draft Translation into English by K. Panzer).
[21] FAO:
(Internet source)
[22] WWF Tropical Timbers - http://assets.panda.org/downloads/tropical_wood_images.pdf (Internet

source)
12
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.
C. Synonym ³ Dipterocarpus insula[1], Dipterocarpus insularis
Hance (1876) [6], Dipterocarpus artocarpifolius Pierre ex

Lanessan (1889) [6], Dipterocarpus parvifolius Heim (1903)
[6]
D. Other1 ³ keruing bukit (Malaysia) [6] - kanyin in, kanyin po,
kanyin-ywet-the (Myanmar) [6] - nha:ng dè:ng (Laos) [6] -

yang-pai, yang-khao, yang-kabueang (Thailand) [6] - d[aaf]u
m[is]t, d[aaf]u c[as]t (Vietnam) [6]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eQITalbgÁÜy

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhe tiel nieng daeng, chhe tiel angkuey, nieng
daeng kraham [1], chheuteal bangkuoy[7], cheuteal [8]
Other : Malvales
Family: Dipterocarpaceae[4]
Gunus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f.[6]
Species: Dipterocarpus costatus Gaertner f.
1
Source :[ 4,6]
[General]: It is a 25-40 m [1] tall tree with a straight trunk and a rather open and spherical crown. D.
costatus can reach a diameter of up to 160 cm [6].
[Bark]: The bark is pale brown and peeling in thin, rounded flakes.
[Leaves]: The leaves are 8-14 x 4-8 cm [2] and usually egg-shaped. They have slightly pointed tips
and blunt or slightly heart-shaped bases. The young leaves are covered with star-shaped hairs.
Mature leaves have scattered short hairs on veins and the lower surface. [Flowers]: The flowers are 2
cm long [2] and pale orange. They appear in short unbranched clusters of 3-6 flowers [2] at axils of
young leaves.
[Fruit]: The fruit (=nut) has two long wings with a length of 8-12 cm [2]. The body of the fruit is 1.2-1.5
cm long [2]. Young fruits are bright red.
[1, 2, 6]
I. Wood properties:
The density of the wood is 0.74-0.97g/cm³ [6] at 15% moisture content. It is not durable if exposed to
the weather.
[4, 6]

Dipterocarpus costatus is a species of the Indochinese and Malay Peninsula, which is often found

together with D. turbinatus, although it is rather confined to higher altitudes. It grows in mixed dense
deciduous or half- deciduous primary forests of the plains and wet dense hillforests.
[1, 4]

This tree thrives in an elevation of 0-1,200 m a.s.l. [5]. A tropical monsoon climate with a mean annual
rainfall of 2,500-4,500 mm [5] and dry season of 0-4 months [10] is suited best. However, the optimal
annual rainfall is between 2,800 and 3,500 mm [5]. The optimal temperature ranges from 21°C to
31°C [5]. The lowest temperature is 10°C [5] and the highest temperature is 38°C [5].
[5, 10]


D. costatus grows on well drained medium fertile to rich soils with a heavy to medium soil texture. This
tree is adapted to a soil pH that ranges from 5 to 6 [5]. Only a low soil salinity of <4 dS/m[5] is
tolerated.
2
[1, 5]

[Wood]: The timber is used in construction and ship building, but is not durable if exposed to the
elements. It is also used for charcoal.
[1, 4, 5]
[Non-wood]: A valuable oleo-resin (=wood-oil) is collected from the tree which is used in the paint
industry, for the caulking of boats, the preparation of torches and in traditional medicine for treating
ulcers.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6]

Second class [8]

[General]: Dipterocarpus costatus grows together with D. turbinatus in mixed dense deciduous or half-
deciduous primary forests of the plains and wet dense hill forests.
[Natural Regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years
under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the
seedlings are well established (about 120 m tall) the canopy can be opened up, to speed up growth.
Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [9].
[Establishment]: When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia
auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria.
[Management]: No information available.
[1, 4, 9]
Q. Propagation :
Natural regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting.
[9]

[Diseases]: No information available.
3
S. Conservation :
It has been classified as endangered ('EN' [4]) according to IUCN (International Union for the
Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook').
[4]

[Native]: Bangladesh, Myanmar, India (Andaman Islands), Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and N-
Malaysia
[4, 6]
[Introduced]: Apparently this species has not been introduced outside its natural range of distribution.
[10]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Hybrids]: "A natural hybrid between D. costatus and D. obtusifolius has been observed in Thailand
and Myanmar, and between D. costatus and D. gracilis in Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia"[6].
Foxworthy, F.W., 1932. Dipterocarpaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forest Records No 10.
Printers Limited, Singapore. 289 pp.

[6]
Burkill, I.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. 2nd edition. Ministry
of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240. Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444.
[6]
X. References:
Northern Thailand.
[4]ARCBC BISS species database http://arcbc.org/cgi-

4
Phnom Penh.

5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre
C. Synonym ³ No synonym available.
D. Other1 ³ keruing etoi, keruing daun besar (Malaysia) [1] - kanyin thi
(Myanmar) [1] - yang-klong, yang-man-mu, yang-sian, yang

yung, yung, yung dam (Thailand) [1, 2] - d[aaf]u song n[af]ng
(Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eQITalQ¶

Source: [5]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhë: ti:ël chngâ:(r), chhë: ti:ël pruhs, chngâ:(r). [1], royieng,
chhe tiel pruhs, chhe tiel th’ngor [3], cheuteal chngo [4],
chhoeuteal chhngar [9]
Other : Malvales
Genus: Dipterocarpus Gaertner f.
Species: Dipterocarpus dyeri Pierre
Source :[ 1]
1
[General]: A medium-sized to large semi-deciduous tree of up to 40 m [1] tall (30-40 m [3, 6]). "It is
one of the biggest tree species in S-Vietnam" [6]. The bole is cylindrical, straight and branchless for
up to 25 m [1] with low buttresses and a maximum DBH of 125 cm [1] (150 cm and more [6]). Young
twigs are almost hairless, while older twigs are red brown with a ring of stipule-scars and covered with
grey, reddish or brown hairs. The buds are egg- to spear-shaped and covered with velvety brownish
hair.
[Bark]: The bark surface is pale grey or blackish-brown, rough and flakes off into small pieces. The
inner bark is yellowish-brown to brown red and 6-10 mm [6] thick.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, narrowly egg-shaped to elliptical, 16-40 x 7.5-14 cm [1] in size (13-
45 x 8-20 cm [2], 5-25 cm long or more [6]) with a 5 mm long [1] pointed tip and a blunt, wedge-
shaped or heart-shaped base. Young leaves are covered with dense hair, especially on veins on
lower surface. Mature leaves, however, are hairless on the upper surface. The secondary veins are in
pairs of 24-30 [1] (20-30 [2], 18-31 [6]), ascending and obvious beneath. The leaf stalk is 4-6 cm long
[1] (3-8 cm [2], 4-8 cm [6]) with spear-shaped stipules 15-20 x 2-4 cm in size, red inside and hairy
outside.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=simple raceme) is hairy, 10-18 cm long [6] (10-20 cm [2]) with 6-8
flowers [6]. The outer flower-leaves (=sepals) form an ellipsoid and hairless tube, 1.7 cm long [6] with
5 narrow ridges [1] running from the apex along 2/3 of the length of the tube. The inner flower leaves
(=petals) are pink and hairless, 5 cm long [6]. The flower contains 30 stamens [1, 6]. The flower buds
elongate for 4-5 cm [2]. Flowering season is all year around from January to December [2] (June-
August [6])

[Fruits]: Fruits also mature during the whole year from January to December [2] (July-December [6]).
The hairy fruit (=nut) is pointed, oblong or more or less conical with a size of 4 x 2.8 cm. It has 5 fruit
wings, 2 larger ones up to 20 x 5.5 cm [1] (18-25 x 3.5-4 cm [2], 20-23 cm x 3-4 cm [6]) with 3
principal veins and 3 shorter ones up to 1.5 x 0.6 cm [1] (1.5-2 x 0.5 cm [2]).
[1, 2, 3, 6]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is rather thick, the
heartwood is brownish red, hard and heavy with a density of 0.63-0.83 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content
[1] (0.8 g/cm³ [6]) and easy to work.
[1, 6]

D. dyeri is a widespread but scattered species occurring from lower Myanmar (Mergui) to Indochina
except Laos and North Vietnam and to Northwest Peninsular Malaysia (Perlis and north Kedah). It
grows in semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest and Schima-bamboo forest, often in gallery forests along
streams, on swamp edges or in narrow valleys at low elevation. It can also be found in moist
evergreen forests where it is present in the highest storey of the forest, sometimes sparsely or
2
gregariously as a dominant stand. In Cambodia it is found in semi-deciduous forest with
Lagerstroemia, Peltophorum, Cratoxylon, Anogeissus and Irvingia as the most frequent species. In
closed evergreen forest it is associated with Parinarium annamense, Vatica sp., Shorea hypochra,
Dipterocarpus intricatus, Diospyros helferi, Sindora cochinchinensis, Peltophorum dasyrachis, Grewia
paniculata, Spondias spp., Cratoxylon, Payena elliptica, Memecylon laevigatum, Murraya exotica,
Caryoa urens and Corypha lecomtei.
[1, 2, 3, 6, 9]

It occurs in altitudes below 800 m a.s.l. [6] (under 500 m [2]). D. dyeri grows in tropical monsoon
climate with a distinct dry season. It is a light demanding tree but shade tolerant, when young.
[2, 6]


Dipterocarpus dyeri thrives well on grey soils and stony brown soils in depressions which may not be
well drained during the rainy season.
[9]
[Wood]: The timber is used and traded as 'keruing', however is less valuable than that of Shorea
roxburghii and Hopea odorata, but its volume is higher" [6]. It is commonly used for house
construction, boat- and furniture making.
[1, 3, 6]
[Non-wood]: It is possible to exploit the wood oil which is mostly used for the preparation of traditional
torches.
[1, 3, 6]

2nd class [4]

[General]: Dipterocarpus dyeri grows in semi-evergreen dipterocarp forest and Schima-bamboo
forest, often in gallery forests along streams, on swamp edges or in narrow valleys at low elevation. It
can also be found in moist evergreen forests where it is present in the highest storey of the forest,
sometimes sparsely or gregariously as a dominant stand. In Cambodia it is found in semi-deciduous
forest with Lagerstroemia, Peltophorum, Cratoxylon, Anogeissus and Irvingia as the most frequent
3
species. In closed evergreen forest it is associated with Parinarium annamense, Vatica sp., Shorea
hypochra, Dipterocarpus intricatus, Diospyros helferi, Sindora cochinchinensis, Peltophorum
dasyrachis, Grewia paniculata, Spondias spp., Cratoxylon, Payena elliptica, Memecylon laevigatum,
Murraya exotica, Caryoa urens and Corypha lecomtei.
[1, 2, 3, 6, 9]
[Natural Regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years
under heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the
Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [8]. Natural regeneration is good especially
under a forest crown cover of about 0.3-0.4 [6].
[6, 8]
[Establishment]: When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia
auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria.
[8]
Q. Propagation :
Until now propagation is mostly restricted to natural regeneration. Planting of seedlings is also a
practiced method.
[6, 8]

S. Conservation :
It is widespread but fragmented through its potential distribution range with small numbers of
individual trees. "The number of recent and past collections are comparable" [2]. It has been classified
as critically endangered (CR A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [2], "A1a should also be included" [2]) according to
IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN
Red Databook'). "At present this species is an important object for exploitation in many forests of S-
Vietnam" [6].
[2, 6]
4
[Native]:
Cambodia, Laos [6] (not occurring in Laos [2]) Malaysia (Peninsular), Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam.
[1, 2, 6, 7]
[Introduced]: Apparently this species has not been grown outside its natural distribution.
[10]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[1]
Choo, K.T. & Sim, H.C., 1981. Malaysian timbers - keruing. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet
No 48. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 18 pp.
[1]
Daljeet-Singh, K., 1974. Seed pests of some dipterocarps. Malaysian Forester 37: 24-36.
[1]
Flore du Cambodge du Laos et du Viêtnam (various editors), 1960-. Muséum National d'Histoire
Naturelle, Paris.
[1]
Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251 pp.
[1]
Smitinand, T., Santisuk, T. & Phengklai, C., 1980. The manual of Dipterocarpaceae of mainland
South-East Asia. Thai Forestry Bulletin 12: 1-110.
[1]
5
Symington, C.F., 1941. Foresters' manual of dipterocarps. Malayan Forest Records No 16. Forest
Department, Kuala Lumpur. pp. xliii + 244.
[1]
van Steenis, C.G.G.J. & de Wilde, W.J.J.O. (Editors), 1950-. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston, London.
[1]
Wong, W.C. & Ong, C.L., 1986. Particleboard from oily keruing. Malaysian Forester 49: 65-71.
[1]
X. References:

source)

Phnom Penh.
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer
C. Synonym ³ No synonym available.
D. Other1 ³ may sa beng (Trade name) [4] - krat, hiang krat, chik, cha
baeng, tabaeng, hiang khon, sat, tat (Thailand) [1] - dau trai,
dau long (Vietnam) [4]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: Rtac

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krai, trai [1], trach, trach sa, trach snaeng, trach sra [2]
Other : Malvales
Species: Dipterocarpus intricatus Dyer
Source :[ 1]
[General]: A large deciduous tree, 20-30 m high [4] (15-30 m [2]) and 60-80 cm in DBH. Twigs and
buds are covered with many star-shaped grey yellow to brown hairs.
[Bark]: The bark surface is grey brown or dark brown and longitudinally splitted into pieces. The inner
bark is orange pink, 8-10 mm [4] thick or more.
1
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, alternate and egg-shaped to oblong with a wedge-shaped base and
a blunt leaftip, 10-30 x 8-14 cm [4] in size and hairy on both surfaces but especially on the lower
surface. The secondary veins occur in 14 (-21) pairs [4] (10-15 pairs [1]. Leafstalks are 3-4.5 cm long
[4] with protecting buds. The stipules are 3 cm long [4]. Dipterocarpus intricatus loses its leaves for
only a few days every year. Old leaves fall in the end of December, young leaves appear in the
beginning of January [4].
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=raceme) is 16-18 cm long [4], often branched in 2-4, each branch
consisting of 6-8 flowers [4], arranged in 2 rows with stalk-less flower at the place where the branches
divide. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused into a 5 lobed hairless tube, with the longest lobe
14 mm long [4], the other smaller lobes 2-3 mm long [4]. The outer flower leaves (=petals) are red, 3
cm long [4] and sickle-shaped. The flower contains 30 stamens [4]. Flowering starts in January [4]
(January-December [1]).
[Fruits]: Fruiting occurs from March to April [4] (January-November [1]). The fruit is opposite egg-
shaped, red when young and brown when mature, 2 x 1-1.5 cm [1] (1.5 cm long [4]). The fruit wings
are spirally folded, 5 winded, with two large wings 6-7 x 1.5 cm [1] (8-11 cm long [4]) with 3-5 basal
veins. The 3 shorter wings are approximately 1 x 0.5 cm [1] and curled back.
[1, 2, 4, 7]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is reddish and thin, the
heartwood is red brown to dark red with a coarse texture and is heavy with a density of 0.66-0.93
g/cm³. It is durable and resistant to termites and insects.

[2, 4]

Dipterocarpus intricatus is a native species of the Indochine Peninsula where it is commonly found in
open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests and periodically flooded plain forests mixed with other
dipterocarps or in pure stands. "In Thailand, it is fairly common in open deciduous dipterocarp forest
in the northeast. It is also found in the transition zone between dry evergreen and deciduous
dipterocarp forests with Pinus merkusii" [1]. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other
dipterocarps, in dense forests or secondary forests where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant.
There it is associated with Calophyllum spp., Payena elliptica, Carallia lucida, Eugenia zeylanica,
Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Anisoptera spp., Shorea cochinchinensis,
Shorea cf. hypochra, Parinarium annamense, Irvingia oliveri, Sindora cochinchinensis, Fragraea
fragrans and Melanorrhoea laccifera. It is one of the dominant species in Cambodian open dry
dipterocarp forest stands. There it grows with Capparis, Randia tomentosa, Memecylon laevigatum,
Memecylon edule, Buchanania, Intsia, Irvingia oliveri, Cratoxylon spp., Terminalia mucronata,
Pterocarpus pedatus, Dalbergia oliveri, Albizzia lebeck, Eugenia spp., Shorea cochinchinensis,
Ochrocarpus spp., Azadirachta indica, Parinarium annamense, and Gardenia spp. In degraded dense
deciduous forest it grows with Xylia, Schleichera, Andina, Spondias, Ceiba, Vitex, Hymenodyclion,
2
Sterculia colorata, Milletia erythrocalyx, Strychnos, Schrebera, Holarrhena antidysenteria and species
of the open forest like Cycas siamensis, Shorea obtusa, Careya, Arundinaria falcata, Buchanania
latifolia, Terminalia bialata, Terminalia tomentosa, Aporosa (Krung), Phoenix humilis and common
elements of secondary forests such as Combretum quadrangulare, Cratoxylon, Zizyphus,
Cochlospermum, Streblus asper and Oroxylum. In closed moist evergreen forests it grows with
Shorea cochinchinensis and Eugenia spp. It can also be found in degraded open forest (shrub
savanna).
[1, 2, 4, 7]

D. intricatus is mostly found in plains but also in hilly areas up to 500 m [2] (up to 400 m altitude [1],
from 50-700 m [4], also below 50 m [7]). A tropical monsoon climate with a distinct dry season of 3-6
months [8] is suited best.
[1, 2, 4, 7, 8]


Generally it grows on ferrallitic or sandy soils. "In the Prek Te region (Cambodia) it grows on soils
which are sandy and easily friable (=easily breaking down into crumbs, like old bread). Their color is
white to greyish on the surface, yellowish at 20 cm depth, becoming more and more solid with depth,
more humid and loamy with traces of iron below 50 cm depth and lateritic concretions (= hard pieces
of Al-Fe oxides). The parent (=underlying) rock, sometimes reaching the surface, consists of siliceous
(=containing silicon) sandstone. Termite mounds are rare" [7].
[4, 7]

[Wood]: The wood is appreciated for the construction of carts and houses.
[2, 4]
[Non-wood]: The grey brown resin is collected from the tree and used in the same way as the one of
Dipterocarpus alatus (see chapter 'Utilization and Importance' in the datasheet of Dipterocarpus
alatus). It is mainly used for the preparation of torches.
[2, 4]

nd
2 class [3]
3
[General]: Dipterocarpus intricatus is is commonly found in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests
and periodically flooded plain forests mixed with other dipterocarps or in pure stands. In Cambodia it
occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or secondary forests where Pinus
merkusii is more or less abundant. It is one of the dominant species in Cambodian open dry
dipterocarp forest stands and in degraded dense deciduous forests but also in degraded open forest
(shrub savanna). In closed moist evergreen forests it grows with Shorea cochinchinensis and Eugenia
spp.
[1, 2, 4, 7]
[Natural regeneration]: "Dipterocarpus seedlings and saplings can persist in the forest for years under
heavy shade. In the first 2 years, major openings in the canopy are not tolerated, but after the
Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [6] .
[Establishment]: "When the seedlings are planted in open areas shade trees are used, such as Acacia
auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria" [6].
Q. Propagation :
Natural and coppice regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting.
[4, 6]


S. Conservation :
This species has not yet been classified according to the IUCN (International Union for the
Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, its status
is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). Although it is confined to the northeast of
Thailand and Indochina, it is common throughout its potential distribution.
[1]
4
[Native]: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia.
[4, 5]
[8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Hybrids]: "Dipterocarpus intricatus x D. tuberculatus was collected in Sakaerat, Nakhon Ratchasima
(Thailand). It is characterised by intermediate characters of the fruit." [1]
X. References:
source)
Phnom Penh.
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm. ex Miq
C. Synonym ³ Dipterocarpus vestitus Wallich ex Dyer (1874), Dipterocarpus

punctulatus Pierre (1889) [1]
D. Other1 ³ keruing (Trade name) [1], keruing beludu, atoi (Malaysia) [1]
- in bo, in byu, in hmwe sok, kung (Myanmar) [1, 2] - (maiz)

s'a:d (Laos) [1] - yang-hiang, krat, ko satiang, hiang, sat, sa
baeng, ta baeng [1, 2] (Thailand) - d[aaf]u tr[af] beng
(Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: Et,g

Source: [4]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ (daëm) thbaèng, thbaèng, ba:y sra:, thbaèng snaèng [1, 3]
Other : Malvales
Species: Dipterocarpus obtusifolius Teijsm.
ex Miq.
Source :[ 1]
1
[General]: A medium-sized to large deciduous tree of up to 30 m tall [1] (25-30 m [5], 10-15 m [3], -28
m [6]). The trunk is cylindrical, straight [5] (often of poor form [1]), up to 20 m long [1] with a maximum
DBH of 80 cm [1] (50-80 cm [5]). The crown is of bronze-green color, open and spreading. Twigs are
rather gross, slightly flat and covered with long hairs. Buds are spearshaped, covered by pale brown
hairs or sometimes hairless.
[Bark]: The outer bark is rough, grey, greyish brown to dark grey, deeply cracked and longitudinally
splitted. The inner bark is reddish brown or reddish.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, alternate, leathery elliptical to broadly egg-shaped, blunt or rounded
at both ends, 15-30 x 10-18 cm [6] (14-22 cm x 10-16 cm [1], 9-15 cm long [5]). The margin is hairy
with small teeth. Upper surface hairless, only hairy with star shaped hairs on the midrib when mature,
the lower surface is hairy with star-shaped hairs beneath. The leaf-blade has 10-18 pairs of side veins
[6] (14-20 pairs [1], 10-15 pairs [5]). The leaf stalks are 2.5-4 cm long [1, 6] (3-5 cm [5]), flat and gross
with 7-12 mm [6] long stipules which are hairy and bright pink.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=spike) is axillary and consists short unbranched clusters of 5-6 inferior
flowers [5] (3-7 flowers [6]) with short stalks. Flowers are 3.5-5 cm long [6] with 1.4 cm long [6] outer
flowerleaves (=sepals) which are fused together into a hairy tube. Each flower contains 30 stamens
[1] (=male organs). Flowering season is all year round from January-December [2] (only January-May
[5])
[Fruits]: The fruits also mature during the whole year from January-December [2] (only April-August
[5]). The fruit (=nut) is globe shaped and smooth, 2.5-3 cm in diameter [5] (2.5-3.5 cm [6]), slightly
enlarged at the base, with star shaped hairs and 2 larger and 3 smaller wings. The larger wings have

a size of 15 cm x 3 cm [1] (8-15 x 1.5-4 cm [2], 10-14 x 2.3 cm [6]) and are curved sharply down at the
margin. The 3 shorter ones are up to 15 mm x 10 mm [1] in size (1.5-2 x 1-1.5 cm [2], less than than 1
cm [6]).
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive with a brownish sapwood and a light red
or brownish red heartwood with rather gross grains. The wood is hard and heavy with a density of
0.71-0.9 g/cm³ [1, 5] at 15% moisture content. It polishes well, but is difficult to work, splits easily and
is not durable in the open. It dries best under a roof cover.
[1, 3, 5, 7]
D. obtusifolius is a characteristic and frequently gregarious tree of the Indo-Burmese and Indochinese
region. Generally it occurs in open deciduous dry dipterocarp forests, bamboo forests and degraded
forests where it forms an dominant element of the stand. However, it only occurs sparsely on
extremely degraded sites. In Thailand it is locally common in coastal lowland deciduous dipterocarp
forest in the peninsula, fairly common all over the northeast in lowland deciduous forest, and
2
submontane pine forest and deciduous dipterocarp forest in the north. In Vietnam it forms an
important component of dry diptercarp forest (deciduous open forest). There it is often mixed with
Dipterocarpus intricatus, Dipterocarpus turbinatus and Shorea obtusa. "At high elevations in Lam
Dong (Vietnam) it is mixed with Pinus keysia and Pinus merkusii and some species of the Fagaceae
family" [5]. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or
secondary forest where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant. There it is associated with
Calophyllum sp., Payena elliptica, Carallia lucida, Eugenia zeylanica, Dipterocarpus intricatus,
Anisoptera sp., Shorea cochinchinensis, Shorea cf. hypochra, Parinarium annamense, Irvingia oliveri,
Sindora cochinchinensis, Fragraea fragrans and Melanorrhoea laccifera. It also grows in pine forests
on sandstone plateaus together with Pinus merkusii, Careya arborea, Melanorrhoea laccifera,
Dillenia, Randia tomentosa, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Tristania birmanica, Symplocos, Engelhardtia
serrata, Lithocarpus and Erythroxylon. In degraded open forests (shrub savannas) it grows together
with Melanorrhea, Fragraea, Calophyllum, Irvingia, Anneslea, Tristania birmanica and Aporosa.
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7]

D. obtusifolius is a tree of the lowlands to submontane regions with an elevation of up to 1,200 m a.s.l.
[3] (100-1,300 m [5]). A tropical monsoon climate with a dry season of 3-6 months [10] is suited best.
It is a light demanding tree when mature, very resistant to forest fire and very drought tolerant.
[3, 5, 6, 10]


Sandy or grey slightly acidic soils, which are sometimes inundated in the rainy season, are suitable for
this species.
[5, 9]
[Wood]: The timber is used and traded as 'keruing'. It is demanded for light construction [3] (general
construction [7]), bridge construction [5], furniture making and for plywood.
[1, 3, 5, 7]
[Non-wood]: The resin of the trunk is used to make torches. However, resin from the bark has a low
productivity and hardens rapidly. The young cut stalks, give sufficient drinking water to quench a
traveler. The leaves are used to wrap food or roll cigarettes.
[3, 5, 7]
3
2nd class [4]

[General]: Generally D. obtusifolius occurs in open deciduous dry dipterocarp forests, bamboo forests
and degraded forests where it forms an dominant element of the stand. However, it only occurs
sparsely ono extremely degraded sites. In Thailand it is locally common in coastal lowland deciduous
dipterocarp forest in the peninsula, fairly common all over the northeast in lowland deciduous forest,
and submontane pine forest and deciduous dipterocarp forest in the north. In Vietnam it forms an
important component of dry diptercarp forest (deciduous open forest). There it is often mixed with
Dipterocarpus intricatus, Dipterocarpus turbinatus and Shorea obtusa. "At high elevations in Lam
Dong (Vietnam) it is mixed with Pinus keysia and Pinus merkusii and some species of the Fagaceae
family" [5]. In Cambodia it occurs in open forests with other dipterocarps, in dense forests or
secondary forest where Pinus merkusii is more or less abundant. It also grows in pine forest on
sandstone plateaus together with Pinus merkusii. It is also foung in degraded open forests (shrub
savannas).
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7]

Q. Propagation :
Natural and coppice regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting.
[5, 8]
S. Conservation :
is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc).
[2]
4

[Native]:
Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia (Peninsular), India, Myanmar (Pegu, Hantawaddy,
Tavoy, Thaung Yin, Tenasserim).
[1, 2, 5, 7]
[Introduced]: Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia (Borneo)
[1]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Hybrids and Varieties]: "A natural hybrid between D. obtusifolius and D. costatus has been observed
in Thailand and Myanmar. In Indo-China a hairless form is distinguished and called var. subnudus
Ryan & Kerr." [1].
[1]
Choo, K.T. & Sim, H.C., 1981. Malaysian timbers - keruing. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet
No 48. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 18 pp.
[1]
Daljeet-Singh, K., 1974. Seed pests of some dipterocarps. Malaysian Forester 37: 24-36.
[1]
Naturelle, Paris.
[1]
[1]
5
[1]
[1]
[1]
Wong, W.C. & Ong, C.L., 1986. Particleboard from oily keruing. Malaysian Forester 49: 65-71.
[1]
X. References:

source)
Phnom Penh.
Northern Thailand.
(Internet source)
6

7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.
C. Synonym ³ Dipterocarpus grandifolius Teym., Dipterocarpus cordatus

[1], Dipterocarpus cordata Wall [4]
D. Other1 ³ phluang, tueng, kung, khuang, mai-tueng (Thailand) [1] –
mai-tueng (Myanmar) [1] - dau dong (Vietnam) [4]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: xøúg

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khlong [1], khlong kraham, khlong sa [2]
Other : Malvales
Species: Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.
Source :[ 1]
[General]: A deciduous medium- or large-sized tree up to 15-25 m in height [2, 5, 8] (-30 m on good
soil [4]). The stem is straight sometimes gnarled, cylindrical, short, stout and reaches a DBH of 40-60
cm [4]. On good soils the stem form is very good. The crown is mostly large and thin with twisted
branches and rough, reddish violet and hairy twigs which bear buds with golden brown tufted hairs.
1
[Bark]: The outer bark is dark grey, deeply longitudinally fissured and usually flaked off into thick, hard
pieces.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, spiral and very large, especially on the shoots and seedlings, 20-50
x 18-34 cm [4] (12-70 x 10-50 cm [1], 30-45 x 12-35 cm [5]), egg-shaped to elliptical, with a blunt leaf
tip or ending in a sharp tip. The leaf base is heart shaped, with a margin of small teeth on old leaves
and 9-16 pairs of secondary veins [4] which are prominent on the lower surface, with closely arranged
venules. Leafstalks are gross, flat and 5-7.5 cm long [4] (3.5-12 cm [1]) with bright pink 7-10 cm long
[4] stipules.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=raceme) consists of clusters with 6-8 [4, 5] non stalked flowers. The
flowers are 2.5-3 cm long [4, 5], pale pink violet, with 28-30 stamens [5]. The inner flower leaves
(=petals) are often darker and red violet on one side. Flowering season is in December [4] (February-
July [1])
[Fruits]: Fruits mature from September to May [4] (March-December [1]). The fruit (=nut) is globe-
shaped to egg-shaped, 2-3 cm long [4] ( 2-2.5 cm in diameter [1]), hairless or often star-shaped hairy,
with 5 lateral ribs at the upper part. The 2 larger fruit wings are 9-15 x 2.5-4 cm in size [1] (9-16 cm
long [4], up to 20 cm long [5]) with 3-5 main veins [5] (3 veins [4]) reaching 3/4 the length of the wing.
The 3 shorter lobes are very flat, 1.5-2 x 1.5 cm in size [1] and curved sharply down at the margin.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 8]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Sap- and heartwood are distinctive with a grey color and a red brown color
respectively. The heartwood is darkening in the open air, rather heavy with a density of 0.9 g/cm³. It is

very durable if protected from rain and sunlight [4] (The wood is resistant to bad weather [2]. It is fairly
durable [6]). Generally it is easy to work but difficult to polish.
[2, 4, 6]

D. tuberculatus is an Indo-Burmese and Indochinese tree species which is commonly growing in open
dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, developing pure stands or mixed with Dipterocarpus obtusifolius
and Dipterocarpus intricatus ("It is nearly certain that Dipterocarpus tuberculatus can be found
nowhere else than in the mixed savanna forests" [9]. ) "In Thailand, throughout the country, except in
the peninsula and southeast it is confined to open deciduous dipterocarp forest to deciduous
dipterocarp pine-oak forest" [1]. It is "the most abundant tree in Chiang Mai Province (Thailand), often
growing in large numbers on very degraded, fire damaged sites sometimes with Pinus merkusii" [5]. In
Cambodia it is found in mixed open forest, where it dominates the stand with Shorea obtusa and
Terminalia tomentosa.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9]
2
This tree grows from the lowlands to submontane regions with an elevation of up to 200-800 m a.s.l.
[4] (800-1,000 m [2, 8]). A tropical monsoon climate with a dry season of 3-6 months [11] is suited
best. It is a light demanding tree when mature, and resistant to forest fire and very drought tolerant.
[2, 4, 8]


D. tuberculatus is occurring on various soil types, but commonly on sandy soil. On deep and fertile
soil it grows very well. It is also found on acidic lateritic soils.
[4, 9]

[Wood]: The wood is used in general construction, to make beams, boards, for manufacturing boats
and for furniture making.
[2, 4, 6, 8]
[Non-wood]: Resin extracted from the tree can be burnt for lighting or blended with paints. The resin is
also used in traditional medicine where it is mixed with Feaula assafoetida Linn. and coconut oil as an
application for large ulcers. Large mature leaves of young trees are used for thatching roofs. The
leaves are not flammable or susceptible to insects and can last for up to three years.
[2, 4, 6, 8]

nd
2 class [3]

[General]: D. tuberculatus is commonly growing in open dry deciduous dipterocarp forests developing
pure stands or mixed with Dipterocarpus obtusifolius and Dipterocarpus intricatus ("It is nearly certain
that Dipterocarpus tuberculatus can be found nowhere else than in the mixed savanna forests" [9]. )
"In Thailand, throughout the country, except in the peninsula and southeast it is confined to open
deciduous dipterocarp forest to deciduous dipterocarp pine-oak forest" [1]. It is "the most abundand
tree in Chiang Mai Province (Thailand), often growing in large numbers on very degraded, fire
damaged sites sometimes with Pinus merkusii" [5]. In Cambodia it is found in mixed open forest,
where it dominates the stand with Shorea obtusa and Terminalia tomentosa.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9]
3
Q. Propagation :
Natural regeneration is good. Seedlings are also used for planting.
[7]

[Pests]: The leaves are not susceptible to insects.
[8]
S. Conservation :
is suggested as a species 'near threatened' (LR nt [1]). It has fewer individual trees than other

common deciduous dipterocarps, though found throughout its potential distribution range. The
estimated number of individuals threatened in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on
Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) are more than 10,000 trees threatened
by logging and more than 500 threatened by fire.
[1, 10]

World Distribution]:
[Native]: Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar
[1, 4, 6]
[Introduced]: India (Manipur), Bangladesh (Chittagong)
[1]
4
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Hybrids]: "According to Pooma (2002), there are two forms of hybridization: Pooma et al. 3387 (BKF),
the leaves are typical Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, but with intermediate fruit form; and Wongprasert 22
(BKF), the leaves are typical D. tuberculatus but with pubescent calyx and petioles as in D.
obtusifolius" [1].
X. References:
source)
Phnom Penh.
Northern Thailand.
[10] FAO:
(Internet source)
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn]
Datasheet Report
[Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F. Gaertn
B. English name (s) ³ common gurjun tree, wood oil tree of Assam [8]
C. Synonym ³ Dipterocarpus laevis Buch.-Ham., Dipterocarpus jourdainii
Pierre [1, 2], Dipterocarpus andamanicus (King) P. K. Tewary

& A. K. Sarkar [8]
D. Other1 ³ garjan, gurjan (Trade name) [8] - yang daeng, yang bai
lueam, yang nu, yang khaeng (Thailand) [1] - dau conquay,

dau la bong (Vietnam) [4] - kali garjan, telia garjan
(Bangladesh) [8] - gurjun kuroil sal, kherjong, kuroil sal,
shweta garjan, teli-gurjun (India) [8] - kan yin (Myanmar) [8]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eQITaleRbg

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chhe tiel dang [2], cheuteal preng [3]
Other : Malvales
Species: Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F.
Gaertn.
1
Subspecies: Dipterocarpus turbinatus var.
andamanica King, Dipterocarpus turbinatus
var. turbinatus
Source :[ 1,8]
[General]: D. turbinatus is a very large deciduous tree reaching a height of 35-50 m [4, 6] (30-45 m
[2]). The trunk is long, straight, clean, cylindrical, self pruning and mostly clear of branches for more
than 70% of the total height [8]. This species reaches a DBH of at least 170 cm [8] and sometimes
even up to 460 cm [8] (200 cm [4]). It is easily mistaken for D. costatus but is has a denser, less
spreading crown, young branchlets with stipule scars and a thinner bark. Buds are tufted with pale
brown hairs.
[Bark]: The outer bark is light grey, hard, rough, fibrous, fissured longitudinally and peeling off in
irregular fragments. The inner bark is yellowish brown, fairly thin, sparsely hairy when young and later
hairless.
[Leaves]: D. turbinatus is characteristically distinguishable from other dipterocarps by its smooth

glossy leaves, which become dark coppery brown when dried. Leaves are simple, alternate (17-36) x
5.5 x 20 cm [8] (13-20 x 6-10 cm [4], 17-24 x 9-12 cm [5]), spear-shaped, oval or elliptical. The side
veins are distinct with 14-24 pairs [8] (12-17 pairs [1], 14-18 pairs [5]) and hairless on both surfaces.
The leafstalk is 2.5-4.0 cm in length [8] (3 cm [4], 2.5-3.5 cm [5]), with caducous (= easily falling)
stipules 1.5-9 cm in length [8] (or even as long as 12 cm [8]), densely greyish. The older leaves are

shed in the dry season (in March [8]) and young leaves grow in spring [4].
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=lax raceme) is 3-5 flowered [4] and develops from the axils of fallen
leaves. The whole flower is 2.5-3.5 cm long [5] (3.0-3.5 cm [8]) usually on older twigs behind the
leaves. The 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fused into a cylindrical tube without ridges, which is 1
cm long [4]. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) are linear, white, pink or pinkish red. Each flower
contains 30 stamens (=male organs) [4] and an ovary (=female organ) with velvet-like hair except on
the top. Flowers appear from March-April [8] (Thailand: February-December [1]).
[Fruits]: "Fruits tend to ripen approximately from late April to May in Bangladesh and May-June in
upper Myanmar. In May-June fruit-fall occurs as the rains begin. Fruiting may be irregular in certain
localities, and good seed-years often occur on alternate years" [8] (Fruiting in Thailand: February-
December [1], in Vietnam: Fruiting in April at the beginning of the dry season [4]). The fruit (=nut) is
spindle-shaped and smooth, 3 cm x 1.5 cm [4] (2.5-3 x 2 cm [1], 2-3 cm in diameter [8]). This species
differs from other Dipterocarpus spp. due to the absence of ridges and hairs on the fruit. The 2 larger
fruit wings are 10-15 x 2-3.5 cm [1] in size (9 x 2 cm [4], 11-18 x 2.5-4.0 cm [8]) with 3 main veins,
usually without hairs; two of them are shorter than the others. 3 shorter fruit wings have a size of 0.6-
0.8 x 0.5 cm [1] and are curved sharply down at the margin. Each fruit contains one seed and the fruit
coat strongly sticks to the seed coat.
2
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is greyish brown, red brown or purple brown, very hard with a density of
0.75-0.85 g/cm³ [4]. It has a good mechanical strength, but is not very durable and not resistant to
outdoor conditions. Thus, wood preservative treatments are essential for outdoor use, and indoor
applications if the products come into contact with the ground. "It seasons quite slowly, and is
moderately refractory, but may be successfully kiln-dried. The heartwood is moderately durable
against fungal attack, but is susceptible to attack by termites and borers, despite the fact that standing
trees are reasonably tolerant. In order to prevent attack, the wood can be treated with pressure
methods, such as Lowry's empty cell process and Bethel's full cell process" [8]. The calorific energy
value is 5,300 Kcal/kg (sapwood) [8] and 5,050 Kcal/kg (heartwood) [8].
[2, 4, 6, 8]

Approximate limits: 27°N to 5°S [8] (10°N to 25°N [7]). Dipterocarpus turbinatus is a widespread but
scattered species which is found from India (West Bengal, Assam, Andaman Islands), Bangladesh,
and throughout Myanmar to Indochina. In Thailand, it is widespread except in the east and rare in the
peninsula. Generally it grows in the valleys of moist evergreen forests (on grey soil) and semi-
evergreen forests, moist dipterocarp- and dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, in primary and secondary
forests respectively. In dry deciduous dipterocarp forests it grows gregariously in pure stands or in
some places mixed with Irvingia malayana, Scaphium lychnophora and Parinari annamense. It is
often found together with D. costatus, although it is rather confined to lower altitudes.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10]

This tree is a lowland to mid-elevation forest species occurring below 700 m a.s.l [4] but is
concentrated from 200-400 m [4] m a.s.l. (100-1,100 m [1], 10-300 m [8]). It grows in the humid tropics
(tropical wet & dry (Aw) [7]) with a mean annual rainfall of 2,000-4,000 mm/year [8] (optimal rainfall:
2,500-3,500 mm/year [7], absolute rainfall: 1,500-5,100 mm/year [7]). The relative humidity is
approximately 100% [8]. It requires an annual climate with more than 130 rainy days [8] and a
summer rainfall regime; the number of dry days may be as low as 0-4 [8]. However, a dry season of 0-
4 months [8] is tolerated. D. turbinatus has adapted to a photoperiod of less than 12 hours [7] (short
days). The optimal temperature range for growth is 24-32°C [7] (mean annual temperature of 20-24°C
[8]) with a maximum temperature of 40°C [7]. It is suitable for regions where the mean minimum
temperature of the coldest month is 6-18°C [8], and the mean maximum temperature is 28-45°C [8] in
the hottest month. "Climatological data suggest that D. turbinatus is unsuitable for areas where the
absolute minimum temperature falls below 10°C" [8]. It is sensitive to fire and poles which have been
severely damaged by fire may fail to recover. "The species has proven relatively windfirm in tropical
cyclone zones, such as in Bangladesh, Andamans (India) and Myanmar" [8]. D. turbinatus is shade-
tolerant during its juvenile stages, and becomes more light-demanding as it matures.
3
[1, 4, 6, 7, 8]

D. turbinatus can grow on a diversity of soils, although light-medium loams (cambisols), sandy clay
soils with freely drained conditions are preferable. It is commonly found on sandy red or yellow soils
(alfisols and ultisols) and grey soils which are slightly acidic with a pH of 4.8-5.8 [8] but neutral soils
are also suited. "D. turbinatus tends to grow well on flat valleys on all aspects, in areas liable to flood
and also on low-lying hills where northern and eastern aspects are prefered" [8]. It also grows on
strongly laterized soil but cannot tolerate calcareous soil. Other soil properties: "Optimal Soil depth:
deep (>150 cm), Absolute soil depth: medium (50-150 cm). Optimal Soil fertility: moderate. Absolute
soil fertility: low. Soil salinity: low (<4 dS/m). Optimal soil drainage: well (dry spells). Absolute soil
drainage: poorly (saturated >50% of year), well (dry spells)" [7].
[2, 4, 7, 8]

[Wood]: "Due to its wide distribution and high availability, D. turbinatus has become an important
timber in the Indian sub-continent. It is widely used for various purposes, and is exported. Several
countries in Asia export it in substantial amounts, such as Myanmar, and it is exported to Indonesia
and Thailand. The wood is often used for heavy construction in ship-, boat- and bridge-building. It has
also been used as railway sleeper and transmission pole. D. turbinatus may also be considered as a

substitute for European oak, and may be used in flooring. It is use to manufacture plywood, although it
has a tendency to peel due to the resin content of the wood. It also makes a good fuelwood (sapwood
5,300 Kcal/kg, and heartwood 5,050 Kcal/kg)" [8]. Other uses include, round wood, transmission
poles, posts, stakes, piles, pit props, building poles, roundwood structures, sawn or hewn building
timbers, for heavy construction, beams, for light construction, wall panelling, exterior fittings, fences,
gates, engineering structures, hydraulic works, containers, boxes, tanks, vats, industrial and domestic
woodware, tool handles, brushes, furniture, veneers, vehicle bodies, wood based materials,
blockboard and charcoal.
[2, 4, 6, 8]
[Non-wood]: D. turbinatus is a main source of a commercial oleoresin, which is know locally as 'kangin
oil' in Myanmar and 'garjan oil' in Bangladesh. The wood oil is similar to Dipterocarpus alatus but is
considered of inferior quality. The resin itself is almost solid after collection and is used for traditional
illumination especially to the preparation of torches. "The essential oil consists of two sesquiterpenes,
alpha- and beta-gurjunene. The resin remaining after distillation of the volatile oil contains gurjunic
acid. The oleoresin is an important ingredient of lithographic ink and an anti-corrosive coating
composition for iron" [8]. It is also used as a preservative for bamboo and has various medicinal uses,
4
such as the treatment of ulcers, ring worms and other skin infections. It is a stimulant to mucous
surfaces and is also a diuretic.
[2, 4, 6, 8]
[Others]: "Within its natural range, D. turbinatus is now being planted in preference to exotic species,
in order to enhance conservation of the natural ecology" [8]. In Bangladesh it is being used for
revegetation purposes. In Myanmar and Bangladesh, it has successfully been established in taungya
agroforestry systems.
[8]

2nd class [3]

[General]: D. turbinatus occurs in the valleys of moist evergreen forests (on grey soil) and semi-
evergreen forests, moist dipterocarp- and dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, in primary and secondary
forests respectively. In dry deciduous dipterocarp forests it grows gregariously in pure stands or in
some places mixed with Irvingia malayana, Scaphium lychnophora and Parinari annamense. It is
often found together with D. costatus, although it is rather confined to lower altitudes. D. turbinatus is
shade-tolerant when young, but becomes more light-demanding with age. It is able to self-prune, but
will not coppice or produce root suckers. "D. turbinatus has been planted in plantations within it's
habitat range in Bangladesh, Myanmar and Karnataka (India)" [8].
Many species regenerate well only in primary forest" [9]. D. turbinatus may regenerate naturally, the
seeds germinate in moist soils or partially decomposed litter. In the forest, germination is initiated
within 3-4 days [8] after fruit-fall, and is completed within 3 weeks [8]. In shelterwood systems, some
seed trees are left for seed dispersal. Clearing the soil surface may enhance the recruitment of young
seedlings, the ground is prepared by brush wood cutting. "In Bangladesh, the middle canopy is
retained until the seedlings are established, later opening of the canopy may encourage further
development" [8].
[Establishment]: Besides natural regeneration, stands are established by using direct sowing and
nursery stock. Direct sowing in the field is the general method of regeneration of D. turbinatus and is
used over its entire habitat. Planting is preferable in the open with lateral shade which may be
provided by tree species such as Acacia auriculiformis and Paraserianthes falcataria. "In Bangladesh,
after the undergrowth and understorey is removed and the seed-bearers are left standing, the area is
burned. The seeds are planted in holes 2.5 cm deep at 1 x 1 m spacing, covered with soil with wings
protruding and the soil is pressed lightly. During the rains intensive weeding and hand pulling of
creepers is required. Weeding (at least three during the first 3 years), fire-protection and cutting back
5
climbers are repeated for approximately 3-4 years, until the trees are established and the shelter-
wood is removed. In Myanmar and Bangladesh, D. turbinatus has successfully been established in
taungya agroforestry systems using direct sowing, it is planted as a timber crop and is intercropped
with annual agricultural crops. The seeds are sown every 30 cm in rows, and each row is
approximately 2 m apart, and it is intercropped with a nurse crop of Tephrosia candida or Cajanas
cajan. The seedlings reach approximately 1.8 m in height after 4 years, when they are considered to
be fully established" [8].
[Management]: "After 5 years the stand is thinned at 1.2 x 1.2 m spacing, and selection thinning is
conducted after 10 years of age. A 10 year old plantation produces an average crop height of 11.9 m
and a DBH of 10.4 cm. At 45-60 years rotation the mean annual increment recorded from Bangladesh
is 10-12 m³/ha. Haque and Osman (1993) report that pure plantations of D. turbinatus may achieve
higher growth rates, in comparison with mixed plantations using Tectona grandis" [8].
[4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: An adult tree with a well developed canopy may produce 5-7 kg of
seeds [8]. Ripe fruits are collected from beneath the mother trees, each fruit contains one seed and
the whole fruit is treated as a seed for germination. Seeds are recalcitrant with a poor viability, thus
they should be stored in the shade and used preferably within a week. The germination rate is 82% [8]
with a plant survival rate of 50% [8]. One kilogram of fruit (approximately 130-154 fruits [8]) is
estimated to produce 77 plants [8].
[8, 9]

[Seed propagation]: "Seedlings may be raised relatively easily in the nursery, using shaded beds or
plastic bags or tubes. The seeds are sown within 2-3 days after collection, and covered with soil,
leaving the wings protruding. Watering and weeding are necessary, and overhead shading induces
vertical growth and reduces branching during the summer. Seedlings may reach a height of 50 cm by
the next June (approximately 12-13 months). The seeds send out strong roots under natural nursery
conditions. Due to its fast root development (approximately 20 cm in 2 months), the seedlings are
raised in transplanting bags (polybags), and then planted out in pits the following season" [8].
[Vegetative propagation]: "D. turbinatus may also be propagated vegetatively using air layering, which
is conducted during the monsoon (June-July). Branches of adult trees (0.7-1.0 cm in diameter) are
layered with a rooting medium in order to encourage root development, which consists of cow dung,
oil-cake and soil (2:1:1 ratio). It takes approximately two months for the roots to bud using the 'Forkert
method' with a success rate of approximately 25%" [8].

[Pests]: No major pest has been recorded for D. turbinatus. Some Lepidoptera larvae may bore into
the seeds and fruits. Standing trees are reasonably tolerant against wood borers and termites.
[8]
6
[Diseases]: No major disease has been recorded for D. turbinatus.
[8]
[Others]: "Cyclones may sometimes result in destroying the seed before it matures. D. turbinatus is
particularly susceptible to fire damage due to its natural oil content, and serious depletion has
occurred where 'jhuming' (swidden farming or shifting cultivation) with burning is conducted. In the
past fields were burned every 7-10 years; presently with population increase burning occurs every 2-3
years" [8].
S. Conservation :
D. turbinatus has been classified as critically endangered (CR A1cd+2cd [1]) and vulnerable (VU
A1acd, B2cd [1]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of
Threatened Trees. However, in Thailand it is still found throughout its fragmented potential distribution
range with a number of individual trees. In Cambodia the estimated number of individuals threatened
(as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in
2000) amounts to more than 10,000 tree threatened by logging [11] and more than 1,000 trees
threatened by fire [11].
[1, 6, 11]

[Native]: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Assam, Meghalaya,
West Bengal, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura), Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
[2, 4, 6, 8]
[Introduced]: Indonesia
[4]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Breeding]: "Currently a tree improvement programme is in progress at the Bangladesh Forest
Research Institute (BFRI) in Chittagong. BFRI has selected approximately 150 provisional plus trees
from its natural habitat in Bangladesh, and established approximately eight hectares of clonal seed
orchards. However, these plus tree seedlings are not yet sold to forest managers and currently the
majority of planting stock is raised from seed" [8].
7
Anon, 1983. Bangladesh Standard Specification for General Purposes. Dhaka, Bangladesh:
Bangladesh Standard and Testing Institution.
[8]
Anon, 1985. Dipterocarps of South Asia: FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, bangkok,
Thailand.
[8]
Anon, 1988. Bangladesh Standard Code of Practice for Preservation of Timber. Dhaka, Bangladesh:
Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution.
[8]
Banik RL, 1980. Studies on sowing position of garjan seeds on their germination and seedling
behaviour. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 9(1/2):43-52; 6 ref.
[8]
Das DK, 1970. Anatomy of Dipterocarpus Species Timbers of East Pakistan. Bull. 2, Wood Anatomy
Series. Chittagong, Bangladesh: Forest Research Institute.

[8]
Das S, 1980. Dipterocarp forests of Bangladesh and their management. Bano Biggyan Patrika,
9(1/2):71-86; 7 ref.
[8]
Dochnal EF, 1987. Review of Provisional Yield Tables Set-up. Assistance to the Forestry Sector of
Bangladesh - Phase II. FAO Project BGD/85/085. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organizations of
United Nations.
[8]
Finnemore H, 1926. The Essential Oils. London, UK: Benn Limited.
[8]
8
Haque MA, Rahman AHMM, Choudhury JH, 1985. Effect of harvesting time and sowing interval of
garjan seeds on germination. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 14(1/2):30-35; 10 ref.
[8]
Haque SMS, Osman KT, 1993. Performance of gurjan (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) and teak (Tectona
grandis) in pure and mixed plantations at Kaptai, Bangladesh. Indian Forester, 119(9):738-743; 9 ref.
[8]
Khan MS, 1984. Dipterocarpaceae. Flora of Bangladesh, No. 25. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh
National Herbarium.
[8]
Kirtikar KR, Basu BD, 1935. Indian Medicinal Plants. 2nd edition, Vol 1. Dehra Dun, India: Bishen
Singh Mohendra Pal Singh.
[8]
Latif MA, Dey BC, Das Gupta SR, 1978. Treatability of nineteen timber species of Bangladesh. Bano
Biggyan Patrika, 7(1/2):1-8; 5 ref.
[8]
Limye VD, 1939. Properties of woods grown in India. Dehra Dun, India: Forest Research Institute.
[8]
Luna RK, 1996. Plantation trees. Plantation trees., xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections].
[8]
Martindale, 1958. The Extra Pharmacopocia, Vol 2. London, UK: Pharmacuetical Press.
[8]
Rai SN, 1978. Pre-treatment of seeds of Albizia falcata, A. chinensis and A. richardiana.. Myforest,
14(4):241-245; 1 ref.
9
[8]
Rai SN, 1983. Notes on nursery and regeneration techniques of some species occurring in southern
tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of Karnataka (India). Indian Forester, 109(3):127-
136.
[8]
Rashid MH, Serajuddoula M, Banik RL, Matin A, 1986. Vegetative propagation of forest trees in
Bangladesh. Bulletin 1. Chittagong, Bangladesh: Silviculture Genetics Division, Bangladesh Forest
Research Institute.
[8]
Rashid MH, Serajuddoula M, 1984. Vegetative propagation of dhakijam and garjan by air-layering.
Bano Biggyan Patrika, 13(1/2):64-66; 5 ref.
[8]
Sattar MA, 1980. Kiln drying schedules for indigenous timbers of Bangladesh. Bulletin, Forest
Research Institute, Chittagong, Wood Seasoning, No. 4:ii + 11 pp.; 9 ref.
[8]

Sattar MA, 1981. Some physical properties of 116 Bangladeshi timbers. Bulletin, Forest Research
Institute, Bangladesh, Wood Seasoning, No. 7:15 pp.; 1 ref.
[8]
Sen Gupta JN, 1937. Seed weights, plant percents, etc. for forest plants in India. Indian Forest
Records, Silviculture, 2(5):175-221.
[8]
Tewary PK, Sarkar AK, 1987. Lectotypification of Dipterocarpus andamanicus (King) Tewary & Sarkar
comb. nov. & stat. nov. (Dipterocarpaceae). Indian Journal of Forestry, 10(1):63-64.
[8]
10
Thangam ES, 1982. Regeneration methods of Dipterocarpus species in India. Indian Forester,
108(10):637-647; 18 ref.
[8]
Joshi HB, 1980. Troup's The silviculture of Indian trees. Volume II. Dipterocarpaceae. Troup's The
silviculture of Indian trees. Volume II. Dipterocarpaceae., xxxv + 471 pp.; [148 pl. (4 col.)]; 43 pp. ref.
[8]
Yakub M, Bhattacharjee DK, Ali MO, 1972. Strength Properties of some Bangladesh Timber Species.
Bulletin 2. Chittagong, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Forest Research Institute.
[8]
X. References:
source)
Phnom Penh.
Northern Thailand.
11
[11] FAO:
http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/AC648E/ac648e04.htm(Inter
net source)
12
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Durio zibethinus Murray.]
Datasheet Report
[Durio zibethinus Murray.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Durio zibethinus Murray.
B. English name (s) ³ durian [2], civet fruit, civet-cat tree, thurian [7]
C. Synonym ³ Durio acuminatissima Merr. (1926) [5]
D. Other1 ³ durian (trade name) [7] - du-yin (Myanmar) [7] - dulian
(Philipines) [7] - Durianbaum, Zibetbaum (Germany) [7] -

ambetan, duren, kadu, durian (Indonesia) [7] - thouri่n (Laos)
[7] - durian kampong, durian puteh (Malaysia) [7] - mduriani

(E-Africa) [7] - rian, thurian (Thailand) [7] - s[aaf]u ri[ee]ng,
sâù riêng (Vietnam) [7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: FUern

Source: [1]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ thou reann [1], thu-réén [7]

Other : Malavales
Family: Bombacaceae
Genus: Durio
Species: Durio zibethinus
Source :[ 4]
1
[General]:Medium-sized to large evergreen tree with a height of 25-40 m [2] (-40 m [5], -45 m [7]) in
dense lowland forest and 10-15 m [7] (10-20 m [3]) in orchards and backyards. The stem is buttressed
with a DBH of 50-120 cm.
[Bark]: The bark is dark red brown, peeling off irregularly.
[Leaves]. The leaves are elliptic or spear shaped, 10-15 cm [7] (10-17 cm [5]) long, 3-4 cm [7] (3-4.5(-
12.5) cm [5]) wide, papery; base and apex pointed. Upper leaf-surface hairless, glossy, lower surface
densely covered with silvery or golden scales. Secondary veins in about 15 pairs, distinctly looping
near the margin, venation indistinct below. Leaf-stalks 1-1.5 cm long, angular.
[Flowers]: The flowers are in clusters of round and flattened inflorescences. Flower-stalks 5-7 cm
long. Outer flower leaves sack-shaped, flattened at the base, with a tube about 2 cm long and 1.5 cm
in diameter. Inner flower leaves white or creamy, spate-shaped, 5 cm long and 2 cm wide at the
broadest part. Stamen (=male organ) white, 4 cm long, each filament with up to 12 kidney-shaped
anthers dehiscing by a slit. Ovary (=female organ) egg-shaped, style slender, 4 cm long, stigma
yellow. "In Thailand Durian flowers from March, after the end of the cool dry season. In monsoon
climates flowering takes place late in the dry season. Bloom in one year may be more than a month
earlier or later than in another year. In the humid parts of Malaysia and Indonesia trees often flower
twice a year, again with much variation in timing from one year to the next. These observations
suggest that floral development may be associated with a period of subdued extension growth" [5].
[Fruits]: The fruit varies greatly in size, often 15-25 cm in diameter, green to yellowish brown, with
spines that are variable in length and shape. Seeds chestnut-brown, completely enclosed in a thick,
white or yellow, soft, sweet, fragrant aril.

[2, 5, 7]
I. Wood properties:
The wood is rather coarse and light but durable with a dark red colored heartwood which has an
energy value of 520 kJ/100 g.
[4, 5]

Approximate limits: 18°N to 18°S [4]. It grows successfully near the equator. The tree is strictly
tropical and at extreme latitudes growth stops during the coolest months. Naturally it occurs in dense
lowland forests but it is extensively cultivated in orchards and backyards of Southeast Asia.
[3, 4, 7, 8]

Durian grows at an altitude of 0-900 m a.s.l [4] (300-800 m [7]) with differences between the countries
of cultivation: Up to 300 m in Thailand, 600 m in Sri Lanka, 700 m in the Philippines and 800 m in
Malaysia. Rainfall regimes should be rather well distributed but can be bimodal or uniform with a
mean annual rainfall of 1,500-2,000 mm [7] (1,200-3,500 mm [8], 2,000 - 4,000 mm [4]) and a dry
2
season length of 2-3 months [8] (0 - 5 months [4]). The mean annual temperature is 25-27ºC [4] (22ºC
[7]), the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month 26-34ºC [4], the mean minimum
temperature of the coldest month 21-30ºC [4]. Normal temperature range: 22-36 °C [2]. Absolute
minimum temperature: > 15ºC [4]. Durian is shade demanding when young (30-50% shade until the
seedling is 1 m high [7]), later it thrives in full sunlight.
[2, 4, 7, 8]

Coastal Cardamons (A), Redlands (c), Lower Mekong Floodplain (E)
[1]

The soil should be fertile, deep and moist but well-drained. The preferred texture is light sandy to
medium loamy. A heavy texture should be avoided to limit losses from root rot. The soil pH ranges
between 4.3-7.5 with an optimum between 5.0-6.5. It will not withstand saline soils.
[2, 4, 7, 8]

[Wood]: The relative durable wood of D. zibethinus is used for sawn or hewn building timbers, heavy
and light construction, exterior fittings, containers, woodware, industrial and domestic woodware,
cheaper types of furniture, veneers, boats, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, plywood,
blockboard, laminated wood, particleboard, fiberboards and fuelwood. However, the general
prospects of the species for timber are rather poor.
[2, 4, 7]
[Non-wood]: Durian is primarily cultivated for its fruit which is a good source of carbohydrates and also
contains significant amounts of protein and vitamins B and C. Its rich pulp is eaten raw, cooked as a
vegetable, frozen or dried for later use. It is also added to cakes, cookies, ice cream and other foods.
Indonesians ferment the pulp for a side dish or mix the fleshy arils with rice and sugar to produce a
local dish called 'lamping'. The seeds can be boiled or roasted and used as confections. The rind of
the fruit is dried and used as fuel, particularly to smoke fish. Nectar and pollen are an important honey
source. The honey characteristics are however not known. Several parts of the tree are used as
medicine: The fruit is supposed to restore the health of humans and animals. "According to popular
belief, sickness and even death may strike people who consume durian in conjunction with alcohol"
[5].
[2, 5, 6, 7]

No Class [1]
3
[General]: Naturally Durian occurs in dense lowland forests but nowadays it is extensively cultivated in
the orchards and backyards of Southeast Asia. It is also a component in many Asian agroforestry
systems and used as an ornamental tree. [4]
[Management]: "Young trees benefit from 30-50% shade until they are 1 m high, at which time they
should be gradually introduced to full sun. The trees are mulched lightly on a regular basis with
application of animal manure, watered well during the growing season and only sparingly in winter to
induce prolific flowering in spring and early summer. During the 1st years after planting, the trees are
shaped by removing orthorpic limbs, including watershoots and by thinning out plagiotropic laterals.
Trees bear fruit best on limbs that are more or less horizontal; upright limbs contribute more to tree
size and height. Pruning dominant upright laterals to maintain 1 central leader is essential. The low
productivity of durian orchards is attributed to low planting densities and a long juvenile phase.
Intercropping with cocoa could improve productivity through several aspects of the cropping system,
such as provision of shade". " It can also be intercropped with other crops, such as pineaple, langsat
(Lansium domesticum), mangosteen (Garcinia magnostana), and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum)"
[2]. "If there is a prominent dry season, as in Chantaburi, the major durian production centre in
Thailand, a dependable irrigation system is essential" [5].
[2, 5, 7]
[Harvesting]: "The trees grow very tall and as it is difficult to judge maturity, it is common practice to
wait until the fruit drops. In Thailand regular heavy crops greatly reduce tree vigour and picking is
feasible. Selective harvesting is necessary and skilled pickers use a range of criteria to judge maturity.
Starting with the number of days lapsed since full bloom, they may also consider: colour, elasticity and

disposition of the spines, the intensity of the odour emitted by the fruit, the sound heard when the
fingertips are run through the furrows between the spines, changes in the fruit stalk, and flotation tests
in water" [5].
[Yield]: In most of South-East Asia yields appear to be low and erratic, mainly as a result of poor
flowering and inadequate fruit set. In Thailand these constraints are much less serious, but mean
yields calculated from statistics on area and production in successive years are nevertheless low,
ranging from 3.1 to 8.3 t/ha per year. Good orchards in Thailand and Perak, the durian centre in
Malaysia, produce 10-18 t/ha per year, which is about 50 fruits per tree of 1.5-4 kg each" [5].
Q. Propagation :
[Pollination]: "There is no evidence that the tree is wind-pollinated and it is believed that bats (mainly
Eoncyteris spelea) transfer pollen when they visit the flowers for nectar. Honeybees are seen on the
flowers too early in the afternoon to serve as pollinators. Natural pollination is possible only at night,
the heavily fragrant flowers open in the late afternoon and are receptive from 5 pm until 6 am, but
pollen begins to shed at 7 pm and other floral parts gradually fall, only the pistil remaining at 11 pm"
[8].
4
[Propagation]: "D. zibethinus is often propagated by direct sowing of seeds (or using planting stock
[4]). Seeds are recalcitrant; they lose viability within 2 weeks. They tolerate accelerated drying to
41.5% moisture content if dried slowly, to 38.5% moisture content if dried rapidly. Excised embryos
tolerated accelerated drying to 53.9% moisture content, and none survived further accelerated drying
to 40.1% moisture content. There are between 60-70 seeds/kg. In Indonesia, D. zibethinus is largely
raised from seed, although several methods for clonal propagation are practised. Vegetative methods
of propagation were developed in the 1920s. Commonly used is the modified forked method of patch
budding, in which a bud from a relatively young branch is grafted onto a 2-month-old seedling
rootstock. The scions flower and fruit when about 4 years old. In commercial orchards, selections are
propagated by grafting onto seedlings of the cultivated species or occasionally on those of D.
malaccensis, a wild relative. Durian fruits in 7-8 years under orchard conditions. In Malaysia and
Singapore, vegetative propagation by etiolation has been successfully done" [7].

[Pests]: Durian is attacked by scale insects, leaf-eating caterpillars and beetles and trunk-/ branch
borers. "Two nematode pests, Helicotylenchus spp. and Radopholus spp. have also been reported. In
poorly drained soils, root rot or patch canker, caused by Phytophthora palmivora and Pythium
complectens, can quickly kill trees shortly after the 1st symptoms appear" [7].
[Diseases]: "Associated with Pythium are secondary fungi such as Diplodia spp. and Fusarium spp.
Corticium salminicolor causes pink disease, Phyllosticta durionis, (Phytophthora palmivora [4]) and
Homostegia durionis cause black and brown leaf spots. Leaves also suffer severe damage due to
Colletotrichum zibethinus and C. durionis. Die-back of budding is associated with Diplodia spp. and
Phomopsis spp. Cultural practices, rather than deployment of resistant varieties, have historically
tackled these disease problems. The younger trees, which are somewhat resistant, have often been
used as rootstock to in-arch older, diseased trees" [7].
[Protection]: A sheltered site is desirable to prevent branches laden with fruit from breaking in gusty
winds" [8].
S. Conservation :
No inforamtion available.

Durian are grown in Kampot Province, Krong Prah Siharuk City and Kampong Cham Province
(Memot District). [1]

[Native]: Indonesia, Malaysia.
[7]
[Introduced]: Australia, Cambodia, Dominica, India, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Zanzibar.
[7]
5
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Fruit Properties]: "The arils represent 20-35% of the fruit weight, the seeds 5-15%. The flesh and
seed are very nutritious, being rich in carbohydrates, proteins, fats and minerals. The flesh contains
per 100 g edible portion: water 67 g, protein 2.5 g, fat 2.5 g, carbohydrates 28.3 g, fibre 1.4 g, ash 0.8
g, calcium 20 mg, phosphorus 63 mg, potassium 601 mg, thiamine 0.27 mg, riboflavine 0.29 mg, and
vitamin C 57 mg. The energy value is 520 kJ/100 g. The odour of the fruit stems largely from thiols or
thioethers, esters and sulphides" [5].
[Terminology]: "The genus name is derived from the Malay word 'duri' (thorn), referring to the spiny
fruit" [7].
[History of cultivation]: "D. zibethinus was introduced into Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) by the Portuguese
in the 16th century and was reintroduced many times later. It has been planted in the Americas but
confined to botanical gardens. The 1st seedlings were sent from Kew Botanic Gardens, UK, to St
Aromen, Dominica, in 1884" [7].
[Wildlife]: "In forests, elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses and other wild animals are attracted by the odor
of ripe durians and compete for fallen fruit" [6].
Kostermans AJGH, 1958. The genus Durio Adans. (Bombacaceae). Reinwardtia 4: 47-150.
[4]
Burate Bamrungkarn, L., 1971. Durian plantation. Prae Pittaya Publishers, Bangkok (in Thai). [5]

Corner, E.J.H., 1949. The durian theory of the origin of the modern tree. Annals of Botany 13(52):
367-414.
[5]
Hasan, B.M. & Yaacob, O., 1986. The growth and productivity of selected durian clones under the
plantation system at Serdang, Malaysia. Acta Horticulturae 175:55-58.
[5]
Kostermans, A.J.G.H., 1958. The genus Durio Adans.(Bombac.). Reinwardtia 4(3): 357-460.
[5]
Punsri, P., 1970. Observations on durian plantation. Puech Suan 6(4): 49-59 (in Thai).
[5]
Punsri, P., 1972. Wild durian. Puech Suan 8(2): 17-22 (in Thai).
[5]
6
Soegeng-Reksodihardjo, W., 1962. The species of Durio with edible fruits. Economic Botany 16: 270-
282.
[5]
Soepadmo, E. & Eow, B.K., 1976. The reproductive biology of Durio zibethinus Murr. The Gardens'
Bulletin Singapore 29: 25-33.
[5]
Valmayor, R.V., Coronel, R.E. & Ramirez, D.A., 1965. Studies of floral biology, fruit set and
development in durian. The Philippine Agriculturists 48: 355-359.
[5]
Morton J. (1987) Fruits of warm climates; Durian.

[8]
and nuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=369920
[8]
X. References:
[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own observations

320pp.
[6] Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2005 © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. (CD-ROM)

source)
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh]
Datasheet Report
[Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh
B. English name (s) ³ river red gum, red gum [1], Murray red gum, river gum [3],
red river gum [6], long beak eucalyptus [12]
C. Synonym ³ Eucalyptus longirostris F. Muell. ex Miq., Eucalyptus rostrata
Schltdl., nom. illeg. [4] , Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh.

var. brevirostris (F. Muell.) Blakely [12].
D. Other1 ³ bach dan trang [2], b[aj]ch d[af]n [us]c, bajch dafn usc, pré;ng
khchâl slök sâ [12] (Vietnam) - eucalyptus rouge (France) [3]

- eucalipto rojo (Spain) [4] - eucalipto (Portugal) [4] -
Rotgummibaum [4], Roter Eukalyptus [12] (Germany) -
pyilon-chantha (Myanmar) [12] - ekaliptus (Indonesia) [12] -
yukhalip (Thailand) [12]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eRbgxül;søwks

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ preng khchal slek sa [9]

Other : Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
1
[General]: Small to medium-sized, sometimes large evergreen tree, 20-45 m tall (-50m [3, 4, 12]) (-60
m [2]) with a DBH of 1-2 m sometimes more than 3 m. It can reach ages of 500 to 1,000 years. In
open woodlands with a short, thick bole which supports a large, spreading crown. In plantations with a
clear bole of up to 20 m with an erect, lightly-branched crown. Young branchlets red, slender and
hanging. Ability to shed branches, especially in hot weather. Develops no resting buds, grows
whenever conditions are favorable. Deep sinker roots grow down towards zones of higher water
supply with high rates of hydraulic conductivity for a very effective water uptake. Seedlings can
develop aerenchymatous roots to cope the lack of oxygen.
[Bark]: Bark smooth white, grey, yellow-green, grey-green, or pinkish grey to red, shedding annually in
strips or irregular flakes. Rough bark sometimes occupies the first 1-2 m of the trunk on E.
camaldulensis var. camaldulensis. Juvenile leaves alternate, egg-shaped to broadly spear shaped,
attached by a narrow stalk.
[Leaves]: Adult leaves simple alternate, spear-shaped to narrowly spear-shaped, slightly discolorous,
8-30 cm x 0.7-2 (-3.5) cm, with a drip tip, green or grey-green, leaf stalk 12-15 mm long and slender.
Central vein yellow in color. Lateral veins evident, forming a 30-60° angle with the central vein.
Venules at margin very slender, evident.
[Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, with 4-8 (7-11) flowers. Flower-buds egg-shaped-conical. Flowers
white and medium sized, with small stalks. The time of flowering depends on locality. E.g. in Thailand,
some provenances flower throughout the year on a range of sites, although autumn (September-
November) is the peak period.
[Fruits]: Fruit hemispherical or egg-shaped, 5-8 x 5-8 mm (7-8 x 5-6 mm) with 3-5 exserted, triangular

valves. Seeds small, cuboid abundant (15 per fruit) with two seed coats. Outer seed-coat yellow to
yellow-brown in color, undercoat is brown-black (all other red gums have seeds with a single dark
brown to black seed coat).
[1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Wood reddish with fine grains. Extraordinary hard but easy to saw and very dense
after seasoning and is considered to be one of the worlds most durable woods. Wood density of 0.9-
0.98 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content. Specific gravity r15 of wood from natural stands is 0.79 g/cm³.
Growth rings generally indistinct and irregular in distance, easily curved, sometimes evident in E.
camaldulensis, having some thick walled latewood cells. Vessels diffuse, (4-)7-9 (-11)/mm²,
predominantly solitary. It is difficult to work but polishes well and, after steaming, is well suited for
bending. Resistant to termite attack. It burns without leaving ashes.
[1, 2, 3, 6, 9]
Widely distributed in tropical zones, naturally 15-18 (-38)°S. Occurs mainly along watercourses, river valleys
which are periodically flooded, on low mountains and hills.
[1, 2, 3, 9]
2
Altitude range from 0 (30) to 600 m a.s.l. [1, 2, 3, 9] (0-1,500 m a.s.l [12]). High ecological amplitude,
drought tolerant and inundation-tolerant for a short time. Adapted to monsoon climate and tolerant of
periodic waterlogging but suited for arid and semiarid regions. Native to areas with winter and summer
rains, with total annual precipitation of between 250-625 mm [3] (400-2,500 mm [4]). Can even survive
a severe dry season with 4-8 or more dry months but it needs access to ground water to flourish
completely. Mean annual temperature of warmest month is 29-35°C [3] (21-40°C [12]) , of coldest
month 11-20°C [3] (3-22°C [12]). Moderately salt tolerant.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12]


Suitable for growing and developing on many kinds of soil, including acid-sulphate soil. Prefers sandy
to heavy alluvial soils, usually on calcareous soils, along the banks of streams and on the margins of
salt lakes. Grows on light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil
and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Tolerates poor and dry soils, especially those low in mineral
elements. Prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in saline soil. It needs sunny
site conditions and cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry moist or wet soil and can tolerate
drought.
[4, 6, 7]

[Wood]: General-purpose timber. The major uses are the production of firewood and pulp for paper
manufacture. The firewood burns very quickly because of the high oil content, it also produces a
good-quality charcoal. Suitable for the production of veneer and plywood, particle board, hardboard
and wood-wool boards, light or heavy construction, doors, window frames, interior finish, light and
heavy duty flooring, cabinetry, railway sleepers, poles and posts, fences, cross-ties ship and boat
building, underwater construction, vehicle bodies, joinery, boxes and crates, vats, carving, turnery,
handles, sporting goods and agricultural implements.
[1, 2, 6, 7]
[Non-wood]: Leaves and twigs contain eucalypt oil which is an important product for pharmaceuticals,
perfumes, soaps, detergents and is a powerful antiseptic which is used all over the world for relieving
coughs and colds, sore throats and other infections. It is a common ingredient in many over-the-
counter cold remedies. Oil is also used as a disinfectant and pesticide. Produces gum (kino) which
often runs down the bole in large quantities and is used medicinally and for tanning. Also the bark of
some species has tanning properties. The flowers produce good pollen and nectar for first quality
3
honey with heavy yields in good seasons. The honey is light gold and of reasonable density with a
distinctive flavor.
[1, 4, 6, 12]
[Others]: Also planted as an ornamental, shade-, or shelter tree. Used for soil stabilization schemes
and can also be planted in marshy land where it will help in draining the land to destroy potential
breeding sites for mosquitoes.
[1, 6]

No class. [8]

In Cambodia E. camaldulensis is cultivated in plantations and as ornamental tree along the avenues.
[9]
[Plantations]: Sometimes planted as a reforestation tree. Plantations are established at 3 x 3-4 x 4 m

regular spacings, sometimes 3 x 2 m. The most widely used provenance is the Murray Darling System
from 25-37°S to 140-150°E. It hybridizes readily with E. alba and other eucalypts. Good weed control
(usually a 1 m strip along each planting line) is essential and 4-5 weedings each year for 2 years may
be necessary before site occupancy is achieved. Plantations grown for sawlogs will require thinning
because trees tend to develop forks and steep branches. Eucalypt plantations are clear cut when the
rotation age has been reached, and subsequently replanted with nursery-raised seedlings. In Papua
New Guinea, malformed trees and those with double leaders are removed at 5 years; the stand is

then thinned to 250 trees/ha at 10 years, 100 trees/ha at 15 years and the final harvest is at 25 years.
Coppices well. In the Philippines it responds well to moderate levels of both nitrogen (30g/plant) and
phosphorus (30g/plant) when applied within 3 months after planting. Growth rates vary greatly
between provenances and are heavily site-dependent. During the first 10 years, annual height growth
up to 2 m and diameter growth up to 2 cm is possible. Early height growth may exceed 3 m per year
for well-adapted provenances on favorable sites. Young trees are able to coppice for 2-3 rotations.
However the coppicing ability of different provenances differs considerably. If grown for pulpwood,
trees can be harvested after 6-10 years. Annual wood yields are around 20 - 25 m³/ha in Argentina,
30 m³/ha from Israel, 17 - 20 from Turkey in the first rotation, and 25 - 30 in subsequent coppice
rotations. On poor arid sites yields are only 2 - 11 m³ on 14 or 15 year rotations.
[1, 3, 4, 6]
[Natural stands (Australia)]: "Dominant component of riparian communities. On lower levels of the
floodplain, it is usually the only tree species present. On higher areas, it may occur in association with
black box (Eucalyptus largiflorens) or coolibah (E. microtheca). It also lines the channels of sandy
watercourses and creeks, commonly forming ribbon stands. Saplings thin out to form forests of
straight-trunked trees. In more arid regions, where ribbon stands occur along creeks, the tree is more
4
gnarled and develops a large spreading canopy. This form also occurs throughout the region
wherever the tree grows in isolation on deep fertile soils with a good moisture supply. One of the
fastest growth rates for a tree and with a good water supply with a height of 12-15 m in a few years.
Competition for moisture by ground vegetation and/or overstorey trees can influence seedling survival
depending on seasonal conditions and flooding. The availability of moisture is greatly reduced within
the zone of influence of trees (which may extend to 40 m around a mature tree). In the absence of
competition seedling survival is 20-30 times greater. Seedlings are vulnerable during the
establishment phase to heat stress and immersion. Seedlings cope with heat stress by developing
roots giving good penetration into the sub-soil and accessing soil moisture. Seedlings also develop
resilience early, allowing them to shed leaves in times of moisture stress and recover from axillary
buds when moisture is again available."
[7]
Q. Propagation :
[Pollination]: Pollination is mainly carried out by insects, but is also undertaken by birds and small
mammals. Fruit development and maturation time can be as short as four months. Production of the
first seed crop may occur within three years of planting.
[4]
[Seed Production]: A full grown E. camaldulensis tree may produce a million or more seeds per year
and may live and produce seeds for a century. No of seeds per kg = 666,000.
[5]
[Propagation]: Seeds are very light with 1.3-1.4 g/1,000 seeds and can be stored for several years
when kept dry, cool and airtight. 1 kg of seeds yields 15,000-20,000 usable young plants. Propagation
from seed and cuttings. Sowing of 50g seeds/m². Seeds germinate in 4-14 (-20) days. Seedlings are
best raised in trays filled with sterile, fine, loamy sand. The trays should be kept in the shade for the
first few days after sowing but light can be gradually increased to 50% full sunlight. Further growth
requires full sunlight. They are transplanted after 1 month, when they are 3-5 cm tall and have 2-3 leaf
pairs, to containers and nursery beds at a spacing of 10 x 10 cm. About 2 weeks before planting into
the field, they should be gradually hardened off by reducing watering and removing shade. Vegetative
propagation is also possible from branch cuttings, but these must be taken from trees less than 2
years old. Best results are obtained from cuttings containing a stem node and a segment of a leaf.
Hormones such as indole-acetic acid, indole-butyric acid, or naphthalene-acetic acid will improve the
success rate. The seedlings are ready for planting in the field when they are (20-) 25-30 cm in height,
usually after 3-4 (5) months. They are mostly planted in a spacing of 2 x 2 m to 3 x 3 m in well
prepared soil. Deep ploughing is advisable. “Seed requirements for eucalyptus sp. per hectare for
open plantations in Cambodia: Number of seeds per kg: 1,000,000. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net
seedlings required per ha: 2,500. Rate of loss: 3,000 = 20% in planting site, 3,334 = 10% in transit,
4,168 = 20% at the nursery. 40% germination rate. Total seed requirement 0.01 kg” [10].
[1, 3, 10]
5
[Pests]: Various stem borers like Agrilus opulentus have caused damage in some areas. It attacks
small suppressed trees and can kill them by girdling the stem. Clearing appears to benefit the
plantation trees by removing alternative insect host plants. Application of dieldrin to the potting
medium of seedlings reduces the damge caused by termites to the root system of young plants.
[1]
[Diseases]: Seedlings are susceptible to damping-off on the nursery. Fungicides can control this
problem.
[1]
[Others]:"Seedlings are vulnerable during the establishment phase to heat stress and immersion.
They cope with heat stress by developing roots giving good penetration into the sub-soil and
accessing soil moisture. Seedlings can also develop resilience early, allowing them to shed leaves in
times of moisture stress and recover from axillary buds when moisture is again available. Very fire
sensitive and even low intensity fires may cause cambial injury. Fire kills regeneration and even
mature trees are susceptible if the fire is intense enough since E. camaldulensis lacks a lignotuber.
Fire will cause damage to the buttresses"
[7]
S. Conservation :

[World distribution]:
[Native]: Australia
[4]
[Introduced]:
Europe (Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain);
Asia (Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Laos,
Lebanon, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam, Yemen);
Africa (Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Congo
Democratic Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Libya,
Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra
Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Tunisia, Zambia, Zimbabwe);
6
Caribbean (Cuba, Trinidad and Tobago);
Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua);
North America (Mexico, USA);
South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay);
Oceania (Fiji)
[4]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Banks JCG, 1990. Flowering patterns in Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Proceedings international
Eucalyptus symposium, Zhanjiang, China.
[4]
Boland DJ, Brooker MIH, Chippendale GM, Hall N, Hyland BPM, Johnston RD, Kleinig DA, Turner JD,
1984. Forest trees of Australia. Forest trees of Australia., Ed. 4:xvi + 687 pp.; 77 ref.
[4]
Booth TH, Pryor LD, 1991. Climatic requirements of some commercially important eucalypt species.
Forest Ecology and Management, 43(1-2):47-60; 31 ref.
[4]
Davidson J, 1993. Domestication and breeding programme for Eucalyptus in the Asia-Pacific region.
UNDP/FAO Regional Project on Improving Productivity of Man-Made Forests Through Application of
Technological Advances in Tree Breeding and Propagation (RAS/91/004-FORTIP). Los Baños,
Philippines: FAO of the United Nations.
[4]
Doran JC, Williams ER, 1994. Fast-growing Eucalyptus camaldulensis clones for foliar-oil production
in the tropics. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 73(4):261-266, 273-274; 18 ref.
[4]
7
Doran JC, Wongkaew W, 1997. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. In: Faridah Hanum I, van der
Maesen LJG, eds. Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 11. Auxiliary Plants. Leiden, the
Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers, 132-137.
[4]
Eldridge K, 1995. Breeding plan for Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Thailand 1995 revision. Canberra,
Australia: CSIRO Division of Forestry.
[4]
Evans J, 1992. Plantation forestry in the tropics: tree planting for industrial, social, environmental, and
agroforestry purposes. Plantation forestry in the tropics: tree planting for industrial, social,
environmental, and agroforestry purposes., Ed. 2:xv + 403 pp.; 32 pp. of ref.
[4]
Holmgren M, Pettersson P, 1995. Evaluation of long-term growth trials of Eucalyptus camaldulensis

and Eucalyptus tereticornis in Laos, South-East Asia: a minor field study. Working Paper -
International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, No. 282:24 pp.;
[ISRN SLU-IRDC-WP-282-SE]; 15 ref.
[4]

Midgley SJ, Eldridge KG, Doran JC, 1989. Genetic resources of Eucalyptus camaldulensis..
Commonwealth Forestry Review, 68(4):295-308; 35 ref.
[4]
Pinyopusarerk K, Doran JC, Williams ER, Wasuwanich P, 1996. Variation in growth of Eucalyptus
camaldulensis provenances in Thailand. Forest Ecology and Management, 87(1/3):63-73; 26 ref.
[4]
Pinyopusarerk K, Luangviriyasaeng V, Rattanasavanh D, 1996. Two-year performance of Acacia and

Eucalyptus species in a provenance trial in Lao P.D.R. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 8(3):412-
423; 21 ref.
[4]
8
Pukittayacamee P, Saelim S, Bhodthipuks J, 1993. Seed collection period for selected tree species in
Thailand. Seed collection period for selected tree species in Thailand., 2 pp.
[4]
Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ, 1993. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees:
major commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5(1) Timber trees: major
commercial timbers., 610 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. PROSEA
NUGI 835.]; 817 ref.
[4]
Wasuwanich P, 1989. Phenological investigation of Australian tree species in field trials in Thailand.
Unpublished report. Bangkok, Thailand: Royal Forest Department.
[4]]
X. References:
[1] PROSEA, 1992: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (1) Timber trees: Major commercial
timbers.
[2] Nguyen et al, 1996: Vietnam Forest Trees. JICA/Vietnam Inventory and Planning Institute.
[3] Lamprecht, H., 1989: Silviculture in the Tropics. GTZ
[5] Schmidt, L., 2000: Guide to Handling of Tropical and Subtropical Forest Seed. CTSP-DANIDA.
[6] Plants for a Future:
http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Eucalyptus+camaldulensis&CAN=COMIND (Internet
source)
[7] CSIRO: http://www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/WfHC/Eucalyptus-camaldulensis/ (Internet source)
[8] FA, 2002 (draft): List of Trade Names of Commercial Wood in Cambodia, Trade Names of
9
Planting. (CD-ROM).
[11] Petri, Mathias (DED) 2006: Own observations.

(Internet source).
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith ]
Datasheet Report
[Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith ]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith [1]
B. English name (s) ³ forest red gum [1], blue gum, red irongum [2], flooded
gum, grey gum, siver ironbark, slaty gum, stinking gum [10],
forest river gum, horn-cap eucalyptus, mysore hybrid,
mysore-gum, Queensland blue gum [11].
C. Synonym ³ Eucalyptus subulata Cunn. ex Schauer (1843),
Eucalyptus insignis Naudin (1891), Eucalyptus umbellata

(Gaertner) Domin (1928) non Desf. [1], Eucalyptus
tereticornis var. pruiniflora (Blakely) Cameron, Eucalyptus
umbellata auct. non (Gaertn.) Domin, Eucalyptus umbellata
var. media Blakely, Eucalyptus umbellata var. pruiniflora
Blakely [2]
D. Other1 ³ forest red gum [1], mungurra [3], mysore gum [11]
(Trade name)
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: eRbgxül;søwktUc

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ preng khchal slek toch [2]

Other : Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
1
[General]: Medium-sized to tall forest tree, 18–46 m tall [4] (20-50 m [2], -45 m [3, 11]), dbh up to 1.5
m [3] (-2 m [1, 2], -1.8 m [4, 11]). Crown large and open or fairly dense, begins often close to the
ground. Trunk is usually straight and sometimes clear for more than half of the total height, with the
major branches steeply inclined. Strong taproot and long lateral roots. It does not develop resting
buds and grows whenever conditions are favourable.
[Bark]: The bark is smooth, whitish, peeling off annually in irregular thin sheets or large flakes,
becoming mottled with white, grey, or blueish patches. The trunk may also carry a short stocking of
rough, dark grey to black dead bark.
[Leaves]: Juvenile leaves first opposite, then alternate, egg-shaped, slightly discolorous, irregullary
veined. Adult leaves alternate, narrowly spear-shaped to spear-shaped, 10-20 cm x 1-2.5 cm [1] (12-
21 cm x 1.2-2.5 cm wide [3]), with drip tip, leaf stalk 13-24 mm long and hairless.
[Flowers]: The flowers are umbellate, 5–12 [3, 4] (7-11 [1]), spreading on equal stalks on 5–7 mm.
Umbels grow out of the leaf axils.
[Fruits]: The fruits (=capsules) are hemispherical, globe- or egg-shaped, 6–9 mm x 8–10 mm [4] (5-7
mm x 4-8 mm [1], 6 x 6 m [3]) with 4 or 5 strongly exserted valves. Seeds many, tiny, 1 mm long and
broad, shiny dark brown to black.
[1, 2, 3, 4]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is dark red, hard strong, tough, heavy, very durable but difficult to work.
Resistant to termite attack. Specific gravity r15 is 0.95 g/cm³ [3] (0.75–1.05 g/cm³ [4]). It is difficult to

season but can be easily worked with all types of tools. Similar to Cedrela wood.
[3, 4]

Most extensive latitudinal range 9-38°S [2] (6-38°S [3, 4]) of any species in the genus. Occurs
naturally along the coast and on adjacent hills and plains of eastern Australia. Most populations occur
within 100 km of the sea but the distribution extends further inland. Eucalyptus tereticornis also occurs
naturally in Papua New Guinea.
[2, 3, 4]

Altitude range 0-800 m in New Guinea, 30-1000 m in Australia [3] (0-1,000 m [1,11], 0-1,800 m [4, 7]).
Ranges from tropical very dry to moist through warm temperate dry to moist forest life zones. Native
to regions with summer and winter rains with total annual precipitation of 500-1,500 mm [3] (500-
3,000 mm [2], 500-3,500 mm [11]) with up to 7 dry months [3, 4] (-8 dry months [2]) and can tolerate
annual precipitation of only 50-200 mm. Mean annual temperature 14-24°C [3] (16-25°C [4]). Mean
maximum temperature of the warmest month 27°C [4] (22-32°C [3]), mean minimum temperature of
2
the coolest month 7°C [4] (8-12°C [3]). Moderately salt- and frost-tolerant with 0–15 frosts a year [4]
(fairly sensitive to frost [2]). It is also relatively fire-resistant.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 7]


Prefers moist but not waterlogged soils (grows also on seasonally waterlogged clays in forested
wetlands [2, 11]), loamy sands, alluvial loams and gravels with good nutrient availability. A certain
degree of salinity is tolerated and a neutral or slightly acid pH is preferred. However acid soils with a
low pH are not suited.
[2, 3, 4, 11]

[Wood]: Suitable for heavy construction, railway sleepers, piles, poles, fenceposts, mining timber (life
span of up to 50 years), trench linings, boxes, wharfes, fuelwood, charcoal, pulpwood, hardboard,
fiberboard and particle board.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 11]
[Non-wood]: A tannin is extracted from wood and bark. Eucalypt oil, cineole (45%) is the principal leaf
oil which is used for many medical purposes. The oil yield percentage by fresh weight is 0.9-1.4%
[11]. The wood itself contains 0.5% essential oil [11]. The tree is also a major source of pollen and
nectar, producing a caramel-flavoured honey.
[1, 3, 11]
[Others]: Effective for protecting river banks from soil erosion. Used as an ornamental tree in
Cambodia. Also used for shelterbelts, shade and in apiculture (bee-keeping).
[1, 2, 3, 7]

No class. [6]

[General]: E. tereticornis naturally grows scattered in open forest, savanna woodlands or alluvial flats
of the seasonally-dry tropics. It is used in plantation forestry, agroforestry and for reforestation. In
Cambodia it occurs usually along the avenues. Fast-growing, versatile and strongly coppicing. In
silviculture E. tereticornis is not distinguishable from E. camaldulensis.
[Management]: "Provenance trials are necessary before untertaking large scale planting. Like in the
case of E. camaldulensis, provenances from northern part of its range are considered to be
characterised by more vigorous growth" [3]. "Spacing and cropping systems are very variable - from
3
community plantings around homes, villages and roads to closely spaced commercial plantations -
and depend on the end-products required. Rotation varies with site quality and management
objectives. Eucalyptus tereticornis is usually grown on a short rotation and clear-felled at an age that
maximises production of logs of optimum size for a particular end use. This is usually small-diameter
material suitable for pulpwood, mining timber, charcoal or fuelwood. When pulpwood and firewood are
the principal objectives on a rotation of 5-6 years, a spacing of 1.5 m x 1.5 m is considered desirable
in India. Also in India, wider spacings of 4 m x 2 m or 6 m x 1.5 m are recommended when crops are
to be grown between the tree rows during the first three years, otherwise plantings are done at closer
spacings e.g. 2 m x 2 m, 2.6 m x 2.6 m and 3 m x 1.8 m" [2]. In young plantations, trees tend to
develop forks and steep branches, which have to be removed. Plantations regenerate from coppice at
least 3 times. The season of felling affects coppice regeneration. "Felling during the dry season
delays sprouting and increases the risk of the stump drying out. Felling by saw to give a cleanly-cut
short stump with minimum bark damage is best" [2].
[Yield]: The yield depends primarily upon humidity. The highest yields have been reported on the
borders of canals and under conditions of irrigation. "In irrigated plantations in Africa under good
conditions, the tree will yield 20 to 25 m³/ha/yr during the first 15 years; the yield then decreases to 10
to 15 m³ per ha per year unless the trees are cut down for sprouting" [5]. "On good sites in Argentina,
an MAI of 18–30 m³/ha/yr is obtainable, but in poor sites in India, the MAI may be closer to 3. Trees
which are 5 years old, spaced at 1,670 trees/ha, average a basal area of 18 m²/ha. Brazil (national
average yield 18 m³/ha/yr)"[4]. At rotations of 5-7 years in the best sites in DR Congo it produces
annual volume increments of 18-25 m³/ha. On poor sites in Uruguay 6m³/ha in 16 years rotation [3].
[Agroforestry]: "In agroforestry, it has been used in combination with crops (e.g. with corn in Pakistan,

esp. during the first 6 to 12 months, with tapioca (yucca) in India during the first 2 years)" [5].
[1, 2, 3, 5, 7]
Q. Propagation :
[Generative Propagation]: One tree produces 150-350g seeds per year at age of 3 years [2] (3-6
years in plantations [3]). Eucalyptus tereticornis is usually propagated from seed. There are an
average of 642,000 viable seeds/kg (540,000 seeds/kg [3], 285,000-800,000 seeds/kg [5]). No pre-
sowing treatment is required. Rapid germination under moist and warm (25°, 30° or 35°C optimal in
the laboratory) conditions in the presence of light. Germination is epigeal. Viability of seed stored dry
(5-8% moisture content [2], 60% rel. humidity [5]) in air-tight containers in the refrigerator (3-5°C [2],
4°C [5]) will be maintained for more than 10 years. "Seed requirements for eucalyptus sp. per hectare
for open plantations in Cambodia: Number of seeds per kg: 1,000,000. Planting spacing: 2 x 2 m. Net
seedlings required per ha: 2,500. Rate of loss: 3,000 = 20% in planting site, 3,334 = 10% in transit,
4,168 = 20% at the nursery. 40% germination rate. Total seed requirement 0.01 kg" [8].
[Vegetative Propagation]: Also easy to be propagated vegetatively. Grafting has been successful with
good results achieved using apical rind grafting in nursery beds. "Micro-propagation of the tissues
from bud, shoot or apex of stem has been carried out in China and India. In China this material has a
54% regenerative capability up to 10 months of age under in vitro or non-in vitro conditions.
4
Regeneration by stump plants has been successful in India. In vitro clonal propagation of the hybrid,
E. tereticornis x E. camaldulensis, has been carried out in India [2]. "Regeneration by sprouting has
been used and can be done three or four times in 10-year shifts" [5].
[Nursery Technique]: Seeds may be sown under shade either directly to nursery containers or first in
germination beds with seedlings transferred to containers at the second leaf-pair stage, or about 6
weeks from sowing. They do not require pretreatment to germinate [2]. Under controlled conditions,
seeds germinate well at alternating temperatures of 20 to 30°C with 8 hours of light [5]. Excess
moisture in the substrate should be avoided to prevent attacks by fungi and bacteria during the
germination process. They are commonly placed in hermetic- or well sealed plastic bags, metallic or
glass fiber containers. The seedlings can be grown in a variety of potting mixes including peat/coarse
sand/sandy loam, peat/vermiculite, and peat/vermiculite/perlite [2] or sterilized, fine, river sand [5].
Slow-release fertilizers may be added to the potting mixture at the rate of 1.75-4.3 kg/m³ [2] or liquid
fertilizer applied as the seedlings grow in the nursery. "Seedlings are planted out in the field when
they reach a height of about 25 cm, 3 to 5 months after sowing. This should coincide with the onset of
the wet season in tropical countries.
[2, 3, 5, 8].

E.tereticornis is not greatly threatened by pests and diseases.
[3]
[Pests]: Various stem borers like Agrilus opulentus have caused damage ins some areas. It attacks
small suppressed trees and can kill them by girdling the stem. Clearing appears to benefit the
plantation trees by removing alternative insect host plants. Application of dieldrin to the potting
medium of seedlings reduces the damge caused by termites to the root system of young plants.
[1, 2]
[Diseases]: Susceptible to damping-off and other fungal pathogens during the nursery phase. Regular
application of a fungicide or strict attention to hygiene, reducing watering and shade, and allowing
good ventilation can control this problem.
[1, 2]
S. Conservation :

It occurs especially along the Phnom Penh - Kampong Speu Road.
[7]
5
[Native]: Papua New Guinea, Australia
[1]
[Introduced]:
Europe (Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain),
Asia (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam, Yemen) ;
Africa (Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Comoros, Congo Democratic Republic,
Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi,
Mali, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South
Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zanzibar, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe),
Caribbean (Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago),
Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama),
North America (Mexico, USA),
South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay, Venezuela),
Oceania (Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Pacific Islands (US), Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon

Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu)
[1, 2, 4]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Boer E, 1997. Eucalyptus tereticornis J.E. Smith. In: Faridah Hanum I, Maesen LJG van der, eds.
Auxiliary plants. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 11, 137-140.
[2]
Booth TH, Pryor LD, 1991. Climatic requirements of some commercially important eucalypt species.
Forest Ecology and Management, 43(1-2):47-60; 31 ref.
[2]
6
Davidson J, 1988. Breeding eucalypts in tropical countries. In: Newman RL, ed, Proceedings
International Australian Bicentennial Forestry Conference, Albury-Wodonga, Australia, 25 April-1 May
1988. Canberra, Australia; Institute of Foresters of Australia. Vol. 5: 1-21.
[2]
Davidson J, 1993. Domestication and breeding programme for Eucalyptus in the Asia-Pacific region.
UNDP/FAO Regional Project on Improving Productivity of Man-Made Forests Through Application of
Technological Advances in Tree Breeding and Propagation (RAS/91/004-FORTIP). Los Baños,
Philippines: FAO of the United Nations.
[2]
Hartley A, 1977. The establishment of Eucalyptus tereticornis on tailings from the Bougainville copper
mine, Papua New Guinea. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 56(3):239-245; 13 ref.
[2]
Holmgren M, Pettersson P, 1995. Evaluation of long-term growth trials of Eucalyptus camaldulensis

and Eucalyptus tereticornis in Laos, South-East Asia: a minor field study. Working Paper -
International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, No. 282:24 pp.;
[ISRN SLU-IRDC-WP-282-SE]; 15 ref.
[2]
Khan JA, Akhtar P, 1973. Mechanical properties of Eucalyptus tereticornis. Pakistan Journal of
Forestry, 23(4):325-343; 8 ref.
[2]
Nguyen Hoang Nghia, 1997. Variation in growth and disease resistance of Eucalyptus species and
provenances tested in Vietnam. IUFRO Conference on Silviculture and Improvement of Eucalypts,
1997, Salvador. Proceedings. Vol. 1. Tree improvement strategies. Colombo: EMBRAPA, 416-422.
[2]
Pukittayacamee P, Saelim S, Bhodthipuks J, 1993. Seed collection period for selected tree species in
Thailand. Seed collection period for selected tree species in Thailand., 2 pp.
[2]
7
Tewari DN, 1992. Monograph on Eucalyptus.. Monograph on Eucalyptus., xv + 361 pp.; [17 colour pl.
(unpaginated)]; 87 pp. of ref.
[2]
Verma RK, Gurumurthi K, 1997. Improvement of important parameters of yield in Eucalyptus

Tereticornis by selection and clonal propagation. IUFRO Conference on Silviculture and Improvement
of Eucalypt, 1997, Salvador. Proceedings. Vol. 1. Tree improvement strategies. Colombo: EMBRAPA,
240-244.
[2]
Wang H, Zang D, 1997. Provenance tests of Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. in China. IUFRO Conference
on Silviculture and Improvement of Eucalypts, 1997, Salvador. Proceedings. Vol. 1. Tree
improvement strategies. Colombo: EMBRAPA, 305-309.
[2]
X. References:
timbers.

[4] Purdue University: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Eucalyptus_tereticornis.html

(Internet source)
[5] RNGR: http://www.rngr.net/Publications/ttsm/Folder.2003-07-11.4726/PDF.2004-03-03.1218/file/.

(Internet source)
8
Planting. (CD-ROM)
[9] Petri, M. (DED): Own observations.

(Internet source)

(Internet source)
9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Fagraea fragrans Roxb., Fagraea fragrans Pit]
Datasheet Report
[Fagraea fragrans Roxb., Fagraea fragrans Pit]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Fagraea fragrans Roxb.[1], Fagraea fragrans
Pit [3]
B. English name (s) ³ ironwood [1]
C. Synonym ³ Fagraea cochinchinensis A. Chev., Fagraea gigantea Ridley,
Fagraea sororia J. J. Smith, Fagraea wallichiana Benth. [1],

Fagraea peregrine Blume [7]
D. Other1 ³ pangsoma (Bangladesh) [1] - tembesu (Brazil) [1] –
ambinaton, kayu tammusu, ki badak (Indonesia) [1] - manpa
(Laos) [1] - ahnyim, anan (Myanmar) [1] - tembusu hutan,
tembusu padang, tembusu tembaga (Malaysia) [1] - dolo,
susulin, urung (Philippines) [1] - tembusu, tembusu hutan,
tembusu padang (Singapore) [1] - kankrao, man pla,
thamsao (Thailand) [1] - tembesu, tembusu, trai , trai nam bo

(Vietnam) [1, 7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: taRtav

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ tatraou [1], ta trao [3], ta trav [5]
Other : Gentianales
1
Family: Loganiaceae
Genus: Fagraea Thunb.
Species: Fagraea fragans Roxb.
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Medium sized to large tree up to a height of 20 m [3] (-25 m [1], -30 m [3], 8-30 m [7], -55 m
[2]). Occasionally large trees (up to 55 m tall) are described as a separate species (F. gigantea
Ridley). Diameter up to 135(-250) cm DBH [2] (-150 cm [3, 7]). Trunk sometimes with small to large
buttresses up to 2.5 m.
[Bark]: The bark is deeply irregularly fissured, yellowish-grey to dark brown, inner bark brown to
yellow and up to 1 cm thick. Yellowish white sap. Twigs are slender, almost cylindrical, hairless,
nodding, and yellowish-brown when dry.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, oblong to spear-shaped, or opposite-egg-shaped, 4-15 x 1.5-6 cm
[2] (7-12 x 1.5-5 cm [3, 4]), hairless and leathery, with an evident midrib below. Leaf tip short to long
broadly pointed. Secondary veins 5-16 pairs, barely visible or invisible above but visible below.
[Flowers}: Terminal flowering stalks bear 20-30 clustered flowers. Flowers white and very aromatic,
outer flower leaves 5, fused into a bellshaped tube, 0.7-2.3 cm long [3] (1.5-2.5 cm [4]). Inner flower
leaves 5, unequal in size. Stamens (= male organ) 5, exceeding the length of the flower leaves.

Ovaries (= female flower parts) are naked and exceed the stamens. Flowering April to July, fruiting
occurs from July to November [1]. "According to FIPI (1996), flowering occurs from April-June in
Cambodia, with fruits from July – November. However, the Forestry Magazine (FA, 1997) states that
flowering occurs in February-March and fruiting from May-June" [3].
[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) is broadly ellipsoid, globe-shaped, or nearly globe-shaped, 0.7-1 x 0.4-1
cm, green turning orange or red, tip rounded or pointed. One seed per fruit, 0.1-0.2 cm, roughly
angled.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 7]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Medium weight to heavy hardwood. Considered as a first-class turnery timber.
Heartwood pale yellow to yellow, darkening upon exposure to deep golden-brown, orange brown or
pale brown, not clearly demarcated from the paler sapwood. It is fine-grained, very strong, durable
outside and inside water and resistant to rot. Growth rings, when present are marked by tangential
bands of denser fibrous tissue. Wood density 0.51-0.93 g/cm³ [2, 8] (0.85-1 g/cm³ [3]) at 15%
moisture content. The proportion of high quality sawn timber is high in this species due to very good
stem forms. However, a defect in F. fragrans timber is the frequent occurrence of knots due to the
2
existance of branches. Good nailing properties and easy to saw. It can be peeled into 1.5 mm thick
veneer at a 90° peeling angle without pretreatment showing good results. Good gluing properties by
using formaldehyde. The heartwood is very difficult to impregnate satisfactorily, even by using
pressure. The sapwood is permeable to preservatives. Wood contains 63% holocellulose, 46-47%
alpha-cellulose, 24-29% lignin, 11-13% pentosan, 0.1-0.7% ash and 0.3% silica. The solubility of the
wood is 1.8-2.5% in alcohol benzene, 2.4% in cold water, 4.9-6.9% in hot water and 13.1-13.5% in a
1% NaOH solution. "In Indonesia drying takes 3 months to season 20 mm thick boards from 40% to
14% moisture content, whereas 13 mm thick boards have been reported to require 4-6 months in
Malaysia dry. Test in Malaysia at 17% moisture content showed the following mechanical properties:
modulus of rupture is 95-107 N/mm cubic, modulus of elasticity 14,000-14,100 N/mm cubic,
compression parallel to grain 52-62.5 N/mm cubic, compression perpendicular to grain 8-9 N/mm
cubic, compression shear 10.5-12.5 N/mm cubic, cleavage radial 37 N/mm, cleavage tangential 40
N/mm and janka side hardness 6,540-6,970 N. At green condition, modulus of rupture is 88.5 N/mm
cubic, modulus of elasticity 14,715 N/mm cubic, compression parallel to grain 51.5 N/mm cubic,
compression shear 5-5.5 N/mm cubic, cleavage radial 58.5 N/mm, cleavage tangential 58.5 N/mm,
janka side hardness 5,050 N and janka end hardness 6,180 N. At 15% moisture content, modulus of
rupture is 73.5 N/mm cubic, modulus of elasticity 12,360 N/mm cubic, compression parallel to grain
52.5 N/mm cubic, compression shear 6-6.5 N/mm2, cleavage radial 49.5 N/mm, cleavage tangential
54 N/mm, janka side hardness 3,985 N and janka end hardness 5,445 N. The rates of shrinkage from
green to oven dry 3.4% radial and 6.6% tangential" [8].
[1, 2, 3, 8]

Approximate limits: 23°N to 5°S [1]. Occurs generally in light primary and secondary evergreen or
mixed deciduous forest in humid or seasonally inundated locations, but also along roadsides,
streams, or rivers and along paddy fields. In freshwater swamp forest it is found in association with
Melaleuca spp. "In Cambodia, it is usually found in semideciduous forests and rarely in dense or open
forests" [3].
[1, 2, 3, 7]

Grows at 20-1,500 m a.s.l [1] (below 800 m a.s.l. [3, 7]) with a mean annual rainfall of 800-3,000 mm
in a bimodal rainfall regime. Tolerates a dry season length of 3-4 months [1]. Mean annual
temperature: 20-30ºC [1]. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 30-36ºC [1]. Mean minimum
temperature of coldest month: 15-25ºC [1]. Absolute minimum temperature: >5ºC [1]. Light
demanding tree species. Fire resistant due to corky bark. Able to suppress lalang grass (Imperata
cylindrica).
[1, 3, 7, 8]
3
Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Central Lowlands (d), Lower Mekong Floodplain
(E), Southern Annamites (g).
[3]
Kampong Thom (X:539779 Y:1444098), Kampong Thom (X:535833 Y:1429922), Kampong Thom
(X:550649 Y:1421984), Kampong Thom (X:534774 Y:1406109), Kratie (X:587956 Y:1388382),
Kampong Thom (X:524985 Y:1401082), Kampong Thom (X:529218 Y:1445532), Kratie (X:594835
Y:1425953), Koh Kong (X:336601 Y:1292074), Kampong Thom (X:544576 Y:1432832), Kampong
Thom (X:532794 Y:1398585), Pursat (X:290036 Y:1323858), Koh Kong (X:380635 Y:1241779), Kratie
(X:575828 Y:1457121), Preah Vihear (X:505989 Y:1532493), Kampong Thom (X:548465 Y:1434598),
Koh Kong (X:329784 Y:1266328), Koh Kong (X:285400 Y:1307780), Stung Treng (X:589200
Y:1518300), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650), Preah Vihear (X:511900 Y:1534350), Mondul Kiri
(X:715845 Y:1352093).
[3]
Grows well on poorly aerated and seasonally waterlogged, compact clay soils, and on poor sandy or
shallow sandstone soils along streams or rivers. Soil texture: light, medium, heavy. It can be planted
on poor or degraded but well drained soils and grasslands where it surpresses the grass growth.
Tolerates shallow soil. Growth is satisfactory on poor and eroded soils.
[1, 2, 3]

[Wood]: Used for ships, telephone/electrical poles, housing interiors, fuelwood (high quality), round
wood, transmission poles, posts, piles, building poles, sawn or hewn building timbers, heavy
construction, beams, light construction, carpentry/joinery, engineering structures, bridges, railway
sleepers, woodware, wood carvings, coffins, furniture, charcoal (high quality), barrels, chopping
blocks. "In Khmer culture, Fagraea fragrans pit is used for making doors and doorframes, particularly
in some historic temples" [3].
[1, 2, 3, 8]
[Non-wood]: The bark is used as a febrifuge, twigs and leaves as medicine to treat dysentery. Used
for revegetation and land reclamation due to ability to suppress dense cover of weeds, including
Imperata cylindrica and Gleichenia linearis. Shade- or shelter-tree in parks and along roads.
[1, 2, 3, 7, 8]

Luxury [3, 6]
4
[General]: Occurs generally in light primary and secondary evergreen or mixed deciduous forest in
humid or seasonally inundated locations, but also along roadsides, streams, or rivers and along paddy
fields. In freshwater swamp forest it is found in association with Melaleuca spp. It also occurs naturally
as a pioneer in burnt-over areas and "lalang" (Imperata cylindrica) grasslands. "In Cambodia, it is
usually found in semideciduous forests and rarely in dense or open forests" [3].
[Establishment]: Plantations in Java have been established with a 2.5-3 x 1 m spacing.
[Management]: F. fragrans is a vigorous pioneer forming light canopies in planted and natural stands.
It is a useful reforestation- and plantation species due to its high adaptability, good coppicing abilities
and ability to tolerate weeds. For effective weed control it should be mixed with shade tolerant
species. Mixing with Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth. subsp. bancana (Miq.) Bloembergen has been very
successful. Double stems should be removed, thinning every 5 years below and every 10 years above
the plantation age of 30 years is recommended. Pruning promotes height growth. Large trees are
frequently hollow. 15 years rotation for pole-plantations, 100 years for sawn timber production.
[Yield]: Mean annual diameter increment 0.8 cm (37 year old trial plantation in W-Java), 0.6 cm (20
year old plantation on Sabah on podsolic soil), 0.7 cm / 0.8 cm (38 / 29 year old plantation in
Peninsular Malaysia). Mean annual volume increment of timber plantations in Java are 6.1 m³/ha.
Mean timber volume in natural stands in Indonesia is 1.3 m³/ha.
[1, 2, 3, 8]
Q. Propagation :
The seed is mature when the fruits become dark brown. Seeds can be stored for 6 months, but they
lose their viability very soon when kept inside the fruit. Fresh seeds have a viability of 65-80%, can be
stored for 6 months and germinate in 15 days to over 2 months [8] (-3 months [2]). One kilogram
contains 5 mio. seeds [2, 8] (4 mio. [5]). Immediate sowing also gives good results. The seed should
be mixed with fine sand and sown under light shade. It needs protection from ants. Watering by
spraying. Seedlings are transplanted into nursery beds after 2 months when 5-7 cm high. Planted into
field when 30-45 cm high. Planting of stumps leads to multistemmed tree. Vegetative propagation is
done by cuttings and tissue culture. "However, cuttings with several internodes taken from the
branches of mature trees failed to root. But when taken from coppice shoots they rooted successfully.
In-vitro propagation proved possible from rooted cuttings, but failed using explants from 10-year-old
trees [8]". "Seed requirements per ha for open plantations in Cambodia: No. of seed per kg:
4,000,000. Planting spacing = 2.5 x 2.5 m. Net seedling requirements per ha: 1,600. Rate of loss:
1,920 = 20% in planting site, 2,134 = 10% in transit, 2,668 = 20% at the nursery. Germination rate
40%. Purity = 95%, Total seed reqirement 0.003 kg" [5].
[1, 2, 3, 5, 8]
5
[Pests]: Known insect pests are Bunaea alcinoe, Reticulitermes flavipes. In general it is not attacked
by ambrosia beetles, but debarked logs may be infested.
[1, 2]
[Others]: The sapwood is liable to staining. Thus it should be treated with anti-stain chemicals
immediately after sawing.
[2]
S. Conservation :
Generally this species is not endangered because it is distributed over large areas and behaves like a
pioneer tree species. "Because this wood is very valuable and in high demand, the species is
overexploited and in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented. Its
distribution is scattered and its habitats are being destroyed by forestland conversion and selective,
illegal logging. The number of mature trees has been reduced significantly and it is now difficult to find
significant sources of germplasm. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene
Conservation Strategy defined Fagraea fragrans Pit as a priority species, in need of immediate
protection and conservation intervention. This species is protected by Cambodian Forestry Law
No.35" [3].
[2, 3]

Koh Kong, Pursat, Stung Treng, Kratie, Kampong Thom, Mondulkiri and Preah Vihear.
[3]

[Native]: Brunei, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand
Vietnam
[1]
[Introduced]:
Asia (Singapore, Sri Lanka),
Africa (Nigeria),
Carribean (Jamaica),
South America (Brazil)
[1, 3]
6
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Toxicology]: "The sap of this tree may cause some irritation to the skin" [1].
[Taxonomy]: "Many botanists split F. fragans into two distinct species: F. gigantea as a large canopy
tree with a more regulary fissured bark and leaves with an unulating margin and only 5-6 not 8 pairs of
secondary veins. F. wallichiana as a smaller tree with broader leaves, larger flowers and larger more
ellipsoid fruits" [2].
[History]: "In the early 20th Century, F. fragrans and Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binnend. were
both exploited as 'ironwood' in much the same way in South Sumatra (Indonesia) and resources were
then already qualified as being depleted" [8].
Hildebrand, J.W., et al. 1995. Fagraea Thunb. In Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C.
(Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(2). Timber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Prosea
Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp 234-242.
[8]
X. References:
[2] PROSEA, 1995: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (2) Timber trees: Minor commercial
timbers.
Northern Thailand.
Planting. (CD-ROM).
7
(Internet source)
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Garcinia mangostana L]
Datasheet Report
[Garcinia mangostana L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Garcinia mangostana L
B. English name (s) ³ mangosteen [6]
C. Synonym ³ Mangostana garcinia Gaertn. [26]
D. Other1 ³ mangostan, mangis, mangostán, palo de cruz (Spanish);

mangoustan, mangoustanier, mangouste, mangoustier
(French); manggis, (Cambodia); (Indonesia, Malaysia);
mankhud (Laos); mingut (Burma); mangkhut (Cambodia);
manggustan, manggis (Philippines); mangkhut (Thailand);
cay mang cut, mang cut (Vietnam) [1,4,6].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ mgÇút

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ mangkhut [4]

Other : Theales
Family: Guttiferae [11]
Gunus: Garcinia
Species: Garcinia mangostana L. [4]
Source :[ 1 ; 4 ; 11 ; 27]
1
[General]: A beautiful tree, up to 20 m high, however does not exceed 10 m in cultivation, diameter
0.25-0.35 m. Crown conical, trunk straight, thick angular branches; poorly deveolped root system [1].
A tree, 10-20 m tall [4]. A tree, 6-25 m tall, with a straight trunk,symmetric branches, pyramid-shaped
crown [6]. Tree, 10-20 m tall, with low set branches and densely foliated crown [13].A small evergreen
tree, slow growing, erect with a pyramidal crown, 6-25 m high [26].
[Bark]: Brown-black, thick, rugose, exuding a pale yellow latex when cut [1]. Bark dark-brown or nearly
black, flaking, the inner bark containing yellow, gummy, bitter latex [26].
[Leaves]: Opposite, ovate, elliptic or oblong, apex obtusely acuminate, base acute, obtuse or rounded;
margin entire; relatively thick and coriaceous, deep green or yellowish-green above, shining,
yellowish-green below, glabrous on both surfaces; 12-23 cm long and 4-10 cm wide. The petiole is
1.5-2.0 cm long, swollen at the base, subtending an axillary bud [1].
Opposite, with short stalks, oblong or elliptical, 15-25 cm long and 7-13 cm wide, thick leathery, entire,
sharply pointed tip, smooth and olive green above and yellow green below, with a pale green central
nerve, evenly spaced, many prominent side-nerves [6]. Opposite, thick, leathery, elliptic-oblong, 15-25
cm long dark green [13]. Leaves opposite, short stalked, ovate-oblong or elliptic, leathery and
thick,dark-green, slightly glossy above, yellowish-green and dull beneath, 9-25 cm long, 4.5-10.0 cm
wide, with conspicuous, pale midrib. New leaves rosy [26].
[Flowers]: Hermaphroditic or unisexual by abortion of the stamens, solitary or paired at the branch
tips. They have 4 sepals and petals, 16-17 small stamens with long filaments and 2-celled fertile
anthers, a sessile subglobular 4-8 locular ovary with a sessile stigma [1]. Flowers on short, thick stalk,
alone or in pairs at tip of branchlets, about 5.5 cm in diameter, with 4 sepals and 4 yellow-green petals

with red edges [6]. Flowers 4-6 cm wide, pink, creamy-white in the centre, with 4 petals and sepals
each, in forkingly branched inflorescences. Flowers opening in the afternoon, sepals falling rapidly.
Often female flowers alone or flowers with sterile anthers are formed, hence fruit develop without
fertilization [13]. Flowers 4-5 cm wide, fleshy, may be male or hermaphroditic on the same tree. The
former are in clusters of 3-9 at the branch tips; there are 4 sepals and 4 ovate, thick, fleshy petals,
green with red spots on the outside, yellowish-red inside. Stamens many, fertile and sterile.The
hermaphrodites are borne singly or in pairs at the tips of young branchlets; their petals may be
yellowish-green edged with red or mostly red, and are quickly shed [26].
[Fruit]: Generally solitary or in pairs. The fruit is a round berry, 5-7 cm in diameter, with a persistent
calyx and surmounted by a persistent stigma.The violet-purple pericarp is very thick (0.8-1.0 cm) and
leathery. It encloses a variable number (5-7) of aril segments which may or may not surround the
seeds. The pericarp is not edible on account of the very bitter, pale yellow latex. It is the aril segments
which form the edible part of the fruit. The snow-white flesh has an exquisite taste, considered by
some to resemble grapes and peaches, and a scent of great delicacy (1).
The mangosteen fruit is a globose, smooth berry, 4-7 cm in diameter, dark purple when ripe, with the
petals remaining on the fruit. The "skin" is about 0.9 cm thick, purple with 0-3 big seeds embedded in
2
the glossy white "flesh" [6]. Fruit up to 9 cm in diameter, purplish brown, with large woody petals at the
base and 5 to 8 fold flatly attached remains of stigmas. The fruit is a berry with a wine-red fibrous
pericarp, nearly 1 cm thick, containing 5-8 fleshy-juicy segments functioning as seed cover but
frequently not containing any seed. Flesh very tasty [13]. Fruit a globose berry, capped by the
prominent calyx at the stem end, with 4-8 triangular, flat remnants of the stigma in a rosette at the
apex, dark-purple to red-purple and smooth externally, 3.4-7.5 cm in diameter. The rind is 6-10 mm
thick, red in cross-section, purplish-white on the inside, contains bitter yellow latex and a purple -
staining juice. There are 4-8 triangular segments of snow-white, juicy, soft flesh( actually the arils of
the seeds). The fruit may be seedless or have 1-5 fully developed seeds. Seed obovoid-oblong,
somewhat flattened, 2.5 cm long, 1.6 cm wide that cling to the flesh. Flesh slightly acid, mild to
distinctly acid in flavour, acclaimed to be exquisitely luscious and delicious [26].
Flowering only once a year with the excepton of southern Sri Lanka. Fruit must be harvested while the
pericarp is still soft. To avoid damage to falling fruit it must be picked by hand using ladders and
baskets [1]. At low altitudes in Sri Lanka, the fruit ripens from May to July; at higher elevations, in July
and August or August and September. In India, there are 2 distinct fruiting seasons, one in the
monsoon period (July-October) and another from April through June. Puerto Rican trees in full sun
fruit in July and August; shaded trees, in November and December [26].
I. Wood properties:
The wood is heavy, black and durable; its specific gravity is close to 1 or over 900 kg/m³. It is used for
construction and cabinet work, but its application is limited by its small size [1]. The wood is dark red ,
heavy, very strong and used in carpentry [6]. In Thailand, all non-bearing trees are felled, so the wood
is available but usually only in small dimensions. It is dark-brown, heavy, almost sinks in water, and is
moderately durable [26].

Mangosteen originated in the Sunda Islands and Malay Pensinsula and does not occur often outside
far-eastern countries. It stems originally from the tropical rain forests of the east coast of Malaysia
[13]. It is cultivated on a fairly important scale in Indochina, Java, Sumatra, Malay Pensinsula, the
Philippines, the Moluccas, and Sri Lanka [12].

Mangosteen requires an equatorial climate, with special conditions of temperature, humidity and soil
which only certain tropical countries can offer. This explains its rather weak distribution. Factors
essential for its cultivation are tropical temperatures and abundant rain distributed regularly
throughout the year. The lower parts of Sri Lanka receiving the southwest monsoon rains are
particularly favourable. G. mangostana must be sheltered from wind and sun [1]. A short dry spell
stimulates flowering [6]. The mangosteen is ultra-tropical. It cannot tolerate temperatures below 4 deg
C, nor above 38 deg C. It is limited in Malaysia to elevations below 450 m. In Madras it grows from
75-1 500 m above sea-level. It ordinarily requires high atmospheric humidity and an annual rainfall of
at least 1 270mm/ m² and no long periods of drought. The tree needs good drainage and the water
3
table ought to be about 1.8 m below ground level. The mangosteen must be sheltered from strong
winds and salt spray, as well as saline soil or water [26].
The following figures describe the range of climatic conditions favourable for this species: Altitudinal
range: 0-1000 m a.s.l. Mean annual precipitation between 1300-2500 mm/m² with uniform distribution
over the season; dry season duration between 0 to 2 months. The mean minimum temperature of the
coldest month may be as cold as from 5 - 20ºC, the absolute minimum temperature should stay above
5ºC [12].

not determined

G. mangostana grows well in clay soils; soils must be moist but without stagnant water [1].
[Wood]: Usable in construction and cabinet work but applications are severely limited by small
dimensions [1].
[Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh, conserves loose valuable aroma; an acceptable jam can be cooked. If
picked unripe they can be transported without loss [1]. The best table fruits are those with the highest
number of stigma lobes at the apex, for these have the highest number of fleshy segments and the
fewest seeds. The numbers always correspond [6]. Mangosteens are usually eaten fresh as dessert.
The fleshy segments are sometimes canned, but they are said to lose their delicate flavor in canning,

especially if pasteurized for as much as 10 minutes. Tests have shown that it is best to use a 40%
syrup and sterilize for only 5 minutes. The more acid fruits are best for preserving. To make jam, in
Malaysia, seedless segments are boiled with an equal amount of sugar and a few cloves for 15-20
minutes and then put into glass jars. In the Philippines, a preserve is made by boiling the segments in
brown sugar, and the seeds may be included to enrich the flavour. The seeds are sometimes eaten
alone after boiling or roasting. The rind is rich in pectin. After treatment with 6% sodium chloride to
eliminate astringency, the rind is made into a purplish jelly [26].
Medicinal use concerns fruit eaten against bilious fever, as a purgative and an anti-dysenteric [1,4,6].
From the rind a phytosterine and tannin (15% content) can be extracted while oil from the seeds
(which contain 45%) is occasionally obtained [13]. The fruit rind contains 7-14% catechin tannin and
rosin, and is used for tanning leather in China. It also yields a black dye. The fruit hulls show anti-
fungal and anti-protozoal activity [26]. The sliced and dried rind is powdered and administered to
overcome dysentery. Made into an ointment, it is applied on eczema and other skin disorders. The
rind decoction is taken to relieve diarrhoea and cystitis, gonorrhoea and gleet and is applied externally
as an astringent lotion. A portion of the rind is steeped in water overnight and the infusion given as a
4
remedy for chronic diarrhoea in adults and children. Filipinos employ a decoction of the leaves and
bark as a febrifuge and to treat thrush, diarrhoea, dysentery and urinary disorders. In Malaysia, an
infusion of the leaves, combined with unripe banana and a little benzoin is applied to the circumcision
wound. A root decoction is taken to regulate menstruation. A bark extract called "amibiasine", has
been marketed for the treatment of amoebic dysentery [26].

not included

A slow growing fruit bearing little fruit before reaching age 10 or 15; reaches full production when 20
years old. Extreme care must be exercised when establishing mangosteen in a new country,
regardless of the method of propagation used. Once separated from the fruit seeds lose their viability
after a few days, after a few weeks if remaining in the fruit [1].When leaving the nursery seedlings are
planted into holes with fertile humic soil. Spacing should be 10m x 10 m. Soils with high organic
content are superior to frequent fertilizing since the plant can only absorb small quantities of nutrients
[1].
A spacing of 10.7-12.0 m is recommended. Planting is preferably done at the beginning of the rainy
season. Pits 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.3 m are prepared at least 30 days in advance, enriched with organic matter
and topsoil and left to weather. The young tree is put in place very carefully to avoid root injury and
given a heavy watering. Partial shading with palm fronds or other means should be maintained for 3-5
years. Indian growers give each tree regular feeding with well-rotted manure, (45-90 kg) and peanut
meal (4.5-6.8 kg) total, per year. Some of the most fruitful mangosteen trees grow on the banks of
streams, lakes, ponds or canals where the roots are almost constantly wet. However, dry weather just
before blooming time and during flowering induces a good fruit-set. Where a moist planting site is not
available, irrigation ditches should be dug to make it possible to maintain an adequate water supply
and the trees are irrigated almost daily during the dry season. In Malaysia and Sri Lanka, it is a
common practice to spread mulch of coconut husks or fronds to retain moisture. It has been
suggested that small inner branches be pruned from old, unproductive trees to stimulate bearing.
Cropping is irregular and the yield varies from tree to tree and from season to season ranging from 6
years in Central America to 12-20 years in Thailand. The first crop may be 200-300 fruits. Average
yield of a full-grown tree is about 500 fruits. The yield steadily increases up to the 30th year of bearing
when crops of 1 000-2 000 fruits may be obtained. In Madras, individual trees between the ages of
20-45 years have borne 2 000-3 000 fruits. Productivity gradually declines thereafter, though the tree
will still be fruiting at 100 years of age [19,26].
5
Q. Propagation :
Seeds are recalcitrant and should be stored in their fruit at room temperature, or in moist peat moss,
even these will lose viability in 5 days after removal from the fruit, though they are viable for 3-5
weeks in the fruit. Viability can be maintained for 1-2 months in moist storage at 20 deg C, storage
temperature of 10 deg C is damaging. Seeds packed in lightly dampened peat moss, sphagnum moss
or coconut fiber in airtight containers have remained viable for 3 months. Only 22% germination has
been realized in seeds packed in ground charcoal for 15 days. Soaking in water for 24 hours
expedites and enhances the rate of germination. Generally, sprouting occurs in 20 to 22 days and is
complete in 43 days [26].
"Seeds are spread on open ground or planted in large polythene bags in which case the seedlings are
transplanted before reaching 60 cm height or when they have 6 pairs of leaves. Cuttings are taken
from well-ripened branches. They root easily in sand in a closed container, bottom heat as well as the
use of hormon powder will increase the take. Mangosteen can also be grafted on the stock of related
species of the same genus such as Garcinia xanthochymus Rock. f., a resistent and vigorous species.
Budding also gives good results if the buds are green, soft, non-petiolate and 2.5-4.0 cm long. On
leaving the nursery the young plants are planted in holes previously filled with fertile humic soil. At first
the plants must be shaded, e.g. with palm leaves. Great care must be taken that the last pair of young
leaves does not wither as this will result in a severe setback or even death. The spacing should be 10
m by 10 m. To increase use of the land intercropping with vegetables or other plants should be
practiced during the first 10 years. Arrow-root or ginger could be used. The mangosteen profits from
the manuring and tending of the interplanted crops. The species is obviously able to benefit from high
concentrations of nutrient material and soils with a high content of organic matter seem to be the best.
It pays to keep the content of organic matter high and spreading a thick cover of mulch or manure

under the trees is good practice. Pruning is limited to the removal of dead material or dying branches
and the suppression of long shoots or slender branches in the interior of the crown [1]."

A leaf-eating caterpillar in India may perhaps be the same as that which attacks new shoots in the
Philippines and which has been identified as Orgyra sp. of the tussock moth family, Lymantridae. A
small ant, Myrnelachista ramulorum, in Puerto Rico, colonizes the tree, tunnels into the trunk and
branches, and damages the new growth. Mites sometimes deface the fruits with small bites and
scratches. Fully ripe fruits are attacked by monkeys, bats and rats in Asia. In Puerto Rico, thread
blight caused by the fungus, Pellicularia koleroga, is often seen on branchlets, foliage and fruits of
trees in shaded, humid areas. The fruits may become coated with webbing and ruined. In Malaysia,
the fungus, Zignoella garcineae, gives rise to "canker"–tuberous growths on the branches, causing a
fatal dying-back of foliage, branches and eventually the entire tree. Breakdown in storage is caused
by the fungi Diplodia gossypina, Pestalotia sp., Phomopsis sp., Gloeosporium sp., and Rhizopus
nigricans. A major physiological problem called "gamboge" is evidenced by the oozing of latex onto
the outer surface of the fruits and on the branches during periods of heavy and continuous rains. It
does not affect eating quality [26].
6
S. Conservation :
Not a threatened species

unknown
In the hot and humid regions with near-equatorial climates of Southeast Asia; native in Malaysia,
Molucca Islands of Indonesia; introduced to Australia, India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines,
Caribbean Islands, and a number of countries in central America and West and East Africa [12,26]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
The edible parts represent about 30% of the weight of the fruit. The composition is as follows:
water 84.9%
protein 0.5%
fat 0.1%
minerals 0.2%
carbohyd. 14.3%
The seeds contain 45% fat [1].
Other products: Mangosteen twigs are used as chewsticks in Ghana. The rind of partially ripe fruits
yields a polyhydroxy-xanthone derivative termed mangostin, also ß-mangostin. That of fully ripe fruits
contains the xanthones, gartanin, 8-disoxygartanin, and normangostin. A derivative of mangostin,
mangostin-e, 6-di-O-glucoside, is a central nervous system depressant and causes a rise in blood
pressure [26].
Almeyda N, Martin FW, 1976: Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise 1. In: The
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.). US Agricultural Research Service South Region.
Asai F, Tosa H, Tanaka T, Iinuma M, 1995: A xanthone from pericarps of Garcinia mangostana.
Phytochemistry, 39(4):943-944; 8 ref.
Hutton W, Cassio A, 1996: Tropical Fruits of Malaysia and Singapore. Republic of Singapore: Periplus
Editions.
Normah MN, Nor-Azza AB, Aliudin R, 1995: Factors affecting in vitro shoot proliferation and ex vitro
establishment of mangosteen. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 43(3):291-294; 11 ref.
Nakasone HY, Paull RE. 1998: Tropical fruits. Crop Production Science in Horticulture No. 7 CAB
INTERNATIONAL, Wallingford, UK.
7
National Academy of Sciences, 1975: Underexploited tropical plants with promising economic value.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.; USA
Richards AJ. 1990: Studies in Garcinia, dioecious tropical fruit trees: the origin of the mangosteen (G.
mangostana L.). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 103(4): 301-308.
Othman Y, Suranant S, 1995: The Production of Economic Fruits in South-East Asia. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia: Oxford University Press.
Tirtawinata MR, Othman Y, Veevers-Carter W, Sidharta A, 1995:mm/ m²mm/ m² Fruit of Indonesia.

Jakarta, Indonesia: Mekar Unggul Sari.
X. References:
1) FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy,
177 pp.
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom
Penh, 915 pp.


11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University
Press, New York; 336 pp.
13) Baertels, A., 1993: Farbatlas Tropenpflanzen-Zier- und Nutzpflanzen (Color Atlas
Tropical Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ. Stuttgart, illustrated,
384 pp.
Agroforestree Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).
8
(Internet source)

9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale , Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f]
Datasheet Report
[Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale , Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale .[4],
Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f.[2]
B. English name (s) ³ Haldu (English, Indian)[17]
C. Synonym ³ Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f. ex Brandis [2]; Nauclea

cordifolia Roxb. [17] Caesalpinia dasyrhachis Miquel
D. Other1 ³ hnaw nhan -ben, nhing pen, (Burma); khvao, (Cambodia);
khao, thom (Laos); kwao, tong lueang, tum kwao (Thailand-

North); gáo lá tim , giáo vàng, (Vietnam) [2,4,17]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ xVav

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khvao [16], khwaw [4]

Other : Rubiales
Family: Rubiaceae
Gunus: Haldina Ridsd. [17)
Species: Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd.
Source :[ 2 ; 11]
1
[General]: Deciduous, medium to large-size tree, up to18-30 m high, attaining 70-100 cm diameter.
Trunk straight, cylindrical, branches horizontal, buttresses up to 1.5 m high [2]. A tree, 7-20 m tall [4];
deciduous tree with straight, slightly fluted trunk and open, rounded crown [5]. A deciduous, small to
medium-sized, sometimes fairly large tree up to 30 (-40) m tall; bole branchless up to 20(-25) m, up to
110 (-150) cm diameter, with buttresses and often fluted [17].
[Bark]: Greyish-white, longitudinally fissured, rugose, split, 1-2 cm thick. Young branchlets
quadrangular, ash-grey, hairy, terete and glabrous when old. [2,4] . Bark pale-brown to dark grey
smooth or scaly and finely fissured; inner bark pink to dark brown. Bark surface scaly, dippled,
greyisch-brown to reddish-brown, inner bark dark red to brown. The terminal vegetative, flattened bud
is a reliable identification mark [2, 4, 17].
[Leaves]: Leaves simple, opposite, leaf blade orbiculate or elliptic, base cordate, 10-30 cm long, 8-20
cm wide, dark green and glabrous above, pale green and slightly tomentose beneath. Simple,
opposite, entire; leaf-blade orbiculate or elliptic, base cordate, stipules appressed, markedly keeled,
10-30 cm long, 8-20 cm wide, dark green and glabrous above, pale green and slightly tomentose
beneath. Lateral nerves 5-8 pairs venules horizontal, nearly parallel. Petiole slender, 4-9 cm long,
canaliculate above. Stipule oblong curved, 10-15 mm long, tomentose [2]. Leaf 8-20x6-16 cm, rarely
to 30x20 cm, opposite in 2 rows (decussate), circular or broadly ovate with short tip and heart-shaped
base. Young leaves pale green with pink stalks, mature leaves thin with scattered rough hairs above
and denser soft hairs below. 5-7 basal veins, 5-8 pairs of side-veins. Stalks 3-8 cm, slender. Young
twigs squarish with flat, rounded buds, which are protected by a pair of pale, green ridged stipules,
1.2-1.8 cm [5].

Leaves opposite,simple, entire, broadly ovate, cordate at base, stipule appressed, markedly keeled
[17].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence head-shaped, 1.8-2.5 cm in diameter when blooming, pedicel 3-8 cm long.
Flower minute, yellow. Calyx tube cylindrical, lobes 5, oblong, valvate, slightly enlarged and rounded
at tip,strongly imbricate at apex. Corolla hypocrateriform, gamopetalous with 5 petals, lanceolate, 1
mm long. Stamens 5, inserted in the corolla-gorge, filament very short, anther mucronate at the tip.
Ovary bi-locular, inferior, style slender, exserted, 1 cm long, stigma small, ovoid to subglobose, with
many ovules. Flowers in an axillary, stalked, yellowish, head 5-merous, heads (2-4-10) from an axil;
interfloral bracteoles present [2,17].
[Fruit]: A capsule, dehiscent by 2 fissures from the base; in head-like infructescence, free, splitting into
4 parts, with persistent central axis and calyx [2,17].
Seeds 6-8, 2.5-3.0mm long, 2-winged at two ends [2]. Seed ovoid, slightly bilaterally compressed,
narrowly winged. Seedling with epigeal germination, cotyledons leafy [17].
Flowering in May-June, fruiting in August-November.[2]
2
I. Wood properties:
Wood of H. cordifolia is medium heavy and hard, with specific gravity of 550-650 kg/m³ [2] to 570-895
kg/m³ [26] at 15% m.c. Heartwood yellow to yellow-white when fresh, turning pale-yellow or reddish-
brown when exposed [17]. Sapwood yellow-white, distinguished from the yellow heartwood, but
quickly turning brown in open air [2]. Grain fairly straight, occasionally interlocked or spiral. Texture is
fine and even, the wood shiny. Growth rings not always distinct, vessels moderately small, solitary,
occasionally in radial multiples of 2-3, in small clusters, visible only with a hand lens (10x).
Parenchyma scarce, paratracheal vasicentric, apotracheal diffuse, and diffuse-in-aggrates not visible
even with a hand lens. Rays moderately fine, ripple marks absent. Shrinkage is high, the wood has a
slight tendency to check and split during air-drying. Hence, kiln drying seems advisable. The wood is
not very stable in use. However, it is easy to work by hand and with machine tools. It should be
planed with care to avoid picking single fibers up. It polishes well and takes a high lustrous finish.
[2,17]
Wood technological testing of the mechanical properties in Malaysia gave the following results:
modulus of rupture 84-86N/mm², modulus of elasticity 8,900-9215 N/mm² compression parallel to
grain 41.5-44.0 N/mm², shear 8.5-9.5 N/mm², Janka side hardness was 5070 N and Janka end
hardness 6275 N [17,26). The wood is moderately durable, preservative treatment by pressure
impregnation of both sapwood and heartwood is easy. The heartwood is resistant to fungi, the
sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle attack. The gross energy value of the wood is 18 500 kJ/kg
[17,26].

Haldina cordifolia occurs from India, through Sri Lanka, Southern China, Burma, Indochina, Thailand
to Vietnam, but it is rare in Peninsular Malaysia. Haldina is a monotypic genus.The species H.
cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsd. is found in dense, deciduous forests in the lowlands and lower hills in ts area
of distribution, but is rare in Peninsular Malaysia [17]. In Vietnam it is common in secondary tropical
evergreen or semi-deciduous forests [2].

H. cordifolia is found frequently but scattered in deciduous lowland forests between 700-800 m a.s.l.,
where average annual rainfall amounts to 1500 -2500 mm; usually growing along rivers or transitional
areas between swampy wetlands and dry loamy areas, which are flooded for short periods. H.
cordifolia grows associated with Terminalia nigrovenulosa, Stereospermum sp, Sterculia
lychnosphora, Buchanania arborescens, Choerospondias axillaris and Hopea odorata [2]. In Burma
and Thailand it is often associated with teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) [2,17]. The average geophysical
factors are as follows: Elevation 0-1000 m a.s.l., mean annual precipitation 750-2500 mm/ m² during
summer, values for minimum and maximum temperatures are given as above minus 2ºC and not over
plus 43ºC , respectively. The area of distribution extends approximately from 30º N-5º S [12].
3
not determined
A.cordifolia thrives in lowlands or foot hills on transitional sites between swampy, periodically flooded,
and dry loamy sites [2]. It grows best in well-drained ground, such as the lower slopes of hills, and on
alluvium, provided drainage is good. It has a massive root system in proportion to its size, which
makes it very resistant to drought. Nevertheless it is prone to browsing by domestic and wild animals
and it is not fire resistant [12].

[Wood]: The wood is rather hard, specific gravity from 550-650 to 590-895 kg/m³ , grain fine and easy
to work; used in construction and furniture making, in India also as construction timber. Can be used
for veneer-cutting [2] as well as for sawing into boards [4].
The wood is used in house construction, doors, window frames, stairs and flooring, but also for boat
building, furniture, implements and face veneer. It is also suitable for fine turnery work, for rulers,
pencil slats, bobbins, boxes and piano keys. The wood is reported as acid-resistant making it suitable
for laboratory bench tops and similar uses [17,26].
Debarking immediatelly after felling is recommended for preventing fungal attack of the sapwood. In
India girdling before the harvest is practiced to improve wood quality as trees can slowly air-dry before
being actually harvested and sawn. The wood of H. cordifolia is usually traded locally and rarely
exported because available volumes are quite low. In most producing countries the statistically
assessed production is small [17]

[Non-Wood]: Infusions cooked from the roots are used in traditional medicine to cure diarrhea and
dysentery(4).
In Burma foliage is being used as ground cover in teak (Tectona grandis) plantations, but it makes
also acceptable animal fodder [12]. I

not included

As young plants are fragile, bare-rooted planting stock is not recommended. Stumps of 2-year old
seedlings, however, are very successful as planting stock. One-year-old seedlings can be planted at
2x2 m spacing. Wildlings have also been used successfully. Although light-demanding, H.cordifolia
needs light shade in the first few years. Good drainage and weeding after planting are essential for
optimum development of the plants. Protection from grazing and bare soil are essential for the
establishment of natural regeneration. H. cordifolia coppices easily [26]. Trial plantations have been
established in Nigeria and South Africa, but results are unknown [17,26]. In agroforestry trials its
leaves and leaf extracts proved to have a serious allelopathic effect on associated crops. H. cordifolia
4
coppices easily and might be a promising species for for planting in areas with a seasonal climate
because of its favorable wood properties. Trial plantations using available information from India are
needed to confirm this potential [17].
Q. Propagation :
Haldina cordifolia can be raised from seed, but direct seeeding failed as the seed is minute (about 11
million seeds/kg). Ripe seed heads should be collected before seeds are shed, when the dry
separation of seeds from the heads is easy. Seeds can be stored for at least one year in an air-tight
receptacle. During the first year germination capacity increases to 13% due to after-ripening. A
pretreatment by soaking the seeds in water for 12 hours and then drying them slightly to facilitate
sowing has been recorded. As with other fine seeds they should be sown in very fine sand, covered
very lightly with fine soil or sand and watered by spraying frequently but lightly. They should be
protected from direct sunlight and rain. Mulching the seed beds proved better than using raised
screens for this purpose. Damping-off has been observed in the nursery. When 2-3 months old,
seedlings are pricked out into containers.

There are a number of noxious agents damaging Haldina trees. However, so far none of
them has been singled out as a real threat to the survival of plantations. The following
insect pests have been identified, but there is no information how they damage the tree
or its parts: Acalolepta cervina, Antitrygodes cuneilinea, Aristobia approximator,
Cephonodes hylas, Cephonodes picus, Dirades adjutaria, Epiplema quadricaudata,
Episparis liturata, Gonodontis clelia, Gonodontis clelia, Lyctus, Pantoporia silenophora
kanara, Parotis marinata, Rhodoneura nitens [12].
Fungus diseases are: Cercocladospora adinae, Cercospora adiniana [12].
S. Conservation :

unknown

Southern and Southeastern Asia, India, Sri Lanka, southern China, Burma, Indochina, Thailand,
almost native, in Nigeria, South Africa, introduced [26]..
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Haldina is related to Adina and a group of 4 small <satellite> genera, including Adinauclea, Metadina,
and Pertusadina in the tribe Naucleeae. It can be recognized particularly by the flattened terminal
vegetative bud, the lateral flower heads and the appressed, keeled stipules.
5
H. cordifolia might be a promising timber for planting in areas with a seasonal climate because it has
favorable wood properties. Trial plantations using the information available from India are needed to
confirm its potential. [17]
Cheksum Tawan, 1998. Haldina Ridsd. In Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T. & Prawirohatmodjo, S. (Eds.):
Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5(3). Timber trees: Lesser-known timbers. Prosea
X. References:
915 pp.
pp.
pp.


http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet
source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Hevea brasiliensis (Willd, ex A. Juss.)]
Datasheet Report
[Hevea brasiliensis (Willd, ex A. Juss.)]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Hevea brasiliensis (Willd, ex A. Juss.)
B. English name (s) ³ rubber [12], Brazilian rubber tree, hevea, Para rubber tree
[9], rubber wood, caoutchouc tree [7]
C. Synonym ³ Siphornia brasiliensis Willd. ex A. Juss [1], Siphonia
brasiliensis H. B. & K.[7]
D. Other1 ³ yegoma zaf (Ethiopia) [7] - kyetpaung (Myanmar) [7] –
caoutchouc, caoutchouc de para, h้v้a (France) [7] -

Parakautschukbaum (Germany) [7] - kayu getah, kayu karet,
pokok getah para (Indonesia) [7] - jaang (Laos) [7] - kayu
getah, pokok getah para (Malaysia) [7] - caucho (Spain) [7] -
mpira (E-Africa) [7] - katoh, yang phara (Thailand) [7] - cao
sau (Vietnam) [7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: ekAs‘U

Source: [11]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ Kaov Sou [11]

Other : Geraniales
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Genus: Hevea
Species: Hevea brasiliensis
1
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Hevea brasiliensis is a semi-deciduous tree which reaches in plantations a height at
maturity of 25 m [7, 12] (10-20 m [3], -40 m [2, 13], -20 m tall [9]) but wild trees of over 40 m [7] have
been recorded. The stem normally has a poor, tapered form, but in certain varieties a straight stem is
possible and it can reach a DBH of 35 cm [13] (50 cm [7] girth of 2.6–3.3 m [2]). It has no buttresses,
is unbranched up to 10 m [7], sometimes more and develops a much-branched leafy canopy. The
taproot is well developed.
[Bark]: The bark surface is smooth, hoop marked, grey to pale brown, the inner bark pale brown, with
abundant white latex.
[Leaves]: Leaves are alternate, consisting of three leaflets, which are opposite egg-shaped or broadly
elliptical to spear-shaped with a pointed leaf-tip and base and entire margin. Normally they are 10–
15(-50) cm x 3–6(-15) cm in size [2]. The leaves have stipules and leafstalks which are 7.5–10(-70)
cm long [2].
[Flowers]: The sweet scented and small monoecious flowers occur numerously in hairy inflorescences
(=panicles). They are greenish-yellow, creamy yellow or green, female flowers occur on top of the
inflorescence and are 10-12 mm long [13], the more numerous male flowers occur rather at the base
of the inflorescence with a length of 8-10 mm [13]. Inner flower leaves (=petals) are absent, the outer
flower leaves form a calyx which is 5-lobed [9] and covered with fine white hair
[Fruits]: The fruit (=3-lobed, 3-seeded ellipsoidal capsule) has a diameter of 3 to 6 cm [13] and change
its color from green to brown. Seeds are ellipsoidal, flattened on one or two sides, shiny, greyish or

pale in color, with dark coffee-colored spots that are oval. Seeds are variable in size, 2.5–3 cm long
[9] and 2-3.5 cm in diameter [13], weighing 2–4 g [13] each. They consist of a thin hard shell and a
kernel. Seeds may be ejected for up to 15 m by the explosion of mature fruits, but otherwise have only
few ways of dispersal. Seed collection takes place from July to September in India [2]. Seeds average
180 per kg [13].
[2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The heartwood is pale cream, often with a pink tinge when fresh, darkening on
exposure to pale straw-colored or pale brown, not clearly demarcated from the sapwood. The grain is
straight to shallowly interlocked. Texture is moderately coarse but even. Sawn rubberwood often
shows black stripes with the inclusion of bark material, the result of poor tapping practices with
damaged or removed cambium; in freshly sawn wood there is a characteristic and distinct smell of
latex. Rubber wood can be treated by pressure process using a mild schedule 5 kg/cm² pressure and
1 hour period [8]. It can be treated by soaking process at a moisture content near the fiber saturation
point. The wood is only moderately durable when exposed to the elements.
[2, 7, 8]
2
Approximate limits: 12°N to 35°S [1] (successful cultivation from 15°N to 10°S [7]). Rubber grows
naturally in the tropical evergreen rainforest of the Amazon Basin, often in periodically flooded areas,
but larger trees are found on the well-drained plateaus. In its natural habitat, it forms a part of the
middle storey of the tropical forest. Throughout the tropics it is cultivated in big scale plantations,
especially in South- and South-East Asia. In Cambodia, Kampong Cham and Kampong Thom
Province is famous for its many rubber tree plantations.
[1, 7, 11]

The tree grows on slopes ranging from 0-70% [13] at elevations from sea level to 1,200 m [13].
However, planting above 400-500 m a.s.l. is not recommended because trees at higher altitudes tend
to be smaller, with less vigorous growth, and with reduced production of both latex and timber. The
optimum ranges from 0 to 450 m a.s.l. [1] (300-500 m [5]). Suitable climate zones range from
'subtropical wet' (without frost) to 'tropical dry' to 'tropical wet forest life zones'. Rubber is reported to
tolerate an annual precipitation of 1,020 to 4,290 mm [2] (mean of 24 cases = 2,450 mm [2], 1,500-
3,000 (max. 4,000) mm [7, 13], 1,500-3,600 mm [1]). Optimal ranges are between an evenly
distributed annual precipitation of 1,900 to 2,600 or more [2]. Rubber can also tolerate drier conditions
3-4 months long [13] (2-3 months [7], 0-3 months [1]) or occasionally slight drought, but does not
flourish in areas with pronounced dry seasons and temperature fluctuations to which it responds by
shedding leaves. Relative humidity should not exceed 70-80% [13]. An annual mean temperature of
23.1 to 27.5°C [2, 5] is suited best (23-33°C [12], 22-30°C [13]). "Areas with a high cloudiness index
and frequent appearance of the dewpoint are not desirable, and the species requires 1,500 to 1,800
hours of annual sunshine. Winds greater than 8 m per second can damage or topple the tree" [13].
"However, more wind-resistant clones do exist" [7].
[1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 12, 13]


Hevea brasiliensis thrives best in deep well-drained and well ventilated loamy soil which is at least 1
m deep [13], covered by natural undergrowth or leguminous cover-crop as an erosion protection. It
prefers acid soil but tolerates a wide pH range of 4–8 [2] (4.0-6.5 [13], 4.3-8.0 [5], mean of 18 cases =
5.7 according to Duke, 1978 [2]). However, suitable soil types range from clay-loamy soils to clay
soils. It also tolerates some waterlogging but in high-rainfall areas, good internal drainage of the soil is
important. Lime is harmful, and shallow or poorly drained or peaty soils should be avoided. Lateritic
soils are suitable for growth.
[2, 5, 7, 13]
3
[Wood]: Rubberwood was formerly regarded as a byproduct of the rubber plantations and used for the
production of charcoal or as fuelwood, for brick making, tobacco drying and rubber drying. "The
importance of the timber from the rubber plantations is now fully recognized, and in Southeast Asia it
is planted solely for timber production" [7]. Most of the timber is used to manufacture furniture. Other
uses include interior finish, moulding, e.g. for wall paneling, picture frames, drawer guides, cabinet
and other handles, parquet flooring, many household utensils, blockboard cores, pallets, crates,
coffins, veneer and glue-laminated timber, e.g. for staircases and door and window components.
"Since the timber is only moderately durable when exposed to the elements, it should not be used for
exterior purposes. Offcuts and other rubberwood residues have been used successfully in Malaysia
for the production of particle board, wood-cement board, and medium-density fiberboard" [7].
[1, 7, 12]
[Non-wood]: "Latex, the source of hevea or para rubber, is obtained by tapping the trunks of the trees.
The latex coagulates with the aid of acetic acid, formic acid and alum. Cured rubber is used for all
types of rubber products. Although poisonous, seeds of rubber can be eaten as a famine food after
processing, which involves prolonged soaking or boiling to remove the cyanic poisons. Some of the
denser wild stands of rubber in the Amazon are said to be due to artificial enrichment by indigenous
peoples to increase food supply. Seeds contain 40-50% oil, which dries well and is suitable for use as
food and for technical purposes. Seeds are the source of para rubber seed oil. Boiling removes the
poison and releases the oil, which can be used for illumination. Kernels (50-60% of the seed) contain
semi-drying pale yellow oil used in soap making, paints and varnishes. Kernel oil is effective against
houseflies and lice" [7]. "The oil can either be expressed (hot or cold) or extracted. The press cake

contains 8-15% residual oil, whereas the extracted meal has only 2-4% " [14]. "Seeds are sometimes
eaten off the ground by cattle. Press cake or extracted meal can be cautiously used as feed for
livestock or as a fertilizer. So much nectar is secreted by the extra-floral nectaries that rubber is an
important source of honey. Rubberwood waste is an excellent medium for the growing of mushrooms,
especially oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.). The mottled seeds of H. brasiliensis are still used for
fish bait by rural folk along the Amazon River" [7].
[Other]: Intercropping with pineapple, beans, coffee or cocoa is possible. Especially for coffee and
cocoa Hevea brasiliensis can be used as a shade tree. A fodder crop such as Cajanus might be tried
for lac production instead of the usually recommended cover crops (e.g. Calopogonium, Centrosema,
Flemingia, Psophocarpus, Pueraria). Cattle can graze under the mature trees.
[7, 12]
No class. [4]
4
[General]: Rubber grows naturally in the tropical evergreen rainforest of the Amazon Basin, often in
periodically flooded areas, but larger trees are found on the well-drained plateaus. In its natural
habitat, it forms part of the middle storey of the tropical forest.
[Establishment]: Stands are established by using direct sowing or planting stock. The area to be
planted with rubber is cleared, lined and marked for roads and drainage. Planting pits are dug, 75 x 75
x 75 cm [7], or 90 x 90 x 90 cm [7] and filled with surface soil and manure. It is preferable to establish
a legume cover after transplanting in the field.
[Management]: The economic life cycle of a rubber plantation is 30-35 years [7], after which replanting
is necessary. Weed control is essential in rubber plantations. Pruning to shape the trees and removal
of the unwanted lateral suckers is essential. Mulching should be carried out just before the end of the
late rains. "Recommended fertilizers must be applied at the right time and at the recommended
doses" [7].
[Harvesting]: "Tapping begins when trees are 5–8 years old, depending on the area, and increases
every year until a maximum at about 20 years, then yield sustained for 40–50 years or more. Tapping
consists of removal by excision of a thin cut of bark about 1 mm deep at regular intervals, thus
opening the latex vessels in the bark, which are arranged in concentric cylinders and run in counter-
clockwise spirals up the trunk. Usually the cuts run half-way around the trunk, but may encircle the
tree. Several types of cuts are used. Only the basal part (1.3 m) of the trunk is tapped (most latex
vessels develop here). Special knives are used to cut the proper depth and angle. Latex is collected
through a small spout fixed in the bark in cups placed at end of cut, large enough to collect one-day's
flow. Trees are tapped early in morning when flow of latex is highest; flow decreases with temperature
and usually ceases in about 3 hours. An average tapper can tap 200–300 trees in 3 hours. Then the
tapper starts back through the grove and empties the cups into large pails or buckets, sometimes
adding a few drops of dilute ammonium solution to prevent coagulation. Rubber yield can be
increased treating the bark below the tap with yield-stimulating mixtures containing plant hormones
and selective weed-killers with hormone properties, as Stimalax, Eureka, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T in palm oil.
Copper sulfate also enhances latex flow" [2].
[Yield]: About 1,500-1,800 kg/ha/yr [12] of rubber latex can be harvested in plantations.
[Agroforestry]: Intercropping with pineapple, beans, coffee or cocoa is possible. Especially for coffee
and cocoa it can be used as a shade tree. A fodder crop such as Cajanus might be tried for lac
production instead of the usually recommended cover crops (e.g. Calopogonium, Centrosema,
Flemingia, Psophocarpus, Pueraria). Cattle can graze under the mature trees. After a few years under
legumes, no nitrogen fertilizer may be needed, but phosphorus, magnesium and potassium may be
limiting in some areas.
[1, 2, 7, 11, 12]
5
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: The rubber tree starts bearing fruit at four years of age. Fruits are
collected when they change from green to brown, the time at which the seeds have the most
germinative power. Each fruit contains three or four seeds, which fall to the ground when the fruit
ripens and splits. Each tree yields about 800 seeds (1.3 kg) twice a year [14]. Seeds average 180 per
kg [13]. Their storage behaviour is recalcitrant, "viability can be maintained for 3 months in moist
storage with moist charcoal and sawdust in a perforated polythene bag at 7-10°C. Whole seed
moisture content is 36%; lowest safe moisture content is 20%, and no seeds survive further
desiccation to 15% mc. Seeds are killed on exposure to -5°C for 3-4 hours. Commercial clonal seed
are stored in cold storage at about 4°C, which often gives reduced but tolerable germination" [7]. "If
they do not dry out, seeds can survive from a few weeks to a few months. Ventilation should not be
limited because the seeds have a high respiration" [13]. "Pregermination of the seeds must be done in
sawdust beds. Seeds germinate shortly after release from the mother plant and 8 days after being
planted (only 7-10 days [7]). 15 days after collection, the seeds’ germination percentage decreases
considerably. The average germination percentage is 60%. The germinator should be 1 m wide by 10
cm high with variable lengths. The germinator is prepared with muddy soil, which is covered with a
layer of sawdust. The seeds are placed with their ventral surfaces on the sawdust, 1 cm apart. One
thousand seeds will fit into 1 m² of germinator. A threshing floor of 1.7 m² will produce 1,700 seeds,
which provide the 500 plants needed to plant 1 ha. Germination occurs 8 to 10 days after planting (1-3
weeks, depending on climatic conditions and freshness [7]), and the plantules are transplanted when
they reach an appropriate developmental state. The threshing floors are watered abundantly to
maintain humidity and facilitate germination" [13].
[Propagation]: Rubber can be propagated through seed or vegetatively by grafting (buddings, cuttings

[7]) or tissue culture. "Usually 2 or more seeds per hole are planted, and then seedlings are
selectively thinned, or the seeds are planted in a nursery. Seedlings grow to 1-1.5 m in 6 months.
Seedlings also make good cuttings, but rubber-bearing trees take very poorly or not at all" [7].
[1, 7, 13, 14]

[Pests]: "Pests include plant parasites such as Loranthus spp., nematodes such as Helicotylenchus
cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. erythrinae and Meloidogyne incognita acrita. Insect pests include scale
insects (Aspidiotus cyanophylli and Parasaissetia nigra) and white ants. Snails can be serious pests
of young trees, and various animals can damage the trunks" [7].
[Diseases]: "Three types of root disease, classified as white, red and brown, are controlled by cutting
away diseased tissue and applying prophylactic coatings. Panel diseases, classified as black stripe,
mouldy rot and panel necrosis, are minimized by spraying or coating specific fungicides. Stem
disease, consisting of pink disease, stem canker and die-back, is reduced by brushing on specific
fungicides. Leaf disease, consisting of abnormal leaf fall, Gloeosporium leaf disease, powdery mildew
and bird’s-eye spot, is controlled by a variety of sprays, including copper oxychloride and sulphur
dust, applied by spray or dusting techniques" [7].
6
S. Conservation :

[Native]: Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela.
[2, 7]
[Introduced]: Brunei, Cambodia, China, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Liberia, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uganda, Vietnam.
[2, 7]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Varieties]: "There are many improved varieties and cultivars in areas where Para Rubber is cultivated
commercially. These vary in size, productivity of latex, and disease resistance. (2n=36, 34,72)" [2].
[Chemistry]: " Per 100 g, the poisonous seed is reported to contain 8.5 g H2O, 17.6 g protein, 48.5 g
fat, 22.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g ash, 120 mg Ca, and 430 mg P. Leaves contain - and -
tocopherol, and plastochromanol-S. Ubiquinone 9 and 10 heveaflavone, vitexin, and isovitexin are
also reported. The latex contains 60% water, 37% caoutchouc, 0.34% protein, 1.45% quebrachitol,
0.25% sugar, 0.53% ash, and 0.34% undetermined substances. Arachidylacohol, r, -, -, -, and -
tocotrienol, hevein, L-inosit-2-methylether, -indolylaceticacid, trigonelline, ergothioneine, and

hercynine. Bark contains D-apiose (C5H10O5). Seeds contain the toxin linamarin (C10H17NO6). The
seed oil (ca 40%) contains 7% palmitic-, 9% stearic-, 0.3% arachidic-, 30% oleic-, 30–50% linoleic-,
and 2–23% linolenic-acids [2]". "Fresh rubber-seed oilcake contains up to 0.09% prussic acid, which
is released, as in linseed, from a glucoside by an enzyme" [14].
[History of cultivation]: "During the last century, rubber was a forest product, obtained chiefly from wild
hevea trees in the Amazon basin. About 1895, it began to be taken up as a plantation crop for the
eastern tropics and in central Africa. Now practically all of the world’s supply of natural rubber comes
from plantations of H. brasiliensis, known as para rubber, only a very small proportion coming from
uncultivated hevea trees growing in Brazil. Natural rubber accounted for about 30% of world demand
in 1991, the balance being provided by synthetic rubber derived from byproducts of the mineral-oil
industry. Most of the stock for rubber plantations in Southeast Asia came from a consignment of 22
seedlings sent to the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1877 from Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, UK. The
Goodyear Company made plantings in the Philippines in 1928. Rubber seeds were first sent to India
from Brazil in 1873, but they did not survive. A 2nd attempt was made in 1875, but the seeds were no
longer viable when they reached India. Para rubber was introduced into various tropical African
countries early in the 20th century. Thus Uganda received a seedling from Kew in 1901 and from Sri
7
Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1903. By 1912, 15 000 acres had been planted in Uganda. The Firestone
Company began plantings in Liberia in 1924" [7].
India.
[7]
Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil
[7]
Cobley L.S & Steele W.M. 1976. An Introduction to the Botany of Tropical Crops. Longman Group
Limited.
[7]
Crane E, Walker P. 1984. Pollination directory for world crops. International Bee Research
Association, London, UK.
[7]

Gonçalves P. de S. Cardoso M. Ortolani A. A. (1990) Origin, variability and domestication of Hevea -
a review.
[11]
[7]
Lanzara P and Pizetti M. 1978. Simon & Schuster’s guide to trees. Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York.
[7]
Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC (eds.). 1995. Plant Resources of South-east Asia. No
5(2). Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
8
[7]
MacMillan HF et al. 1991. Tropical planting and gardening. Malayan Nature Society.
[7]
Nigel JHS, Williams JT, Donald LP, Jennifer PT. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell
University Press.
[7]
Opeke LK. 1982. Tropical tree crops. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
[7]
Priyadarshan P.M. Goncalves P. de S. (2002) Allied Species of Rubber and their Distribution.
[11]
Purseglove JW. 1968. Tropical crops. Dicotyledons. Longman Group Ltd, UK.
[7]
Taylor DH, Macdicken KG. 1990. Research on multipurpose tree species in Asia. Proceedings of an
International Workshop held November19-23, 1990 in Los Ba๑os, Philippines. Winrock International
Institute for Agricultural Development.
[7]
Webster C.C. Baulkwill W.J. (1989) Rubber.
[11]
Protectorate.
[7]
X. References:
9
[2] Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/SearchEngine.html (Internet source)
Phnom Penh.
[5] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=506541 (Internet source)

[8] Khurshid Akhter, 2005: Preservative Treatment of Rubber Wood (Hevea brasiliensis) to increase
it's Service Life. The International Research Group on Wood Protection, Bangalore, India
(http://www.irg-wp.com)

[9] Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER): http://www.hear.org/pier/species/hevea_brasiliensis.htm
(Internet source)
ROM).
Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock
International. 320pp.
[13] V.M. NIETO and J. RODRIGUEZ, Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family).
Corporacion Nacional de Investigacion of Forestal Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia.
[14] Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO):
http://www.fao.org/AG/aGA/AGAP/FRG/AFRIS/index_en.htm (Internet source)
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Hopea ferrea Lanessan]
Datasheet Report
[Hopea ferrea Lanessan]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Hopea ferrea Lanessan [1]
C. Synonym ³ Balanocarpus anomalus King (1893), Hopea anomala (King)
Foxw. (1927) [1]
D. Other1 ³ malut, giam (Trade name) [1] - malut, chengal laki, chengal
batu (Malaysia) [1] - chik, cha:d, kh'è:n hin (Laos) - takhian-

hin, kian-sai, takhian-nuu, takhian sai, lao tao (Thailand) [1,
7] - s[aw]ng d[af]o, sao t[is]a (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: KKIfµ

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôki thmâ [10], koki thmor [5]
Other : Malvales
Genus: Hopea Roxb.
Species: Hopea ferrea Lanessan
Source :[ 1]
1
[General]: A medium-sized, sometimes large evergreen tree with a height of 20-35 m [1, 9, 10]. The
bole is cylindrical and straight but often twisted and gnarled and with a diameter of up to 70-80 cm [9]
(-145 cm [1]) and inconspicuous buttresses. The crown is globe-shaped with numerous twigs.
[Bark]: The outer bark is shaggy, shallowly fissured, flaking in thin scales, dark brown or grey. The
inner bark is of dull orange-yellow color and much fibrous, 1-1.2 cm thick [9].
[Leaves]: Young leaves have a brilliant red color. In general leaves are simple and asymmetric,
opposite egg-shaped, 4-10 cm x 2-5.5 cm [1] (4-6 x 2-4 cm [9]) with a broadly wedged-shaped base,
or rarely blunt, and a slender drip tip up to 2 cm long [1]. The venation is ladder-like, with an evident
midrib above, secondary veins in 6-8 (-9) pairs [1] (8-10 pairs [9]), arched, slender but distinctly raised
beneath.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence is the only part of the plant with hairs. Flowers are white with 2 longer
fruit calyx lobes up to 4 cm x 1 cm [1] (3-4 x 1-1.8 cm [7]), broadly spoon-shaped, blunt, 3 shorter
lobes up to 5 mm x 1 mm [1] (3-4 x 1 mm [7]), spear- to needle-shaped and thickened. Flowering
season is from March to December (Thailand) [7].
[Fruits]: The fruit (=nut) is cylindrical spindle-shaped, resinous, approximately 1 x 0.3 mm [7] in size.
Fruiting season is January-December (Thailand) [7] (March to April in Vietnam [9]).
[1, 7, 9, 10]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is thin yellow or
brownish- yellow, the heartwood is very heavy with fine grains and is distinctly darker, sometimes

showing a brownish-red color. It easily split when dry. The density of the wood is 0.87-1.17 g/cm³ [1]
at 15% moisture content. The timber is durable not affected by insects and favorable for furniture
making. The trunk contains yellowish and aromatic resin.
[1, 9, 10]

H. ferrea occurs frequently in small, almost pure stockings in SE-Asia and continental Asia. It is a
typical Indochinese species, widespread throughout the region except N-Vietnam. "In Thailand, it is
found throughout the country, but very scattered in northern areas (Chiang Mai) and not recorded
from the western part" [7]. It occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the lowlands,
occasionally by streams which can contain a considerable amount of deciduous tree species (20-50%
[4]). "These forests are usually 25 to 30 m [4] tall, with closed canopies and a lower tree stratum of
some 5 and 17 m in height" [4]. The tree is also rather commonly found in rocky limestone formations
in dry evergreen forest. In evergreen forests H. ferrea usually grows in nearly pure stands or clearly
dominant. However in other forest types it is frequently associated with Anisoptera costata,
Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia spp., Sindora siamensis, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Schima
superba, Terminalia chebula, etc. On the riversides it can be found within degraded vegetation.
[1, 4, 7, 9, 10]
2
Hopea ferrea is a light demanding tree species of the lowlands growing at an altitude of up to 700 m
a.s.l.
[7, 9]


Hopea ferrea grows on rocky ridges and slopes, especially on limestone but also on granite and
sandstone formations. In upper Peninsular Malaysia (Kedah, Perlis, Langkawi) it is very common on
limestone ridges. An acid to neutral pH is preferred.
[1, 7]

[Wood]: "H. ferrea is a commercially important source of 'giam' timber, which is sometimes traded
separately and called 'malut'" [1]. The timber is used for the construction, to make boards, beams,
columns, furniture and boats.
[1, 8, 10]
[Non-wood]: This species yields a very fragrant resin, which is collected in Indo-China.
[1]

First class [2]

[General]: It occurs in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the lowlands, occasionally by streams
which can contain a considerable amount of deciduous tree species (20-50% [4]). "These forests are
usually 25 to 30 m [4] tall, with closed canopies and a lower tree stratum of some 5 and 17 m in
height" [4]. The tree is also rather commonly found in rocky limestone formations in dry evergreen
forest. In evergreen forests H. ferrea usually grows in nearly pure stands or clearly dominant.
However in other forest types it is frequently associated with Anisoptera costata, Dipterocarpus alatus,
Lagerstroemia spp., Sindora siamensis, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Schima superba, Terminalia
chebula, etc.. On the riversides it can be found within degraded vegetation.
[1, 4, 7, 10]
3
Q. Propagation :

S. Conservation :
This species is threatened and since 1994 [3] (1998 [8]) classified as endangered (EN A1cd+2cd,
B1+2c [8]) and vulnerable (VU A1cd, B1+2cd [7]) according to the IUCN (International Union for the
Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). However, in
Thailand it is still found throughout its potential distribution range with some fragmented distribution
areas, with a great number of collections and individual trees.
[3, 6, 7, 8]

[World distribution]
[Native]:
Laos, Cambodia, S-Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and NW-Peninsular Malaysia.
[1]
[Introduced]: Brunei, Malaysia

[6]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Van Steenis, C.G.G.J. 1948. Flora Malesiana. Flora Malesiana Foundation, Leiden.
[8]
X. References:
[3] Omaliss, K. and Monyrak, M., 2006: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia - Status, Issues and
Prospects. 19 pp. (Internet publication)
4

bin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=1364644904&spd=6776&tx=PL (Internet source).

http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Hopea.htm#4.2%20Hopea%2
0ferrea (Internet source).
[8] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Species Information:

http://www.redlist.org/search/details.php?species=33161. (Internet source).

5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis]
Datasheet Report
[Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis
B. English name (s) ³ No English name available.
C. Synonym ³ Hopea andamanica King, Hopea dealbata Hance, Hopea
suavis Krurz ex Brandis, Shorea helferi Kurz, Vatica helferi

Dyer [4]
D. Other1 ³ krabok krang, ngon-kaibok, ngon kai, takhian-nuu, takhian
mi, giam lintah bukit, pha nong daeng, pha nong hin, bai lang
khao, bak dam (Thailand) [6, 7, 8] - damar, mata kucing,
damar siput (Malaysia) [7] - thingan kyauk (Myanmar) [7] -
sao xanh (Vietnam) [7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: KKIEdk / epþókRkhm

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ koki daek, phdiek kraham [3], ko ki dek [2]
Other : Malvales
Genus: Hopea
Species: Hopea helferi (Dyer )Brandis
Source :[ 6]
1
[General]: Medium-sized to large evergreen tree species with a height of 20-37 m [4] (8-25 m [2,3], -
50 m [7]) with round, straight stems of beautiful form which are branchless for 15-21 m [7] and attain a
DBH up to 165 cm [7] (a girth of 2-3 m in Myanmar [4]), sometimes with large and coarse buttresses.
Young shoots are covered by thin hairs.
[Bark]: The bark is smooth to fibrous, reddish-brown to dark brown and peels off in flakes with a
pinkish shine.
[Leaves]: The leaves are 10-18 x 3.5-7 cm [4] ((5-)10-24 cm x (2-)4.5-8 cm [7], 10-14 x 4-6 cm [2]),
more or less oblong, sometimes rather spear-shaped with a pointed tip and leathery. The leaf base is
rounded or heart-shaped, the lateral nerves are in 13-17 more or less parallel pairs [4] ((12-)14-16
pairs [7]). The leafstalk is 0.5-1.3 cm long [4] and channeled above.
[Flowers]: Flowers are produced in an inflorescence (=panicle), which is terminal or from the axils of
upper leaves, grey and densely covered with star-like hairs. Flowers occur in rows of 4-12 [4] on
racemes. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are unequal, with 2 larger ones with an oval to oblong and
blunt shape and 3 smaller ones which are rather more pointed and thin. The inner flower leaves
(=petals) are pale yellow and narrowly elliptic-oblong. Stamens (=male organs) 15, the anthers have a
fine hairy appendage. The ovary (=female organ) is short cylindrical, pointed and hairless, slightly
tapering upwards and constricted about the middle. The species flowers from January to February.
[Fruits]: Mature fruits are produced from March to April. The fruit is ovoid, ending abruptly in a short
point, hairless and still surrounded by the base of the enlarged outer flower leaves (=sepals), the
larger ones 5-8 x1-1.2 cm [4] (6.5 cm x 1.8 cm [7]), narrowly oblong, with a rounded apex hairless,
with 7-9 nerves [4], the 3 smaller sepals ovate and 3-4 mm long [4] (5 x 3 mm [7]).

[2, 3, 4, 7]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is very hard and moderately heavy with a pale yellow sapwood, turning
pale brown on exposure and a yellowish brown to brownish-red or brownish grey heartwood,
sometimes with dark streaks interlocked grained, with a medium texture. The rays are rather fine,
spindle shaped, not closely spaced and evenly distributed. Resin canals are very irregularly
distributed. It is diffuse porous, with small to medium sized moderately numerous round vessels which
are uniformly distributed. It has a density of 0.895-1.125 g/cm3 at 15% moisture content [7]. In general
the wood is not durable. It is difficult to saw, but is easy to work with and can be brought to a fairly fine
finish. Treatment is not easy, especially with the heartwood where the the side- and end penetration is
almost zero. It is also resistant to water and air.
[2, 4, 7]
2
This species has a widespread distribution throughout Southeast Asia and also occurs in South Asia
on the Andaman Islands (India). It is often cultivated in the Mekong delta and the Malay Peninsula. H.
helferi occurs solitarily or in small groups on hill slopes and undulating land in semi-evergreen forest
and moist evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests and riparian forests.
[2, 3, 4, 7, 8]

Hopea helferi usually grows below 700 m a.s.l. [2] (up to over 500 m [7], 0-400 m [8]) in tropical
monsoon climates. It is a shade tolerant tree species when young.
[2, 7]

Northern Cardamons (B), Redlands (c), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Central
Annamites (G), Southern Annamites (g).
[2]
Preah Vihear (X:506199 Y:1529405), Kampong Thom (X:556593 Y:1405028), Kratie (X:621507
Y:1343173), Kratie (X:574776 Y:1455668), Kratie (X:584122 Y:1377330), Stung Treng (X:659571
Y:1525339), Siem Reap (X:402976 Y:1544202), Preah Vihear (X:514960 Y:1536045), Kampot
(X:425917 Y:1212667), Mondul Kiri (X:720687 Y:1355859), Pursat (X:354350 Y:1348650).
[2]

H. helferi occurs on deep and wet soils especially on sedimentary rocks with an acid to neutral pH.
The species occurs also in relatively poor sites where it is distributed sporadically.
[2, 4, 6, 7]

[Wood]: The wood is used for light and heavy construction and for fishing and racing boats. Houses
constructed from it can last for 7-8 years [2] and boats up to 30 years [2]. It is also commonly used to
make local carts, handicrafts and cabinets.
[2, 3, 6, 7]
[Non-wood]: The resin is demanded for the manufacture of varnish and also for making firetorches for
local use.
[2]
3
First Class [1]

[General]: H. helferi is often cultivated in the Mekong delta and the Malay Peninsula. H. helferi occurs
solitarily or in small groups on hill slopes and undulating land in semi-evergreen forest and moist
evergreen forests, dry evergreen forests and riparian forests.
[Establishment]: No information available.
[Management]: Selective fellings are carried out in Myanmar for good quality logs.
[2, 3, 4, 7, 8]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: "The seeds of Hopea helferi are mature and ready for collection when
the wings have turned to a dark brown and the coat has changed from green to yellow. It is important
to time the collections of this species carefully, as seeds that are not fully mature have low viability.
The fruit is collected directly by climbing the tree, or by shaking the branches over tarpaulins spread
on the ground. Collection from the forest floor should be avoided as these seeds have low viability
and are often heavily infected by weevils. Fresh seeds have high moisture content and must be kept
in loosely folded bags away from the sunlight during transport and temporary storage. Seed Handling:
Soon after collection in the field the wings of each fruit must be removed manually; while immature
and insect-infected fruits are to be discarded" [2].


S. Conservation :
"Dipterocarp forests in general, and Hopea Helferi in particular, are now uncommon due to the over-
exploitation and degradation of their habitats. Large populations of this species are now rarely found
within forest concession areas. The species often grows in moist forest, and along streams. Thus,
when their habitat is destroyed, trees cannot easily regenerate. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on
the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined Hopea Helferi (Dyer) Brandis. as a priority species in
need of immediate conservation intervention and appropriate protection" [2]. This tree is threatened
and critically endangered (CR A1cd+2cd, B1+2c [5]), according to the IUCN (International Union for
the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). It is found
throughout its fragmented potential distribution ranges with a small number of individual trees. The
number of recent and past collections are comparable.
[2, 5]
4
In Cambodia, it is found in Stung Treng, Siem Reap, Preah Vihear, Mondulkiri, Kampot and Pursat [2]

[Native]:
Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, India (Andaman Islands), Malaysia (Peninsular), Vietnam
[4, 6, 7]
[Introduced]:
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Naturelle, Paris.
[7]
Foxworthy, F.W., 1932. Dipterocarpaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forest Records No 10.
Printers Limited, Singapore. 289 pp.
[7]
[7]
Grewal, G.S., 1979. Air-seasoning properties of some Malaysian timbers. Malaysian Forest Service
Trade Leaflet No 41. Malaysian Timber Industry Board, Kuala Lumpur. 26 pp.
[7]
Lee, Y.H., Engku Abdul Rahman & Chu, Y.P., 1979. The strength properties of some Malaysian
timbers. Revised edition. Malaysian Forest Service Trade Leaflet No 34. Malaysian Timber Industry
Board, Kuala Lumpur. 107 pp.
[7]
Ng, F.S.P. & Tang, H.T., 1974. Comparative growth rates of Malaysian trees. Malaysian Forester 37:
2-23.
[7]
[7]
5
[7]
Tang, H.T. & Tamari, C., 1973. Seed description and storage tests of some dipterocarps. Malaysian
Forester 36: 113-128.
[7]
[7]
X. References:
Phnom Penh.
[4] Regional Office for the Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph
1985/4. Regional office for the Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.

[5] www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)
[6] Sontara, S. (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Hopea.htm (Internet
source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Hopea odorata Roxb]
Datasheet Report
[Hopea odorata Roxb]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Hopea odorata Roxb
B. English name (s) ³ white thingan [11]
C. Synonym ³ Hopea decadra Buch. Ham. ex Wt., Hopea wightiana Mig. ex
Dyer, Hopea eglandulosa Roxb [4]
D. Other1 ³ thingan, white thingan, merawan (Trade name) [9, 11] - koki
mosau, sao den, sao (Vietnam) [9, 11] - takhian thong,

takhian-yai (Thailand) [7, 9] - sauchi, thingan net (Myanmar)
[11] - merawan siput jantan, chengal mas, chengal pasir,
merawan siput jantah, net sauchi, thingan (Malaysia) [9, 11] -
kh'e:n (Laos) [9] - rimda (India) [14]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: KKIremSA

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôki msau [3], koki mosau, thmar [9], koki msav [12], koki
masao, ko ki msau [2]

Other : Malvales
Genus: Hopea Roxb.
Species: Hopea odorata Roxb
Source :[ 4,9]
1
[General]: Hopea odorata is a large evergreen tree species, growing up to 45 m tall [2, 6, 9, 11] (40 m
[15], 30-40 m [17]. The bole is straight, cylindrical, branchless to 15-25 m [2], with a DBH of up to 120
cm [2, 6, 9] (up to 80 cm [17], 450 cm or more [11]) and has prominent buttresses. The crown is
dense, dark green, pyramidal or conical in young trees and spreading in mature trees. Twigs are
slender, and hairless, except when young.
[Bark]: The bark surface is grey-brown to black and has irregular longitudinal shallow fissures in
immature trees but becomes scaly with deep cracks when reaching maturity. The inner bark is yellow
or reddish.
[Leaves]: Hopea odorata is notable from other Dipterocarpaceae due to a bunch of black hairs on the
leaves. The leaves are simple and alternate oval to spear-shaped and 10-20 cm long [6] (15 cm [9], 7-
14 x 3-7 cm [11], 8-12 x 3-6 cm [2], 8-14 x 3-6 cm [17]) with a slightly unequal wedge-shaped leaf-
base. The leaf-blade has a dark green color and is approx. 11-nerved with a parallel venation and a
flat midrib. The leafstalk is 2 cm long and slender.
[Flowers]: Flowering stalks are terminal or axillary, 12 cm long [9], twice-branched, with many up to
205 cm long branchlets bearing up to 9 flowers [9]. Flowers are small, unisexual and sweet scented
with 5 pinkish [6] (yellowish-white [11]) and hairy flowerleaves (=petals). Male flowers have 15
stamens (=male organs) [11] with narrowly ellipsoid anthers. Female flowers contain one ovoid ovary
(=female organ) which is spotted and hairless. Flowering occurs between February and March [2, 6,
17] (February-April [11]), at more or less regular intervals, usually every two years in trees which are
more than 8-10 years old [2].

[Fruits]: The fruits ripen in April-May [2, 17] (May-June [11], April-July [6]). The period between
anthesis and maturity of the fruit is about three months. The fruit (=nut) is globe-shaped to conical,
green when immature, about 1 cm in diameter [6] (0.7-0.8 cm [2] and still surrounded by the flower
leaves. It has two wings which are 3-4 cm long [11] (6.2 cm long [9], 5-6 x 1-2 cm [2]) and finely
veined lengthwise. There is one seed per fruit. The seeds are polyembryonic with an average of 4
embryos per seed [2]. In some fruiting years, fruits are produced in large quantities; in others it is
restricted to a few branches. The fruits are dispersed by wind and seeds germinate readily on falling
to the ground.
[2, 6, 9, 11, 15, 17]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is pale yellow, the
heartwood is yellow, grey yellow to olive brown or brownish red, sometimes with dark streaks, turning
purplish on exposure, with white tangential lines (=resin canals) at irregular intervals. Annual rings are
conspicious and usually 3-6 mm [17] wide. It is shining when first exposed but becomes dull with age.
The surface is medium smooth and moderately heavy, with broadly interlocked grains. Wood fibers
are 1.3-1.8 mm [17] long. The timber is strong with a moderately fine and even texture. It has a
2
density of 0.5-0.98 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [4] and 0.75 g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [4]
(0.74 g/cm³ when dry [17], 0.755 g/cm³ [11]). "The volume shrinkage coefficient is 0.45, fiber
saturation point 18%. The pressure strength along the grain is 0.647 g/cm³, the static bending
strength 1.635 g/cm³, the splitting strength is 16 kg/cm and the collision bending strength is 0.97" [17].
The timber is moderately easy to re-saw and crosscut. "Planing is fairly easy and the surface
produced is smooth. Nailing property is rated very poor. The timber seasons slowly with slight cupping
as the only defect. 15 mm boards take approximately 4 months to air dry while 40 mm boards take 6
months. For kiln drying, Schedule H is recommended. 25 mm boards take approximately 5 days to
kiln dry from 50 to 10% moisture content. There is no recorded drying degrade" [9]. The wood is
moderately durable, resistant to termite attack, however, also very resistant to preservative treatment.
H. odorata is commercially grouped together with other species of light hardwood Hopea sp. as
'merawan' in Malaysia, Indonesia and elsewhere.
[2, 4, 9, 11]

Approximate limits: 20°N to 5°S [9]. H. odorata is native to S- and continental SE-Asia from the
Andaman Islands (India) to Myanmar, Thailand and Indochina with its southernmost limit in north
Peninsular Malaysia (in North Perak and Terengganu). It is a common tree of the moist evergreen
forests, although it is a riparian species and grows concentrated in lowland areas and near the banks
of mountain streams. Occasionally it can also be found in beach forests. In Cambodia, H. odorata
grows predominantly in mixed closed evergreen forests or in pure stands, either in small groups or
alone. In Indochina H. odorata usually is associateds with dipterocarps like Dipterocarpus alatus,
Anisoptera cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus intricatusi and a number of leguminous species such as
Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia cochichinensis.
[2, 4, 9, 11, 14, 17]

In Indochina, H. odorata is found up to an altitude of about 300 m a.s.l. [4, 9] while the Indian
population, occurs at higher altitudes (0-600 m [11], -700 m [10]), away from streams. It thrives in
zones with different tropical climate, from moist equatorial climates with a mean annual rainfall of
2,200-5,000 mm [11] to distinct seasonal climates with a mean annual rainfall of 1,500-2,000 [17]
(1,200-4,000 mm [9]) and a dry season of 0-5 months [9] (4-6 months [17]. The average relative
humidity in these climates is about 75-85%. However, it will also tolerate a lower mean annual rainfall
below 1,000 mm [9] but only if it is close to streams. Best growth is obtained in climates with a mean
annual temperature of 25°-27°C [4, 9] (36-40°C [11]). The mean maximum temperature of hottest
month is 27-35ºC [9], the mean minimum temperature of coldest month 18-22ºC [9] and the absolute
minimum temperature is between 0 and 14ºC [9]. H. odorata is shade tolerant when young (during the
first five years), but later requires sunlight. Fire is uncommon in its natural habitat. It is fire sensitive
and in case of fire the young seedlings get killed.
[2, 4, 9, 10, 11, 17]
3
Coastal Cardamons (A), Redlands (c), Northwestern Lowlands (D), Central Lowlands (d), Southern
Annamites (g).
[2]
Kratie (X:586633 Y:1446326), Kampong Thom (X:563879 Y:1410872), Kratie (X:616002 Y:1430186),
Stung Treng (X:586368 Y:1471991), Stung Treng (X:591660 Y:1485220), Preah Vihear (X:514571
Y:1538087), Ratanak Kiri (X:727499 Y:1498000), Koh Kong (X:286900 Y:1314675), Koh Kong
(X:381914 Y:1239061), Kampong Thom (X:553651 Y:1403643), Ratanak Kiri (X:710012 Y:1548585),
Siem Reap (X:401706 Y:1544626), Kratie (X:618814 Y:1345788), Koh Kong (X:285400 Y:1307700),
Mondul Kiri (X:722301 Y:1356694).
[2]
Good growth is obtained on grey soil on old alluvium, feralit on mica schist, granite or red basalt soils,
lateritic soils, sandy soils and tropical soils with humus content 2-3%. In general well drained [9] but
moist (wet [5]), deep and rich soils, usually along the banks of streams, in flat land and on the
footslopes of mountains are suited. An acid to neutral pH between 5.5 and 6.5 is preferred.
"Experiments have shown that H. odorata is suitable for planting in degraded sites such as log yards,
skid trails from logging activities, and ex-mining land" [9].
[5, 9, 11, 17]

[Wood]: The timber is a strong light hardwood which is traded as 'merawan'. It is used for heavy and
light construction, (e.g. bridge construction), beams, carpentry/joinery, wall panelling, exterior fittings,
gates, furniture, flooring, roofing, piles, fences and fenceposts, engineering structures, hydraulic
works, containers, pallets, crates, boxes, veneer, wood based materials, plywood, blockboard,
laminated wood, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, laminated strand lumber, oriented
strand lumber, composite boards, wood cement, gypsum board, particleboard, waferboard,
flakeboard, oriented strandboard, fiberboard, hardboard, medium density fiberboard, improved wood
carts, presses, ploughs and a number of other uses, especially for boat and ship construction. "This
species is of special importance in Cambodia as it is used in the manufacture of Cambodian racing
boats. Following rarefraction due to extensive exploitation, it has been replaced by the wood of
Shorea obtusa" [2]. It is also an excellent wood for railway sleepersand is also used as an alternative
to maple (Acer spp.) for shoe and boot making.
[4, 6, 9, 11, 16, 17]
[Non-wood]: The leaves, bark and wood contain 11, 13-15, and 10% [11] tannin respectively, and are
thus used for tanning purposes. Especially the bark is suitable for tanning leather and produces an
4
inferior resin which is called 'rock dammar'. This resin has been commercially classified as a second
quality 'dammar' and has similar uses to Dipterocarpus spp. in preparation of picture paintings and
varnishes for indoor decorative work. The Burmese use the resin to caulk their boats and mix it with
ink for paintings. "A composition prepared by mixing the resin with bees-wax and red ochre is used for
fastening spear and arrowheads" [11]. The tannin rich leaves have a softening effect and are used for
finishing mangrove-tanned leathers. Parts of this tree are commonly used in traditional medicine: The
'dammar' is applied on sores and wounds. It is used to treat diarrhea, and forms part of a remedy for
the treatment of inflammations of the gums and incontinence. It can also replace the areca nut in betel
quid. In Indo-China, the bark has been used for chewing as it produces a flexible pale leather and is
also used as an astringent.
[2, 4, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16]
[Others]: It is suitable for planting on degraded lands for revegetation and land reclamation and is also
widely planted as an ornamental and shade tree for amenity purposes. In SE-Asia this species is used
for reforestation, especially in Vietnam. In Cambodia it is planted as an ornamental tree especially
next to roads, pagodas and schools.
[2, 6, 9, 11, 16]

First class [1]

[General]: H. odorata is a common tree of the moist evergreen forests, although it is a riparian species
and is concentrated in the low lying areas and near the banks of mountain streams. It also
occasionally grows in beach forests. In Cambodia, H. odorata grows in closed mixed evergreen forest
or in pure stands, either in small groups or alone. In Indochina H. odorata usually is mixed with
dipterocarps like Dipterocarpus alatus, Anisoptera cochichinensis, Dipterocarpus intricatusi and a
number of leguminous species such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Xylia xylocarpa, Dalbergia
cochichinensis. It grows easily in a wide range of habitats and is easy to handle as a plantation
species. Its tolerance of disturbed habitats has made the species popular in urban plantings. This
tolerance also makes the species suitable for plantation forestry. However it is rather slow growing
and a poor coppicer. It is a strong shade bearer in early stages and can tolerate shade in the pole
stage also, but becomes strongly light demanding with age. It also has the ability to selfprune.
[Establishment]: It is advisable to plant this tree species on grey soil, old alluvium or secondary forest
soil with a forest cover still remained. Seedlings raised in a nursery are planted out in moist barren
area under a cover crop which is subsequently removed. As a planting system pure planting or mixed
planting with Dipterocarpus alatus, Indigofera teysmanii can be conducted. "It can be planted in
patches or bands (15-30 m wide), with an average density of 600 trees/ha (4 x 4 m) to 1,000 trees/ha
(3 x 3 m) so that final density after thinning is 300-400 trees/ha" [17]. In case of ornamental plantings,
sufficient space must be provided for the tree to grow, as mature trees even in the urban environment
5
can reach large sizes. The species also performs favorably in planting trials in degraded land and in
logged-over forests in log landings and skid trails. H. odorata seedlings need slight shading.
Indigofera teysmanii and Cassia siamensis are best used as support species and usually are used in
the first 2-3 years [17] of the plantation. Little tending is required once the trees are established after
about three years. Initial tending such as weed control and the removal of competition from
surrounding trees is essential during the establishment phase.
[Management]: Tending is done in 7 consecutive years until canopy closure. In year 1 to 3 tending
operations are conducted two times, one time before and one time after the rainy season. Tending
includes weeding, heaping soil to the tree base, loosing the hardpan and cutting of lianas. In year 4 to
5 shoot thinning, stem shaping and canopy opening for growth promotion are carried out. In year 7 to
8 thinning is necessary to provide sufficient growing space. Besides these activities, there must be a
fire control, especially in the dry season as H. odorata is very vulnerable to fires.
[Increment and Yield]: This tree has the highest increment among the dipterocarp species with a
diameter increment of 0.97 cm/year [2] and a height increment of 0.51 m/year [2]. "Growth data is still
lacking but records of arboretum trees at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) showed
diameter increment rates of about 1.8 cm/year for 46 year old trees with a mean diameter of 80 cm
which have been ready for harvest. Rotation cycles have not been calculated or developed for the
species but based on growth rates of a limited number of trees, a cycle of 30 to 40 years is feasible
for the species on suitable sites" [9].
[Agroforestry]: In general this tree might be suitable for agroforestry systems, however, mixed
cropping with coffee (Coffea canephora) in Vietnam turned out to be unsuccessful. The trees had to
be pruned very intensively to provide enough light for the coffee shrubs.

[2, 4, 9, 17]
Q. Propagation :
[Natural Regeneration]: H. odorata is a light-demanding species but is not invasive. Natural
regeneration often occurs in areas of low shade and profusely around the mother trees. To encourage
natural reproduction, the overhead canopy should be thinned or removed . "In Peninsular Malaysia it
regenerates freely along rivers" [9]. In shelterwood systems in evergreen forests it is difficult to obtain
enough natural regeneration because of a rather dispersed distribution. Additional direct sowing in
lines 15 cm apart [4] with overhead shade provided by a cover crop has been successful.
[Seed collection and storage]: H. odorata is a dipterocarp species with annual flowering and fruiting
and seed supply source for forest planting plans is rather stable. During fruiting years, fruits are
produced in great quantities. Seed collection season is April-May [17] when the coat of the fruit turns
from green to yellow. It is best to collect the seed in the middle of fruit falling season. In this period the
fruits are usually full and ripe in great numbers. They are collected from the ground under the seed
bearers and can also be collected by lopping small branches or climbing the tree. However, there are
high incidences of seed predation from weevils, particularly in seeds collected from the forest floor.
For mass collection purposes, the fruits are often collected by shaking branches to get the fruits to
6
drop. A canvas is spread under the tree to facilitate collection. After collection the wings are removed
manually and small, immature fruits and insect infected fruits are discarded. Fresh seeds have high
moisture content and must be kept in loosely folded bags away from the sunlight during transport and
temporary storage. Seeds loose their germinability very quickly 10-15 days [17] after collection, which
may reduce the germination rate by 50% [17]. Thus, after seed collection the seeds should be treated
by a immersion in water to sprout and then sown in seed bed. Germination can be improved by
soaking in water for 8 hours [6] before sowing. There are about 3,000-4,600 seeds/kg [11]. Seeds are
recalcitrant and die within five days due to dehydration. If dried at 35°C to 33% moisture content,
seeds could stay viable for 1-2 months [11] at 15°C [11] , maintaining a germination rate of over 60%
[11]. Undried seeds show a germination rate of 75% [9] after 14 days storage at 14°C [9]. If stored at
4°C, the seeds can stay viable for about three months [11]. However, storage at low temperature may
cause chilling damage. "With longer storage, viability is often lost and germination percentage
decreases even after storage at low temperatures, particularly temperatures below 10°C. Storage in
nitrogen gas did not slow the deterioration of H. odorata seeds" [9].
[Nursery technique]: The seedlings are still to young if planting in the same year should be conducted.
Thus it is necessary to maintain the seedlings in the nursery at least for 12 months [17] (6-9 months
[6]) when the average height of the seedlings is between 80 and 100 cm [17] ( 40-60 cm [6]). In the
nursery the seeds are sown in seedbeds 8 cm apart [4] (7.5 cm [11] and transplanted to into PE pots
(15 x 20 cm [17]) with a pot mixture of 75-80% soil of the surface layer [17] and 15-20% of
decomposed farm manure [17]. About 70g of seed [11] is enough for one squaremeter of nursery bed.
The seedlings perform best under 50% [17] shade. "Germination rate has been found to be 73% in
unshaded beds, 83% in shaded beds and 40% in direct field sowings" [11]. Generally, a shade crop is
grown to protect the young seedlings from the first hot weather and to keep weeds down. However,
the young plants need full overhead light and the shade crop should be cut back periodically to ensure
it does not overtop the tree. Weeding, occasional watering and loosening of the soil around the plants
is recommended in the nursery. "Ectomycorrhizal infection appeared to improve growth rates of
seedlings of H. odorata" [9].
[Seed Requirements for 1 ha of open plantation in Cambodia]: "No. of seeds/kg: 3,000. Planting
spacing: 4 x 4 m. Net seedlings required per ha: 625. Rate of seedling loss: 750 or 20% (at the
planting site), 834 or 10% (in transit), 1043 or 20% (at the nursery). Germination rate: 80%. Number of
seeds needed: 1304. Weight of seeds required: 0.44 kg. Purity: 90%. Total seed requirement: 0.49
kg" [18].
[Vegetative propagation]: H. odorata is one of the dipterocarp species that have a high ratio of rooted
cuttings in vegetative propagation by cuttings. That is why this method can be applied in supplying
enough planting material for forest planting. A good rooting percentage is obtained with juvenile
material from seedlings of 3 to 12 months old [9] and coppice shoots from older seedlings (1-4 years
[6]). "Cuttings about 10 cm long, with two leaves that are shortened to 1/2 or 2/3 of the length are
treated with the hormones 2,4-D 50 ppm or IAA 500 ppm for 3 seconds and rooted in sand" [6]. In
trees, reservoir grafting of mature branches onto seedlings is another possible source for stem
7
cuttings. "In Indonesia, bare root transplanting resulted in almost 100% survival if seedlings are root
pruned first. Germination took place in 1-4 weeks" [11].
[2, 6, 9, 11, 17]

[Pests]: "Attacks by defoliators have frequently been noticed in plantations especially when new and
healthy leaves appear. Stem borers attack saplings in natural forests. The weevil Nanophyes shorea
attacks seeds. Several beetles and larvae of insects of the orders Coleoptera and Isoptera bore in the
dead wood and fallen wood" [11]. Another reported insect pest is Calliteara cerigoides. However there
are no reports of serious attacks by or pests for this species either in nurseries or in forests, except for
seed predation by weevils. Spraying with insecticides can control easily the occasional attack by
defoliators observed in nurseries.
[9, 11]
[Diseases]: There are no reports of serious attacks by diseases for this species either in nurseries or
in forests.
[11]
[Others]: Fire is uncommon in its natural habitat. Hence, it is fire sensitive and in case of fire the
young seedlings get killed.
[4]
S. Conservation :

"Dipterocarp forests in general, and Hopea odorata forests in particular, are now seriously depleted
due to heavy exploitation and degradation of habitats by people and concessions. Large populations
of koki masao are now rarely found inside forest concession areas. At present, only scattered trees
occur, and therefore, finding mother trees for seed collection is a difficult task. Hopea odorata often
grows in moist forests along streams, but when their habitat is destroyed, it cannot regenerate
naturally. In 2002, the second CTSP meeting on the Forest Gene Conservation Strategy defined
Hopea odorata Roxb. as a priority species in need of immediate conservation interventions and
appropriate protection" [2]. This species is considered as vulnerable (VU A1cd+2cd [2]) and critically
endangered (CR A1cd [2]), according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature)
World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). The estimated number of individuals
threatened by logging in Cambodia (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities
organized by DFW and CTSP in 2000) are >1,000 [13]. Also in Vietnam a long period of selective
logging has reduced the size of stands to small groups of trees or isolated individuals.
[2, 4, 13]
8
[Native]:
India (Andaman Is.), Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, N-Malaysia, Vietnam
[4, 8, 11, 15]
[Introduced]:
The species has not been introduced outside the countries of its natural range.
[9]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Taxonomy]: "The Asian genus Hopea (family Dipterocarpaceae) contains about 100 species. A
recent treatment is found in Ashton (1982). H. odorata is allied to H. parviflora of the Western Ghats,
India" [9].
[Terminology]: "The species name means 'odour' and refers to the sweet smell of the flowers" [11].
[Breeding]: "Little work has been done in the area of variation and breeding. Apomixis has been
reported in H. odorata. Maury (1970) had confirmed polyembryony in the species, with up to 12
embryos developing from a single ovule" [9].
[History of cultivation in Cambodia]: "Due to its sacred essence, in the past, it has only been planted
within the grounds of pagodas by a king or monk, although nowadays it is frequently found outside of
these areas" [2].
Aminah Hamzah, 1991. A note on growth behavior of branch cuttings of Hopea odorata.. Journal of
Tropical Forest Science, 3(3):303-305; 4 ref.
[9]
Aminah H, 1994. Hopea odorata (Dipterocarpaceae) - Merawan Siput Jantan. In: Zakaria I, Ratnam
W, eds. Selected Tree Species for Forest Plantations in Peninsular Malaysia - A Preliminary
Consideration. FRIM Research Pamphlet No. 116:9-13.
[9]
Ang LH, Maruyama Y, Wan Razali MW, Abd Rahman K, 1994. The early growth and survival of three
commercial dipterocarps planted on decking sites in logged-over hill forest. In: Nik Muhamad M,
Ismail AAM, Mohd ZH, Kamuruzaman J, eds. Proceeding of International Symposium on
Rehabilitation of Tropical Rain-forest Ecosystems: Research and Development Priorities. Kuching,
Sarawak, Malaysia, September 2-4, 1992:147-156.
9
[9]
Ashton PS, 1982. Dipterocarpaceae. Flora Malesiana, I, Spermatophyta, 9(2):237-552; [in text, 45 pl.];
many ref.
[9]
Corbineau F, Come D, 1986. Experiments on germination and storage of the seeds of two
dipterocarps: Shorea roxburghii and Hopea odorata.. Malaysian Forester, 49(3-4):371-381; 21 ref.
[9]
Kantarli M, 1993. Vegetative propagation of Hopea odorata by cuttings: a low-cost technology.

Technical Publication - ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre, No. 16:iii + 8 pp.; 7 ref.
[9]
Kochummen KM, 1993b. Hopea odorata. Plant Resources of South-East Asia, 5(1):251.
Oldfields S, Lusty C, Mackinnen A. 1998. The world list of threatened trees. 650 pp. World
Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK.
[9]

Nguyen Minh Duong, 1985: Preliminary results of Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata planting
system. Scientific and Technical Information, South Vietnam (No. 2-1985).
Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ (eds.). 1993. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 5(1): Timber
trees: major commercial timbers. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
[11]
Tixier P. 1973. The biology of the Dipterocarpaceae: phenology and germinaiton of Hopea odorata at
Dangkor (Kandal). Bois et Forets des Tropiques. 48: 47-52.
[11]
Troup RS. 1929. The silviculture of Indian trees. Controller of publications, New Delhi, India.
[11]
10
Troup RS. 1975. The silviculture of Indian trees. ed. 2, vol. 1. Government of India.
[11]
Winata L, Suharyati, Kamil H, Yani SA, Muryono, 1986. Rooting of stem cuttings of Shorea leprosula
and Hopea odorata in liquid media. BIOTROP Technical Bulletin, 1(1):10-17; 7 ref.
[9]
X. References:
Phnom Penh.
[3] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia
[4] Regional Office for the Asia and the Pacific, 1985: Dipterocarps of South Asia. RAPA Monograph
1985/4. Regional office for the Asia and the Pacific. 321 pp.
[6] DANIDA, 2002: Seed leaflet - www.dfsc.dk/pdf/Seedleaflets/Hopea%20odorata_int.pdf (Internet

source)
[7] www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)
[8] Sontara, S (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.
timbers.
11

(Internet source)

ROM).
[18] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom
Penh
12
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Hopea pierrei Hance ]
Datasheet Report
[Hopea pierrei Hance ]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Hopea pierrei Hance [1]
C. Synonym ³ Hopea foxworthyi Elmer, Hopea glutinosa Elmer [3], Hopea
avellanea F. Heim [7]
D. Other1 ³ merawan, giam (Trade name) [1] - merawan palong
(Malaysia) [1] - kh'èn hin (Laos) [1] - takhian-rak, takhian-sai,

khaen-hak-yong (Thailand) [1] - ki[eef]n (Vietnam) [1] -
dalingdingan, malungai, manggachapui-tagokan (Philippines)
[3]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: KKIxSac;

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kôki, khsach [1, 10], koki khsach [5]
Other : Malvales
Genus: Hopea Roxb.
Species: Hopea pierrei Hance
Source :[ 3]
1
[General]: Medium-sized to large evergreen tree with a height of up to 25 m [1] (-35 m [3], 15-30 m
[10], -40 m [9]). The bole is sometimes straight but often twisted and of poor shape, with a DBH of up
to 50 cm [1] (180 cm [3], 60-80 cm [9]) and thin 4-5 buttresses [10] or stilt roots. The crown has a
spherical shape. Young branches and buds are covered with short pale brown stiff hairs or golden-
brown shortly fine tufted hairs. Young twigs are often resinous.
[Bark]: The outer bark is smooth, dark, almost black, with light patches and deep longitudinal fissures;
the inner bark is light brown, tinged pink.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, alternate, symmetrical, oval, ovate or spear-shaped, 4-8 cm x 1.5-4
cm [1], thin leathery, becoming dark grey when dry with a powdery surface. Secondary nerves are in
pairs of 15-25 [7] (18 pairs [1]).
[Flowers]: Flowers are arranged in grapes. The domatia (=special organ modifications in flower) are
pore-like and hairy. Connectives are 3-4 times as long as anthers. Ovary (=female organ) narrowly
pyriform, gradually merging into short style. Fruiting calyx with 2 wing-lobes, 2.5-5 x 0.7-1 cm [7] and
3 short ovate-oblong lobes, ca. 4 x 3 mm [7]. Flowering occurs from January-September (Thailand) [7]
(September-October in Vietnam [9]).
[Fruits]: The fruit (=nut) is egg-shaped to conical with a diameter of 0.7-0.8 cm [7]. It has two wings, 2-
2.3 cm long with 7 parallel nerves [7]. When lignified the exocarp contains much resin. The fruiting
period is from January-December (Thailand) [7] (May-June in Vietnam [9])
[1, 3, 7, 9, 10]
I. Wood properties:

[Wood Properties]: Hopea pierrei yields a high quality timber which is resistant to insects, especially
termites. The sapwood has a pale yellow-brown color and a fine texture. The density of the wood is
0.76-1.155 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content.
[1, 3, 9, 10]

Approximate limits: 12°N to 14°N. This species is confined to Indochina, especially Cambodia and
Thailand, sometimes also found gregariously in the Malaysian Peninsular Malaysia. Generally it
occurs mainly in primary and secondary lowland evergreen rain forests, in dense coastal forests and
in heath forests. It is always occupying the dominant layer of these stands and in evergreen lowland
forests it is usually mixed with Hopea odorata, Sindora tonkinensis, Sindora siamensis and Anisoptera
costata. "In Thailand it has a widely disjunct distribution, common in dry evergreen forest, also on
limestone hills in the southeast. It is found throughout fragmented areas of its potential distribution
with a small number of individual trees" [7].
[1, 7, 8, 9, 10]
2
Generally it grows to an altitude of 1,000 m a.s.l. [1] (0-700 m [3]), while in Malaysia it is found on
ridges at 300-700 m altitude [1]. H. pierrei grows in hot tropical monsoon climate in areas with a
precipitation of 2,500-5,000 mm [1] and a more or less uniform rainfall regime. It can endure a dry
season length of 1-3 months [3]. The mean annual temperature is 22-32ºC [3], the mean maximum
temperature of hottest month, 21-28ºC [3] and the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month
18-21ºC [3]. As an absolute minimum temperature 12ºC [3] are still tolerated. This species is shade
tolerant as a young plant but becomes light demanding with maturity. It also tolerates strong winds.
[1, 3, 7, 9]


The tree is found on sandy soils with a medium soil texture, free soil drainage and an acid to neutral
pH. It grows well on red and yellow ferrallitic soils, developed from acidic granite and basalt.
[1, 8, 9]
[Wood]: The valuable timber is used as 'merawan' (lightweight wood) or as 'giam' (heavy wood). and
is able to replace teak timber for a wide range of uses. Generally it is used for construction, posts,
bridges, round wood, sawn or hewn building timbers, ship building timber, engineering structures,
parquet flooring and furniture. In Cambodia it is primarily used for construction.
[1, 3, 9, 10]
[Non-wood]: The smooth light bark is also used to make circles, vases, ropes and papers. It also is
used for medicinal purposes and for tanning. "In Vietnam the pale yellow resin is used for torches and
for caulking boats and is also used in powder form thrown upon burning charcoal to give a
representation of gunfire in theatrical performances" [1]
[1, 3, 10]
[Others]: It is often used for revegetation of logged over areas.
[3]
Second class [2]

[General]: H.pierrei occurs mainly in primary and secondary lowland evergreen rain forests, in dense
coastal forests and in heath forests. It is always occupying the dominant layer of these stands and in
evergreen lowland forests it is usually mixed with Hopea odorata, Sindora tonkinensis, Sindora
siamensis and Anisoptera costata. It is often planted as an enrichment plant in understocked logged-
3
over areas or existing tree plantations as it needs partial shade in the early stages of development.
The tree also regenerates rapidly and is thus often used on bare land for revegetation.
[1, 3, 7]
Q. Propagation :
A major disadvantage for seed collection and -storage is that seeds are short-lived and seed
production is very irregular with 3-5 year intervals. The seed storage is recalcitrant. In the nursery
vegetative propagation is done by air layering. "However, more research is needed on the vegetative
propagation and cultural management of this species" [3]. Stands are established by using natural
regeneration, direct sowing and wildlings.
[3]

[Pests]: The only known insect pest is Nanophyes shoreae.
[3]
[Diseases]: Nectria radicicola is the only reported fungus disease.
[3]
[Others]: H.pierrei is very sensitive to chemical defoliants. Many individuals have been killed during
the chemical warfare in Indochina in the early 70's.
[9]
S. Conservation :

This tree is threatened and since 1994 [4] (1998 [8]) classified as endangered (EN A1c+2c, B1+2c,
C1, D [8]) according to the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of
Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red Databook'). Populations in Cambodia have been seriously reduced
due to past chemical warfare, exploitation and habitat reduction. However, in Peninsular Malaysia the
species is still occurring in several forest reserves.
[4, 8, 9]

[Native]: Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, south-eastern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Western
Sumatra (Indonesia).
[1, 3, 6, 8]
[Introduced]: India, Philippines, Papua New Guinea.
[3, 6]
4
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Ashton, P.S. 1990. Annotations to: conservation status listings for Dipterocarpaceae.
[8]
de Guzman ED, Umali RM, Sotalbo ED, 1986. Guide to Philippine Flora and Fauna: Dipterocarps and
Non-dipterocarps. Quezon City, Philippines: JMC Press Inc.
[3]
X. References:
[4] Omaliss, K. and Monyrak, M., 2006: Threatened Species Listing in Cambodia.


bin/abiss.exe/spd?SID=354709234&spd=6818&tx=PL. (Internet source).

http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Hopea.htm#4.9%20Hopea%2
0pierrei. (Internet source).
[8] The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species – Species Information:

http://www.redlist.org/search/details.php?species=33095. (Internet source).
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Lansium domesticum Corrêa]
Datasheet Report
[Lansium domesticum Corrêa]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Lansium domesticum Corrêa [4]
B. English name (s) ³ langsat, duku [6]
C. Synonym ³ Aglaia dookoo Griffith [26], A. domestica (Corrêa em. Jack.)

Pellegrin., A. aquea [6]
D. Other1 ³ langsat, duku, kokosan (Indonesia, Malaysia); langsat, duku,
(Burma); lansones, buahan (Philippines); langsat, duku,
longkong (Thailand); bòn-bon (Vietnam) [6,26].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ laMgsat

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ léang sa:t [4]

Other : Sapindales
Family: Meliaceae
Gunus: Lansium
Species: Lansium domesticum Corrêa [4]
Source :[4 ; 6 ;`11]
1
[General]: Tree; 8-30 m tall [4]; tree up to 30 m high and 75 cm in diameter.(in cultivation 5-10 m
high); bole irregularly fluted, with steep buttresses, twigs sometimes hairy [6]. Tree 10-20 m high [13].
Erect, short-trunked tree, slender or spreading, up to 10-15 m tall [26].
[Bark]: Furrowed, mottled grey and orange and containing milky, sticky sap.red-brown to yellow
brown, furrowed bark [20,26].
[Leaves]: Alternate, odd-pinnate, 30-50 cm long with 6-9 leaflets, smooth to densely haired, with leaf
stalk up to 7 cm long. Leaflets alternate, elliptical to oblong, 9-21 cm long, 5-10 cm wide, glossy,
paperlike to leathery with asymmetrical base, shortly pointed tip and 10-14 pairs of lateral veins.
Stalks of leaflets 5-12 mm long, thickened at base [6]. Leaves imparipinnate, with 10-20 pairs of
elliptic lanceolate leaflets, 12 to 25 cm long [13]. Leaves pinnate, 22.5-50.0 cm long,with 5-7 alternate
leaflets, obovate or elliptic oblong, pointed at both ends, 7-20 cm long, slightly leathery, dark-green
and glossy on the upper surface, paler and dull beneath and with prominent midrib [20,26].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence many-flowered, 10-30cm long raceme, single or in groups of 2-10 on trunk or
large branches. Flowers small with fleshy, cup-shaped greenish-yellow calyx with 5 lobes. Petals
fleshy, white to pale-yellow, 2-3 x 4-5 mm [6]. Flowers small yellowish-green, 5-lobed, sweetly
scented, in dense racemes arising immediately from older branches [13]. Flowers small, white or pale-
yellow, fleshy, mostly bisexual, borne in simple or branched racemes which may be solitary or in hairy
clusters on the trunk and oldest branches, at first standing erect and finally pendant, 10-30 cm long
[20,26].
[Fruit]: An ellipsoid or globose berry, 2-4 x 1.5-5.0 cm (or larger), yellowish-hairy with persistent calyx,
thin skin and white translucent flesh [6]. Fruit 4 cm in diameter, a globose berry, 5-septate, straw-

yellow. Flesh slightly acid, delicious, refreshing; seeds bitter [13]. Fruits borne 2-30 in a cluster, oval.
ovoid-oblong or nearly round, 2.5-5.0 cm in diameter with a light greyish-yellow to pale brownish or
pink, velvety skin, leathery, thin or thick, and containing milky latex. There are 5-6 segments of
aromatic, white translucent, juicy flesh (arils), acid to subacid in flavour. Seeds, adhering more or less
to the flesh, are usually present in 1 to 3 of the segments. They are green, relatively large, 2.0-2.5 cm
long and 1.25-2.00 cm wide, very bitter, and sometimes, if the flesh clings too tightly to the seed, it
may acquire some of its bitterness [20,26]. Fruit grows in clusters of 6-40, each containing between 1-
3 green, bitter seeds. There exist several cultivars, "Conception" and "Paete" in the Philippines,
"Uttaradit" in Thailand, "LA8" and "LA9" in Malaysia and "Casto" in Puerto Rico [33].
There are 2 distinct botanical varieties: var. pubescens, the typical wild langsat which is a rather
slender open tree with hairy branchlets and nearly round, thick-skinned fruit having much milky latex,
and var.domesticum, called the duku, doekoe, or dookoo, which is a more robust tree, broad topped
and densely foliaged with conspicuously veined leaflets, the fruits, borne few to a cluster, are oblong-
ovoid or ellipsoid, with thin, brownish skin, only faintly aromatic and containing little or no milky latex.
The former is often referred to as the wild type but both varieties are cultivated and show considerable
range of form, size, and quality. There are desirable types in both groups. Some small fruits are
completely seedless and fairly sweet [20,26].
2
Langsats in Malaysia generally bear twice a year, in June-July and again in December-January or
even until February. In India, the fruits ripen from April-September but in the Philippines the season is
short and most of the fruits are off the market in less than one month [20,26]. Fruiting lasts from
August to October in Puerto Rico [33].
I. Wood properties:
The wood is hard and durable [6]; light-brown, medium-hard, fine-grained, tough, elastic and durable,
weighing 840 kg/m³. It is utilized in Java for house posts, rafters, tool handles and small utensils.
Wood tar, derived by distillation, is employed to blacken the teeth [20,26].

Native to western part of Southeast Asia, now distributed through Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia to
the Philippines. Small-scale plantations have been established in Burma and Vietnam [6]. Occurs as
exotic in Central and South America, Caribbean Islands, and the south and southwest of the United
States of America [26]. The langsat is ultra-tropical. It is a tree of tropical lowland forest and is
damaged by frost. On the island of Luzon in the Philippines where the fruits are very popular the tree
is being utilized in reforestation of hilly areas. It is much grown too in southern Thailand and Vietnam
and flourishes in the Nilgiris and other humid areas of South India and the fruits are plentiful on local
markets. The langsat was introduced into Hawaii before 1930 and is frequently grown at low
elevations. An occasional tree may be found on other Pacific islands. The species is little known in the
American tropics except in Surinam where it is commercially grown on a small scale [26,28].

L. domesticum grows in sheltered, humid, shaded environments up to 800 m a.s.l., requires well
distributed rain fall [6]. Even in its native territory it cannot be grown at an altitude above 650-750 m. It
needs a humid atmosphere, plenty of moisture and will not tolerate long dry seasons. Some shade is
beneficial especially during the early years. In Java the tree grows in areas with 6-12 wet months if
there is over 100 mm rainfall monthly [20,26].

not determined

Grows well on humus-rich and slightly acid soil; deep, rich, well-drained, sandy loam or other soils
that are slightly acid to neutral and high in organic matter. It is inclined to do poorly on clay that dries
and cracks in rainless periods, and is not at all adapted to alkaline soils. It will not endure even a few
days of water-logging [26,28,33].
3
[Wood]: Wood is hard and durable; if in appropiate dimensions, it can be used for house posts, for tool
handles and similar applications [26].
[Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh.
Dried fruit peels burnt as insect repellent, the aromatic smoke serving as a mosquito repellent and as
incense in the rooms of sick people [12]. The fresh peel contains a brown resin and reducing acids,
from the dried peel, a dark, semi-liquid oleoresin composed of 0.17 % volatile oil and 22% resin is
obtained [26,28].
The peel is reportedly high in tannin but it is not known whether this is used for tanning of leather [20,
26).
Fruit peel, seeds and bark have various traditional medicinal uses. The resin is non-toxic and
administered to halt diarrhoea and intestinal spasms. The pulverized seed is employed as a febrifuge
and vermifuge. The bark is poulticed on scorpion stings. An astringent bark decoction is taken as a
treatment for dysentery and malaria. Leaves may be combined with the bark in preparing the
decoction. The leaf juice is used as eye-drops to dispel inflammation [20,26].
Nutritional composition (per 100 g of langsat fruit)
Carbohydrate 7.8 - 14.2 g
Protein 0.4 - 0.7 g
Calcium 10 - 19 mg

Phosphorus 20 mg
Iron 1 mg
Thiamine 0.05 mg
Riboflavin 0.02 mg
Niacin 0.5 mg
Vitamin C 4.0 - 13.4 mg [33].

not determined [18]

The trees are spaced 8-10 m apart in orchards. Generally, the langsat is casually grown in dooryards
and on roadsides and receives no cultural attention. Regular irrigation results in better fruit size and
heavier crops. Thrice-yearly applications of a 6-6-6 fertilizer formula with added trace elements result
in good growth, productivity and high quality fruits even in an adverse environment. In the Philippines,
a productive tree averages 1000 fruits per year, where it is grown in half shade interplanted with
4
coconut. Seedlings will bear fruit in 12-20 years [26,28]. Lansium domesticum is a slow-growing
species. Seedlings may need 10 to 30 years before the first fruit are produced, grafts and airlayers
may fruit within 4-6 years . A mature tree may produce between 40 and 300 kg of fruit annually [33].
Q. Propagation :
Langsats are commonly grown from seeds, which must be planted within 1-2 days after removal from
the fruit. Cleft-, side- and approach-grafting give good results. The budwood should be mature but not
old, 6.5-9.0 cm long, 6-20 mm thick, and it is joined to rootstock of the same diameter about 6.5-10.0
cm above the soil [26]. Seeds are recalcitrant and viability can only be maintained for about 5 weeks if
kept moist. Viability is totally lost in 8 days unless fresh seeds are stored in polyethylene bags at 4-6
ºC where they will remain viable for 14 days [20,26,33].

In Puerto Rico, young langsat trees have been defoliated by the sugarcane root borer (Diaprepes
abbreviatus). Scale insects, especially Pseudaonidia articulatus and Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, and
the red spider mite (Tetranychus bimaculatus), are sometimes found attacking the foliage, and sooty
mold is apt to develop on the honey dew deposited by the scales. Rats gnaw on the branchlets,
branches and the mature fruits. Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is evidenced
by brown spots and other blemishes on the fruit and peduncle and leads to premature shedding of
fruits. Canker which makes the bark become rough and corky and flake off has appeared on langsats
in Florida, Hawaii and Tahiti. It was believed to be caused by a fungus, Cephalosporium sp., and
larvae of a member of the Tineidae have been observed feeding under the loosened bark. However,
other fungi, Nectria sp. (perfect stage of Volutella sp.) and Phomopsis sp. are officially recorded as
causes of stem gall canker on the langsat in Florida [20, 26].
S. Conservation :
Not a threatened species [9]

unknown

Native to Thailand,Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines
Exotic: Thailand, Vietnam, Central America and Caribbean Islands ( Honduras, Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Trinidad and Tobago), Surinam, India, United States of America [26].
5
V. Miscellaneous4 :
The fresh peel contains 0.2% of a light-yellow volatile oil; from the dried peel, a dark, semi-liquid
oleoresin composed of 0.17 % volatile oil and 22% resin is obtained.
An arrow poison is made from the fruit peel and the bark of the tree. Both possess a toxic property,
lansium acid, which, on injection, arrests heartbeat in frogs. The seed contains a minute amount of an
unnamed alkaloid and 2 bitter, toxic principles [26].
D.A.M. 2004: Langsat-Lansium domesticum; Dept. of Agriculture, Malaysia.
Hanelt, Peter et al. 2001: Mansfeld´s Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Vol.XX,
Institute of Plant Genetics. Springer
Mabberley, D.J. 1997: The Plant Book-a Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants; 2nd Edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Morton, J. Langsat, p.201-203 in Fruits of Warm Climates, Julia F. Morton, Miami, Florida, USA.
Porcher, Michael et al., 1995-2020: Sorting Lansium names. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name
Database. Institute for Land and Food Resources University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
X. References:

Bangkok, 234 pp.
336 pp.
Plants- ornamental and fruit plants) Eugen Ulmer Publ., Stuttgart, illustrated, 384 pp.
6
pp.
20) Salim AS, Simons AJ, Orwa C, Chege J, Ovuor, B and Mutua A, 2002: Agroforestree

(Internet source)
28) Purdue University, USA: www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/santol.html (Internet source)
33) montosogardens.com/langsium_domesticum.htm
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit]
Datasheet Report
[Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit
B. English name (s) ³ leucaena [2], horse tamarind, jumpy-bean [5], lead tree,
white lead-tree, white popinac, wild tamarind, kunai (Pidgin

English), lamandro (Pidgin English) [9]
C. Synonym ³ Acacia glauca Willd. nom. illeg., Leucaena glabrata Rose,
Leucaena glauca (Willd.) Benth., Leucaena latisiliqua (L.)

Gillis [5]
D. Other1 ³ lukina (Ethiopia) [9] - leuceana (Arabia) [9] - delen, lisina
(Caribbean) [9] - elana, ipil ipil, kariskis, palo-maria
(Philippines) [9] - delin ranger, faux mimosa, leucaene
(France) [9] - koo babul, ku-babul, lamtoro, subabul (India)
[9] - klandingan, lamtoro, pelending, petai cina (Indonesian)
[9] - kan thin, kathin, kh’o:ng kha:w, khaaw, kh'oonz koong

(Laos) [9] - ipil-ipil, petai belalang, petai jawa (Malaysia) [9] -
giant leucaena, guaje, Peru leucaena, Salvador leucaena
(Spain) [9] - lusina, mlusina (E-Africa) [9] - tagarai (Sri Lanka)
[9] - krathin, to-bao (Thailand) [9] - bo ch[es]t, bo ch?, keo
d[aaj]u, keo d? (Vietnam) [9]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: knÞMeú ft¼kÞmeÖ Ts

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kânthum the:t, khtum the [1]

1

Family: Mimosaceae / Fabaceae
Genus: Leucaena
Species: Leucaena leucocephala
Subspecies: Leucaena leucocephala subsp.
glabrata (Rose) S. Zárate, Leucaena

leucocephala subsp. ixtahuacana C.
E. Hughes, Leucaena leucocephala
subsp. leucocephala [5]
Source :[ 5]
[General]: A small tree with a height of 3-15 (-20) m [5] (10-20 m. [2]) and a DBH of 10-35 (-50) cm [5]
(-40 cm [2]). "Form varies from shrubby and highly branched for subsp. leucocephala to arborescent
with a short clear bole to 5 m, upright angular branching and an open, rounded crown for subsp.
glabrata" [5].

[Bark] The bark is mid-grey-brown with shallow rusty orange-brown vertical fissures. Slash reddish.
[Leaves]: The leaves are bipinnate with 4-9 pairs of pinnae per leaf and 13-21 pairs of leaflets per
pinna. The leaflets are small, 9-21 mm long, 2-4.5 mm wide, linear-oblong or weakly elliptical pointed
at tip, rounded to blunt at base and hairless except on margins, with a concave, cup-shaped, elliptical
leaf stalk gland.
[Flowers]: The flowers are of white color, arranged on compact globe-shaped heads, the flower heads
in groups of 2-6 in leaf axils arising on actively growing young shoots, the leaves developing
simultaneously with the flowers. The heads are 12-21 mm in diameter with 100-180 flowers per head.
Hairy anthers (visible with a hand lens) distinguish Leucaena from all other mimosoid legume genera.
[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are 9-19 cm long, 13-21 mm wide, linear-oblong and flat with papery pod
walls, mid- to orange-brown, hairless and slightly shining (subsp. glabrata and subsp. ixtahuacana), or
densely covered in white velvety hairs (subsp. leucocephala), arranged in clusters of 3-20, and
occasionally up to 45, per flower head.
[2, 5]
2
I. Wood properties:
Medium hardwood with a pale yellow sapwood and light reddish-brown heartwood. It has a medium
density (0.8 g/cm³ [9], specific gravity between 0.5 and 0.6 g/cm³ [9]) and dries without splitting or
checking. It is strong, medium textured, close grained and easily workable for a wide variety of
carpentry purposes. The moisture content varies between 30-50% [6] depending on maturity. The
wood turns well, matures to a golden-brown color and is hard enough for flooring. It accepts
preservatives well but does not resist termites. Pulp yields are high (50-52%), lignin levels low, fibres
short (1.1-1.3 mm). Heating values (bone-dry) average 19,250 kJ/kg.
[6, 9]

Approximate limits: L. leucocephala grows best between 15-25°N and S [5], although it can survive
between 30°N and S. It originates from Central America but was introduced and naturalized in all
regions of Southeast Asia. Naturally it occurs in coastal plant communities, dry forests and secondary
forests. In Cambodia, it is cultivated near the houses especially to make quickset hedges.
[2, 3, 5]

It grows best in areas below 1,500 m a.s.l [5] but can survive up to 2,000 m [5] (2,100 m [9]). L.
leucocephala grows well only in sub-humid or humid climates with a bimodal or uniform, summer- or
winter rainfall regime with 650-3,000 mm [5] and a moderate dry season up to 6-7 months [5].
However it grows better in areas with a well-defined dry season and can also survive in climates with
as little as 300-500 mm [5] rainfall. It is a light demander and requires warm temperatures of 25-30°C
[5] (11-33°C [2]) for optimum growth. A temperature as high as 48°C is still tolerated. Mean annual
temperature: 19-28ºC [5]. Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 25-36°C. Mean minimum
temperature of coldest month: 10-20°C. L. leucocephala is very cold- and frost sensitive (absolute
minimum temperature of > 3°C [5]), with significantly reduced growth, shedding leaves even after light
frosts and death of the aboveground plant parts although trees often resprout after dieback. It
tolerates fast fires and can regrow after being burned to the crown by slower fires.
[2, 5, 9]

Coastal Cardamons (A), Northern Cardamons (B), Tonle sap flood plain (C), Northwestern Lowlands
(D), central Lowlands (d), Lower Mekong flood plain(E).
[7]
It grows well only on deep, freely-drained soils with a medium to heavy texture and is well adapted to
soils derived from calcareous parent material including coral. Common soils include acrisols, alkaline
soils, calcareous soils, ferralsols, karst soils, limestone soils. The pH ranges from 6.8-9.0 [2] (>5 [5],
>5.5 [6]). It is not suitable on acid soils with a pH of less than < 4.5 [6], on waterlogged soils, or on
soils with low phosphorus, low calcium, high salinity [6] or a high aluminium saturation.
3
[2, 5, 6, 9]
[Wood]: L. leucocephala provides a good fuelwood which can be collected from short-rotation
fuelwood plantations. Because of high pulp yields (50-52%), low lignin levels and short fibers (1.1-1.3
mm) the paper quality is generally considered to be excellent. It is also used for fenceposts, poles,
flooring and small timber.
[2, 5, 6]
[Non-wood]: The leaves contain 25-30% protein and are a good fodder supplement. They are widely
recognized as a valuable green manure in cropping systems. Young shoots and leaves can be eaten,
in some countries seeds are also eaten after cooking.
[2, 6]
[Others]: L. leucocephala is able to fix nitrogen and has been used for soil improvement and
conservation, erosion control in diverse agroforestry combinations and systems including alley
farming, live-barriers on terrace boundaries, shelterbelts or windbreaks, or simply as dispersed trees
over crops. "It has also been used in wider land rehabilitation and regeneration efforts in some areas,
sometimes using aerial seeding, e.g. in Guam" [5]. In Cambodia, it is cultivated near the houses
especially to make quickset hedges" [3].
[3, 5]

No Class [1]

[Establishment]: For forage, seeds are usually sown in rows 1-5 m apart [6] with a seeding rate of 5-7
kg/ha using fertilizer where necessary to correct known soil deficiencies. In cut-and-carry systems,
closer plant spacing gives higher yields of leucaena but in grazed situations the wider row spacings of
2-5 m [6] are more appropriate to enable the grass to grow between the rows to prevent soil 'plugging'
during wet weather.
[Management]: L. leucocephala is a fast-growing, light-demanding species adaptable to a wide range

of production systems including pure plantations and agroforestry systems like hedgerows for fodder
or green manure, alleycropping, intercropping with cassava, maize, papaya, and sweet potato. Fodder
banks managed at close spacing under regular and intensive lopping. It resprouts vigorously after
coppicing or pollarding. Under suitable conditions it can reach a height of 8 m and a DBH of 5 cm in 3
years [5]. Wood harvest periods range very widely, from 1-8 years [6], depending on size of desired
product and harvesting equipment. Machetes are commonly used in Asia, but bandsaws and
chainsaws can also be used.
[2, 5, 6]
4
Q. Propagation :
Propagation is done by natural regeneration, direct sowing and using planting stock. Number of seeds
per kg: 15,000-20,000 [5]. After extraction the seeds should be placed in the sun which helps to
ensure that any beetles emerge. Damaged seeds can then be removed either using a gravity table
separator or flotation in water. "The hard impervious seed coat inhibits water uptake and the seed
requires pretreatment before sowing to promote rapid and uniform germination. Mechanical, hot water
and sulphuric acid treatments have all been used successfully. Hot water treatment by soaking in
water at 80°C [5] for 3 minutes followed by washing in cold water has been most widely used.
Mechanical nicking is likely to give higher germination, but is generally only efficient for small
seedlots" [5]. It is important not to sow the seed too deeply (below 2 cm) [6] and, where possible,
competing species should be controlled either by slashing or by appropriate chemicals. Site
preparation is important as slow early growth makes young transplants susceptible to competition
from weeds and is a major limitation in establishment of hedgerows in pastures in Australia. The
success of direct sowing depends on timing, land preparation and weed management. "It has also
been used in wider land rehabilitation and regeneration efforts in some areas, sometimes using aerial
seeding, e.g. in Guam" [5].
[5, 6]

[Pests]: Seeds of L. leucocephala are predated by seed-feeding bruchids and other beetles like
Acanthoscelides, Araecerus fasciculatus, Araecerus levipennis, Cathartus quadricollis, Heteropsylla
cubana and Statherotis.
[5]
[Diseases]: Two important diseases caused by fungal pathogens, Camptomeris leaf spot and
gummosis (Camptomeris leucaenae), have been reported as well a a set of lesser-known rusts and
other diseases of currently minor importance.
[5]
[Others]: "Weediness can be a problem in many agricultural situations or where used in land
rehabilitation" [5].
S. Conservation :

Kompong Thom, Siem Reap, Pursat, Kandal, Phnom Penh. [7]
5
[Native]: Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Spain, USA
[9]
[Introduced]:
Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Cambodia, Cote d'Ivoire, China,
Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji,
Ghana, Grenada, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, South Africa, Sri Lanka, St Kitts and
Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Sudan, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand,
Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Vietnam, Virgin Islands (US)
[9]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Chemical Properties]: "Leucaena also contains the toxic amino-acid mimosine which has antimitotic
and depilatory effects on animals. It occurs in high concentrations in the growing tips (8-12%), young
leaves (4-6%) and young pods and seeds (4-5%)" [6].
Bhasker V, Rao NS. 1985. Pollination biology of subabul or ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala Lam de
Wit). Myforest 21(2):65-70.

[5]
Hughes CE. 1998. Leucaena; a genetic resources handbook. Tropical forestry Papers No. 37. Oxford
Forestry Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford and Department for
International Development.
[5]
Bangkok: FAO.
[5]
National Academy of Sciences. 1977. Leucaena: Promising forage tree crop for the tropics. National
Academy Press. Washington D.C.
[5]
6
X. References:
320pp.
[8] Pham Hoàng Hô, 1972: Thu`c Vât Chùng. Saigon

source)
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Litchi chinensis Sonn.]
Datasheet Report
[Litchi chinensis Sonn.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Litchi chinensis Sonn. [1]
B. English name (s) ³ lychee, litchi [1]
C. Synonym ³ [Synonyms of Lichi ssp. chinensis]: Dimocarpus litchi Lour.
[1, 5], Litchi sinense J. Gmelin [1], Nephelium litchi Cambess.

[1, 5] - [Synonyms of Lic ssp. philippinensis]: Euphoria
didyma Blanco [1], Litchi philippinensis Radlk. [1] -
[Synonyms of Lic ssp. javensis]: Litchi chinensis Sonn. f.
glomeriflora Radlk. [1, 5]
D. Other1 ³ cérisier de la Chine, litchi de Chine (France) [1] - litsi
(Indonesian), klèngkeng, klengkeng , kalèngkeng,

kalengkeng, lengkeng (Indonesia) [1] - laici, kelengkang
(Malaysia) [1] - letsias, alupag, arupag, mamata (Philippines)
[1] - kyet-mouk, lin chi, lam yai (Myanmar) [1] - ngèèw (Laos)
[1, 3] - linchee, litchi, see raaman (Thailand) [1] - v[ar]i,tu
h[us] [1] cay vai, tu hu [3] (Vietnam) - Chinesische
Haselnuß, Litchipflaume (Germany) [5] - lizi, jingli, huoshan,

danli (China) [5] - lichi (Bangladesh) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: KUeln

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ kuléén [1]

Other : Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
1
Genus: Litchi
Species: Litchi chinensis
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Medium sized to large, evergreen and long lived tree, with a height of 12 m [5] (9-15 m [7])
but often also up to 30 m [1]. Trunk short and stocky. Crown dense, broader than high, rounded and
symmetrical. Branches are crooked or twisting in some cultivars or fairly straight and upright in other
cultivars, they can reach to the ground.
[Bark]: The bark is smooth, brittle and of grey color.
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, pinnately compound, with 2-5 pairs of leaflets. Leafstalks are 3-8
mm long. Leaflets are elliptic oblong to spear-shaped, (3-) 8-11(-16) cm x 1.75-4 cm, smooth and
leathery, reddish when young, glossy and deep green above, whitish waxy beneath.
[Flowers]: Inflorescences (=panicles) many-branched , 5-30 cm long and many-flowered. Flowers are
small, yellowish-white, functionally male or female. Outer flower leaves 4. Inner flower leaves absent.
Stamens (=male organ) 6(-10), filaments in male flowers at least twice the length of the calyx, in
female flowers very short.
[Fruits] The fruit (=drupe) is rounded, ovoid or heart-shaped ca. 3-3.5 cm in diameter. Exocarp thin,
leathery, bright red to purplish, nearly smooth or scaly to densely set with flat, conical, pointed warts.
The fleshy edible portion is the aril, an outgrowth of the seed stalk, in good fruits comprising 70-80%

of the fruit weight. Aril white and translucent. Seed 10-23 mm x 6-12 mm, brown.
[1, 3, 5, 6, 7]
I. Wood properties:
The wood is nearly indestructible and very durable, although it is brittle.
[1, 3, 5]

Occurs between 25°N and 18°N [2]. In China and India, it is grown between 15° and 30° N [7]. The
cultivated lychee originated in the region between southern China, northern Vietnam and Malaysia.
Wild trees grow in elevated and low rainforests.
[1, 2, 7]

Grows in an altitude range of 100-400 m a.s.l. [2] with an uniform rainfall regime, a mean annual
rainfall of 1,500-3,000 mm [2] (700-2,800 mm [7], 1,000 mm [5], 1,200 mm) and an optimum between
1,000-1,700 mm [7]. Litchi is native to tropical and warm tropical areas with short dry and cool winters
without frost and to long hot summers. Mean annual temperature: 20-24°C [2] (20-25°C [5]). Mean
2
maximum temperature of hottest month: 24-30°C [5]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month:
3-15°C [5]. Absolute minimum temperature: 5°C [2] (Mature trees have survived temperatures as low
as -4°C, when fully hardened off [7]). Reported temperature range for growth is 15-40°C with the
optimum between 20-35°C [7]. Tolerates a dry season length of 0-3 months but is susceptible to wind
damage and needs protection.
[2, 3, 5, 7]

n.a.

L. chinensis grows in well drained alluvial soils as found on riversides and hilly areas with a medium
texture, rich in organic matter and good nutrient supply. In China it is cultivated in sandy or clayey
loam, 'river mud', moist sandy clay and even heavy clay. It needs acid soil with a pH below 7 [2]
(between 5.5 and 7.5 or lower [5], 5.0-8.5 [7]). However, soils with pH levels of 6.0 to 6.5 are suited
best [7]. If the soil is deficient in lime, it must be added. Lychee trees will not tolerate standing water,
but require very moist soil, so regulary watering is necessary for an active growth. The trees are very
sensitive to damage from salts in the soil or in water.
[5, 6, 7]

[Wood]: The wood has only a few uses.
[1, 3, 5]
[Non-wood]: Lychees are primarily cultivated for their fruits. The fruit is peeled and the seed is used in
traditional medicine, decoctions of the root, bark and flowers are gargled. Lychee also produces
honey, ,juice and wine. The bark contains tannin.
[1, 3, 5]

No class [8]

[Establishment]: The recommended spacing is 6 m x 6 m (280 trees/ha) for upright cultivars such as
'Kwai Mai Pink'. More vigorous cultivars such as 'Tai So', 'Souey Tung' and 'Haak Yip' can be planted
at 9-12 m between the rows and 6 m between trees (140-185 trees/ha).
[1]
3
[Management]: "Orchards need to be thinned out to 70 trees/ha. The density of the closely planted
orchards is halved twice at ages 10 and 15 years approximately" [1]. For the development of strong
trees with a permanent structure for an easy harvest it is nessesary to do pruning.
[1, 6]
Q. Propagation :
Seed storage is intermediate and recalcitrant. Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering
( rates of success are usually not less than 95% [1]), grafting (useful for top-working older trees [1])
and tissue culture [2]). The stand establishment is done by planting stock. Trees propagated by air
layering usually produce commercial crops after 3-6 years [1]. "To grow a plant from seeds it is
important to know that seeds remain viable for no more than a day or two under dry conditions. Young
seedlings grow vigorously until they reach 7 or 8 inches in height. They will stay at this height for up to
two years without further noticeable growth. Wedge and bud grafts are possible, but seldom used" [6].
[1, 2, 6]

[Pests]: "The Erinose mite (Eriophyes litchii) is the major pest of the foliage. Severe infestations may
damage developing flowers and fruit and kill the growing points. Erinose mite can be very difficult to
eradicate; dipping air layers in dimethoate helps prevent the introduction of the mite into orchards.
Several caterpillars (Phycita leucomilta, Lobesia spp. and Prosotas spp.) attack developing panicles
and flowers. One or two sprays of methomyl during the season give effective control. Other recorded
pests are: Ceroplastes, Conopomorpha sinensis, Indarbela dea, Kerria lacca, Lymantria dispar,
Maladera matrida, Tessaratoma papillosa [2]. Insecticides provide control of bugs [1]. Both immature
and ripe fruits attract birds, so it may be necessary to cover the plants with protective netting.

[1, 2, 5]
[Diseases]: Diseases recorded include bark canker and brown leaf felting . Known fungus diseases
are Armillaria mellea, Armillaria tabescens, Botryosphaeria, Cephaleuros virescens, Fusarium
oxysporum, Gloeosporium, Glomerella cingulata, Oospora, Peronophythora litchii, Phoma,
Physimerus, Pythium, Thanatephorus cucumeris. A parasitic alga (Cephaleuros sp.) occasionally
attacks trees causing loss of vigour. Susceptible cultivars such as 'Souey Tung' and 'Haak Yip' can be
protected with two sprays of copper, before and after the wet season.
[1, 2, 5]
[Others]: L. chinensis is susceptible to wind damage and needs protection.
[3]
S. Conservation :

4
[Native]: S-China, N-Vietnam and Malaysia. Also found in cool highlands of Thailand and Bali
(Indonesia)
[3]
[Exotic]: Vietnam, Thailand, China, Cambodia, Honduras, USA, South-Africa, Kenya, Madagascar,
Reunion, Mauritius, India, Myanmar, Indonesia, Australia, Philippines, New Zealand, Brazil, Hong
Kong, Israel, Mexico, Taiwan, Zanzibar.
[2, 5]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E. (1992) : Edible fruits and nuts. Plant Resources of South-East
Asia, No.2 Prosea , Bogor, Indonesia
[2]
X. References:
[2] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition) (CD-ROM)
[3] Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of South East Asia.
[4] Antje Bertram, 2006: Own observations.
[5] World Agroforestry Center: AgroForestryTree Database:
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sites/TreeDBS/aft/botanicSearch.asp (Internet source)
[6] http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/lychee.html (Internet source)
(Internet source)
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Mangifera indica L.]
Datasheet Report
[Mangifera indica L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Mangifera indica L.
B. English name (s) ³ mango [2]
C. Synonym ³ Mangifera amba Forssk., Mangifera anisodora Blanco,
Mangifera arbor Bonti, Mangifera bompardii Kosterm.,

Mangifera domestica Gaertn., Mangifera gladiata Bojer,
Mangifera kukulu Blume, Mangifera linnaei Korth. ex Hassk.,
Mangifera maritima Lechaume, Mangifera oroph. [4]
D. Other1 ³ mango (Ethiopia) [6] - manga (Arabia) [6] - am (Bangladesh)
[6] - thar-yetthi, thayet thayt-hypu (Myanmar) [6] - mangga,

mango, paho (Philippines) [6] - mangue, manguier, margot
(France) [6] - Mangobaum, Mango (Germany) [6] - aam, am,
amb (India) [6] - ampelam, mangga, mempelam (Indonesia)
[6] - mwเngx (Laos) [6] - muyembe (Uganda) [6] - ampelam,
mangga, mempelam (Malaysia) [6] - mango (Nepal) [6] -

amba (Sri Lanka) [6] - manga, mang๓, manguira (Spain) [6] -
maembe, muembe, mwembe (E-Africa) [6] - mammuang,

mamuang (Thailand) [6] - xo[af]I, xoai (Vietnam) [6]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: sVay

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sva:y [1], svaay [6]

Other : Sapindales
1
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Mangifera
Species: Mangifera indica
Source :[ 4]
[General]: Medium to large evergreen tree with a height of 15-25 m [2] (0-20 m [3], 10-45 m [7]) and a
2-3 m short bole with DBH of 60-100 cm [2] (-120 cm [7]). Crown is spreading, umbrella-shaped to
bushy, dense and dark green. Root system consists of a long tap root and a dense mass of surface
roots up to 2.5 m deep enabling the tree to find the moisture necessary for flowering and flushing
during the dry season.
[Bark]: The bark is grey brown, shallow fissured and scaly.
[Leaves]: M. indica renews its leaves irregularly at all seasons of the year. Leaves are spirally
arranged, simple, narrowly elliptic to spear-shaped or oblong, 8-40 cm x 2-10 cm. Leaf-base pointed,
apex blunt and the margin often faintly wavy. The lateral veins 12-30 pairs are visible on both
surfaces, intercostal veins netlike, distinct below, leafstalks are 1.5 cm-10 cm long and its base
swollen.
[Flowers]: The flowers are bisexual, with 5 outer flower leaves (=sepals) and 5 inner flower leaves
(=petals). Petals creamish to pinkish in color with 3-5 ridges on the inner face, 1 fertile stamen (=male

organ) and 4 infertile stamen (=staminodes). The filaments are free in a cushion-shaped disc, 5 lobed
or notched and the style lateral.
[Fruits] The fruit (=drupe) varies greatly in shape and size up to 30 cm x 10 cm. The skin is yellowish-
green to purplish when mature and pulp is pale yellow to orange, fibrous or without fibers, with a
sweet to acid taste. The drupe contains one seed with a hard endocarp.
[2, 4, 6, 7]
I. Wood properties:
Heartwood pale yellowish-brown to reddish-brown, darkening on exposure, not clearly demarcated
from the pale yellowish-brown sapwood. The grain is wavy, with a moderately coarse texture. The
freshly cut wood is scentless. With a calorific value of 4,200 kcal/kg, the wood makes an excellent
charcoal and firewood.
[6]
2
Native to tropical Asia (Indo-Malaysian region) but cultivated all over the world in subtropical and
tropical regions. Approximate limits: 22°N to 22°S [4]. It occurs naturally in broadleaved evergreen
forests, deciduous forests and other rain forests and is frequently found in coastal areas. In the tropics
mango trees can be found in home gardens and scattered in non-irrigated field borders. Orchards are
common in the subtropics and are gaining importance in SE-Asia.
[3, 4, 6]

M. indica thrives in the tropics and subtropics up to 1,200 m a.s.l [6], but commercial cultivars cannot
be grown above 600 m [4] as the climate is too cool. It grows in bimodal or uniform summer- or winter-
rainfall regimes with a mean annual rainfall of 750-2,500 mm [4] (500-2,500 mm [6], 300-2,600 mm
[7]). At high elevations a dry season lasting between 3-8 months [4] is necessary for fruit production.
In the subtropics, the cold months ensure excellent floral induction, but late frosts are a major risk
because tender parts of the tree may be killed. Mean annual temperature: 12- 42°C [4] (19-35°C [6]).
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month: 28-49°C [4]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest
month: 9-22°C [4]. Absolute minimum temperature: >5°C [4]. "A few hours of temperatures from -5 to
1°C may damage or kill fruit-bearing trees. Young trees and actively growing shoots are likely to be
killed at -1°C. Flowers are not frost tolerant and fruits are liable to chilling injury at 4-10°C or 8-12°C,
depending on the cultivar" [7]. Mango is shade tolerant but also thrives in full sun. The tree is drought
tolerant, weed tolerant and is able to withstand flooding for short periods.
[2, 4, 6, 7]


M. indica and its cultivars grow in a wide range of soil types, especially deep and well drained sandy
loams or heavy clays. A pH range of 5.5-7 [4] (5.5 to 7.5 [6]) is best suited, however the full range is
reported to be 4.3-8.5 [7]. It is not tolerant of saline soils. For good growth, it needs a deep soil to
accommodate the extensive root system (rooting depth 2.5 m). However, even shallow and
impervious soils produce mangoes. "Poor soil with easy access to water and nutrients stimulates the
growth at the expense of flowering" [4]. In general it performs well on alluvial soils, granite soils,
lateritic soils and sandy soils.
[2, 4, 6, 4]
[Wood]: M. indica is a multipurpose tree species providing wood for veneer, sawn wood, indoor
construction, meat-chopping blocks, posts, stakes, furniture, carpentry, flooring, boxes, crates and
3
boat building (canoes and dugouts). "With a calorific value of 4,200 kcal/kg, the wood makes excellent
charcoal and firewood" [6]. The wood is also used as a substrate for mushroom cultivation.
[4, 5, 6]
[Non-wood]: It is primarily used for its edible fruits which can be eaten in 3 distinct ways, depending
largely on the cultivar: Unripe (mature green, very popular in Cambodia, Thailand and the
Philippines), ripe (common throughout the world) and processed at various stages of maturity in the
form of pickles or chutneys, dried slices, canned slices in syrup, juice and puree or paste. The fruit is
surrounded by golden, juicy flesh, rich in vitamins A and C. Mango leaves improve soil fertility when
used as mulch for crops. They are also occasionally used as cattle fodder, but large quantities can
cause death. Seed kernels, as a byproduct of processing can be used as feed for cattle and poultry.
Various parts of the mango tree are used in traditional medicines: Charred and pulverized leaves
make a plaster to remove warts and also act as a styptic. Seeds are used to treat stubborn colds and
coughs, obstinate diorrhea and bleeding piles. The bark is astringent, homeostatic and antirheumatic
and also the source of a yellowish-brown dye used for silk. M. indica is an important honey plant,
secreting large quantities of nectar. It also has great significance in Hindu religious ceremonies.
[4, 6]
[Others]: It is an important component of agroforestry systems in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in Africa.

Its umbrella-shaped crown makes the mango tree a suitable shade- and shelter tree for people and
their livestock. It also acts as a firebreak and can be used for shelterbelts and hedges. Young mango
is often interplanted with other fruits and vegetables and the tree is a valued component of the
traditional homegarden agroforestry systems.

[4, 6]

No Class. [8]

[General]: It occurs naturally in broadleaved evergreen forests, deciduous forests and other rain
forests and is frequently found in coastal areas. In the tropics mango trees can be found in home
gardens and scattered in non-irrigated field borders. Orchards are common in the sub-tropics and are
gaining importance in SE-Asia. M. indica is not important as a forest tree as it is rarely found in
abundance in forests, but wherever the tree is available it is exploited.
{Establishment]: Seedlings are planted early in the rainy season. In Thailand the recommended
st
spacing for plantations is 12.8 m x 12.8 m or about 69-156 trees/ha. Irrigation in the 1 years after
planting promotes flushing (and suppresses flowering), resulting in a rapid growth of the tree size.
Irrigation also widens the scope for intercropping, for example, with papaya, banana, pineapple or
vegetables, during the establishment phase.
4
[Management]: When the trees are big enough to produce a substantial crop, irrigation is stopped, or
at least interrupted long enough to allow a flower initiation. Trees of most cultivars have a dense
canopy, so only little weeding is necessary. Pruning should be conducted to ensure good, balanced
and productive growth. In fruiting trees, pruning should be confined to the removal of dead wood and
branches broken or weakened by pests and diseases. The main stem of the hardy trees is allowed to
grow to 1 m before being topped to give well-distributed branches. "M.indica shows no coppicing
abilities" [2].
[Harvesting]: The fruit is harvested by hand, either by climbing the tree or by using a picking bag with
a cutting edge mounted on a bamboo pole. "It is difficult to assess maturity from the appearance of
the fruit. Mature-green fruit should have attained full size, the 'cheeks' should be well-developed and
the endocarp should have hardened. There are more objective standards for major cultivars based on
degrees Brix, specific gravity and firmness, but the simplest guide is number of days from full bloom
or fruit set as established under an ASEAN research project" [5].
[4, 5, 6]
Q. Propagation :
Vegetative propagation is done by cuttings, air layering and grafting. For stand establishment natural
regeneration and planting stock are used. The seeds (50 seeds/kg) should be sown under shade, and
later the seedlings also require a certain amount of shade. Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant.
There is a complete loss in viability within 7 days in open storage at 30°C. Viability can be maintained
for 120 days with subimbibed seeds stored at 15°C. There is no loss in viability of excised embryonic
axes on fast desiccation to 11.8% moisture content. Seeds are damaged by chilling to temperatures
below 3-6°C. They require no pretreatment, but nicking enhances germination. Fresh seeds
germinate at temperatures of 5-40°C, with germination being most rapid at 25-40°C. It takes about 20
days for the seeds to germinate. The germination rate of fresh seeds is generally over 80%, with the
normal rate ranging from 60 to 90%. Preferably, large and fully developed seeds should be sown.
Sowing complete fruits or seeds with the pulp attached delays germination by up to 7 weeks and
germination rate is only 30-50%. Careful removal of the endocarp, releasing the seed, results in
seedlings with straighter stems and roots. However, this method is not feasible for commercial
production of planting stock. Mature mango seeds have a high moisture content and cannot withstand
desiccation (=fast drying). A desiccation below 30% moisture content will kill them. Wet storage of
seeds at 15°C is possible, but germinating seeds develop roots about 5 cm long and shoots about 8
cm long after 6 months. Those that are raised in nursery beds can be transplanted without much
difficulty before the taproot has developed to any great extent. However, seedlings raised in baskets
or containers are preferable. Seedlings are planted early in the rainy season.
[4, 6]

[Pests]: Insect pests: "A mealybug (Rastrococcus invadens) has recently invaded Africa, where it
causes serious damage to mango and other crops. In the greenhouse, thrips often turn leaves rusty
brown. Malathion is the conventional spray for insect pests. Sulphur works on mites. A long-horn
5
beetle (Rhytidodera simulans) bores into the trunk and thick branches. Branches may be killed but the
whole tree retains its viability. The larvae of the mango weevil (Cryptorrhynchus mangiferae) feed on
the pulp and damage the fruit" [6]. Other pests include: Idioscopus, Plocaederus ruficarnis.
[4, 6]
[Diseases]: Fungus diseases: "Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata, conidial stage Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides) distorts and turns developing leaves black and disfigures developing fruit. The fungal
infection may spread to fresh young growth. It can be controlled with bimonthly applications of copper
spray or captain as a growth flush begins and until the flowers open. Spraying is resumed when the
fruit begins to form. The flower panicles, young fruit and leaves are subject to powdery mildew
(Oidium mangiferae), especially in rainy weather or frequent fog. A spray of powdered kelp at bud
break will often control it. Sodium bicarbonate and fungicide sprays are also effective. Other diseases
include the flower malformation caused by Fusarium moniliforme and spread by mites, a bacterial
canker, which is becoming a pressing disease problem and fungi like Gibberella fujikuroi, Glomerella
cingulata.
[4, 6]
S. Conservation :

Sihanoukville, Kampot, Koh Kong, Phnom Penh, Kandal, Siem Reap, Battambang, Kampong Cham,
Kratie, Kampong Speu, Kampong Chnang, Kampong Thom, Pursat, Prey Veng, Sway Rieng, Banteay

Meanchey, Takeo, Mondulkiri. [1]

[Native]: Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar
[6]
[Introduced]:
Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Barbados, Benin, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad,
China, Colombia, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, French
Guiana, Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia,
Jamaica, Kenya, Laos, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger,
Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Samoa, Sao Tome et
Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines,
Sudan, Surinam, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Venezuela,
Vietnam, Virgin Islands (US), Zanzibar
[6]
6
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The generic name is derived from ‘mango’, the Indian name for the fruit, and the Latin
‘fero’ (‘I bear’)" [6].
[History]: "It has been cultivated in India for several thousand years and reached Africa about 1000
years ago" [4].
[Fruit properties]: "The mango fruit is composed of 11-18% skin, 14-22% flesh and 60-75% stone.
Mango flesh contains per 100 g: water 78-85 g, protein 0.3-0.8 g, fat 0.1-0.2 g, carbohydrates 13.2-20
g, fibre 0.6-0.7 g, calcium 9-25 mg, phosphorus 10-15 mg, and iron 0.1-0.2 mg. Energy value is 225-
350 kJ per 100 g. Mango is a particularly rich source of vitamins: 100 g flesh contains 14-62 mg
vitamin C, 0.03-0.09 mg vitamin B1 and 0.05-0.08 vitamin B2" [5].
[Breeding]: "M. indica contains hundreds of cultivars now pan-tropical and even sub-tropical. "The
main breeding objectives are dwarf tree size, good storing and eating qualities, regular cropping and
good cropping in wet tropics, early or late season cropping and resistance to diseases and pests. In
South-East Asia, improvements in mango production have resulted from selection within populations
of polyembryonic seedlings. Programmes based on hybridisation are being conducted" [4].
[Toxicology]: "In sensitive individuals, ingestion of the fruit or skin contact with the juice may cause a
rash like that of poison ivy" [6].
Arogba SS, 1997. Physical , chemical and functional properties of Nigerian Mango (Mangifera indica)
kernel and its processed flour. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 73(3):321-328.
[4]
Bonad ND, 1982. Origin and distribution of Mango. Philippine Geography Journal, 26(1):44-52.
[4]
Chadha, K.L., 1985. Mango cultivation. ExtensionBulletin No 9. M/S Prithvvi Printers, Bangalore,
India. 28 pp.
[5]
de Laroussilhe, F., 1980. Le manguier. Maisonneuve & Larose, Paris. 312 pp.
[5]
7
Lahiry AK, 1995. Sterilization of mango wood (Mangifera indica L.) without heat. Document -
International Research Group on Wood Preservation, No. 95-30065:7 pp.; [Paper presented at the
26th annual meeting, HelsingOr, Denmark, 11-16 June, 1995.]; 9 ref.
[4]
Lal Singh & Abdul Aziz Khan, 1939. Relation of growth to fruitbearing in mangoes. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Science 9(6): 835-867.
[5]
Mendoza Jr., D.B. & Wills, R.B.H. (Editors), 1984. Mango: fruit development, post harvest physiology
and marketing in ASEAN. ASEAN Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 111 pp.
[5]
Mukherjee SK, 1972. Origin of Mango (Mangifera indica). Economic Botany, 26(3):260-264.
[4]
Mukherjee SK, 1985. Systematic and Bio Geographic Studies of Crop Gene Pools. Vol. 1. Mangifera
L. IBPGR.

[4]
Musvoto C, Campbell BM, 1995. Mango trees as components of agroforestry systems in Mangwende,
Zimbabwe. Agroforestry Systems, 32(3):247-260; 24 ref.
[4]
PCARRD, 1978. The Philippines recommends for mango. PCARRD Technical Bulletin Series No 38.
70 pp.
[5]
Saw LG, 1987. Conservation of the Mango and its relatives in Peninsular Malaysia. Report to WWF.
Kepong, Malaysia: FRIM.
[4]
8
Singh, L.B., 1968 (reprint from 1960 edition). The mango. Botany, cultivation and utilization. Leonard
Hill, London. 438 pp.
[5]
and nuts. http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=369920
[7]
Whiley, A.W., 1984. Mango. In: Page, P.E.(Compiler): Tropical tree fruits for Australia. Queensland
Department of Primary Industries, Information Series QI 83018, Brisbane. pp. 25-31.
[5]
Zaman Z, Maiti B, 1994. Insects and mites infesting seedlings of mango in West Bengal. Environment
and Ecology, 12(3):734-736; 11 ref.
[4]
X. References:
320pp.

source).
[7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source).
9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen]
Datasheet Report
[Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen [1]
B. English name (s) ³ sapodilla, noseberry [6]: chicle gum, chicle tree,naseberry,
sapodilla 8
C. Synonym ³ Achras zapota L., Achras sapota L., Pouteria mammosa,
Nispero achras, Manilkara achras (Miller) Fosberg, Manilkara

zapotilla (Jacqu.) Gilly; Sapota achras Miller, S. zapotilla
(Coville) [1,6,26]
D. Other1 ³ lomut (Cambodia); sawo manila, ciku, sawo londo,
(Indonesia); lamud (Laos); ciku (Malaysia); chico

(Philippines); lamut, lamut farang (Thailand); xabôche, hông
xiem, tam luc (Vietnam; sapotillier, sapotille, (French),
nispero (Spanish);[1,6,26].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ lµút

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ l`mut [4]

Other : Ebenales
Family: Sapotaceae
Gunus: Manilkara
Species: Manilkara zapota (L.) v. Royen
1
Source :[ 4 ; 6 ; 11]
[General]: A large evergreen forest tree, over 30 m tall and with up to 150 cm diameter; (cultivated
trees reach 9-15 m and generally not more than 50 cm diameter) well branched, with a sympodial
structure, young branches growing horizontally. Bole cylindrical and long with forest-grown trees [1]. A
shrub 2-8 m tall [4]. An evergreen upright tree, usually up to 20 m tall, but occasionally reaching 30 m;
trunk low-branched, with a pyramid-shaped to globose crown [6]. A tree, 10-15 m high, white latex-
producing [13]. Large, evergreen fforest tree, over 30 m high, up to 1.5 m diameter; 9-15 m wen
cultivated, depeending on location, in general does not exceed 50 cm in diameter. Produces a dense
crown and a characteristic, sympodial branching system, in which the young branches are arranged
horizontally. Bole cylindrical, long, especially in forest-grown trees [26].
[Bark]: Dark brown, deeply fissured, forming small rectangular flakes. When cut the bark exudes a
sticky white latex (chicle) used in the production of chewing gum [1]. Bark rough, dark-brown [6]. Bark
dark brown and deeeply fissured, forming small rectangular pieces.The tree has an extensive root
system [26].
[Leaves]: Spirally arranged and clustered at the branch tips, simple, elliptic or oblong, apex obtuse to
shortly acuminate, coriaceous, shiny, glabrous when mature. Secondary veins forming a wide angle
with the midrib [1,26]. Leaves alternate, ovate-elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, 3.5-15.0 cm long, and 1.5-
7.0 cm wide; cuneate or obtusely pointed at both ends, often emarginate, entire, smooth, glossy dark

green, with prominent midrib below and numerous parallel, lateral nerves. Leaf stalk 1.0-3.5 cm long
[6]. Leaves elliptic, opposite to nearly alternate, forming bunches towards the end of twigs [13].
[Flowers]: Greenish, solitary, axillary, cyathiform or campanulate, with a brown, pubescent peduncle;
6 sepals, 6 corolla lobes [1,26]. White, 6-merous flowers single on 1-2 cm long flower stalk in upper
leaf corners, up to 1.5 cm in diameter, brown hairy outside; 6-merous flowers in leaf axils [6,13].
[Fruit]: Globular to ovoid berry with a rough brown skin, containing 1-12 shiny brown or black seeds
(frequently 5), surrounded by a brownish, sweet, juicy, scented flesh [1,26]. The fruit is highly prized
and considered one of the best in Central America [1]. A globose, ovoid or ellipsoid berry, 3-8 x 3-6
cm, with dull reddish to yellow-brown thin skin, covered by sandy brown scurf. Flesh juicy, soft, yellow
to red-brown, sweet with 0-12 oblong, 2 cm long brown or black seeds inside. All parts rich in white
latex [6]. Fruits globose or oblong berries, 3-8 cm long, with rough, brown skin. Flesh yellow-brown
with embedded granules, soft and sweet after reaching full ripeness, the taste resembling that of
overmature pears. Seeds black, flat, about 2 cm long [6,13]. Flowering and fruiting continues
throughout the year [1].
2
I. Wood properties:
The wood is homogeneous, deep red, very hard, dense, resistant and durable [1]. Wood hard and
durable; some of the species of Sapotaceae contain silica, increasing the resistance against termites
and also marine borers when used in harbour construction. Dimensions and technological properties
increased the demand for Sapotaceous timber, which is an important component of tropical rain
forests in Malaysia and Kalimantan (Borneo) [11]. The valuable wood is homogenous, deep red in
colour, very hard, strong, tough, dense, resistant and durable. It is suitable for heavy construction,
furniture, joinery and tool handles [26].

Originally from Central America, Mexico, West Indies; now widespread over tropics of North America,
Mexico, Central America, Caribbean, South America; in Asia, [China], [India], Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines [12]. M. zapota is a species of the
lowland rainforest. Trees grow well in a wide range of climatic conditions from wet tropics to dry cool
subtropical areas. But they prefer a moist hot climate similar to that found at medium to low elevations
in tropical areas, such as in coastal regions. Fruiting is not adversely affected by heavy rainfall, but
high temperatures (42-43ºC) are harmful. Trees prefer full sunshine and are fairly hardy and resistant
to wind damage when mature. Young trees are frost tender and may be killed at freezing point or
below, whereas mature trees can withstand short periods of temperatures of about -3ºC [26].

M. zapota is a species of the lowland rainforest. Trees grow well in a wide range of climatic conditions
from wet tropics to dry cool subtropical areas. But they prefer a moist hot climate similar to that found
at medium to low elevations in tropical areas, such as in coastal regions [26].The following indicates
the estimated biophysical and geographical limits: Elevation range 0-600 m a.s.l.; mean annual
precipitation 750 -2500 mm/ m², distributed over the summer with 2 peaks; mean annual temperature
23-31ºC, minimum tolerated temperature minus 3 to 0ºC [12]. Limits of the area of distribution
approximately 25ºN to
10º N [12].
M. zapota is an adaptable species, found up to 2500 m elevation. Survives light frost, long drought,
strong winds and salt spray. However, it does best at lower altitudes. A species of lowland rain
forests, from sea level to about 900 m elevation a.s.l., with annual precipitation between 1250 and
2500 mm. Best production is achieved in costal regions. Rainfall does not damage fruit but high
temperatures beyond 40ºC are harmful. Plants are susceptible to frost when young but can resist light
frost of short duration when older [6].

not determined
3
Prefers rich, well drained sandy loams; tolerates moist soils, including very saline soils. The tree has
an extensive root system and prefers well-drained soils, e.g. alluvial or sandy sediments, situated
near the sea, while it grows not well on clay soils [1].

[Wood]: Wood very hard, siliceous, suitable for furniture, posts, heavy timber for heavy construction
[26].
[Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh or processed to sherbets, ice cream, butter, jam or syrup [6]. M. zapota
is mainly cultivated for its fruit, which is highly prized and considered one of the best in Central
America. It is eaten raw or made into jam, preferably when slightly overripe, and in Cuba and Brazil it
is often made into a sherbet. The fruit keeps for about 6 weeks in a refrigerator at around 0ºC. The
juice may be boiled into syrup or fermented into vinegar [26].
Latex formerly used as basis for chewing gum (chicle in Indian-Brazilian language), today partly
replaced by synthetic products; many industrial applications [6] Wild and cultivated trees in America
are tapped for their milky latex, which coagulates into chicle, the principal constituent of chewing gum
before the advent of synthetics. In recent years, synthetic substitutes have been replacing chicle, so
the trees are mainly grown for their fruit. The gum is also used in transmission belts, dental surgery,
and as a substitute for gutta percha, a coagulum of the latex of Palaquium spp., also in the
Sapotaceae family, which had many applications in industry before the advent of plastics [26]. Seeds,
flowers and tannin have medicinal uses[6]. : A leaf decoction is taken for fever, haemorrhage, wounds

and ulcers; for neuralgia, leaf with tallow is applied as a compress on the temples. Seeds are
antipyretic, and when ground with water they act as a diuretic. The plant is a source of sapotin, a
glucoside used in medicine as a febrifuge. In Indonesia, the flowers are used as one of the ingredients
of a powder that is rubbed on the body of a woman after childbirth. In Cambodia, tannin from the bark
is used to cure diarrhoea and fever [26].
Seeds contain hydrocyanic acid and should be removed before eating the fruit [26].
Tannin from the bark is used to tan ship sails and fishing tackle.
Cultivated as an ornamental tree [26].

not included [18]

Trees are spaced 7-12 m apart, depending on the growth habit of the cultivar. They require irrigation
during the dry season for the 1st 3-4 years, after which they are able to withstand drought. If
necessary, young plants should be staked. Response to fertilizer is good, and 3-4 small applications a
year of a nitrogen-containing fertilizer are beneficial. Pruning to shape the young trees is practised for
4
the 1st 5 or 6 years. Planting a strong windbreak is also advised to protect against prevailing winds
[26]. No specific information on pollination has been found, but honeybees collect nectar from the
flowers and may contribute to the pollination. Flowers are bisexual; the stigma extends beyond the
corolla. The tree flowers and fruits throughout the year; fruit take about 4 months to mature. Seedlings
may take 5-8 years to bear fruit, while grafted varieties take only 2-3 years from planting out [26].
Q. Propagation :
Seed storage behaviour is intermediate; viability can be maintained for 24 months in air-dry storage at
5ºC [26].
Seeds germinate after about 30 days without any treatment and with up to 80% success rate; they
exhibit an epigeal type of germination. The seeds for rootstock are sown in a sandy seedbed about 2
cm apart and at a depth of about 1 cm. After a few months, the seedlings are transplanted into
polybags. They grow very slowly; even with nitrogen application rootstocks are not ready for grafting
for 2-3 years [26]
Commercial varieties propagated by vegetative means, air-layering and grafting. For air-layering one
uses 2-year-old branches, 46-60 cm long, 1 cm thick and suitably leafy. The air-layered material is
removed from the mother tree after about 5 months (2 months to callose and 3 months for rooting).
For grafting, seedlings are used as the stock, or seedlings of Mimusops or Madhuca of related genera
in the same family. Saddle grafting and budding are practiced. Deep cultivation followed by harrowing
is recommended as measure of site preparation before planting. If strong winds prevail planting a
windbreak is recommended. In adequately irrigated situations the recommended spacing is 9x9 ºCm,
in drier positions 7.5x7.5 m. If necessary young plants must be staked. Interplanting with leguminous
crops is recommended for the first 6 years [1].

Insect pests: Bactrocera dorsalis [1], Nephopterix eugraphella [2].
In some regions, larvae of Trypetidae fruit flies are serious pests, as they infest the ripe fruit and
render it unfit for consumption. Ceratitis capitata, the Mediterranean fruit fly, and Anastrepha ludens,
the Mexican fruit fly, are 2 of the most troublesome species. Rhyparida beetles may damage new
leaves, and banana spotting bugs damage fruit, causing split lesions. Symptoms of fruit rot
transmitted by Phytopthora palmivora are especially clear on lower fruits of the tree. Rusts Scopella
sapotae and Uredo sapotae attack the leaves in the native range of the tree. A leaf spot (Septoria
spp.) has been observed to cause defoliation of trees in Florida [26].
Insect pests: Bactrocera dorsalis [1], Nephopterix eugraphella [2]
Fungus diseases: Banisia myrsusalis [3], Corticium salmonicolor, Phaeophleospora indica [4].
Footnotes: 1. a pest of mature fruits, 2. in India, 3. a leaf-folder, 4. a leaf-spot disease, in India [12].
5
S. Conservation :
Not a threatened species;

unknown

All over Southeast Asia, mostly introduced; native in Central America and Mexico [12]..
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Bose TK, Mitra SK, eds, 1996. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash.
Chadha KL, 1992. Strategy for optimisation of productivity and utilization of sapota (Manilkara achras
[M. zapota] (Mill.) Forberg.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 49(1):1-17; 55 ref.
Chaudhary SM, Shete MB, Desai UT, 1995. Performance of some sapota (Manilkara achrus Mill
Fosberg) cultivars under semi-arid region of Maharashtra. Recent Horticulture, 2(2):47-51; 7 ref.
Lenka PC, Das DK, Samal B, 1996. Studies on floral biology and physical characteristics of sapota
cultivars. Orissa Journal of Horticulture, 24(1/2):42-46; 5 ref.
Sandhu MK, 1992. Standardization of grafting techniques in sapota (Achras zapota L.). Acta
Horticulturae, No. 321:610-615; 5 ref.
Pampanna Y, Sulikeri GS, Hulamani NC, 1994. Effect of season on the success of softwood grafting
in sapota (cv. Kalipatti). South Indian Horticulture, 42(5):303-308; 8 ref.

Galán Saúco V, 1995. Woody tropical fruits in Spain. Biogenetic resources, plant material, production
and prospects. Vida Rural, 2(24):60-63; [6 col. pl.]; 10 ref.
Rice RP, Rice LW, Tindall HD. 1987. Fruit and vegetable production in warm climates. Macmillan
Press, London.
Tankard G. 1987. Tropical fruit. A guide to growing and using exotic fruits. Viking O’Neil.
6
X. References:
1) FAO-SIDA 1988: Fruit-bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper 34, Rome, Italy, 177
pp.
4) Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia. Olympic Printing House; Phnom Penh,
915 pp.

11) Heywood, V.D. (Ed.) 1993: Flowering Plants of the World. Oxford University Press,
New York; 336 pp.

(Internet source)
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Melia azedarach L]
Datasheet Report
[Melia azedarach L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Melia azedarach L
B. English name (s) ³ China berry [2], azedarach, bead tree, China tree, Persian
lilac, pride of India, syringa [7], Barbados lilac, white cedar,

Chinaberry tree, umbrella tree [5]
C. Synonym ³ Melia australasica A. Juss. [5], Melia composita Willd. [5],
Melia japonica G. Don [5], Melia japonica Don.[7], Melia

sempervirens (L.) Sw. [5, 7], Melia toosendan Siebold &
Zucc. [5], Melia dubia Cav. [6], Melia bukayan Royle. [7],
Melia dubia Cavanilles [7]
D. Other1 ³ white cedar (Trade name) [7] - arbol del paraiso, jacinta,
paraiso (Spain) [5] - azedarach, lilas des Antilles, lilas des

Indes (France) [5] - goda neem (Bangladesh) [5] - arvore-
santa, cinamomo, jasmim-de-cachorro, jasmim-de-soldado,
lilás-da-India, para-raios (Brazil) [5] - Paternosterbaum,
Zedarachbaum (Germany) [5] - mindi, gringging, marambung
(Indonesia) [5] - arebevu, bakam-limdo, bakarja, bakarjan,

bakayan, bakon-limdi, betain, bokain, chik-bevu, deikna, dek,
deknoi, drek, ghora nim, gowdnim, heb-bevu, hutchubevu,
kadbevu, kaliyapa, karin vembu, kattu veppu, mahaneem,
makanim, malla nim, mallay vembu, padrai, pejri, puvempu,
sima veppu, taraka-vepa, thamaga, thurakavepa, turka,
vaymbu, vilayati nim, yerri-vepa (India) [5] - albero dei
paternostri (Italy) [5] - h'ienx, kadau s'a:ngz (Laos) [5] - mindi
kecil (Malaysia) [5] - bagaluñga, balagañgo, paraiso
(Philippines) [5] - bakain, white cedar (Pakistan) [5] - mindi
kechil (Singapore) [5] - khian, lian (Thailand) [5] - xoan
(Vietnam) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: dkh‘an/ esþAexµac

Source: [1]
1
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ dâ:k hîën, sdau khmaô:h [1]
Other : Geraniales
Family: Meliaceae
Genus: Melia
Species: Melia azedarach L.
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Melia azedarach is typically a medium-sized tree [5] with a height up to 10-15 m [5] under
dry conditions and up to 45 m [5] in closed moist forest (20 m [3], 10-25 m [2], 25-30 m [3], 45 m [7]).
"It is generally deciduous, but some forms in the humid tropics (e.g. in Malaysia and Tonga) are
evergreen" [7]. The bole is fluted below when old, with a DBH up to 60 cm [5] (100-150 cm [2, 4], 30-

60, sometimes 120 cm [7], 120 cm in closed moist forest [5]). The crown is spreading with sparsely
branched limbs [7]. "In India it is reported that there are three main forms. The most common form
has rather long branches, which form a loose open crown and has rather a straggly growth habit.
Another form, which is occasionally seen, has a dense, umbrella shaped crown. A third form flowers
as a seedling and continues flowering at irregular intervals for a few years, by which time it has
reached about 1.8 m in height and then proceeds to die." [5]. Branchlets are brown with prominent
leaf scars and reddish-brown lenticels. M. azedarach has a shallow root system. It is short lived and
may die already after 20 years [5].
[Bark]: The bark is smooth, greenish-brown to grey brown when young, turning grey and becoming
thick and longitudinally fissured with age.
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, 20-40 cm long [7] (15-23 to 80 cm long [4], -25 cm long [5]),
consisting of 3-7 pairs of leaflets [5] (3-11 pairs [7]) with a size of 2-10 cm x 0.6-3.8 cm [5] (2-8 cm
long [4]). The leaflets are dark green above, often with sparse hairs along the veins and lighter green
and generally smooth below with teethed or scalloped leaf margins. They have a pungent odor when
crushed.
2
[Flowers]: The inflorescence is an axillary, loose panicle 10-22 cm[5] (20 cm [7]) long, primary
branches 5-7.5 cm[5] long and secondary branches up to 2 cm[5] long, bearing tufted flowers on
second-year wood. The flower bracts are 3-10 mm long [5] and thread-like, the flower stalks are 2-3
mm long [5]. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are 5-lobed [7], green and 1 cm [7] long (1.5-2 mm[4]).
The inner flower leaves (=petals) are also 5-lobed with a purplish, pinkish lavender to white color,
fragrant, hairy and strap-shaped with a length of 0.9 cm [7] (1-1.3 cm[4]). Flowers can be bisexual or
male with a deep purple blue staminal tube which is 0.5 cm long and 1 cm wide [7] (6-8 mm [4]). It is
cut at the apex into 15-25 slender teeth [4]. Each flower of M. azedarach has ten anthers [4]. "It
flowers from March to May in the northern hemisphere, although some forms flower throughout the
summer and even throughout the year" [7].
[Fruits]: The mature fruit is a stalked drupe that is greenish yellow to yellowish brown, globe-shaped,
and 1-1.5 cm in diameter [4] (15 mm [7], 2-4 cm x 1-2 cm [5]), smooth and becoming a little shriveled,
slightly fleshy. It contains one seed [7] (up to 5 seeds [5]) in a hard endocarp which is surrounded by a
thin, succulent outer flesh. The seeds are oblong, smooth, brown and approximately 3.5 x 1.6 mm [7,
4] in size.
[2, 3, 4, 5, 7]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood properties]: "The timber is soft, pinkish to yellow-brown resembling mahogany, with prominent
growth rings which give it a fairly decorative appearance" [7]. It is a relatively strong and easily worked
lightwood with a density of 0.51-0.57 g/cm³ [5] (0.51-0.66 g/cm³ [7]). However, "a study in Malawi on
18 hardwood species of age 5-8 years, indicated that M. azedarach has an average wood density of
0.401 g/cm³. The wood lasts from 1 to 15 years in the ground but is rarely attacked by termites. The
sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus borer" [5]. It air-seasons exceptionally well, is durable and is easy to
saw and peel. It is a good species for domestic fuelwood with a calorific value of 24,000-25,000 kJ/kg
[5] (5,100 kcal/kg [7]).
[5, 7]

Approximate limits: 35°N to 34°S [5]. M. azedarach originates from South or Southeast Asia [2] (other
sources give China or Japan as the place of origin [3]) but is widely cultivated in all tropical,
subtropical or even temperate regions as decorative and shade plant. The natural habitat of M.
azedarach is seasonal forest, including bamboo thickets and Tamarindus woodland. Generally it can
be found in deciduous forests, riparian forests, rain forests and savannas.
[3, 5, 7]

This species grows in an altitude of 0-1,800 m a.s.l. [5, 7]. Under natural and cultivated conditions, it is
highly adaptive to a wide range of climatic conditions in the tropical, sub-tropical and warm-temperate
climates mostly associated with seasonally dry conditions. "The species is drought hardy with an
annual rainfall ranging from (385-) 600 to 2,000 mm (350-2,000 mm [7]). In India rainfall is mainly
3
during the monsoon season. Where rainfall is less than 600 mm, as in part of the Middle East, it
performs well on wet soils along rivers and under irrigation. In Australia, Doran and Turnbull (1997)
report the mean annual rainfall is mainly 800-1,200 mm and up to 2,400 mm for northern coastal
areas. In drier inland localities annual rainfall is 385-570 mm. There is an average of 105 to 120 rainy
days per year concentrated in the summer months" [5]. Generally a dry season of 4-8 months is
tolerated. The normal temperature range is 23-26ºC [5] (23-27°C [7]) with an absolute minimum and
maximun temperature of 15ºC to 39°C [5] (3-37°C [2]). It is shade tolerant and resistant to
waterlogging and frost. "Most frost-tolerant cultivars can be planted outdoors in sheltered areas in the
British Isles" [7] ( According to other sources M. azedarach suffers from varying degrees of frost [5]).
"It is fire sensitive to the extent that even 10 m tall trees can be killed by ground fire" [5]. It also
withstands a moderate coastal exposure and is wind tolerant.
[2, 5, 7]


The species grows on a wide range of soils, but best growth is obtained on well-drained, deep, sandy
and fertile loam while shallow gravelly soils stunt the growth. M. azedarach tolerates shallow soils,
saline and strongly alkaline soils, but not very acid soils. A pH of 5.5-6.5 [5] is suited best. "In
Australia it occurs on mainly acid and neutral red earths, acidic red friable earths (krasnozems) and
shallow loamy soils. It is found on poor, marginal, sloping, and stony ground, even in crevices and
sheer rock. In Australia, it occurs on dissected plateaus of basalt, sandstone or metamorphic,

undulating low hilly country with alluvial and sandy plains, to coastal lowlands with alluvial plains. It is
commonly found along stream banks, in valleys and on the lower slopes of coastal ranges" [5].
[2, 5, 7]

[Wood]: M. azedarach wood is traded as 'white cedar', resembles mahogany and is used for cabinet
making and in construction due to its resistance to termites, for agricultural implements, plywood,
boxes, poles and tool handles. It is a good species for fuelwood with a calorific value of 24,000-25,000
kJ/kg [5] (5,100 kcal/kg [7]). "In Australia, the species has been used for framing and boards, flooring,
cabinet work, fixtures and interior joinery" [5].
[5, 7]
[Non-wood]: It is important as a dye-producing plant. Leaves are lopped for fodder (in vivo dry matter
digestibility of 77% [5]) and are highly nutritious but are also used as green manure. Seeds contain a
greenish oil high in linoleic acid (65-82% [5]) and oleic acid, which is suitable for illumination, for soap
and hair oil. The trunk yields a gum which is little utilized. "M. azedarach is well known for its
medicinal uses. Its various parts have antihelmintic, antimalarial, cathartic, emetic and emmenagogic
4
properties and are also used to treat skin diseases. Dried ripe fruit is used as an external parasiticide;
some toxic components are found in the seed oil, the oral intake of which may cause severe reactions
and even death" [7]. Fruit stones make ideal beads and are used in making necklaces and rosaries.
"Anderson (1993) records that the Aborigines of the Tully River area of north Queensland used the
bruised bark and leaves as a fish poison which was reported to act fairly rapidly. Gupta (1993) reports
that a form of whisky is made from the fruits" [5].
[1, 5, 6, 7]
[Others]: M. azedarach is a well-known ornamental which is planted along avenues due to its scented
flowers and shady, spreading crown. It is also used in boundary plantings as a windbreak and living
fence. The flowers are attractive to bees for pollen and honey.
[2, 7]

No class. [8]

[General]: The natural habitat of M. azedarach is seasonal forest, including bamboo thickets and
Tamarindus woodland. Generally it can be found in deciduous forests, riparian forests, rain forests
and savannas. It can be pollarded as it has the ability to produce root suckers and coppice shoots and
resprouts after cutting, making it suitable for pole production.
[Establishment]: Generally one year-old seedling stock is preferred for planting in temperate climates,
while 6-month-old seedlings [7] (4 month old seedlings [5]) are used in the tropics. "During winter
dormancy, seedlings of M. azedarach may be easily stored by placing the plants in a trench, with the
root collar about 5 cm below the ground. Lifting, transporting and planting of deciduous stock should
be completed before leaf flush in spring. In India the seedlings are planted in pits in July or winter
when leafless. Stumps prepared from 15-month old seedlings are planted in the same way. Seedling
development is stimulated by weeding and demands full sunlight for best results. In India, young
plants are subject to browsing by deer. Irrigation may be required on harsh sites to ensure good
survival and acceptable growth rates. Ryan and Bell (1989) reported on a trial conducted in southeast
Queensland which included M. azedarach. The site was cleared of standing vegetation then ploughed
to a depth of 30 cm and reploughed prior to planting. Mounds were also constructed to aid in
drainage. Planting stock was initially raised in 50-70 ml tubes or net pots then repotted into 200 ml
tubes where necessary. Plants were established at 3 m x 2 m spacing. Fertilizer was applied and spot
weeding carried out around each plant. Results after 18 months averaged over two sites were: height
2.6 m, 100% survival and good coppice response following cutting at 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 m above
ground" [7].
[Management]: Under optimal conditions, M. azedarach grows fast. However, it does not coppice well
from large stumps, but excellent coppice is obtained from trees up to a girth of 0.9 m [7]. "Under
plantation conditions, M. azedarach requires thinning from an early stage to prevent competition
5
which results in small diameter boles. M. azedarach has the ability to self prune. However, under
plantation conditions, lower branches may require to be removed where access is restricted or there
is the risk of fire. The tree coppices well and throws up root-suckers, especially where the roots are
exposed or injured. Pollarding of M. azedarach for fuelwood and poles is usually done on 5-10 year
old trees. Trees damaged by wind or lopped high on the bole produce large numbers of shoots from
dormant buds on the stem" [7].
[Agroforestry]: It is widely planted as a shade tree in coffee and abaca (Musa textilis) plantations. M.
azedarach is a useful species for growing with crops such as wheat. It has also been successfully
planted with sugarcane. "In Paraguay where M. azedarach is grown in small woodlots for timber, the
tree is inter-planted with a variety of food crops. It is planted at a spacing of 4 m x 3 m, thinned after 3
years to 400 trees/ha and after 6 years to 200 trees/ha" [7].
[2, 5, 7]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: The fruit drop is limited, and ripe fruit stay attached to the branches for
several months even after the leaves have fallen. An 85% germination rate may be expected in 2
months" [7]. "In Nepal the fruit is collected from December through to March (depending on
provenance). Once the flesh has been removed the nuts are dried and then sown in open beds before
the end of April" [5].
[5, 7]
[Propagation]: The species is propagated by direct sowing, planting of seedlings or stumps but also by
natural regeneration. "In India, sowing is done in nursery beds at a spacing of 15 cm x 2.5 cm in full

sun and seed kept under cover to a depth of 2 cm" [7]. Germination starts in about 3 weeks [7] and
may take a further 3 weeks [7] to complete. After 2-3 weeks [5] the seedlings are 2-4 cm tall [5] and
are transplanted into containers. Alternatively the seedlings are transplanted in nursery beds when
they are 7-10 cm tall [7] and left there. The seedlings grow very fast and can be planted out in June-
July after 4 months [5] in the nursery when they have reached 20 cm in height [5].
[5, 7]

[Pests]: M. azedarach is generally unaffected by pests. However, M. azedarach var. australasica was
in the past periodically defoliated by the larvae of the white cedar moth (Leptocneria reducta) and a
spider mite. "In field trials conducted near Gympie in southeast Queensland, Ryan and Bell (1989)
reported that a number of woody species including M. azedarach var. australasica suffered frequent
and extensive defoliation by insects" [5].
[5, 7]
[Diseases]: Diseases are not very common. Bacterial and fungal diseases have been observed on
leaves, twigs and fruit but no serious damage is reported. Some trees are attacked by fungi that
cause brownish butt rot and brownish pocket rot. "During the 1980's in Paraguay, a witches' broom
6
type of growth deformity in plantations of M. azedarach developed due to infection by a mycoplasma"
[5].
[7]
[Others]: The roots of this tree are shallow making it susceptible to strong winds which may blow it
down. It is very fire sensitive and even 10 m tall trees can be killed by ground fire.
[5]
S. Conservation :

[Native]:
Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New
Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.
[1, 7]
[Introduced]:
Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, China, Croatia, Cuba, Djibouti,
Dominican Republic, Eritrea, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, Iran, Iraq, Italy,
Jamaica, Kenya, Korea, Lesotho, Malta, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Nicaragua, Panama,
Paraguay, Philippines, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia,
South Africa, Spain, Swaziland, Syria, Tanzania, Tonga, Turkey, Uganda, United Kingdom, United
States of America and Zanzibar.
[7]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "Because of the divided leaves, the generic name is derived from the Greek ‘melia’
(the ash); the specific name comes from the Persian ‘azzadirackt’ (noble tree)" [7].
[Poison]: "Aqueous and alcoholic extracts of leaves and seed reportedly control many insect, mite and
nematode pests. However, because they contain toxic components, care is needed in their use" [7].
The fruit of M. azedarach is highly toxic to warm-blooded animals although not all trees are reported
to produce toxic fruit. "Most cases of poisoning have been in pigs but there are also reports of
poisoning in sheep, cattle and dogs. Poisoning has also been reported in children who have eaten the
fruits" [5]. The consumption of 6-8 fruits [7] can cause nausea, spasms, and in children even death.
7
"The flowers may cause discomfort to asthma sufferers, and the wood dust can induce dermatitis.
Annual lopping of the branches will reduce the danger as flowering is confined to second-year wood"
[5].
[5, 7]
Ahmed S, Idris S, 1997. Melia azedarach. In: Hanum IF, Maesen LJB van der, eds. Plant Resources
of South-East Asia. No. 11 Auxiliary plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Leiden, Holland:
Backhuys Publishers, 187-190.
[5]
Anderson E, 1993. Plants of central Queensland - their identification and uses. Department of Primary
industries. Brisbane: Queensland Government Printer.
[7]
Brune A, 1989. Mycoplasma attack on Melia azedarach in Paraguay. Revista Forestal - Carrera de
Ingeniería Forestal, Facultad de Ingeniería Agronómica, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, 5(1):23-
26; 8 ref.
[5]

Cabral MMO, Garcia ES, Kelecom A, 1995. Lignanes from the Brazilian Melia azedarach, and their
activity in Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera, Reduviidae). Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,
90(6):759-763; 26 ref.
[5]
Ginting CU, Djamin A, Hartanta, 1995. Efficacy of several concentrations of the leaves of neem tree
(Azadirachta indica A. Juss) and mindi tree (Melia azedarach L.) against Setothosea asigna van Ecke.
Jurnal Penelitian Kelapa Sawit, 3(2):119-125; 9 ref.
[5]
Gupta BB, Adarsh Kumar, Negi DS, 1989. Rooting response of branch cuttings of Melia azedarach L.
Indian Journal of Forestry, 12(3):210-214; 15 ref.
[5]
8
Gupta RK, 1993. Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilization. New Delhi, India:
Oxford & IBH.
[7]
Huang RC, Okamura H, Iwagawa T, Tadera K, Nakatani M, 1995. Azedarachin C, a limonoid

antifeedant from Melia azedarach. Phytochemistry, 38(3):593-594; 8 ref.
[5]
Milimo PB, 1994. Mechanisms of drought resistance in Melia volkensii and M. azedarach. PhD thesis,
Department of Forestry, Australian National University, Canberra.
[5]
Milimo P, 1995. Drought resistance in Melia volkensii and M. azedarach. ACIAR Forestry Newsletter,
No. 20:3.
[5]
Moncur MW, Gunn BV, 1990. Seed development and germination responses of Melia azedarach var.
australasica.. ACIAR Proceedings Series, No. 28:24-28; 6 ref.
[5]
Ottino JF, Renner JE, 1997. Spontaneous poisoning by chinaberry (Melia azedarach). Lesions in the
skeletal musculative of cattle. Obiettivi e documenti veterinari, 18(7-8): 72-75.
[5]
Piccolo ALG, Gregolim MI, 1980. Phenology of Melia azedarach in S. Brazil. Turrialba, 30(1):107-109;
9 ref.
[5]
Ryan PA, Bell RE, 1989. Growth, coppicing and flowering of Australian tree species in southeast
Queensland, Australia. ACIAR Monograph, No. 10:49-68; [refs. at end of book].
[7]
9
Ryan PA, Bell RE, 1991. Australian hardwoods for fuelwood and agroforestry. Review report on
ACIAR Project 8809. Gympie: Queensland Forest Service (unpublished).
[7]
Salam ALA, Ahmed AAI, 1997. Evaluation of using the extract of chinaberry fruits, Melia azedarach L.
In the control of the cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis in Egypt. International conference on pests
in agriculture, 6-8 January 1997, at le Corum, Montpellier, France. Vol. 3. Assoc. Nationale pour la
Protection des Plantes, Paris, France. 1159-1162.
[5]
Simsiri A, Namsawath P, 1993. Melia azedarach. In: Plantation forest trees. Silviculture Division,
Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
[5]
X. References:
320pp.

[5] CABI: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition). CAB International. (CD-ROM)

Phnom Penh.
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Moringa oleifera Lam]
Datasheet Report
[Moringa oleifera Lam]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Moringa oleifera Lam
B. English name (s) ³ horse-radish tree [9], ben-oil tree, cabbage tree, clarifier tree,
drumstick tree, moringa tree [1]
C. Synonym ³ Moringa moringa (L.) Small [1], Moringa pterygosperma
Gaetn. nom. illeg. [1], Anoma moringa (Linnaeus) Loureiro,

1970 [4], Guilandina moringa L. Standley, 1946, [4],
Hyperanthera moringa (Linnaeus) Vahl., 1970 [4], Moringa
erecta Salisb. (nom illegit.)., 1796 [4], Moringa moringa (L.)
Millsp. Standley, 1946 [4], Moringa octogona Stokes. nom
illegit., 1812 [4], Moringa ovalifolia Dinter & Berger, 1987 [4],
Moringa ovalifoliolata Dinter, 1914 [4], Moringa polygona DC.
(1825) [7]
D. Other1 ³ shiferaw (Ethiopia) [1] - rawag (Arabia) [1] - sajina,
sohjna, sujina (Bangladesh) [1] - dan-da-lun (Myanmar) [1] -

benzolive tree (Caribbean) [1] - malunggay (Philippines) [1] -
ben ail้, neverdie, pois quenique (France) [1] - zogallagandi

(W-Africa) [1] - munga ara, mungna, sainjna, sanjna, shajna,
shobhanjana, sohanjna, sondna, suhujna (India) [1] - okwe
oyibo (SE-Nigeria) [1] - merunggai, sajina (Malaysia) [1] -
sohijan (Nepal) [1] - mlonge, mronge, mrongo, mzunze
(Tansania) [1] - murangai, murunga (Sri Lanka) [1] - ma-rum
(Thailand) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: RmuM

Source: [10]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ Morum [10]

1
Other : Papaverales
Family: Moringaceae
Genus: Moringa
Species: Moringa oleifera Lam.
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Moringa oleifera is a graceful deciduous shrub or small tree [3] reaching a height of 9-15 m
[4] (3-10 m [3, 7], 15 m [1], 8 m [6], 10 m [2], 12 m [9]), with sparse foliage and an umbrella shaped,
open crown. The bole is crooked, often forked from near the base and grows to a DBH of 60 cm [6]
(30 cm [4], 10-30 cm [7], 1.0-1.5 m in girth [1]). It often resembles a leguminous species at a distance,
especially when in flower, but it is immediately recognized when in fruit. Twigs and shoots are shortly
but densely hairy, branches are brittle and drooping. The tree often develops a deep root system with
a thick main root.
[Bark]: The bark is smooth, dark grey, the slash is thin and yellowish.
[Leaves]: The leaves are feathery, dark green above and pale green under surface, alternate,
compound and tripinnate, 30–60 cm [2] long (30-90 cm [4]), the old ones soon falling off. The pinnae

are opposite with 4-7 pairs [4] of pinnae (4-6 pairs [7]), each bearing a 2nd lot of opposite pinnae in 2-
7 pairs [4] spaced about 5 cm apart up the central stalk, with a slightly larger terminal leaflet. The
leaflets are variable in size and shape, but often rounded-elliptical, up to 2.5 cm long [6] (1.3–2 cm x
0.6–0.3 cm [2, 4]), hairless with entire margin.
[Flower]: The sweet smelling flowers are produced throughout the year, in loose inflorescences
(=axillary panicles) which are up to 15 cm long [2]. Individual flower stalks are finely hairy, up to 12
mm long [6] (4-15 cm long [7]) with 5 pale green outer flower-leaves (=sepals) 12 mm long [2] and 5
unequal white or creamy-white to yellow inner flower leaves (=petals) which are a little longer than the
sepals. Except 5 ones, all stamens (=male organs) have anthers, the style is slender.
[Fruit]: Fruit production starts in March and April in Sri Lanka, in India between March and April and
again in September and October [2]. The fruit (=triangular pod) is light brown, large and distinctive, up
to 90 cm long [6] (30-90 cm [4], 30–120 cm long [2]) and 12 mm broad [6] (1.4 cm [4], 1.8 cm [2]
wide), slightly constricted at intervals, gradually tapering to a point [6] (tapering at both ends [2]), 3-
(4-) angled [6], with 2 grooves on each face [6] (9-ribbed [2]). It splits along each angle, into 3 parts
when dry to expose the rows of rounded blackish oily seeds [6]. Each pod contains about 20 seeds [4]
embedded in the pith. Seeds are rounded blackish to dark brown, oily, each with 3 papery wings [4].
[1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9]
2
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is very soft, corky and light. It has a density of 0.5-0.7 g/cm³ at unknown
% mc [6] and yields approximately 4,600 kcal/kg [6].
[1, 6]

Approximate limits: 30°N to 25°S [1]. Moringa oleifera origiates from India and Pakistan and was
introduced into Southeast Asia where it is especially planted as decorative. "Throughout India,
Moringa is commonly cultivated in hedges and backyards because of its usefulness as a fodder tree
and its remarkable capacity to stand maltreatment" [6]. It is also used as a farm boundary. In nature,
this species colonizes stream banks and savannah areas where the soils are well drained and the
water table remains fairly high all the year round.
[1, 3, 6, 7]

Moringa oleifera is rather a lowland tree species that can be found at elevations between sea-level
and 1,000 m [4] (0-500 m [4], 0-1,400 m [1], 0-1,300 m [7]). I has the ability to grow both under wet
and seasonal conditions. Reported annual rainfall range for growth is 400-4,300 mm [4] (300-2,500
mm [1], 480 to 4,030 mm [2], at least 500 mm [6]) with the optimum between 600-2,200 mm [4]. It is
quite drought tolerant and endures up to 6 months [1] of dry season "but yields much less foliage
where it is continuously under water stress" [4]. However, it can grow in locations with rainfall as low
as 300 mm per year [1] if there is adequate groundwater. Reported temperature range for growth is 7-
48°C [4] (12.6-40°C [6]), with the optimum between 18-35°C [4] (25-27ºC [1], 18.7-28.5°C [2]). It is not
harmed by frost, but can be killed back to ground level by a freeze. "It quickly sends out new growth
from the trunk when cut, or from the ground when frozen" [6]. It is not influenced by day-length,
prefers open rather than shaded situations and thrives in full sunlight. Fires are tolerated, but it is
susceptible to wind damage [1].
[1, 2, 4, 6, 7]

This species has adapted to a wide range of soil types including soils with low fertility. It grows best on
fertile and well drained sandy soil, clay or clay loam but is in general suitable for light, medium and
heavy soils but will not withstand salinity. It has, however, a special tolerance to shallow soil. The soils
should be well drained, can be seasonally waterlogged but without prolonged waterlogging. Growth is
stunted in areas with a high water table. With regard to acidity, it prefers a neutral to slightly acidic soil
reaction (pH 5.5-7.5 [9], 5.5-7 [4]) but a range of pH 4.5 to 8 [4] is suitable. "It has recently been
introduced with success in Pacific atolls where the pH is as high as 8.5" [6].
[1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9]
3
[Wood]: The light and soft wood is useful only for light construction work and for industrial and
domestic woodware. It is used in floats, toys and as shuttles and picking sticks for the textile industry.
The wood pulp is also considered useful for newsprint and cellophane. The wood also is an
acceptable firewood for cooking but makes poor charcoal.
[1, 6]
[Non-wood]:
Food: "The leaves, a good source of protein, vitamins A, B and C and minerals such as calcium and
iron, are used as a spinach equivalent. They are an excellent source of the sulphur-containing amino
acids methionine and cystine, which are often in short supply. Young plants are eaten as a tender
vegetable and the taproots as an alternative for horseradish. Young pods are edible and reportedly
have a taste reminiscent of asparagus. The green peas and surrounding white material can be
removed from larger pods and cooked in various ways. Seeds from mature pods (which can be 40-50
cm long) can be browned in a skillet, mashed and placed in boiling water, which causes an excellent
cooking or lubricating oil to float to the surface. The pleasantly flavoured edible oil, resembling olive
oil, is an excellent salad oil. The flowers can be eaten or used to make a tea".
Fodder: "Leaves are mainly used for human food and not to any great extent for livestock, but
branches are occasionally lopped for feeding camels and cattle" [6].
Lipids: "Oil extracted from the mature pods (oil of Ben) is yellowish, non-drying, good keeping
qualities but eventually turns rancid. It is used as a lubricant, in cosmetics and perfumes, and to some
extent is a substitute for sperm-whale oil" [6]. "The oil is highly valued by perfumers for its power of

absorbing and retaining odours and by watchmakers as a lubricant. The oil cake can be used as a
fertilizer. The crushed seeds are used by many rural communities (e.g., in Sudan, Malawi and
Indonesia) as an effective and low cost means of removing turbidity from drinking water, and reducing
bacterial contamination" [1].
Fibers: The bark, when beaten, produces a fiber which is used to make small ropes and mats. "A
study on the production of rayon-grade pulp from M. oleifera by a prehydrolyzed sulphate process in
India shows that it is suitable as a raw material for the production of high alpha cellulose pulp for use
in cellophane and textiles" [1].
Gum: "When the tree is injured, the stem exudes a gum that is used in calico printing, as a condiment,
and for stomach and bladder ailments. The mucilaginous gum has a bland taste and belongs to the
hog series of gums" [1].
Tannins and dyestuff: The bark is used for tanning hides and wood yields a blue dye.
Medicine: "Moringa seeds are effective against skin-infecting bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. They contain the potent antibiotic and fungicide terygospermin. The
alkaloid spirachin (a nerve paralysant) has been found in the roots. Even when free of bark, the
condiment in excess may be harmful. A decoction of the flowers is used as a cold remedy. The gum is
4
diuretic, astringent and abortifacient and is used against asthma. Oil of Ben is used for hysteria,
scurvy, prostate problems and bladder troubles. The roots and bark are used for cardiac and
circulatory problems, as a tonic and for inflammation. The bark is an appetizer and digestive. The iron
content of the leaves is high, and they are reportedly prescribed for anaemia in the Philippines" [1].
Honey production: "Its silviculture, involving regeneration by cuttings, coppicing and pollarding, keeps
flowering on and off most parts of the year. This provides nectar to honey bees for a long period. In
the Sudan, powdered seeds are deemed more effective than slices of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
for treatment of bee honey; they can be used without boiling and can also be used to clarify
sugarcane juice" [1].
Domestic cleaning: "The crushed leaves are used to clean pots and pans, and the Hausa and Yoruba
of Nigeria even use them to clean walls" [1].
[1, 6, 9]
[Other]:
Erosion control: "M. oleifera is suited to areas where strong winds and long, dry spells occur
simultaneously, causing serious soil erosion" [1].
Soil improver: "The green leaves make a useful mulch. The press cake left after oil extraction from the
seeds can be used as a soil conditioner or as fertilizer" [1].
Ornamental: "The species is widely planted as an ornamental" [1].
Boundary support: "Planted as a hedge in courtyards, M. oleifera provides wind protection, shade and
support for climbing garden plants. Widely used for live fences and hedges in Kenya, Nigeria,
Tanzania, India, and elsewhere. Stakes root easily and are stable, and cuttings planted in lines are
used particularly around houses and gardens" [1].
Agroforestry: The tree provides semi-shade, useful in intercropping systems with many kinds of
annual crops which might be damaged by intense direct sunlight. It is also a good as a support for
pepper (Piper sp.) vines.
Pollution control: "Suspension of the ground seed of M. oleifera, the benzolive tree, is used as a
primary coagulant. It can clarify water of any degree of visible turbidity. At high turbidity, its action is
almost as fast as that of alum, but at medium and low turbidity, good clarification is obtained if a small
cloth bag filled with the powdered seeds is swirled round in the turbid water. To prepare the seed for
use as a coagulant, remove the seed coat and wings. The white kernel is then crushed to a powder,
using a mortar or placing it in a cloth and crushing it with a stone. The powder should be mixed with a
small amount of water, stirred, then poured through a tea strainer before being added to the turbid
water" [6].
[1, 6, 9]
5
No Class. [11]

[General]: Naturally, M. oleifera colonizes stream banks and savannah areas where the soils are well
drained and the water table remains fairly high all the year round. It is a fast growing tree, has good
coppicing and selfpruning abilities, responses well to pollarding "but does not fix nitrogen[9]".
However, other sources ([1]) mention nitrogen fixing abilities.
[Establishment]: Generally, stands are established by using stump plants, natural regeneration, direct
sowing and planting stock [1]. "In India, the plant is propagated by planting limb cuttings 1–2 m long,
from June to August, preferably. The plant starts bearing pods 6–8 months after planting but regular
bearing commenced after the second year. The tree bears for several years" [2]. However, it will bear
a good crop of fruit starting from the third year after planting out. When grown for its roots, the seeds
are sometimes planted in rows like vegetables.
[Management]: "Moringa is an extremely fast-growing tree, and within 1-3 months trees reach 2.5 m.
Constant pruning of up to 1.5 m/year is suggested to obtain a thick-limbed and multibranched shrub.
Trees are commonly grown for their leaves, and topping-out is useful to keep an abundant supply of
leaves, pods and flowers within easy reach. M. oleifera responds well to mulch, water and fertilizer.
Growth is stunted in areas with a high water table" [6].
[Harvesting]: "Fruit or other parts of plant usually harvested as desired according to some authors, but
in India, fruiting may peak between March and April and again in September and October. Seed
gathered in March and April and oil expressed" [2].

[Yield]: In pure plantations this species may yield a biomass of about 10 MT pods per hectare [2] like
other legumes. However, no commercial data are available yet.
[1, 2, 6, 9]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: "Seeds should be collected from well-developed pods, but difficulties
arise because seeds drop continually. Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be maintained
for several years in hermetic storage at 3°C with 5-8% mc." [6].
[Propagation]: "M. oleifera is easily established by cuttings or by seeds. Seeds can be sown either
directly or in containers. No seed pretreatment is required and seeds sprout readily in 1-2 weeks.
Plants raised from seed produce fruit of unpredictable quality. Shield budding is successful, and
budded trees begin to bear in 6 months and continue to give a good crop for 13 years. As it is
essentially a vegetatively propagated crop, breeding methods like single-plant selection, mass
selection and exploitation and maintenance of vigour are transgressive. Stem cuttings are usually
preferred because they root easily. When grown for its roots, the seeds are sometimes planted in
rows like vegetables" [6].
6
[Pests and diseases]: "Root rot (Diplodia spp.) and papaya powdery mildew (Levellula taurica) have
been observed. The hairy caterpillar Eupterote mollifera causes defoliation but can be controlled by
spraying the tree with fish oil, resin soap or BHC" [1].
[Others]: Moringa oleifera is susceptible to browsing by a wide range of animals and wind damage.
[1]
S. Conservation :

[Native]:
India, Malaysia, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen.
[6]
[Introduced]:
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Kiribati, Liberia, Mali, Marshall Islands,
Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Northern Mariana Islands, Pakistan, Philippines,
Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, Vietnam, Zanzibar.
[2, 6, 8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The generic name comes from the Sinhalese name ‘morunga’"[4].
[Chromosomes]: 2n = 28 [2]
[Chemistry]: "Per 100 g, the pod is reported to contain 86.9 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 8.5 g total
carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 184 IU vit. A, 0.2 mg niacin, and
120 mg ascorbic acid, 310 g Cu, 1.8 g I. Leaves contain 7.5 g H2O, 6.7 g protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g
total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, 7 mg Fe, 110 g Cu, 5.1 g I, 11,300
IU vit. A, 120 g vit. B, 0.8 mg nicotinic acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 g.
Estrogenic substances, including the anti-tumor compound, -sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are
also reported. Leaf amino acids include 6.0 g arginine/16 g N, 2.1 histidine, 4.3 lysine, 1.9
tryptophane, 6.4 phenylalanine, 2.0 methionine, 4.9 threonine, 9.3 lucine, 6.3 isoleucine, and 7.1
valine. Pod amino acids enclue 3.6 g arginine/16 g N, 1.1 g histidine, 1.5 g lysine, 0.8 g tryptophane,
4.3 g phenylalanine, 1.4 g methionine, 3.9 g threonine, 6.5 g leucine, 4.4 g isoleucine, and 5.4 valine.
7
Seed kernel (70–74% of seed) contains 4.08 H2O, 38.4 g crude protein, 34.7% fatty oil, 16.4 g N free
extract, 3.5 g fiber, and 3.2 g ash. The seed oil contains 9.3% palmitic, 7.4% stearic, 8.6% behenic,
and 65.7% oleic acids among the fatty acids. Myristic and lignoceric acids have also been reported.
The cake left after oil extraction contains 58.9% crude protein, 0.4% Cao, 1.1% P2O5 and 0.8% K2O.
Pterygospermin, a bactericidal and fungicidal compound, isolated from Moringa has an LD50
subcutaneously injected in mice and rats of 350 to 400 mg/kg body weight. Root-bark yields two
alkaloids: moringine and moringinine. Moringinine acts as cardiac stimulant, produces rise of blood-
pressure, acts on sympathetic nerve-endings as well as smooth muscles all over the body, and
depresses the sympathetic motor fibers of vessels in large doses only" [1].
India.
[1]
Beentje HJ. 1994. Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas. National Museums of Kenya.
[1]
Bein E. 1996. Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Nairobi,
Kenya.
[1]

Bekele-Tesemma A, Birnie A, Tengnas B. 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Regional Soil
[1]
Booth FEM, Wickens GE. 1988. Non-timber uses of selected arid zone trees and shrubs in Africa.
FAO Conservation Guide. No. 19. Rome.
[1]
Dale IR, Greenway PJ. 1961. Kenya trees and shrubs. Buchanan’s Kenya Estates Ltd.
[1]
8
Dhalla Rosa KR. 1993. Moringa oleifera: A perfect tree for home gardens. Agroforestry species
highlights. The Agroforestry Information Service. Hawaii, USA.
[1]
ECHO. 1996. Special purpose Trees. ECHO, USA.
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
Katende AB et al. 1995. Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda. Identification, Propagation and
[1]
Kayastha BP. 1985. Silvics of the trees of Nepal. Community Forest Development Project,
Kathmandu.
[1]
Keay RW. 1989. Trees of Nigeria. Claredon Press Oxford.
[1]
Lanzara P and Pizetti M. 1978. Simon & Schuster’s guide to trees. Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York.
[1]
9
Mahajan S, Sharma YK. 1984. Production of rayon grade pulp from Moringa oleifera. Indian Forester.
110(3): 303-306.
[1]
Maundu P. M. Ngugi G.W. Kabuye C.H.S. (1999) Traditional Food Plants of Kenya
[8]
Mbuya LP et al. 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: Identification, Propagation and
[1]
Nautiyal BP, Venkataraman KG. 1987. Moringa (Drumstick) - An ideal tree for social forestry; growing
conditions and uses - part I: Myoforest. 23(1):53-58.
[1]
Peter KV. 1987. Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) - A multipurpose perennial Indian vegetable tree of

considerable medicinal value: Proceeding of a Symposium 5-35 on the 14th International Botanical
Congress, Berlin, 24 July - 1 August.
[1]
Verma, S.C., Banerji, R., Misra, G., Nigam, S.K. 1976. Nutritional value of moringa. Current Sci.
45(21):769–770.
[8]
X. References:
[2] Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University
10
[4] ECOPORT: http://www.ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=reference&ReferenceID=517656 [Internet
source)

source)
Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock
International. 320pp.
Phnom Penh.
11
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Nephelium lappaceum L]
Datasheet Report
[Nephelium lappaceum L]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Nephelium lappaceum L
B. English name (s) ³ rambutan [1], ramboostan [11]
C. Synonym ³ Nephelium glabrum Cambess. (1829) (also used for
Nephelium maingayi), Nephelium chryseum Blume (1847),

Nephelium sufferrugineum Radlk. (1879) [1], Euphoria
nephelium, Dimocarpus crinata [3], Nephelium mutabile
Blume var. pallens Hiern in Hook.f., Xerospermum topengii
Merr. [10], Nephelium obovatum (Ridely) [11]
D. Other1 ³ litchi chevelu, ramboutan (France) [1, 5] - usan, rambutan
(Philippines) [1, 11], ngoh, phruan, ngoh paa, phruan ngoh

(Thailand) [1, 11] - ch[oo]m ch[oo]m, v[ar]i thi[eef]u., saaw
maaw, vai thi[ee][uf], vai thieu (Vietnam) [1, 11] - chorogol,
gente, kakapas, rambutan (Indonesia) [11] - buah abong,
rambutan, rangalau (Malaysia) [11] - hooun mo daon shau
tsz (China) [11] - mshokishoki (East-Africa) [11]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: savm:av / esman; / savm:avRsuk

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ saaw maaw, ser mon, saavmaav srok [1]
Other : Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Source :[ 7]
1
[General]: Medium sized evergreen tree with a height of 10-12 m [11] (8-15 m [5], 12-25 m [9], 4-7 m
to 15-25 m [10], -25 m [3]). Large tree in natural vegetation. Straight bole, diameter up to 40-60 cm
with a densely branched and spreading crown of erect branches [9] (open crown of large branches
[11]). Branches bear numerous lenticels, the branchlets have a dense reddish hair, become
glabrescent and finely winkled.
[Bark]: The bark is slightly rugose, greyish, dark greyish-brown or red.
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate (only first pair opposite), pinnately compound with 2 pairs [3] (1-4
pairs [10]) of elliptic leaflets but without an end-leaflet. Leaflets egg-shaped to elliptical, 5-28 cm x 2-
10.5 cm [1] (7-30 cm long [10], -25 cm long [3]), usually horizontal, above hairy or sometimes slightly
hairy on the midrib, beneath variably hairy, domatia common to absent, apex truncate to acuminate,
nerves slightly to strongly curving, coarse vein network of 6-15 pairs of principal veins prominent on
the lower surface. Leaves slightly leathery and bright yellowish-green to dark-green color and dull on
the upper surface, yellowish or bluish-green beneath.
[Flowers]: Inflorescence multi-branched, pseudo-terminal to usually terminal. Flowers whitish,

yellowish or greenish, either male (dioecious) or hermaphrodite (monoecious) and small in long
stemmed flowerstalks. Inner flower-leaves 4-5(-7) nearly 0.7-2.1 mm long. Outer flower-leaves usually
absent, sometimes up to 4 reduced ones, not exceeding 1.6 mm. Disk complete, hairy or hairless.
"Trees that are hermaphrodite with both functionally female and functionally male flowers are the most
common cultivars grown" [10]. Some trees or branches may flower out of season. The flowering
intensity seems to be correlated with the duration of water stress.
[Fruits]: The fruit (=drupe) consists of 1 nutlet, round to oval shape up to 6 cm [3] (7 x 5 cm [11], 3.5-8

cm long [10]) with a weight of 20-95 g [11]. Color pinkish-red, bright-or deep-red, orange-red, maroon
or dark-purple, yellowish-red, or all yellow or orange-yellow with 0.5-2 cm long soft curling spines, the
tips deciduous in some types. Wall thin and leathery, up to 2.5 mm thick. Fruitflesh 0.4-0.8 cm thick,
creamy white or rose-tinted, translucent, juicy, acid to subacid, with a distinct flavour and sweet taste.
The flattened seed is oval shaped, 2.5-3.4 x 1-1.5 cm. There may be 1 or 2 small undeveloped fruits
nestled close to the stem of a mature fruit.
[1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 11]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Wood reddish colored, moderately hard to very hard, strong and tough. It is
durable under cover and generally resistant to insect attacks, but susceptible to fungal attacks. The
average fibre length of wood is 1.07 mm. It is liable to splitting during seasoning. Usually rambutan
wood is too small to be valued as timber.
[11]

Occurs between 17°N and 17°S in tropical lowlands and is cultivated in Asia (Sri Lanka to New
Guinea) and in small numbers in the humid tropics of America, Africa and Australia. The trees grow in
2
the lower or middle storey in different types of primary and secondary forest, ranging from dry land to
swamp.
[1, 10, 11]

Grows in the hot humid tropics at an altitude of 0-600 m a.s.l. [1, 9] (0-300 [6], 0-600 up to 2,000 [10],
0-600 up to 1,950 [11] m a.s.l. ). Demands a well distributed annual rainfall with about 165 rainy days
per year. Annual optimal rainfall 2,500 mm [1] (2,500-3,000 mm [6, 9], 1,800-2,500 mm [10]) and a
total range of 1,400-4,000 mm [10]. Temperature range for growth is 10-42°C with an optimum
between 21-35°C. "In the ideal environment of Oriental Mindora Philippines, the average yearly
temperature is 27.3ºC" [10]. Mature trees may survive a short period of as low temperatures as 4°C
but with severe defoliation. The relative humidity should be around 80% and the dry season should
not last more than 3 months. Intolerant to drought, dry winds and frost, especially during the juvenile
stage.
[1, 6, 9, 10, 11]


Prefers well-drained, deep clay loam or fertile sandy loam rich in organic matter or in deep peat but
can be grown in a wide range of soil types, even ones with poor drainage, but not water-logged. It
grows well especially on red lateritic soils. A pH range of 4.5-6.5 [1, 11] (4.5-7.5 [10]) is indicated with
an optimum between 5 and 6.5. At a higher pH iron and zinc deficiencies are common (chlorosis, leaf
yellowing).
[1, 9, 10, 11]

[Wood]: Usually rambutan wood is too small to be highly valued as timber [11]. However it can also be
used as a timber tree. The wood is suitable for general construction purposes.
[1, 11]
[Non-wood]: Trees are cultivated for their very popular fruit. The usually juicy fruitflesh around the
seed is eaten fresh, the more sour ones are eaten stewed. It can be canned or used in jam, but loses
much of its flavour. In traditional Cambodian medicine the green fruits having astringent, stomachic
and anthelmintic properties are used against different diseases, most commonly as an antipyretic and
anti-diarrhoeal. The bark is used against diseases of the tongue. The roots are used in decoctions for
treating fever. Recent studies have investigated potential anti-viral properties, esp. Herpes Simplex
Virus. The fruit wall contains the toxic saponin, however, in Java it is dried and used as a medicine.
Young shoots are used to produce a green color on silk that is first dyed yellow with turmeric. "The
fruit walls are used, together with tannin-rich parts of other plants, to dye silk black after a preliminary
3
red staining [11]". Leaves are used together with mud as an impermanent black dye. The seed kernel
can be used for the production of rambutan tallow, a solid fat similar to cacao butter, which is edible
and was formerly used for soaps and candles. The seed itself is edible (after roasting) but is bitter and
narcotic.
[1, 5, 11]
[Others]: Rambutan is a popular ornamental tree for backyards and public streets.
[1]
No class. [8]

[General]: Rambutan occurs naturally in the lower- or middle storey in different types of primary- and
secondary forest ranging from dryland to swamp but is commercially grown in plantations, backyards
and homegardens.
[Establishment]: Planting densities vary between 5 x 7 m to 10 x 10 m [1] (10 x 12 m [9], 10 x 13 m

[11]). Spacing depends on the vigour of the stock-scion combination and on the growing conditions
(soil depth, irrigation).
[Management]: Sometimes there may be pure rambutan stands or mixed plantations with durian
(Durio zibethinus Murr.) and some langsat- (Lansium domesticum Correa) or mangosteen
trees(Garcinia mangostana L.). Irrigation is necessary when rainfall is insufficient, however, it
complicates clean weeding. To save water, to reduce weeding and to improve tree growth, generous
organic mulching under the trees is recommended. "For growing trees, a fertilizer rate of 200 g

nitrogen, 25 g of phosphate and 100 g potassium per tree per year of age is recommended. For the
first 4 years, the fertilizers should be applied in 4 equal dressings, every 3 months. For fruiting trees,
200 g N, 25 g P and 130 g K per tree per year of age is recommended. Maximum fertilizer rate is
reached at 12 years, and should remain constant thereafter. For fruiting trees, a quarter of the yearly
fertilizer should be applied 4 weeks after fruit set; half the amount should be applied immediately after
harvest, and the remaining quarter at 9 weeks after harvesting. Additionally, 0.4 kg of
dolomite/tree/year of age, maximum at 10 years and constant after, is applied during slow growing
months. At any stage, glyphosate herbicide should not be used near the drip line of rambutan, it could
cause a severe yellowing and abscission of the lower leaves" [11]. Tree growth is rhythmic, varying
from fast to slow periods in the seedling phase to a complete standstill after a flush in the sapling
phase. Early pruning and training is recommended. After harvesting, fruited twigs are pruned back to
stimulate new growth of up to 4 new side shoots, of which 22% of the shoots will bear fruit in the
following season. Dead branches and water suckers should be removed regularly. "Pruning out all
shoots which grow in the interior of the tree is common in Thailand and Indonesia. The canopy is not
opened up; on the contrary, after harvest, the flower remains are cut out to stimulate the growth of
side shoots at the periphery of the canopy. Consequently, the trees have long bare limbs which
extend further and further outwards. This weakens the shoot/root feedback controls and hastens tree
4
ageing, as evidenced by the progressive decline of the lower limbs. The opposite approach, fairly
drastic pruning in the foliated fringe is practised in places near Kuala Lumpur. Branches which have
fruited are cut out after harvest which keeps the canopy open and brings the terminals which are
predisposed to flower into prominence. This pruning system keeps the trees small and their
branching pattern simple, provided that the remaining twigs indeed produce enough fruit to moderate
the tree's reaction to such rigorous pruning. Under these conditions tree spacings of 6 m x 4 m or 5 m
x 3 m may be feasible" [1]. The economic life of a tree lasts about 15-20 sometimes up to 30 years.
[Yield]: Depending on the location, rambutan can produce up to 2 crops a year. The fruit has to be
harvested when ripe. The production of a single tree can attain 250-300 kg [9] (170 kg [1]). It is not
unusual for single trees to produce 5-10 kg two years after planting. However, yields can vary
tremendously depending on the site: 2-5.6 t/ha/year (Malaysia), 6.3 t/ha (Thailand: average site
conditions), 20 t/ha (Thailand: excellent site conditions). Entire twigs are twisted or cut off the tree
using a bamboo pole which is slit at the top or which contains a small knife. Depending on the cultivar
the trees may have to be picked twice a week for 2-8 weeks. In Indonesia and Malaysia (also
Cambodia) the fruit is sold as bunched panicles, while individual fruits are sold in Thailand and the
Philippines.
[Agroforestry]: "The planting of cash crops or green manure crops among young trees can be
beneficial, but crops should not be planted too near to the trees. Legumes with low growth habits such
as Canavalia, Crotalaria and Vigna can also be intercropped with rambutan" [11].
[1, 9, 11]
Q. Propagation :
The seeds are short-lived and therefore sown directly after they have been extracted and washed.
Germination takes 7-10 (-20) days. Seedlings grow much faster if cared for properly. Many trees are
still grown from seed, but commercial production comes by and large from clonal trees by budding on
seedlings, or air layering. Nurseries use the modified Forkert budding, taking seeds from seedling
trees to produce the rootstocks. Seeds are pre-germinated and the seedlings are raised in intensive-
care beds under shade for about two months before being transplanted to the nursery rows. The well-
grown rootstocks are bud grafted at 8-12 months. Dormant buds with well-healed petiole scars from
one to two-year-old branches, average 80% success. Rootstocks are budded within a year; to
stimulate active growth, the nursery rows and the mother trees receive water and nitrogen before
budding. They should be cut back 25 cm above the bud union and all foliage removed at 2 weeks [6]
(10-14 days [1]) after budding. This cutting back and defoliation promotes bud break of the new graft
14-17 days later. Budding before flowering is avoided as it results in many flowering budlings. One
hundred germinating seeds yield about 50 good rootstocks; after budding, these produce about 25
saleable plants early in the next rainy season. Home gardeners often propagate young watershoots
by air layering. They root well, but losses after separation and during field establishment are very
common. Inarching of rooted stocks into twigs of the mother tree (approach grafting) is a good but
labor-intensive propagation method.
[1, 6, 11]
5
[Pests]: "Numerous caterpillars and beetles feed on young shoots and inflorescences." [1]
"Botryodiplodia theobromae, Gliocephalotrichum bulbilium and Colletotrichum spp. cause the major
post-harvest diseases. A survey conducted in Bangkok markets identified about 30% of the post-
harvest diseases caused by Colletotrichum spp., 10% by Gliocephalotrichum bulbilium, and 5% by
Botryodiplodia theobromae. Post-harvest storage of fruit in the dark, with low temperatures, may
discourage fruit rot. Rambutan is host to 118 different species of insects, but only 17 were identified
as attacking rambutan fruits. The following pests are listed in the order of importance: Acrocercops
cramerella (cacao pod borer), Phenacaspis spp., Planacoccus citri., Dichocrocis punctiferalis, Dacus
dorsalis, Carpophilus dimidatus and Carpophilus marginelius. Rambutan infested with Acrocercops
cramerella, cacao pod moth, showed no external symptoms, with up to 40% infestation observed in
some cultivars and damage generally between 10-15%" [11]. "Mealy bugs may shelter in fruit
panicles; they are cultured by ants, and sooty mould grows on the secreted honey dew. Fruit flies
attack only overripe fruit. The fruit is eaten by bats, rodents and monkeys, and a crop may have to be
guarded day and night against these visitors" [1].
[Diseases]: "No disease control is practised, except sulphur treatments in Thailand against powdery
mildew (Oidium nephelii) during bloom to fruit set. Loss of limbs is caused by stem dieback
(Thyronectria pseudotrichia). Stem canker (Dolabra nepheliae) disfigures the surface of branches and
twigs; the incidence is reduced if the canopy does not impede air circulation" [1].
[Others]: Low relative humidity and exposure to dry wind leads to browning of the leaf margins;
sheltered locations or wind screens are recommended. Water stress after flowering results in low fruit
set and reduced sarcotesta development ('flat fruit'), setting back both yield and fruit quality.

[1, 10, 11]
S. Conservation :

Often cultivated as a fruit plant in farms in Sinhanoukville- and Kampot Province. [5]

[Native]:
Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia)
[1, 3]
[Introduced]: Asia (Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Vietnam),
Africa (Cameroon, Liberia, Seychelles, Tanzania, Zanzibar),
Latin-America (Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Trinidad, Cuba, Honduras, Mexico,
Panama, Brazil),
6
N-America: USA,
Oceania: Australia, Papua New Guinea
[1, 3, 7, 10, 11]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The specific name stems from the Latin word ‘lappaceus’ meaning ‘bur-like’ and refers
to the fruit appendages. The word rambutan is derived from the Malay word ‘hair,’ which describes the
numerous, characterizing, long, soft, red or red and green coloured spine-like protuberances
(spinterns) on the surface of the fruit" [11].
[Cultivars]: "Rambutans are traded under various names, which may refer to fruit characteristics, to
the centre of production, or to a specific cultivar. Since established trade names have also been given
to some cultivars, the names are rather confusing. In Malaysia this problem has been tackled by
giving 'R' numbers to old and new clones in a selection programme. The selections R3 ('Peng Thing
Cheng'), R134, R156 ('Muar Gading'), R160 ('Khaw Tow Bak'), R161 ('Lee Long'), R162 ('Oh Heok')
and R170 ('Deli Cheng') are recommended throughout the country; others are more location-specific.
Important cultivars in Thailand are 'Chompoo', 'Rongrien', 'Bang Yi Khan', 'See Tong' and 'Nam Tan
Kruad'. In Java cultivars 'Lebakbulus', 'Binjai', 'Sitankue', 'Rapiah' and 'Simacan' have dominated
nurseries since the 1930s. In the Philippines introductions from Indonesia ('Simacan', 'Sinyonya',
'Maharlika') are grown. Important features of the cultivars are thickness, colour, juice content and
aroma of the flesh (sarcotesta); whether or not it adheres to the seed ('clingstone' versus 'freestone'
cultivars); and whether the papery part of the seed coat comes off with the flesh" [1].
[Production and International Trade]: "Statistics for 1987/1988 give an area of 71,150 ha rambutan in
Thailand, the crop of 448,500 t being smaller than the tangerine crop and about as large as that of
mango, durian and jackfruit. In Peninsular Malaysia rambutan is also one of the principal fruit trees
with 19,500 ha and a crop of 57,000 t in 1987/1988. In both countries production figures do not
fluctuate much, whereas in Indonesia light and heavy crops appear to alternate, e.g. 93,300 t in
1985/1986 compared with 199,200 t in 1986/1987. In the Philippines rambutan growing has been
much encouraged by introduction of cultivars from Indonesia, mainly in the 20th Century, with the
result that rambutan now ranks among the top 10 tree fruits. In Thailand and Malaysia canning is
important. Exports of rambutan from South-East Asia are increasing steadily and exceeded 2,000 t of
fresh fruit for Malaysia as well as Thailand in 1987. Moreover, Thailand exported about 3,500 t
canned fruit in that year, mainly to Singapore, Hong Kong and the European Community" [1].
[Fruit Properties]: "Thai sources give the following composition of the fruit per 100 g edible portion:
water 82.9 g, protein 0.9 g, fat 0.1 g, carbohydrates 14.5 g, fibre 1.1 g, vitamin A 4 IU, vitamin C 31
mg. The energy value is 264 kJ/100 g. The seed kernel yields 30-43% of solid fat, remarkable for its
high content of arachidic acid (34.7%) and oleic acid (42.5%); after heating, the fat turns into a yellow,
pleasant smelling oil. The wood is hard, heavy, red to reddish-white or somewhat brown, and liable to
split during drying" [1].
7
[Nutrient Uptake]: "The crop does not remove much nutrients: according to Malaysian findings 15 kg
N, 2 kg P, 11.7 kg K, 5.9 kg Ca and 2.7 kg Mg per ha for a crop of 7,300 kg/ha. In Thai orchards spot
treatments with naphtyl acetic acid (NAA) to increase the proportion of male flowers on 'Chompoo'
and 'Rongrien' trees are standard practice. In recent years the results of NAA application have been
less reliable and keen growers now interplant their orchards with male trees on tall trunks to improve
pollination" [1].
[Germplasm Management]: "Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant, whole seed mc at shedding is

36%, viability is reduced by 12% on desiccation from 36% to 25% mc, and no seeds remain viable
when the mean mc is reduced to 13%. However excised embryos tolerate desiccation to 14-15% mc,
67% survive desiccation to 8-9% mc; and 40% survive overnight in liquid nitrogen when excised
embryos are treated with 10% DMSO plus 3% sucrose followed by partial desiccation (1-2 hours)"
[11].
[Fruit Transportation]: "The fruit travels well if packed properly, but shelf life is only a few days, mainly
because the fruit loses weight rapidly and appendages and skin turn black. Keeping the fruits moist
and shaded prolongs this period slightly. Shrink-wrapped fruit from Thailand arrive in Europe in
excellent condition. Research work suggests that cold storage at 5-10°C and fungicidal treatment may
extend the shelf life to several weeks" [1].
Almeyda, N., Malo, S.E. & Martin, F.W., 1979. Cultivation of neglected tropical fruits with promise, part
6. The Rambutan. Science and Education Administration, US Department of Agriculture, New
Orleans. 14 pp.

Buisson, D., 1986. Analyse architecturale de quelques espèces d'arbres fruitiers tropicaux. Fruits 41:
477-498.
International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, 1986. Genetic resources of tropical and sub-tropical
fruits and nuts (excluding Musa). IBPGR, Rome. pp. 123-125.
Fachrurozi, Z., 1984. Periode vegetatif dan reproduktif pada rambutan [Vegetative and reproductive
phases in the rambutan]. Berita Biologi 2(9-10): 226-227.
Lam, P.F. & Kosiyachinda, S., 1987 (Editors): Rambutan, fruit development, postharvest physiology
and marketing in ASEAN. ASEAN-COFAF, Jakarta. 82 pp.
Leenhouts, P.W., 1986. A taxonomic revision of Nephelium (Sapindaceae). Blumea 31: 373-436.
Ng, S.K. & Thamboo, S., 1967. Nutrient removal studies on Malayan fruits: durian and rambutan.
Malaysian Agricultural Journal 56: 164-182.
8
Nigel JHS, Williams JT, Donald LP, Jennifer PT. 1992. Tropical forests and their crops. Cornell
University Press.
Shaari, A.R., 1983. Aspects of research and production of rambutan in Malaysia. Paper (mimeo).
International Workshop for promoting research on tropical fruits, Jakarta, May/June 1983. 16 pp.
Valmayor, R.V., Mendoza Jr., D.B., Aycardo, H.B. & Palencia, C.O., 1970. Growth and flowering
habits, floral biology and yield of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn.). The Philippine Agriculturists
54: 359-374.
Watson, B.J., 1988. Rambutan, cultivars in North Queensland. Queensland Agricultual Journal 114:
37-42.
[1, 11]
X. References:
[2] PROSEA, 2002: Plant Resources of South East Asia 14 - Vegetable oils and fats.
[3] Barwick, M., 2004: Tropical and Subtropical Trees. A Worldwide Encyclopedic Guide.
[4] Jensen, M., 2001: Trees and Fruits of South East Asia.
[6] Rehm, S.; Espig, G., 1991: The Cultivated Plants of the Tropics and Subtropics.
9
[9] FAO, 1988: Fruit-bearing Forest Trees. FAO Forestry Paper.

(Internet source).
[11] World Agroforestry Center: Agroforestry Database -

(Internet source)
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz. (also P. dasyrrhachis) scientific
name: Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis (Pierre) Gagnep]
Datasheet Report
[Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz. (also P. dasyrrhachis) scientific
name: Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis (Pierre) Gagnep]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.) Kurz. (also
P. dasyrrhachis) [5], scientific name:

Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis
(Pierre) Gagnep[14].
C. Synonym ³ Caesalpinia dasyrhachis Miq., Peltophorum grande Prain.,

Peltophorum tonkinense (Pierre) Gagnep. [26]
D. Other1 ³ Trasek (Cambodia); sa kham, sa phang, sa fang (Laos);
peltophorum (Philippines; jemerelang (Malaysia); hoàng linh,
hoàng lim Bac Bo, lim xet, lim vàng, xet vay (Vietnam) [8,14,
26]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Rtesk

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ trâsé:k [4]

Other : Fabales
Gunus: Peltophorum (Vogel) Benth.[8]
Species: Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miq.)
Kurz [8]
Source :[ 8 ; 11; 14]
1
[General]: A large tree, 25-30 m high with 70-90 cm diameter. Young branchlets reddish-brown,
pubescent, later glabrous [2]. Deciduous tree, 10-30 m tall [4]. Large deciduous tree up to 30 m high,
70-90 cm diameter, open crown [5,8]. A large size timber species up to 25-30 m high, diameter up to
50-60 cm [14].
[Bark]: Bark greyish brown, lenticels present on twigs, inner bark dark brown to reddish -brown. [5,8].
Bark with many rings around the stem, peeling when mature, pale brown in colour. Bole straight with
small buttress [14].
[Leaves]: Bipinnately compound, alternate, 15-40 cm long, reddish-brown, pubescent. Leaflets 6-16
pairs, oblong elliptic, 15-25 mm long and 5-8 mm wide, tip rounded, base cuneate and slightly oblique,
glabrous; stipules large [2].
Leaf 18-25 cm, bipinnate with 4-9 pairs of pinnae each with 8-16 pairs of leaflets, 1.0-2.5x 0.5-1.0 cm ,
asymmetrically oblong, with slightly notched tip. Young leaves with dense red-brown hairs, mature
leaves glossy dark green above and slightly brown-hairy below, with remarkable anther-like stipules, ±
2 cm [5]. Leaves bipinnate, 15-32 cm long, pinnae 4-9 pairs, young leaves with dense reddish-brown
hairs. Leaflets 6-16 pairs per pinna, irregular elliptic, 10-25 by 4-10 mm, base acute, obtuse or
rounded, slightly oblique, apex rounded or slightly emarginated, above glossy dark green when
mature, slightly brown hairy beneath [8]. Leaves bipinnately compound, 7-16 pairs of secondary
particles, each with 5-12 pairs of leaflets, ovoid-elliptic, 1 cm long, 4-9 mm wide. Young leaves
ferruginous, stipule caducous [14].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence axillary, racemose, 15-30 cm long, rufous-pilose. Bract linear, 7-9 mm long,

persistent. Peduncle 20-40 mm long, ruddy-pubescent. Sepals broad elliptic, ruddy pubescent
outside, glabrous inside. Petals yellow obovoid. Anthers 4-5 mm long, filaments 10-15 mm long, ovary
villose, ovules 4-8. [2]
Flower 1.5-2.5 cm, bright yellow, in drooping, unbranched clusters at leaf axils, 15-35 cm; individual
stalks 1.5-4.0 cm long, 5 overlapping sepals densely brown hairy outside, 5 flimsily rounded petals, 10
fertile stamens, as long as petals, single slender style with knob-like stigma, ovary hairy [5].
Inflorescences axillary racemes, 15-30 cm long, with pubescent axis. Bracts persistent, linear, 7-12
cm long. Pedicels 20-40 mm long. Buds ovoid. Sepals broad-elliptic 10-15 by 5-6 mm, brownish or
ruddy pubescent outside, glabrous inside. Petals yellow, obovate, 15-25 by 10-12 mm, hairy towards
the base of the upper side. Stamens 10, fertile, with filaments ± as long as petals, 10-15 mm long;
anthers 4-5 mm long. Ovary sessile, velutinous, with 4-8 ovules, style slender, stigma knob-like [8].
Inflorescense apical racemose. Flowers with bracts, caducous, petals yellow. Pedicel 2-3 times longer
than the bud.
[Fruit]: A pod, two ends tapered, 10-15 cm long, and 2.0-3.5 cm wide, red-brown, glabrous, margin
thinly winged, seeds 4-8, transversally arranged [2]. Fruit 10-15 x 2.0-3.5 cm, dull brown, tapering at
both ends with 2 long, narrow wings, 0.4-0.5 cm wide, hanging in bunches behind the leaves, not
2
splitting; 4-8 flat seeds, horizontally arranged across the pods [5]. Pods reddish brown, flattened, both
ends tapered, 10-15 by 2.0-3.5 cm, margin thinly winged, 4-5 mm broad. Seeds 4-8, more or less
transversally arranged in the pod, flat, 10-12 by 5 mm [8]. Fruit flat, 9-13 cm long, 2.3 cm wide, brown
in colour. Seed arranged at 45º angle in the fruit. Seed with hard coat [14]. Pod elliptical, sharp-
pointed, 10-15 cm x 2-4 cm, flat, with a wing-like extension 4-5 mm broad on each suture, dull-brown
when ripe, later blackish, 4-8-seeded, indehiscent, often hanging in bunches below the leaves. Seed
flattened oblongoid, 10-12 mm x 5 mm, transversely positioned. Seedling with epigeal germination;
hypocotyl 4-6 cm long; cotyledons stalked, 3-nerved, glabrous. P. dasyrhachis (often erroneously
spelled 'dasyrrhachis') is related to P. pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne, an important source of
'soga' dye. P. dasyrhachis can be distinguished by its crown that is uneven and not umbrella-shaped,
its branched stipules, and its thick, reddish tomentum. The two species have occasionally been
confounded in the literature. In northern Vietnam, a form of P. dasyrhachis occurs with unbranched
stipules and early falling bracts, named var. tonkinense (Pierre) K. & S.S. Larsen [26].
Flowering February to April, when young leaves develop, fruiting July to October [2,8].
I. Wood properties:
Sapwood and heartwood distinctive: Sapwood white-grey, heartwood brownish, wood heavy, specific
gravity 700kg/m³, rather durable, grain rough; Resistant to termites and wood-degrading insects [2].
Heartwood pink, distinct from sapwood; grain fine, wood rated durable, specific gravity 700kg/m³.
Annual rings conspicuous, usually 4-8 mm wide, double and single vessels scattered, short, medium
diameter, number of vessels per mm² few; vessels usually contain a brown or white substance. Rays
small and narrow, usually with alternatingly-layered structure. Paratracheal parenchyma: fusiform,
aliform, aliform-confluent. Average thickness of wood fibre 1.05 mm, fibre wall: medium thickness.
Wood medium-hard, the specific gravity of dry wood is 740kg/m³. Volume shrinkage coefficient is
0.47%, pressure strength along the grain 580kg/cm², static bending strength 1.030kg/cm², splitting
resistance 12kg/cm², impact strength 880kg/cm² (?) [14]. The yellowish-red heartwood is heavy, but
brittle and is attacked by termites and boring insects [26].

Occurs in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, through Malaysa and to Indonesia (islands of
Sumatera and Java) [4]. In Vietnam in evergreen broadleaved forest, but also in secondary deciduous
forest below 600-800 m asl. Generally it occurs in deciduous and evergreen forests, bordering
agricultural fields, up to 800 m asl. P. dasyrhachis is found in secondary, deciduous or evergreen
forest. Due to its relatively deep rooting system, it is drought tolerant. Its hairiness and fairly thick bark
have been associated with its tolerance of fire. [26].

P. dasyrhachisIn tropical deciduous and evergreen forests up to 600-800 m. A light-demanding
species when mature and shade tolerant when young. In Vietnam P. dasyrhachis grows as a pioneer
on land abondoned after shifting cultivation or forests in a restoration phase; often associated with
3
Engelhardtia chrysolepis, Ormosia balansae, and Alangium kurzii. A mesophytic tree encompassing a
range from slightly humidity-demanding to somewhat drought-tolerant. P. dasyrhachis is considered
by M. Schmid (1974) to be an indicator of calcareous soils.[2] Biophysical indicators are elevation up
to 800 ma.s.l., (up to 1000m in south Vietnam) [14] and mean annual precipitation of 1500-2500 mm/
m² [14].

undetermined

Thrives on ferallitic soils developed from schist-sandstone and granite [2] more generally on ultisols
[26]..

[Wood]: Used in house construction and furniture manufacturing [2]. Timber used for poles, household
implements, truckbeds, carts, railway sleepers, boat and ship building [8]. Wood of P. dasyrhachis is
suitable for furniture production and structures requiring medium strength, e.g. in construction,
communications and transport [14]. It makes good fuelwood.
[Non-Wood]: P. dasyrhachis is planted as ornamental tree because of its shape and beautiful yellow
flowers.
Bark is used for medicinal purposes.[4, 8] An infusion against cough can be prepared from the bark
[26]. It has been tested as a tree in alley-cropping systems. When unpruned, it provides a rather

dense shade to control weeds during fallow periods, and can be managed in hedges without too much
shading of inter-row crops. Because its growth rate is slower than that of Leucaena Leucocephala
(Lamk) de Wit and Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp., it requires less frequent pruning. Upon
pruning, trees resprout abundantly and form a dense hedge [26].
[Other]: The slow rate of decomposition of the leaves reduce erosion. Its use in the reclamation of
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel grasslands is being tested; in Indonesia and Malaysia, young trees
planted in tall Imperata grassland and left unattended after planting remained alive, but grew slowly.
In the first half of the 20th century, P. dasyrhachis was used as a shade tree mainly in coffee
plantations in Java. In central Thailand it is maintained after bush fallow as a shade tree for fruit trees
and for its role in soil improvement.
The slow rate of decomposition of the leaves is also contributes to the suppresion of weeds. Seeds of
Imperata cylindrica hardly germinate in soil covered by the leaves. However, because of the fairly high
content of polyphenolic substances, leaf litter decomposition is slow, allowing but sometimes
impeding a humus layer to build up in the soil [26].

not included
4
P. dasyrhachis was under investigation of its suitability for larger scale planting between 1984 and
2003 in Vietnam. The experimental design was not optimum concerning selection of sites (inadequate
soils) and combination with faster growing Acacias, which outshaded P. dasyrhachis 4 years after
planting. It must be planted in forest soil, immediately after slash and burn stopped. Spacing should
be 3mx3m, if trees stand too freely they tend to low branch formation.When planted on bare soil or hill
sides growth is poorer. It is concluded that further experimentation is necessary before P.dasyrhachis
can be recommended for large-scale reforestation [14]
Q. Propagation :
Propagated by seed or cutting [26]. Seeds should be collected only from trees at least 20 years old.
Fruit is collected in July-August, dried and beaten to remove fibrous cover. The seed coat is very
coriaceous (leathery). The weight of 1000 seeds is about 37 g. Seed is stored in earthen ware pots.
Even after 2 years of storage germination rate is still 70-75%. Seeds are immersed in boiling water
and kept warm. Seeds are transplanted to pots (text not clear??) when they start sprouting. [14,26]

Few insects have been recorded as damaging the leaves, whereas large stem-boring insects attack
older trees[26].
S. Conservation :
unknown

unknown

Indochina, Malay Peninsula, Indonesia , planted in many tropical countries
V. Miscellaneous4 :
When hedge were pruned 2-4 times per year, an annual yield of prunings of 8 t/ha was found in
Lampung (Indonesia), containing 200 kg nitrogen [26]., (which may have to be replaced for continuing
production -Kay 2007).
van Noordwijk, M. & Rudjiman, 1997. Peltophorum dasyrhachis (Miquel) Kurz. In Faridah
Hanum, I. & van der Maesen, L.J.G. (Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 11.
Auxiliary Plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 207-209.
Nguyen Ba Chat 1987: Techniques of P. dasyrhachis planting. Forest Science

Information. Forest Research Institute Hanoi.
5
Trieu Van Hung 1994; Biological characteristics of forest enrichment species Canarium
album, P.dasyrhachis, Cinnamomum sp., Michelia sp. Scientific Report. Forestry College,
Hanoi
X. References:
pp.
49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands,
14) FSIV/JICA 2003: Use of Indigenous Tree Species in Reforestation in Vietnam. Agricultural
Publishing House, Hanoi, 188 pp.

http.www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/Speciesinfo.asp? (Internet source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese]
Datasheet Report
[Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese
B. English name (s) ³ black pine [1], merkus pine, tenasserim pine [10], Mindoro
pine, Sumatran pine [5]
C. Synonym ³ Pinus sumatrana Junghuhn (1846), Pinus merkusiana
Cooling & Gaussen (1970) [5], Pinus finlaysoniana Wallich,

Pinus latteri Mason, Pinus merkiana Gordon [14]
D. Other1 ³ merkus pine (Trade name) [14] - paek sorng bai, paek yang,
khoua (Laos) [1] - thong nhua, thong hai la (Vietnam) [3, 5] -

damar batu, damar bunga, uyam, tusam (Indonesia) [5, 14] -
tapulau, Mindoro pine (Philippines) [5, 12] - son-songbai,
son-haang-maa, kai-plueak-dam (Thailand) [5] - pitchpin du
Cambodge, pin a deux feuilles (France) [10] - Merkuskiefer,
Thong (Germany) [10]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: Rss;søwkBIr

Source: [13]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sral [6], sral sleuk pi [13]

Other : not available

Family: Pinaceae
Genus: Pinus L.
Species: Pinus merkusii Jungh.& Vriese
1
Source :[ 4]
[General]: Pinus merkusii is a large evergreen, coniferous tree that occurs as two distinctive
provenances, the Sumatran pine and the Mainland pine. The tree reaches a height of 20-40 m [10] on
the Asian mainland (30-50 m [1], 30-35 m [3], 30-45 m [14]) and 55-70 m [10] on Sumatra, Indonesia
(50-70 m [5]). The bole is straight and cylindrical, free of branches for 15-25 m [5] (12-20 m [10]) and
with an average DBH of 60-90 cm [10], but never more than 140 cm [10] on the mainland and 50-80
cm [10] in Sumatra (55 cm, but occasionally up to 140 cm [5], 60-80 cm [3]). The crown of young trees
is pyramidal to egg-shaped with a prominent straight leader shoot while crowns of old trees broaden
and take an umbrella shape.
[Bark]: The bark forms plates which are more than 6 cm thick [10], reddish-brown, ash-grey or
blackish above and greyisch brown underneath with deep longitudinal cracks.
[Leaves]: The dark green needles grow in pairs of 2 and are up to 25 cm long [10] (Mainland variety:
19-25 cm [10], Sumatran: 16-19 cm [10], 15-25 cm [3], 16- 25 cm [5]), slender but rigid, with persistent
basal sheaths. In each year 2-7 whorls [10] are formed.
[Flowers]: No information available.
[Fruits]: The fruit (=cone) occurs solitary or in pairs on the twigs. It is reddish brown, cylindrical with a
flattened tip or longish conical with no stalk, 5-8 cm long [10] on Sumatra and 7-13 cm [10] on the
mainland (5-11 cm [5]) and twice as thick after opening. Until it ripens it remains in an upright position
on the branch and does not droop. Each cone contains on average 20-25 [10] viable pale reddish
brown to black, egg-shaped and slightly flat seeds which are 1.5-2 cm long [3] bearing a thin wing.

[1, 3, 5, 9, 10, 14]
I. Wood properties:
The wood of Pinus merkusii is heavy softwood with distinctive sapwood and heartwood, yellowish and
dark yellow respectively. The heartwood density of trees from Sumatra is 0.565-0.750 g/m³ at 15%
moisture content [12], while trees grown in Myanmar and Indo-China have a lower density of 0.48-
0.53 g/m³ at 15% mc [12] (0.88- 0.96 g/m³ at unknown mc [3]). "Tests in Indonesia at green condition
showed the following mechanical properties: Modulus of rupture is 53 N/mm³; modulus of elasticity
10,290 N/mm³; compression parallel to grain 26 N/mm³; compression shear 6-7 N/mm³; cleavage
radial 39 N/mm; cleavage tangential 38 N/mm; janka side hardness 2,450 N and janka end hardness
2,705 N. At 15% moisture content, modulus of rupture is 83 N/mm³, modulus of elasticity 12,445
N/mm³, compression parallel to grain 44 N/mm³, compression shear 8-9 N/mm³, cleavage radial 42
N/mm, cleavage tangential 55 N/mm, janka side hardness 3,800 N and janka end hardness 4,790 N.
Test in Malaysia at 159% moisture content showed the following mechanical properties: modulus of
rupture is 32 N/mm³, modulus of elasticity 4,600 N/mm³, compression parallel to grain 15 N/mm³,
compression shear 7 N/mm³, cleavage radial 35 N/mm, cleavage tangential 36 N/mm and janka side
hardness 2,310 N. At 15% moisture content, modulus of rupture is 41 N/mm³, modulus of elasticity
4,600 N/mm³, compression parallel to grain 24 N/mm³, compression shear 10 N/mm³, cleavage radial
2
38 N/mm, cleavage tangential 46 N/mm and janka side hardness 3,200 N. The rates of shrinkage
from green to oven dry 4.9% radial and 8.3% tangential. Seasoning properties of P. merkusii timber
are good and no serious difficulties are encountered, if the provided stock is converted soon after
felling and protected during drying. Kiln-drying properties are rated as good, but resin and staining
may cause problems. High-temperature drying (at 115°C) takes 24 hours for boards 2.5 cm thick and
48 hours for boards 5 cm thick. For wood of P. merkusii in Indonesia, a drying temperature of 54-82°C
and a corresponding relative humidity of 76% to 30% is recommended. Pine timber is only moderately
durable, and often prone to termite attack. It is also susceptible to blue stain, ambrosia beetles and
dry-wood borers. Graveyard tests on P. merkusii in Indonesia showed a service life in contact with the
ground of 1-4.5 years. Heartwood of P. merkusii can be impregnated with CCA preservative quite
well; it is classified as 'permeable'. Wood of P. merkusii contains 55% cellulose, 24% lignin, 14%
pentosan, 1.1% ash and 0.2% silica. The solubility is 6.3% in alcohol-benzene, 0.4% in cold water,
3.2% in hot water and 11.1% in a 1% NaOH solution. Anatomically, P. merkusii is a typical hard pine.
The wood is denser, the transition from earlywood to latewood more abrupt and vertical resin ducts
are larger than in P. kesiya. The energy value of the wood is 20,300-23,200 kJ/kg" [12].
[3, 12]

Approximate limits: 21°N to 3°S [4] (23°N to 2°S [14]). Pinus merkusii can be most clearly defined as
a tropical pine species, with the southernmost natural occurrence of all pine species, and the only one
whose natural distribution extends into the southern hemisphere. The natural range is characterized
by extensive enclaves, from eastern Myanmar across Laos, northern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam
and the Philippines to Sumatra. "It can also be found in an area extending from NE-India to S-Tibet"
[10]. However, it does not occur on the Malay Peninsula. Pinus merkusii grows frequently in pure
closed coniferous forests, mixed coniferous forests (together with P. kesiya), dry dipterocarp forest,
deciduous moist lowland dipterocarp forest and solitary on former agricultural land, on barren land
created by volcanic eruptions, in fire-prone grassland or shrubland and on former Hevea brasiliensis
plantations. It can be frequently found in areas which have been disturbed by fire where it is a rapid
colonizer.
[4, 10, 12, 14]

Pinus merkusii has a large altitudinal range from 30 to over 1,800 m above sea level [3] (800-1,200 m
a.s.l. [1] and 100-1,000 m [1], 0-2,000 m [12], 0-1,600 m [4]). In its natural range, tropical, sub-tropical
and warmer-temperate and monsoonal climates are dominant with a mean annual rainfall that varies
from 1,500 mm/yr [4] in Myanmar and Thailand to almost 4,000 mm/yr [4] in Indonesia and the
Philippines. In general a mean annual rainfall of 900-3,000 mm/yr [4] (1,000-2,000 mm/yr [10], 1,000-
3,500 mm/yr [12]) is suitable and a dry season of 0-5 months [5] (0-6 months [4], 3-6 months [10]) is
tolerated. In Indonesia, however, the dry season normally only lasts for 2 months [4] with no month
receiving less than 50 mm rainfall [14]. The mean annual temperature varies from 19°C to 28°C [4]
(21-28°C [12], 18°C in the mountains and 27°C in the lowland plains [10]). The mean maximum
3
temperature of hottest month is between 24-35ºC [4] whereas the mean minimum temperature of
coldest month is 5-24ºC [4]. The absolute minimum temperature is 2ºC [4]. Merkus pine is a light
demanding pioneer species. It is very wind resistant, termite resistant and especially older stands
show a very high fire resistance. Although it is generally regarded as not frost resistant, temperatures
may drop below 0ºC in high altitudes with light frosts during winter months.
[1, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 14]

Coastal Cardamoms (A), Northern Cardamoms (B), Central Lowlands (d), Southern Annamites (g).
[6]
Kampong Thom (X:569170 Y:1389705), Koh Kong (X:367557 Y:1240480), Koh Kong (X:385020
Y:1244184), Koh Kong (X:381316 Y:1234130), Kampong Thom (X:524456 Y:1389441), Pursat
(X:318609 Y:1335465), Kampong Thom (X:536722 Y:1467865), Kampong Thom (X:528710
Y:1407854), Kampong Speu (X:401716 Y:1249676), Koh Kong (X:325498 Y:1304645), Kampong
Thom (X:531601 Y:1409923), Mondul Kiri (X:738132 Y:1366689).
[6]

This tree naturally occurs only on topographically and edaphically extreme sites like rocky slopes and
lava flows. It is growing well on dry sandy soils, gravely soils, red tropical loams (latosols), clay soils,
alluvial soils and acid ultisols on sandstone which are often poorly drained. Poor and very acidic soils

are tolerated very well.
[1, 3, 4, 10]

[Wood]: The wood is used as a general-purpose softwood for house construction, window frames,
door frames, flooring, furniture, matches, chop-sticks, paper pulp, long fiber pulp, pit props,
transmission poles, ship- and boat construction, vehicle-building, containers, boxes, industrial- and
domestic woodware, fuelwood and charcoal. "Some provenances are suitable for making sliced or
peeled veneers" [10].
[1, 3, 4, 14]
[Non-wood]: The species is a high oleo-resin yielder and commercial tapping is often practiced on
plantation scale. Each tree gives 3-4 kg of resin per year [3] which is a precious raw material used in
medicine, ship caulking, paints, printing and the perfume industry. Other sources mention much
higher values with old trees yielding 30-60 kg [12] of crude gum per year, 20-40 kg [12] of pure resin
4
and 7-14 kg [12] of turpentine per year. Annual resin yields amount to 420-750 kg/ha [4, 10]. "Ethyl
alcohol extracts of P. merkusii showed anti-cancer activity in tests in the Philippines" [12].
[1, 3, 4, 12, 14]
[Others]: It is often used for rehabilitation of degraded areas because of its tolerance to fire, poor soil
conditions and its ability to shade out 'alang-alang' grass (Imperata cylindrica). "In Indonesia P.
merkusii has been successfully intercropped with Irish potatoes" [12]. It can also be used for soil
improvement, erosion control and windbreaks.
[1, 3, 4, 5, 12 ]

2nd class

[General]: Pinus merkusii grows frequently in pure closed coniferous forests, mixed coniferous forests
(together with P. kesiya), dry dipterocarp forest, deciduous moist lowland dipterocarp forest and
solitary on former agricultural land, on barren land created by volcanic eruptions, in fire-prone
grassland or shrubland and on former Hevea brasiliensis plantations. It can be frequently found in
areas which have been disturbed by fire where it is a rapid colonizer. It is a light demanding pioneer,
quite fire resistant with the ability to shade out 'alang-alang' grass (Imperata cylindrica), making it an
ideal species for soil conservation and afforestation purposes.
[Natural Regeneration]: "Successful natural regeneration is only possible, where a sufficient amount
of sunlight reaches the ground, for example in open Pinus merkusii stands, or dry dipterocarp forests
but also in moist dipterocarp forests where gaps with at least 14 m diameter are present. In
Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, controlled burning is carried out to promote the growth of
seedlings" [10].
[Establishment]: For timber production, trees are planted at a spacing of 3 x 1 m, or 3 x 2 m [4]. For
resin production, the spacing has to be increased to 4 x 4 m [4]. "During the first 3-5 years (from 18
months to 2-3 years [4]) the young trees pass through a 'grass stage' characterized by a densely
needled, short shoot and minimal height growth. Instead a thick bark which is 1-2 times as thick as the
woody stem, a dense needle cover and an extensive root system are developed to adapt to the
periodic dryness and frequent fires" [10]. One recommendation is to keep the plants in the nursery
during this phase even if most pines are transplanted much earlier.
[Management]: Due to the grass stage, weeding must be carried out 2-3 times during the first year
[10] and 1-2 times per year during the following years [10] until the crowns close to form a continuous
canopy. Young trees of P. merkusii require increased weeding compared to Pinus caribaea, Pinus
oocarpa and Pinus kesiya. "The first thinning is usually carried out in the 9th or 10th year with
thinnings about every 5 years thereafter" [10]. Rotation cycles of 30 years [12] are needed for optimal
timber production with a stand density of 28-29 m²/ha after 30 years [10]. For the production of
pulpwood, a cutting cycle of 15 years [12] is usually practiced.
5
[Yield]: The growth of young trees in the field is very variable, especially within the Mainland
provenances, which are also very bushy and have coarse branches. In later stages of development
the growth is rather rapid with a mean height increment of 1.2 m/yr [4]. Generally on sites of average
soil quality, a mean annual volume increment of 22.4 m³/ha in a 25-year rotation [4] can be observed.
Growth data of Pinus merkusii plantations in Indonesia, 1954: "Mean annual increment: 4-25 m³/ha
(10 years), 14-30 m³/ha (20 years), 16-27 m³/ha (30 years). Top height: 10-20 m (10 years), 22-33 m
(20 years), 28-41 m (30 years). Mean diameter: 58.5 cm (good site, 30 years), 38.9 cm (normal site,
30 years). Standing volume: 397 m³/ha (good site, 30 years), 248 m³/ha (normal site, 30 years). Total
yield: 814 m³/ha (good site, 30 years), 471 m³/ha (normal site, 30 years)” [10].
[Resin Harvesting]: "Several methods of harvesting the resin are practiced. The resin is found in the
intercellular canals in the wood (especially sapwood) and products are often termed 'naval stores'
because of their historic use for ship caulking. Living pine trees are tapped (wounded), the first cut of
about 1.3 cm wide and 30 cm long being made 30-40 cm from the ground, followed by a series of
chippings until breast height. A sulphuric acid solution (usually 40-60%) is applied immediately after
chipping. This process yields the 'gum naval stores', still the major source of the worlds supply of resin
and turpentine. 'Wood naval stores' can be obtained by solvent extraction of stumps of old trees; the
resin obtained in this manner is less pure. Turpentine and wood resin can also be obtained as by-
products from the kraft (sulphate) pulping of pines. Turpentine is removed from the chip digester
during the initial steaming and condensed from the relief gases. This method gives 'kraft naval stores'"
[12].
[Agroforestry]: P.merkusii has been successfully intercropped with Irish potatoes in Indonesia.
[4, 6, 10, 12, 14]

Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: In stands, trees reach sexual maturity with 20 years [10], solitary trees
even earlier. In Sumatra ripe seeds are produced most abundantly between July and November [12],
but viable seeds are produced throughout the year. Only cones that have just changed their color
from green to brown should be collected and air dried. There are normally 35-40 seeds per cone [14]
and 50,000-60,000 seeds/kg [14]. "The weight of 1,000 seeds of Sumatran P. merkusii about 17 g,
and of continental provenances of P. merkusii 25-33 g. The seeds can be stored for several years,
provided they are kept dry, cold and in an airtight container. However, seeds of P. merkusii are
reported to have a rather short viability if untreated with 42,000 fresh seeds/kg at sea level [10] and
28,000 fresh seeds/kg at 900 m a.s.l. [10]; seeds from Sumatra can be stored dry for only 1-2 years,
and those from continental Asia during even shorter periods" [12]. They are poorly suited for shipping.
[Seed propagation]: P. merkusii can be propagated by seeds, but natural regeneration develops
better. It does also not perform well in the nursery, germination being slow after 10-12 days [4] (after
8-21 days [12]) and very poor with a rate of 40-60% [12]. Seeds need no pretreatment before sowing.
However, they are often soaked in cold water overnight. To prevent damping-off in the nursery, well-
drained beds should be used. Seeds are thinly broadcast over the beds and then covered with a layer
of sand. After about 6-8 weeks [12], the trees will be 5-6 cm tall [12] and can then be transplanted to
6
nursery beds. The mycorrhiza fungus seems to be important for better growth. The seed beds can be
inoculated with soil from older stands or by exposing them to older young plants, which are 30-80 cm
high [10], which are already mycorrhizae carriers. "These 'mother' trees are planted a year before at a
spacing of 1 x 1 m in the nursery beds intended for the next crop of seedlings (the mainland
provenances can apparently be successfully inoculated using infected soil from matur stands)" [10].
After about 8 months [12] the seedlings of P. merkusii in nursery beds are 20-25 cm tall [4] and ready
for planting into the field.
[Vegetative propagation]: Vegetative propagation by tissue culture and cuttings is possible but up to
now limited to the Sumatran provenance. "Suspensor, root tissue and hypocotyl segments of 2-week-
old seedlings of P. merkusii have been used, and they all readily yield callus when cultured on a
Murashige and Skoog mineral formulation supplemented with naphthalene acetic acid (0.25-0.65
ppm) and benzylamino purine (1.0-2.0 ppm)" [12].
[Provenances]: "The standard seed source areas for P. merkusii are Sumatra and Thailand.
Seedlings raised from Sumatran seeds often miss the 'grass stage' and are thus better suited for
plantations. The sources of genetically superior P. merkusii seed in Sumatra should be protected. The
natural areas of distribution of this species in Malesia are comparatively small, and for this reason,
protection of natural stands should be guaranteed. International provenance trials of P. kesiya and P.
merkusii have been established throughout South-East Asia and also in northern Australia; they are
coordinated by the Commonwealth Forestry Institute of Oxford (UK). In Thailand, trials of provenance
hybrids of P. merkusii showed that hybrids of Thailand and Papua New Guinea provenances had
better survival and length-growth than local provenances. P. merkusii seed orchards have been
established in Indonesia" [12].
[1, 3, 4, 10, 12, 14]

[Pests]: The mainland provenances are not susceptible to insect attacks. However, the Sumatran
provenance can be damaged by the measuring worm Milionia basalis which can defoliate whole
stands. Secondary invaders like Pineus pini often appear after a Milionia attack. [4, 10]
[Diseases]: Heavy mortality in Merkus pine stands of Sumatra can occur from damping-off fungi like
Mycosphaerella pini. On the mainland trees are not prone to attack by fungi.
[4, 10]
[Others]: As a seedling and young tree it can be damaged by every kind of ground cover, like shed
leaves and even own needle litter from mature trees.
[4]
7
S. Conservation :
This species is has been classified as vulnerable 'VU' [15] (near threatened 'LR, nt' [6]) according to
IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees, due to its
valuable wood and the very high demand in markets. In Cambodia this species is over-exploited and
in danger of extinction if adequate protection measures are not implemented. Distribution throughout
the country is scattered and its habits have been destroyed by forestland conversions and selective
illegal logging. More than 100 trees are threatened in Cambodia by illegal logging and uncontrolled
fire (as defined on the National Workshop on Tree Species Priorities organized by DFW and CTSP in
2000 [16]). The number of mature trees has been reduced significantly and it is now difficult to find
significant sources of germplasm. "Resin tapping (harvesting) is prohibited by Cambodian forestry law
1988 unless special permission is granted by MAFF" [8].
[6, 8, 15, 16]

The largest stands of Sral in Cambodia are found on the Kirirom Plateau (12 ha). It is also found in
Kampong Thom, Koh Kong, Pursat, Kampong Speu and Mondulkiri.
[6, 8, 9,]

[Native]:
Vietnam, Myanmar, N-Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, S-China, Philippines (Mindoro, western Luzon) and

Indonesia (Sumatra).
[3, 4, 5, 12]
[Introduced]:
Asia: Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka.
Africa: South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.
[4]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Prospects]: "Pines are much planted trees because of their fast growth, ability to grow on
comparatively poor soils and at high altitudes, and because of the detailed information available on
their silviculture. The quality of the wood is, however, often very poor. The production of better quality
wood from pine plantations should be a research priority" [12].
Arisman, H. and G.R. Powell. 1986. Effects of cone colour and seed extraction methods on yield and
quality of seeds of Pinus merkusii in Indonesia. Seed Science and Technology 14, 177-190.
[14]
8
Cooling, E.N.G. 1968. Pinus merkusii. Fast Growing Timber Trees of the Lowland Tropics No. 4.
Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
[14]
Cooling, E.N.G. and H. Gaussen 1970. In Indochina Pinus merkusiana sp. nov. et non P. merkusii
Jungh. et De Vriese. Trav. Lab. Forest. Toulouse T. 1 V. 8 Art. 7.
[5]
Pousujja R., J. Granhof and R.L. Willan. 1986. Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese. Seed Leaflet No. 7,
Danida Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek.
[14]
X. References:
[1] Lehmann, Lutz et al. 2003: Forests and trees of the Central Highlands of Xieng Khounang , Lao
P.D.R.- A field guide

[8] CTSP, 2004: Cambodian Tree Species Monographs. Cambodian Tree Seed Project, Phnom Penh.
57pp.
9
[11] Danida Forest Seed Centre, 2000: Conservation of genetic resources of Pinus merkusii in
Thailand -Technical Note No. 58, October 2000.

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/AF/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp (Internet
source)
[14] Hidayat, J.; Hansen, C-P., 2002: Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese. Seed Leaflet No. 60, Danida
Forest Seed Centre, Humlebaek.
[16] FAO:
(Internet source)
10
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.]
Datasheet Report
[Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
B. English name (s) ³ Madras thorn [2], blackbead [5], blackbead tree, bread and
cheese tree, Manila tamarind, quamachil, sweet inga [8]
C. Synonym ³ Acacia obliquifolia Mart. & Gall., Inga dulcis (Roxb.) Willd.,
Inga leucantha K. Presl, Inga pungens Humb. & Bonpl. ex

Willd., Mimosa dulcis Roxb., Mimosa monilifera Bert.,
Pithecellobium littorale Britton & Rose ex Record [5],
Pithecolobium dulce [9]
D. Other1 ³ temar (Ethiopia) [8] - tamar hindi (Arabia) [8] - amil, balati,
dekhani babul (Bamgladesh) [8] - kway-tanyeng (Myanmar)

[8] - damortis, kamanchilis, kamatsile (Philippines) [8] -
opiuma (Hawaii) [8] - dakhani babul, imli, jangal jelbi, jangle
jalebi, vilayati babul, vilayati imli (N-India) [8] - kodukapuli,
kodukkaapuli (S-India) [8] - asam koranji, asam belanda,
asem londo (Indonesia) [8] - khaam th’ééd (Laos) [8] - asam
kranji, asam tinja (Malaysia) [8] - guama americano,

guamuchil, quamachil (Spain) [8] - maramata, mkwaju wa
kihindi (E-Africa) [8] - makham-khong, makham-that
(Thailand) [8] - keo tây, me keo (Vietnam) [8]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: Gm<ilTwk

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ 'âmpül tük. [1]

1
Family: Fabaceae (subfamily: Mimosoideae)
Genus: Pithecellobium
Species: Pithecellobium dulce
Source :[ 5]
[General]: P. dulce forms a small to medium-sized evergreen tree up to 15-20 m [5] (5-18 m [8], 18 m
[2], 6-10 m [3], 10 m [6]) in height with a DBH of 30-50 cm, or even 100 cm [5] (80-100 cm [2]). It is
usually multiple-stemmed, sometimes forming only a bushy treelet, but often forming a branchy tree
with an irregular rounded crown and pliantly pendulous branches [5] (with irregular branches up to 30
m across [8]). A few slender whip-like branches often straggle well beyond the rest of the crown [5].
Bark is smooth, pale whitish-grey, lenticellate, often with horizontal ribs encircling the trunk and
branches on branches and younger trees, becoming rougher and fissured on older boles. The shoots
are randomly armed at nodes with pairs of stout and straight stipular spines 4-13 mm long [5], but are
occasionally thornless.
[Leaves]: The leaves are abruptly bipinnate with a single pair of pinnae per leaf and two pairs of
leaflets per pinna, i.e. 4 leaflets in all per leaf [5]. Leaflets are 2.5-5.6 cm x 0.9-3.2 cm [5] ( 2-2.5 x 1-2
cm [8]), obliquely elliptic or oblong elliptic with 4-7 pairs of pinnate veins, deep olive green above,
paler grey-green below, and have small glands, 0.3-0.8 mm tall and 0.4-0.7 mm in diameter [5] at the

tip of the leaf stalk and the tip of the central leaf stalk. "New leaf growth coincides with the loss of old
leaves, giving the tree an evergreen appearance" [8]. Thin spines are in pairs at the base of leaves,
and range from 2 to 15 mm in length [8].
[Flowers]: The flowers are grouped in small dense sub-spherical heads, 7-12 mm in diameter, with 20-
30 flowers per head [5], the heads are arranged in fascicles of 2-4 in axils of leaves. The flowers are
pale whitish green and the stamen (=male organ) filaments are white. There are 5 outer flower leaves
(=sepals) and 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) both fused into a tube and 22-42 stamens per flower [5]
(50 stamens [8]), also basally united into a staminal tube. "Trees start to flower and fruit at 4-8 years
of age. Flowering and fruiting can occur throughout the year as moisture permits, but usually flowering
peaks during the dry season with pods ripening 2-4 months later" [5]. Flowering and fruiting occurs in
Vietnam and Laos from March to November [4].
[Fruits]: "The fruits (=pods) are distinctive in shape and color, spirally curved or coiled into 1-2 circles,
noticeably constricted between the seeds, and green tinged red, turning bright rose- or pillar-box red
as they ripen and reddish brown after dehiscence. The unripe pods are fleshy becoming dry and
papery after opening" [5]. The pods have a size of 10-15 x 1.5 cm [8] and are open along both sides
to reveal 8-12 seeds [5] (5-10 [8]), which persist after the pods open attached by the fleshy white, pale
2
pink or occasionally red, aril [5]. Seeds are shiny black, plumply compressed lentiform, and 7-13 x 6-
11 x 2-4 mm [5] (up to 2 cm long [8]).
[2, 3, 5, 6, 8]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood properties]: The sapwood is yellowish in color, the heartwood yellowish or reddish-brown. The
wood of P. dulce is strong and durable but also soft and flexible. It is moderately hard and usually
straight grained. It has a density of about 0.59 g/cm³, is easy to saw and finishes to a smooth surface.
The calorific value is low with 5,177-5,600 kcal/kg [8].
[8]

Approximate limits: 28°N to 2°N [5]. P.dulce is naturalized in all the tropical regions of the world.
Vegetation types are deciduous forests, dry tropical and dry thorn shrub forests as well as secondary
forests.
[1, 3, 5]

P. dulce occurs at low and medium altitudes between 0 and 500 m a.s.l. [4] (900-1,800 m [8], 0-1,550
m [5]). Generally found in the plains, it can also survive in undulating terrain. It grows well in dry and
subhumid areas, but thrives best in dry hot tropical and subtropical climates with an annual rainfall of
250-1,650 mm [8] (700 - 1,800 mm [5]) a mean annual temperature of 0-48°C [5] and a dry season of
4-6 months [5]. It can withstand considerable heat and drought due to its extensive root system,
however it is susceptible to frost. It is a strong light demander, but can resist to a considerable amount
of shade.
[4, 5, 8]


In its native range P. dulce grows on young superficial, often extremely rocky, shallow and skeletal
soils, primarily of volcanic origin in areas where soils have often suffered severe abuse through slash
and burn agriculture, desiccation and erosion. It is also found along river banks on alluvial soils and
sands. It prefers well-drained deep and loamy agricultural soils but can grow even on heavy clays,
including black cotton vertisols. However, it is adaptable to most soils including acidic clays, limestone
soils, infertile soils, saline soils and sandy soils with a brackish watertable. It also grows in
waterlogged soils but not well. P. dulce is thus extremely adaptable in terms of both its soil and
climatic requirements. "List of suitable soil types: alluvial soils, arenosols, arid soils, calcareous soils,
clay soils, gravelly soils, limestone soils, saline soils, sandy soils, ultisols, vertisols" [5].
[2, 4, 5, 8]
3
[Wood]: P. dulce wood is not of very high quality. Generally it can be used in construction and for
posts. "In parts of India, it is planted and harvested to fuel brick kilns. In South India, it is used to
make drums, while in China, it is said to be used for matches. The short spines and irregular, crooked
growth make it less attractive for wood uses" [1]. P. dulce is fast-growing and coppices vigorously but
due to its smokiness and low calorific value (5,177-5,600 kcal/kg [8]) it yields only low quality
fuelwood.
[Non-wood]:
Food: "Pods contain a pulp that is variously sweet and acid, commonly white but also red. The seed
and pulp are made into a sweet drink similar to lemonade and also eaten roasted or fresh. The seeds
are used fresh in curries in India. In Mexico, Cuba and Thailand, the pods are harvested and are
customary sold on roadside stands" [8].
Fodder: "The pods and leaves gathered from hedge clippings are devoured by all livestock; horses,
goats, camels, cattle and sheep. The presscake residue from seed oil extraction may be used as
stock feed" [8].
Apiculture: "Flowers are visited by bees and yield good quality honey" [8].
Gum or resin: "The wounded bark exudes a mucilaginous reddish-brown gum somewhat like gum
Arabic" [8].
Tannin or dyestuff: "Tannin, used to soften leather, can be extracted from the bark (about 25%),
seeds and leaves; the bark is also used to dye fishnets a yellow color" [8].

Lipids: "Seeds contain a greenish oil (20%), which, after refining and bleaching, can be used for food
or in the making of soap and can substitute kapok and ground nut seed oils" [8].
Medicine: "In Haiti root and bark decoctions are taken orally against diarrhoea; fruit pulp is taken
orally to stop blood flow in case of heamoptysis. The seed juice is inhaled into the nostrils against
chest congestion and pulverised seeds are ingested for internal ulcers. The leaves, when applied as a
plaster, can allay pain of venereal sores and taken with salt can cure indigestion, but can also
produce abortion. The root bark may be used to cure dysentery. The bark is used medicinally as a
febrifuge" [8].
[Others]: The tree is extensively planted for its dense shade. Since it can grow on waste and denuded
lands, P. dulce can afforest and conserve poor soils. P. dulce forms root nodules with Rhizobium
bacteria. Nodulation is common in all types of soil, but quantitative data on nitrogen fixation has not
been reported. Very popular as an ornamental at roadsides and is used in topiary (plant sculpturing).
Trees with variegated leaflets are available as ornamental pot plants in Hawaii. With regular trimming,
P. dulce makes a dense, almost impenetrable thorny hedge that keeps out livestock, acts as a
windbreak and forms useful shelter belts. In hedges it is commonly mixed with other species like
Ziziphus mauritiana and Azadirachta indica.
4
[2, 8]

No Class [1]

[General]: P.dulce occurs in deciduous forests, dry tropical and dry thorn scrub forests. It is a hardy,
nitrogen-fixing tree and is valued more because it tolerates harsh sites, heat and drought, and heavy
cutting, than because of the products which it produces or its commercial potential. It is thus planted
mainly on roadsides, field boundaries, and in towns and backyards, rather than in plantations or
formal agroforestry systems. Perhaps its greatest value is as a hedging plant as it resprouts
vigorously after close and repeated cutting, and forms a deep, dense, spiny, impenetrable barrier. "It
is grown extensively as a hedge in the warmer drier parts of India, especially in the south, and in
many other countries" [5].
[Establishment]: For hedges, seeds may be sown in 2 rows of 15 x 30 cm" [8].
[Management]: The species is fast growing. Trees reach a height of 12-15 m and a girth of 0.91-1.2 m
in about 40 years [8]. In favorable soil conditions, it may reach a height of 10 m in 5-6 years [8] (12 m
in 5-6 years [2]). It coppices vigorously and produces root suckers upon injury to roots. The tree can
stand considerable amount of pruning, lopping and nibbling by sheep and goats. It also competes with
weeds and outgrows fast.
[2, 5, 8]
Q. Propagation :
Vegetative propagation is done by using cuttings, air layering and grafting. Stands are established by
natural regeneration, direct sowing and planting stock. Natural reproduction occurs freely from self-
seeding, especially around the margins of cultivated fields where plentiful seeding can be found under
mature trees. Plants yield viable seeds at an early age. The ripe pods are collected and dried in the
sun, till they dehisce. Unbroken pods are thrashed to extract the seed, winnowed and cleaned. No
pre-treatment is required and soaking actually reduces germination and heating kills the seeds. Direct
sowing is successful. The plants are best propagated by transplants in the nursery. The seeds are
either broadcast in the raised nursery beds, or in the polythene bags, soon after collection. The beds
must have well-pulverized soil and organic manure and be profusely watered. Germination
commences from 7-10 days, and is completed in 2-3 weeks [8]. Seedlings may be pricked out from
the germination beds to transplant beds or in polythene bags after 6 months. Young plants need the
shelter from dry and hot winds. They are taken out with a ball of earth when about a year old. Manila
tamarind can also be readily established by branch-cuttings.
[5, 8]
5
[Pests]: "Larvae of Subpandesma anysa attack the fruit and seeds in Hawaii. A hemipteran insect
(Umbonia crassicornis) is a pest in Puerto Rico. Larvae of Indarbela spp bore into the bark of trees in
India. Polydesma umbricola is a serious pest on the Island of Reunion" [8].
[Diseases]: "Leaf spot pathogens include Cercospora mimosae, Collectotrichum dematium, C.

pithecellobii, Phyllosticta ingae-dulcis and P. pithecellobii. Heart rot (Phellinus spp) has been reported
in India" [8].
[Others]: "P. dulce is known to be susceptible to branch breakage, trunk snap and uprooting in high
winds and is amongst the most heavily damaged species in hurricanes" [5].
S. Conservation :
"P. dulce is widely distributed, often locally abundant and thrives on disturbance. It is of little or no
conservation concern" [5].

P. dulce was studied in Kompong Thom, Kandal, Kampot.
[7]

[Native]: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Mexico, Paraguay,
Peru, Surinam, United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela.

[8]
[Introduced]: Cambodia, China, Cuba, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Kenya, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Vietnam, Virgin
Islands (US), Zanzibar.
[8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Fruit Properties]: "The fresh pod consists of 25% peel, 50% aril and 25% seed. The aril contains per
100 g: water 75.8-77.8 g, protein 2.3-3 g, fat 0.4-0.5 g, carbohydrates 18.2-19.6 g, fiber 1.1-1.2 g, ash
0.6-0.7 g, calcium 13 mg, phosphorus 42 mg, iron 0.5 mg, sodium 19 mg, potassium 20.2 mg, vitamin
A 25 IU, thiamine 0.24 mg, riboflavin 0.1 mg, niacin 0.6 mg and vitamin C 133 mg. The energy value
is 330 kJ/100 g" [6].
[Disadvantages of cultivation]: "The main disadvantage of P. dulce is weediness. It is thorny,

produces abundant natural regeneration in many areas where introduced and planted, can spread
quickly by bird dispersal of seeds, coppices rapidly after cutting or fire, and produces vigourous, very
thorny root suckers triggered by injury to tree roots, a set of traits that mean it can invade pastures
and other ruderal sites and can be difficult to kill once trees are established. It is notably weedy in the
6
Caribbean, in Florida and in Hawaii where it is naturalized throughout the dry lowlands and classified
as a pest. It is also recorded as a weed in India and in Tamil Nadu, where it is self-sown from hedge
plants and avenue trees on all roadsides and waste lands. Repeated attempts to replace P. dulce with
other species have failed. Importation of P. dulce to Australia is banned because of its known
potential to become a weed and the possible threat posed to Australian pastures and natural
communities. While thorniness is an advantage in hedging, the sharp thorns and irritating sap - which
can cause skin welts and eye irritations - make harvesting and handling of branches and twigs difficult
and limit its utilization, particularly in parts of SE Asia. For these reasons it has been abandoned as a
street tree in south Florida" [5].
[Terminology]: "The genus is often written as Pithecollobium or Pithecolobium. The genus name is
derived from the Greek words pithekos (an ape) and lobos (a lobe), alluding to the pods, shaped like
the human ears. This species was named and described botanically in 1795 from Coromandel, India,
where it had been introduced. The specific name, meaning sweet, doubtless refers to the edible seed
pulp" [8].
[History]: "During 1521-1815, P. dulce was introduced to the Philippines from Mexico aboard one of
the Spanish government galleons that sailed between Acapulco and Manila, along with 200 other
American species including other woody legumes such as Gliricidia, Leucaena, Prosopis and
Samanea (Merrill, 1912). An early (pre-1800) introduction to Asia is certain, given that although P.
dulce is native to tropical America, it was first described and named in 1798 by Roxburgh from
material collected in India, reported to have been introduced from the Philippines. The very wide
present-day pantropical distribution, extent of naturalization and the great abundance of local
vernacular names, provide further evidence of the wide distribution and cultivation of P. dulce across
the tropics in early historical times. It is particularly abundant, and often weedy in the Caribbean (e.g.
in Puerto Rico with Prosopis pallida along the fringes of mangrove), Hawaii (in pastures), and warmer
and drier regions of south India and the Gangeatic plains. Elsewhere it is a common ornamental and
shade tree. Seed of P. dulce was included amongst a package of dry zone Central American species
widely distributed for testing in a new series of species elimination trials in the mid 1980s" [5].
AQIS, 1996. Madras Thorn. Pithecellobium dulce. Plant Quarantine Leaflet No. 115. Canberra,
Australia: Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service. Department of Primary Industries and
Energy.
[5]
Anonymous, 1989. Asam Kranji dan Asam Londo[Dialium indum and Pithecellobium dulce]. ajalah
ASRI No 26.
[6]
Brewbaker JL, 1992. Pithecellobium dulce - sweet and thorny. NFT Highlights, No. 92-01:2 pp.; 5 ref.
[5]
7
Hendro Sunarjono H, Coronel RE, 1991. Pithecellobium dulce. In: Verheij EWM, Coronel RE eds.
Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 2. Edible Fruits and Nuts. Wageningen, Netherlands: Pudoc,
256-257.
[5]
Kundu H, Panda NC, Sahu BK, 1983. Leaves of inga dulcis (Manila tamarind; Pithecellobium dulce)
as a fodder for goats. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 53(6):669-671; 7 ref.
[5]
NFTA. 1992. Pithecellobium dulce: sweet and thorny. NFTA 92-01. Waimanalo.
[8]
X. References:
[2] Species Fact Sheets (Module 9) :Forestry / Fuelwood Research and Development Project.
1994. Growing Mulltipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand:
Winrock Interational. 320pp.

[5] CABI, 2003: Forestry Compendium (2003 edition) - CAB INTERNATIONAL. (CD-ROM).
[7] Nielsen, I., 1981: Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam. Vol. 19. Légumineuses-
Mimosoïdées. Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, Paris. pp. 108-
110.
[8] World Agroforestry Center:

source)
[9] ECOPORT Species Database: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don.]
Datasheet Report
[Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don.
B. English name (s) ³ podocarp, brown pine [25]
C. Synonym ³ Nageia neriifolia (D.Don.) O.K. 1891; Nagleia discolor
(Blume) O.K., Podocarpus annamensis N.E. Gray; P.

discolor Blume 1847; P. leptostachya Blume 1849; P.
neglecta Blume 1849; P. decipiens N.E. Gray; P. polyantha
(Wasscher) Gaussen, P. junghuhniana Miq. 1851, [16,24]
D. Other1 ³ Prince of Woods (India) [12]; ka dong (Laos); antok
(Indonesia-Java); beberas (Indonesia-Sumatera); kayu cina

(Irian Jaya); podo bukit, jati bukit (Malaysia-Peninsular); ki
beling (Sabah, Malaysia-East); mala adelfa (Philippines-
general); thitmin (Burma); phayanai (Thailand-general);
phailamthon (Thai-NE); khunmai (Thai-E) thông tre, thông
trúc dào, banh niên tùng, thông tre nam (Vietnam) [8,16].
RsUl
Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ sro:l [4]

Other : Pinales
Family: Podocarpaceae
Gunus: Podocarpus L´Her. ex Persson
1
Species: Podocarpus neriifolius D.Don [16]
Source :[2 ; 16]
[General]: A medium-sized tree that can reach 25 m height on fertile soil. Bole straight and cylindrical,
branches verticillate [2]; tree, 10-15 m high, rarely taller [4]; evergreen tree up to 20 m high [5]. Trees
up to 35 m high, up to 100 cm diameter, bole straight [8]. A medium-sized to fairly large tree up to 35
(-45) m tall, bole columnar, branchless for up to 22 m, up to 100 cm in diameter, rarely spurred or
even buttressed, crown frequently dome-shaped [16,24].
[Bark]: Yellow brown [2]; grey-brown, slightly flaking, often fluted at base [5]. The dark to light-brown
bark is stringy [7]; bark greyish-brown, peeling off in longitudinal flakes. Branches spreading or
ascending [8].
[Leaves]: Alternate, linear, tip gradually acute, 7-15 cm long and 0.9-1.9 wide. Midrib clearly evident
on both surfaces, margin curved downwards. Petiole 0.3-0.5 cm long, fissured beneath [2]. Leaf 7-15
(-20) x 1-2 cm, alternate, spiral or clustered, linear-lanceolate, pointed at both ends, leathery, pale
green below. Mid-vein distinct on both sides, but side-veins very faint. Stalks 0.2-0.5 cm [5]. Leaves
alternate, linear or lanceolate, usually slightly curved, 2.5-18.0 by 0.5-1.5 cm, leathery, mid-vein
raised beneath, flat or slightly raised above, base wedge-shaped, apex long, acuminate. Juvenile
leaves wider, with obtuse to mucronate apex [8]. Foliage buds ovate, acute or blunt, often with
spreading scales; juvenile leaves acuminate, adult leaves (7-) 8-18 cm x (1.0-) 1.1-1.8 cm, midrib

above abruptly raised, (0.4-) 0.6-0.8 mm wide [16]. Juvenile leaves 15-24 by up to 2.4 cm, acuminate
and acute, narrowing abruptly at the base to a short petiole, becoming linear-lanceolate and c. 1.6 cm
wide on older fast-growing saplings in open situations. Leaves of mature trees similar with a short
petiole up to 6 mm. Shade leaves acuminate, 8-12 by 1.2-1.8 cm. More exposed leaves linear-
lanceolate, 12-18 by 1.1-1.5 cm or on particularly large trees more nearly linear and 7-10 by 1.0-1.1
cm. Midrib abruptly raised on the upper side of the leaf at least 0.3 mm high and usually 0.6-0.8 mm
wide but as little as 0.4 mm wide on the less vigorous leaves or in the Borneo region on most leaves.
[Fruit]: Male cone sessile, usually 3 cones grouped at leaf axil, subterminal, ovoid, when old, 2-5 cm
long. Female cone solitary, pedicel 0.5-1.0 cm long, receptacle fleshy, flat below. Two bracts
caducous, 1.5 cm long, 1 cm wide. Fruit violet when mature [2]. Cones pale yellow, in leaf axils, male
and female on different trees. Males in dense, catkin-like clusters (stroboli), 2-5 cm, usually solitary,
but sometimes 2-3(5) together. Females solitary on thick, fleshy cup (receptacle) ± 0.5 cm, stalks 0.5-
1.0 cm [5]. Fruit are round and blue-black and ripen during the rainy season in about June-July [7]..
Cones ovoid, 0.8-1.6 cm high. Male cones solitary or in clusters of 2-4, normally sessile, 2.0-4.5 cm
long, with several spirally arranged, basal bracts. Female cones solitary, axillary, peduncle 0.4-2.2 cm
long. Receptacle orange-red when ripe, obconical-ellipsoid, 4-10 by 2-6 mm base with 2 subulate
bracts, 2-6 mm long. Mature seed green to purple, outer layer fleshy to coriaceous, middle layer
2
stony, inner layer papyraceous [8]. Pollen cones solitary or in twos or threes, sessile; receptacle red
when mature [24,27]. P. neriifolius is a variable species not always easily distinguishable from P.
polystachyus. It occurs scattered. Cones April-May, mature ones August to November [8].
I. Wood properties:
Podocarp is a light- to medium-weight softwood with specific gravity of 415-790 kg/m³. The heartwood
is greyish yellow or pale brown to golden brown and often not clearly demarcated from the paler
sapwood. Grain usually straight. Texture fine and even; wood with little or no figure, occasionally with
darker streaks near the pith resulting from compression wood, lustrous. Growth rings generally
indistinct, sometimes marked by narrow, dense latewood bands; diffuse parenchyma, rarely evident to
the naked eye; rays very fine, not visble to the naked eye [16]. A test of wood of P. neriifolius from Fiji
at 12% m.c. showed the following mechanical properties: Modulus of rupture 98.5 N/mm², modulus of
elasticity 10,765 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 56 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain
11 N/mm², shear 13 N/mm², cleavage 32 N/mm² radial and 40.5 N/mm² tangential, Janka side
hardness 5,050 N, and Janka end hardness 7,920 N.
The rates of shrinkage of podocarp wood are fairly low: from green to 12% m.c. 2.3% radial and 4.1%
tangential, and from green to oven dry 3.3% radial and 5.7% tangential. The wood is easy to dry
without significant defects, but face checking and twist are common problems in unweighted boards,
whereas juvenile wood checks badly. On average it takes 23 days to dry 25 mm thick boards of P.
neriifolius to 15% m.c. The recommended kiln drying schedule specifies a temperature of 54-82ºC
with corresponding relative humidity of 76-30%. In Malaysia it is recommended to dip the stock in an
anti-stain solution immediately after conversion and before drying. Boards 25 mm thick are dried to
15% m.c. in 8 days using the Malaysian kiln drying schedule G [16].
Podocarp wood is easy to saw, but softer boards show a tendency to crumble on end grain. The wood
can be planed, shaped, turned, mortized, and sanded with good results and to a smooth finish, but the
results of boring are sometimes rated as moderate. Generally the wood holds nails well, but large
nails may cause some splitting. The gluing, staining, varnishing and painting properties are stisfactory.
The peeling properties are rated as good with negligible degrade upon drying; pretreatment is not
needed. Podocarp wood is rated as non-durable when in contact with the soil or exposed to the
weather. It is susceptible to termite attack, pinhole borers, longhorn beetles and marine borers, but
not to Lyctus. The sapwood is permeable but the heartwood is moderately resistant to impregnation
[16].

About 30 species are present in Malesia, of which 15 in New Guinea and 13 in Borneo. [16]. P.
neriifolius is the most widly-spread species of the genus, occurring from Nepal, India, Burma,
Indochina, Thailand throughout Malesia, Philippines, Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas, New Guinea,
New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon and Fidji Islands, northern Queensland/Australia [16,25]. It occurs
in montane mixed conifer forests [8,16]. Podocarpus comprises about 95 species thoughout the
tropics, often in the highlands of subtropical Himalaya foothills to temperate forests of the southern
3
hemisphere. P. neriifolius occurs in montane forests, with scattered occurrence, occasionally in pure
stands; locally associated with Dacrycarpus imbricatus and Altingia noronhae; in New Britain it occurs
in the hills with Pometia and Calophyllum, in the montane forest in New Ireland with Fagaceae,
Eugenia and Schizomeria; in the Morobe District (New Guinea) it is associated with Anisoptera and
Flindersia in the canopy" [25]. In Laos, Xiengkhuang Province, P. neriifolius grows scattered in moist
evergreen mountain forest often together with evergreen oaks (Quercus spp.)and in swamp forest [7].

P. neriifolius grows to large size in the mountain forests of northern India and Nepal with a subtropical
to near-temperate hill climate. Its optimum is between 900 and 1500 m a.s.l., with 1500-3700 mm/ m²
mean annual precipitation, and uniformly distributed summer rain and up to 5 months of dry season.
The temperature range is 25ºC to 30ºC with the coldest months having only between 8ºC and 24ºC
[12]. Generally it is found on rocky hill tops; also near rivers, from sea level to 2,100 m [16]. Appears
as understory tree but may also grow into the canopy. Widespread but uncommon in less-disturbed
evergreen forests, at 1000 m-1400 m elevation [5]. Found at elevations from 400-1500 m, usually
mixed with Castanopsis spp., Dacrycarpus imbricatus, Fokienia hodginsii, Lithocarpus spp., and
Pometia sp. [8] Shade- tolerant. Occasionally P. neriifolius regenerates from seed under dense forest
cover [2,8].

not determined

Prefers fertile, humid and humus-rich soil; on sandstone or latosols, (Java), or on ultrabasic soils; a
shade tolerant tree. Found on limestone in Sarawak, but also in swamps; on sandstone ridges, on
andesit,or laterites which is the common latosol in Java, and on sandy clay. In New Guinea it is
reported on ultra-basic soil [24ften together with evergree oaks (Quercus spp.)]..

P. neriifolius is the most wide-spread species of the genus and is the main source of podocarp timber.
[Wood]:Used for furniture and cabinet work;
[Non-Wood]: The fruit is edible;
also planted in gardens as ornamental tree[2].
A decoction of the leaves has been used against rheumatism and arthritis; juice from the leaves is
prepared as remedy against maggot infested sores in Papua New Guinea (PNG).[16]

2nd class [4], not included in the official classification of Forestry Administration(2003) [18].
4
Natural regeneration is sparse on acid heath soils, although P. neriifolius produces seeds regularly [2.
Q. Propagation :
Podocarpus can be propagated by seed; there are about 4500 dry seeds of P. polystachyus in 1 kg.
P. neriifolius seed germinated with 90% within 20-67 days. Seed may not be viable after more than 3
months of storage. Seedlings are transplaned to the field when 30-40 cm high; spacing is usually 4 m
x 5 m. Pollination is by wind, seed dispersal by birds and fruit-eating bats, seedlings are found widely
scattered [16]. Because of the scarcity of the species in mountains of Laos there is no knowledge
about seed collection, but seed collection might be possible during the rainy season. Digging out
wildlings might also be feasible [7].

An endangered species in Vietnam [2]
S. Conservation :

unknown

Native in mainland Asia, Nepal, India; most likely introduced in the other locations, Pacific Islands,
Solomon Islands and Fiji.[16]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Anon, 1987. Brown pine. Timber Species - Queensland Department of Forestry, No. 2:2 pp.
Bolza E, Kloot NH, 1972. The mechanical properties of 56 Fijian timbers. Division of Forest Products
Technological Paper, CSIRO, No. 62:51pp.; 13 ref.
Dagar JC, Dagar HS, 1987. Ethnobotanical and other uses of some gymnosperms found in Andaman
& Nicobar Islands. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 9(1):201-204; 11 ref.
Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, 1995. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2).
Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees:
minor commercial timbers., 655 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia.
PROSEA NUGI 835.]; 747 ref.
Troup RS, 1921. The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol. III. Oxford, UK; Clarendon Press.
Whitmore TC, 1973. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. Volume 2. Tree flora of Malaya. A
manual for foresters. Volume 2., vii + 444 pp. + 1 map; Malayan Forest Records No. 26. Many ref.
5
X. References:
pp.
7) Lehmann, L., Grejmans, M. and Shenman, D., 2003: Forest Trees of the Central Highlands of
Xieng Khouang, Lao P.D.R. – A field guide. DANIDA-DED-NAWACOP, Vientiane-Laos. 246 pp.
49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands,
655 pp.

24) Gymnosperm Database: http://3w.geocities.com /RainForest/Canopy/2285/po/po/

3w.issg.org/databas neriifolius.htm (Internet source).
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Psidium guajava L.]
Datasheet Report
[Psidium guajava L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Psidium guajava L. [5]
B. English name (s) ³ apple guava, guava, round guava, tropical guava [11], lemon
guava [9]
C. Synonym ³ Guajava pyrifera (L.) Kuntze [5], Guajava pyriformis Gaertn.
[5], Psidium aromaticum L. [5], Psidium guayava Raddi [5],

Psidium pomiferum L. [5], Psidium pyriferum L. [5], Psidium
sapidissimum Jacq. [5], Myrtus guajava var. pyrifera (L.)
Kuntze [9], Myrtus guajava (L.) Kuntze [9], Psidium cujavillus
Burm. f. [9], Psidium guajava var. cujavillum (Burman) Krug
and Urb. [9], Psidium guajava var. guajava [9], Psidium
guava Griseb. [9], Psidium igatemyensis Barb. Rodr. [9],
Psidium pumilum var. guadalupense [9], Psidium pumilum
Vahl. [9]
D. Other1 ³ amarood, jamphal, jamrukh, sapari (India) [9] - araca, goiaba
(Brazil) [9]- banjiro (Japan) [9] - bayabas, bayawas, guyabas

(Philippines) [9] - biyabas, jambu batu (Brunei Darussalam)

[9] - djambu, farang, ma-kuai, ma-man (Thailand) [9] -
goaibeira, goiaba, goiabeiro (Portugal) [9] - Goavier,
Goeajaaba, Guyaaba (Netherlands) [9] - gouyave, goyave,
goyavier (France) [9] - Guavenbaum, Guayave, Guave
(Germany) [9] - guayaba, guayaba silvestre, guayabilla,
guayabo, guayavo, guyava (Spain, Latin America) [9] -
guwafah (Arabia) [9] - jambu batu, jambu berase, jambu biji,
jambu kampuchia (Malaysia) [9] - jambu biji, jambu klutuk
(Indonesia) [9] - koejawal (South Africa) [9] - oi (Vietnam) [9]
- si da (Laos) [9]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: RtEbk

Source: [1]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ trâ bék [1], tokal, trapaek sruk [9]
1
Other : Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Genus: Psidium
Species: Psidium guajava L.
Sup-species: Psidium guajava var.

cujavillum (Burman) Krug and Urb. / Psidium
guajava var. guajava
Source :[ 3,9]
[General]: Psidium guajava is a large evergreen shrub, or small tree, generally 3-10 m [5] high (9-12
m [10]). The stem is crooked and attains a DBH of 25 cm [6]. The plant branches close to the ground
and often produces suckers from roots near the base of the trunk. Young twigs are quadrangular and

downy. The root system is generally superficial and very extensive, frequently extending well beyond
the canopy with some deep roots but no distinct taproot.
[Bark]: The guava is easy to recognize because of its smooth, thin, mottled green or copper-colored
bark that flakes off, showing the greenish layer beneath.
[Leaves]: The stiff but leathery leaves are opposite, simple, have pronounced veins, and are slightly
downy on the underside, somewhat irregular in outline. They are yellow-green to dull-green or greyish
green above and slightly downy below with dotted glands. Leaves are 7-15 cm x 3-5 cm [6] in size (5-
15 x 4-6 cm [5]), oblong to elliptical, with an entire margin, conspicuous parallel veins and a 3-10 mm
long [5] leafstalk. The tip is blunt and the base rounded to wedge shaped. Crushed leaves are
aromatic. Stipules are absent.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence is axillary, consisting of 1-3 [5] flowers, with about 2 cm long [5]
flowerstalks and two bracts. The calyx is splitting irregularly into 2-4 lobes [5], whitish and sparsely
hairy within. The 4-5 inner flower-leaves are white, linear egg-shaped and approximately 2 cm long
[5]. Each flower contains a prominent tuft of about 250 [6] white stamens (=male organs) with pale
white filaments, about 12 mm long [5], erect or spreading, anther pale yellow. The ovary (=female
2
organ) is inferior with numerous ovules, a about 10 cm long [5] style and a green stigma. "In India for
instance, the blossoms occur in May and June" [5].
[Fruit]: The fruit (=berry), exuding a strong, sweet, musty odor when ripe, may be round, ovoid, or
pear-shaped, 5-10 cm [6] long (4-12 cm [5]) with 4 or 5 protruding outer flower-leaves (=sepals) at the
apex. They are green until a very short time before ripening, hard and gummy within and very
astringent but turn yellow when ripe sometimes flushed with red, frequently blushed with pink. Next to
the thin skin is a layer of somewhat granular flesh, 3-12 mm thick [6], white, yellowish, light- or dark-
pink, or near-red, juicy, acid, subacid, or sweet and flavorful. One fruit is weighing up to 500 g [5]. The
mesocarp is fleshy, thick, edible, the soft pulp enveloping 112 to 535 [6], very hard cream to brown,
kidney-shaped or flattened seeds. Seeds are yellowish, 3 mm long [6].
[2, 3, 5, 6, 10]
I. Wood properties:
The sapwood is light brown, the heartwood brown or reddish, hard, moderately strong and durable.
[5]

Approximate limits: 25°N to 24°S [3]. P. guajava is indigenous to the American tropics, and is now
naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics. It appears to have evolved in relatively open areas,
such as savanna-shrub transitional zones, or in frequently disturbed areas where it is a strong
competitor in early secondary growth. "In some areas it is found in large thickets with as many as 100
plants in an area of less than half a hectare, although it is more often found in densities of 1-5
plants/ha. Thus, Psidium guajava is considered a noxious weed in many of this tropical pasture lands.
When chemical control is not available, guava proliferation may result in the abandonment of a
pasture" [5]. "It is grown in orchards or incorporated into agroforestry systems in India, and is widely
planted (or has spread) in Africa" [3].
[3, 5]

Generally, guava grows in an altitude of 0-1,500 m a.s.l [3] where it still develops fruits, but can
survive up to 2,000 m [5] (0-2,740 m [9]). "In India, it flourishes up to an altitude of 1,000 m, in
Jamaica to 1,200 m, in Costa Rica to 1,400 m and in Ecuador to 2,300 m" [6]. The species is very
hardy and adapts to a wide range of growing conditions. It thrives in both humid and dry climates but
requires an annual rainfall between 1,000-2,000 mm [5, 6, 7] (1,000-3,000 mm [3]). It is more drought-
resistant than most tropical fruit crops, but also an annual rainfall to 5,000 mm/year [9] is tolerated.
For maximum production in the tropics, however it requires a more or less evenly distributed rainfall
over the year. If the fruits ripen during a very wet period they lose flavor and may split. It can also
stand a wide range of temperatures: The highest yields are recorded at mean temperatures of 23-
28ºC [5]. Generally a range of 15-45ºC [5] is suitable (13-26ºC [3]). In the subtropics, trees withstand
light frost and 3.5-6 months [5] of mean temperatures above 16ºC [5], depending on the cultivar.
3
"Young trees have been damaged or killed in cold spells at Allahabad, India, in California and in
Florida. Older trees, killed to the ground, have sent up new shoots which fruited 2 years later" [7].
[3, 5, 6, 7, 9]


A wide range of soil types are suitable for cultivation of this species. The guava thrives equally well on
heavy clay, marl, light sand, gravel bars near streams, or on limestone, however growth and
production are best on rich clay loams. Good drainage is recommended but guavas are seen growing
spontaneously on land with a high water table, too wet for most other fruit trees. It tolerates a pH
range from 4.5 to 9.4 [6] including slightly to strongly acid soils and is moderate salt-resistant.
[5, 6]

[Wood]: The wood makes an excellent firewood and charcoal because of its abundance, natural
propagation, and classification as an undesirable weed. It is also used for sawn or hewn building
timbers, tool handles, light construction, industrial and domestic woodware, fence posts and in
carpentry and turnery.
[3, 5]
[Non-wood]:

Food: The whole fruit is edible. There are different flavor varieties from very acid to sweet with the
best fruit being both sweet and mildly acid. Table varieties with good taste, large size and high pulp to
seed ratio, have been developed for the fresh fruit market in many countries. Other varieties have
been developed for the industrial purposes and the following wide variety of products are available:
canned fruit or mesocarps in sweet syrup, puree, goiabada (a type of thick, sweet jam), jams and
jellies, juices and nectars, ice cream and yoghurts. Guava paste, or guava cheese as known in the
West Indies, is made by evaporating the pulp with sugar. It is eaten as a sweetmeat. "A firm in the
Philippines dehydrates slices of the outer, non-seeded part of the fruit to make a similar product. In
some Asian countries such as Indonesia, the leaves are used in cooking" [5]. Also winemaking from
the fruit has been commercialized in southern parts of Africa. The plant contains an essential oil in the
leaves which contains methylchavicol, persein and d-pinene (a paraffin).
Medicine: "All parts of the young fruit are astringent. Guava exhibits antibacterial action against
intestinal pathogens such as Staphyloccocus. The dried ripe fruits are recommended as a remedy for
dysentery, while the leaves and fruits are used as a cure for diarrhea. Oil contains bisabolene and
flavinoides that exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. A decoction of the leaves or bark is taken
externally as a lotion for skin complaints, ringworm, wounds, and ulcers. Water from soaking the fruit
4
is good to treat diabetes. The leaves are made into a cataplasm; cooked, they are given to horses
with strangle. Some suggested treatments are digestive tract ailments, cold, and high blood pressure:
leaf decoction or fruit juice with salt or sugar taken orally. Trauma, pain, headache, and rheumatism:
hot leaf decoction compress. Sore throat, hoarse throat: leaf decoction, gargle. Varix, ulcer: leaf
decoction, treated with warm water, bath. Hepatitis, gonorrhoea, and diarrhea: clear fruit juice" [5].
The leaves and bark may also be used for dyeing and tanning. P. guajava even has insecticidal
properties. The white fragrant flowers secrete nectar in excess all day attracting bees, which also
collect juice from the damaged fruits.
[5]
[Others]:
Psidium guajava is widely cultivated as an ornamental fruit tree and shade tree or shrub. In
agroforestry it has been used to stake yams (Dioscorea spp.). The small tree is cut back and used to
support them. Yield increases of 33-85% [5] have been recorded in Nigeria. It also performes very
well when intercropped with fodder crops such as maize, sorghum and cowpeas. It also has been
identified as a useful bio-indicator and a bio-accumulator in India. It is sensitive to sulphur dioxide and
to injury based on chlorophyll destruction.
[2, 5]

No class. [1]

[General]: P. guajava grows in relatively open areas, such as savanna/shrub transitional zones, or in
frequently disturbed areas where it is a strong competitor in early secondary growth. "In some areas it
is found in large thickets with as many as 100 plants in an area of less than half a hectare, although it
is more often found in densities of 1-5 plants/ha. Psidium guajava is considered a noxious weed in
many tropical pasture lands. When chemical control is not available, guava proliferation may result in
the abandonment of a pasture" [5]. However, P. guajava is an ideal home garden fruit tree due to its
hardiness, high yield, long supply season and high nutritive value.
[Establishment]: For intensively managed orchards in Thailand trees are spaced only 4 x 4-6 x 6 m [5]
apart but seedlings for fruit processing may be spaced up to 10 x 8 m [5] apart.
[Management]: "Irrigation during the dry season and frequent light pruning to promote the emergence
of flowering shoots are employed for continuity of production throughout the year. When the crop is
cycled most fertilizer is applied as a basal dressing at the end of the harvest, if necessary
supplemented by a top dressing; if trees are cropped continuously, fertilizers are applied in several
small doses. Growth rate is excellent and the plants coppice readily. Branching is extensive and
pruning is necessary to form good orchard trees. Firewood cuttings cause excessive propagation by
formulation of sprouts and suckers. Best time of day to harvest is early morning because by noon fruit
is warmer and deteriorates more rapidly. During harvesting, great care is necessary to avoid fruit
5
damage, as when collected almost ripe, they will only store for about 2-3 days at room temperature.
Fruit for industrial purposes do not need such care but greater speed is still essential. Average yields
are between 30-40 kg/plant in 5 year-old plants and will reach a maximum production of 50-70 kg at
about 7 years if well managed" [5].
[Agroforestry]: Psidium guajava is grown in orchards or incorporated into agroforestry systems in

India, and is widely planted (or has spread) in Africa. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental fruit tree
and shade tree or shrub. In agroforestry it has been used to stake yams (Dioscorea spp.). The small
tree is cut back and used to support them. Yield increases of 33-85% [5] have been recorded in
Nigeria. It also performes very well when intercropped with fodder crops such as maize, sorghum and
cowpeas. Tree growth reduction is very small.
[2, 3, 5]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: Seed storage behavior is orthodox. Seeds at a moisture content of 6%
survive for 24 hours in liquid nitrogen. No loss in viability for the following 66 months in a hermetic
storage at -20ºC with 5.5% mc has been reported.
[5]
[Propagation]: "Guavas grown for processing may be propagated by seed; about 70% of seedlings
retain the general characteristics of the parent tree. One fruit will supply over 50 seeds, which should
produce at least 25 good quality seedlings. Seed can be sown in beds, pots or directly in the field at a
depth of 1 cm; germination occurs within 15-20 days. They should be planted out when about 25 cm
high. The seedling grows very rapidly, producing fruit in 2-3 years on good soils. When grown for their

fresh fruit they are clonally propagated. In south-east Asia this is usually done through air-layering, but
for larger numbers, shield or patch budding onto seedling rootstocks is recommended. Success
depends on vigorous growth of both mother tree and rootstock. Budwood should be mature (bark no
longer green) and the leaves are cut 2 weeks before budding to allow the buds to swell. Budding is
best done as soon as the rootstock is thick enough to take the bud; on old stocks the buds do not
sprout readily. Trees are ready for field planting after 4-5 months. Other propagation methods for
example using cuttings or grafting, can also be employed. Plants should be about 1 m tall for grafting.
Micro-propagation using nodal explants from mother trees has been reported from India with 70%
success in transplantation" [5].

[Pests]: Insect pests are numerous and in some cases severe. In India alone, the tree is attacked by
80 [7] insect species, including 3 bark-eating caterpillars (Indarbella spp.) and the guava scale, but
this and other scale insects are generally kept under control by their natural enemies. Aphids (Aphis
spp.) feed on young growth, causing the curling of leaves. Selenothirps rubrocinctus, the red-banded
thirp; adult and larval forms puncture leaves of the infested tree and brownish stains appear. Heavily
infested trees are sometimes completely defoliated. Guava trees are seriously damaged by the citrus
flat mite, Brevipalpus californicus in Egypt. A false spider mite, Brevipalpus phoenicis, causes surface
6
russeting beginning when the fruits are half-grown. The green scale (Coccus viridis) occurs on
branches. The green shield scale, Pulvinaria psidii, requires chemical measures in Florida, as does
the guava white fly, Trialeurodes floridensis, and a weevil, Anthonomus irroratus, which bores holes in
the newly forming fruits. Fruit russeting and defoliation result also from infestations of red-banded
thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus. In India, cockchafer beetles feed on the leaves at the end of the
rainy season and their grubs, hatched in the soil, attack the roots. The larvae of the guava shoot borer
penetrate the tender twigs, killing the shoots. Sometimes aphids are prevalent, sucking the sap from
the underside of the leaves of new shoots and excreting honeydew on which sooty mold develops.
The guava fruit worm, Argyresthia eugeniella, invisibly infiltrates hard green fruits, and the citron plant
bug, Theognis gonagia, the yellow beetle, Costalimaita ferruginea, and the fruit-sucking bug,
Helopeltis antonii, feed on ripe fruits. The coconut mealybug, Pseudococcus nipae, has been a
serious problem in Puerto Rico but has been effectively combated by the introduction of its parasitic
enemy, Pseudaphycus utilis. Soil-inhabiting white grubs require plowing-in of an approved and
effective pesticide during field preparation in Puerto Rico. There are other minor pests, but the great
problems wherever the guava is grown are fruit flies. The guava is a prime host of the Mediterranean,
Oriental, Mexican, and Caribbean fruit flies, and the melon fly–Ceratitis capitata, Dacus dorsalis,
Anastrepha ludens, A. suspensa, and Dacus cucurbitae. Fruit fly maggots such as Anastrepha striata,
Dacus spp. and Ceratitis spp. are especially troublesome. Ripe fruits will be found infested with the
larvae and totally unusable except as feed for cattle and swine. To avoid fruit fly damage, fruits must
be picked before full maturity and this requires harvesting at least 3 times a week. In Brazil, choice,
undamaged guavas are produced by covering the fruits with paper sacks when young (the size of an
olive). Infested fruits should be burned or otherwise destroyed. In recent years, the Cooperative
Extension Service in Dade County, Florida, has distributed wasps that attack the larvae and pupae of
the Caribbean fruit fly and have somewhat reduced the menace. "In Bahia, Brazil, severe deficiency
symptoms of guava trees was attributed to nematodes and nematicide treatment of the soil in a circle
3 ft (0.9 in) out from the base restored the trees to normal in 5 months" [7].
[5, 7]
[Diseases]: In Brazil yellow rust (Puccina psidii) is an extremely serious fungal pest, as are leaf spot
(Phyllosticha guajayae) and anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) which may attack the fruits
in the rainy season. Fruit rot (Glomerella cingulata) shrivels green fruit and rots ripe fruit. In Puerto
Rico, up to 50% [7] of the guava crop (mainly from wild trees) may be ruined by this uncontrollable
fungus, which mummifies and blackens immature fruits and rots mature fruits. "Mushroom root rot
(Clitocybe tabescens) can eventually kill the tree. Fruits punctured by insects are subject to mucor rot
(caused by the fungus, Mucor hiemalis) in Hawaii. On some trees, 80% of the mature green fruits may
be ruined. Diplodia natalensis may similarly affect 40% of the crop on some trees in South India" [7].
Algal spotting of leaves and fruits (caused by Cephaleuros virescens) occurs in some cultivars in
humid southern Florida but can be controlled with copper fungicides. During the rainy season in India,
and the Province of Sancti Spiritus, Cuba, the fungus, Phytophthora parasitica, is responsible for
much infectious fruit rot. Botryodiplodia sp. and Dothiorella sp. cause stem-end rot in fruits damaged
during harvesting. Macrophomina sp. has been linked to fruit rot in Venezuela and Gliocladium
7
roseum has been identified on rotting fruits on the market in India. Wilt, associated with the fungi
Fusarium solani and Macrophomina phaseoli, brings about gradual decline and death of
undernourished 1-to 5-year-old guava trees in West Bengal. A wilt disease brought about by the
wound parasite, Myxosporium psidii, causes the death of many guava trees, especially in summer,
throughout Taiwan. Wilt is also caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. psidii which invades the trunk and
roots through tunnels bored by the larvae of Coelosterna beetles. Pestalotia psidii sometimes causes
canker on green guavas in India and rots fruits in storage.
[5, 7]
[Others]: Zinc deficiency may be conspicuous when the guava is grown on light soils. It is corrected by
two summer sprayings 60 days apart [7] with zinc sulphate. In some Pacific Islands, as well as in
Central American countries such as Costa Rica, P. guajava is an important weed in pastures, where it
is difficult to eradicate and leads to land degradation.
[3, 7]
S. Conservation :


[Native]:
Colombia, Mexico, Peru, United States of America.
[5]
Introduced:
Australia, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, China, Costa Rica, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gabon, Gambia, Greece, Guyana, Haiti, India,
Indonesia, Israel, Kenya, Laos, Malawi, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Philippines,
Puerto Rico, Samoa, Senegal, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda,
Venezuela, Vietnam.
[5]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: The genus name is derived from the Greek word 'psidion' (=pomegranate), due to a
fancied resemblance between the two fruits. [5]
[Chemical properties]: "Guava is rich in tannins, phenols, triterpenes, flavonoids, essential oils,
saponins, carotenoids, lectins, vitamins, fiber and fatty acids. Guava fruit is higher in vitamin C than
8
citrus with 80 mg of vitamin C in 100 g of fruit (10-2,000 mg/100 g of fruit [5]) and contains appreciable
amounts of vitamin A as well. Guava fruits are also a good source of pectin - a dietary fiber. The
leaves of guava are rich in flavonoids, in particular, quercetin. Much of guava's therapeutic activity is
attributed to these flavonoids. The flavonoids have demonstrated antibacterial activity. Quercetin is
thought to contribute to the anti-diarrhea effect of guava; it is able to relax intestinal smooth muscle
and inhibit bowel contractions. In addition, other flavonoids and triterpenes in guava leaves show
antispasmodic activity. Guava also has antioxidant properties which is attributed to the polyphenols
found in the leaves" [8]. The pectin content increases during ripening and declines rapidly in over-ripe
fruit" [5].
Akunda EW, Oduol PA, 1989. Growth rates of some promising agroforestry tree species. Trees for
development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of a regional seminar held by the International
Foundation for Science (IFS), ICRAF House, Nairobi, Kenya, February 20-25, 1989., 66-70; 10 ref.
[3]
Amin MN, Jaiswal VS, 1988. Micropropagation as an aid to rapid cloning of a guava cultivar. Scientia
Horticulturae, 36(1-2):89-95; 20 ref.
[3]
Bajaj YPS, 1996. Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry 35. Trees IV. Biotechnology in agriculture
and forestry 35. Trees IV., xix + 427 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters].
[3]
Beer J, 1979. Traditional agroforestry practices in the wet tropics; the 'La Suiza' case study. Activities
at Turrialba, 7(3):2-5; [1 pl.].
[3]
Bose TK, Mitra SK, eds, 1996. Fruits: Tropical and Subtropical. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash.
[3]
Chauhan DS, Dhyani SK, 1989. Traditional agroforestry practices in north-east Himalayan region of
India. Indian Journal of Dryland Agricultural Research and Development, 4(2):73-81; 5 ref.
[3]
9
Dadhwal KS, Sharma NK, Saroj PL, 1995. Diagnosis and possible interventions in designing
agroforestry systems in north-western plains of Uttar Pradesh - a case study. Indian Journal of Soil
Conservation, 23(1):47-53; 4 ref.
[3]
Duggan KJ, Henderson L, 1981. Progress with a survey of exotic woody plant invaders of the
Transvaal. Proceedings of the fourth National Weeds Conference of South Africa., 7-20; 1 ref.
[3]
Morton J. (1987) Fruits of warm climates - guava (Psidium guajava).
[6]
Nilsson PO, 1995. Agroforestry in Cabo Delgado Mozambique: a study of farmers' experience and
knowledge of growing trees. Recommendations for extension work in Cabo Delgado. Working Paper -
International Rural Development Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, No. 295:v + 74
pp.; [ISRN SLU-IRDC-WP-295-SE]; 12 ref.
[3]
Partridge IJ, 1973. Chemical control of guava. Fiji Agricultural Journal, 35(2):101-102.

[3]
Pathak RK, Ojha CM, 1993. Genetic resources of guava. Advances in horticulture: fruit crops -
Volume 1., 143-147; 22 ref.
[3]
Pleines T, 1993. Agroforestry systems and peasant farming practices for erosion control in the
Antananarivo region. Akon'ny Ala, No. 11:10-14; 11 ref.
[3]
Raturi GB, Hiwale SS, 1993. Horti-silvi-pastoral system for increased productivity of marginal and
degraded lands under rainfed conditions. Advances in Horticulture and Forestry, 3:179-186; 3 ref.
[3]
10
Roxas CA, Florido HB, Saplan J, Rondina R, Dimaculangan R, 1991. Drought resistant species. RISE
- Research Information Series on Ecosystems 3(2).
[3]
Saroj PL, Arora YK, 1994. Horticulture based agroforestry systems of Doon Valley. Indian Journal of
Soil Conservation, 22(3):60-65; 12 ref.
[3]
Somarriba E, 1995. Guayaba (Psidium guajava) in pastures: establishment of live fences and
rehabilitation of degraded pastures. Agroforestería en las Américas, 2(6):27-29; 6 ref.
[3]
Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), Beer J(Beer JW), 1985. Guava trees (Psidium guajava) in pastures. III.
Fuelwood production. Turrialba, 35(4):333-338; 18 ref.
[3]
Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1982. Guava (Psidium guajava L.) growing in pastures: methods of
volume measurement and potential for wood production. Guayabo (Psidium guajava L.) asociado con
pastos: métodos de análisis volumétrico y potencial de producción de lena., iv + 33 pp.; 20 ref.
[3]
Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1985. Guava trees (Psidium guajava) in pastures. II. Fruit consumption
and seed dispersal. Turrialba, 35(4):329-332; 9 ref.
[3]
Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1985. Guava trees (Psidium guajava) in pastures. I. Fruit production and
seed dispersal. Turrialba, 35(3):289-295; 31 ref.
[3]
Somarriba E(Somarriba EJ), 1986. Effects of livestock on seed germination of guava (Psidium
guajava L.). Agroforestry Systems, 4(3):233-238; 21 ref.
11
[3]
Subramanyam MD, Iyer CPA, 1993. Improvement of guava. Advances in horticulture: fruit crops -
Volume 1., 337-347; 56 ref.
[3]
Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts.
[3, 6]
Zemede A, Ayele N, 1995. Home-gardens in Ethiopia: characteristics and plant diversity. Sinet, an
Ethiopian Journal of Science, 18(2):235-266; 23 ref.
[3]
X. References:

(Internet source)
[7] Morton, J. 1987. Guava. p. 356–363. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University
[8] Raintree Nutrition, 1996 .Tropical Plant Database. Database for GUAVA, Inc., Carson City, NV
89701.(Psidium guajava).
http://www.rain-tree.com/guava.htm (Internet source)
[9] Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG), April 2006. Complied by: Scott Henderson, Charles
Darwin Research Station, Galapagos Islands
http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=211&fr=1&sts= (Internet source)
12
[10] Dave's Garden 2000-2006. PlantFiles: Detailed information on Guava, Tropical Guava Psidium
guajava
http://davesgarden.com/pf/go/2088/ (Internet source)
[11] Snow Barlow, 2004. MULTILINGUAL MULTISCRIPT PLANT NAME DATABASE. The University
of Melbourne.
http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Psidium.html (Internet source)
13
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Punica granatum L.]
Datasheet Report
[Punica granatum L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Punica granatum L. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ Pomegranate
C. Synonym ³ Punica nana L. [20] P.sempervirens, spp. [9]
D. Other1 ³ totum (Cambodia); delima (Indonesia, Malaysia); phiilaa

(Laos); salebin, talebin, thale (Burma); granada (Philippines);
thapthim (Thailand-Central); pila (Thailand-Northeast); bako
(Thailand-North); luú, thap luú (Vietnam); grenadier
(French); granada (Spanish) [1,6].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ TTwm

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ totim [4]

Other : Myrtales
Family: Punicaceae
Gunus: Punica
Species: Punica granatum L. [4]
Source :[4 ; 11 ;17]
[General]: A sometimes spiny, xerophytic shrub or small tree, up to 6 m high under favourable
conditions [1]. Appreciated for its fruit, flowers and medicinal qualities [9]. Trunk generally absent or
very short, rarely exceeding 10 cm diameter; generally multi-stemmed, sometimes with spines.
1
Branches slender [1]. A cultivated shrub, 3-4 m high [4]; a deciduus shrub or small tree, up to 6-10 m
high. Often richly branching from the base, each branch ending in a spine; often spines grow out of
leaf corners [6].
[Leaves]: Opposite, entire, elliptic or oblong, relatively small, shortly petiolate, limb thick, coriaceous,
shining; veins more or less reddish [1]. Leaves mostly opposite, sometimes sub-opposite or clustered,
oblong-lanceolate, 1-9 cm long and 0.5-2.5 cm wide, with acute or obtuse base, entire margin and
obtuse or emarginate tip [6].
[Flowers]: Solitary or grouped in an inflorescence of up to 5 flowers, campanulate, red-scarlet

coloured. Calyx formed by 5-7 red, yellow or white, obovate sepals. Stamens very numerous. The
ovary contains 3-7 radiating loculi, each with numerous ovules [1]. Flowers 1-5 together at tip of twigs,
waxy, 4-5 cm long and wide with red to white petals [6].
[Fruit]: A berry about the size of a large apple, with thick, coriaceous skin, crowned by the persistent
calyx. The more or less angular seeds are embedded in a reddish juicy coating of a sweet-acid taste,
[1]. Fruits 6-12 cm in diameter, very variable in colour, with leathery skin. The interior of the fruit is
separated by membranous walls and white spongy tissue into compartments packed with numerous
small transparent sacks, basically the outer seed coat or saercotestum [19] filled with juicy pulp and
seed [6].These small sacks or arils represent the edible part of fruit [9}. Numerous seeds in
compartments are covered by a fleshy, jelly-like, sweet to acid tasting seed shell formed into an
angular blocklet , representing the edible part of the fruit [13].
I. Wood properties:
The wood has usually only small dimensions, suitable for domestic wood ware, handles and small

implements. It is predominantly used as fuel [1,30].

Probably a native of Persia, (Iran) and Afghanistan, but extending into northern India. A plant
cultivated in Arab countries of the Near East for over 4000 years. It was introduced to the South of
Europe, the eastern Mediterranean countries, North Africa, and China. Now it has been wide-spread
to the warmer regions, particularly the subtropics, but it remains a hardy, low demanding species of
dry shrublands from Iran to India [1,4,9].

A species of hot continental climates, with hot, dry summers and fairly pronounced winters. Tolerant
of of climatic and edaphic conditions. Where there is no dry season it will remain evergreen, otherwise
deciduous where there is a winter season. Punica can be cultivated from sea level up to 1800 m.[1] It
is a tough small tree, drought resistant, salt tolerant, which makes it suitable for cultivation in irrigated
areas with soil salinization problems [13].

not determined
2
Punica will grow on most soils even those not supporting any other fruit-bearing species;.

Punica granatum is an old cultivated plant of cultural, mystical significance, described in historical
documents of the Near East over 2000 years ago. This is partly due to the fact that this species
survives under very hard conditons, adaptapts to various climatic and edaphic conditions producing
beautiful flowers and a variably usable fruit.
[Wood]: The wood of the short stemps never reaches more than small dimensions, but in a region
permanently short of wood. Hence it is used for making small wood ware, and implement handles,
otherwise, as the branches, it is used as firewood.[1]
[Non-Wood]: Fruit eaten fresh, or pressed for juice; used in sherbets or drinks, frequently processed
to grenadine syrop; which is used for the preparation of refreshing drinks [1].
The bark of the pomegranate tree may be used as a very strong purgative, but it has several serious
side-effects. The fresh root bark is used in an anthelmintic preparation, the alkaloid punicine is
responsible for this activity. Unripe fruit and flowers are significant emetics. Ripe fruits are laxative and
blood enriching also useful in managing sore throat, inflamed eyes, brain diseases and chest troubles
[30]. The fruit shell (pericarp) contains up to 30% of tannin [19], which is used for tanning leather, but
also used as medicine against diarhoea [4].The bark yields a vermifuge [4]. A hemostatic medication
can be prepared from the ashes of dried and burnt flowers.
The skin of the fruit yields yellow to red-brown colours extracted for dyeing of oriental tapestry. A
black dye for colouring leather can be prepared from the roots [30].
The leaves are browsed by domestic livestock [30].

not included

Plants are ready for transplanting after 9 months, however, it is common practice to wait with
transplanting for one or two years. Depending on the terrain spacing should be between 3 and 6 m,
frequent watering is recommended. Young plants will bear 10-20 fruit 4-5 years after outplanting,
reaching full production after the 10th year, continuing production for 25 to 30 years. Inter-row
cultivation with vegetables is recommended until year 10 or until plants have reached full production.
Plants have the tendency to produce numerous suckers, which should be removed when they appear
because they are unproductive especially when they result in single-stemmed trees [1].
3
Q. Propagation :
Pomegranate can be cultivated by seed, but this method produces fruit of variable form and quality.
Preferred practice is the propagation by cuttings which is easy. The only requirement to be observed
is that the wood should be at least 6 months old but not older than 2 years. All leaves should be
removed from the cuttings, which are planted in the shade. P. granatum is grown mainly from rooted
and hardwood cuttings, direct seeding and air layering. Direct seeding is discouraged because of
segregation. Mature stem cuttings of size 20-30 cm are planted for rooting in polybags of 20 x 13 cm
with 300 gauge thickness containing a mixture of red soil, sand and well decomposed compost in
equal proportions. Farm manure is applied at the rate of 10 kg per seedling. The rooted cuttings are
ready for planting after 60 days in pits measuring 60 x 60 x 60 cm dug 3-5 m apart. Irrigation is vital
after planting. Trees should be manured annually and trained with a single stem up to 30-45 cm or as
a bush with 3 or 4 main stems. The seedlings stay for 12-18 months in the nursery [30].

It is feared that there is a continuing loss of genetic variability of cultivated stock largely because crop
improvement in pomegranate has for centuries depended on the selection of spontaneous seedlings
and their clonal propagation. Selection of seedlings from open-pollinated or artificially-pollinated
mother trees is more recent.
S. Conservation :

unknown

In all warmer regions, especially in Mediterranean climates, subtropical climates
V. Miscellaneous4 :
The dried seeds have an application as a condiment called anardana in northern India. Fresh juice is
used in marinating and tenderizing meat an effect of the proteolytic enzymes contained in the fruit.
The edible part of the fruit contains per 100 g 10% sugar, 36.6 mg vitamin C/100 ml of juice, 2.6%
protein, 0.1% phosphorous, 0.4% potassium, 0.03%, 0.1% calcium and 0.13% magnesium [30].
Food value/100g: water 78.0%
crude protein 1.6%
. lipids -
sugar&starch 14.6%
cellulose 5.1%
mineral matter 0.7%
65 cals/100g.
4
Cervelli C, 1994. Effect of thermic treatments and seed manipulation on emergence of dwarf
pomegranate (Punica granatum L. 'Nana'). Acta Horticulturae, No. 362:189-195; 4 ref.
Chattopadhyay PK, Patra SC, 1993. Effect of various soil covers on yield and quality of pomegranate.
Annals of Agricultural Research, 14(3):317-321; 8 ref.
Dubey JK, Amith Nath, Thakur JR, 1993. Chemical control of pomegranate fruit borer(s), Virachola
isocrates (Fabr.) and Deudorix epijarbas (Moore). Indian Forester, 119(11):928-931; 6 ref.
Nawwar MAM, Hussein SAM, Merfort I, 1994. Leaf phenolics of Punica granatum. Phytochemistry,
37(4):1175-1177; 10 ref.
Salunkhe DK, Kadam SS, 1995. Handbook of fruit science and technology. Production, composition,
storage, and processing. Handbook of fruit science and technology. Production, composition, storage,
and processing., xii + 611 pp.; [ref. at ends of chapters. Food Science and Technology Series No. 70].
Singh J, Kashyap R, 1993. Production technology for dryland fruits of Madhya Pradesh. Advances in
Horticulture and Forestry, 3:69-75; 11 ref.
X. References:
Bangkok, 234 pp.
336 pp.
30) www-ang.kfunigraz.ac.at/˜kratzer/engl/generic_frame.htl?spice_bot.html (Internet source)
5
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Sandoricum koetjape (Burm f.) Merr]
Datasheet Report
[Sandoricum koetjape (Burm f.) Merr]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Sandoricum koetjape (Burm f.) Merr. [4]
B. English name (s) ³ Ketchapi, santol, sentol [4,6,11,17)
C. Synonym ³ Sandoricum indicum Cav., [4]; Sandoricum maingayi Hiern.,

Sandoricum nervosum Blume, Sandoricum vidalii Merr.,
Melia koetjape [6,17,19], Trichilia nervosa Vahi [20].
D. Other1 ³ kelampu (Brunei); kecapi, ketuat, sentul (Indonesia-general);
kecapi, sentol (Malaysia-general); kelampu (Malaysia,

Sabah, Sarawak), malasantol, santol (Philippines-general);
thitto (Burma); kompeng reach (Cambodia); tong (Laos);
katon (Thailand-general); kra thon (Thai-central), sa thon
(Thai-insular); s[aa][us]-dan, s[aa][us]-dau, xoan dau, sâú tia
(Vietnam); mangoustanier sauvage (French).[2,4,6,17]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ kMBIgraC

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ bâmpénh riëch, kâm piing riëch[4,6]

Other : Sapindales
Family: Meliaceae-Swietenioideae
Gunus: Sandoricum Cav. [17]
Species: Sandoricum koetjape(Burm.f.) Merr.

[4]
Source :[4 ; 11 ; 17]
1
[General]: Sandoricum comprises 5 species, 4 of which are restricted to western Malesia. The fifth, S.
koetjape, is commonly cultivated mainly for its fruit.
A large deciduous tree, 20-30 m in height, branchless 7-10 m high, 30-80 cm in diameter. Crown
dense, dark green, large buttress at the base [2]. Tree, 20-30 m tall [4]. Semi-evergreen tree up to 25
m high, with dense, narrowly oval crown [5]. A medium-sized, semi-deciduous tree, up to 30 m high
and up to 90 cm diameter, with milky latex [6]. Semi-deciduous, small to large trees, up to 45(-50) m
tall, bole sometimes straight, but often crooked or fluted, branchless for up to 18(-21) m, up to 75(-
100) cm in diameter, usually with buttresses up to 3 m high [17,20].
[Bark]: Brown-grey, rugose, inner bark red, 7-8 mm thick. Young branchlets pubescent [2]. Bark
pinkish-brown, smooth or peeling in thin rounded flakes, inner bark pink [5]. Bark surface smooth or
sometimes flaky or fissured, lenticellate, greyish to pale-pinkish brown, inner bark pale brown or red
brown to pink, exuding a milky latex; crown rather compact [17,20].
[Leaves]: Trifoliate-compound, 30-40 cm long. Petiole 20-25 long, petiolule 5-10 mm long. Leaflets
coriaceous, entire, large-ovoid, or lanceolate, the 2 lateral leaflets seated at 1/3 of the upper part of
the petiole, a little smaller. Size of the leaflets is 15-20 cm by 8-10 cm, base obtuse or round tip,
slightly acute. Lateral veins about 10 pairs with a distance of about 8-10 mm [2]. Leaves trifoliate,
clustered at the end of twigs, each leaflet 8-18 x 3.5-9.0 cm, broadly ovate, no teeth. Young leaves
densely velvety, mature leaves dark green and smooth above, usually softly hairy at least on veins
below. Old leaves bright red, turning only a few at a time, like an Elaeocarpus. Side-leaflet stalks very
short, end stalks 2.5-5.0 cm [5]. Leaves alternate, trifoliate, leafstalk up to 18.5 cm long. Leaflets are

elliptic to oblong-ovate, pointed at tip, shiny green above, pale green and fine-haired below, top leaflet
6-26 cm x 3-16 cm, side leaflets 4-20 x 2-15 cm, turning red-yellow before leaf fall [6]. Leaves
arranged spirally, trifoliate, exstipulate, leaflets entire [17,20].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence racemose, consisting of many 2-3 flowered cymes. Flowers 7-9 mm long,
peduncle short and nodose. Sepals connate, tomentose outside, 5-dented, round. Petals 5, twice or
trice longer than the calyx, linear, tomentose outside, apex concave. Stamens 10, connate into a tube,
anthers sessile, elliptic, tip acute. Disc glabrous, 2-3 mm high. Ovary glabrous, slightly swollen, style
cylindrical, stigma 5-dented [2]. Flower 1.0-1.8 cm, yellow or greenish, branched clusters in leaf axils,
up to 15 cm long, densely flowered, individual stalks very short, hairy. Calyx with 5 short lobes,
densely hairy outside. 5 free-spreading petals, overlapping at base, minutely hairy; cylindrical stamen
tube with 10 anthers attached on inside rim opposite minute teeth. Single club-shaped style as long as
stamen tube with 5 blunt stigma lobes; ovary covered by fringed disc, ± 1 mm [5]. Flowers numerous,
fragrant, yellowish-green, about 1 cm long with cup-shaped, 5-lobed calyx and 5 petals, 1 cm long [6].
Flowers in an axillary thyrse, bisexual, 4-5 merous; calyx truncate to shallowly lobed; petals free;
staminal tube cylindrical, carrying 10 anthers; disc tubular; ovary superior, 4-5-locular with 2 ovules in
each cell, style head lobed [17,20].
2
[Fruit]: A drupe, globose, tomentose, 5-6 cm diameter; many fruits clustered into grapes, dark yellow
[2]. Fruit 5-8 cm in size, dirty yellow, globose, not splitting, velvety when young, often wrinkled when
mature; thick-skinned, flesh with a milky latex, single large stone densely covered with long, matted
hairs; 2-5 seeds each with a translucent jelly-like coating [5]. The fruit is a depressed, globose, fine-
haired, golden-yellow berry, most varieties 5-6 cm in diameter, weighing 0-100 g. Some cultivars from
Thailand up to 7-9 cm weighing 300 . Fruit flesh soft, white, sour to sweet, with 2-5 glossy brown
seeds [6].
Fruit a 1-5 locular drupe; pyrenes 1(-2) seeded. Seed large, without aril, surrounded by a translucent
or pale, acid, edible pulp of good flavour [20]. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons
emergent; hypocotyl elongated; first pair of leaves opposite, trifoliate, subsequent pairs alternate [17].
Flowering in February, fruiting in May [2]. In the Philippines ripe fruit can be found from June to
August [6[, to October, in Thailand from May to July [17]. Regenerates rapidly.
I. Wood properties:
Heartwood pink-brown, very beautiful, sapwood pink grey, moderately heavy, specific gravity
550kg/m³ [2 ] Sandoricum yields a light- to medium-weight hardwood with specific gravity ranging
from 290-590 kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood pale red, yellowish-red or yellow-brown with a pink tinge,
indistinct or not distinguishable from the pale white or pinkish sapwood. Grain straight or slightly wavy,
texture moderately fine to slightly coarse and even [17,20]. Wood occasionally with fiddleback figure,
with characteristic faint odor, especially when fresh. Growth rings mostly indistinct sometimes marked
by a narrow marginal parenchyma band; vessels small to medium-sized, solitary and in radial
multiples of 2-3. Gum-like deposits sometimes present; parenchyma moderately abundant,
paratracheal vasicentric, aliform to confluent, sometimes apotracheal diffuse, occasionally in narrow
marginal bands; rays moderately fine, barely visible to the naked eye; ripple marks absent; axial
traumatic canals occasionally present [17].
Shrinkage upon seasoning is low to high. The wood seasons well and is not subject to checking and
splitting, although material from Sarawak was difficult to dry due to uneven shrinkage with a tendency
to collapse. The wood is moderately soft to moderately hard, fairly weak to moderately strong. It is
easy to saw and can be planed and finished with good results, occasionally a little furry, it takes a high
polish. The wood is non-durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground, fairly
durable under cover. The heartwood is resistant, but sapwood can be treated with preservative. The
wood is susceptible to marine borer attack and moderately resistant to insect attack. The sapwood is
susceptible to Lyctus beetle. The gross energy value of the sapwood is 19,780 kJ/kg [17].

S. koetjape is native to Indochina and western Malesia, naturalised thoughout tropical Asia,
particularly in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, the whole of the Malesian region, Indonesia and the
Philippines [6,17]. Occurs in India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia-Java, Philippines [12]. Sandoricum occurs scattered in primary, sometimes secondary rain
3
forests, mixed forests, in mountain forests [12], up to 1,200 m elevation. But it has also been found in
lowland dipterocarp forest, in heath forest on podsolic soils, in perhumid and seasonal climates [17].
In Vietnam in semi-deciduous and secondary forests, often associated with Dipterocarpus sp., Mesua
ferrea, and Tarrietia javanica [2].

A hardy tree, growing from lowland up to 1,000 m elevation. [6] Occurs in perhumid as well as
seasonal climates, in primary and secondary rain forests, up to 1200 m elevation a.s.l. S.koetjape has
been reported from lowland forest in both perhumid and seasonal climates [17]. Mean annual rainfall
should lie in the range of 950-5000 mm/m², preferrably with uniform or a bimodal distribution. The dry
season may last from 2 to 5 months, temperatures during the hot season from 32-35ºC., in the cold
season from 18-22ºC., but not below 16ºC. S. koetjape tolerates wind and shade [12].

not determined

Prefers well-drained, clay loams or sandy clay loams with plenty of organic matter, mountain
soils,limestone soils, volcanic and tropical soils [12]; tolerates podsolic soils. Tolerates prolongued
perods of dry season but thrives under more evenly distributed rainfall [6]. Soil texture should be
medium to heavy, with free drainage, and an acid to neutral soil reaction; S.koetjape can grow on
shallow soils and soils rated as infertile [12].

[ Wood]: Sandoricum wood is used for house construction, furniture, cabinet work, joinery, interior
construction, shop fitting, panelling, planking and decking of boats, scantlings, carving, butlers
chopping blocks, packing cases, household and agricultural implements, for production of veneer,
plywood, blockboard, pulp and paper; the wood yields good quality charcoal, it is used as firewood in
Indonesia [17].
[Non-Wood]: Fruits ae eaten fresh, processed into jams, jelly, chutneys [6,19]. The fruit is peeled,
quartered and cooked in syrup to make delicious preserves [20].
In traditional medicine a decoction of roots and pounded leaves is used to treat diarrhoea [4,17];
powdered bark provides an effective treatment against ringworm, has shown anti-cancer activity, the
aromatic roots are used against a variety of afflictions, anti-spasmodic, carminative, stomachic, and
as general tonic after child birth. Limonoids isolated from seeds showed insecticidal activity. [6,17,
20]. A bark extract has been used for tanning fishing nets 17,20]. The pounded leaves are sudorific
when applied to the skin and are used to make a decoction against diarrhoea and fever. The
powdered bark is an effective treatment for ringworms, and contains triterpenes with anti-cancer
activity.
4
[Other]: The fruits are used as fish bait in Sarawak. The fragrant wood is used in perfumery The
seeds of S. koetjape contain limonoids (antifeedant compounds) [20]. The tree is important in soil
conservation and as shade or shelter tree. It has been fond to be suitable in reclamation because it is
hardy and thrives without irrigation in areas with a prolonged dry season. S. koetjape is known to form
vesicular arbiscular mycorrhizae which is useful in soil improvement [20]. It is also planted for
aesthetic purposes along avenues and in parks. Poles from the tree are used for fencing [20].

not included [18]

Timber plantations have been established in Burma, but management details are not available as a
fruit tree planting is done on a small scale in seed orchards in most cases [17]. Stand establishment
succeeds best with nursery-raised planting stock [12].
Q. Propagation :
Sandoricum can be propagated by seed, however, seed cannot be stored for any length of time. S.
koetjape is also propagated by vegetative means like budding, grafting, inarching and marcotting
[17,20]. Seed, however has a limited life time. S. koetjape seed with or without the adhering pulp had
90-95% germination in 16-31 days. The frequency of S.koetjape trees over 40 cm dbh in natural
forests of Peninsular Malaysia was 2 stems/100 ha (1 sqare kilometer)[17].

The sapwood is susceptible to Lyctus beetle attack. The wood is susceptible to marine borer attack
and moderately resistant to insect attack [20]. Occurrences and spread of gall-forming mites
(Eriophyes sandorici) pose a serious threat to orchards of S. koetjape [1]. The pest causes stunted
seedling growth, a reduction in yield and smaller fruit size. Major fungal diseases are Corticium
salmonicolor, a gall-forming mite and Phytophthora phaseoli, which can cause blight to nursery plants
[12].
S. Conservation :

unknown

India, Burma, Indochina, Thailand, all of the Malesian region where it originates from, (native) and
tropical Australia and nearly all humid tropical countries (introduced).
5
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Little is known on the silviculture of Sandoricum and, as the wood quality is only moderate, it is
unlikely that the wood will be increasingly used for sawn timber [17].
Abbate MLE, 1977. Anatomical, physical and working properties of 22 woody species
from Thailand. Contributi Scientifico-Pratici per una Migliore Conoscenza ed Utilizzazione
del Legno, 21(54):75 pp.; 12 ref.
Alonzo DS, Tamolang FN, 1979. Wood properties of Philippine tropical species for wood
carving. International Union of Forestry Research Organizations: Wood quality and
utilization of tropical species. Proceedings, IUFRO conference held at FORPRIDECOM,
College, Laguna, Oct 30-Nov 3, 1978., 62-64.
Baltazar CR, 1962. Wax scale on caimito. Plant Indus. Dig, 25(10-12): 6,12.
Brown WH, 1954. Useful plants of the Philippines. Department of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Technical Bulletin, No. 10.
Coronel RE, 1986. Promising fruits of the Philippines. Second edition. Los Baños,
Philippines; College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines.
De Padua LS, Lugod GC, Pancho JV, 1977. Handbook on Philippine medicinal plants,
Volume 1. University of the Philippines Technical Bulletin, 11(3).

Galang FG, 1955. Fruit and nut growing in the Philippines. Malabon, Rizal: AIA printing
Press.
Heinsleigh TE, Holaway BK, 1988. Agroforestry species for the Philippines. Metro Manila
Philippines: US Peace Corps, AJA Printers.
Kosela S, Yulizar Y, Chairul, Tori M, Asakawa Y, 1995. Secomultiflorane-type triterpenoid

acids from stem bark of Sandoricum koetjape. Phytochemistry, 38(3):691-694; 5 ref.
Laxamana NB, 1982. Charcoal production with by-product recovery. Forpride Digest,
11(1/2):47-52; 8 ref.
Mabberley DJ, 1997. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants. The
plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants., Ed. 2:xvi + 858 pp.
Mandang YI, 1993. Wood anatomy of nine lesser known species of Meliaceae family.
Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 11(3):92-100; [English tables and figures.]; 12 ref.
Marañon J, 1935. Nutritive mineral value of Philippine food plants (calcium, phosphorus
and iron contents). Philippine Journal of Science, 58: 317-358.
6
Merrill ED, 1912. A Flora of Manila. Manila, Philippines: Bur. Printing.
Merrill ED, 1923. An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Manila, Philippines:

Bureau of Printing.
Miraflores JC, 1915. Adaptability of certain plants to propagation by cutting and

marcottage. Philippines Agriculture and Forestry Review, 4(7):142-150.
Monsalud MR, Tongacan AL, Lopez FR, Lagrimas MQ, 1966. Edible wildplants in Philippine
forests. Philippine Journal of Science, 95(4): 431-561.
Pimentel RB, 1980. Floral biology, fruit set and pollen fertility studies on Sandoricum
koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Special Problem, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines: Department of
Horticulture, College of Agriculture, U.P.
Ramos AH, 1972. Santol (Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr., Meliaceae) In: Cultural
directions for Philippine agricutural crops. Volume I. (Fruits). Manila, Philippines; Bureau
of Plant Industry; 209-212.
Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and S. Prawirohatmodjo (Eds.) 1998: Plant Resources of
Southeast Asia 5(3) Timber trees: Lesser known timbers. Prosea Foundation, Bogor,
Indonesia, 859 pp.
Phengklai C, Niyomdham C, Premrasmi A, Chirathanakorn K, Phuma R, 1989. Peat

swamp forest of Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany), No. 18:1-42; 8 ref.
Pimentel RB, 1980. Floral biology, fruit set and pollen fertility studies on Sandoricum
koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Special Problem, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines: Department of
Horticulture, College of Agriculture, U.P. (unpublished).
Powell RG, Mikolajczak KL, Zilkowski BW, Mantus EK, Cherry D, Clardy J, 1991. Limonoid
antifeedants from seed of Sandoricum koetjape.. Journal of Natural Products, 54(1):241-
246; 8 ref.
Pratt DS, del Rosario JJ, 1913. Philippine fruits; their composition and characteristics,
Philippine Journal of Science, A8:59-80.
Purba K, Sumarua E, 1987. Chemical analysis of twenty seven wood species from West
Java. Jurnal Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 4(3):26-29; 12 ref.
Ramirez DA, 1961. Note: Cytology of Philippine plants VI. Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.
f.) Merr. Philippine Agriculturist, 45:275-278.
7
Rodrigo PA, 1967. The lanzon and its relatives. Philippine Farms and Gardens, 4:18-21,
23, 25.
Stefanov B, Naidenova Ts, 1975. Some tree species from Vietnam having wood valuable
for the Bulgarian woodworking industry. Gorsko Stopanstvo, 31(10; 11):39-43; 48-51.
Troup RS, Joshi HB, 1981. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Volume III. Delhi,
India; Controller of Publications.
Verheij EWM, Coronel RE, 1991. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits
and nuts. Plant resources of South-East Asia. No. 2. Edible fruits and nuts., 446 pp.;
[and fig.]; many ref.
Wester PJ, 1911. Tropical fruits in the Visayas. Philip. Agric. Rev., 4(10): 545-554.
X. References:
915 pp.
pp.

Bangkok, 234 pp.
336 pp
pp.
8
9
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.]
Datasheet Report
[Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.
B. English name (s) ³ sesbania [12], agathi, agati sesbania, August flower,
Australian corkwood tree, flamingo bill, grandiflora, sesban,

swamp pea, tiger tongue, West Indian pea, white dragon tree
[7], scarlet wisteria tree [5].
C. Synonym ³ Aeschynomene grandiflora (L.) L. [2], Agati grandiflora (L.)
Desv. [2], Robinia grandiflora L. [2, 10], Sesban grandiflorus

Poir. [2], Aeschynomene coccinea L.f. [10], Agati coccinea
(L.f.) Desv. [10], Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv. Var. coccinea
(L.f.) Wight & Arn. [10], Coronilla coccinea (L.f.) Willd. [10],
Coronilla grandiflora (L.) Willd. [10], Dolichos arboreus
Forsskal [10], Emerus grandiflorus (L.) Kuntze [10],
Resupinaria grandiflora (L.) Raf. [10], Sesban coccinea (L.f.)
Poiret [10], Sesbania coccinea (L.f.) Pers. [10]
D. Other1 ³ agati, agusta, bagphal, bak, bake (Bangladesh) [2] - pwa

valet, pwa valye (Carribbean) [2] - gauai-gauai, katuday,

katurai, pan (Philippines) [2] - colbri vegetal, fagotier, fleur
papillon, papillon, pois valette, pois vallier, pois valliere
(France) [2] - agasti, agati, anari bak, basma, basna,
chogache, hatiya (India) [2] - toroy, turi, tuwi (Indonesia) [2] -
kh’ê: kha:w (Laos) [2] - kacang turi, petai belalang, sesban,
sesban getih (Malaysia) [2] - agasti (Nepal) [2] - agathi, agati,
peragathi, kathuru, murunga (Sri Lanka) - baculo, cresta de
gallo, gallito, paloma, pico de flamenco, zapaton blanco
(Spain) [2] - kae-ban, khae, ton kae (Thailand) [2] - so dua
(Vietnam) [2]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: GgÁardI

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ ângkiëdèi [2], 'angki:er dey [11]
1
Other : Leguminosales / Fables

Family: Leguminosae-Papilionoideae
Genus: Sesbania
Species: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.
Source :[ 10]
[General]: Sesbania grandiflora is a fast growing evergreen small shrub or medium-sized tree that can
grow up to 8-15 m [7] tall (10 m [3], 10-15 m [12], 15 m [2, 9, 6], rarely over 5-6 m [8]). The bole is
straight and cylindrical, tall with a DBH of up to 25-30 cm [7]. The crown is rather open with hairy
branches. Roots tend to be shallow, with numerous pinkish nodules containing nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. The tree can also develop floating roots and aerenchyma tissue.

[Bark]: The bark is grey to light grey, sometimes pink and whitish, soft, corky, thick and deeply
cracked. "The inner bark has a slightly bitter taste" [2].
[Leaves]: The leaves are borne on terminal ends of the branches. They are alternate 15-30 cm [2, 3,
7, 8] long, including a 7-15 mm long [9] leafstalk and consist of 12-20 pairs [7] of leaflets (16–30 [3],
20-40 [8], 20-50 [2, 9]). Each leaflet is oblong, rounded and 3-4 cm [7] long (2-3 cm [8], 1.2-4.4 cm [2,
9, 6]) and about 1 cm [7] (0.5-1.5 cm [2, 9, 6]) wide. Before shedding the leaves turn bright yellow.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=short axillary raceme) consists of 2-5 [7] (2–4 [3]) large flowers 5-10
cm long [2, 7] (7-8-9 cm [8]), curved and about 3 cm wide [7] before opening (10.5 x 6 cm [6]). The
outer flower-leaves form a calyx which is 2 cm long [2] (1.5-2.2 cm [6]), bell shaped, slightly 2 lobed
with 5 shallow teeth. The corolla consists of 5 white, yellowish, rose pink or red fleshy petals, which
are stalked at the base, oblong spreading and curved back, with 2 curved wings and 2 united curved
inside petals (=inner flower-leaves). Each flower bears 10 curved stamens (=male organs), 9 united
and one separate, the pistil has a very narrow stalked ovary and slender style. Flowering commonly
occurs between December and February [2], fruiting in April-May [2].
[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are 20-60 cm x 6-9 mm in size [2] (30-50 cm x 8 mm [6], 25-55 cm [8]
long), hanging, flat, with swollen margins containing about 15 to 50 red-brown seeds [2] (15-40 pale-
2
colored seeds [7]) which are edible when young. Seeds are beanlike, elliptical, 3.5 mm long [7], each
weighting 1 g [7].
[2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The wood is white, soft and rather light with a specific gravity of about 0.42 [3] and
a density of 0.512 g/cm³ [3] at unknown mc% (0.50 g/cm³ [7]). Its calorific value is 17.91 MJ/kg [7],
with a high ash content of 6% [7] and low 11.7% [7] of carbon. The wood burns quickly and tends to
smoke excessively. Thus it is regarded as a low quality fuelwood. However, its fast growth and
availability within a year of planting still make it a locally popular fuelwood. The wood should be well
dried, as it deteriorates in storage and becomes corky, dusty and unfit for burning. As the density of
the wood increases with age, the timber from 5 to 8 year-old trees [7] becomes suitable for house
construction or as craft wood.
[3, 7]

Approximate limits: 20°N to 10°S [2]. "The exact origin of S. grandiflora is not known (India or
Indonesia have been suggested), but it is considered native to many Southeast Asian countries. It is
widely distributed throughout the tropics, from southern Mexico to South America, and has been
planted in southern Florida and Hawaii. It has been cultivated for at least 140 years in West Africa,
and more recently in East Africa" [7]. It is commonly seen growing on rice bunds, along roadsides, in
home gardens, mixed croplands and other agroforestry systems.
[2, 7]

S. grandiflora is a lowland species which occurs up to 800 m a.s.l. in altitude [9] (0-1,000 m [7]). The
tree is adapted to a hot humid or semi-arid climate with rainfall conditions of 2,000-4,000 mm/year [2,
7] but will also grow in very dry areas receiving only 800 mm/year [6, 7], (480-2,250 mm [3]) such as
on Timor, Indonesia. "It seems to prefer a bimodal rainfall distribution, growing rapidly during the wet
season, but is capable of withstanding prolonged dry seasons of up to 9 months [7]" ("It is somewhat
drought resistant, although will not survive in very dry conditions unless irrigated. 0-3 dry months are
tolerated [2])". A mean annual temperature of 22-30°C [7] is suited best (24.3-26.7°C [3]) but the
normal range is 18-30ºC [2] (17-32°C [12]). Cool temperatures of <10°C [6] or even frost are not
tolerated. Some sources state that Sesbania grandiflora is wind resistant [2], others describe it as
being not wind resistant [7]. For good growth high amounts of light are needed.
[2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12]

3
The species can be grown on a wide range of soils including shallow soils, saline and alkaline soils. It
can be found on light sandy, medium and heavy clayey soil but prefers well-drained, deep, sandy
loam soils. When grown in poor soils, nodulation and subsequent nitrogen fixation helps to restore soil
fertility, indicating that S. grandiflora has high soil improvement qualities. It has some tolerance to
acidic soils down to water pH 4.5 [7, 2]. Normally the pH ranges from 5.5 to 8.5 [12] (6.6-8.5 [3]).
Thus, acid, neutral and alkaline soil is possible for growing. "Its tolerance of highly acid, aluminum
saturated soils is not known" [7]. S. grandiflora grows best on well drained soils but it also has an
outstanding ability to tolerate waterlogging and is ideally suited to seasonally flooded environments.
When flooded, the tree initiates floating adventitious roots and protects its stems, roots and nodules
with spongy, aerenchyma tissue. Suitable soil types include alfisols, alkaline soils, alluvial soils,
vertisols, cambisols, clay soils, grassland soils, gravelly soils, limestone soils, regosols, sandstone
soils, silty soils, tropical soils, ultisols, volcanic soils, sandy soils and saline soils.
[2, 3, 7, 9, 12]

[Wood]: S. grandiflora has long been used as a firewood species in Southeast Asia "and has been
planted in several areas in Indonesia to provide fuel and other products" [3]. The timber can be used
in house construction as a crafts wood and also for poles but may not last long due to rot and insect
infestation. The light wood is often used in floating fishing nets. The charcoal is used for gunpowder.
Due to its fast growth it is also regarded as a very good pulpwood which can be used as cheap
printing, writing, magazine and newsprint paper. The fibers are rather short but can also be blended

with a long-fibred bamboo pulp in suitable proportions to give good strength.
[3, 7, 12]
[Non-wood]:
Food: "Leaves, seeds, pods and flowers of S. grandiflora are edible. Flowers are the most widely
used part, and white flowers are preferred to the red. In the Philippines, unopened white flowers are a
common vegetable, steamed or cooked in soups and stews after the stamen and calyx have been
removed. The raw flowers are eaten as salad in Thailand. Young leaves are also eaten, usually
chopped fine and steamed, cooked or fried. Tender pods are eaten as string beans" [7].
Fodder: "Leaves and pods are valued for fodder. The tree produces leaves for fodder within 4 months
of establishment. The leaves contain 36% crude protein (dry weight) and 9,600 IU vitamin A in every
100 g. For fodder production, the tree is cut when 90-120 cm tall (1.8 kg) and fed to animals in a rice
straw diet. This regime showed growth increases comparable with those obtained by feeding
formulated diets. The most effective method of feeding the fodder to ruminants is to supplement with it
up to 15-30% of the total diet. Because of its high protein content, S. grandiflora should not be solely
fed to animals but should be combined with a roughage that is low in protein and high in energy, such
as rice or maize straw. Intake of low-quality feed materials can be increased by supplementing them
4
with S. grandiflora fodder. The fodder can be fed fresh, wilted or dried. The dried fodder can be stored
and saved for times of shortage; for example, in Indonesia it provides 70% of the diet of cattle and
goats during the dry season. Forage production of 4.5-9.1 kg/ha per year could be expected. S.
grandiflora leaves are toxic to chickens and should not be fed to them or other monogastric animals.
The fruit is also used as forage" [7].
Medicine: "Crushed leaves are applied to sprains and bruises of all kinds. A tea made from the leaves
is believed to have antibiotic, anthelmintic, antitumour and contraceptive properties. The bark is
considered as a tonic and an antipyretic, a remedy for gastric troubles, colic with diarrhea and
dysentery. A bark decoction is taken orally to treat fever and diabetes. Juice of flowers put in the eyes
is said to relieve dimness of vision. The leaves also have medicinal value and are reported to cure
night blindness in cattle. In India, all plant parts are reputed to cure night blindness. The root is a well-
known medicine for malaria. Leaves and flowers are used as poultices. The principal medicinal effects
are due to the tree’s astringency; hence it is used against inflammation, venom and other poisons,
bacterial infections and tumors. Root juices are used for poultices and the leaves are applied for
rheumatism, swellings, bruises and itching. For systemic disorders, decoctions are taken internally.
Root resin, mixed with honey, is taken orally for phlegm and root juices are taken as an expectorant.
Sinus congestion is reduced by taking a flower decoction" [7].
Gum and tannin: "Bark exudate and seed endosperm gums are produced. The clear gum from the
bark is used in foods and adhesives as a substitute for gum arabic. The bark yields tannins" [7].
[Others]: S. grandiflora is an ideal species for land reclamation and agroforestry: It has been used to
shade nurseries and some crops such as coffee, tea and cocoa, and as a windbreak for citrus,
banana and coffee. It can be used as a living fence, as shelterbelt, or as a live support for crops such
as vanilla and pepper. Crops continue to grow well when interplanted with S. grandiflora, as its open
canopy allows sunlight to pass. The species has an excellent root nodulation and fixes nitrogen,
making it a soil improver which is also used for rehabilitating eroded hills. However, nitrogen fixation
might me suppressed by nematodes or high acidity of the soil. Also fruits, falling leaflets and flowers
make excellent green manure or mulch and improve soil fertility. It is also used as an annual for dense
planting, growing for short periods and plowing under to improve soil before planting food crops. S.
grandiflora is widely planted for beautification because of its giant showy flowers and long pods.
[7]

No class. [11]

[General]: S. grandiflora is a nitrogen-fixing light-demander with extremely fast growth rates. It is
commonly seen growing on rice bunds, along roadsides, in home gardens, mixed croplands and other
agroforestry systems. Coppicing abilities range from poor to good [12] ("S. grandiflora will coppice and
pollard, but it will not survive repeated cutting" [2]).
5
[Establishment]: Seedlings "can be established in the field in 1 month, planted in holes 20-25 cm at a
spacing of about 1.2 x 1.2 m. Seeds can be sown directly into well-worked soil at the beginning of the
rainy season. The field is burned to obtain ash and sowing may be done in patches or lines
afterwards. Weeding and irrigation accelerate early growth. If fertilizing and irrigation are done at
monthly intervals, the plants may attain a height of 5 m at 9 months. For wood production, S.
grandiflora can be planted very densely; over 3,000 stem/ha have been planted in Australia and India.
For fodder production, S. grandiflora can be grown individually in gardens, house lots and mixed
planting. It can also be planted in fence lines, field borders, rice paddy bunds and irrigation ditches"
[7].
[Management and yield]: 30- and 60-day-old seedlings in association with mycorrhizae show a
significant increase in root and shoot dry biomass compared to non-mycorrhizal plants [1]. "The
species is very fast growing hence does not live long and can be harvested on a 3-year short rotation.
The growth rate depends on type of soil, cultural practices and amount of water available, which can
be supplemented by irrigation. S. grandiflora plantations have reached 3.2 m in 9 months when raised
in loamy soils, but only 1.8 m in sandy soils. In well-drained, deep loamy soils, plantations raised at
0.9 x 0.9 m can yield 4 t/ha per year. In Indonesia, 20-25 m³/ha per year of wood yields have been
obtained" [7]. "Even when planted only along the edges of agricultural fields, as in Java, yields of 3 m³
of stacked firewood per ha from 2-year rotation periods have been recorded" [3]. "Studies on biomass
production at different sites found that best production was at the riverside (65.1 kg/tree at 3.5 years
of age); under silvopasture, it was 20.5 kg/tree, and by canals 10.2 kg/tree. The height growth is
extremely fast in the 1st year; it slows down considerably in the subsequent 1-2 years, but the
diameter growth rate does not slow down. S. grandiflora will not tolerate repeated cutting of the main
stem above a certain height. Intensive harvesting, such as managing for a hedgerow, shortens the life

of the tree. A suitable system involves cutting for fodder only the side branches of trees, leaving the
main growing stem untouched. When the foliage is no longer within easy reach, the trees are felled
and the long, straight pole can be used for firewood or construction. Under irrigation it grows well, and
when grown in backyards the tree normally grows well as it gets waste water from the kitchen. At a
very short rotation of 3-4 years, S. grandiflora is capable of producing much higher cellulose raw
material per unit area than most other pulp woods. Even trees 3-4 years old can be pulped without
debarking and are suitable for chemical pulping. On a 3-year rotation, about 41 t/ha per year of pulp
can be harvested" [7].
[1, 7]
[Agroforestry]: The species is used in a wide range of agroforestry systems. "Crops continue to grow
well when interplanted with S. grandiflora, as its open canopy allows sunlight to pass. However, the
species shows a mortality of up to 80% when coppiced" [7].
6
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: The seed weight of S. grandiflora is 17,000-30,000 seeds/kg [2]. "Seed
storage is orthodox. Due to the lack of a seed coat, if viability is to be maintained, the species should
be stored in sealed containers at a temperature of 4°C or less and mc of less than 10%. Viability can
also be maintained for 2 years in open storage at room temperature" [2].
[Seed Propagation]: "S. grandiflora is easily propagated by direct seeding. It is not hard seeded and
usually germinates well without scarification. Pretreatment could involve either scratching or nicking
the round end of each seed, avoiding the cotyledon, or soaking in cold or tepid water for 24 hours; 85-
90% germination occurs. In the nursery, plants can be raised in polythene bags" [7].
[Vegetative Propagation]: "S. grandiflora can also be propagated vegetatively by stem and branch
cuttings. In vitro tissue culture has also been reported. Methods to raise plants from hypocotyl and
cotyledon explants have been developed" [7].

[Pests]: "A major problem in raising S. grandiflora is its susceptibility to severe pest attacks. Major
pests are leaf webbers, leaf feeders and stem borers. In India, the stem borer Azygophleps scalaris
has caused some damage. Larvae of the insect Bruchophagus mellipes infest and damage seeds"
[2]. Other insect pests include Agrotis ipsilon (weevil attacking leaves and stems), Aphis cytisorum
(aphid seed feeder), Apion decipiens, Argyroploce rhynchias, Bactrocera cucurbitae (larvae develop
in the flowers), Bactrocera dorsalis (larvae damage leaves and tender stems), Caliothrips indicus
(cotton pest/alternate host), Ceroplastodes, Cryptophlebia rhynchias (stem borer), Spodoptera
littoralis and Stegana laterilis (larvae damage leaves and tender stems). Susceptibility to nematodes,
like Heterodera trifolii, Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica has been reported.
[2]
[Diseases]: "The major fungal diseases affecting S. grandiflora are Colletotrichum capsici, causing
wilt, Protomycopsis thirumalacharii, causing leaf spot and Pseudocercospora sesbaniae, causing grey
leaf spot, the latter occurring only in India" [2].
[Others]: No Information available.
S. Conservation :
No Information available.

[Native]: Australia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines.
[7]
7
[Exotic]:
Benin, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba, Djibouti, Dominican Republic,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guadeloupe, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kenya, Liberia, Mali,
Martinique, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mexico, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Puerto Rico, Senegal, Sierra Leone,
Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, United States of
America.
[2, 7, 11]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminology]: "The generic name is derived from an Arab word for one of the species, S. sesban.
The specific epithet means large-flowered in Latin" [7].
[Chemistry]: "Per 100 g, the leaf is reported to contain 73.1 g H2O, 8.4 g protein, 1.4 g fat, 11.8 g
NFE, 2.2 g fiber, 3.1 g ash, 1,130 mg Ca, 80 mg P, 3.9 mg Fe, 9,000 IU vit. A, 0.21 mg thiamine, 0.09
mg riboflavin, 1.2 mg niacin, and 169 mg ascorbic acid. Leaves contain (ZMB) per 100 g, 321
calories, 36.3 g protein, 7.5 g fat, 47.1 g carbohydrate, 9.2 g fiber, 9.2 g ash, 1,684 mg Ca, 258 mg P,
21 mg Na, 2,005 mg K, 25,679 g -carotene equivalent, 1.00 mg thiamine, 1.04 mg riboflavin, 9.17
mg niacin and 242 mg ascorbic acid. The flowers (ZMB) contain per 100 g, 345 calories, 14.5 g
protein, 3.6 g fat, 77.3 g carbohydrate, 10.9 g fiber, 4.5 g ash, 145 mg Ca, 290 mg P, 5.4 mg Fe, 291
mg Na, 1,400 mg K, 636 g -carotene equivalent, 0.91 mg thiamine, 0.72 mg riboflavin, 14.54 mg
niacin, and 473 mg ascorbic acid. Seeds (ZMB) contain 36.5% CP, 7.4% fat, 51.6% total
carbohydrate, and 4.5% ash. The seed oil contains 12.3% palmitic, 5.2% stearic, 26.2% oleic, and
53.4% linoleic acids. The seed testa, which constitutes 20% of the seed, contains 5.2% moisture,

1.3% ash, 0.8% fat, 2.7% CF, 0.1% free reducing sugars, 1.4% sucrose, 2.8% nitrogen, 6.3%
pentosans, and 65.4% carbohydrates. Yields of 33% galactomannans are reported for alkali
extraction of the testae. Seeds allowed to germinate (sprouts) for 120 hours increased vit. C content
from 17–166 mg/100 g. Extracellular invertase of Rhizobia japonicum and its role in free sugar
metabolism in the developing root nodules was studied. The enzyme hydrolyzed sucrose
extracellularly, and its release was substrate inducible. 0.1 m -mercaptoethanol released the cell-
bound form of this enzyme. The production of invertase was low when glucose, galactose, mannose,
fructose, and farrinose were used as carbon sources in the growth medium. In the developing nodules
sucrose was the major sugar. The content of fructose was low in comparison with that of glucose,
suggesting that in the nodules the fructose is converted to glucose prior to its entry into the bacterial
cell. The content of glucose synchronized with the pattern of change in the activity of invertase in the
nodules" [3].
[Variation and breeding]: "Selection and breeding has been very limited in S. grandiflora. Saleem and
Bali (1992) report the results of a provenance trial carried out in Jammu, India. Small germplasm
collections have been made at the University of Hawaii (Waimanalo, Hawaii), ILCA (International
Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; now part of the International Livestock Research
8
Institute (ILRI)), and the ATFGRC (Australian Tropical Forages Genetic Resource Centre, CSIRO,
Australia). The chromosome number is 2n = 24" [2].
Ash AJ, Petaia L, 1992. Nutritional value of Sesbania grandiflora leaves for monogastrics and
ruminants. Tropical Agriculture, 69(3):223-228; 21 ref.
[2]
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Fixing Tree Research Reports, 7:117-134; ref.
[2]
Bhoopander Giri • K. G. Mukerji, October 2003. Mycorrhizal inoculant alleviates salt stress in
Sesbania aegyptiaca and Sesbania grandiflora under field conditions: evidence for reduced
sodium and improved magnesium uptake. p-307. University of Delhi, India. © Springer-Verlag
2003
[11]
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Agricultural Research, 41(3):521-530; 28 ref.
[2]
Detrez C, Ndiaye S, Dreyfus B, 1994. In vitro regeneration of the tropical multipurpose leguminous
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[2]
Duguma B, Kang BT, Okali DUU, 1988. Effect of pruning intensities of three woody leguminous
species grown in alley cropping with maize and cowpea on an alfisol. Agroforestry Systems,
6(1):19-35; 19 ref.
[2]
9
Eranna S, Sreenivasulu P, Nayudu MV, 1995. Incidence of a mosaic disease of Sesbania grandiflora
caused by a sobemovirus in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Phytopathology, 48(1):66-69; 10 ref.
[2]
Erb HE, 1979. Natural enemies and distribution of Sesbania punicia (Car) Benth in Argentina. Proc.
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[2]
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[2]
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[2]
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[2]
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10
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manuring. Tropical Agriculture, UK, 62(1):52-56; 8 ref.
[2]
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Hasan N, Jain RK, 1985. Response of some selected Sesbania species to root-knot nematode
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[2]
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11
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12
[2]
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[2]
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[2]
Singh, R., Sidhu, P.S., Vadhera, S., Sital, J.S., Bhatia, S. 1980. Extra-cellular invertase of Rhizobium
japonicum and its role in free sugar metabolism in the developing root nodules of Sesbania
grandiflora. Physiologia Plantarum 48(4):504–508.
[3]
Space, J. C. and T. Flynn. 2002a. Report to the Government of the Cook Islands on invasive plant
species of environmental concern. USDA Forest Service, Honolulu. 146 pp.
[3]
Subramanium TR, Muthukrishnan TS, Rao KRN, 1953. Control of Weevil Alcidodes bubo - Fabr. A
pest of Agathi, Sesbania grandiflora. Madras Agricultural Journal, 40:525-531.
[2]
X. References:
[1] Bhoopander Giri; K. G. Mukerji, October 2003. Mycorrhizal inoculant alleviates salt stress in
Sesbania aegyptiaca and Sesbania grandiflora under field conditions: evidence for reduced
sodium and improved magnesium uptake. p-307. University of Delhi, India. © Springer-Verlag
2003
13
[3] Center for New Crops and Plants Products, Purdue University -
[6] FAO: http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Gbase/data/pf000171.htm (Internet source)

source)
[8] Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) -

http://www.hear.org/pier/species/hevea_brasiliensis.htm (Internet source)

[10] Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers. - http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb/6.00/taxa/13606.shtml (Internet

source)
Growing Multipurpose Trees on Small Farms (2nd ed.). Bangkok, Thailand: Winrock International.
320pp.
14
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer]
Datasheet Report
[Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer [3]
C. Synonym ³ No synonym known.
D. Other1 ³ kra bak dam (Thailand) [4]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: C½rnI/ lMe)a

Source: [9]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ choërni, lumbaô [2]

Other : Malvales
Genus: Shorea
Species: Shorea farinosa C. E. C. Fischer
Source :[ 3]
[General]: A large tree which grows to a height of 45 m [3]. Twigs are slightly angular or compressed,
dark brown and hairless.
[Bark]: The bark is shallowly fissured.
[Leaves]: The leaves are 8-16 x 4.5-5 cm [3], thick, oblong or oblong-spear-shaped, rounded or
pointed. The leaf-base is rounded or squared off, hairless above except the midrib, which covered by
1
fine hairs. The lateral nerves are in pairs of 15-18 [3], slightly curved. The leaf stalk is 2-3.5 cm [3]
long, cylindrical, hairless, and slightly wrinkled.
[Flowers]: The flowers occur in axillary and terminal inflorescences which are 15-19 cm long. Sepals
(=outer fruit leaves) are 0.5-0.65 cm [3] long, egg-shaped, the outer 2 rounded at the apex, the inner 3
pointed, all densely velvety with star-like hairs. The petals (=inner flower leaves) are 1.3 cm [3] long
(1.2 cm [5]), broadly egg-shaped to oblong and rounded at the end, 15 veined [3], silky hairy on the
portions exposed in bud. The flower contains 22-25 stamens (=male organs) with flat filaments,
egshaped below and shortly slender above. The anthers are linear oblong, rounded at the base,
connective and 0.3 cm long [3]. The ovary (female organ) is ellipsoid, narrowed into an awl shaped
swelling at the base, with fine hairs. The stigma is 3-lobed ".
[Fruits]: No information available.
[3, 5]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: No information available.

Shorea farinosa occurs in lowland evergreen forests.
[5]

No information available



[Wood]: The timber is used for costruction
[2]

2nd Class. [1]
2
[General]: Shorea farinosa occurrs in lowland evergreen forests.
[5]
[Establishment and Management]: There is almost nothing known with regard to establishment and
management.
Q. Propagation :

S. Conservation :
This species is considered as critically endangered (CR A1cd, C2a [4]), according to the IUCN
(International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees (='IUCN Red
Databook'). "Shorea farinosa is very scattered throughout its potential distribution range with a few
individual trees. However, number of recent and past collections are comparable" [4].


[Native]: Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia and Vietnam.
[2, 4]
[Introduced]: Apparently this species has not been grown outside its natural distribution.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
X. References:
Phnom Penh.
3
[4] Forest Herbarium (BKF) National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand -
www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)
Northern Thailand.
4
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Shorea obtusa Wall, Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume]
Datasheet Report
[Shorea obtusa Wall, Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Shorea obtusa Wall. [4], Shorea obtusa
Wallich ex Blume [9]
C. Synonym ³ Shorea leucobotrya Miq. [4]
D. Other1 ³ balau (Trade name) [6] - ca`chăc, c[af] ch[aws]c (Vietnam)
[5, 9] - chik (Laos) [6] - teng (Thailand) [6] - thitya (Myanmar)

[6]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: p©wk

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phchök [3, 8], phchek [8]

Other : Malvales
Genus: Shorea
Species: Shorea obtusa Wallich ex Blume
Source :[ 1]
[General]: A small to medium-sized deciduous tree attaining a height of up to 25 m [4] (-27 m [10, 13],
-30 m [6, 9], 10-30 m [16]) but usually much smaller. The bole is branchless for up to 15 m [6] with a
DBH of 60 cm [6] (65 cm [9]) and a girth of 250 cm [4]. Young branches are covered by star- shaped
hair.
1
[Bark]: The outer bark is red brown when young, blackish grey to brown when older, thick and rough,
deeply cracked. The inner bark is yellowish brown and fibrous exuding a dull yellow resin (='dammar').
[Leaves]: The leaves are elliptic or oblong, usually blunt and rounded at both ends, 8-15 x 3-7.5 cm up
to 12 x 22 cm in young trees [10] (5-10 x 10-15 cm [4], 7.0-11.5 x 3.5-9.5 cm [9]). S. obtusa can be
distinguished from other Shorea spp. due to the rounded ends (both) of leaves, the yellow color of old
leaves and the 1.8 cm [4] short, stout leaf stalk. Secondary veins are in pairs of 10-14 [4] (15-20 [9]).
Young leaves are sprinkled with tufts of star-shaped hairs beneath, but are usually hairless when
mature. They are shed in the early part of the dry season with trees remaining leafless for some time.
In moist localities the new leaves may appear sooner after the fall of the old ones.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=panicle) is axillary and densely covered with hairs. The flowers are
yellow, almost without a flowerstalk. The outer flower leaves (=sepals) are hairy. The inner flower
leaves (=petals) are narrow, linear to linear-spear-shaped and hairy outside. The flower has 26-29
stamens (=male organs) [9] (20-25 stamens [4]) with short appendages. The ovary (=female organ) is
hairy. Flowers appear in March-April [4].
[Fruits]: The fruits ripen in May-June [4]. The fruit (=nut) is hairy, 0.6-0.8 cm wide [10] with a short tip,
3 larger wings 5-6 x 1.2-1.5 cm [10] (6 cm x 1.1 cm [9], 5 cm long [4]) and 3 shorter wings 1.5-3 cm
[10].
[4, 6, 9, 10, 13, 16]
I. Wood properties:
The sapwood is pale yellow to pale brownish-white, narrow, prishable, the heartwood is brown,
turning to dark brown or dark reddish brown, often with fine dark lines, dull, working quite smooth,

interlocked grained and medium textured. The wood is very hard, durable and heavy with a density of
1.05 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [4, 5, 11] (0.83-1.04 g/cm³ at 15% mc [6, 9], 1-1.073 g/cm³ at
12% mc [4]). It is especially durable in the open and in contact with water. Seasoning is slow and
difficult. Also sawing has reported to be rather difficult, mostly due to the high resin content. It is
slightly susceptible to surface cracking and end splitting. However, untreated sleepers have lasted for
15 years [4] (10-15 years [16]).
[4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 13, 16]

Approximate limits: 23°N to 5°N [8]. S. obtusa is a common tree species of the Indochinese, Thai
and Malay Peninsula. Often it is found growing gregariously, although sometimes sporadic. It grows in
dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, deciduous monsoon forests and open, dry degraded areas like
mixed savanna forests. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D. tuberculatus, D.
intricatus, D. obtusifolius, Terminalia tomentosa and Shorea siamensis. Dry dipterocarp forests are
characterized by a low number of species, open tree canopies and tree heights of 8 to 25 m [8]. The
undergrowth is often weak, combustible (=inflammable, burns rapidly) and fires are frequent during
the dry season. The dominant tree species are adapted to fire. In deciduous monsoon forests it grows
in plant communities together with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. In dry degraded areas it
2
is often in association with Shorea siamensis or Pinus keysia. In mixed savanna forests it forms
communities with Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius and Pentacme siamensis.
[3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 17]

Shorea obtusa is a species of the highlands and lowlands and can be found at an elevation between
200 and 1,000 m a.s.l. [6, 9] (150-1,300 m [3], -1,400 m [10]). Tropical monsoon climates with an
annual precipitation of 1,250 to 2,000 mm/year [12], with a well pronounced wet season and a dry
season of up to 6 months is suited best. However, it can also grow with less than 1,250 mm [12]. This
tree is a strong light demander and is tolerant to the frequent fires that occur in its habitat after it has
reached maturity.
[3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14]

No name available.
It grows well on well-drained sandy soils, rocky soils, lateritic soils, including ferric acrisols, gleyic
acrisols, and ferralic cambisols. Unlike the majority of dipterocarps, it can survive even on very poor
soils and rocky areas. An acid to neutral pH is suitable for this tree species. In Cambodia it is often
found on gray soil on shale.
[4, 5, 12, 17]


[Wood]: The wood of Shorea obtusa and Shorea siamensis are often marketed together under the
same commercial name (='balau' timber). The wood is of high commercial value and is used for
construction works, bridges, piles, ship-building, framing of boats, utility and garden furniture, interior
uses such as parquet flooring, heavy-duty flooring, window- and door frames. It is also very valuable
for railway sleepers.
[4, 6, 9, 13, 15]
[Non-wood]: The bark has a high tannin content and exudes a yellowish resin. The resin from the
wood is used for caulking baskets and boats. In Cambodia this resin is used to make a traditional
torch. It is also used in medicine as it has antibiotic properties and is used for wounds and ulcers. It is
also recommended as a cure for dysentery. The bark is used to treat malaria.
[6, 9, 13, 16]
[Others]: "Occasionally Shorea obtusa is a host for lac insects" [4].
3
First class [1]

[General]: S. obtusa grows frequently in dry deciduous dipterocarp forests, deciduous monsoon
forests and open, dry degraded areas. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D.
tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D. obtusifolius and Shorea siamensis. Dry dipterocarp forests are
dominant tree species are adapted to fire. In deciduous monsoon forests it grows in plant
communities together with Dipterocarpus alatus and Hopea odorata. In dry degraded areas it is often
in association with Shorea siamensis or Pinus keysia.
[Establishment]: In the establishment phase it is necessary to protect the seedlings from excessive
fire.
[Management]: As it is a light demander, no special operations are necessary except removal of

competitors and lightning of overhead shade by thinnings. The species is a good coppicer.
[3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14]
Q. Propagation :
The species regenerates satisfactorily where it is gregarious. However, natural regeneration has been
supplemented by planting out seedlings raised in nurseries. The viability of freshly collected seeds is
low and after screening out those attacked by insects and clipping the wings, they are sown right
away into shaded nursery beds. Survival percentage has been reported to be 65-75% [4]. Stump
planting has not been successful.

[4]
S. Conservation :
is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). It is found throughout its potential distribution with
a great number of individual trees.
[7]
4
[Native]:
Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and S. Vietnam
[5, 6, 9, 13]
[Introduced]:
Apparently this species does not occur yet outside of its natural range.
[8]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
No name available.
Naturelle, Paris.
[9]
[9]
[9]
[9]
X. References:
Phnom Penh.
5
timbers.
http://www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)
Northern Thailand.

http://www.worldagroforestry.org/Sea/Products/AFDbases/WD/asps/DisplayDetail.asp?SpecID=31
[12] van Liere, W.; McNeely, J.A., Agriculture in the Lower Mekong Basin: Experience from the Critical

Decade of 1966-1976: http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/html-books/agriculture-mekong-
basin/cover.html (Internet source, 2005)
[15] WWF - Tropical timbers available in FSC-certified wood:

http://assets.panda.org/downloads/tropical_wood_images.pdf (Internet source)
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Shorea siamensis Miq.]
Datasheet Report
[Shorea siamensis Miq.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Shorea siamensis Miq. [3]
C. Synonym ³ Pentacme malayana King, Pentacme siamensis Kurz,
Pentacme siamensis(Miq.) Kurz, Pentacme siamensis Var.

mekongensis Craib, Pentacme suavis A.DC., Pentacme
tomentosa Craib [3]
D. Other1 ³ balau (Trade name) [5] - meranti teamak, temak batu
(Malaysia) [5] - eng-yin (Myanmar) [5] - h'ang, ph'au (Laos)

[5] - rang, rang khao, lak pao (Thailand) [5] - c[af] ch[aw]c
xanh, c[aar]m li[ee]a (Vietnam) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: p©wkraMg/ raMgPñM

Source: [5]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phchok reàng, reàng phnum [2, 5]

Other : Malvales
Genus: Shorea
Species: Shorea siamensis Miq.
Source :[ 5]
1
[General]: A medium sized deciduous tree growing up to 18-27 m [3] (20-25 m [5, 8, 9]). The bole is
straight, buttressed and branchless for up to 12-15 m [3] with a DBH of 60 cm [5] and a girth of 100
cm. Young shoots are covered by greyish or whitish star-shaped hairs.
[Bark]: The outer bark is grey to blackish-grey, very thick and hard, vertically and horizontally fissured
with deep cracks in old trees. The inner bark is reddish brown with pale yellow brown resin and a
tannin content of 9% [3].
[Leaves]: The leaves are 10-22 x 7-16 cm [9] (9-12 cm x 6-13 cm [5]), broadly egg-shaped or oval
with rounded or slightly pointed tips. Young leaves are pale red brown with star shaped hairs, mature
leaves are usually dull green, papery and almost smooth, rarely densely hairy with 9-16 pairs [9] (15
pairs [3]) of side veins. The leaf stalk is 2-3.5 cm long [3]. Shorea siamensis can easily be recognized
when the old leaves turn bright red before they fall. The leaves are shed towards the end of January
or early February [3] and the tree remains leafless till April [3] when a new flush of leaves appears. In
moist localities the tree is leafless only for a short period.
[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=panicle) is axillary and hairy. The fragrant flowers are 1-2 cm [9] in
diameter, bright yellow and often with red tinge. They are arranged in slender branched clusters of 5-
20 flowers [9] near end of twigs, 15-25 cm [9] usually appearing just before young leaves. The inner
flower leaves (=petals) are spear-shaped to broadly elliptical and velvety outside. The petals are
closely twisted together into an open mouthed globe with recurved tips, fused at the base and falling
together as a rosette with 15 stamens (=male organs) [3] attached in 2 whorls, 10 in the outer and 5 in
the inner whorls [9]. The anthers are smooth with long narrow, slightly unequal tips and short
filaments. The ovary (=female organ) is ovoid with a thread-like style and one stigma. The flowers

appear in March [3].
[Fruits]: Fruits ripen from May to June [3]. The fruit (=nut) is ovoid and 1.4-1.6 cm wide with a long tip.
The nuts are enclosed by the expanded and thickened bases of the enlarged calyx lobes (=fruit
wings). The 3 outer larger ones have blunt tips and are about 5 cm long [3] (up to 12 x 1.3 cm [8], 5-8
x 1-1.5 cm [9]). The 2 inner ones are 0.75-1.25 cm long [3] (2-5 x 1 cm [9]) and linear spear-shaped.
[4, 5, 8, 9]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Sapwood and heartwood are distinctive. The sapwood is dull grey to brown or
reddish, the heartwood yellow brownish turning to reddish brown or dark brown, grained, with a
medium coarse texture. In comparison to other dipterocarps the timber is very hard and heavy but
also quite durable. "Graveyard tests have indicated a life of over 270 months. Untreated sleepers
have lasted 15 years" [3]. The wood has a density of 0.7-1.09 g/cm³ at 15% moisture content [5] (0.7-
0.98 g/cm³ [3], 1.02 g/cm³ [4]) and 0.913 g/cm³ at 12% mc [3]. Other important wood properties:
Shrinkage percentage (green to oven dry): 4.2% (radial), 9.8% (tangential), 14.3% (volumetric).
Modulus of rupture: 902.0 kg/cm² (green), 1,029.6 kg/cm²(air dry). Modulus of elasticity: 141,5 kg/cm²
(green), 164,1 kg/cm² (air dry). Maximum crushing stress: 480.5 kg/cm² (green), 561.7 kg/cm² (air dry)
2
[3]. It seasons slowly and surface cracking is significant. Sawing and working is rather difficult and it is
quite tolerant to treatment, however it can take a good polish on a well finished surface. The wood of
Shorea siamensis contains 6% [8] of tannin.
[3, 4, 5, 8]

Approximate limits: 23°N to 5°N [7]. S. siamensis is a very common but often gregarious tree species
of the Indochinese, Thai and Malay Peninsula. Just like Shorea obtusa, it grows in dry deciduous
dipterocarp forests and open and dry degraded areas. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in
association with D. tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D. obtusifolius and Shorea obtusa. These forests are
dominant dipterocarp species are adapted to fire. In dry degraded areas it is often dominant in
association with Shorea obtusa or Pinus keysia.
[4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10]

Shorea siamensis grows from sea level to over 1,000 m altitude [5, 8]. It prefers a tropical monsoon
climate with an annual precipitation of 1,250 to 2,000 mm/year [11], with a well pronounced wet
season and a dry season of up to 6 months [11]. When it has reached maturity it is very fire resistant.
[5, 8, 9, 11]

No name available.

Unlike the majority of dipterocarps, it can survive even on very poor soils. It has adapted to very dry
conditions and mainly grows on shallow poor, and rocky sand soils, or limestone soils with an acid to
neutral pH.
[3, 4, 8]

[Wood]: The wood of Shorea obtusa and Shorea siamensis are often marketed together under the
same commercial name (='balau' timber). This wood is attractive for light and heavy 'long term'
construction (e.g. bridge construction, mine shafts, oil wells), especially in Myanmar. It is also used for
piles, dug-outs, ploughs, etc. and is regarded as an excellent sleeper wood.
[3, 4, 5]
[Non-wood]: Bark and wood contain respectively 9% and 6% tannin, which is too little to be of
commercial importance.
[5]
3

First class. [1]

[General]: Shorea siamensis grows in dry deciduous dipterocarp forests and open and dry degraded
areas. In dry dipterocarp forests it is found in association with D. tuberculatus, D. intricatus, D.
obtusifolius and Shorea obtusa. These forests are characterized by a low number of species, open
tree canopies and tree heights of 8 to 25 m [10]. The dominant Dipterocarp species are adapted to
fire. In dry degraded areas it is often dominant in association with Shorea obtusa or Pinus keysia.
[Establishment]: During the establishment phase fire protection is necessary by removing grasses and
other undergrowth.
[Management]: Root suckers are produced occasionally. It coppices well
[3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10]
Q. Propagation :
Natural reproduction is obtained without any special treatment. Uniform regeneration is, however,
uncommon due to dry periods with a delay or low amounts of rainfall after the trees have shed their
seeds. "The seed loses its viability quickly and fails to germinate if it happens to fall on dry ground,
particularly if exposed to the sun. Thus, successful germination depends largely on timely rains.
Under natural conditions the seedlings take a long time to establish themselves" [3]. In areas with

high fire frequencies, the species grows shrubby until the root system is vigorous enough to send up a
strong terminal shoot, which rapidly develops a thick rough, fire resistant bark at the base. In areas
where regeneration failed, freshly collected seeds are sown into holes.
[3]
S. Conservation :
is suggested as a species 'of least concern' (LR lc). It is widespread and fairly common in the north
and northeast of Indochina, but scattered and fragmented in the south.
[6]
4

[Native]: Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, NW-Malaysia and Vietnam.
[4, 5]
[7]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
No name available.
[8]
Fundter, J.M., 1982. Names for dipterocarp timbers and trees from Asia. Pudoc, Wageningen. 251
pp.
[8]
[8]
[8]
[8]
5
X. References:
Phnom Penh.
[5] Soerianegera et al, 1994 . Prosea : Plant Resosurces of South-east asia : (1) Timber trees :
Major commercial timbers
www.dnp.go.th/Botany (Internet source)
[7] Sontara, Sou (PNSA), 2006: Own observations.

ROM).
Northern Thailand.
[11] van Liere, W.; McNeely, J.A., Agriculture in the Lower Mekong Basin: Experience from the
Critical Decade of 1966-1976: http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/html-books/agriculture-mekong-
basin/cover.html (Internet source, 2005)
6
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Shorea thorelii Pierre]
Datasheet Report
[Shorea thorelii Pierre]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Shorea thorelii Pierre
B. English name (s) ³ No name available
C. Synonym ³ Shorea argentea, Parashorea laotica [3]
D. Other1 ³ teng ta ni (general), dang, si, takhian teng, chan, chan khao,
chan tok (Thailand) [3]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: x©Úv/ p©wk]tþm

Source: [2]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ khchow, phchok owdam, khtiaou [5]

Other : Malvales
Genus: Shorea
Species: Shorea thorelii Pierre
Source :[ 1]
[General]: S. thorelii is a large sized deciduous tree with a height of 30-40 m [2]. The buds are densely
covered with short brown tufted hairs.
[Bark]: No information available.
[Leaves]: The leaves are elliptic to oblong, with a slightly depressed midrib above. The secondary
nerves are in pairs of 10-15 [3, 4]. Leafstalks have a size of 1-1.5 cm [3]. The leaves have spear-
1
shaped leaf-like appendages (=stipules) at the base of their stalks which are also covered with short
brown hair.
[Flowers]: Flower buds are egg shaped to spear shaped, with egg shaped inner flower leaves
(=petals) and of creamy white to pale yellow color. Each flower contains [Stamens]: 30-40 [3] (30-48
[4]) stamens (=male organs) with hairy anthers. The connectives are slender, curved upward, and
beard-like with 2-5 stiff hairs [3]. The ovary is conical and hairy. Flowering occurs from January to May
[3]
[Fruits]: Fruiting season is January-July [3]. The fruit (=nut) is egg-shaped with 1-1.5 cm in diameter
[3]. The fruiting calyx is hairy and pouched calyx bases cover less than half of the nut with 3 longer
lobes 4-7 cm long [3] and 2 shorter ones with 3-3.5 cm [3].
[3, 4]
I. Wood properties:

Shorea thorelii is an Indo-Burmese tree species that is scattered in South Myanmar and is locally
common throughout Indochina (especially Laos) except North Vietnam [3]. In Thailand, it is rather
common in the northeast but not in the lower part of the peninsula, and confined to semi-evergreen to
evergreen forests. It also occurs in dry dense forests and secondary formations.
[2, 3, 4]

This tree can be found in an altitude of between 50 and 300 m a.s.l [2]. In Thailand S. thorelii grows

up to 600 m a.s.l [3].
[2, 3]


In Cambodia this species was recorded to grow on acid red soils which are located on basaltic
ranges.
[5]
[Wood]: The wood is used for small inside works.
[2]
[Non-wood]: The resin of the trunk is harvested for the caulking of boats. The bark can be mixed with
food to make humans and livestock (esp. pigs) sterile.
2
[2]

2nd class
[2, 5]

[General]: In Thailand, Shorea thorelii is confined to semi-evergreen to evergreen forests. It also
occurs in dry dense forests and secondary formations.
[3, 4]
Q. Propagation :

S. Conservation :
S. thorelii has been classified as critically endangered (CR A1cd [3]) and endangered (EN A1c, C2a
[3]) according to IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened
Trees. It is widely scattered through its fragmented potential distribution areas with low numbers of
individual trees. "Recent collections are more numerous than past ones" [3].
[3]

[Native]:
Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, S-Myanmar, S-Vietnam
[3, 4]
[Introduced]:
This species has not been distributed outside its natural range.
[6]
3
V. Miscellaneous4 :
X. References:
[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium 1998-2000. (CD-ROM).
[2] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Dictionary of Plants used in Cambodia.

http://www.forest.go.th/Botany/main/Research/RP_thesis/taxonomy/Shorea.htm#7.19%20Shore
a%20thorelii
Northern Thailand.
[6] Leang Horn, 2006: Own observations.
4
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq.]
Datasheet Report
[Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq.

C. Synonym ³ Sindora cochinchinensis Baill. [2], Sindora
cochinchinensis H.Baill. [4], Sindora wallichii var.siamensis

(Teijsm. ex Miq.) Barker [6], Sindora wallichii var. siamensis
(Teijsm.) Bak. [3], Sindora cochinchinensis Baillon (1867) [3,
5]
D. Other1 ³ sepetir mempelas (Malaysia) [5] - têtê 'hoho (Laos) [5] –
makha-tae, makha-nam, makha-yum (Thailand) [5] - g[uj]

m[aaj]t, g[ox] m[aaj]t (Vietnam) [5]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ kekaH

Source: [3]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ krâkâh'

Other : Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Gunus: Sindora Miq.
Species: Sindora siamensis Teijsm. ex Miq.
[5]
Source :[ -]
1
[General]: A small to medium-sized, sometimes large evergreen tree, generally attaining a height of 6-
10 m [4] (15 m [5]) and occasionally 30-35 m [4, 6]. The bole is straight, sometimes stout, cylindrical
and branchless for at least 12 m [5] (15-25 m [3], 15-20 m [4, 6]) with a DBH of over 40 cm [5] (80-100
cm [4]). The crown is rounded to umbrella shaped and spreading, densely branched. Twigs are
robust, compressed, covered with yellow hairs in an early stage, later hairless with many lenticels.
[Bark]: The younger bark is dark brown with grey spots, longitudinally and horizontally fissured, breaks
into square or rectangular pieces with age. The inner bark is pink, very fibrous and 1 cm thick [5].
[Leaves]: The pinnate leaf is 15-25 cm long [3] and consists of compound pairs of 6-8 leathery
leaflets. The leaflets are egg-shaped to opposite egg-shaped and hairy on both surfaces (upper
surface with small rough hairs, lower surface with tiny soft hairs [3]). The leaf tip is pointed, the leaf
base is broadly wedge-shaped. Side veins are often straight to the margin, the bottom pair has a
small but distinct gland near the base of a dense network of finer veins. The leaf-stalks are very short.
[Flowers]: The inflorescences (=panicles) are a 15-25 cm long [4] (10-20 cm [3]) narrowly branched
cluster of flowers, terminal or axillary, with straight or zigzag axes, solitary, paired, or tripartite,
densely brownish, and hairy at end of twig and upper leaf axils. The flowers are 0.5-0.7 cm long [3]
(0.7-1 cm [6]). The 4 outer flower leaves (=sepals) are fleshy green with dense golden-brown hairs,
elliptic to broadly elliptic, 7-10 x 4-6 mm [6], unequal-sized, bearing several spiny outgrowths near the
tip and often showing numerous warts all over, inside covered by glossy brown hairs. The inner flower
leaves (=petals) are yellow-green or pinkish [3], narrowly elliptic, 7-10 x 2-4 mm [6], when dry dull

purple, fleshy, with a central thick length zone. The petals are densely wooly outside, inside brown
and hairless. Bracts (=reduced leaves) form a flower head, are egg-shaped or heart-shaped, 3-7 mm
long [6] and densely haired. The bracteoles (=leaf like structure on a flower) are egg-shaped,
approximately 5 x 2 mm [6] and hairy on both surfaces. Flowerstalks are 2-4 cm long [6] and densely
covered with dark brown hairs. Each flower has 10 stamens (=male organs) with 9 fertile and 1 sterile
anthers [3]. The fertile ones are joined at the base, with 2 of them being longer than the others with
1.8-2.3 cm [3] (15-20 mm long [6]). The female organ (=ovary) is unstalked, densely hairy along the
suture, with spines appearing late in the development. The ovary contains 3-8 ovules (=immature
seed) with a recurved style, hairless and 8-10 mm long [6]. The stigma is terminal and knob-shaped.
[Fruits]: The fruits (=pods) are armed with 3-5 mm long [4], straight and sticky spines on 2 surfaces
[3]. The fruit itself is flattened, irregularly egg-shaped or broadly elliptic, 4-10 x 3-8 cm in size [6] (6 cm
diameter [4], 4.5-8 cm [3]), with a 5-7 mm long [6] curved beak. Fruits are shedding when mature,
bearing one seed [4] (1-3 large black seeds [3]). Seeds are placed on top of a large aril, round or
broadly elliptic, flattened, 15-25 x 14-17 mm [6] (10-12 x 10-11 mm [4]). The dry aril is cushion-shaped
and 10-15 mm long [6] (15-20 mm [3]).
[3, 4, 5, 6]
2
[Wood Properties]: The sapwood is grey-brown or light brown, the heartwood is fulvous with dark
brown or black streaks, soft to moderate hard and light to moderate heavy with a density of about 0.88
g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [5] (0.72-0.83 g/cm³ at unknown mc [4]). The texture is moderate fine
and even. It is resistant to termites and insects.
[4, 5]
I. Wood properties:

This species occurs in Thailand, Indochina, Southern China and the northern part of the Malay
Peninsula. It grows in pure and mixed dipterocarp forests, is a dominating species in open dry
dipterocarp forests and occurs in deciduous or semi-evergreen forests both in primary and secondary
formations. In Thailand it is "especially common in semi-open forests, particularly in the south,
becoming much less common in the north of Chiang Mai" [3]. "Usually it is mixed with Schima
crenata, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Canarium subulatum and Cratoxylum polyanthum. This species
has been planted in Hanoi Botanical garden and Saigon Zoo-park" [4].
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

S. siamensis occurs from the plains to the foothills up to an altitude of 500 m a.s.l. [5] and is strongly
light demanding. In Cambodia it grows in a seasonal monsoon climate with a mean annual rainfall of
1,000 to more than 2,000 mm/year [8] and a dry season of 5-6 months [8].
[4, 5, 8]


Deep, sandy, brown soils and grey loamy soils are suited best for this species. It even grows on poor
and rocky soils.
[4]

[Wood]: The wood is in high demand for general construction, furniture, planking, flooring, beams,
columns, ships and fine art articles, developing a beautiful appearance when used for a long time.
3
The by-products of the wood are used as a good quality charcoal and firewood.
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[Non-wood]: Sindora siamensis yields a wood-oil which is used for caulking boats. The fruits are
edible and chewed sometimes together with betel nut or as a substitute. The roasted seeds are used
to make a tealike drink and is part of some desserts. In Thailand the bark is used for partition walls but
also for dyeing fishing nets.
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[Others]: Trees are planted as shade or ornamental trees due to their beautiful shape.
[3, 6]

[General]: Sindora siamensis grows in pure and mixed dipterocarp forests and is a dominating
species in open dry dipterocarp forests. It also occurs in deciduous or semi-evergreen forests both in
primary and secondary formations. "Usually it is mixed with Schima crenata, Pterocarpus
macrocarpus, Canarium subulatum and Cratoxylum polyanthum" [4]. It is a light demander with a
moderate growth rate, attaining 8 m in height [4] and 10 cm in diameter at 12 years of age [4].

First Class. [2]
Q. Propagation :

S. Conservation :
4
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Native:
Cambodia, China, Thailand, N-Malaysia (Peninsular), Laos (Vientiane, Savanna Khet, Saravane and
Champassak provinces), Vietnam (Kon Tum, Gia Lai, Dac Lac, Lam Dong, Dong Nai, Song Be and
Tay Ninh)
[3, 4, 5, 6]
Introduced:
[Varieties]: "Two varieties are distinguished: var. siamensis and var. maritima (Pierre) K.Larsen & S.S.
Larsen, the latter being less common and having much less spiny pods" [5].
[Identification]: It is similar to Afzelia xylocarpa but has thinner leaves with more pointed tips, larger
flowers with an obvious green or reddish petal and large woody fruits without spines.
[3]
Northern Thailand.
[8] Blasco, F.; Bellan, M.F., Lacaze, D., 1997: Carté del la Végétation du Cambodge, 1/1,000,000.
Laboratoire d'Ecologie Terrestre de Toulouse.
5
X. References:
[5]
de Wit, H.C.D., 1949. Revision of the genus Sindora Miquel (Legum.). Bulletin of the Botanic
Gardens, Buitenzorg, ser. 3, 18: 5-82.
[5]
Desch, H.E., 1954. Manual of Malayan timbers. Malayan Forest Records No 15. 2 volumes. Malaya
Publishing House Ltd., Singapore. 762 pp.
[5]
Naturelle, Paris.
[5]
Research Institute of Wood Industry, 1988. Identification, properties and Uses of some Southeast
Asian woods. Chinese Academy of Forestry, Wan Shou Shan, Beijing & International Tropical Timber
Organization, Yokohama. 201 pp.
[5]
Smitinand, T. & Larsen, K. (Editors), 1970-. Flora of Thailand. The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest

Department, Bangkok.
[5]
Whitmore, T.C. & Ng, F.S.P. (Editors), 1972-1989. Tree flora of Malaya. A manual for foresters. 4
Volumes. 2nd ed. Malayan Forest Records No 26. Longman Malaysia SDN Berhad, Kuala Lumpur.
[5]
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
Datasheet Report
[Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels
A. Latin name (s) ³ Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels [8]
(WorldAgroforestry Centre indicates that the

species name should correctly carry 2 i´s at
the end, all other sources use cumini).
B. English name (s) ³ black olum tree [12]; Java olum, jambolan [6,9], malabar
plum, [9], Java olum, java plum [6,19] black plum,Indian
blackberry, jambolan plum, Portuguese plum [26].
C. Synonym ³ Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce., E. jambolana Lam., Myrtus
cumini L. [8], Jambolifera sinensis Spreng., Syzigium cumini

Skeels (only 1 i at the end); Syzygium jambolanum [26];
Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia (Lam.) Willd., C. oneillii
Lundell, Eugenia caryophyllifoliaSyzygium caryophyllifolium
(Lamb.) DC
D. Other1 ³ Pring bai (Cambodia); jamblang, duvet (Indonesia); va, sa,
sa leng, (Laos); jambulana jambulan (Malaysia); thabyay-

hypyoo (Burma); duhat, lomboi (Philippines); wa, hakhipae

(Thailand); vôi rùng (Vietnam [6,8]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ RBIg)ay RBIgedaHRkbI

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ pri:ng ba:y, pri:ng dahs krabei [4]
1
Other : Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Gunus: Syzygium Gaertn.[8]
Species: Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels [4]
Source :[4 ; 11]
Syzygium is a large genus with about 1000 species occurring in the African and Asian tropics. About
70 species occur in Indochina, 80 in Thailand, 190 in Peninsular Malaysia, 50 in Java, 165 in Borneo
(Kalimantan), 180 in the Philippines and 140 in New Guinea. The fruit of some species are edible and
these are commonly cultivated, notably S. aqueum (Burm.f.) Alston, S. cumini (L.) Skeels, S.
malaccense (L.) Merr.& Perry, and S. samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry.
[General]: An evergreen, sometimes in drier sites partly deciduous, tree , up to 25-35 m tall; twigs
angular when young, later terete [5,8]. An evergreen tree 10-20-30m high, 40-90 cm in diameter,
branching low, with irregular crown spreading up to 12 m wide [6].
[Bark]: Grey, slightly flaking or deeply cracked, inner bark reddish. Petiole 0.6-2.8 cm long [5,8].
Rough, dark-grey bark in lower part, lighter grey and smoother higher up [6].
[Leaves]: Elliptic or ovate-elliptic, 6-13, (9-14) by 3-7, (3.5-6.0) cm , narrowly ovate or lanceolate with

pointed or blunt tip and slightly tapering base [5]; 7-13 pairs of side-veins, usually with marginal vein,
mid-vein sunken above. Stalks 1.0-1.8 cm, slender [5]. Index 2, base cuneate, acute or rounded, apex
shortly acuminate, secondary veins 19-30 pairs, intramarginal vein 1 [8]. Leaves opposite, entire,
broadly obovate-elliptic to elliptic-oblong, 5-25 cm long and 2-10 cm wide with 1.0-3.5 cm long leaf
stalk, cuneate or rounded at base, tip blunt, edges thin transparent, pinkish when young, later dark
green above, with a faint turpentine smell when crushed [6].
[Flowers]: White or cream, in forked clusters at the end of twigs and upper leaf axils, 3-6 cm, usually
with several branches from base. Flowers in threes, central one without stalk, side ones with slender
stalks. Buds 4-7 mm. Calyx cup 6.0-8.5 mm, funnel-shaped with distinct stalk, 2.5-4.5 mm and 4
large, rounded lobes. 4 free petals, rounded, densely gland-dotted. Outer stamens 7-13 mm, style
8.5-15.0 mm [5]. Flowers in 5-12 cm long panicles, usually on leafless branches; flowers small,
fragrant, with 4 grey-white to pink petals [6]. Inflorescences terminal or axillary panicles, several
together, shorter than the leaves, 4-10 cm long, peduncles 3-10 mm long, branches and branchlets
striate. Bracts triangular, 7 by 10 mm. Bracteoles triangular, 6 by 4 mm. Flowers white or pale yellow,
sessile. Hypanthial cup 2.4-5.1 mm long, funnel-shaped. Pseudostipe 1-2 mm long. Sepals 4,
triangular or rounded, obscure, 2.5-6.0 mm long. Petals 4, joined into a cup, 1.4-2.8 mm long, early
2
caducous, 5-19 gland dots per petal. Outer stamens 4-6 mm long, anthers elliptic, 0.4-0.5 mm long.
Ovary 2-locular, ovules 10-18 per locule, style 1.8-6.5 mm long [8].
[Fruit ]: The fruit is an ovoid-oblong berry, often curved, dark violet, 1-2 cm long. (0.5)-1.2-3.5 cm, pale
green to dark-purple black, globose [5]. Fruit ovoid-oblong, 1-5 cm long, dark violet and juicy with 0-5
green to brown seeds, up to 3.5 cm long inside [6]. Ovoid or ellipsoid, 8-15 mm long, pink, turning
dark red-purple or black when ripe. Seed 1, ellipsoid. Flowering March-April (May), fruiting June-July
(August) [8,26]. Flowers pollinated by honey bees, flies and wind. On sites exposed to NE winds,
fruits ripen mid-August to mid-September. Birds, squirrels and humans are the predominant
consumers and spreaders of the seeds [26].
I. Wood properties:
The medium to heavy weight Syzygiums are combined into a trade group called Kelat. Due to the
mixture of different species the specific gravitiy varies over a large range from 450-520 kg/m³(medium
weight) to 925-1100 kg/m³(heavy weight) at 15% m.c.
The fruit-bearing species are not traded as wood and whenever one of their trees dies they are
processed locally. The heartwood of S. cumini is reddish-grey or reddish-brown. It is relatively hard
and to a certain extent durable [1]. The wood is pink and hard and fine-grained [8,1].

S. cuminii is native to the subtropical Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Australia, where it is
also widely cultivated. The tree was introduced from India and tropical Asia to southern Africa for its
edible and attractive purple-red fruits [26].
Widely distributed in the Indo-Malayan region, in Laos, Vietnam, northern Thailand [8]; In Asia in
Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia-Sumatra, Philippines; Oceania,
Australia, French Polynesia, Africa-Madagaskar, Kenya, Caribbean, Florida, Southern Brazil [12].
Presently cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics.[6]. S. cumini is found in dipterocarp forest.
[1]. Widespread in many types of forest, occurs in open and semi-open deciduous or evergreen forest,
conifer-broadleaved mixed forest or as individuals in grasslands.[8] Fairly common especially in hill
evergreen forest of northern Thailand [5].

A gregarious species of tropical and hot subtropical regions, especially along rivers and in wet, low-
lying places [1]. Grows on riverbanks in the tropical lowlands, best up to 600 m elevation a.s.l. Will not
bear fruit above this altitude but can grow up to about 1800 m altitude and produce timber. Syzygium
cumini grows well with 1000 mm/m² annual precipitation or more and a distinct dry season, but can
withstand prolonged flooding. [6]. The altitude ranges from 0-1100 m a.s.l. [8] but may reach 1800 m
[12], annual precipitation in the range of 500 to 4000 mm/m² in summer, average annual temperature
25-27 ºC. Soils of medium to heavy texture, drainage mainly free but may be temporarily impeded and
water-logging for a limited time is tolerated; soils in the acid to neutral range, may be shallow and
slightly sodic or saline[12].
3
not determined
Occurs on a variety of soils, lateritic, sandy alluvia, marl and oolitic limestone. It can grow on rocky
soils provided the rainfall is sufficient. With so many varieties it is likely that there are some exhibiting
salt tolerance [1]. S. cumini occurs on dry yellow-red ferralitic soils [7], commonly on deep, rich, well-
drained soils [26].
[Wood]: Suitable for exterior joinery and carpentry,exterior fittings, fences, railway sleepers
containers, pallets, wood ware, wood carvings, wood based materials [12]. It is also used for bridge
and boat building. Suitable pieces are used in guitar making and for other musical instruments. S.
cuminii wood has a specific gravity of 0.77 and burns well, giving off about 4 800 kcal/kg, it makes
excellent firewood and charcoal [1,7,8,26]. The wood is durable in water, resistant to termites, and
although difficult to work, it saws and machines well and is used for construction, boat building,
commercial tea and chest plywood, agricultural implements, tool handles, cart wheels, well curbs and
troughs, sleepers, furniture and as props for shafts and galleries in mines [26].
[Non-Wood]: The slightly acid and adstringent, ripe fruit is eaten fresh or made into juice, jelly or wine
[6, 19]. The fruit is edible but seldom sold on local markets [7]. The best forms are presently cultivated

in Java below 300 m elevation. Large specimen grow in Florida and trials are undertaken in the
Mediterranean region, particularly in Algeria [1]. Numerous varieties have large tasty fruit but too often
the berries are small and of poor taste. The oblong seeds are strongly astringent and slightly bitter [1].
Bark of S. cuminii has served in tanning and yields a brown dye that has been used in colouring
fishnets.
Leaves can be used as fodder. The abundant nectar of the flowers provides a rich feeding base for
honey bees. The bark can be used for dyeing but also for medicinal purposes together with the seeds
[6]. A juice prepared from the leaves is used to treat dysentery and for cleaning external wounds,
locally also for the treatment of light forms of diabetes [8]. The tree is also grown as a shade tree in
coffee plantations [6]. The abundant foliage of S. cuminii trees produces good shade, which has been
used to shelter coffee trees, chicken yards and livestock pastures. When closely planted in rows,
trees make good windbreaks. S. cuminii is successfully planted in waterlogged areas. Ornamental: S.
cumini is one of the most popular ornamental avenue trees in India. Trees planted close together and
topped regularly form a dense hedge. S. cuminii is grown advantageously with banana, coffee and
cocoa [26].
4
The bark of some species has been used for dying or tanning materials. The bark, roots, young
shoots, leaves and fruit are used in local medicine. The flower buds of S. aromaticum (L.) Merr. &
Perry, known as cloves, yield an aromatic spice [16].

not included

S. cumini has never been tested in plantations[1]. Trees should be spaced between 12 and 14 m if
planted as ornamentals and 6 m apart if for a windbreak. S. cuminii is a fast-growing tree, and
seedlings may reach a height of 4 m in only 2 years. Trees may become serious pests in pastures
[26] and S.cumini is consired a pest in the state of Florida [9,25]. The tree coppices remarkably well;
vigorous shoots are produced in large numbers from small and large stumps alike. Coppice stands
along streams have been reported that grew to 4.6 m in 4 years; more than 30 shoots were produced
on 1 stump, half of which were dominant. The plants are also vigorous after pruning, and weeding has
a marked effect on the growth and vigour of seedlings. S. cuminii tolerates shade, especially in the
younger stages when dense masses of young plants can be found coming up under moderate shade
in forests. It is susceptible to browsing damage. Chemical control of pests is recommended to control
caterpillars.
Q. Propagation :
Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant; seeds germinate well when fresh, but viability is lost within 2
weeks of open storage at room temperature. On average there are 1 200-1 800 seeds/kg. The seeds
germinate well when fresh, but lose viability quickly. Propagation is normally by seed or by budding.
Recommended spacing for fruit orchards is 12 m to 14 m [1]. Natural reproduction of the plant is
encouraged by fire protection. In the sapling stage, it thrives best in the open, when all overhead
shade should be removed. S. cuminii is artificially propagated by direct sowing, seedlings, air-layering,
inarching, grafting, stump planting, budding, and it can be rooted from cuttings. No presowing
treatment of seed is necessary. Freshly collected seeds are normally sown at a depth of 2-2.5 cm
during the rainy season and germinate in 2-4 weeks at a rate 20-90%. Plants are pricked out when 6-
9 months old into beds 30 x 30 cm. For development of seedlings, moisture is even more important
than shade, as seedlings in the sun develop well, provided the soil is kept moist, but seedlings in the
shade die if the soil is dry. Seedlings are somewhat frost tender, particularly on grassy ground, where
they are frequently killed back. Sapling growth is faster than seedling growth. Seedlings 1-3 years old
can be planted out without any difficulty [26].

Not an endangered species, quite to the contrary, in many countries it has become a weed because
of its rapid dispersal and growth (see the remark under V. Miscellaneous) [9]. S. cuminii is susceptible
to attack by several diseases: white spongy spot, leaf spot and tar-pot-like lesions on leaves. Sooty
moulds, leaf-eating caterpillars, scale insects and white flies also attack trees [26].
5
A number of insects and fungi damaging to Syzygium cumini have been identifed in India. Among the
insects it is Apotomorhinus cribratus; Batocera rufomaculata, Curculio c-album, and Meridarchis
reprobata. Degrading fungi are Botryotinia fuckeliana, Fomes caryophylli, Trametes corrugata,
parasitic are Loranthus sp., Parotis marginata, Helicotylenchus indicus, andSitophilus rugicollis. The
extent of damage and the success of control measures is unknown [12]. In Indonesia the following
noxious insects have been observed: Agyroploce mormopa, a tip-boring caterpillar on S.
polyanthum;Coccus viridus, feeding on the sap;Acarina mites and Alcides patruelis, larvae living in the
shoots and beetles gnawing holes in th tender parts of the shoots. Termites can be a serious pest of
young seedlings; other pests include the red tree ant and a coccid, Saissetia eugeniae [16].
S. Conservation :

unknown

Native to subtropical Himalayas, India, Sri Lanka, Malesian region and Australia. Presently cultivated
throughout the tropics and subtropics (introduced) [6].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
S. cumini has become invasive and has been declared an undesirable species in Florida, USA, but
also in parts of other countries [9]. (Syzygium cumini has been introduced to many different places
where it has been utilised as a fruit producer, as an ornamental and also for its timber. The jambolan
has the ability to form a dense cover, excluding all other species. This characteristic has allowed it to

become invasive in Hawai‘i where it prevents the re-establishment of native lowland forest, and very
invasive in the Cook Islands and in French Polynesia. This tree has not been evaluated for biological
control, but vigorous efforts to exterminate it with herbicides are taking place in Hawai‘i [25].
Chaturvedi AN, 1984: Assessment of Biomass Production. Indian Forester 110(8):726-735.
Chandhuri AKN, Pal S, Gomes A, Bhattacharya S, 1990: Anti-inflammatory and related actions of
Syzygium cumini Skeels seed extract. Phytotherapy Research 4(1):5-10; 24 ref.
Clark WC, Tharman RR, eds, 1993: Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands: Systems for sustainibility.
Tokio, Japan, UN University Press x+297 pp.
Gupta RK, 1993: Multipurpose trees for agroforestry and wasteland utilisation. xv+562 pp; 18 ref.
Jackson JK, 1987: Manual of afforestation in Nepal. Nepal-UK Forestry Research Project.
Khanna RK, 1991: Chemical examination of the essential oil from the leaves of Syzygium cumini
Skeels. Indian Perfumer 35(2):112-115; 5 ref.
Little EL. 1983: Common fuelwood crops. Communi-Tech Association, Morgantown, West Virginia.
6
Luna RK, 1996: Plantation Trees. Plantation Trees xii + 975 pp.(ref at ends of sections).
Mohammad M, Wickham LD, 1996: Compositional changes in jamoon (Eugenia cumini) fruits during
storage. Tropical Fruits Newsletter No 18:3-4; 13 ref.
Sagwal,SS, 1994: Trees on marginal lands: Afforestation techniques and systems. xvii+ 269 pp; 11
pp. of ref.
Siddiqui MA, Alam MM, Saxena SK, 1988: Seasonal fluctuations of plant-parasytic nematodes
associated with certain fruit trees. International Nematology Network Newsletter 5(2):22-23; 1 ref.
Little EL. 1983 Common fuelwood crops. Communi-Tech Association, Morgantown, West Virginia.
Sultan Singh, Singhrot RS, 1984: Studies on the propagation of jaman Syzygium cumini Skeels).I.
Effect of sowing depth on seed germination and seedling growth. Haryana Journal of Horticultural
Science 13(3/4):123-126; 2 ref.
Sumana DAS, Banerjee, AK, 1995: Studies on Syzygium cumini seed oil. J. of the Oil Technologists´
Association of India 27(4):243-244;7 ref.
Jackson JK, 1987. Manual of afforestation in Nepal. Nepal - UK Forestry Research Project.
X. References:
pp.
Bangkok, 234 pp.
7) Lehmann, L.,Grejmans, M. and Shenman,D., 2003: Forest Trees of the Central Highlands of
Xieng Khouang,Lao P.D.R. – A field guide. DANIDA-DED-NAWACOP, Vientiane-Laos. 246 pp.
49(2004) p. 201-349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands.
336 pp.
655 pp.
7
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston]
Datasheet Report
[Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston [6]
B. English name (s) ³ rose apple, malabar plum [6]
C. Synonym ³ Eugenia jambos L. [6], Caryophyllus jambos Stokes,
Jambosa jambos Millsp., Jambosa vulgaris DC [20].
D. Other1 ³ pomme rose, jambosier (French), poma rosa, jamun
(Spanish); cham´pu (Cambodia); jambu air mawar, jambu

mawar, jambu craton (Indonesia); chièng, kièng, (Laos);
jambu kelampok, jambu mawar (Malaysia); thabiyu-thabiye
(Burma); chomphu-nam dokmai, manomhom, yamu-panawa
(Thailand); ly, bô dào,roi, gioi (Vietnam [2,6,8].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Cm<Ús

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chumpu:sâ [4]

Other : Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Gunus: Syzygium Gaertner [8]
Species: Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston [8]
Source :[4 ; 11]
1
[General]: Small, evergreen tree 5-10 m high, broad, dense and deep crown. Bole generally twisted at
base, diameter between 10 and 20 cm [1]. A small tree, 6-15 m in height and 20-40 cm in diameter
[2]. An evergreen tree up to 10 m high and 50 cm in diameter, often branching low on the trunk, with a
dense wide-spread crown; stem cylindrical, sometimes quadrangular when young, mostly twisted at
base [6]. Trees up to 15 m high. Twigs slender, compressed or angular [2,8].
[Bark]: Brown, with numerous furrows, smooth between the furrows.[1]. Bark greyish- green [2]. Bark
brown, smooth, but furrowed.[6]. Bark whitish grey or brown [8].
[Leaves]: Opposite, lanceolate, long acuminate, deep green, shining, with numerous transparent
gland-dots, often covered with a "bloom", which gives them a darker appearance [1]. Leaves simple,
opposite. Lamina stiff-coriaceous, oblong lanceolate or lanceolate, tapering at both ends, apex
acuminate, base cuneate or obtuse, 10-20 cm long and 2.5-5.0 cm wide. Lateral veins 16-18 pairs,
anastomosing near the margin. Petiole 1 cm long, often pellucid-dotted, fragrant when blooming
[2,13]. Leaves 12-20 cm, base pointed, 11-14 pairs of side-veins, 1-2 marginal veins, twigs flattened
or squarish [5]. Leaves opposite, oblong-lanceolate, 9-26 cm long and 1.5-6.0 cm wide, thin leathery,
cuneate at base, pointed at tip, shiny dark green above, lighter green and glandular punctate beneath
with 5-6, rarely 13 mm long leaf stalk [6,13]. Leaves narrowly ovate, 8-20 by 1.5-5.0 cm, index 4, base
cuneate or obtuse, apex acute or acuminate, secondary veins 11-18 pairs, intramarginal vein(s) 1 or 2
[8].
[Flowers]: Yellowish-white or pink, scented, with 4 rather large sepals and petals. The scent
resembles that of roses. Flowers arranged in 4-5-flowered terminal corymbs [1]. Flowers greenish-
white, clustered in terminal or axillary inflorescence. Flowers large, 4-5 cm in diameter. Buds globose.

Calyx 4-lobed, lobes semi-obicular, persistent. Petals 4, free, concave inside, gradually falling.
Stamens numerous, free, exerted. Anthers oblong ovale. Ovary inferior, with a hollow at the tip, style
curved and longer than the filament [2]. Flowers white or pale yellow, calyx cup 12-14 mm, petals 15-
17 mm, outer stamens 33-37 mm, style up to 43 mm [5]. Inflorescence a 5-10 cm long corymb arising
from tip of twig or from leaf corners, 4-5 (-10) -flowered with large white to greenish-white, 5-10 cm
wide 4-merous flowers with about 400 stamens up to 4 cm long [6]. Petiole 7-14 mm long. Flowers
white or pale yellow, pedicel 3-13 mm long. Hypanthial cup 12-14 mm long, broadly funnel-shaped.
Pseudostipe 4-6 mm. Sepals 4, semi-obicular, 5-8 mm long. Petals 4, free, obicular, 15-17 mm long,
base thick, more than 200 gland dots per petal. Outer stamens 16-37 mm long, anthers elliptic, 1.0-
1.2 mm long. Ovary 2-locular, ovules c. 28 per locule, style 27-43 mm long [8].
[Fruit]: Fragrant, yellowish, sometimes tinted with red, ovoid or globose, 3-5 cm diameter. A firm and
only slightly juicy flesh surrounds 1-2 seeds. Maximum fruiting during summer, but flowers and fruit
are present throughout the year [1]. Fruit a berry, subglobose or ovoid, 3-4 cm wide with persistent
calyx, contains 1-2 seeds [2]. Fruits 5-6 cm, pale pink, juicy [5]. Fruit globose to ovoid, 2.5-5.0 cm in
diameter, crowned by persistent 4-lobed calyx, whitish-yellow, sometimes pink-tainted, fragrant with
yellow-pink flesh embedding 1-2(-4) sub-globose, brown seeds, 1.0-1.5 cm in diameter [6]. Fruit
2
depressed, globose,3-6 cm in diameter, pale pink when ripe. Seed(s) 1 or 2 [8]. Flowers and fruit are
present throughout the year [1[.
Flowering April-May, fruiting July-August [2,8]
I. Wood properties:
The dark-brown heartwood is heavy and hard. It is not durable under exterior use and is rapidly
attacked by termites. It is a valuable construction timber provided it attains the right dimensions. It
yields good firewood or charcoal [1].

Has spread from its origin in Malesian region to Indochina and 300 years ago to the West Indian
Islands. Now it occurs throughout the tropics and has become widely naturalized. Occurs in China,
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam [8] but also in South America and Africa.

Originally a tropical tree but cultivated in the subtropics and up to 1200 m elevation where the climate
is relatively wet [6]. S. jambos is a species of lower elevations. It grows well in wet tropical climate or
moist environments as found along river banks [1]. It is a shade loving plant that withstands drought
better then low temperatures [1].

not determined

Grows on any slightly acid soils including water-logged soils [6]. Thrives on on wet and deep soils
near river banks; light-demanding when mature; elevation range up to 300 m[8];
[Wood]: Wood used for general implement manufacture and used locally in general construction
provided it attains suitable dimensions, which is rarely the case. It is attacked by termites, but makes
good firewood or charcoal [1,8]. The tree coppices rapidly after cutting to a stump and consequently
yields a continuous supply of small wood for fuel [20].
[Non-Wood]: Fruit is sweet and delicious [2]; it is not so tasty and popular, and is mostly processed to
jams and preserves [1,6);
it is used as a setting agent because of its high pectin contents; it provides nectar for bees and is also
planted as an ornamental tree [1].
The juice can be distilled to yield a high-quality rose-water, an essential oil, which is sold to the
perfumery industry [6]. The bark is used for tanning and dyeing [6].
3
Young branches are flexible enough so they can be employed to make hoops for large sugar casks,
and also are valued in Puerto Rico for weaving large baskets [20].
S.jambos is also an ornamental and bee-feeding tree ; in Vietnam it is used as wind-shelter and for
dune fixation on the sea shore [2,8].
Care should be taken with medication prepared from the seeds. There are indications thatthey may
have a poisoning effect. An unknown amount of hydrocyanic acid has been reported in the roots,
stems and leaves. An alkaloid, jambosine, has been found in the bark of the tree and of the roots, and
the roots are considered poisonous [20].
[Others]: In India, the fruit is regarded as a tonic for the brain and liver. An infusion of the fruit acts as
a diuretic. A sweetened preparation of the flowers is believed to reduce fever. The seeds are
employed against diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrh. In Nicaragua, it has been claimed that an infusion
of roasted, powdered seeds is beneficial to diabetics. They say in Colombia that the seeds have an
anesthetic property. The leaf decoction is applied to sore eyes, also serves as a diuretic and
expectorant and treatment for rheumatism. The juice of macerated leaves is taken as a febrifuge.
Powdered leaves have been rubbed on the bodies of smallpox patients for the cooling effect. The
bark contains 7-12.4% tannin. It is emetic and cathartic. The decoction is administered to relieve
asthma, bronchitis and hoarseness. Cuban people believe that the root is an effective remedy for
epilepsy.

not included

Usually planted as a fruit tree in village and also in plantations [8] Propagation with seeds or layering.
Germination strength of the seeds is high and seeds tend to germinate immediately after harvesting.
Polyembryony has been frequently recorded. Seedlings grow in the shade but are progressively
introduced to lighter conditions. During the early stages of growth it is essential that adequate shade
is provided and that drying out due to sunshine is avoided. During the dry season it is often necessary
to to water the young plants. recommended spacing is 5 m x 6 m, nevertheless growth is slow [1].
Q. Propagation :
Species can be propagated with seedlings or vegetatively by layering (1). Most rose apple trees are
grown from seeds, which are poly-embryonic (producing 1 to 3 sprouts), but the seedlings are not
uniform in neither character nor behaviour. In India, vegetative propagation has been undertaken with
a view to standardizing the crop and also to select and perpetuate dwarf types. In budding
experiments, neither chip nor "T" buds would take. In West Bengal, air-layering is commonly
performed in July and the layers are planted in October and November.
4
The rose apple tree has few insect enemies. It is prone to leaf spot caused by Cercospora sp.,
Gloeosporium sp., and Phyllosticta eugeniae; algal leaf spot (Cephaleuros virescens); black leaf spot
(Asterinella puiggarii); and anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata). Root rot caused by Fusarium sp., and
mushroom root rot (Armillariella tabescens) attack the tree [12].
S. Conservation :
not a threatenened species

unknown

In almost all subtropical and tropical countries on moist ans acid sites, suitable for wet and deep soils
near river banks; altitude up to 300 m.
V. Miscellaneous4 :
A well-known relative is Syzygium aromaticum, is fdreid flower buds are the cloves , a highly
appreciated spice with analgesic effects [9]. Main producers are the islands of Reunion, Zansibar and
Madagascar [9].
Guzman et al. (1996)
Verheij EWM,& Colonel, RE, Eds. 1991: Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No.2 Edible fruits and
nuts.Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Crane E, Walker P 1984; Pollination directory for world crops. International Bee Research
Association. London, Great Britain
Francis JK,1990; Syszygium jambos (L.) Alston. SO-ITF-SM 26, Rio Piedras. Institute of Tropical
Forestry.
Troups, RS 1975: Silviculture of Indian trees. ed.2,1,Government of India.
Streets RJ, 1962: Exotic trees of the Britisch Commonwealth. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
5
X. References:
pp.
Bangkok, 234 pp.
49(2004) p. 201- 349 pp., Univ. Leiden Br., Leiden, The Netherlands.

336 pp.
pp.
6
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Tamarindus indica L.]
Datasheet Report
[Tamarindus indica L.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Tamarindus indica L. [2]
B. English name (s) ³ tamarind, tarmarind [2], Indian date, madeira mahogany,
tamarind tree [7], Indian tamarind [8]
C. Synonym ³ Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertn., Tamarindus officanalis
Hook. [4], Tamarindus umbrosa Salisb. [6]
D. Other1 ³ tamarind (Trade name) [7] - tamarinde (S-Africa) [7] - humer,
roka (Ethiopia) [7] - aradeib, ardeib (Arabia) [7] - amli, anbli,

nuli, tentul, tintiri, tintul (Bangladesh) [7] - magyee, majee-
pen (Myanmar) [7] - tamarenn (Caribbean) [7] - kalamagi,
salomagi, sampalok (Philippines) [7] - tamarinde, tamarinier
(France) [7] - amli, anbli, imli, tamrulhindi (India) [7] - asam,
asam jawa, tambaring (Indonesia) [7] - khaam, mak kham
(Laos) [7] - mukoge (Uganda) [7] - asam jawa (Malaysia) [7] -
imli (Nepal) [7] - hamar, rakhai (Somalia) [7] - tamarin,
tamarindo (Spain) [7] - mkwaju, msisi (E-Africa) [7] - amilam,
puli, puliyamaram (Sri Lanka) [7] - bakham, makham,

somkham (Thailand) [7] - me, trai me (Vietnam) [7]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: GMBil

Source: [1]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ arm pel [1], 'âm'pül, ampil, khoua me [8]
1
Family: Leguminosae / Caesalpinoideae [3]
Source :[ -]
[General]: Large, evergreen tree up to 20-25 m [2] (-30 m [8]) with a 1-2 m [6] (2-3 m [2]) short and
stout trunk of 50-70 cm DBH [2] (-100 cm [7], -200 cm [8]). It is slow growing but long-lived, with an
average life span of 80-200 years. Crown densely foliaged, widely spreading and rounded.
[Bark]: The bark is rough, fissured and greyish-brown.
[Leaves]: Some trees can be almost leafless for a while, but normally they remain foliated. The leaves
are alternate, compound, with 10-18 pairs of opposite leaflets. Leaflets narrowly oblong, 12-32 x 3-11
mm [6] (13 x 5 cm [8]), leaf stalk and leaf axis finely haired, midrib and net veining more or less
conspicuous on both surfaces. Leaf-tip rounded to almost square, slightly notched. Leafbase rounded,
asymmetric, with a tuft of yellow hairs. Leaf-margin entire, fringed with fine hairs.
[Flowers]: Inflorescences lateral and terminal racemes, up to 13 cm [8] long. Flowers ca. 3 cm [8] long
and fragrant. Outer flower leaves (=sepals) 4, unequal, up to 1.5 cm [8] long. Inner flower leaves
(=petals) 5, the upper 3 well developed, cream coloured, pale yellow or pinkish with brown-red veins.
Stamens (=male organs) 3. Pistil (=female organ) 1, up to 18-ovuled. Flowers emerge on the new
shoots that mark the leaf change, but some trees flower later, even as late as February when the
shoots have long matured. The flowers produce nectar and are probably pollinated by insects. A self-
pollination results in seeded pods.

[Fruits]: The fruit ripens mainly in June-September. In Thailand the fruiting season is December-
February, in the Philippines from May to December with a peak in August-October. Fruit (=pod) a
subcylindrical, straight or curved, indehiscent pod with rounded ends, up to 14 cm x 4 cm [8] (10-18 x
4 cm [6]), up to 10-seeded, often irregularly constricted between the seeds. Outer fruit wall hard,
greyish or more usually scurfy brown, with some strong fibrous threads inside. Middle fruit wall thick-
syrupy, blackish-brown. Inner fruit wall thin, leathery. Seeds irregularly shaped, flattened diamond-
shaped, up to 18 mm [8] (16 mm [6]) long, very hard and brown and embedded in a sticky edible pulp.
[2, 6, 7, 8]
I. Wood properties:
The heartwood is dark purplish brown, hard to very hard and very heavy, durable and strong with a
specific gravity of 0.8-0.9 g/cm³ and takes a fine polish. The sapwood is light yellow and liable to
insect attack.
[5, 6]
Approximate limits: 30°N to 8°S [5]. T. indica is indigenous to the drier savannas of tropical Africa, but
it has been widely naturalized in tropical Asia. It is now cultivated in many tropical countries, even on
plantation scale in India, and is economically important all over South-East Asia. It prefers semi-arid
2
areas and wooded grassland, and can also be found growing along streams and riverbanks. It does
not penetrate into the rainforest.
[5, 7, 8]

It grows well in an altitude of 0-1,500 m a.s.l. [5] (0-400 m [4]) in semi-arid to humid tropical climates
with a bimodal summer rainfall of 350-1,500 mm/yr [7] (350-2,700 mm/yr [5]). It is also suitable for
monsoon climates with more than 4,000 mm [8] rainfall per year where it has proved its value for
plantations. A dry season of 0-3 months [5] is tolerated. The normal temperature range is 9-37°C [2]
with a mean annual temperature of 20-33ºC [5] (-47ºC [7]). Mean maximum temperature of hottest
month: 30-36ºC [5]. Mean minimum temperature of coldest month: 13-25ºC [5]. Young trees are
susceptible to frost but the mature trees can withstand temperatures of -3°C [7] (0°C [5]) without
serious injury and are more cold-resistant than mango, avocado and lime trees. It is wind- and
drought resistant due to its extensive root system and cannot stand waterlogging. It also tolerates fog
and saline air in coastal districts. In the wet tropics (rainfall > 4,000 mm/yr) the tree does not flower
and wet conditions during the final stages of fruit development are detrimental.
[2, 4, 5, 7, 8]


Tamarind thrives in well drained, acidic or alkaline soils but it can tolerate a wide range of physical site
characteristics. However it does not like heavy clay or very acidic or waterlogged soils. The tree is
often associated with termite mounds. The following soil types are suitable: acid soils, alfisols, alkaline
soils, alluvial soils, cambisols, clay soils, ferralsols, grassland soils, gravelly soils, lateritic soils,
limestone soils, regosols, saline soils, silty soils, subtropical soils, tropical soils, ultisols, vertisols,
volcanic soils.
[2, 5, 7]

[Wood]: The very durable heartwood is regarded as a substitute for teak (Tectona grandis) in many
applications. It is suitable for sawn or hewn building timbers, light construction, agricultural tools,
chopping blocks, wheels, mallets, rice-pounders, oil presses, sugar presses, turnery firewood and
charcoal especially for melting gold or producing gunpowder. "In India, T. indica charcoal was a major
fuel for producing gas (gasogen) units for cars and trucks during World War II" [5].
[4, 5]
[Non-wood]: The ripe fruit of the sweet type is usually eaten fresh, whereas the fruits of sour types are
made into juice, jam, syrup, candy, various preserves and beverages. With sugar and water, the fruit
3
makes a cooling drink and is used instead of lime juice. The green fruits and flowers may be used for
souring soupy dishes of fish and meat. Tamarind seeds are also edible after soaking in water and
boiling to remove the seed-coat. Flour from the seed can be used for making cakes and bread.
Roasted seeds are claimed to be superior to peanuts in terms of flavor. The seed oil (resembling
linseed oil) is suitable for making paint and varnish. The over-ripe fruit is used to clean copper and
brass perhaps because of acidity. There are several medicinal uses of tamarind: The bark is
astringent and tonic and its ash may be given internally as a digestive against diarrhea. Incorporated
into lotions or poultices, the bark may be used to relieve sores, ulcers, boils and rashes. It may also
be administered as a decoction against asthma and amenorrhea and as a febrifuge. Bathing with an
infusion of the boiled leaves helps against skin diseases, such as scabies. Young leaves may be used
in fomentation for rheumatism, applied to sores and wounds, or administered as a poultice for
inflammation of joints to reduce swelling and relieve pain. A sweetened decoction of the leaves is
good against cough and fever. Filtered hot juice of young leaves and a poultice of the flowers are
used for conjunctivitis. The pulp may be used as an acid refrigerant, a mild laxative and also to treat
scurvy. Powdered seeds may be given to cure dysentery and diarrhea and is used as a vermicide.
[4, 7, 8]
[Others]: "The extended crown of the tamarind offers shade so that it is used as a ‘rest and
consultation tree’ in villages. Because of its resistance to storms it can also be used as a windbreak. It
should be considered, however, that T. indica is not very compatible with other plants because of its
dense shade, broad spreading crown and allelopathic effects. It is thus more commonly used for
firebreaks, as no grass will grow under the trees. T. indica can also be used as a living fence. The
evergreen habit and the beautiful flowers make it suitable for ornamental planting in parks, along

roads and riverbanks."
[7]
[Ethnic uses]: "Since ancient times, in India and the Far East, members of the flora and fauna were
identified with particular personalities of the Hindu pantheon and worshipped. Tamarind is such a
highly sacred and worshipped tree. These beliefs and practices continue even today in certain
sections of society, particularly among the rural folk and aboriginal tribes living in the forest. Nature
worship and the faith of these peoples have helped to conserve many natural ecosystems in India.
These people have preserved many forest trees such as tamarind and sacred groves are conserved
in their original form" [7].

No Class. [1]

[Establishment]: Tamarind generally requires minimal care. It is treated in a similar manner as other
fruit crops with respect to irrigation, manuring and crop protection. Improved fruit varieties are often
grown as single trees. However, orchards have been established in Thailand, where intensive
4
cropping is practiced. When establishing a pure plantation, spacing should be at least 13 x 13 m [8]
(8-10 m [6]). Distance can be reduced with vegetatively propagated plants, as they do not attain the
same size as seeded trees. Smaller trees are easier to harvest. Size-control measures include close
spacing (about 500 trees/ha [8]) and pruning to rejuvenate the fruiting wood. A high water table
prevents deep rooting and also helps to keep trees small. Also early crops limit the early extension
growth. The growth of seedlings is generally slow with a height increase of 60 cm [5, 8] per year. The
juvenile phase lasts 4-5 years [5, 8] or longer. At higher latitudes shoots grow mainly in spring, flower
throughout the summer and pods ripen in the spring, the period from flowering to harvest is quite long
(about 8 months until full maturity). Very little is known about the growth rhythm in the tropics. More or
less incidental shoot growth continues through the rainy season (November-April) into the dry season,
but in July-August the trees are virtually quiescent.
[2, 5, 6, 8]
[Management]: Young trees are pruned to allow 3-5 well-spaced branches to develop into the main
scaffold structure of the tree. After this, only maintenance pruning is required to remove dead or
damaged wood. The trees also respond to coppicing and pollarding. "In the Philippines, the fruits of
sour types are harvested at 2 stages: green for flavoring and ripe for processing. Fruits of sweet
cultivars are also harvested at 2 stages: half ripe or 'malasebo' stage and ripe stage. At the half-ripe
stage the skin is easily peeled off; the pulp is yellowish-green and has the consistency of an apple. At
the ripe stage, the pulp shrinks because of loss of moisture, and changes to reddish-brown and
becomes sticky. If the whole pod is to be marketed, the fruit should be harvested by clipping to avoid
damaging the pods. Eventually the pods abscise naturally" [8].
[2, 5, 6, 8]
[Yield]: The tree may remain productive until it reaches old age, generally yielding up to 150 kg/tree
[6] or over 2 t/ha/yr [6]. Up to 170 kg/tree/year [8] of prepared pulp has been reported from India and
Sri Lanka. 80-90 kg [8] is an average yield, corresponding to 8-9 t/ha/year of prepared pulp for 100
trees/ha. In the Philippines 200-300 kg pods per tree is considered a good yield. The lack of
information on biennial bearing suggests that bearing is fairly regular.
[6, 8]
[Handling after harvest]: "Green fruits for cooking, and half-ripe and ripe fruits for fresh consumption
are sold by weight in the markets. Ripe fruits for processing are peeled, fiber strands are removed,
and then they are sold by weight in plastic containers. The fruit of sweet cultivars commands a much
higher price than the sour fruit" [8].
Q. Propagation :
Tamarind may be propagated by seeds as the common method, as well as by air layering
(=marcotting), grafting (for improved varieties) and budding. Outstanding mother trees are
propagated asexually. "Shield and patch budding and cleft grafting are fast and reliable methods and
at present used in large-scale propagation in the Philippines, the best time being the cool and dry
months of November to January" [8]. There are approximately 350-1,000 seeds/kg [7] which remain
5
viable for many months. Viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10ºC with
7-15% moisture content [7]. "Pretreatment involves soaking seeds in cold water for 12 hours" [6].
Another method is to pour boiling water over the seeds and let them cool, or to nick seeds with a knife
(scarification) [2]. Germination is epigeous, and has a rate of about 90% in 40-50 days [6] (2 weeks
after sowing [2]). Sees germinate best when they are covered by 1.5 cm loose, sandy loam or by a
mixture of loam and sand. Seedlings should attain at least 80 cm before being transplanted to their
final location at the beginning of the rainy season. However they are big enough to be planted out in
the field within one year. "Budded and grafted trees are planted out to the field at the onset of the
rainy season (May to June in the Philippines) at a spacing of 8-10 m" [6]. "The Institute of Plant
Breeding in Los Baños, the Philippines, contains a germplasm collection (46 accessions)" [8].
[2, 5, 6, 7, 8]

[Pests]: "The most serious pests of the tamarind are scale insects (Aonidiella orientalis, Aspidiotus
destructor and Saisetia oleae), mealy-bugs (Nipaecoccus viridis and Planococcus lilacinus), and a
shothole borer (Pachymerus gonagra). Other minor pests in India include lac insects and bagworms.
Beetle larvae cause damage to branches in Brazil, while in Florida and Hawaii beetles attack ripe
pods. Termites attack the tree in China. Stored fruit is commonly infested in India. Larvae of the
groundnut bruchid beetle are serious pests that attack the fruit and seed in India. In some seasons,
fruit borers may inflict serious damage to maturing fruits causing a great reduction in marketable yield"
[6].
[Diseases]: Leaf spot, powdery mildews, a sooty mould, stem disease, stem, root and wood rot, stem

canker, a bark parasite and a bacterial leaf-spot have been reported from India.
[8]
[Others]: The slow growing tree may also be damaged browsing animals.
[2]
S. Conservation :


[Native]:
Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda,
Zimbabwe
6
[6]
[Introduced]:
Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Colombia, Cote d'Ivoire, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Egypt, Ghana, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Iran, Jamaica,
Laos, Liberia, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Panama, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Togo, United States of America, Vietnam,
Zambia
[6]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Production and International Trade]: "Although production should be substantial, statistical records do
not usually specify tamarind. The crop in India - the largest producer - was 250,000 t in 1964 and
India also exports several thousand tonnes per year, mainly of seed and seed powder, but also some
pulp. Export statistics in Thailand for the early 1980s range from 11,000 to 21,000 t of dried pods. In
India, Thailand, Central America (Mexico: 4,400 ha) and Brazil the crop is to some extent grown in
orchards; elsewhere production comes only from trees along roads, in field borders and in home
gardens" [8].
[Fruit Properties]: "Ripe fruits have 40-50% edible pulp which contains per 100 g: water 17.8-35.8 g,
protein 2-3 g, fat 0.6 g, carbohydrates 41.1-61.4 g, fibre 2.9 g, ash 2.6-3.9 g, calcium 34-94 mg,
phosphorus 34-78 mg, iron 0.2-0.9 mg, thiamine 0.33 mg, riboflavin 0.1 mg, niacin 1.0 mg and vitamin
C 44 mg. Fresh seeds contain 13% water, 20% protein, 5.5% fat, 59% carbohydrates and 2.4% ash.
The acidity is caused by tartaric acid, which on ripening does not disappear but is matched more or
less by increasing sugar levels. Hence tamarind is said to be simultaneously the most acid and the
most sweet fruit" [8].
[Genetic resources]: "The greatest diversity of tamarind types is found in the African savannas.
Selected material exhibits tolerance to drought, wind, poor soils, waterlogging, high pH, low pH and
grazing. The Institute of Plant Breeding in Los Baños, the Philippines, contains a germplasm
collection (46 accessions)" [8].
[Terminology]: "As the dark brown pulp made from the fruit resembles dried dates, the Arabs called it
‘tamar-u’l-Hind’, meaning ‘date of India’, and this inspired Linnaeus when he named the tree in the
18th century. Tamarindus is a monospecific genus" [6].
Gunasena H.P.M. Hughes A. (2000) Fruits for the Future 1. Tamarind, Tamarindus indica.
[7]
Hughes A. (1999) Fruits for the future: tamarind. Fact sheet No. 1.
[7]
Morton J. (1987) Fruits of Warm Climates: Tamarind.
7
[7]
Parrotta JA. 1990. Tamarindus indica L., Tamarind. SO-ITF-SM-30. USDA Forestry Service, Rio
Piedras, Puerto Rico.
Relwani L. L. (1993) Tamarind: A multipurpose tree for diverse environments.

[7]
X. References:
[1] Sok, Sokunthet (RUA), 2006: Own obseravations
320pp.

[7] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Tectona grandis Linn.f.]
Datasheet Report
[Tectona grandis Linn.f.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Tectona grandis Linn.f.
B. English name (s) ³ teak [1, 6], Indian oak, Bangkok teak, teakwood, teak tree [1]
C. Synonym ³ Jatus grandis (L. f.) Kuntze, Theka grandis (L. f.) Lam. [1],
Tectona theka Lour. [1, 9]
D. Other1 ³ teak (Trade name) [1] - teck (France, Italy) [2, 6] - teca
(Spain, Portugal) [1] - Teak(holz)baum, Tiek (Germany) [7] -

jati, deleg, kulidawa (Indonesia) [1] - sagwan, sagun, saigun,
thekku, saka, sak, tech (India) [1, 6] - sak (Laos) [1] - kyun
(Myanmar) [1] - djati, dalanang (Philippines) [1] - sak, mai-
sak (Thailand) [1] - c[aa]y t[ees]ch, gi[as]t[ij] (Vietnam) [1] -
segun (Bangladesh)- jati (Malaysia) [7] - saguan, teak
(Nepal) [7] - msaji, mtiki (E-Africa) [7] - tek, tekku,
tekkumaram (Sri Lanka) [7].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: émsak;¬éRB¦

Source: [2,6]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ mai sak (prei), may sac [11]
Other : Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Tectona
Species: Tectona grandis
1
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Teak is a medium-sized to large deciduous to semi-deciduous tree that usually grows 16-
30 m tall [5, 6, 7, 9] (16-40 m [2], even up to 50 m under favorable conditions in its native forest [10],
25-35 m, but rarely more than 34 m in height [4]). The bole is straight, cylindrical, usually deeply
grooved and fluted up to 15 m long [7] below the 1st branches and buttressed at the base. It reaches a
DBH of 60-80 cm [5] (100 cm or more [4, 7], 150 cm [9]). The crown is open with many small
branches and quadrangular twigs which are covered with rusty star-shaped hairs. It produces a long,
thick taproot. As the tree grows, the tap root may persist or disappear and numerous strong lateral
roots are formed up to 15 m [7] from the stem often no deeper than 50 cm [7].
[Bark]: The bark is soft yellow-grey to brown, longitudinally splitted into small scales that peel off. The
inner bark is 8 mm thick [5] with a red, sticky sap and fibrous.
[Leaves]: The leaves are simple, opposite and rich green. Mature leaves are broadly egg-shaped, or
rounded, 20-60 cm long and 20-40 cm wide [5] (16-60 x 12-40 cm [9], about 30 x 20 cm [7], up to 75
cm or 30 inches long [5]) rough but hairless above and covered with soft yellowish hair below,
especially on young leaves. The leaftip is pointed and the leafblade has 30-60 pairs [5] of secondary
veins which are parallel aranged. The leafstalks (=petioles) are 2.5-5 cm long [5] (1-5 cm [9]), with
star-shaped hairs and narrowly winged. "In seasonal climates, T. grandis is deciduous, while trees
grown in non-seasonal climates are semi-deciduous. The very large, 4-sided leaves are shed for 3-4
months during the later half of the dry season, leaving the branchlets bare" [7].

[Flowers]: The inflorescence (=large erect and airy panicle) consists of opposite trichasial
flowerheads, is up to 50 cm long [9] (40 x 35 cm [1]) and is "found on the topmost branches in the
unshaded part of the crown" [7]. Flowers are bisexual, about 8 mm [7] small with 5-6 inner flower-
leaves (=petals) [9], dull-white and fused into a tube, shorter than the 5-lobed calyx [9] which is hairy
and red-glandular outside. Bracts are pointed to spear shaped or elliptic, unstalked up to 15 x 4 mm
[9, 10]. Each flower contains 5-6 stamens (=male organs) [5, 9], slightly directed outward and
attached on the base of the corolla [9]. The ovary (=female organ) is conical, densely hairy with a
short style (as long as stamens and a bifid stigma. Flowering season is January-March [5] (June to
August or September [1], May to July [9]). "The teak inflorescence contains a few thousand flowers
buds, 1-3 of them bloom each day. Anthesis (=flower expansion) for the entire inflorescence occurs
over 1-2 months. Flowers are weakly protandrous (=pollen-release before the stigma becomes
receptive) and pollen is shed within a few hours of flowers opening. Peak receptive period is between
mid morning and early afternoon; after this time the pollen viability gradually decreases. Teak is
insect-pollinated maily by bees (Ceratina spp) black and horse flies. They travel among inflorescences
and trees. Most tend to forage and stay on the same tree for long periods. Natural open pollination
resulted in only 1.3% (0.4-5.1%) of flowers developing into fruits" [1].
2
[Fruit]: Fruiting season is April-August [5] (November-January [1, 9]) when fruits fall gradually. The
fruit (=drupe) is green when young, and yellow to light brown when mature, globe-shaped and densely
hairy, having a diameter up to 1.5 cm (0.6 inches) [10] (2 cm diameter [5]) contained in an enlarged
calyx [10]. Each fruit possesses 4 valves, but generally only develops 1-3 seeds [10] wich contain a
bland fatty oil.
[1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: The sapwood of Tectona grandis is yellowish or whitish, while the heartwood is
olive-green when freshly cut, turning golden brown, brownish yellow or dark yellow upon seasoning.
The wood is moderately strongly aromatic, hard and heavy with a density of 0.48-0.61-0.75-0.85
g/cm³ at 12% moisture content [1]. It is strong with gross but fine and straight grains. "The
constituents include calcium phosphate, silica (which dulls cutting blades) and ammonium and
magnesium phosphate. Resin is also present" [6]. The heartwood has a high concentration of strong
smelling essential oil making it immune to termite and insect attack for very long periods if not splitted
or curved. It is, however, not always immune to fungal damage (rot). The sapwood is susceptible to
termites and therefore not durable. The wood combines more outstanding qualities such as
weathering resistance, lightness with strength, attractiveness, workability and seasoning capacity
without splitting, cracking, warping or materially altering shape. It is relatively easy to saw and work
with and can be finished to a fair surface and takes polish well. "It can be peeled on a rotary lathe to
produce excellent plywood and sliced veneers. It can be kiln-seasoned equally easily, but care must
be taken to avoid discoloration of the wood due to surface oxidation" [1].
[1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10]

Approximate limits: Naturally it can be found between 9°N and 25° 30'N [1] (10°N and 25°N [10]).
"Long established plantations now extend from 28°N to 18°S" [12]. T. grandis is indigenous to the
South Asian and the Southeast Asian region, originating from Thailand, Myanmar and India. It was
early found in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka, however it does not naturally occur
in Malaysia. Today it is grown throughout the tropics and is most extensively cultivated in all of
southern Asia than any other tree species. "In Vietnam this species has been planted from the
beginning of the 20th century and has now become a commonly planted tree species in many
provinces" [5]. Generally it can be found in moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests and mixed
forests. In Cambodia this species grows in the dense forests, especially in the southern provinces. "It
is often a dominant member of a mixed deciduous forest, where its main associates are Xylia spp.,
Afzelia xylocarpa, Terminalia spp. and Lagerstroemia spp. The forest floor is often covered with
bamboo. T. grandis generally occurs scattered but can form almost pure stands under favourable
conditions" [7].
[1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12]
3
"T. grandis grows between sea level in Java, East and West Africa and Trinidad up to 1,200 m
elevation in central India" [12]. It naturally occurs only in monsoon climate with an average rainfall of
1,300-2,500 mm/year [5] (1,500 and 2,000 mm/year [1], 1,200-2,500 mm/yr [7]) and a significant
difference between the wet season and the dry season which can last for 3 to 6 months [1]. However,
it grows well under an extreme variety of site conditions with rainfall as low as 510 mm/year [1] (600
mm [7]) and as high as 5,080 mm/year [1] (4,000 mm [7]). "Dry deciduous forests containing teak
(e.g. in India at annual rainfall of about 800 mm) can often be found adjoining arid thorn scrub belts,
while deciduous moist forests (at annual rainfall of around 1,500 mm) with teak can be found near
evergreen rain forests. Annual rainfall varies from 760 mm in India with 5-7 dry months to 2,500 mm
(5,000 mm) and 3-4 dry months in Java. The most important teak areas of Myanmar are situated in
regions where the normal rainfall is between 1,270 mm and 3,050 mm" [1]. The mean annual
temperature is between 210C and 280C [10], with absolute minimum temperatures of 20C [4] (00C [1])
and absolute maximum temperatures of around 450C [4] (480C [1]), but the optimum range is between
16°C and 40°C [12]. T. grandis can also be found in regions with slight frost [1]. However, other
sources ([5]) mention a poor cold-tolerance with seedlings that cannot tolerate frost. Teak is light-
demanding, even when young and tolerant to forest fire. Especially young plants show a remarkable
capability to recover after fire.
[1, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12]


Generally, T. grandis grows best in deep, well-drained, well-ventilated, fertile alluvial-colluvial soils
with a high oxygen content, a neutral pH (6.5-8 [7]) and a relatively high calcium and phosphorous
content. "The quality of growth, however, depends on the depth, drainage, moisture status and the
fertility of the soil" [7]. It can also be found on porous sandstone, limestone, granites, schists and
other metamorphic rocks but remains stunted on quartzite or hard, metamorphosed sandstone.
However, various teak provenances grow in widely varying soil types on a variety of geological
formations. "Teak from northeastern Thailand will survive in nearly pure calcium soils; in northwestern
Thailand it tolerates heavy clays; in India it even occurs in poor lateritic soils" [4]. "Weaver's 1993
review indicates that the species will tolerate wide extremes of soils so long as they are adequately
drained. Recent studies of plantation growth in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania suggests that good
growth can also occur on lateritic clay soils with a fairly high watertable so long as the water is
moving. However, there is consensus that shallow, waterlogged or compacted soils and hardpans
give poor growth, as do low availability of calcium, magnesium or phosphorous. Growth is slower at
higher altitudes and on steep slopes." [1]. Suitable soil types include acid soils, alfisols, alluvial soils,
colluvial soils, ferralsols, gravelly soils, lateritic soils, red soils, tropical soils, ultisols and vertisols.
[1, 4, 7, 9]
4
[Wood]: T. grandis is a well-known multi-purpose timber and one of the most valuable timbers in the
world. It is the most important furniture wood in India where it traditionally has been used as the
standard for comparing the quality of other timbers. The wood is used for fuelwood, round wood,
transmission poles, posts, stakes, piles, pit props, building poles, roundwood structures, sawn or
hewn building timbers, for heavy construction, beams, for light construction, carpentry/joinery, flooring,
wall paneling, shingles, engineering structures, bridges, hydraulic works, railway sleepers, containers,
pallets, crates, boxes, cases, tanks, vats, cooperage, industrial and domestic woodware, tool handles,
brushes, cutlery, toys, musical instruments, sports equipment, wood carvings, turnery, marquetry,
furniture, veneers, boats, vehicle bodies, wood based materials, plywood and wood extractives
(including oil). "Sawdust from teakwood is used as incense in Java; the dust, however, may irritate the
skin" [7].
[1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12]
[Non-wood]: Many parts of T. grandis have a variety of uses. "The leaf, bark, root, flower, fruit, and
sawdust have all been found useful" [1]. Leaves are used for wrapping and packing fresh meat and
fishes and also for thatching huts. "They are also used for making medium strong boards through
thermoplaticization and processing" [1]. They contain yellow or red dye recommended for dyeing silk,
wool and cotton. Root bark is also used for dying mattings to a yellowish-brown color. "The bark is
also a good source of oxalic acid" [1]. There are also countless applications in traditional Asian
medicine: Flowers are used to treat biliousness, bronchitis and urinary disorders. Both flowers and
seeds are considered diuretic. "An oil prepared with tender shoots is used against scabies in children"
[1]. Leaves are used as purgative, extracts of leaves are reported to be effective against
mycobacterium tuberculosis, treat bleeding of laryx, trachea, bronchi, or lungs, and sore throat. The
bark is an astringent, and also useful against bronchitis. "The oil extracted from the roots is used to
treat eczema, ringworms and inflammation" [6]. The oil extracted from the seeds promotes hair
growth. "A black liquid tar distilled from the heartwood is applied to sores in cattle" [1]. The charred
wood soaked in poppy juice is made into a paste and used to cure swellings of the eyelids. A wood tar
paste is also made from powdered wood by putting it into hot water having effectiveness in relieving
headaches, tooth aches, reduce inflammation or eruptions of the skin and digestant. "The kernels
yield about 40% fatty oil (about 2% in the seeds). Various compounds have been isolated from the
wood, bark, root and leaves. Tectoquinone present in the wood is primarily responsible for the termite
resistance property. Activated charcoal can be prepared from saw dust. Lapachol, a naphthoquinone
isolated from the heartwood was reported having an uterotrophic effect in mice" [1].
[1, 2, 6, 9]
[Others]: The tree is commonly used as an ornamental tree along roads and parks and for
landscaping due to its large leaves and spreading flower clusters. It is a component of many
agroforestry systems like intercropping systems or the 'Taungya System'. Other uses include
reforestation, shade- and shelter-tree, soil and water conservation.
5
[3, 7, 9, 10]

1st class [2, 8]

[General]: Tectona grandis is a strongly light demanding pioneer tree species with a long life span that
can be found in moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests and mixed forests. In Cambodia this
species grows in the dense forests, especially in the southern provinces. "It is often a dominant
member of a mixed deciduous forest, where its main associates are Xylia spp., Afzelia xylocarpa,
Terminalia spp. and Lagerstroemia spp.. The forest floor is often covered with bamboo. T. grandis
generally occurs scattered but can form almost pure stands under favourable conditions" [7].
Silvicultural techniques are well established and documented.
[1, 5, 7]
[Natural regeneration]: Natural regeneration of this very light-demanding species is intolerant to shade
and requires complete overhead light. It is particularly abundant in forests exposed to fires and often
occurs in patches. Young trees may react particularly sensitively to interspecies competition and
develop poorly. "In contrast to other pioneer species, T. grandis is able to persist and dominate and to
naturally regenerate towards the climax phase of succession in most parts of its natural range" [7].
"Periodic ground fires seem to have a favorable effect, since they increase germination and inhibit
competing ground flora" [4]. T. grandis seedlings are however sensitive to severe droughts. "It grows
on some very dry hills in Deccan Plateau of South India, but reaches only a small size [1]. "Its crown
requires freedom on all sides for proper development. T. grandis coppices and pollards vigorously and

growth of coppice and pollard shoots is rapid. It does not produce root suckers. It is susceptible to
frost damage but it has such remarkable powers of coppicing that if a frost-bitten plant is cut back, it
may send up a shoot which often gets above frost level and survives. "T. grandis coppices well and
early growth is rapid. It also pollards vigorously" [1].
[1, 4, 5, 6, 9]
[Establishment]: Teak is primarily cultivated in artificially established pure stands. Mono-cropping,

however, can have an unfavorable effect on the soil like surface erosion occurring on slopes
underneath fallen leaves. "Studies carried out in pure teak stands in the western plains of Venezuela
indicate that logging reduces the cation reserves (especially Ca) so severely that the soil acidifies.
Teak should therefore always be grown mixed with soil-enriching tree species. Various Leguminosae
have demonstrated their suitability for this, especially Leucaena leucocephala or Acacia spp. Trials
have also been carried out in Java with Shorea robusta and Morus alba" [4]. The initial spacing may
vary considerably from place to place. A square spacing of 1.8 m x 1.8 m [1] is practiced drier areas,
while "on good sites with rainfall above 1,500 mm a spacing of 2.5 m x 2.5 m or 2.7 m x 2.7 m
produces rapid rate of growth and faster canopy establishment" [1]. In Cambodia the traditional
spacing is 3 m x 3 m [15] whereas in Kerala State of India 2 m x 2 m [1] are used. If underplanting
6
with Leucaena is planned, the rows are spaced 3 x 3 m to nearly 5 x 5 m apart [4]. As T. grandis
plants are susceptible to weed growth, especially the grasses, weed control is very important
particularly during the initial 2 to 3 years [1] of establishment.
[1, 4, 15]
[Management of natural forests]: "In natural forests, T. grandis has traditionally been managed under
a selection system, in which fellings and regeneration are distributed over the whole area and the
resultant crop is so uneven-aged that trees of all ages are found mixed together throughout. In the
selection system, mature trees above the exploitation diameter, together with dead and dying trees
are removed. The selection system is mainly practiced in Myanmar. In the Myanmar Selection System
the selection diameter is 73 cm in moist forests and 64 cm in dry forests" [1].
[Management of plantations]: "In plantations, teak is managed under the clearfelling system in which
the mature crop is clearfelled in one operation and subsequently replanted. T. grandis is a strong light
demander and will suffer from crown competition; it grows best in even-aged crops, regularly and
heavily thinned, particularly in the first half of the rotation. White reports that thinning in Thailand
follows a pattern of early mechanical reduction of half the stand each time, and different thinning
intervals are followed at different ages: 5 years in ages 5-20 years, 10 years in ages 20-40 years, 15
years in ages of 40-60 years and at 20 years intervals beyond this ( 4 times, at 5-, 10-, 18- and 28-
year intervals after planting [7]). There are usually 5 to 6 thinnings in Indian teak plantations and
thinning ages vary in different states. Some examples are 6, 10, 18, 30 and 44 years in Andamans; 5,
10, 17 and 25 years in Andhra Pradesh; 8, 15, 25 and 40 years in Orissa; 4-7, 8-13, 15-20, 25-28, 36
and 44-45 years in Kerala. The first thinning (and sometimes the second too) is a mechanical thinning
in which the number of stems are reduced by 50%. The remaining thinnings are silvicultural. In the
Caribbean and Central American region, the first and second thinning (mechanical thinning) are
conducted when plantations attain heights of 8 m and 16 m respectively. Even though teak plantation
technology under low input is well-known, productivity is often adversely affected by scarcity of
superior propagules, delayed planting and sub-optimal after care. On the other hand, performance of
plantations under high input management remains under-investigated. Depending on the site
characteristics and management practices, rotation period varies from 30 to 150 years. The rotation is
shorter when teak is managed under a coppice system, especially in drier localities. Rotation ages
followed in Indian plantations vary between 50 and 80 years ("for production of high-grade timber in
plantations are 50-70 years, in natural or nearly natural stands over 100 years" [4]). Centeno suggests
a rotation of 25 years to 40 years, based on economic and silvicultural considerations. Most
plantations in tropical America are managed with far shorter rotations, usually from 20 to 30 years, to
give a mean annual increment of 10 m³ to 20 m³ per hectare. However, some of the teak planting
companies in India have now arbitrarily set a rotation age of 20 years under high input management"
[1].
[1, 7]
[Growth and yield]: "Initial growth of the tree is rapid. At an age of 5 years, an average height of 13 m
(5 m after 5 years, 3 m after 2 years [4]) and 10 cm DBH is not unusual; after 10 years, 16.5 m and 15
7
cm; after 20 years, 21.5 m and 23.5 cm. After 15 or 20 years, growth slows down. In stands of 80 year
old trees, maximum height is about 45 m, with a maximum diameter of 75 cm. The average plantation
yield in Java is 60-100 m³/ha, including thinning." [7]. "The volume increment culminates after 15-20
years; after the age of 50, further increases in value are due primarily to additional formation of
heartwood" [4]. "The mean annual volume increment in teak plantations outside of tropical America
ranges between 2.6 m³ per hectare in Bangladesh and 16.0 m³ per hectare in the Ivory Coast. The
Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun, India, provides detailed information about growth and yield of
teak in India under different site qualities. This includes the mean tree measurements and annual
volume increments under different site qualities in India. The commercial volume table for teak used in
Kerala State, India is provided by Nair" [1].
[1, 4, 7]
[Agroforestry]: Tectona grandis is the classic tree species used in the original Taungya System where
it is intercropped with upland rice. Intercropping with legumes like soy bean is also practiced resulting
in a higher growth rate of teak and creating harvest of the bean for food. The soya stems, roots and
leaves are added to the soil as fertilizer. Teak is also used as a support plant for growing pepper
(Piper nigrum) vines.
[4, 7, 12]
Q. Propagation :
[Seed collection and storage]: Seed production in T. grandis generally starts after the fifth year [1]
(year 5-6 [4]) sometimes as early as age 2 [4], but on unfavorable sites not until much later. However
it is recommended that seeds be collected from selected stands with trees over 20 years old [4].
"Widely varying figures for the number of seeds per kilogram are cited, but in general it is between

1,000 and 3,000 (1,500-2,500 seeds/kg [1], 800-2,000 seeds/kg [7])" [4]. "Most of the useful seeds
(fruits without calyx) fall into the 9-18 mm diameter category" [1]. Harvest can take place after fruit
drop but it is important to collect the seed from the clean ground by sweeping up before predators
remove it and also of minimizing the effort expended on harvesting poor quality or inviable seed. "The
best quality fruits are usually the last ones shed. Seeds collected from the forest floor are generally
used to establish plantations" [7]. "If stored in burlap sacks under cool conditions (for transport and
storage it is useful to remove the calyx by rigorous rubbing and winnowing), the seeds remain viable
for up to a year" [4]. Fruits can also be dry-stored in gunny bags and sealed tins for up to 2 years [1].
"To reduce bulk in storage, the seed can be husked by rubbing it over a sieve. Another method is to
load seed and large river gravel into a cement mixer. The seed can then be ‘floated’ off. Stumps, used
for propagation, can be stored for up to a year. Seed Viability can be maintained for at least 7 years in
hermetic, air-dry storage at 0-4ºC at 12% mc with no loss in viability after that period. Seeds can also
be maintained for 10 years in hermetic, air-dry storage at 2ºC" [7].
[Germination]: Although treatment of teak seeds to promote germination is not necessary in some
regions, a number of pre-sowing treatments have shown to improve germination. A general practice is
to use fruits stored for a year after soaking them in running water for 24-48 hours [7] and let them dry
on the following day. Viable seeds begin egigeal sprouting about 10-20 days but may take 3 months
8
[4] (2-3 months [1]). If it is necessary to use fruits from the same year, they should be subjected to
alternate wetting then drying for 24 hours each for 14 days [4, 7]. Even fruits that have lain dormant in
the ground for 30 to 40 years [7] have been known to germinate abundantly. "In Thailand the
approach is also used of putting the seeds out for 1-2 weeks to let ants eat away the thick, leathery
exocarp. By subsequently soaking the seeds briefly and allowing them to dry, the germination
percentage can be additionally increased" [7]. "Another method is to char (or half burn) the fruits by
covering them with a thin layer of grass and lighting it" [1]. The germination rate is low, usually less
than 50% [1], but sometimes up to 80% [1] (as a rule, it cannot be raised to more than 20-60% [4])
[Seed propagation]: Teak plantations are established by direct sowing, stump planting and bag
planting. "Seed requirements per hectare for open plantations in Cambodia: 1,000 seeds/kg. Planting
spacing: 3 x 3 m. Net seedlings required per hectare: 1,112. Rate of loss: 1,335 (20% in planting site),
1,484 (10% in transit), 1,855 (20% at the nursery). Germination rate: 40%. Purity: 90%. Total seed
requirement: 5.16 kg" [15].
[Direct sowing]: "Direct sowing, the oldest method, is characterized by high mortality and slow growth.
Seedlings kept in bags yield plants with a good root system in a short period of time provided care is
taken to prevent coiling of roots in containers" [1]. "Direct sowing into the field at the beginning of the
rainy season is often practised in Java" [7].
[Stump planting]: "Stump planting is the most popular method as it offers several benefits. Stumps
may be produced when needed and transported over considerable distances while maintaining their
viability. Moreover they are easier and quicker to plant, and subsequent growth is more rapid and
vigorous" [1]. "For raising of nursery stock, individual seeds are planted about 1 cm deep in rows (15 x
5 cm). The young plants are raised in full sunlight with frequent watering ("although teak demands
strong light, it prefers slight shading during the seedling stage" [7]). After about 8-10 months, when
the seedlings have a basal diameter of between 1 and 2 cm, the stem is cut back to about 5 cm above
the ground and the root to a length of around 20 cm (15-20 cm [1])" [4]. "For production of planting
stumps beds are dug deeply, edged, seed sown and covered with earth and straw to prevent soil
wash before the onset of monsoon showers. Alternatively, beds can be managed under irrigation.
Stump planting in pits have shown better height growth. Preliminary field trials suggest that 'root
trainer' plants can also be used for planting" [1]. By the end of the second vegetation period, such
stumps attain heights of up to 3 m; they are therefore able to grow out of the reach of ground
vegetation (especially Imperata cylindrica) without the need of special tending. Teak coppices from
stump, and puts out numerous root suckers. The rooting time of these stumps is 8 to 15 days [7], and
the survival rate of rooted stock is 90-100% [7]. "Various growth regulators such as indole butyric
acid, indole acetic acid, naphthayl acetic acid, coumarin and boric acid stimulate root formation. The
rooting response varies with the hormone, their concentration and the season" [1].
[Grafting]: "Both grafting and budding methods showed better results than branch cutting methods"
[7]. Pre-budded teak stumps grown in pots are used for establishing seed orchards. The
establishment rate is above 80% [1] under ideal conditions. The budded plants are hardened off
before outplanting in the orchards.
9
[Tissue culture]: Tissue cultures have been perfected for T. grandis [1, 7]. "It is possible to produce
500 plants from a single bud of a mature tree or 3,000 plants from a seedling in a year. Tissue-
cultured plants possess better growth than seed-grown plants" [7]. However, "the field performance
will depend on genotype selection and nursery care" [1].
[1, 4, 7]

[Pests]: "Over 180 species of insects are reported to be associated with teak. Most of them are minor
pests. Those which cause serious damage are white grubs in nurseries, sapling borer in young
plantations, trunk borer in older plantations and two species of defoliators. In nurseries, white grubs
(Holotrichia spp.) eat the seedling roots, causing wilting and subsequent death. White grubs can be
controlled by treating the nursery beds with systemic soil insecticides. The sapling borer
Sahyadrassus malabaricus is a problem in young plantations, with dense weed growth. It can be
managed through regular pest surveillance and spot application of selected insecticides. The leaf-
eating moth larvae Hyblaea puera (Hyblaea puera, Pyrausta machoeralis and others [4]) and the
skeletonizer Eutectona machaeralis are recognised as serious pests. In young plantations in Kerala,
India the teak defoliator causes repeated severe defoliation in the early part of the growth season of a
loss of up to 44% of the potential volume increment. The skeletonizer, on the other hand causes
defoliation later in the season and has no significant impact. Although biological control methods
using native parasites and silvicultural practices were recommended in the past, it is not currently
practised. Current emphasis is on the use of a naturally occurring nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) for
control of the teak defoliator. The bee hole borer, Xyleutes ceramica is a serious pest in Myanmar and
Thailand. It riddles the tree trunk with borer holes severely degrading the quality of wood. Cossus

cadambae causes similar problems in the southern states of India, but the incidence is limited to
pockets where the trees are subject to repeated lopping. In Kerala, India, T. grandis is attacked by the
trunk borer, Cossus cadambae. This results in the infection of the tunnels by the fungus Phialophora
richardsiae and causes die-back of trees" [1].
[1, 4]
[Diseases]: "Although diseases are not recognized as major problem in teak, some pathogens are of
importance. In nurseries, bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas spp., leaf spots caused by
Phomopsis and leaf rust caused by Olivea often cause serious problems. Pseudomonas
solanacearum causes typical vascular wilt in India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Myanmar while
Phomopsis tectonae is prominent in the Philippines. Lack of soil drainage and root injuries are
predisposing factors of bacterial wilt. The leaf spots caused by Phomopsis tectonae in combination
with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides result in defoliation and death of the seedlings. Rust caused by
Olivea tectonae results in premature defoliation in nurseries and plantations in India, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Myanmar, Indonesia and Thailand. In nurseries, rust can be controlled by foliar spray of sulfur-
based fungicides. In 1-to 3-year old plants Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease) causes death of
terminal shoots in India and Indonesia. Several fungi have been reported to cause root rot and decay
10
of standing trees in India, Tanzania, Dahomey, Nigeria and Papua New Guinea, but they are of local
and minor importance" [1].
[Others]: Parasitic plants: "The mistletoe, Dendrophthoe falcata (Loranthaceae), is a major problem in
plantations in almost all the teak-growing countries, especially, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and
Trinidad. It was found to cause up to 40% reduction in annual increment and mortality reaching 9% in
teak plantations in Kerala, India. Lopping the infested branches before the flowering season is the
usual method of management" [1]. Physiological disorders: "In high rainfall areas of India, where the
water table is high, teak is affected by 'water blister', a physiological disorder characterized by
exudation of a brown sap from the lower portion of the trunk. The sap is collected in a longitudinal split
inside the trunk which opens at some point on the lower portion of the trunk. The exudation of the sap
into the split is probably mediated through the xylem ray cells. Although the problem is not
widespread, it is serious enough to cause concern in localities where it occurs. The loss is serious in
terms of log quality, often resulting in rejection of affected timber for high quality veneer, boards or
turnery stock. Animals: T.grandis is not as readily browsed or grazed as most of its associate species.
However, heavy browsing can break soft, young shoots. It suffers from injury by various mammals
such as rat, pig, deer and bison. The worst offender is the elephant which can ruin teak plantations"
[1].
S. Conservation :
This species has been classified as 'not evaluated' (NE [14]) according to IUCN (International Union
for the Conservation of Nature) World List of Threatened Trees.
[14]

[Native]:
India (Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh), Indonesia, Laos (Sayabouri), Myanmar, Sri Lanka, N-
Thailand.
[1, 2, 7, 9]
[Introduced]:
Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (Guangdong, Hainan, Hubei, Taiwan, Yunnan), India
(Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West
11
Bengal), Indonesia (Java, Sumatra) Japan, Korea, Laos, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah,
Sarawak), Myanmar, Nepal, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam
Oceania: Australia, Fiji Islands, U.S. Pacific Islands, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands
Africa: Benin, Congo Democratic Republic, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea. Kenya.
Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South
Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Caribbean: Cuba, Honduras, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago, United States
Virgin Islands
South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela
Central America: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama
North America: USA (Florida, Georgia), Mexico
[1, 9]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Terminoligy]: "The generic name comes from 'tekka', the Malabar name for T. grandis. The specific
name, 'grandis', is Latin for 'large' or 'great'" [1].
[Variation and Breeding]: "The success of planting programmes depend not only on site quality but
also on genetic quality of the planting materials. Although growth and yield of plantations can be
largely improved through site selection, stem quality (i.e. straightness, branching, etc.) of the
plantation is strongly controlled by its genetic make-up. The results of international teak provenance
trials clearly demonstrated the effects of provenances or seed sources on growth, stem quality and

early flowering habit as well as performance of teak plantations throughout the teak growing region.
Through proper selection of provenances or seed sources, growth and stem quality of trees in
plantations can be improved up to 23% and 17%, respectively. The use of improved seed, i.e. from
seed production areas, seed orchards and plus trees, is also essential in the improvement of growth,
stem quality and other characters of the plantation. It has been estimated that by using such improved
seed, growth and/or volume production gain of the plantation increases (from base populations) by 5-
25%, depending on types of seed sources and planting sites. Racial differences in teak have been
studied by several workers. Laurie (1936) recognised four different types of branching in teak and
regarded it likely to be heritable. Reviewing literature on teak, White (1991) points out that the age of
first flowering is under genetic control. Flowering at an early age results in forking and depresses
further height growth. Citing a few important studies, Weaver (1993) reports that seeds of some
provenances have a pronounced dormancy and that germination capacity improves on storage. In
India, attempts to improve the planting stock genetically were initiated in 1961 with selection of a few
plus trees based on a programme formulated by the Government of India. Since then about 1,000
plus trees have been selected in India and clonal seed orchards covering 1,000 hectares have been
established. Selection of superior teak phenotypes from India for raising clonal seed orchards was
based on 20 characters among which were height, girth, length of clear bole, stem form (buttressing,
12
twisting, and tapering), epicormic branching, pest and disease susceptibility and seed production.
Environment may also influence the quality of teak. A preliminary survey of teak at 24 sites in India
disclosed that variation in wood colour, grain and texture, leaf morphology, and flower and seed
biology were associated with particular sites. In Thailand, the Teak Improvement Centre (TIC), in
Ngao, Lapang, has been engaged in an improvement programme of the species since 1965.
Provenance trials, selection and propagation of plus trees, establishment of seed production, seed
and breeding orchards and clonal testing are the areas of work being carried out there" [1].
[Water consumption]: "Kallarackal and Somen, in a study on the water consumption by T. grandis in
Kerala, found that a 12 year old tree, in leafy stage, consumes 83 liters per day. The water
consumption during the dry season is negligible because of its deciduous state" [1].
[History of cultivation]: "Its natural distribution is in southeast Asia, from the Indian subcontinent
through Myanmar and Thailand to Laos. Whether the 'natural' stands in Indonesia are indigenous or
the result of early cultivation by Hindu settlers, possibly in the 7th century, is not clearly established. It
is believed teak was introduced to Java 400-600 years from India. At the beginning of this century, T.
grandis was introduced to both East and West Africa and to the Caribbean region, where 'Trinidad
teak' has become particularly well known. For instance, it was introduced into Cote d'Ivoire in 1929. It
is planted for timber or ornament and in botanical gardens. Plantations in southeast Asia have been
established both within and outside the tree’s natural range. T. grandis was by far the most important
export timber in Thailand until all logging in natural forests was banned in 1989. Natural stands in
Thailand cover about 2.5 million ha, plantations 170,000 ha. In other southeast Asian countries, it is
planted on a comparatively small scale and production is small. As an exotic, it is planted in
Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam." [7]. "In
Cambodia a plantation area of 2,136 ha of teak has been established between 1915 and 1972" [3].
Alexander TG, Sankar S, Balagopalan M, Thomas TP, 1987. Soil in teak plantations of different site
quality. KFRI Research Report, No. 45:iii + 17 pp.; 18 ref.
[12]
Bakshi BK, 1976. Forest pathology: principles and practice in forestry. Forest pathology: principles
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[12]
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their impact on seedling production in nurseries. In: Caring for the Forest in a Changing World.
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Finland. Finninsh IUFRO World Congress Committee, IUFRO Secretariat, Vienna, Austria, 170.
[12]
13
Banik RL, 1993. Teak in Bangaladesh. In: Wood H, ed. Teak in Asia. FORSPA Publication 4.
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[12]
Bedell PE, 1989. Preliminary observations on variability of teak in India. Indian Forester, 115(2):72-81;
12 ref.
[12]
Bhat KM, 1998. Properties of fast-grown teak: the impact on end-user's requirements. Proc. XX
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[12]
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[12]
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[12]
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[12]
Centeno JC, 1997. The management of teak plantations. Tropical Forest Update, 7(2):10-12.
[12]
Chacko KC, 1995. Silvicultural problems in Management of Teak Plantations. Paper presented at the
Second Regional Seminar on Teak, Yangon, Myanmar. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO.
[12]
14
Chacko KC, Sankar S, Pandalai RC, Nandakumar UN, 1991. Effects of slash burning on soil
properties, weed growth, taungya yield and growth of teak. Indian Forester, 117(4):237-248; 9 ref.
[12]
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damage of teak plantations in Thailand. In: Hutacharern C, McDicken KG, Ivory MH, Nair KSS, eds.
Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantations in the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangok, Thailand: RAPA, FAO,
224-229.
[12]
Chaudhari NR, 1963. Pre-liminary trial of pre-sprouted stump planting for artificial regeneration of
teak. Indian Forester, 89(9):638-640.
[12]
Chinese Academy of Forestry, 1992. Development of teak in China. In: Wood H, ed. Teak in Asia.
FORSPA Publication No. 4. Bangkok, Thailand: FAO, 11-26.
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[12]
Cook T, 1906. The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London, UK: Taylon & Francis, Vol. 2:503-504.
[12]
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Delhi, India: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
[12]
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15
[12]
Dymock W, Warden CJH, Hooper D, 1890. Pharmacographia Indica - Part III. London, UK: Kegan
Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd.
[12]
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Ghosh SK, Balasundaran M, Ali MIM, 1984. Studies on the host-parasite relationship of
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[12]
Gibson IAS, 1975. Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and southern
hemisphere. Part 1. Important members of the Myrtaceae, Leguminosae, Verbenaceae and
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Part 1. Important members of the Myrtaceae, Leguminosae, Verbenaceae and Meliaceae., xii +

51pp.; [8 pl., 1 tab.].
[12]
Goh D, Monteuuis O, 1997. Vegetative propagation of Teak. Tropical Forest Update, 7(2):13.
[12]
Griffith AL, 1939. Investigations into the best age and diameter of stump to use when stump planting
teak (Tectona grandis) in area having general West Coast type climate. Indian Forest Records (n.s)
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[12]
Hutacharern C, 1990. Forest insect pests in Thailand. In: Hutacharern C, McDicken KG, Ivory MH,
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16
[12]
Indira EP, Chacko KC, Krishnankutty CN, 1996. Studies on growth performance of teak nursery stock
from genetically better sources for developing improved plantations. KFRI Research Report 102.
Peechi, Trichur, India: Kerala Forest Research Institute.
[12]
Kadambi K, 1972. Silviculture and management of Teak. Bulletin, School of Forestry, Stephen F.
Austin State University, No. 24:137 pp.; 71 ref.
[12]
Kallarackal J, Seethalakshmi KK, Bhat KV, 1992. Water blisters in teak. KFRI Research Report, No.
82:iii + 22 pp.; 17 ref.
[12]
Kallarackal J, Somen CK, 1992. Water use of selected indigenous and exotic trees. KFRI Research
Report 86. Peechi, Kerala, India: KFRI.
[12]
Kaosa-ard A, 1995. Overview problems in teak plantation establishment. Paper presented at the
Second Regional Seminar on Teak, organized by Ministry of Forestry, Myanmar and FAO, 29 May-3
June 1995, Yangon, Myanmar.
[12]
Kedharnath S, Mathews JD, 1962. Improvement of teak by selection and breeding. Indian Forester,
88:277-284.
[12]
Keiding H, 1985. Teak, Tectona grandis, Linn. f. Seed Leaflet, DANIDA Forest Seed Centre,
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[12]
17
Keiding H, Wellendorf H, Lauridsen EB, 1986. Evaluation of an international series of teak
provenance trials. Evaluation of an international series of teak provenance trials., v + 81pp.; 21 ref.
[12]
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management of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations., 48 pp.; 59 ref.
[12]
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trainers. Indian Forester, 123:95.
[12]
Ko Ko Gyi M, 1993. Teak in Myanmar. In: Wood H, ed. Teak in Asia. FORSPA Publication 4.
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[12]
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Mascarenhas AF, Kendarkar SV, Gupta PK, Khuspi SS, Agarwal DC, 1987. Teak. In: Bonga JM,
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Mathew G, Rugmini P, 1996. Impact of the borer Alctrogystia cadambae (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) in
forest plantations of teak in Kerala, India. In: Nair KSS, Sharma JK, Varma RV, eds. Impact of
Diseases and Insect Pests in Tropical Forests. Peechi, India: KFRI, 304-310.
18
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Tectona grandis Linn. F. Teak bibliography.Titles, with s of important ones, of world literature dealing
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[12]
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22

[http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac648e/ac648e04.htm]. (Internet source)
[httpwww.worldagroforestry.orgseaProductsAFDbasesAFaspBotanicSearch.asp]. (Internet source)
[10] Thames & Hudson, 2004, Tropical and Subtropical Trees.
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[14] WWF - Tropical timbers available in FSC-certified wood:

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[15] FA/CTSP, 2005: Guidelines for site selection and tree planting in Cambodia. 90pp. Phnom Penh
23
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula]
Datasheet Report
[Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Terminalia chebula Retz. var. chebula[16]
B. English name (s) ³ Chebulic myrobalan, black myrobalan [16], beda nuts [12]
C. Synonym ³ Terminalia parviflora Thwaites, T. zeylanica van Heurck &

Muell. Arg., T. tomentella Kurz [16], T.reticulata Roth, T.
aruta Buch.-Ham. ex G.Don, [12]
D. Other1 ³ sa mao chet (Cambodia); : sa mao tchet (Cambodia);
chebulic myrabolan (Philippines; somz moox kh'ook (Laos);

manja puteri (unripe fruits) (Malaysia); samo thai (Thailand-
central); chieu lieu xanh (Vietnam); myrobolan noir (French)
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ Rsm:

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ srâmâ [4]

Other : Myrtales
Family: Combretaceae
Gunus: Terminalia L. [16]
Species: Terminalia chebula Retz.
var.chebula [16]
Source :[11 ; 16]
1
Terminalia chebula is divided into 2 varieties: var. chebula is a tree whereas var. nana Gagnep. is
only a small shrub [16].
[General]: A deciduous, medium-sized tree, up to 10-20m high, 40-80 cm in diameter, crown layered.
Branches and leaves resemble those of Terminalia catappa [2]. A medium-sized tree, up to 30 m tall,
bole usually short, branchless up to 10 m; up to 130 cm in diameter [12,16].
[Bark]: Bark greyish with shallow, horizontal fissures, forming irregular rectangles, 3x4 or 3x7 cm.
Inner bark 1.5-1.8 cm thick, exuding a reddisch adstringent sap. Young branches glabrous [2]. Tree
with blackish bark [4]. Surface usually cracked with woody scales, dark brown. [16]
[Leaves]: Leaves simple, opposite or sub-opposite, obovate 10-20 by 5-10 cm cuneate at both ends,
margin entire. Leaf blade slightly thick, stiff, coriaceous, fine pubescent on young leaves, then
glabrescent. Penni-nerved, lateral veins, 7-9 pairs, prominent beneath, with 2 very small glands at the
top.[2]
Broadly ovate, to ovate-elliptical, 7-15 cm x 4-10 cm, cuneate to slightly cordate at base, glabrescent,
with 6-7 pairs of secondary veins, petiole 1-3 cm long.[16].
[Flowers]: Inflorescence is an axillary spike-raceme, near the branch tips, multi-flowered, 5-10 cm
long, rhachis pubescent. Flowers bisexual, bracts triangular, 1-3 mm long, green-white. Calyx
campanulate, 5-dented. Corolla absent. Stamens 10, in 2 whorls, 4 mm long, filaments 3 mm long.
Disc inside staminal whorl, 5-lobed, pubescent. Ovary inferior, glabrous, monolocular. Ovules 2, 1.5
mm long. [2]

Flowers in an axillary or terminal panicle 3-7 cm long, calyx tube glabrous outside [16].
[Fruit]: Fruit an ovoid drupe, 3-4 cm long, 1.7-2.0 cm in diameter, apex acute, greenish with 5
longitudinal stripes. One hard seed. The fallen fruit with a scent of Citrus grandis seed. [2]. Fruit
globose, to ellipsoid, 2.5-5.0 cm x 1.5-2.5 cm, glabrous, smooth or sometimes 5-angular or ridged
[16]. Flowering from May to June, fruiting from August to September [2].
I. Wood properties:
Wood of T. chebula has good quality, it is quite heavy with a specific gravity of 870 kg/m³ [2]. The
timber is greyish brown and has a density of 880 kg/kg/m³ at 12% m.c. It is fairly durable in the shade
or in water, but is less durable on exposure to direct sunlight. The wood is very difficult to saw, to
season and to work [12,16,26]. The sapwood is sharply differentiated from the heartwood; it is
yellowish-grey to grey, sometimes with a greenish tinge, whereas the heartwood is small, dark brown
to reddish-brown, very hard and heavy to very heavy, with a specific gravity of 810-1050 kg/m³ (880
kg/m³ at 12% moisture content). The timber is strong and tough, diffuse-porous, with interlocked grain;
texture medium fine to fine, sometimes with curly grain, durable only under cover [26].
2
A native species of Sri Lanka, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Burma, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indochina
Philippines, and southern China, but introduced to Peninsular Malaysia. It occurs naturally in teak
forests, deciduous, and dry evergreen forests on free-draining clayey or sandy soils, up to an altitude
of 1000 m a.s.l. [12]. In Thailand and Burma it is found together with teak. T. chebula occurs scattered
in mixed deciduous forest, extending into forests of comparatively open structure and dry evergreen
forest. It is a light-demanding tree, mixed with other species such as Terminalia sp., Lagerstroemia
sp. and Pterocarpus pedatus in secondary or evergreen forests and at the boundary of Dipterocarp
forest [2].

Terminalia chebula occurs scattered in mixed deciduous and dry evergreen forests up to 1000 m
elevation a.s.l. It prefers a climate with ample precipitation of between 500-3300 mm/m² evenly
distributed over the season, with a dry season break of 3-4 months. The altitudinal range reaching
from 300-1500 m. Malesian species of Terminalia generally occur as elements of the canopy layer
sometimes of the subcanopy layer, in evergreen, semi-deciduous or sometimes deciduous, primary
and secondary forests. Most species prefer moist locations like swamp forest or periodically flooded
riverine forest, but are also found in hill forest, in teak forest and even in dry mixed dipterocarp forest;
some species are littoral (preferring beach areas). Terminalia is mostly found at lower elevations but
few individual species may ascend up to 2000 m elevation. The climate ranges from everwet to
seasonal. The mean annual temperature lies approximately between 25ºC-35ºC [12,16), the absolute
minimum tolerated is given as >minus 1ºC. T.chebula tolerates drought and fire once established, but
also short periods of frost at higher elevations [12].

not determined

T. chebula tolerates light to heavy soil texture, no particular demands on soil reaction, presumably
rather neutral than acid. Often found on free-draining, clayey or sandy soils, up to 1000 m elevation
a.s.l. [16]

[Wood]: T.chebula is in first place appreciated for its tannin-rich fruit. In 1980ies most of the volume of
chebula fruit havested came from trees growing in the wild. With on average 30% tannin contents, T.
chebula is probably the tree species with the highest percentage of tanning compounds in its fruit [26].
The wood is used in construction, for furniture, pillars, beams, axles [2].Itis also in demand for cabinet
work and construction [4]. Other applications are for furniture, carts and implements, building timbers,
3
posts, beams, industrial and domestic wood ware, wooden handles, also wood extractives, including
oil [12,16].
[Non-Wood]: More important than the wood are the fruit, which are rich in tannin and are extensively
used for tanning leather in India. The dried fruit-pulp has an average tannin content of 30-32% [19],
but the content varies considerably with the place of origin. Poor samples may contain less than 20%
tannin, good ones over 40% [26]. They are usually combined with syntans and with other vegetable
tanning materials such as black wattle (Acacia mearnsii De Wild.), avaram (Cassia auriculata L.) and
Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B. Robinson. Chebulic myrobalan is used in the production of sole leather, and
also in a last tannage after chrome tanning to give the leather weight and a fast colour. An extract is
suitable for pretannage of cattle hides. A durable yellow dye can be produced from the fruits mixed
with alum; a black dye and ink can be obtained by mixing the crushed fruits with iron.[16]. India holds
a quasi-monopoly for tannins based on natural products. Of 100,000 t of annual production, 10,000t
were exported in 1981. In the meantime synthetic products replace natural tannins in many
applications. But natural tannins are still used in considerable quantities (40,000 t annually) e.g. by
deep-drilling enterprises to reduce the viscosity of drilling slurry [19]. The preference for natural
tannins is justified because of their superior capacity of imparting body and weight to different kinds of
leather products [19]. Further highly technical and chemical information on the tanning processes can
be found in the species data sheet of T.chebula of the World Agroforestry Centre [26].
The bark produces a gum and tannin used for dyeing fishing nets.[4].
Fruits are edible and have numerous medicinal applications.
The fruit, called "Kha tue" in Vietnam, is used for the treatment of cholera, dysentery and cough in
India, Burma and Thailand [2]. There are numerous medical applications of the fruit, for example as

laxative, stomathic, tonic, and alterative. They are often used in combination with emblic myrobalan
(Phyllanthus emblica L.) and beleric myrobalan (Terminalia bellirica (Gaertner) Roxb.). They show
antibacterial and antifungal activity, and are used to cure inflamed gums and as a relief in asthma
[26].
T.chebula is considered a suitable component for agroforestry landuse and even revegetation of
marginal sites [12].

not included

Considerable experience is available in the silviculture of a number of Terminalia species, notably T.
brassii. T. calamansanai and T. catappa, especially in the Solomon Islands. For establishing a
plantation cuttings, air-layering and grafting are applied..
Q. Propagation :
The following applies to the Genus Terminalia as a whole, but no all details apply to T. chebula:
4
Terminalia can be propagated by seed including direct sowing, by cuttings, grafting and wildlings.
Seed is readily and severely attacked by insects and other animals, even before fruit fall.
Nevertheless it should be collected from the ground, as seed still on the tree may not be fully mature.
The number of seeds per kg of different species is very variable: for T. catappa about 500, for T.
myriocarpa 8800-9900, for T. brassi up to 70,000. In general seed viability diminishes rapidly, with
some exceptions. T. catappa seed remains viable for a long time and its fruits may be transported
over long distances by sea water. The viability differences are considerable varying between 5-50%
for T. alata, 25-70% for T. catappa and up to 50% for T.chebula. Seed of some species reacts to
pretreatment like soaking in water for 24-48 hours, or by manual scarification, however, T. catappa
seed has not been found to benefit of any pretreatment [16]. Covering of seeds or fruit in the seedbed
is important for increasing the germination percentage. Light shade is generally applied during
germination but should be removed after 1-2 months. Adequate moisture during germination is a
prerequisite. Germination generally starts within 2 weeks after sowing and lasts for another 2-5
weeks. Seed of T. phellocarpa started germinating only after 3.5 months and the last seed germinated
7 months after sowing [16].
Terminalia chebula: The fallen fruits are collected and dried thoroughly first. Later the hardened flesh
is removed. Fermentation of the stones gives the best germinative results, but clipping the broad end
of the stone without damaging the embryo, followed by soaking in cold water for 36 hours gives good
results too. Direct sowing is not advisable, because the risk of predation and because the seeds
germinate poorly. In India, seeds are usually sown in boxes or nursery beds before the rainy season,
covered with soil, and watered, done in the first or second rainy season. Shading is desirable in early
stages in the nursery and after transplanting. The germination rate of T. chebula seed is up to 50%.
Propagation by cuttings is possible, but less successful than transplanting nursery-raised seedlings
into the field. In the forest, regeneration is facilitated by creating small gaps in the canopy, and this
should be supplemented by sowing seeds in the clearings [26].
Germination is epigeal, seedling develop a long, fairly thin primary root, a short and thick hypocotyl,
and glabrous cotyledons with 3 prominent and 2 less conspicuous veins. The germinative power of
the seed is poor. Viability of the seed is retained for about 1 year. Seedling growth is comparatively
slow, with 10-20 cm height attained by the end of the first season. Rate of growth is slow in later
stages too. The flowers appear together with the new leaves after the tree has been leafless for
several months. Fruits ripen some 8 months later, and fall soon after ripening [26].

The tree itself does not suffer from any serious disease or pest, altough some defoliators have been
reported. Howefver, fallen fruits are heavily predated by rodents and insects. The timber is attacked
by borers [26].
Damaging insects have only been described for the Solomon Islands´ plantations, none for Indochina
or Peninsular Malaysia.
5
S. Conservation :

unknown

India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and southern China, Burma, Thailand, Indochina, introduced to Peninsular
Malaysia [16].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
T. chebula might be an interesting source of tanning material for South-East Asia. Because it is the
fruit that yields the tannin, harvesting is not injurious to the trees, as is the case for many bark-yielding
species. This species from mainland Asia is probably not suited to the climate of many parts of South-
East Asia, unlike T. bellirica. However, as it has been grown for many years in the botanical garden in
Bogor (Java), and as it has better tanning properties than the latter species, it might be worthwhile
trying in cultivation after genetic improvement [26]
Fenton, R., Roper, R.E. & Watt, G.R., 1977: Lowland tropical hardwoods. An annotated bibliography
of selected species with plantation potential. External Aid Div., Wellington, N.Z. Min. Foreign Affs. 2)
Whitmore, T.C. (Ed.) Tree Flora of Malaya, 2nd. edition. Vol.1: Malayan Forest Records no. 26.
For.Res. Inst. Malaysia. Longman Malaysia SDN Berhad, Kuala Lumpur.
Barthakur NN, Arnold NP, 1991. Nutritive value of the chebulic myrobalan (Terminalia chebula Retz.)
and its potential as a food source. Food Chemistry, 40(2):213-219; 23 ref.

Bhardwaj SD, Chakraborty AK, Joshi NK, 1993. Vegetative propagation of Terminalia bellirica Roxb.
and Terminalia chebula Retz. by stem cuttings. Indian Forester, 119(5):360-366; 22 ref.
Chakraborty AK, Pandey ON, Bhardwaj SD, 1992. Propagation of Terminalia bellirica and Terminalia
chebula by stem cutting. Journal of Research, Birsa Agricultural University, 4(1):99-101; 4 ref.
Kamal Sharma, Sanjeev Thakur, Badiyala SD, Sharma NK, 1995. First report on the propagation of
Terminalia chebula Retz. through patch budding. Indian Forester, 121(8):760-761; 2 ref.
Misra KK, Jaiswal HR, 1994. Effects of indole butyric acid on rooting of air layers of arjun and chebulic
myrobalan. Indian Forester, 120(2):183-186; 6 ref.
6
Nurul Islam, Abdus Samad Khan, 1991. Piece dyeing of cotton fabrics with Myrobalan [Terminalia
chebula] fruits. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 26(1-4):175-187; 2 ref.
odrigo TMASK, 1990. Revitalization of degraded forest land in the dry zone by planting medicinal
species. Sri Lanka Forester, 19(3/4):43-45.
Sanjeev Thakur, Handa AK, Singh NB, Thakur S, 1996. Seed germination studies in Terminalia
chebula. Van Vigyan, 34:134_135.
Boer, E., et al. 1995. Terminalia L. In Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (Eds.):
Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 5(2): Timber tree: Minor commercial timber. Prosea
Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. pp. 475-478, 483.
Fundter, J.M., et al. 1992. Terminalia chebula Retz. In Lemmens, R.H.M.J. & Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N.
(Eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 3: Dye and tannin-producing plants. Prosea
X. References:
Trees of Northern Thailand. CMU Herbarium, Biology Dept. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand; 546
pp.
655 pp.

7
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Toona sureni (Blume) Merr]
Datasheet Report
[Toona sureni (Blume) Merr]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. [16]
B. English name (s) ³ red cedar [12]
C. Synonym ³ Toona febrifuga Roem.; Cedrela febrifuga Blume; Toona

febrifuga (Blume) M.J. Roemer; Cedrela sureni (Blume)
Burkill [16,26]
D. Other1 ³ suren (Indonesia-general); serijan, surian amba (Sumatera);
surian wangi (Malaysia-Peninsular); danupra (Philippines-
general); ye tama (Burma); surian (Thailand); Xoan moc; lat
khet, truong van, ma nham; (Vietnam); cèdre de Cochinchine
(French) [2,4,16].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ qaMqa b¤ xøwmcnÞ

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ chham chha: khlüm chan [4]

Other : Sapindales
Family: Meliaceae subfamily Swietenioideae
Gunus: Toona (Endl.) M. J. Roemer [16]
Species: Toona sureni (Blume) Merr. [12]
Source :[4 ; 11 ; 16]
1
Preliminary remark: The genus Toona comprises 4 or possibly 5 species and is distributed from
Pakistan and China to Australia and it occurs widely throughout Malesia, where 3 or 4 species are
found. [16]. T. calantas is occuring almost exclusively in the Philippines [16].
[General]: A large tree, up to 25-30 m high. Bole straight, cylindrical; young branchlets first covered by
brownish-yellow tomentum, then glabrous [2]. Tree, 20-40 m tall,[4]. Large size tree, up to 35 m tall,
up to over 100 cm diameter. Stem cylindrical, straight, base with buttress. Young branches dark
brown [14]. A medium-sized to fairly large tree up to 40(-60) m tall, with bole branchless for up to 25 m
and up to 100 cm in diameter, in mountainous areas up to 300 cm diameter; buttresses, if present, up
to 2 m high [16].
[Bark]: Bark brown, sparsely lenticillate (2). Bark thick, brownish-grey, longitudinal fissures, bark
peeling off [14]. Bark surface usually fissured and flaky, whitish, greyish-brown or pale brown; with
aromatic odor when cut [16].
[Leaves]:Paripinnate, sometimes imparipinnate, 25-60 cm long. Leaflets 14-16 pairs (often 8 pairs),
opposite or subopposite. Leaf-blade thin, 9-17 cm long 2.5-7.0 cm wide, tapering, mucronate at the
apex, oblique at the base, margin entire, glabrous on both surfaces, or only pubescent on the midrib
and nerve axils. Lateral nerves 10-15 pairs , prominent beneath. Petiolule 0.5-1.5 cm long [2]. Leaves
paripinnate, rarely odd pinnate, alternate. Leaflets 7-14 pairs, usually 8 pairs, nearly opposite, 8-17
cm long, 2.5-7.0 cm wide, elliptic, apex mucronate, base unequal, margin entire or crenulate. Leaf-
blade glabrous, base of the midrib has a tuft of hairs, lateral veins 12-15 pairs conspicuous on lower

surface [14]. Leaflets entire, usually hairy on veins above, petal margins, ovary and disc hairy [16].
[Flowers]: Flowers small, arranged into terminal panicles, same length as the leaf, or slightly shorter,
covered with setae. Flowers white, 5 mm long, pedicel short. Sepals 5 very short, united at the base,
obtuse, pubescent outside. Petals thin, white, oval, apex obtuse, 4-5 mm long, margin ciliate.
Stamens 5, as long as the petals, or slightly shorter, anthers oval. Disc as long as the ovary,
pubescent. Ovary setaceous, style glabrous, stigma discoid, 8-10 ovules in each loculus [2].
Inflorescence racemose, apical. Flowers bisexual, corolla white, margin with fine hairs. Stamens 5,
free, nearly as long as petals, sometimes with staminodes. Disc (receptacle) stout, rounded, lobed,
stigma cup-shaped, veins 5. Ovary tomentose, 5-locular, each locule containing 8-10 ovules [14].
[Fruit]: Fruit a capsule, oblong-oval, sparsely silvery-white lenticillate, 2.5-3.5 cm long. Seed has 2
wings at each end, about 1.0-1.5 cm long [2]. Fruit a capsule, elliptic, 3.0-3.5 cm long, 1 cm in
diameter, fruit coat with many white spots. Seed flat, brilliantly brown, wings at both ends, irregular.
Tree has a tap root system [14]. Columella of fruit concave with apical scarring, fruit valves rough and
verrucose with conspicuous lenticels; seed winged at both ends [16]. Flowering in March-April, fruiting
in December-January (of next year) [2].
Flowering January-February, fruit ripe for collection April-May, when black in colour [14].
2
In Java T. sureni flowers in May and bears fruit from July to October [16].
I. Wood properties:
The following data on wood properties are averages obtained from a mix of Toona species, e.g. T.
ciliata, T. sinensis, and T. sureni. Toona spp. are traded under the name of Surian as a light-weight
hardwood [16].
Sapwood and heartwood distinct; sapwood pale yellow, heartwood brownish-pink, fragrant. Annual
rings conspicuous, clearly delimited, 5-7 mm wide. Vessels single and double, short, distribution circle
or semi-circle, usually there is a brown substance in the vessels. Rays small and medium with sweet-
smelling essential oil. Paraparenchyma scanty and aggregate in terminal band. Parenchyma is also
scattered in fibre mass. Wood medium position in hardness and weight, specific gravity of dry wood
540 kg/m³. Coefficient of volume shrinkage 0.53. Grain saturation point 23%. Compression strength
along the grain 507 kg/cm²; cleavage strength 12 kg/cm². Collision bending strength 0.52 [14].
Wood aromatic, reddish-brown, ribbed, soft and easy to work with [2]. Surian is a light-weight and
comparably soft wood. Heartwood pale-red to reddish-brown, darkening to dark red-brown on
exposure, clearly demarcated from the grey-white, pink or pale-red sapwood. Specific gravity is 270-
530(-670)kg/m³ at 15% m.c. The grain is straight to interlocked, sometimes wavy, texture rather
coarse and uneven. The wood often has an aromatic, cedar-like odour [16].
At 15% m.c. the modulus of rupture is 42-85 N/mm², modulus of elasticity 7,115-10,700 N/mm²,
compression parallel to grain 21.5-45.0 N/mm², compression perpendicular to grain 2-7 N/mm², shear
3-9 N/mm², cleavage 32-43 N/mm² radial and 36-52 N/mm² tangential; Janka side hardness 1,215-
3,960 N, and Janka end hardness 2,585-4,605 N. The rates of shrinkage are moderately to fairly high:
from green to 12% moisture content (m.c.) 1.1-4.0% radial and 2.6-7.0% tangential; from green to
oven dry 2.1- 5.0% radial and 3.6-8.2% tangential. In Malaysia surian wood is reported to dry rapidly
with only slight warping. However, elsewhere it is reported that the timber is somewhat refractory in
drying and prone to warping, collapsing and cupping, particularly with thin planks. Close spacing of
stickers and weighting of stacks is recommended. Boards 25 mm (1 inch) thick take 1-3.5 months to
air-dry. In Malaysia kiln schedule J is recommended; boards 25mm thick can be kiln-dried from 50%
to 10% m.c. in 3-6 days without any degrade.
The wood is easy to saw, cross-cut and plane and the planed surface is smooth. It takes a good
polish. Some material tends to produce a wooly finish and it is therefore essential to use sharp tools.
Mortising, turning, and sanding give moderate results, but boring sometimes gives poor results. The
gluing and nailing properties are rated as good but the nail-holding strength is moderate. The timber
peels well, and produces good-class veneer with a nice figure. It can be peeled into 1.5 mm thick
veneer at a 90º peeling angle without pretreatment. Sometimes logs are liable to lateral and end
splitting which may result in the veneer breaking during peeling. Surian veneer glued with urea-
formaldehyde produces plywood complying with the German standard [16]. In Malaysia the wood is
rated as non-durable. Reports from elsewhere indicate that the heartwood is moderately durable but
susceptible to dry-termite and borer attack. The heartwood is resistant to impregnation with
3
preservatives or may show an unsatisfactory penetration pattern, but the sapwood is permeable.
Wood dust may irritate mucous mebranes or induce bronchitis or dermatitis.
Wood of T. sureni contains 61% cellulose, 27% lignin, 11.5 % pentosan, 0.8% ash and 0.5% silica.
The solubility is 2.3% in alcohol-benzene, 3.0% in cold water, 6.5% in hot water, and 10.2% in a 1%
NaOH solution. The energy value is about 21,870 kJ/kg [16].

T.sureni occurs in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Burma, Bangladesh, Indochina, southern China, Thailand,
Indonesia, Philippines, Australia (14), throughout Malesia to western New Guinea [2,16]. A tree of the
dense coastal forest formations in SE Asia [4]. Grows mixed with many species in evergreen and
semi-deciduous forest types [14]. T. sureni occurs in primary forests but is more common in
secondary forest, often on riparian hillsides and slopes up to 1700(-2100) m elevation [16]. The area
of distribution extends approximately from 40ºN to 10ºS [12].

The species of Toona grow in tropical as well as near subtropical climates, from sea level to 3000 m,
in Southeast Asia to 2000 m elevation above sea-level [14], 0-2300m [12]. Trees occur scattered in
primary forests, but usually more numerous in secondary forests [16]. In Vietnam scattered in hilly
regions or rocky hills, below 700 m asl. A light demanding tree, growing quickly (2). Prefers hot and
humid climate, mean annual rainfall varying between (850)-1120-4000 mm/m² with a uniform
distribution during the summer [12] and a dry season lasting 3-4 [14], 2-6 [12]) months. Lowest and
highest mean temperatures range from 6ºC to 18ºC, and 28ºC to 45ºC, respectively [14].

not determined

Prefers deep, wet soil of high fertility [2]. It grows well on thick soil layer, sufficiently moist and with
good drainage. It can grow on acid to neutral [12], acidic as well as alkaline soils [14]. Toona prefers
deep, rich, moist, loamy soils with good drainage, the majority of species preferring alkaline soils. T.
sureni demands fertile and moist soils [16], with a light to medium soil texture, free drainage and acid
to neutral soil reaction [12].

[Wood): The wood can be used for joinery, sawing boards, and wood carving [2]. Surian is much in
demand for cabinetry and construction [4]. Used for fences; gates; containers; pallets; crates; boxes;
cases; vats; wood ware; industrial and domestic wood ware; tool handles; musical instruments; wood
carvings; pencils; veneers; boats; wood based materials; plywood [12]. The wood is suitable for
furniture manufacture, boards and structural elements requiring high strength [14]. Used as all surian
timber for house building, and implements, furniture, joinery, cabinet work, decorative panelling,
4
ceiling boards, packing cases, bent work, boat and canoe building, paddles, oars, piano cases,
musical instruments, face veneer, plywood, carving, sculpture. [16]. The species is considered worth
for reforestation [2].
[Non-Wood]: There are diiferent medicinal uses, e.g., an infusion prepared from the flowers is said to
have an antispasmodic effect; decoctions prepared from bark and roots can lower fever and have
antidysenteric effect [4]. Roots and seeds can be used for preparing medicines, the bark contains
much tannin [14]. Various parts of the plant, especially the bark, are used in local medicine as
adstringent, tonic and for treatment of diarrhoea. Leaf extracts are said to exhibit antibiotic activity.
Trees are being planted as ornamentals, firebreaks, and in reforestation[16].
Bark fibres are pepared for manufacture of string bags; in India flowers are used to produce a red or
yellow dye [16].

Not included [18].

The species is worth to be considered for reforestation because of its advantages such as fast growth,
easy regeneration and high value of the wood [2]. Trial plantations have been established with T.
ciliata in Africa, Latin America, Australia, Hawaii and West Java. Young plants need some shade, later
full light, lateral shade is tolerated and useful in reducing Hypsipyla damage [16]. Young plants need
protection against browsing by wildlife and against fire. Optimum rotation age is around 40 years
thereafter increment diminishes. Mean annual increment ranges from 7-18 m³/ha . Hypsipyla robusta,
the shoot borer is the main pest threatening plantations. The presence of a toxine in T. ciliata is
promising for breeding Hypsipyla-resistant Meliaceae [16]. At present no forest planting models with
T. sureni have been successful. There are only a few experimental enrichment and line plantings but
the results are not yet satisfactory. The survival rate is low because of damage caused by the shoot
borer. Possibly by planting in mixed plantations protection against the shoot borer is more effective
[14].
Q. Propagation :
The following information concerns predominantly Toona species other than T. sureni:
For Southeast Asia the following seed counts per kg have been made: T. calantas 83,000- 420,000;
T. ciliata 280,000-425,000; T.sinensis 403,000-721,000; for T. sureni 64,000- 468,000. Fruits should
be collected when they start to open. They are left to dry in the sun for several days and, after
shelling, seed may be separated by winnowing. Fresh seed of T. ciliata showed 60-90% germination,
but only 45% for T. sureni. Seed can be sown without any pretreatment in beds protected from direct
sunlight and rain and covered thinly with fine sand. 2-4 weeks after germination the 5-10 cm tall
seedlings may be transplanted. Direct seeding is uncommon because the fine seed may be easily
washed away. Striplings at least 1 m long, short stumps (7cm shoot, 25 cm root), bare-rooted
5
seedlings or seedlings with attached soil clump may be used for planting. Stumps of 1.5-2.5 cm
diameter performed better than those with diameter 0.5- 1.25 cm. For enrichment line planting of
depleted primary forest or poor secondary forest 1.5-2-year-old stumps are used. A 60% rooting was
obtained by using stem cuttings from 2-4 -year-old material of T. sureni treated with indolebutyric acid
(IBA) placed in a saw dust medium. Branch cuttings taken from old T.calantas trees and planted in
nursery beds failed to sprout. Both, T. sinensis and T. ciliata produce root suckers abundantly and
both coppice fairly well.
Spacings most commonly reported are 2 m x 2 m for T. ciliata, 1.5 m x 1.5 m for T. sureni.

All Meliaceae are susceptible to the attack of the Hypsila robusta borer. Its larvae feed on the buds
and destroy the leader shoot. Planting under shade may reduce the risk but cannot fully stop it [16].
S. Conservation :
The species T. calantas is close to extinction in the Philippines due to over-exploitation, no details of
the situation of Toona sureni are known [16].

unknown

Native species in Nepal, India, Bhutan, Burma, Indochina, southern China, Thailand, throughout
Malesia to western New Guinea, but introduced and increasingly planted as a roadside and

ornamental tree in other tropical and subtropical countries [12,16].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
Surian species provide good-quality timber which can be used for various purposes. Moreover they
grow fast and are easy to propagate vegetatively. Surian species, therefore, are worth including into
silvicultural trials. They may also have great potential for use in mixed timber plantations to suppress
pests of other timber species. The wide-spread planting of surian for multipurpose uses should be
encouraged.[16].
Bahadur, K.N. 1988: Monograph on the genus Toona (Meliaceae). Bishen Sing Mahendra Pal Singh,
Dehra Dun. 251 pp.
Edmonds, J.M. 1993: The potential value of Toona species (Meliaceae) as multiple purpose and
plantation trees in Southeast Asia. Comm. For. Review 72(3): 181-186.
Chen FH, 1987: Flora of Guangdong. Guangdong, China: Guangdong Science and Technology
Press.
6
Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC, 1995. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2).
Timber trees: minor commercial timbers. Plant resources of South-East Asia No. 5 (2). Timber trees:
minor commercial timbers., 655 pp.; [Also published by Prosea Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia.
PROSEA NUGI 835.]; 747 ref.
Liu P, Yang JJ, Lu FJ, 1993: Wood of Southeastern Asia. Beijing, China: China Forestry Publishing
House, pp. 179-180.
Luna RK, 1996: Plantation trees. Plantation trees., xii + 975 pp.; [refs at ends of sections].
Merrifield LE, Howcroft NHS, 1975: Propagation of Cedar, Toona sureni (Bl.) Merr., from cuttings
treated with growth substances. Turrialba, 25(1):54-57; 7 ref.
Mohd Shukari M, 1985: Malaysian timbers - surian. Trade Leaflet, Malaysian Forest Service, No.
93:5pp.; 3 ref.
Storrs A, Storrs J, 1984: Discovering trees in Nepal and the Himalayas. Discovering trees in Nepal
and the Himalayas., xxiv + 366pp.; 15 ref.
Tang Y, 1973: Tropical and Subtropical Timber in Yunnan. Yunnan, China: People's Publishing
House.
Webb DB, Wood PJ, Smith JP, Henman GS, 1984: A guide to species selection for tropical and sub-
tropical plantations. Tropical Forestry Papers, Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford,
No. 15 (rev.):ii + 256 pp.; 175 ref.
Xiao GG, 1991: Forest insects of China. Forest insects of China., Ed. 2:vi + 1362 pp.; many ref.
Ye GY, 1980. Promising trees in limestone area: Toona sureni and Cinnamomum camphora.
Subtropical Forest Science and Technology, 3:49-59.
Ye X, 1983. Afforestation of Broad-leaved Trees. Guangxi, China: People's Publishing House, 32-34.
Zheng WJ, 1978. Silvicultural techniques for major forest trees in China. Volume 1. Beijing, China;
China Agriculture Press.
Zhou GS, 1994: Introduction and Silviculture of fast-growing Toona sureni and T. ciliata var.
pubescens. J. of Fujian Forestry College, 14(3):271-276.
X. References:
915 pp.
7
pp.
336 pp.
12) CABI Forestry Compendium 2003
14) FSIV/JICA 2003: Use of Indigenous Tree Species in Reforestation in Vietnam. Agricultural
Publishing House, Hanoi, 188 pp.

655 pp.

(Internet source)
8
______________________________________________
DATASHEET
[Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub]
Datasheet Report
[Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.[4]; var. kerrii
(Craib. & Hutch.) I.C. Nielsen[8]
B. English name (s) ³ irul [12]
C. Synonym ³ Xylia dolabriformis Benth. [4], Acacia xylocarpa

(Roxb.)Willd.; Inga xylocarpa (Roxb.)DC.; Mimosa xylocarpa
Roxb. [8].
D. Other1 ³ pyincado (Burma); sô kra:ch, sô krâ m krâhâ :m, sô krâ m sâ
r (Cambodia); deng (Laos) daeng (Thailand-general); câm xe

(Vietnam [8,17].
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ sURkM

Source: [-]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ Sô:krâm [4]

Other : Fabales
Family: Mimosoideae
Gunus: Xylia Benth. [17]
Species: Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub. [17]
Source :[4 ; 11 ; 16]
1
Within X. xylocarpa two varieties are distinguished: var.xylocarpa from India and Burma with
subglabrous leaflets and glandular anthers, and var. kerrii (Craib. & Hutch.) I.C. Nielsen (synonym: X.
kerrii (Craib & Hutch.) from Burma, Indochina and Thailand with hairy leaflets and eglandular anthers
[17].
[General]: A large deciduous tree, 30-40 m in height and 40-60 cm in diameter. Trunk terete,
sometimes straight with small buttresses at the base. Crown dense [2]. Tree, 20-25 m tall [4]. Large
deciduous tree up to 30 m high. Trunk straight, branches slender, drooping, branchlets unarmed and
without spinescent stipules [5, 8]. A deciduous, medium-sized tree up to 25 (-40) m tall, bole straight
and cylindrical, sometimes fluted; branchless up to 12 (-25) m and up to 75(-120) cm diameter,
buttresses small or absent [17].
[Bark]: Bark yellow-grey to reddish-grey, rough, peeling off in irregualr fragments. Inner bark red.
Branchlets caniliculate and with brownish dots [2]. Bark creamy brown or red-brown, thin, peeling in
rounded flakes, small lenticels, inner bark pink. Twigs densely puberulous, glabrescent. Stipules
filiform, 3-4 mm long, petiole 3-8 cm long, terete, puberulous or tomentose; inner bark pink [5, 8]. Bark
surface flaky, with small lenticels, greyish to reddish or yellow-brown, inner bark pinkish, crown dense
[17].
[Leaves]:Bipinnately compound, rhachis 2.5-5.0 cm long, with one pair of pinnae, 7.5-10.0 cm long,
and a gland at the base. Pinnae with 2-6 pairs of leaflets, small gland at the base of leaflets. Lamina
oblong, oval or ovate, lower leaflets smaller than upper ones, the two terminal leaflets are the largest,
7.5-15.0 cm by 3.5 cm. Lateral veins subparallel [2]. Leaf bipinnate with a single pair of side stalks,
10-30 cm, each with 3-7 pairs of opposite leaflets, top ones largest, 4.0-15.0 x 2.5-6.0 cm, narrowly

ovate or elliptic with slightly pointed tips. Leaflet stalks 0.2-0.3 cm, main stalk 3-8 cm, all joints with
rounded glands. Young leaves delicate pink, appearing in March-April just after the flowers [5].
Leaves bipinnate, paripinnate, glabrescent, gland at the junction of the pinnae, 1-3 mm in diameter;
pinnae 1 pair, 7-30 cm long, slightly sulcate, tomentose, glabrescent; gland just below the junction of
the petiolules, 1-2 mm in diameter. Leaflets 3-7 pairs per pinna, top ones largest, narrowly ovate or
elliptic, 3.8-15.0 by 2.4-6.7 cm; mature leaves upper surface glabrous, lower surface puberulous to
velutinous, petiolules 2-3 mm long. Young shoots densely covered with yellowish hairs [5,8]. Leaves
arranged spirally, bipinnate with one pair of pinnae, rhachis and pinnae glandular, leaflets opposite, 3-
6 pairs per pinna, entire; stipules filiform [17].
[Flowers]: Small, yellowish, in capitulum, 12-20 mm wide. Petals united at 2/3 of lower part. Stamens
10 (in male flower 12), anthers glandular when young. Ovary tomentose [2]. Flower pale yellow, on
dense spherical heads, 1.5-2.0 cm, solitary or in very short , unbranched clusters in axils of fallen
leaves. Head stalks 3.5-5.0 cm, individual flowers without stalks. 5 petals, 3.5-4.5 mm, slightly fused
at base, hairy outside, 10-12 free stamens, 5-12 mm, much longer than petals, 5 stamens longer than
others, anthers without glands [5]. Inflorescence peduncles 2.5-9.0 cm long, bearing heads of c. 90
sessile flowers. Bract spoon-shaped. Calyx funnel-shaped, 2.9-4.0 mm long, tomentose to wooly,
teeth 0.8- 1.0 mm long, triangular ovate, acute. Petals narrowly elliptic, 3.5-4.5 mm long, filaments
2
very flat, anthers without glands. Ovary 2-3 mm long [8]. Flowers in stalked globose heads, male or
bisexual, 5-merous; calyx funnel-shaped, hairy, with valvate lobes; petals free, hairy; stamens 10,
free, ovary superior, sessile, hairy, 2-locular, style 1 [17].
[Fruit ]: Fruit a pod, woody, compressed, oval, 20 mm long, and 12 mm wide [2]. Pod kitchen knife-
shaped, 10-17 by 3.5-6.0 cm thick and woody, slightly curved, tapering at base, pale creamy-brown at
first, later dark-brown, splitting suddenly into 2 parts, which curl backwards, remaining on the tree for
a long time. Seeds 6-10, ellipsoid, flat, 11-20 mm by 7-12 mm, dark-brown [5, 8]. Fruit a boomerang-
shaped flat, woody pod, dehiscing from the apex in 2 recurving valves, 7-10 seeded. Seed ellipsoid,
flat, testa hard and brown, with pleurogram. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons emergent;
hypocotyl elongated; first pair of leaves opposite, with 1(-2) pairs of leaflets, sometimes 3-foliate,
subsequent leaves arranged spirally [17]. Flowering from March to June, fruiting from November to
December. Slow growing but long living species [2]. Flowering March-June, fruiting November-
December [17].
I. Wood properties:
Sapwood and heartwood distinct; sapwood yellowish-white, thick, heartwood dark red, slightly
streaked and very fine. Wood very durable, resistant to termites and other insects, and weather [2]
Easy to work when fresh but becoming hard when dry and difficult to work by hand [2]. Wood
extremely hard and durable, resistant to termites, other insects, and weather under exterior
applications [8]. X. xylocarpa yields a heavy hardwood with a specific gravity of 880-1170(-1330)
kg/m³ at 15% m.c. Heartwood reddish-brown to dark brown, distinct from the up to 2.5 cm wide, paler
sapwood; grain interlocked or wavy, texture moderately fine to medium and even; surface somewhat
gummy, causing a speckled appearance. Growth rings distinct to indistinct; when distinct then
indicated by narrow parenchyma bands; vessels moderately small to moderately large, solitary and in
radial multiples of 2-4, occasionally in oblique arrangement, frequent orange-brown gum deposits;
parenchyma moderately abundant to abundant, paratracheal vasicentric, aliform and confluent, with
occasional apotracheal parenchyma in very narrow marginal or seemingly marginal bands, rays very
fine, visible with a hand lens, ripple marks absent [17].
Shrinkage is low but the wood requires careful and slow seasoning to prevent checking and splitting;
in kiln-drying it needs a mild and slow drying schedule. The wood is very hard and very strong. It is
difficult to work and plane and has a serious blunting effect on tools but a good finish can be obtained.
Green stock, however, is easier to saw. The wood is very durable: untreated sleepers lasted for 12
years in Thailand and for 20-24 years in India. The heartwood is very resistant to preservative
treatment, the sapwood is readily treatable. The wood is susceptible to longhorn and buprestid beetle
attack, the sapwood to Lyctus, but the wood is resistant to termites and marine borers [17].

Xylia comprises about 12 species, most of which occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar. Only one
species occurs in Southeast Asia: X. xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taubert, (synonym: X. dolabriformis Benth.) It
is not found in the wild in Malesia but occurs in India, Burma, Indochina and Thailand. It is also
3
planted within its natural area of distribution, rarely outside this region, rarely in Singapore and
Peninsular Malaysia [17]. Geographical limits are given as 25ºN to 12ºN. It occours in dry evergreen
forest and mixed deciduous forest but growth is poor in dry deciduous dipterocarp forest, in higher
altitude forests and in moist bamboo forests. Formerly a major component, less common today
because of selective logging for its excellent dark-brown wood [2,4,5,8].

Grows between 500 m and 850 m (0-600 m [12]) elevation asl. [2,8,17]; in rather open and dry forest
types, usually mixed with Dipterocarpus alatus, Lagerstroemia calyculata, Tetrameles nudiflora,
Anogeissus acuminata, and Schima superba. A light-demanding tree, growing on sandy, deep soils.
The deep taproot is strongly developed. Regenerates well even in fire-prone areas [5]. Mean annual
rainfall varying from 1000 -5000 mm/m² preferably with a bimodal distribution of the summer-winter
rains. The dry season should extend between 3-5 months while the mean annual temperature should
lie in the range of 30-42ºC . X. xylocarpa prefers well-drained conditions and an undulating surface. It
is not found on lower slopes of hills where the soil is fairly deep and moist. Occurs under variable
types of rocks and soils such as schist, shale, alluvium, deep black soils, etc., where it shows better
growth [12].

not determined

X. xylocarpa grows on well-drained sandy and rocky soils [5]. X. xylocarpa is found on various

geological formations, such as granite, gneiss, mica, schist, basalt, trap, quartzite, sandstone and
limestone. It prefers gneiss to laterite although it is sometimes plentiful on lateritic soils, though it does
not attain large dimensions. On gneiss soils it may sometimes be found as pure stands. It is not too
exacting as to soil conditions, growing fairly well on dry, shallow, or rocky soils. It attains its largest
sizes on the banks of hill streams [12]. Soil texture should be light to medium, with free drainage; soil
reaction may vary from very acid to acid to neutral. X. xylocarpa tolerates shallow and saline soils.
Suitable soil types comprise acid soils, alfisols, alluvials, colluvials, ferralsols, granitic, gravelly and
lateritic soils, limestone soils, sandstone soils, ultisols, vertisols, mountain and tropical soils,
demonstrating a large tolerance band [12].
[Wood]: The hard, heavy (air-dry weight about 850 kg/m³) and strong wood of X. xylocarpa is mainly
utilised as a heavy constructional timber. The timber has a medium fine texture and interlocking grain
and a very durable dark reddish-brown heartwood. The wood requires great care in seasoning to
prevent cracking, splitting and warping; thus slow drying schedules are recommended. The
heartwood, which is comparable to teak in termite resistance, is very refractory to preservative
4
treatment [12]. The timber is often used for railway sleepers and heavy construction such as bridges,
piles, mine timber and for harbour work. It is also used for construction of railway wagons and
shipbuilding. X. xylocarpa is generally preferred for structures subject to wear and rough usage such
as fenders, gangways, chutes, paving blocks, etc. The timber is widely used for agricultural
implements, country carts, well-curbs, canoes, tool handles, and oil presses. It is also used as
roundwood for transmission poles, pit props and building poles [12]. The wood is a very good fuel and
its charcoal is highly prized for iron smelters. The wood is also being utilised, depending on
availability, for mixed hardwood pulp [12].
Used for furniture, ships, boats, bridge constructions, railway sleepers, carts,and piles [2,4, 8].The
hard and durable wood of X. xylocarpa is used for heavy construction. e.g. for posts, and flooring,
bridges, marine piling, railway sleepers, boat construction, fresh water locks, paving blocks, rubbing
fenders, chutes and for furniture, turnery and household implements [17].
[Non-Wood]: Bark and fruit are used in local medicine. In Indochina a decoction against haemoptysis
is prepared [4,17]. The bark and the wood yield a tanning material, and the seeds an oil. The woody
pods are used as fuel for cooking in southern India. Other medicinal uses are for diarrhea, gonorrhea,
and as a vermifuge. Leaves are used as a green manure [12].

Not included [18].

Although large plantations of X. xylocarpa are rarely raised, stands can be established by direct
sowing, planting stock or by stump planting. Bare-rooted nursery seedlings do not survive planting out
well, owing to injury to the tap root, which develops very early. However, stump plants aged 8 to 10
months old can be successfully used, but are more costly. Experiments in Burma suggested that
stump plants were a promising method of plantation establishment. A gradual opening of the canopy
is necessary for further development of the established seedlings. Weeds become only a problem if
the canopy is opened too fast. Trees 26 years old produced 10 t/ha of litter annually. In Bangladesh a
10-15 year rotation for the production of power transmission poles has been suggested. X. xylocarpa
is fire-resistant [17]. The growth rate of young trees is reportedly fairly high: In India trees were on
average 5.7 m tall and 8 cm in diameter after 5 years; in Bangladesh 16 m tall and 19 cm after 10
years. A 23-year-old tree growing in the Arboretum of the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM)
achieved 26 m height and 30 cm dbh [12]. Xylia xylocarpa in natural forests of India is worked under a
selection system, simple coppice system, or coppice with standards. Where the selection system is
followed, the exploitable girth is 1.35 m to 1.5 m; trees reach this dimension in about 95 years. In
considerable areas of its habitat (e.g., Karnataka and some parts of Maharashtra in India), the mixed
deciduous forests containing it are worked chiefly for fuelwood and charcoal under the simple coppice
or coppice-with-standards system. Coppice reproduction comes up quite vigorously producing 1-20
shoots per stool. Thinning of coppice shoots to one or two per stool is beneficial in improving their
5
development. The optimum size for fuelwood, i.e., 20 cm stem diameter at breast height (dbh), is
reached in about 40 to 45 years. Stem diameter increment data is also tabulated for natural forests in
Karnataka. General height and diameter growth data for India, quoted by Sosef et al. [17[ are 5.7 m
tall and dbh of 8 cm at age 5 years old. In Bangladesh, 10-year-old trees measured 16 m in height
and 19 cm in diameter [17].
Generally, growth in high forests is slow, whereas under plantation conditions it is fast. For example,
in natural high forests in Ankola, trees attain a girth of 15.2 cm after ten years; in plantations in
Malayattur (Kerala), trees reached a girth of 55 cm and a height of 44.5 cm in the same period.
Coppice growth in Orissa reached a girth of 44.5 cm and a maximum height of 10.7 m at age 25 years
[12].
Q. Propagation :
Seeds are available for collection in March-April. The ripe pods are gathered off the tree before they
dehisce. They are dried under sun in cloth bags. The fruits dehisce and release the seeds. The seeds
are stored in a dry place without loss of viability for about 3 months. Reports also suggest that the
seeds keep well up to one year. There are about 3200-4000 seeds/kg [12]. X. xylocarpa can be raised
from seed, which can be stored for one year if kept dry. Seed viability is high and germination occurs
readily when sown under shade and with adequate watering. Seeds presoaked in cold water
germinate in 4-11 days giving 70% to 90% germination [12]. Direct seeding is recommended, as
seedlings do not stand the shock of transplanting well, probably because the tap root develops rapidly
and attains 30 cm length in 1-2 months. Natural regeneration is enhanced by slightly opening the
canopy around seed-bearing trees and burning the debris. Seedling establishment is favoured on
loose, bare, well-drained soils under shade. The young seedlings must be protected from fire. X.

xylocarpa can be propagated by seeds and stumps. Stumps of 8-10 months can be successfully
used, but are more costly. Trials were undertaken in Tamil Nadu to compare direct sowing, planting
stock and stump plants, which clearly indicated that direct sowing was the best method to use, as
both the survival rate and mean seedling height were greater after one growing season (77% and
16.3 cm, respectively) than for entire planting stock (45% and 10.5 cm) or stump plants (52% and 9.5
cm respectively) [12]. Direct sowing in well-loosened patches at 2 m intervals in rows 3 m apart, is
advocated. Polythene-potted 15 months old seedlings of 15 cm height have been used in planting
trials. An evaluation of the plantation at the end of two years showed that only about 25% of plants
survived. In India direct seeding is done at a spacing of 2 m by 3 m , plantations require weeding for
2-3 years. In Laos and Vietnam direct seeding in enrichment plantings failed. X. xylocarpa coppices
and pollards well and it can produce abundant root suckers. Well-established trees resprout from
burnt stumps [17]. Coppicing and pollarding experiments conducted in central India during April-June
gave excellent results with 95% of stools producing coppice shoots and 85% of pollarded trees
regenerating well [12].
6
Over 50 species of insects including defoliators, bark feeders, root feeders and seed borers are
associated with living X. xylocarpa. None of them is a threat to the establishment of nurseries or
plantations. In a study carried out in Kerala, India, 10 species of insects were listed, all of which
caused minor damage, except Caryedon serrata (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), which damaged 35% of
seeds in storage within a period of three weeks [12].
Xylia xylocarpa is not affected by any serious disease. However, during monsoon periods, leaf blight
caused by Glomerella cingulata was observed in natural forests, and seedling blight caused by
Rhizoctonia solani was present in nurseries. The leaf blight starts with the appearance of brown spots
on leaves, which enlarge in size within a few days and turn dark brown with a yellowish margin. Later
the spots coalesce covering large areas of the lamina resulting in leaf blight and defoliation. In the
case of seedling blight, initially leaves turn light yellow and within a week affected leaves and apical
portions of the plants show wilting. This disease can be controlled through application of Carbendazim
(0.2% a.i.) or Carboxin (0.2% a.i) [12].
Butt rot fungi (such as Fomes fastuosus, Polystichus spp.) were found to have attacked 80% of trees
in Goa; it is thought that the fungi enter via stem fire scars.
Fungus diseases: Fomes fastuosus and Trametes serpens,causing butt rot disease in India;
Glomerella cingulata, leaf blight, Thanatephorus cucumeris, causing seedling blight in nurseries in
India [12].
There is very little information available on genetic variation or provenance differences, reproductive
biology or breeding aspects of X. xylocarpa. In Cambodia, two forms of the species are recognised
which differ in wood colour: one is red-brown and the other pale red-brown [17].
S. Conservation :
In many regions within its natural area of distribution X. xylocarpa is common and large supplies of
timber are still available. However, over-exploitation in many stands threatens genetic resources [17].

Not determined

Native to India, Burma, Bangladesh, Indochina, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia.[2,5,8,17], introduced
elsewhere [17]. X. xylocarpa is increasingly depleted in its natural range and genetic erosion is
threatening [17].
V. Miscellaneous4 :
The wood of X. xylacarpa is of excellent quality. The tree has high potential to be grown in plantations
as it grows fairly fast. However, techniques of establishment and the management of the light regime
during the first years need to be further investigated. X. xylocarpa has been proposed in taungya
7
systems to be interplanted with teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) as it has good soil improving properties
[17].
Chudnoff, M. 1984: Tropical Timbers of the World. Agricultural Handbook 607. USDA Forest Service,
Washington D.C. 464 pp.
Meyenfeldt, von, C.F.W.M. et al. 1978:Restoratiojn of devastated inland forests in South Vietnam.
Vol.III: List of tree species. Agricultural University Wageningen, The Netherlands, 219 pp.
Keating, W.G. and Bolza, E. 1982: Characteristics, properties and uses of timbers. Vol.1. Southeast
Asia, Northern Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press Proprietary Ltd. Melbourne, Sidney, London.
362 pp.
Bennet SSR, Bahadur KN, 1978. Botanical identity of pyinkado and irul. Indian Forester, 104(9):621-
624.
Bhat KM, Bhat KV, Dhamodaran TK, 1985. Wood and bark properties of branches of selected tree
species growing in Kerala. KFRI Research Report, Kerala Forest Research Institute, No. 29:iii + 34
pp.; 34 ref.
Hegde R, Hegde HG, Chandrashekharaiah AM, 1993. Identification of efficient fuelwood. Indian
Forester, 119(11):944-945; 1 ref.
Klivetong M, 1996. Growth response of leguminous tree seedlings to Rhizobium inoculation and EM

solution. Technical Publication - ASEAN Forest Tree Seed Centre Project. No. 34. Muak-Lek,
Saraburi, Thailand: ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre.
Kumar A, Ghosh K, Sinha NK, Dutta SK, 1986. Bark anatomy of Xylia xylocarpa Roxb. with histo-
pharmacognostic evaluation. Journal of Plant Anatomy and Morphology, 3(1):49-54; 14 ref.
Saraf GP, Pai NM, Meshramkar PM, Deb UK, Jaspal NS, 1980. Utilization of a mixture of Xylia
xylocarpa, Terminalia tomentosa and Terminalia paniculata for pulping. IPPTA, Indian Pulp and Paper
Technical Association, 17(2):1-10; 4 ref.
Sharma RP, Jain RC, Shet SN, 1979. Regional [Goa] volume tables for Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.
Indian Forest Records, Management & Mensuration, 3(4):7 pp.; [2 tab.].
X. References:
8
915 pp.
pp.
336 pp.
12) CABI Forestry Compendium, editon 2003; (on CD ROM).
pp.

http://www.ildis.org/LegumeWeb?sciname=. (Internet source)

(Internet source)
9
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DATASHEET
[Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.]
Datasheet Report
[Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.]
A. Latin name (s) ³ Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.
B. English name (s) ³ Indian jujube, desert apple, Indian plum, Indian cherry,
Chinese date, jujuba [1], jujube fruit [4]
C. Synonym ³ Rhamnus jujuba L., Ziziphus jujuba (L.) Gaertn. nom. illeg.,
Zizyphus mauritiana [1], Zizyphus jujuba Mill & Lamk,

Zizyphus laccifera, Zizyphus anoplia [4]
D. Other1 ³ jujubier indien, jujubier (France) [2, 4] - Indischer
Jujubenstrauch (Germany) [1] - widara, dara, bidara

(Indonesia) [1] - babari, ber, boguri, boroi, khati, berii, etachi,
jelachi, elangi, yelchi, cherumali, ilamda, bhor, borkuli, boro-
koli, beri, badari, dadara, elandai, regureni, ganga reni,
elantha, reegu, kool, kola, ajapriya, karkandhu, kuvala,
madhuvaphala, elladu, karak-andhova, yellande (India) [1, 4]
- than (Laos) [1] - yellande (Sri Lanka) [1] - zee-pen, eng-si
(Myanmar) [1] - bidara, jujub, epal siam (Malaysia) [1] -
manzanity (Philippines) [1] - jujube, ker (Pakistan) [1] -

phutsaa, ma tan, ma thong (Thailand) [1] - tao, tao nhuc,
c[aa]y t[as]o ta (Vietnam) [1]
E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³: BuRTa

Source: [1,4]
F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ putrie [2], putrea [1]

Other : Rhamnales
1
Family: Rhamnaceae
Genus: Ziziphus
Species: Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.
Source :[ 1]
[General]: Z. mauritiana is a small to medium-sized, single-stemmed spiny shrub or tree which
appears to be evergreen, but is deciduous during the dry season. It normally reaches up to 12 m [1, 4]
(5-10 m [2], -13 m or 43 feet [7], -15 m [6]) with a generally short bole which is branchless for about 3
m [1] and a DBH of 30 cm [1], but it is highly variable in size and general appearance. "Old protected
trees of this species occasionally reach up to 24 m tall and 1.8 m diameter" [1]. The crown is round
and spreading, the branches are slender and downy, and bear paired, with straight or slightly hooked
brown spines. Twigs are zigzag, usually softly hairy when young with spinous stipules which are
solitary and straight, 5-7 mm long [6] or in dimorphic pairs, the second shorter and recurved, spines
sometimes absent. Z. mauritiana has a deep and lateral root system.
[Bark]: The outer bark is dark grey or dull black with long vertical fissures, the inner bark is reddish
and fibrous inside. It contains tannin and "a crystallizable principle, Zizyphic acid" [4].
[Leaves]: The leaves are alternate, simple, shining green to deep green above and whitish hairy
beneath saw toothed with a variable shape ranging from almost round to an elongated ellipse which is
rounded at both ends. The size ranges from 2 to 6 cm in length [1, 7] (2-9 cm X 1.5-5 cm [4]). This

variation is related to site quality and the position on the tree; the leaves on vigorous new shoots are
the largest. Each leaf has 3 conspicuous basal nerves and 2 stipular spines, one long and straight,
the other small and curved back and often brown in color. "In India, annual growth of Z. mauritiana
generally ceases in November. Old leaves fall in March to April and new leaves appear almost
simultaneously. Thus the tree is leafless for only a short period, except in dry areas" [1].
[Flowers]: The inflorescences are axillary, flat or convex flower-heads in which the central flowers
open first, 1-2 cm long [6]. Each inflorescence contains 7-20 hermaphrodite flowers [6], 2-3 mm in
size [6] with 3-8 mm long [6] flower stalks. The calyx consists of 5 deltoid lobes, hairy outside and
hairless within. The 5 inner flower leaves (=petals) are spate-shaped concave and reflexed. The
faintly fragrant flowers are pollinated by insects. There are 5 stamens (=male organs) [6] in each
flower and the ovary (=female organ) is 2-celled, with two branched styles and a 10-lobed [6] or
grooved disk. “In India flowers appear in July to October" [1].
[Fruit]: The fruit forms soon after flowering, "remaining green for about four months before turning
yellowish on ripening in February-March. In the wild, from the age of three years upward Z. mauritiana
usually fruits well every year" [1]. The fruit (=drupe) is spherical or long-shaped initially green and
turns deep-yellow, orange and red on ripening. The fruit size is variable from a diameter of 1.2-2 cm
2
[1] in wild plants and 4 cm [3] in cultivation (3.7 cm long [1], -2.5 cm long [2], 6 x 4 cm [6]). The skin is
smooth or rough, glossy, thin but tough. The fruit contains sour-sweet whitish pulp which is edible and
a hard stone which is tubercled, irregularly furrowed and usually contains two cells [1] with two
seeds[1, 3]. The seeds have a papery coat and contain 1-2 elliptic brown kernels per seed [6].
[1, 2, 3, 4, 6]
I. Wood properties:
[Wood Properties]: Z. mauritiana timber usually has small dimensions. The wood is light red, maturing
to reddish-brown. The heartwood is indistinct from the sapwood, reddish, durable, hard, strong, finely
textured and light to moderately heavy with a density of 0.65-0.705 g/cm³ [1]. "The growth rings are
inconspicuous and the wood is diffuse porous. The rays are very fine and closely spaced. The wood
cracks and warps during seasoning, but saws and works well. It finishes to a smooth surface and
takes good polish" [1]. Z. mauritiana wood has a calorific value of 4,878 kcal/kg [1].
[1]

Approximate limits: 35°N to 18°N [1]. Z. mauritiana probably originates from the Middle East or the
Indian subcontinent [5] (South and Central Asia and China [1]), but is now cultivated on a small scale
throughout the tropics and subtropics, regularly escaping from cultivation and becoming naturalized.
Although it is cultivated throughout the tropics, it is only considered commercially important in China
and India. Early introduced to continental Southeast Asia, it is found in dune vegetation, moist forests,
deciduous forests, dry forests and deserts.
[1, 5, 6, 7]

Z. mauritiana prefers plains and valleys but the altitudinal distribution ranges from sea level to about
1,000 m elevation [6] (in the arid and semi-arid tracts of India and Pakistan even more than 1,500-
1,800 m a.s.l. [1]). The species grows best in hot, dry climates with an adequate, bimodal rainfall
regime with higher rain during the vegetative period. The annual rainfall in its natural habitat varies
from 125 to 2,225 mm [1] (125-2,000 mm [6], 125-2,300 mm [3]). "Studies in India show that some
cultivars do fairly well with as little as 300-450 mm per year (300-500 mm [1])" [6]. "Its distribution and
area of culture are limited by high atmospheric humidity" [3]. Generally a dry season length of 3-8
months [1] can be tolerated. The average mean temperature varies from 25 to 29°C [1]. Z. mauritiana
tolerates a wide range of temperatures with an absolute maximum shade temperature of 31-37°C [1],
a non shade temperature of 37-48°C [6] (even 55°C [3]) and a minimum average temperature range
of 10-23ºC [1] for the coldest month (7-13°C [6]). The absolute minimum temperature that is tolerated
is -5ºC [1] (-6°C [3]) which makes the tree withstand slight frost. The seedlings are damaged by fire.
[1, 3, 6]

3
This tree can grow on a wide range of soil types but thrives best on deep sandy alluvial soils to loamy
soils on limestone with a neutral or slightly alkaline pH around 7.5 [1]. Clay soils however are avoided.
"Trials in Kashmir indicated that Z. mauritiana grows well on soils with relatively low sodicity, a pH
less than 9, exchangeable sodium less than 35%, electrical conductivity less than 4 dS/m and
absence of clay kankar pan throughout the root zone of 20-140 cm depth. It adapts well to rain-fed
agriculture on black cotton soils due to its strong and deep root system" [1]. Generally it grows in well-
drained sandy loams, shingle alluvium, sand dunes, skeletal and gravely soils, and laterite soils.
Suitable soil types include alkaline soils, alluvial soils, gravelly soils, saline soils, sandy soils, silty
soils, arid soils and vertisols. It withstands seasonal waterlogging and tolerates moderate but not high
levels of alkalinity and salinity or acidity.
[1, 3, 6]
[General]: Z. mauritiana is a hardy multipurpose tree valued for its many products.
[1]
[Wood]: The timber is used as roundwood, roundwood structures, in rural construction, general heavy
and light construction, beams, containers, pallets, industrial and domestic woodware, bedlegs, tent
pegs, agricultural implements like axe and hoe handles, carvings, cart wheels, oil mills, rice pounders,
golf clubs, sandals, furniture, boats, veneer, plywood, particleboard and other wood based materials.
Z. mauritiana provides good charcoal and fuelwood, with a calorific value of 4,878 kcal/kg [1].
[1, 3]

[Non-wood]: "The horticultural varieties are mainly grown for the fruit and produce large quantities of
up to 600 kg/tree per year" [1]. These are eaten fresh, used to make a refreshing drink, dried, pickled
or jammed. "The fruit is rich in vitamin C and sugars and it gives edible exudates. "In South-East Asia
the unripe fruit is eaten with salt. Reportedly the fruit is also boiled to produce syrup. Young leaves
are cooked as vegetable in Indonesia" [6]. "It could be of considerable alimentary importance in
periods of scarcity" [3]. "Z. mauritiana leaves contain 13-17% crude protein and 15% fiber, and make
an excellent fodder for livestock. In winter the shoots and fruit of the trees are an important feed
source" [1]. Leaves are also fed to tussar silkworms. It is one of the few trees which serves as a host
to lac insects. "The resinous encrustation from these insects is used to produce shellac which is used
as a varnish. The root and stem bark have 7% and leaves 2% tannin; these are sometimes mixed with
other materials for tanning leather. Its bark and fruit yield a dye" [1]. Many parts of the tree are used in
traditional medicine: Roots, bark, leaves, seeds and fruits all have medicinal applications. The roots of
Z. mauritiana are used in the treatment of fever, wounds and ulcers, while the bark which is astringent
and is used as a remedy for diarrhea, in the form of a powder of decoction. "Powdered bark is used
as a domestic dressing for wounds and ulcers. Juice of the root-bark is used as a purgative and also
is applied externally in gout and rheumatisms. The bark is also used on scorpion stings" [4]. "In
Malaysia the poultice of the bark may be applied against stomachache" [6]. "Fruits of the cultivated
4
varieties are very acidic and astringent. When ripe and dried, the fruit is a mild laxative and
expectorant. The tender leaves and twigs are used in a form of paste to treat boils and abscesses and
carbuncles. The powder of the dried seeds is reputed to have sedative, hypnotic and hypotensive
properties" [4].
[1, 3, 4, 6]
[Others]: "In India and Pakistan, Z. mauritiana is an important agroforestry and silvipasture species in
arid and semi-arid regions and is frequently found in and around arable fields and meadows. The
trees grow well in abandoned cultivated fields and on marginal lands" [1]. It is also planted for erosion
control, and soil and river-bank stabilization, as well as for land reclamation, coastal screening and as
a windbreak. The tree is also commonly used as an ornamental tree in backyards, for living fences
around houses and branches are used as thorny fences to deter cattle. The nectar is much in favor by
insects. Birds and bats are attracted by the fruits.
[1, 3, 7]
No class. [8]

[General]: Z. mauritiana is a light demanding tree which is found in dune vegetation, moist forests,
deciduous forests, dry forests and deserts.
[1]
[Natural regeneration]: It regenerates naturally from seeds, which are dispersed by birds, wild
animals, livestock and human beings. It shows a high amount of natural regeneration especially on
open lands due to the abundant fruit crop, the hardiness of seedlings and the demand for sunlight.
[1]
[Establishment]: "Seedlings are generally planted in the field during the rainy season at a spacing
varying from 3 x 3 m to 5 x 5 m. Stump planting is more successful than bare-rooted seedling
planting. The stump plants consist of approximately 25 cm of root and 5-7.5 cm of shoot. When
planting seedlings in the field, the soil surrounding the roots should be retained. Weeding and
protection should be undertaken for two years after planting and the sown patches thinned. Spacing
of 3 x 3 m is used in windbreaks and for fodder production." [1]. "The seedling forms a strong taproot
and grows rapidly, forming long straggly twigs" [6].
[Management]: In India and Pakistan growers apply farmyard manure at the rate of 10-15 kg/tree [1]
in June and July when growth is resumed, and nitrogen fertilizer as a top dressing during fruit set.
"Foliar applications of iron, zinc, manganese and boron to 12-year-old Z. mauritiana cv. Karaka trees
increased the number of flowers per shoot, percentage fruit set and retention, fruit weight and yield.
Zinc sulphate at 0.4%, iron sulphate at 0.4% and boric acid at 0.2% gave the best results when
sprayed in during August and September" [1]. Water requirements are greater during the fruiting
stage. Thus, the growing fruit should not suffer water shortage, and although the trees root to a great
5
depth, the orchard is clean-cultivated and supplementary irrigation is applied when the monsoon rains
are inadequate. "Trees for fruit production are pruned when required. Pruning is desirable to enhance
the framework of the tree, as well as to induce young shoots to bear flowers and fruits. It is commonly
undertaken during the hot dry season ("following the harvest period" [3]) when the plants are dormant
and have shed their leaves. The trees are also often lopped, pruned and pollarded for fodder and lac
cultivation. Medium pruning of one third of the crown is preferable to severe pruning, which has
actually been found to reduce fruit yield. Medium pruning combined with a planting distance of 7.2 x
7.2 m or 9.6 x 9.6 m have shown to be most appropriate for Z. mauritania" [1]. "The young trees are
tied to a stake and pruned to obtain 4 or 5 well-spaced scaffold branches, which quickly fill the allotted
space; intercrops can be grown only for 2 or 3 years. Clonal trees bear in the second year and may
produce a sizeable crop in the fourth year. The trees flower mainly on the new shoots and are pruned
to ensure that these shoots have adequate vigor for good fruit and size and quality" [6]. In some parts
of India a coppice-with-standarts silvicultural system is practiced on a rotation of 30 years [1]. With the
coppice crop, one shoot or stool is kept after one year. Because of the great crown development, the
final spacing for fruit orchards is from 10 x 10 to 12 x 12 m (80-115 trees/ha) [3].
[1, 3, 6, 7]
[Growth]: "Z. mauritiana is a moderately fast growing species with slow seedling growth, attaining a
height of 5-10 cm and 15-35 cm by the end of first and second years, respectively. Its growth can be
improved by the inoculation of soil with its mycorrhizas. Under irrigated conditions in India and
Pakistan, Z. mauritiana shows rapid growth. Mean annual diameter increment of approximately 2.5-4
cm and average height growth during the first season of 0.6-1.7 m have been reported by Troup. Luna
states that the rate of growth is higher in young plants as compared to older plants, for example, at

five years old the average diameter growth rate was 3.2 cm per year and height growth was 0.6 cm
per year, whereas at 30 years the respective rates were 1.1 cm diameter and 0.2 m height per year"
[1].
[Fruit development]: "Fruit set depends on cross-pollination by insects (including bees) attracted by
the fragrance and nectar. Cross-incompatibility occurs and cultivars have to be matched for good fruit
set; some cultivars produce good crops parthenocarpically. Fruit development takes 4 months in early
cultivars to 6 months in late cultivars. Fruit quality is best under hot, sunny and dry condition, but there
should be a rainy season to support extension growth and flowering, ideally leaving enough residual
soil moisture to carry the fruit to maturity. If harsh weather persists, the tree goes dormant" [6].
[Fruit yield]: No yield records are available in South-East Asia. Generally, "the average fruit yields on
marginal lands vary from 30 to 50 kg per tree. However, improved varieties, when grown on fertile soil
and given irrigation, yield 80-200 kg of fruit per tree (100-200 kg/tree [6])" [1].
[1, 6]
[Fruit harvesting]: Fruit is collected when it is fully ripe and is graded according to size."[1] "The fruits
do not all ripen at once, so 4 or more pickings are needed to clear the crop. Fruit picked unripe
becomes acrid instead of ripe, and overripe fruit loses its attractive color and crisp texture" [6]. In
6
Thailand this fruit is available in the markets from August to February [6], in the Philippines the season
is from November to February [6].
[Handling after harvest]: "The fruit is not vulnerable; it handles well and shelf life is about one week.
Cold storage can extend the supply season by one month or more" [6].
Q. Propagation :
[General]: Propagation of Z. mauritiana can be carried out by direct sowing, planting, coppice, root
suckers, cuttings, air-layering, budding and pollarding.
[1, 7]
[Seed collection and storage]: The fruit contains approximately 3,300 seeds/kg [1]. Seeds are viable
for at least two years [1] although germination declines with age. "In India and Pakistan ripe fruits are
collected from the trees in February-March and are depulped immediately by manual rubbing. In the
same countries, hollow stones are separated by floatation in a 18 % solution of common salt. Floating
stones are discarded and others are dried in the sun for a week. It is necessary to carry out presowing
treatment to improve germination. This is done by either breaking the hard bony shell, which may
injure the seed, or treating with concentrated sulphuric acid for 45 minutes. The broken shells are
soaked in cold water for 1 to 2 days before sowing. When stored in gunny bags in a dry room, they
have better germination than freshly-collected seeds" [1].
[Seed Propagation]: "In India and Pakistan direct sowing takes place by sowing untreated seed by
mid-June or treated ones in July. In the nursery, sowing is done in February-March" [1]. For direct
sowing it is important that the stones are exposed to the sun as there is a high risk of germination
failure if they are sown in partial or full shade. Pretreated and cracked stones germinate within 17
days [1] (7 days for extracted kernels [6]) and untreated stones take 3-6 weeks [1] (4 weeks [6]) to
germinate. "Germination capacity and plant percent are generally high but very variable - between 31-
95% (40-80% in India [1]) and 27-82%, respectively. Z. mauritania cv. Gola seeds showed the highest
rates of germination when treated with 200 ppm of GA3"[1]. According to other sources "germination
is slow and difficult and many seeds are empty. When sown in containers at the nursery, the young
plants are moved out 2-3 months after germination" [3].
[1, 3, 6]
[Vegetative propagation]: "Although most existing trees have been raised from seed, vegetative
propagation is increasingly practiced as it is the only way to obtain trees which are true to type" [6].
Trees can be propagated on their own roots through cutting or air layers, but budding or cleft grafting
is more common. Root suckers or seeds-often from wild Ziziphus species are used to raise the
rootstocks. Budding is done in the growing season or before the onset of the monsoon: "T-budding or
ring budding are the recommended methods" [6]. A number of budding techniques, such as shield,
patch and flute budding are also used for this purpose, with the best results obtained in flute budding."
[1]. Whip grafting is the recommended grafting method, but suckle grafting-a form of inarching-is
preferred in Thailand" [6]. In India alone, about 125 grafted cultivars [1] are grown for fruit. "In India
7
and Pakistan, horticultural varieties are grafted onto wild type seedling root stocks, usually at 6-12
months old. They are then allowed to grow in the nursery for another 6-12 months before planting in
the field. The grafting is sometimes done directly on the seedlings growing in the field" [1].
[1, 3, 6]

[Pests]: Several insects attack Z. mauritiana trees. They feed on the sap, and larvae of many insect
species defoliate the trees. Among the fruit borers or fruit flies that cause serious damage and crop
losses are Meridarchis scyrodes and Carpomyia vesuviana. For Z. mauritiana, damage by 13 species
of insect pests [1], including fruit borers, leaf-eating caterpillars, weevils, leafhoppers and mealy bugs
has been reported.
[1, 6]
[Diseases]: Powdery mildew can be so serious that leaves and fruitlets drop, but it can be adequately
controlled. Lesser diseases are brown rot and leafspot. Known fungus species that cause damage on
the tree are Caldosporium zizyphi and Oidium spp.
[1, 6]
[Others]: "Z. mauritiana is prone to attack by the parasitic plant Cuscuta reflexa, which should
immediately be removed from the trees if present" [1]. Seedlings of the natural regeneration are
affected by fire, hacking, saplings by livestock browsing.
[1]
S. Conservation :

This species is not considered to be threatened.
[7]

"Found wild and cultivated in many parts of Cambodia along the roads" [4].

[Native]: Probably originated from the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent or S-China. ("Native in the
arid and semi-arid zones of Africa, Arabia, India and South East Asia" [3]).
[1, 6]
[Introduced]:
Europe: Greece, Italy, Spain.
Asia: Afghanistan, Cambodia, China, India (Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Indian Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh), Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkey, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Yemen.
8
Africa: Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan,
Tanzania (Zanzibar), Tunisia, Western Sahara.
Caribbean: Bahamas, Barbados.
Central America: Belize.
North America: USA.
Oceania: Australia.
[9, 10]
V. Miscellaneous4 :
[Varieties]: "There are more than two varieties of the Jujube fruit which are commonly grown. The wild
variety includes innumerable subvarieties all of which bear small fruits, almost tasteless berries and
possess, myriads of thorns" [4]. "A number of cultivated and grafted varieties of Z. mauritiana have
been developed for the production of fruit. Both spiny and spineless types of this species are found.
Some variation in chemical contents of leaf fodder has also been observed in different geographical
locations. Seeds of Z. mauritiana taken from 5 districts in Yunnan Province, China and Narkum,
Myanmar, were tested for their morphological characteristics (seed shape, size, colour, weight) and
germination characteristics (germination percentage, speed of germination etc.), and the growth
patterns of the seedlings and young trees. A close relation was found between these characteristics,
geographical distribution and climatic conditions. This information was found to be helpful in choosing
better forms of the tree. Similarly, a study on variability, heritability and expected genetic gain was
conducted for 12 growth characteristics in 30 genotypes of this species, of which all were highly
variable. The coefficient of variation was highest for fruit set (16.9%), followed by number of leaves
per shoot (14.2%), yield (12.9%), fruit drop percentage, shoot length and tree height. The highest
heritability values were seen for the period of fruit set to ripening (99%). Expected genetic gain was
highest for fruit set (143%) and lowest for days of pruning to flower initiation (3.5%)" [1].
[Fruit properties]: "Analyses make in India (first figure) and in Thailand (inside brackets) give the
composition per 100g edible portion: water 86(71.5) g, Protein 0.8 (0.7) g, fat 0.1(1.7) g,
carbohydrates 12.8(23.7) g, Ca 30(30) mg, P 30(30) mg, vitamin A 70(50)IU, vitamin C50-150(23) mg.
The energy value amounts to 230 (470)kJ per 100 g" [6]. Another source ([3]) mentions the following
properties: Water: 64,0-85.0%. Protein: 0.8-2.2%. Lipids: 0.1-0.3%. Sugar&starch: 20.0-32.0%.
Mineral matter: 0.4-0.7%. Calorific value: 55-135 cal/100 g [3].
[Leaf properties]: "A number of alkaloids have been isolated from the leaves, which include
coclaurine, isoboldine, norisoboldine, asimilobine, yuziphine and yuzirine" [4].
[Seed properties]: "The dried seed contains saponins such as jujubosides A and B, fixed oil and
volatile oil" [4].
[Genetic resources and breeding]: There is a wide range of variation among seedling trees. Cultivars
have resulted from selection and clonal propagation; breeding is complicated by incompatibility, which
is presumably aggravated by the differing ploidy levels. Extensive cultivar collections are evaluated in
9
northern India, at research stations of the Hyryana Agricultural University, Hissar and the Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana, but so far germplasm is not being tested in South-East Asia."[6]
[Prospects]: "Indian Jujube is common in the drier parts of South-East Asia; the fruits are well-liked
because of their exceptionally firm and crisp flesh. The crop responds to selection and care by the
grower. Hitherto studies of the crop have been largely limited to India, where ecological conditions are
rather different. A much better understanding of growth, flowering and fruiting in South-East Asia is
necessary to assess the potential for this crop in The region" [6].
[Fruit storage]: "Fruit can be conserved fresh in the refrigerator, in open boxes, at a temperature
around 00C. They cannot be kept for more than 6 weeks" [3].
Bal JS, 1992. Identification of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cultivars through vegetative and fruit
characters. Acta Horticulturae, No. 317:245-253; [23rd International Horticultural Congress, 27
August-1 September 1990, Florence, Italy]; 5 ref.
[10]
Bisla SS, Daulta BS, 1986. Studies on variability, heritability and genetic advance for quality traits in
ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 15(3-4):175-178; 8 ref.
[10]

Bisla SS, Daulta BS, 1988. Variability and heritability of some growth characters in ber (Zizyphus
mauritiana Lamk). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 45(1-2):29-33; 8 ref.
[10]
von Carlowitz PG, 1991. Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs - Sources of Seeds and Inoculants. Nairobi,
Kenya: ICRAF.
[10]
Champion HG, Seth SK, Khattak GM, 1965. Forest Types of Pakistan. Peshawar, Pakistan: Pakistan
Forest Institute.
[10]
10
Devi KR, Atluri JB, Reddi CS, 1989. Pollination ecology of Zizyphus mauritiana (Rhamnaceae).
Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences. Plant Sciences, 99(3):223-239.
[10]
[10]
Hocking D, 1993. Trees for drylands. Trees for drylands., xiii + 370 pp.; [Originally published by
Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India]; 12 pp. of ref.
[10]
Hore JK, Sen SK, 1994. Role of presowing seed treatment on germination, seedling growth and
longevity of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam) seeds. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 28(4):285-
289.
[10]
Kalyan Naha, Hajam AG, Lal Chand, 1990. Trials on propagation of shrubs in Kashmir. Indian
Forester, 116(12):938-941.
[10]
Kamble AB, Desai UT, Choudhari SM, 1994. Effect of micronutrients on fruit set, fruit retention and
yield of Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Annals of Arid Zone, 33(1):53-55; 7 ref.
[10]
Kundu AB, Barik BR, Mondal DN, Dey AK, Banerji A, 1989. Zizyberanalic acid, a pentacyclic
triterpenoid of Zizyphus jujuba.. Phytochemistry, 28(11):3155-3158; 6 ref.
[10]
Kundu SS, Pareek OP, Gupta AK, 1995. Effect of time and severity of pruning on physico-chemical
characteristics and yield of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Haryana Journal of
Horticultural Science, 24(1):23-30; 13 ref.
[10]
11
[10]
Mabberley DJ, 1997. The plant-book: a portable dictionary of the vascular plants. The plant-book: a
portable dictionary of the vascular plants., Ed. 2:xvi + 858 pp.
[10]
Mawani PB, Singh SP, 1992. Effect of method and time of budding on budding success in ber
(Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk) cv. Gola, part-I. Horticultural Journal, 5(1):31-35; 13 ref.
[10]
Nanohar MS, Sen NL, Yadvendra JP, 1986. Phenotypic variation and its heritable components in
some biometric characters in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 43(1-
2):42-45; 7 ref.
[10]
Nishi Mathur, Anil Vyas, 1996. Relative efficiency of different VAM fungi on growth and nutrient uptake

in Zizyphus mauritiana. Indian Journal of Forestry, 19(2):129-131; 17 ref.
[10]
Parker RN, 1956. A forest flora for the Punjab with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore, Pakistan: Government
Printing Press.
[10]
Patel BH, Upadhyay VR, Muralidharan CM, Judal GS, 1988. Effect of various insecticides on honey
bee, Apis florea Fabricius in 'ber' (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk). Current Science, 57(21):1199-1200; 5
ref.
[10]
Pukesh S, Majumdar VL, Sharma M, 1993. Indian-Phytopathology., 46: 4, No. 415. Department of
Plant Pathology, SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner 303 328, India.
12
[10]
Qaiser M, and Nazimuddin S, 1981. Flora of Pakistan. Rhamnaceae. Karachi, Pakistan: Department
of Botany. University of Karachi.
[10]
Shah BH, 1991. Some observations on the effect of forest tree species on ground vegetation at Pabbi
Forest, Kharian. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 41(4):173-177; 6 ref.
[10]
Sheikh MI, 1980. Effect of different treatments to hasten tree seed germination. Pakistan Journal of
Forestry, 30(4):176-180.
[10]
Sheikh MI, 1981. Dry afforestation experiments in Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Forestry, 31(1):41-
43.
[10]
Siddiqui S, Gupta OP, 1996. Effect of attached pedicel on the shelf life of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana
Lamk) fruit cv. Kaithli. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1(1):70-72; 6 ref.
[10]
Singh SP, 1989. Wasteland development. Wasteland development., xx + 227 pp.; 96 ref.
[10]
Syamal MM, Rajput CBS, 1989. Effect of pruning on growth, fruiting and fruit quality of ber (Zizyphus
mauritiana Lam.). Indian Journal of Horticulture, 46(3):364-367; 5 ref.
[10]
Troup RS, 1921. The Silviculture of Indian trees. Vols. I-III. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
[10]
13
Vyas HN, 1996. Pest complex of Zizyphus mauritiana Lamark. Crop Research Hisar, 11(2):216-218.
[10]
Wang Yun, 1994. A preliminary study on the geographical provenance of Zizyphus mauritiana. Forest
Research, 7(3):334-335; 2 ref.
[10]
Yadav LS, Godara NR, 1989. Effect of planting distance and severity of pruning on flowering, fruit set
and fruit retention in ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) cv. Umran. Progressive Horticulture, 21(3-
4):325-328; 8 ref.
X. References:
[1] CABI: Forestry Compendium (1998-2000 edition). (CD-ROM).
[3] FAO, 1988: Fruit-bearing Forest Trees. FAO Forestry Paper.

[5] PROSEA, 1998: Plant Resources of South East Asia 5 - (3) Timber trees: Lesser- known timbers.
[6] PROSEA, Plant Resources of South-East Asia 2- Edible fruits and nuts.
[7] Thames & Hudson, 2004, Tropical and Subtropical Trees.
Phnom Penh.
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Samoeun Sothyroth
Bsc. Environmental Management

Picture Contributors:
Mr. Phorn Pheara (Bsc. Forestry)

Mr. Kim Sobon (Bsc. Forestry)
Mr. Von Monin (Msc. Forestry)
Mr. Andras Matoni (Msc. Agronomy)
Ms. Anja Olligschlager (Msc. Agronomy)
Ms. Anne Weingart (PhD. Development Economics)
7
DED –German Development Service . RUA –Royal University of Agriculture. NaTSystems – Natural Technology Systems. CBNRM LI –
Community Based Natural Resource Management Learning Institute. PNSA – PrekLeap National School of Agriculture.

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[Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.]

Supported by: German embassy, DED

A. Latin name (s) ³ Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.

D. Other1 ³ northern black wattle (Trade name) [1] - akashmoni,

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³ GakasüasøwktUc

Species: Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation :

K. Climate and environmental amplitude :

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

M. soil and site conditions :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Others]: "Plantations of A. auriculiformis improve soil physio-chemical properties such as water-

P. Silviculture and management :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Establishment]: Stands are established successfully by using containerized seedlings or by direct

pollarding. A. auriculiformis is sometimes included in trials of mixed species management systems in

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

R. Hazards and protection :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

U. Species location in the world( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

North America: (USA, Hawaii)

South America: (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador)

[Hybrids]: "A. auriculiformis is related to A. polystachya A. Cunn. ex Benth., A. cincinnata F. Muell.

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Pinyopusarerk K, 1990. Acacia auriculiformis: an annotated bibliography. Winrock International and

Yantasath K, Anusontpornperm S, Utistham T, Soontornrangson W, Watanatham S, 1993. Acacias

[4] Dy Phon, P., 2000: Plants used in Cambodia.

[6] CTSP/DANIDA, 2004: List of Tree Species. 7pp.

[7] Petri, M. (DED), 2006: Own observations.

[8] ECOPORT: http://ecoport.org/ep (Internet source)

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

[Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa]

Supported by: German embassy, DED

A. Latin name (s) ³ Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa [4]

C. Synonym ³ Feronia pellucida, Crateva marmelos [9]

D. Other1 ³ Oranger de Malabar (French) [4] bnau, (Cambodia); maja,

maja batu, (Indonesia); toum (Laos); bilak, bila, bel

E. Khmer name(s)(Khmer letter)³

F. Khmer name(s) (Latin letter) ³ phnëu [4]

Species: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa

Source :[4 ; 11]

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

J. Geogarphic distribution and vegetation :

L. Gene ecological zone in Cambodia :

M. soil and site conditions :

N. Utilization and importance :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

The leaves and twigs are lopped for fodder. [20].

May be used as living hedge because of the spiny branches [9].

O. Cambodian wood classification :

P. Silviculture and management :

R. Hazards and protection :

T. Species location in Cambodia( native and introduced) :

Digital Compendium of Forestry Species of Cambodia | Datasheet Report

Phnom Penh, 915 pp.

12) CABI Forestry Compendium 2003 (on CD)

Database. World Agroforestry Centre (on CD ).

[Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib]

Supported by: German embassy, DED

A. Latin name (s) ³ Afzelia xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib

B. English name (s) ³ No name available.