TRANSFORMER Testing Manual Final PDF

M MTEKP RO
POWE ER TRA ANSFOR RMER TESTIN NG
MTEKP PROTechnologiesPvt.Ltd,NewDelh hi- 110048

Phone e:+911146 6173333,Fa ax:+911141825662 l:info@mte ekpro.com,Web: W mtekp pro.com Email
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Power Transformer Testing 2
Testingof PowerTransformers

1.VerificationofvoltageRatioandvector Grouporphasedisplacementandpolarity.

MTEKPRO Technologies Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
1.TurnRatioMeasurement
1.1Purposeofmeasurement
Thenoloadvoltageratiobetweentwowindingsofatransformeriscalledturnratio.Theaimofmeasurement is;confirmingthenoloadvoltageratiogiveninthecustomerorderSpecifications,determiningtheconditions ofboththewindingsandtheconnectionsandexaminingtheproblems(ifany). Themeasurementsaremadeatalltappositionsandallphases.
1.2TurnRatioMeasurement Bridgemethod
Measurement of turn ratio is based on, applying a phase voltage to one of the windings using a bridge (equipment)andmeasuringtheratiooftheinducedvoltageatthebridge.Themeasurementsarerepeatedin all phases and at all tap positions, sequentially. During measurement, only turn ratio between the winding couples which have the same magnetic flux can be measured, which means the turn ratio between the windingcoupleswhichhavetheparallelvectorsinthevectordiagramcanbemeasured. Theoreticalturnratio=HVwindingvoltage/LVwindingvoltage The theoretical noload turn ratio of the transformer is adjusted on the equipment by an adjustable transformer; it is changed until a balance occurs on the % error indicator. The value read on this error indicatorshowsthedeviationofthetransformerfromrealturnratioas%. (Measuredturnratio)(Designedturnratio) %Deviation=*100 (Designedturnratio) The%deviationoftheturnratiosshouldbe0.5%.

1.2DeterminingtheVectorGroup
Depending on the type of the transformer, the input and output windings of a multiphase transformer are connectedeitherasstar(Y)ordelta(D)orzigzag(Z).Thephaseanglebetweenthehighvoltageandthelow voltagewindingsvariesbetween0and360. Representing as vectors, the HV winding is represented as 12 (0) hour and the other windings of the connection group are represented by other numbers of the clock in reference to the real or virtual point. For example, in Dyn 11 connection group the HV winding is delta and the LV winding is star and there is a phase difference of 330 (11x30) between two windings. While the HV end shows 12 (0), the LV end shows 11 oclock(after330). Determiningtheconnectiongroupisvalidonlyinthreephasetransformers.Thehighvoltagewindingisshown first(asreference)andtheotherwindingsfollowit. Ifthevectordirectionsoftheconnectionarecorrect,thebridgecanbebalanced. Also, checking the connection group or polarity is possible by using a voltmeter. Direct current or alternating currentcanbeusedforthischeck. Theconnectionsaboutthealternatingcurrentmethodaredetailedinstandards.Anexampleofthismethodis shownonavectordiagrambelow. Fig:Connectiongroup representationand measuring Theorderofthemeasurements: 1)3phasevoltageisappliedtoABCphases 2)voltagebetweenphases(e.g.AC)ismeasured 3)AshortcircuitismadebetweenCandn 4)voltagebetweenBandBismeasured 5)voltagebetweenAandcismeasured As seen from the vector diagram, in order to be Dyn 11 group, A.c > AB > B.b correlation has to realized. Taking the other phases as reference for starting, same principles can be used and also for determining the otherconnectiongroups,sameprincipleswillbehelpful.
1.3Polaritytest 1.3.1Polaritytestusingvoltmeters Singlephasetransformers
For singlephase transformers the polarity can be either additive or subtractive. The low voltage winding is connected in series with the high voltage winding, either in phase or in opposite phase. For additive determinationofpolarity,ifthephasedisplacementiscorrect,seefigure1.3.1.
Figure1.3.1:Connectionforadditivepolaritytest Andforsubtractivedeterminationofpolarity,seefigure1.3.2
Figure1.3.2:Connectionforsubtractivepolaritytest. PolyphaseTransformers. The vector group must be checked for threephase transformers. This is done by connecting a terminal from the low voltage side to a terminal on the high voltage side, see figure 1.3.3. When a threephase supply is connectedtothehighvoltagewinding,potentialdifferencesappearbetweentheopenterminalsandareused todeterminethevectorgroup.
Figure1.3.3:Polaritytestandconnectiontestonthreephasetransformer Usingonevoltmeter
1.3.2PolaritycheckusingDCcurrent. 7 This method establishes the polarity of single and threephase transformers by briefly switching on a DC current source at the high voltage winding, see figure 1.3.4. The polarity is shown on a polarized voltmeter connectedtothelowvoltageside.
Power Transformer Testing
Figure1.3.4:Basicanalogratiobridgecircuit
Testingof PowerTransformers 2.WindingResistance Measurement.

2.WindingResistanceMeasurement. 2.1Purposeofthetest
Windingresistanceservesanumberofimportantfunctionslike: Providingabasevaluetoestablishloadloss. ProvidingabasisforanindirectmethodtoestablishwindingtemperatureandTemperaturerise withinawinding. Inclusionaspartofaninhousequalityassuranceprogram,likeverifyingelectriccontinuitywithina winding.
2.2General.
Winding resistance is always defined as the DCresistance (active or actual resistance) of a winding in Ohms [].
Temperaturedependence
It should be noted that the resistivity of the conductor material in a winding copper or aluminum is stronglydependentontemperature.Fortemperatureswithinthenormaloperatingrangeofatransformerthe followingrelationshipbetweenresistanceandtemperatureissufficientlyaccurate:
C+2 R2=R1 C+1

Where: R1=resistanceattemperature2 R2=resistanceattemperature1 =temperatureinC C=constantwhichisafunctionofmaterialtype IEC[1]specifies:C=235forcopper=225foraluminum
Principleandmethodsforresistancemeasurement:
Therearebasicallytwodifferentmethodsforresistancemeasurement:namely,thesocalledvoltmeter ammetermethodandthebridgemethod. VoltmeterammeterMethod ThemeasurementiscarriedoutusingDCcurrent.Simultaneousreadingsofcurrentandvoltagearetaken.The resistance is calculated from the readings in accordance with Ohms Law. This measurement may be performedusingconventionalanalog(rarelyusednowadays)ordigital meters;however,todaydigitaldevices suchasDataAcquisitionSystems(DAS)withdirectresistancedisplayarebeingusedmoreandmore. Measurementwithvoltmeterandammeter Themeasuringcircuitisshowninfigure2.1. ResistanceRXiscalculatedaccordingtoOhmsLaw:
RX=U/I
The advantage of this method is the simplicity of the testcircuit. On the other hand, this method is rather 10 inaccurateandrequiressimultaneousreadingofthetwoinstruments.
ResistancemeasurementusingaKelvin(Thomson)Bridge
This measurement is based on the comparison of two voltage drops: namely, the voltage drop across the unknownwindingresistanceRX,comparedtoavoltagedropacrossaknownresistanceRN(standardresistor), figure2.2. DCcurrent is made to flow through RX and RN and the corresponding voltage drops are measured and compared. The bridge is balanced by varying the two resistors Rdec and RV, which have relatively high resistance values. A balanced condition is indicated when the galvanometer deflection is zero, at which time the following relationshipholds:
Rdec RX=RN Rv
Theinfluenceofcontactresistancesandtheconnectioncableresistances(evenoftheconnectionbetweenRX andRN)canbeneglected.
Figure2.1:Voltmeterammetermethodmeasuringcircuit
Figure2.2:Kelvin(Thomson)Bridgemethod
ValueoftheDCcurrentofmeasurement
Maximumvalue: Toavoidaninadmissiblewindingtemperatureriseduringthemeasurement,theDCcurrentshouldbe limitedtoamaximum10%oftheratedcurrentofthecorrespondingwinding. Minimumvalue: ThelowerlimitoftheDCcurrentisgivenbythefollowingconsiderations: ThemeasuringcircuitforallresistancemeasuringmethodsconsistsofaDCsourceandatransformer windingfixedaroundanironcoreasrepresentedbythefollowingequivalentcircuit,Windinginductance isstronglydependentoncurrentanddisplaysthefollowingcharacteristicfortransformers,seefigure3.4. AsthemeasuringcircuittimeconstantisgivenbytherelationL/R,thecurrenttimecharacteristicdiffersquite significantly when switching on the DCsource, depending on the measuring current value (magnetizing current). Therefore, the DC measuring current should be at least 1.2 times higher than the crest value of the magnetizingcurrenttobesuretosaturatetheironcore
Figure3.3:EquivalentcircuitofaFigure3.4:Inductanceoftransformerwinding Windingasafunctionofthecurrent.
Testingof PowerTransformers 3.MagneticBalanceand MagnetisingCurrent Measurement.

MagneticBalanceTeston3phaseTransformers
This test is conducted only in threephase transformers to check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit. In this test,nowindingterminalshouldbegrounded;otherwiseresultswouldbeerraticandconfusing.Thetestshall be performed before winding resistance measurement. The test voltage shall be limited to maximum power supplyvoltageavailableatsite.
EvaluationCriteria
The voltage induced in the center phase is generally 50% to 90% of the applied voltage on the outer phases. However, when the center phase is excited then the voltage induced in the outer phases is generally 30 to 70%oftheappliedvoltage. Zerovoltageorverynegligiblevoltagewithhigherexcitationcurrentinducedintheothertwowindingsshould beinvestigated.Thevoltageinducedindifferentphasesoftransformerinrespecttoneutralterminalsgivenin thetablebelow. Leftsidephase Voltageappliedatleftsidephase Voltageappliedatcentralphase Voltageappliedatrightsidephase
Centralphase BN 180V 230V 180V
Rightsidephase CN 50V 115V 230V
AN 230V 115V 50V
EXCITING/MAGNETISINGCURRENTMEASUREMENT
This test should be done before DC measurements of winding resistance to reduce the effect of residual magnetism. Magnetising current readings may be effected by residual magnetism in the core. Therefore, transformerundertestmaybedemagnetisedbeforecommencementofmagnetizingcurrenttest. Threephase transformers are tested by applying Singlephase 10 kV voltage to one phase (HV terminals) and keepingotherwindingopencircuitedandmeasuringthecurrentatnormal,minimumandmax.tappositions. KeepthetappositioninnormalpositionandkeepHVandLVterminalsopen.Apply1phase10kVsupplyon IV terminals. Measure phase to phase voltage between the IV terminalsand currenton each of the IV terminals. The set of reading for current measurement in each of the tap position should be equal. Unequal currents shall indicate possible short circuits in winding. Results between similar singlephase units should not vary more than 10 % .The test values on the outside legs should be within 15 % of each other, and values for the centre leg should not be more than either outside for a threephase transformers. Results compared to previous tests made underthesameconditionsshouldnotvarymorethan25%.Ifthemeasuredexcitingcurrentvalueis50times higher than the value measured during precommissioning checks, then there is likelihood of a fault in the winding which needs further analysis. The identical results confirm no damage due to transportation. The availability of test data of normal condition and faulty condition results help us to analyze the problem in future.
MeasurementofMagnetizationCurrentatLowVoltage
For3phasetransformers,thetestshallbeconductedeitherwith415V,3phase(neutralgrounded)or230V, 1phase(preferred).Forsinglephasetransformers,thetestshallbeconductedwith230V. This test is performed to locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of windings, failures in turn insulationorproblemintapchangers. The acceptance criteria for the results of exciting current measurement should be based on the comparison with the previous site test results or factory test results. The general pattern is two similar high readings on the outer phases and one lower reading on the center phase, in case of three phase transformers. An agreement to within 25% of the measured exciting current with the previous test is usually considered satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50% higher than the value measured during pre commissioningchecks,thenthewindingneedsfurtheranalysis.
Testingof PowerTransformers 4.MEASUREMENTOFSHORT CIRCUITIMPEDANCE

MEASUREMENTOFSHORTCIRCUITIMPEDANCE
This test is used to detect winding movement that usually occurs due to heavy fault current or mechanical damageduringtransportationorinstallationsincedispatchfrothefactory. Ensure the isolation of Transformer from High Voltage & Low voltage side with physical inspection of open condition of the concerned isolators/disconnectors. In case tertiary is also connected, ensure the isolation of thesamepriortocommencementoftesting The measurement is performed in single phase mode. This test is performed for the combination of two winding. The one of the winding is short circuited and voltage is applied to other winding. The voltage and currentreadingarenoted. The test shall be conducted with variac of 0280 V, 10 A, precision RMS voltmeter and ammeter. The conductors used for shortcircuiting one of the transformer windings should have low impedance (less than 1mohm)andshortlength.Thecontactsshouldbecleanandtight. The acceptable criteria should be the measured impedance voltage having agreement to within 3 percent of impedance specified in rating and diagram nameplate of the transformer. Variation in impedance voltage of morethan3%shouldbeconsideredsignificantandfurtherinvestigated. Theformulaforcalculatingthepercentageimpedancewithcurrentandfrequencycorrectionis:
Where: Vtest=Testvoltage Vrated=Ratedvoltage Itest=Testcurrent Irated=Ratedcurrent ft=Testfrequency fr=Ratedfrequency

Testingof PowerTransformers 5.Measurementofdissipation factor(tan)oftheinsulation systemcapacitances.
Power Transformer Testing Measurementofdissipationfactor(tan)oftheinsulationsystemcapacitances 18 Thepurposeofthemeasurement

The insulation powerfactor test, similar to the insulation resistance test, allows certain conclusions to be drawnconcerningtheconditionofthetransformerinsulation. The significance of the power factor figure is still a matter of opinion. Experience has shown, however, that the powerfactor is helpful in assessing the probable condition of the insulation when good judgment is used.
General
IEC defines the power factor as the ratio between the absorbed active power to the absolute value of the reactive power. This corresponds to tan. IEEE [51], on the other hand defines the insulation powerfactor as theratioofthepowerdissipatedintheinsulationinwatts,totheproductoftheeffectivevoltageandcurrent in voltamperes (corresponding to the apparent power) when tested using a sinusoidal voltage. Insulation powerfactorisusuallyexpressedinpercent[51]. Measurement of powerfactor values in the factory is useful for comparison with field powerfactor measurements and assessing the probable condition of the insulation. It has not been feasible to establish standardpowerfactorvaluesforthefollowingreasons: ThereislittleornorelationshipbetweenpowerfactorandtheabilityoftheTransformertowithstandthe prescribeddielectrictests. Thevariationofpowerfactorwithtemperatureissubstantialanderratic. ThevariousliquidsandinsulationmaterialsusedintransformersresultinLargevariationsininsulation powerfactors[51].
Themeasuringcircuit/themeasuringprocedure[51] Measurementusingabridge
ThemethodisbasedoncomparingthecapacitanceCX(transformerundertest)withawellknown capacitanceCN(standardcapacitor).
ConventionalScheringBridge
Figureshowsthemeasuringcircuitfortheinsulationpowerfactormeasurementofatwowinding transformerusingaconventionalScheringbridge.
Instrumentation
TheScheringBridgetestcircuitconsistsofthreemainparts: TheunknowncapacitanceCX,whichrepresentsthetransformerundertestwhosepowerfactor(ortan) andcapacitancearetobemeasured. ThestandardcapacitorCN,whichmustbeaHVcapacitorwithverylowdielectriclosses.Normallyits capacitanceisbetween100pFand10nF. TheScheringBridgecasingcontainsresistorsR3,R4andr,adjustablecapacitorC4andgalvanometerG. Inordertoreducetheinfluenceofexternaldisturbances,coaxialcablesmustbeusedfortheconnection betweenCX(thetransformerundertest)tothebridgeandalsobetweenstandardcapacitanceCNandthe bridge.
Figure:Measuringcircuitforthemeasurementofpowerfactorandwinding Capacitances.
When the bridge is balanced, the unknown capacitance CX and tan can be calculated using the following equations:
In most bridges the following resistance values are used for R4, to simplify the calculation: 100/, 1000/ or 10000/etc.inohms. Fora50Hzmeasurement,withR4=1000/andC4innF,theinsulationpowerfactortanwillbe:
Amoderntanbridgewithcurrentcomparatorandmicroprocessor
Thisbridgeusesbasicallythesamemeasuringprincipleasdescribedabove.Figure18.1bshowsthemeasuring circuit for dissipation factor and capacitance measurement with a modern tan _ measuring bridge with incorporatedmicroprocessor. The currents are balanced in a comparator (morewinding differential transformer) and quadrature current is injectedtobalancethelosses. For the unknown capacitance Cx, the standard capacitor CN and the connections between transformer and bridgearethesameasmentionedabovefortheconventionalScheringBridge.
MEASURINGMETHODS: CAPACITANCEANDTANMEASUREMENTOFBUSHINGS
C & Tan measurement of bushings shall be done at 10kV with fully automatic test kit so as to have reliable testresult. For 3Ph autotransformer, short together all400kV, 220kV and Neutral (isolated from earth)Bushings. Also shortall33kVBushingsandearththesame. Measurement of C1 Capacitance and Tan: Connect the crocodile clip of the HV cable to the top terminal of theshortedHV/IVbushings.Unscrewthetesttapcover,Insertapinintheholeofthecentraltesttapstudby pressing the surrounding contact plug in case of 245 kV OIP Bushing and remove the earthing strip from the flangebyunscrewingthescrew(holdingearthstriptotheflangebody)incaseof420kVOIPBushing.Connect the LV cable to the test tap (strip/central stud) of the bushing under test to the C & TAN KIT through a screenedcableandearththeflangebody.RepeatthetestforallBushingsbychangingonlyLVleadconnection ofthekittotesttapoftheBushingwhichistobetested. MeasurementofC2CapacitanceandTan:HVleadtobeconnectedtothetesttapofthebushingundertest (ifrequiredadditionalcrocodiletypeclipmaybeused)andLVofthekittobeconnectedtotheground.HVof the bushing is to be connected to the Guard terminal of the test kit. Test to be carried out in GSTg mode at 1.0kV. For measurement of 33kV Bushing Tan Delta, earth HV/IV Bushings (already shorted). Apply HV lead of the Testkittoshorted33kVBushingsandconnectLVleadofthetestkittoTesttapoftheBushingundertest. Measurements shall be made at similar conditions as that of a previous measurement. The oilpaper insulation combination of bushings exhibit fairly constant tan delta over a wide range of operating temperature.Hence,effortistobemadefortestingattemperatureneartoprevioustestandCorrectionfactor neednotbeapplied. Donottestabushing(neworspare)whileitisinitswoodshippingcrate,orwhileitislyingon wood.Wood isnotasgoodaninsulatorasporcelainandwillcausethereadingstobeinaccurate.Keepthetestresultsasa baselinerecordtocomparewithfuturetests.
It is to be ensured that C& Tan measurement of bushings and testing of turrets carried out before 21 installation.ThiswillpreventinstallationofbushingshavingC&Tanvaluesbeyondpermissiblelimits. It is to be ensured that Test Tap points are earthed immediately after carrying out the measurements for thatparticularBushingandearthingoftesttaptobeensuredbycarryingoutcontinuitytest.
CAPACITANCEANDTANMEASUREMENTOFWINDINGS
The combination for C & tan measurement of winding is same as that of measurement of IR value. The summeryofprobablecombinationisgivenbelow: AutoTransformer(Two TestMode Shunt Test Mode 3winding Test Mode winding) Reactor Transformer HV+IVtoLV HV+IVtoE LVtoE Table:CombinationforC&tanmeasurementofwindingforvarious Transformers/ShuntReactor. Ensure that test specimen is isolated from other equipments. Removal of Jumpers from Bushings is Pre RequisiteforC&TanMeasurementofWindings. For ICTs (AutoTransformers): Shorting of all three phase Bushings (400kV&220kV) and neutral to be done. Incaseofsinglephase,400kV,220kVandneutralBushingstobeshortedCapacitanceandTanmeasurement ofwindingsshouldbedoneinfollowingcombinations: Test Test TestleadConnection Remarks WindingCombination CapSymbol No. mode USTV GSTg GSTg HVtoE GST HVtoLV1 HVtoLV2 LV1toLV2 UST UST UST
HVtoGround GSTg LV1toGround GSTg LV2toGround GSTg

1. HVIV/LV UST CHL HV leadoftestkitto HV/IV bushings of transformer LVleadoftestkittoLV bushingoftransformer
22
2. 3.
HVIV/LV+G HVIV/LV withGuard
GST GSTg
CHL +CHG CHG
do do
LV to be Guarded
HVIV/LV
UST
CHL
LV leadoftest kitto HV/IV bushings of transformer HVleadoftestkittoLV bushingoftransformer
LV/
HVIV+G
GST
CHL +CLG LG
do HV to be Guarded
6.
LV/ HVIV withGuard
GSTg
CLG
do
Table:.WindingcombinationforC&tanmeasurementforautotransformer. MeasurementintercheckcanbedonebycalculatingC1=C2C3&C4=C5C6&DF1=C2DF2C3DF3/C2C3= C4DF4C5DF5 / C4C5 Where C stands for capacitance and DF for dissipation factor or tan and attached suffix(16)denotesthesr.no.oftestinabovetable. For Reactors: All 400kV and neutral Bushings to be shorted. HV of the test kit to be connected to shorted BushingsandLVofthetestkittobeconnectedtoEarthconnection.MeasuretheCapacitanceandtanDeltain GSTmode.Neutralconnectionwithearth/NGRtobeisolatedbeforethetest.
Testingof
PowerTransformers 6.Measurement InsulationResistance.


24 Insulation resistance tests Megger tests are performed to determine the insulation resistance from individualwindingstoearthorbetweenindividualwindings.Knowledgeoftheinsulationresistanceisofvalue whenevaluatingtheconditionofthetransformerinsulation. Insulationresistanceiscommonlymeasuredinmegohms,(M). It should be stated, that variations in insulation resistance can be caused by numerous factors including: design, temperature, dryness, and cleanliness of parts, especially of bushings. When insulation resistance falls belowspecifiedvalue,itcanoftenbebroughtbacktotherequiredvaluebycleaninganddrying. Insulationresistancevarieswiththeappliedvoltage.Anymeasurementcomparisonsshouldalwaysbecarried outatthesamevoltage.
Measurementofinsulationresistance
Figure:Principalmeasuringcircuitfortheinsulationresistancemeasurement IEEE Std. C57.12.00 [50] also specifies the insulation resistance measurement between core and earth. It shall be measured after complete assembly of the transformer at a level of at least 0.5 Kv DC for a duration of 1 minute. Thetestisconductedwiththehelpofmegaohmmeter.IRisproportionaltotheleakagecurrentthrough/over the insulation after capacitive charging and absorption currents become negligible on application of DC voltage. Insulation resistance shall be measured after the intervals of 15 sec, 60 sec and 600 sec. The polarization index (PI) is defined as the ratio of IR values measured at the intervals of 600 and 60 seconds respectively.Whereas,thedielectricabsorptionistheratioofIRvaluesmeasuredafter60secand15sec.IRis normally measured at 5 kV DC or lower test voltage, but the test voltage should not exceed half the rated powerfrequencytestvoltageoftransformerwindings. Polarization index (PI) is useful parameters for logistic interpretation of IR test results. This ratio is independentoftemperatureandgivesmorereliabledataforlargepowertransformers.APIofmorethan1.3 and dielectric absorption factor of more than 1.25 are considered satisfactory for a transformer when the resultsofotherlowvoltagetestsarefoundinorder.PIoflessthan1callsforimmediatecorrectiveaction.For bushings,anIRvalueofabove10000Mohmsisconsideredsatisfactory. The IR value of transformer is dependent on various factors such as configuration of winding insulation structures,transformeroil,atmosphereconditionetc.therefore,presenttrendistomonitoroilcharacteristics
for judging the condition of dryness of the transformer and not to rely solely on absolute values of IR. It may be note that no national/international standards specify minimum insulation resistance values of 25 transformers.ThevalueofIRmaybeverylowunderheavyfogorhumidconditions. DuringIRmeasurement,wemustensurefollowingconditions: Transformerisdisconnectedfromotherassociatedequipment Bushingsarecleanedandfreeofmoisture Transformertankandcoreareproperlygrounded Bothendsofwindingundertestareshortcircuited.
MeasuringMethods:
IR measurements shall be taken between thewindings collectively (i.e. with all the Windings being connected together)andtheearthedtank(earth)andbetweeneachwindingandthetank,therestofthewindingsbeing earthed. Before taking measurements the neutral should be disconnected from earth. Following table gives combinationsofIRmeasurementsforautotransformer,threewindingtransformer&ShuntReactor. ForAutotransformer For3winding For Shunt transformer Reactor HV+IVtoLV HV+IVtoE LVtoE HV+ IVtoLV HV+LVtoIV HV+IV+LVtoE HVtoE
WhereHVHighvoltage,IVIntermediatevoltage,LVLowvoltage/Tertiaryvoltagewindings,EEarth Unless otherwise recommended by the manufacturer the following IR values as a thumb rule may be considered as the minimum satisfactory values at 30C (one minute measurements) at the time of commissioning.
Insulation resistance varies inversely with temperature and is generally corrected to a standard temperature (usually20C)usingtable(Source:BHELinstructionManual)asgivenbelow.
PI=R10/R1(dimensionless), WherePIisPolarisationIndexandRisresistance Thefollowingareguidelinesforevaluatingtransformerinsulationusingpolarizationindexvalues:
APIofmorethan1.25andDAIofmorethan1.3aregenerallyconsideredsatisfactoryforatransformerwhen the results of other low voltage tests are found in order. PI less than 1 calls for immediate corrective action. Forbushings,anIRvalueofabove10,000Misconsideredsatisfactory.

27
Testingof PowerTransformers 7.CHECKLISTFORENERGISATION OFTRANSFORMER.

CHECKLISTFORENERGISATIONOFTRANSFORMER/REACTOR PRELIMINARYCHECKS
1.Releaseairatthehighpoints,likeoilcommunicatingbushings,buchholzpetcock,tankcoverandthecooling devices including headers, radiators, pumps, expansion joints etc. of the transformer. Air release should be resortedfromlowpointstohighpoints. 2.Checkthewholeassemblyfortightnessandrectifywherenecessary. 3.Checkthegeneralappearanceandretouchthepaintworkifneedbe. 4.Checkthatthevalvesareinthecorrectposition: Tank:valvesclosedandblanked Coolingcircuit:valvesopen Conservatorconnection:valvesopen Bypass:valvesopenorclosedasthecasemaybe. Onloadtapchanger:valvesopen 5.Checkthatthesilicagelinthebreatherisblueandthatthereisoilinthebreathercup(oilseal) 6.CheckthatCCCLGareshorted 7. Check the oil level in the main conservator and the conservator of onload tap changer, bushing caps, flanges, turrets, expansion bellows as per manufacturers recommendation. Level should correspond to 35 C markonoillevelgaugesforBHELtransformers 8.Checkthebushings: Oillevel(bushingsfittedwithsightglasses) Adjustmentofsparkgaps/arcinghorngaps,ifprovided Conformityofconnectiontothelines(notensilestressontheterminalheads) BushingCTsecondaryterminalsmustbeshortedandearthed,ifnotinuse. Neutralbushingeffectivelyearthed 9.Checktheonloadtapchanger: ConformityofthepositionsbetweenthetapchangercontrolcubicleandthetapChangerhead Adjustmentofthetapchangercontrolcubiclecoupling Electricandmechanicallimitswitchesandprotectiverelays StepbystepoperationlocalandremoteelectricaloperationaswellasmanualOperationandparallel operation,ifany Signalingofpositions 10.Checkthequalityoftheoil: Drawoffasamplefromthebottomofthetank CarryoutDGAandoilparameterstest(i.e.BDV,Moisturecontent,resistivity&tanat90CandIFT)
beforeenergisation. 11.ChecktheoilofOLTCchamber,ifnotgood,drainandfillwithfilteredoiluptodesiredlevel. 12CheckthatequalisinglinkbetweenOLTCtankandMaintankisremoved 13Extraneousmaterialsliketools,earthingrods,piecesofclothes,wasteetc.shouldberemovedbefore energisation.
CHECKINGOFAUXILIARYANDPROTECTIVECIRCUITS
1.Checktemperatureindicatorreadingsandtheircalibrations 2. Check the setting and working of the mercury switches of winding and oil temperature indicators and presenceofoilinthethermometerpockets Followthesameprocedureforthethermalreplicas 3.Checkthedirectionofinstallationofbuchholtzrelay. 4.Checktheoperationofthebuchholzrelayandthesurgeprotectiverelayofthetapchanger: Alarmandtripping Protectionsandsignalsinterlockedwiththeserelays 5.Checktheinsulationoftheauxiliarycircuitsinrelationtothegroundby2kVmeggerfor1min. 6.Checktheearthingofthetankandauxiliarieslikecoolerbanksattwoplaces. 7.Measurethesupplyvoltagesoftheauxiliarycircuits 8.Checkthecoolingsystem: Checkthedirectionofinstallationofoilpumps Checkthedirectionofrotationofthepumpsandfans Checktheworkingoftheoilflowindicators Checkthesettingofthethermaloverloadrelays Gothroughthestartingupsequences,controlandadjust,ifnecessary,therelaytimedelays 9.Checkthatthereisefficientprotectionontheelectriccircuitsupplyingtheaccessoriesandtightnessofall electricalconnections 10.Checktheheatingandlightinginthecubicles 11. Check the differential protection, overcurrent protection, restricted earth fault protection, overfluxing protection etc. are in service and settings are as per CC/Engg recommendations. After the inspection / tests arecompleted,thetransformermaybeenergisedfromtheincomingsideonNOLOAD.Theinitialmagnetising current at the time of switching will be very high, depending upon the particular moment in the cycle. The transformer should always be soaked for few hours under constant care i.e. keep it energised for twelve hours.Excessivevibrationsofradiatorpartsetc.shouldbelocatedandcorrected.Thetransformerhumshould be observed for any abnormality. After that it may be checked for gas collection. Should the gas prove to be inflammable, try to detect the cause which may probably be an internal fault? If the breaker trips on
differential /REF, buchholz or any other protective device, the cause must be investigated thoroughly before reenergizing the transformer/ reactor. After successful charging, performance of transformer / rector should 30 be checked under loading; OTI/WTI readings should be monitored for 24 hours and ensured that they are as perloading. DGA samples may be sent as per Standard practice (after 24 hrs of energisation, one week, 15 days, one month and three months after charging, thereafter as per normal frequency of 6 months). Loading data may beforwardedtoCC/OSandmanufacturer(ifrequestedbythem).
Testingof
PowerTransformers 8.PRECOMMISSIONINGCHECKS /TESTSFORTRANSFORMERS.

PRECOMMISSIONINGCHECKS/TESTSFORTRANSFORMERS&REACTORS
Onceoilfillingiscompleted,variousprecommissioningchecks/testsareperformedtoensurethehealthiness oftheTransformer/Reactorpriortoitsenergisation.Variouselectricalteststobeperformedandtheir significancearegivenbelow. Sr. Name of Test / Purposeoftest/check No. Checkpoint 3.1 3.2 Coreinsulationtests TochecktheinsulationbetweenCore(CC&CL)andGround OperationalChecks Operational Checks on cooler bank (pumps & Fans), Breathers onprotectionSystem (silica gel or drycol), MOG, temperature gauges (WTI/OTI), gas actuated relays (Buchholz, PRD, SPR etc.) and simulation test of protectionsystem Insulation Resistance(IR) measurement Test reveals the condition of insulation (i.e. degree of dryness of paper insulation), presence of any foreign contaminants in oil and also any gross defect inside the transformer (e.g. Failure to remove the temporary transportation bracket on the live portion of tap changerpart)
3.3
3.4
Measurement of C1 & C2 Capacitance and Tan in UST mode. Capacitanceand Tanmeasurement Changes in the normal capacitance of an insulator indicate abnormal conditions such as the presence of moisture layer,short ofbushings circuitsoropencircuitsinthecapacitancenetwork. CapacitanceandTan Dissipation factor/Loss factor and capacitance measurement of measurementof winding is carried out to ascertain the general condition of the windings groundandinterwindinginsulation Turnsratio(Voltage To determine the turns ratio of transformers to identify any ratio)measurementabnormalityintapchangers/shortedoropenturnsetc Vector Group & Todeterminethephaserelationshipandpolarityoftransformers Polarity Windingresistance To check for any abnormalities due to loose connections, broken measurement strandsandhighcontactresistanceintapchangers MagneticBalance test Thistestisconductedonlyinthreephasetransformerstocheckthe imbalanceinthemagneticcircuit
3.5
3.6
3.7 3.8
3.9

This test is conducted to ascertain possibility of short circuit in a 3.10 FloatingNeutral pointmeasurement winding. 3.11 Measurementof ShortCircuit Impedance This test is used to detect winding movement that usually occurs due to heavy fault current or mechanical damage during transportationorinstallationsincedispatchfromthefactory.
33
3.12 Exciting/Magnetising To locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of windings, failures in turn to turn insulation or problems in tap changers. current These conditions change the effective reluctance of the magnetic measurement circuit thus affecting the current required to establish flux in the core. To measure the vibrations of core /coil assembly in the tank of the 3.13 Vibration measurementofOil reactor. Movement of the corecoil assembly and shielding immersedReactor structure caused by the timevarying magnetic forces results in vibration of the tank and ancilliary quipment. These vibrations have detrimental effects such as excessive stress on the corecoil assembly 3.14 Operationalcheck onOLTCs 3.15 Stabilityof Differential,REFof Transformer/ Reactor To ensure smooth & trouble free operation of OLTC during operation. This testisperformedto check the proper operation of Differential & REF protection of Transformer & Reactor by simulating actual conditions. Any problem in CT connection, wrong cabling,relaysettingcanbedetectedbythistest.
3.16 Tests/Checkson To ascertain the healthiness of bushing current transformer at the BushingCurrent Transformers(BCTs) timeoferection 3.17 FrequencyResponse Toassess the mechanical integrity of the transformer. Analysis(FRA) Transformers while experiencing severity of short circuit current measurement looses its mechanical property by way of deformation of the winding or core. During precommissioning this test is required to ascertain that Transformer active part has not suffered any severe impact/jerkduringtransportation.
3.18 Dissolved Gas Oilsamplefor DGAtobedrawnfromtransformermaintank before Analysis(DGA)ofoil commissioning for having a base data and after 24 hrs. of charging subsequently to ensure no fault gas developed after first charging. sample DGAanalysishelpstheusertoidentifythereasonforgasformation &materialsinvolvedandindicateurgencyofcorrectiveactiontobe taken
3.19 ThermovisionInfra A thermo vision Camera determines the temperature distribution redscanning(IR on the surface of the tank as well as in the vicinity of the Jumper thermography) connection to the bushing. The information obtained is useful in predicting the temperature profile within the inner surface of tank and is likely to provide approximate details of heating mechanism. Thermovision scanning of transformer to be done at least after 24 hrs.ofloadingandrepeatedafteroneweek.
1.0TRANSFORMERANDREACTOR 1.1FollowingpointstobecheckedAfterReceiptoftransformer/ reactoratSite:

1.1.1 N2 pressure and Dew point to be checked after receipt of transformer at Site. It should be within permissibleband(aspergraphprovidedbymanufacturer&givenbelowinFig1) 1.1.2Thedataofimpactrecordershallbeanalyzedjointlyinassociationwiththe manufacturer. In case the impact recorder indicates some serious shocks during shipment, further course of action for internal inspection, if necessary shall be taken jointly. Impact Recorder should be detached from the Transformer/ Reactor preferably when the main unit has been placed on its foundation. 1.1.3OilSamplesshallbetakenfromoildrums/tankerreceivedatsiteandsenttoourLab(CIOTL / IOTL) for oilparametertesting.Thecopyoftestcertificateofroutinetestingatoilrefineryshouldbeavailableat siteforcomparisonoftestresults. 1.1.4 Unpacking and Inspection of Accessories to be carried out taking all precautions so that the tools used foropeningdonotcausedamagetothecontents.Fragileinstrumentslikeoillevelgauge,temperature indicators, etc. are to be inspected for breakage or other damages. Any damaged or missing components should be reported to equipment manufacturer, so that the same can be investigated or shortagemadeupaspertheterms/conditionsofthecontract. 1.1.5 Core Insulation Test shall be carried out to check insulation between Core (CC&CL) and Ground. (Not applicableforAirCoreReactors)
1.1.6Afterreceivingtheaccessoriesatsitesameshouldbeinspectedandkeptreadyforimmediateerection: If erection work can not start immediately due to some reasons, then accessories should be repacked intotheirowncratesproperlyandpackinglistshouldberetained. All packings should be kept above ground by suitable supports so as to allow free air flow underneath. The storage space area should be such that it is accessible for inspection; water does not collect on or around the area and handling/transport would be easy. Proper drainage arrangement in storage areas tobeensuredsothatinnosituation,anycomponentgetsubmergedinwaterduetorain,floodingetc.. Immediately after the receipt of main unit and also the accessories, same should be inspected and if foundsatisfactory,theunitshould beerectedcompletelyandfilledwithdrytransformeroilasperthe instruction. It is preferable to store the main unit on its own location/foundation. If the foundation is not likely to be ready for more than three (3) months, then suitable action plan has to be taken from the manufacturerregardingproperstorageoftheMainUnit. Ifthetransformer/Reactoristobestoreduptothree(3)monthsafterarrivalatsite,itcanbestored with N2 filled condition. N2 pressure to be monitored on daily basis so that chances of exposure of activepartatmosphereareavoided.Incaseofdropinpressure,dewpointofN2hastobemeasured tocheckthedrynessoftheTransformer/Reactor.
Incaseofstorageoftransformerinoilfilledcondition,theoilfilledintheunitshouldbetestedforBDV andmoisturecontentsonceineverythreemonths.Theoilsampleshouldbetakenfrombottomvalve. 36 If BDV is less and moisture contents are more than as given for service condition then oil should be filtered. 1.1.7 During erection, the exposure of active part of transformers should be minimized. Further either dry air generator should be running all the time or dry air cylinders may be used to minimize ingress of moisture. The transformer should be sealed off after working hours. It is practical to apply a slight overpressure overnight with dry air or N2 inside less than 300 mbar (30 kPa or 0.3 atmospheres). Nextdaythepressureischeckedandsuspectedleaksmaybedetectedwithleakdetectioninstruments , with soap water or with plastic bags tightened around valves (being inflated by leaking air) For oil filled units whenever oil is drained out below the inspection covers, job will be treated as exposed. Otherexposureactivitiesareasbelow: 1)Bushingerections 2)JumperconnectionsofBushings 4)Fixingbushingturretsoncover 5)Fixingbushingturretsonside 6)Coreinsulationchecking 7)Buchholzrelaypipeworkfixingoncover. 8)Gasreleasepipes/equaliserpipefixing. 9)Enteringinsidethetankforconnections/inspectionetc. For oil filled units depending upon the level up to which the oil is drained decides the exposure time. All such exposure time should be recorded in a log sheet to decide the oil processing (drying) and oil filling of transformer. For transformers with a gas pressure of 2.5 3 PSI, the acceptable limits of dew point shall be as under:
TABLEVariationofDewPointofN2GasFilledinTransformerTankw.r.t Temperature.

ParametersofTransformerOil
Theoilsamplefromthetransformertank,afterfillingintankbeforecommissioningshouldmeetthefollowing specificationsasperIS:18662000(latestRevision)givenintablebelow:
38

Testingof PowerTransformers 9.PartialDischargeMeasurements.

PartialDischargeMeasurements 9.1Purposeofmeasurement
Apartialdischargemeasurement(PDmeasurement)isanondestructivetoolusedtoestablishtheconditionof a transformer insulation system. The goal of partial discharge measurement is to certify that no harmful PD sources exist. A PDmeasurement makes it possible to detect and localize areas within the transformer which are exposed to elevated dielectric stresses, i.e. stresses which in the long run can be harmful to safe transformeroperation. Partial discharge measurements are explicitly specified in standards or in customer specifications. They are to be carried out in conjunction with dielectric tests in high voltage laboratories using ACvoltage in the power frequencyrange. ForHVDCtransformersPDmeasurementsarealsocarriedoutondielectrictestswithDCvoltages For onsite PD measurements (for example on repaired transformers) other types of PDfree excitation may alsobecarriedout[221]. Partialdischargemeasurementshouldgenerallybethelastdielectrictestconductedonthetransformer.
40
9.2General
Partialdischargeisapartialvoltagebreakdownwithinaseriesofinsulatingelementsbetweentwoelectrodes of different potential, (capacitances C2 and C3, see figure 9.1). During a typical PD measurement, the magnitudeofthedetectablevalueofpartialdischargeactivityisrecordedasafunctionoftheappliedvoltage. A partial discharge can be interpreted as the rapid movement of an electric charge from one position to another. For very fast changes, or during the first instant after charge movement, the individual insulation links in a series of connected links between two line terminals can be regarded as a number of series connectedcapacitors.
BU=bushing HV=highvoltage NT=neutralterminal C1,2,3=activepartoftransformer(includingoil) C1=weakregion Ct=testobjectcapacitance(C2andC3) Figure1:Schematicrepresentationofapartofthetransformerinsulation.

If the two line terminals are connected together via an external capacitor Ck, see figure 9.2, the charge 41 movements within the seriesconnected insulation links (capacitances C2 and C3, see figure 9.1) will also be reflectedinthechargeofexternalcapacitorCk.Thechargemovementscanbedetectedascirculatingcurrent impulsesi(t)intheparallelconnectedcapacitorsCkandCt,seefigure9.2.
Ct=testobjectcapacitance Ck=couplingcapacitor G=voltagesource i(t)=PDcurrentpulses i~k,~t=displacementcurrents Z=voltagesourceconnectors Q=transferredcharge Ut=voltageatparallelconnectedcapacitors Zm=measuringimpedance
Figure9.2:EquivalentcircuitforPDmeasurement. Two requirements must be fulfilled to initiate a partial discharge (i.e. electric breakdown) within the weak regionofanextendedinsulatingsystem: LocalelectricfieldstressEintheweakregionmustbegreaterthantheinceptionelectricfieldofthePD Source. Freeelectronsmustbeavailabletoinitiatetheelectricbreakdown,seeclauseA9.1. Excessive stress in the weak region can result from design flaws, contamination or deviation from permissible tolerances in the manufacturing process, insulating material flaws, etc. Another possibility is hidden damage totheinsulationcausedbyprecedingtests.

42 All PD measuring methods are based on the detection of PD current impulses i(t) circulating in the parallel connectedcapacitorsCk(couplingcapacitor)andCt(testobjectcapacitance)viameasuringimpedance Zm. ThebasicequivalentcircuitforPDmeasurementsispresentedinfigure9.2[212]. The measuring impedance Zm can either be connected in series with coupling capacitor Ck or with the test objectcapacitanceCt. Asdiscussedinsection9.3General,PDcurrentimpulsesaregeneratedbychargetransfersbetweenparallel connectedcapacitorCk(couplingcapacitor)andCt(testobjectcapacitance). Present IEC and IEEE Standards have both established rules for measuring and evaluating electric signals causedbypartialdischargestogetherwithspecificationsonpermissiblemagnitude. The IEC approach to the processing of the recorded electric signal is different from the IEEE approach. IEC transforms the signal to an apparent electric charge generally measured in picocoulombs (pC), while IEEE transformsthesignaltoaRadioInterferenceVoltageRIV,generallymeasuredinmicrovolts(V). The use of the RIVmethod for PDsignal detection will be abandoned, although the IEEE standard has not yet been officially approved. The detection of apparent charge in pC is the preferred method now in use in IEEE Std.C57.113[56]. ForthedetectionofapparentchargetheintegrationofthePDcurrentimpulsesi(t)isrequired. Integration of the PD current impulses can be performed either in the time domain (digital oscilloscope) or in the frequency domain (bandpass filter). Most PD systems available on the market perform a quasi integrationofthePDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomainusing awidebandornarrowbandfilter, seeclauseA9.2. Note: For short duration currents (nsrange) the test voltage source is practically decoupled from the PD measuring circuit(parallelconnectionofCkandCt)bytheinductiveimpedanceZ(stepuptransformerconnections). For the HVcomponents without any bushing an external coupling capacitor Ck must be connected in parallel withthetestobjectCt,seefigure9.3.
9.3PrincipleofPDmeasurement
PDS=PDsystem Ck=couplingcapacitor Ct=testobjectcapacitance Z=voltagesourceconnection Zm=measuringimpedance Figure9.3:Testcircuitformeasurementwithoutcapacitivetap
9.4PDmeasurementontransformers
Circulating PD current impulses generated by an external PD source (in the test circuit) or by an internal PD source (in the insulating system of the transformer) can only be measured at the transformer bushings. Bushing capacitance C1, see figure 9.5a, represents the coupling capacitor Ck, which is connected in parallel with capacitance Ct (test object = total capacitance of the transformer insulating system). An example of a typicaltransformerinsulatingsystemisshowninfigure9.4. Forpowertransformersthemeasuringimpedanceisgenerallyconnectedbetweenthebushingmeasuringtap andearth,i.e.inparallelwithcapacitanceC2,seefigure9.5a. For bushings without a capacitive tap an external coupling capacitance Ck must be connected in parallel with thebushing,seefigure9.5b. There are some essential differences between the two Standards (IEC and IEEE) regarding the evaluation of thePDcurrentimpulses.
PR=pressring BI=barrierinsulation LV=lowvoltage HV=highvoltage RW=regulationwinding
Figure9.4:Transformerinsulatingsystem;Barriersystemwithshieldingringsandangleringstowardsyoke.
9.5.1IECStandard[3]
AccordingtoIEC,PDmeasurementsareconductedbymeasuringtheapparentcharge,q.Inthiscontextthe apparent charge is obtained by integrating the PD current impulse using wide band or narrow band filter, seeclauseA9.2. ThePDmeasuringsystemisconnectedviaacoaxialcabletomeasuringimpedanceZm,seefigure9.5. Theapparentchargeq,measuredinpicocoulombs(pC),correspondstothechargetransferredduringtheU voltage drop compensation process at one of the parallelconnected capacitances Ct (transformer insulation) andbushingcapacitanceC1orcouplingcapacitanceCk,seefigure9.2and9.5. ThisvoltagedropUmaybecausedeitherinthetestobject(internalpartialdischargeinthebushingorinthe transformerinsulatingsystem)orinthetestcircuit(externalpartialdischarge).IfPDactivityisdetectedduring thetest,thePDsourcemustbeinvestigated,seesection9.7. The magnitude of measurable apparent charge qm in pC must be defined by the calibrating procedure for eachtestcircuit.


45 Calibration of the PD test circuit is performed using a battery operated calibrator. The calibrator consists of a squarewavegeneratorwithadjustableamplitudeU0connectedinserieswithasmallcapacitorC0(C0should be less than 10% of Ck). For PD measurements on transformers, the calibrator is connected across the bushing, or across the coupling capacitor connected in parallel with the bushing, see figure 9.5. Calibration mustbeperformedseparatelyforeachbushing.
Calibration
C1=Ck=couplingcapacitor SE=shieldingelectrode PDS=PDsystem CAL=calibrator C2=capacitivetap Zm=measuringimpedance Figure9.5a:CalibrationcircuitforPDmeasurementontransformers;bushingswithcapacitivetap UndertheassumptionthatC0<<Ck,theinjectedimpulsefromthesquarewavegeneratorcorrespondstothe charge q0, which is set to predefined values (100 pC, 1000 pC etc.) by the adjusting the amplitude U0. IEC 60270recommendsthattherisetimeoftheinjectedimpulseshouldbe60ns,amplitudeU0between2Vand 50V,selectablepolarity,andtherepetitionrate100Hz.
q0=U0C0
where: q0=injectedcharge U0=adjustablevoltageofthesquarewavegenerator C0=calibratorcapacitance Themeasuringcircuit,consistingofthetestcapacitanceCtofthetestobject,couplingcapacitorCk,measuring impedanceZm,coaxialcableandmeasuringsystem,isnowcalibrated,seefigure9.5. During the PD test the measuring system values are read directly in pC. This pC reading is only valid for the specificcalibratedbushing.
PDS=PDsystem CAL=calibrator Ck=couplingcapacitor Zm=measuringimpedance SE=shieldingelectrode Figure9.5b:CalibrationcircuitforPDmeasurementontransformers;bushingswithoutcapacitivetap
9.5.2IEEEStandard[50],[51]
For routine PD measurements, IEEE Standards require the measurement of RIV (RIV = Radio Interference Voltage). RIV is determined inV (interference voltage). A narrow band filter performs quasiintegration of PD current impulses with quasipeak detection at center frequencies between 0,85 MHz and 1,15 MHz. The narrowband pass filter is applied to allow suppression of external noise in nonshielded laboratories by varyingthecenterfrequencyofthefilter.ThemeasuringsystemiscalledaRIVmeteroraradionoisemeter. The RIV in V depends on both, on the transferred charge and on the repetition rate of the PD impulses (number of PD impulses per second). This is why it is not possible to directly convert measured RIV values in VintovaluesofapparentchargeinpC,seeclauseA9.2. Thetransferredcharge(measuredinV)istheresultofacompensationprocessofthevoltagedropUatone oftheparallelconnectedcapacitancesCt(transformerinsulation)andbushingcapacitanceC1=Ckorcoupling capacitorCk,seefigure9.5.
Calibration
The PD test circuit is calibrated in the same way as the one for measuring apparent charge in pC, see figure 9.5. Assuming that C0 << Ck, the applied sinusoidal voltage corresponds exactly to the values defined by the adjustableamplitudeofU0inV(100V,1000Vetc...). During the PD test the measuring system values are read directly inV. ThisV reading is only valid for the specificcalibratedbushing.
According to IEEE Standard C57.12.90 [51] PD activity within the transformer may be measured in terms of apparent charge (picocoulomb). This approach should normally provide several advantages, including less 47 attenuationofsignal.
9.5.3SensitivityofthePDmeasurement
The true charge q1 released during an internal electric breakdown in a weak region in the transformer insulation is no measurable, see figure 9.1. Only the charge transfer between the capacitance of the weak regionC1andcapacitancesoftheinsulatingsystem(C2andC3infigure9.1)isdetectableatthebushing(Ck). Capacitances C2 and C3 (winding and transformer insulating system) are directly connected to this bushing. The relationship between true charge q1, apparent chargeq and measurable charge qm is discussed in clause A9.3. The sensitivity of the PD measurement (i.e. the measurable apparent charge qm in pC or interference voltage in V) is strongly dependent on the components in the test circuit; especially on the ratio of the test capacitance Ct (insulating system of the transformer) and coupling capacitor Ck (capacitance of the bushing). The influence of the coupling capacitor value on the sensitivity of the PD circuit is shown in figure 9.6 [212]. Thisshowsthatcalibrationmustberepeatedifmajorchangesaremadetothetestcircuit(connectionofnew couplingcapacitor,etc.).
q=apparentcharge qm=measurablecharge qm=Ck qCt+Ck Figure9.6:InfluenceofcouplingcapacitorCkonthemeasuringsensitivityqm/q. For an extended insulating system such as that of a transformer, the calibration described above is only valid forPDdefectsthatareclosetothebushing. The real PD impulse currents especially those generated by internal PD sources hidden deep within the insulating system are heavily attenuated by the RLCM network of the transformer [214]. (RLCM stands for resistances, inductances, capacitances and mutual inductances.) Such slow PD impulses are only detectable atthebushingsandmaynotalwaysbecorrectlymeasuredbytheappliedPDsystem,seeclauseA9.2. TheamplitudeofapparentchargeqmisthereforenotalwaysameaningfulcriteriontodecideifthePDsource is dangerous to the insulating system. A procedure for investigating the internal PD source is described in section9.7.
Note1:
NormallyZmandthemeasuringsystemmustbematchedtocorrectlyquasiintegratethePDcurrentimpulses. MixingmeasuringimpedancesZmanddetectionsystemsofdifferentmanufacturersisnotrecommended.
Note2:
FordeliverytestsitisonlyspecifiedtomeasureonbushingsforUm>72,5kV(IEC)oronbushingsUm>115kV (IEEE) It is recommended that all bushings of the transformer under test should be equipped with measuring impedancesZmtoensurethatPDactivitycanbedetectedsimultaneously.IfPDactivityisdetectedinthetest circuit,identificationandlocalizationofthePDsourceisthenmuchfaster,seesection9.9. To avoid external discharge (corona) in the PD measuring circuit all transformer bushing tops should be coveredwithshieldingelectrodes(includingearthedbushings),seefigure9.5.Shieldingelectrodesshouldalso beusedforallsharpmetallicpartsontopofthetransformerandinthevoltagesourceconnections,seeclause A 9.8. The voltage source in the HV laboratory must be PDfree. All objects in the test field close to the transformerundertestmustbeearthed.TypicalexternalnoisesourcesarediscussedinclauseA9.4.
9.6PDmeasuringprocedure
The procedure for PD measurement is basically defined by the induced voltage test procedure shown in section 8, Table 1. There are some differences between PD measuring procedures according to IEC and those specified in the IEEE Standards. Sometimes the customer specifies a special PD procedure according to his experienceandtotherecommendationsofthenationaltechnicalcommittee.
9.6.1IECStandard[3]
AccordingtotheIECStandardsPDmeasurementsshallbecarriedoutinconjunctionwithinducedvoltagetest on all transformers with highest voltage for equipment (Um) above a certain level. The PD measurement is mandatory for long duration induced voltage test (ACLD) as well as for short duration induced voltage test (ACSD).TimesequencesforACSDandACLDaregiveninsection8,figures8.3and8.4. PD activity should be checked at all bushings where the system voltage is higher than 72,5 kV. PD activity is measured in pC. Any wideband pass filter or narrowband pass filter can be used as a PD measuring system, seeclauseA9.2. The first PD measurement (values of apparent charge in pC) should be made at a low testvoltage level (ca. 10%Ur).ThisvalueservesasareferenceforthebackgroundnoiselevelinHVlaboratory.AccordingtotheIEC Standards,thebackgroundnoiselevelmustbelowerthanhalfoftherequiredpCvalueofapparentchargefor thespecifictransformer.InashieldedHVlaboratory,thebackgroundnoiselevelissufficientlylow. The following PD measurements should be made at each test voltage level indicated in figures 8.3 and 8.4 (parts A, B, D, E) with the exception of the enhancement level (part C). All measured pC values at all bushings ofthetransformershouldbedocumented(seeexampleTable1).
During the long duration test (part D in figure 8.4), the PD activity should be checked at least every 5 minutes at each bushing. The best way to check PD activity in the transformer insulating system is to apply a multi 49 channel PD measuring system capable of detecting PD activity at all bushings simultaneously (8channel PD system).
AcceptancecriteriaforPDtest
The PD test is considered successful if no continuous PD activity greater than the specified apparent charge amplitude in pC is detected at any bushing, and if there is no rising trend in the apparent charge amplitude duringthelongdurationtest. TherecommendedacceptablevaluesofapparentchargegivenintheIECStandardsare: 300pCat130%Um 500pCat150%Um thelevelofcontinuousPDactivitydoesnotexceed100pCat1.1Um where: Um=highestvoltageforequipmentaccordingtoIECorinotherwordshighest r.m.sphasetophasevoltageforwhichthetransformerwindingisdesigned.
9.6.2IEEEStandards[50],[51]
AccordingtotheIEEEStandards,thePDmeasurementshouldbeperformedattheonehourlevelofthetest voltage (defined by the customer), before the enhancement level and during the onehour test after the enhancement test voltage, see figure 8.5 in section 8. The duration for part A must be sufficiently long to initiate possible PD activity in the oilimpregnated transformer insulating system (minimum 10 minutes). The physicsofPDactivityinoilimpregnatedinsulatingsystemsisdiscussedinclauseA9.1. PD activity should be checked at all bushings where the system voltage is 115 kV. PD activity is measured in V. A narrowband pass filter should be used as a PD measuring system. The recommended center frequency for the narrowband pass system is 1 MHz. If there is high background noise, the center frequency can be variedbetween0,85MHzand1,15MHz. The first PD measurement (RIV values in V) should be performed at a low test voltage level (about 10% Ur). This value serves as a reference for the background noise level in the HV laboratory. According to the Standards, the background noise level must be lower than half of the required V value for the specific transformer.InashieldedHVlaboratorythebackgroundnoiselevelislessthanafewV.
The following PD measurements should be performed at each test voltage level indicated in figure 8.5 (parts A,C)ofsection8withtheexceptionoftheenhancementlevel(partB). 50 AllmeasuredVvaluesatallbushingsofthetransformershouldbedocumented,seeexampleTable2. Duringtheonehourtest(partCinfigure8.5),thePDactivityateachbushingshouldbecheckedatleastevery 5minutes.
AcceptancecriteriaforPDtest
The PD test is considered successful if no continuous PD activity greater than the specified RIV level inV is detectedatanybushing,andifthereisnorisingtrendofRIVduringthelongdurationtest.Accordingtothe IEEEStandardthePDtestwassuccessfulifthefollowingconditionsweremet: ThemagnitudeofthePDleveldidnotexceed100V ThePDlevelincreaseduringonehouroftestdidnotexceed30V ThePDlevelduringtheonehourtestdidnotexhibitanysteadilyrisingtrend,andnosudden, sustainedincreaseinlevelsoccurredduringthelast20minutesofthetest.
9.7.1InvestigationofexternalPDsources
ThefirststepistoexcludeallpossibleexternalPDsources.TypicalexternalPDsourcesare,seealsoclauseA 9.4: Conductingparticlesonthebushingsurface Nonshieldedsharppointsonthetransformerorinthetestcircuit Badconnectionsonshieldingelectrodes Unearthedmetallicobjectsclosetothetransformer NoiseorinternalPDfromthevoltagesourceElectricdischargesinair(corona)generatedbysharp electrodes(tippointelectrode)areeasytodetectusingaportableultrasonicdetector(coronagun),see figure9.7.
APDprobleminthevoltagesourcecaneasilybecheckedbyseparatelymeasuringthevoltagesource.
9.7.2InvestigationofthetypeofPDsource
A PD source type is defined by its specific statistical behavior (PD pattern). The statistical behavior of the PD source is mainly influenced by the availability of starting electrons, which trigger an electric discharge in the weak region in the transformer insulating system, see physics of discharge processes in clause A 9.1. The availability of starting electrons is strongly dependent on the PD source itself (conducting or nonconducting material) and on the position of the PD source with respect to the metallic electrode. As a result, five typical PD patterns representing the physical processes of the PD sources exist (for a visual interpretation, see Table 3). These typical PD patterns are based on physical electric discharge processes in the weak region, see clause A 9.1, and can theoretically be detected in any insulating system (if the measuring circuit is sufficiently sensitive). PD patterns (statistical analysis of the PD signals) are not influenced by the structure of the insulatingsystem[213].
Note:
The structure of extended insulating systems, like those of a transformer, heavily attenuate the amplitude of theoriginalinternalPDcurrentimpulses,butdonotchangetheirstatisticalbehavior. An advanced PD system Phase Resolving Partial Discharge Analyser = PRPDAsystem is used to record a PD pattern [215]. The advanced PD system, see clause A 9.5, performs a statistical analysis of the recorded PD data. At the specific test voltage, the PD activity is saved as a function of the phase position and of the amplitude of apparent charge during a preset time (two dimensional multichannel analyser). The results are finally presented as a two dimensional PD pattern, see figure 9.8a. The third dimension (color) indicates the total number of PD impulses collected during the preset measuring time. For the statistical analysis of a PD sourceaminimumof3000cyclesareneeded(for50Hzthepresetmeasuringtimemustbe60seconds). Figure9.8bshowsthewellknownpresentationofPDimpulsesduringonecycle,recordedusinga conventionalPDsystem. ToinvestigatethePDsource,thefirstPDpatternshouldberecordedunderthefollowingtestconditions [216]: InceptionvoltageofthePDsource ExtinctionvoltageofthePDsource 10%abovetheinceptionvoltage FurthertestconditionsfortheinvestigationofthePDsourcearedependentontheresultsoftheanalysisof thePDpattern.
Figure9.8a:RegistrationofPDimpulses(bubblesandsurfacedischarge);advancedPDsystem(statistical analysisofPDimpulses)
AnalysisofthePDpatternisbasedoncomparingtherecordedrealPDpatternwiththetypicalPDpattern typespresentedinTable3: In reality, the five typical PD patterns appear in many variations. Due to the continuous change of both the surrounding area at the location of the PD source and of the PD source itself (due to the electric discharge), thereareonlyafewPDpatternsthatexhibitconstantbehaviorduringthetest.
Table3:TypicalPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystem
BasicPDpatterncharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare[216]: 54 PhasepositionofthePDsignals SymmetryofthePDsignalsduringthepositiveandnegativesinewave NumberofPDsignalspercycle ReproducibilityofthePDpattern Interpretation and screening of the correct type of PD pattern from the real PD pattern results, requires experience and a strong interpolation capability. If PD defects are superimposed, a comparison with the typicaltypesofPDpatternsandfindingthecorrecttypeofPDpatternbecomesmuchmoredifficult. An overview of the typical PD sources in the transformer insulating system together with their typical PD patternandtheirtypicalbehaviorduringthetestispresentedinTable4. If there is a clear indication of internal PD activity in the transformer insulating system, localization of the PD sourcemustfollow,seesections9.8and9.9.
Figure9.8b:RegistrationofPDimpulses(bubblesandsurfacedischarge);conventionalPDsystemonecycle only
Table4:TypicalPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystem(Figures9.10a,b,c)
Figure9.10a:TypicalPDdefectsinthetransformerinsulation; conductingmaterial=PDpatterntype1
Figure9.10b:TypicalPDdefectsinthetransformerinsulation; conductingmaterial=PDpatterntype2
Figure9.10c:TypicalPDdefectsinthetransformerinsulation; bubbles=PDpatterntype3and4
9.8DetectionofacousticPDsignals
An acoustic PD signal is a mechanical vibration in the elastic medium (acoustic wave). Means to locate PD 58 sources that are generated by the electric discharge in the weak region using acoustic wave analysis (acoustic emission) are based on time delay measurements between the electric PD signal (oscilloscope trigger) and acoustic signals detected by a minimum of three acoustic sensors positioned along the transformer tank wall. The theory of the propagation of acoustic waves in the transformer insulating system and an advanced acousticsystemarediscussedinclauseA9.6[217]. Piezoelectric transducers (crystal) with a resonance frequency between 60 150 kHz are normally used as acousticsensors.AfourchanneldigitaloscilloscopeisneededtoanalyzeacousticPDsignals.Atypicalresultof detectingacousticPDsignalscorrelatedwithanelectricPDsignalisshowninfigure9.11. The location of the PD source in the insulating system is calculated from the time delay between the electric andacousticPDsignalsusingthetriangulationmethod,seefigure9.12[217].Thevelocityofacousticwavesin oil is around 1400 m/s. This method is theoretically only applicable for direct waves i.e. acoustic waves propagatingthroughtheoilonly.
a)=electricPDsignal[0,50V/div] b)=acousticPDsignal[20mV/div],sensor1 c)=acousticPDsignal[10mV/div],sensor2 d)=acousticPDsignal[50mV/div],sensor3 Figure9.11:DetectionofacousticPDsignals Acoustic wave propagation in the transformer, see clause A 9.6, is heavily influenced by the complicated structure of the insulating system (winding barriers, core, tank walls). In a complicated structure the acoustic signalemittedbythePDsourcechangesalongitspropagationpath.Boththeamplitude(attenuation)andthe signal shape (absorption, dispersion) are influenced. It must therefore be possible to distinguish between directpropagated and wallpropagated waves when analyzing the time difference between electric and acoustic PD signals for the purpose of localization, see figure 9.12. This information is theoretically hidden in thewavefrontoftheacousticsignaldetectedbyasensoronthetankwall,seefigure9.13.
9.8.1Sensitivityofthemeasurement
Localizing PD defects that emit the acoustic wave directly into oil, similar to a metallic particle lying on the surface,caneasilybedetected(amplitudeofapparentcharge>100pC).
PD defects hidden in the solid insulation, similar to a metallic particle in the insulation, are quite difficult to detect (amplitude of apparent charge >1000 pC), due to the different propagation velocities in different 59 materialsandduetothereflectionphenomenaofacousticwavesintheextendedinsulatingsystemofthe transformer,seeclauseA9.6. PD defects in the main insulation of the transformer are the most difficult to detect due to the transformer boardbarriersandouterwinding,seefigure9.4. Acoustic waves caused by PD defects in the core are very difficult to analyze and may give very misleading results.
C=velocityofacousticwave t1,t2,t3=timeofsignalarrivalatthesensor Figure9.12:LocationofPDsourceusingtriangulationmethod
Note:
Detection of acoustic PD signals should be performed at a test voltage level close to the inception voltage of thePDsourcetoachieveareliablecorrelationbetweenelectricandacousticPDsignals.Athighertestvoltages the numberof PD impulses percycle usually increases and is likely to initiate additional PD sources. In case of unidentified PD activity, a detailed and in depth investigation of the PD source should follow. A minimum of onedayisrequiredforthePDmeasurementsandanadditionaldaytoanalyzetheresults,seesection9.9.
Figure9.13:AnalysisofacousticwavesofPDsources a)Detectionofdirectacousticwave(throughtheoil) b)Detectionofreflectedacousticwaveorwavepropagatedthroughdifferentmedia.
9.9DetailedinvestigationofthePDsource
DetailedinvestigationofthePDsourcegoesbeyondtherequirementsspecifiedintheIECandIEEEstandards. This procedure is adapted to the behavior of the PD source. The goal of the investigation is to find the PD sourceasquicklyaspossible[216],[219]. DetailedinvestigationofthePDsourcerequiresthefollowingcommerciallyavailableequipment: High frequency current transformer: Highfrequencycurrenttransformers(HFCT,100kHz30MHz)mustbe used as a measuring impedance Zm to detect the real PD current impulses. HF CTs are connected to each bushingofthetransformer(multiterminalmeasurement).
Spectrum analyzer: AspectrumanalyzerisusedbothtoanalyzePDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomain for localization of the PD sources and to detect PD signals as a variable bandpass filter (quasiintegration of 61 PDcurrentimpulses)asthefrontendoftheadvancedPDsystem. Advanced PDsystem: For example ICM system or ICMsys8 is used to record and analyze the statistical behaviourofthePDsignalsforinvestigationofthetypeofthePDsource(PDpattern). Digital oscilloscope: A digital oscilloscope is used as a control device for the digitized signals and as an analyzingdevicefortimeresolvedsignalswhenlocalizingthePDactivity. 9.9.1InvestigationandlocalizationofthePDsource TheinvestigationofthePDsourceshouldbeperformedinthefollowingsequence: AnalysisofthefrequencyspectrumofthePDcurrentimpulses AnalysisofthePDpattern(statisticalanalysisofthePDsignals) EffortstolocatethePDsourceusinganalysisofelectricPDsignalsinthefrequencydomain EffortstolocatethePDsourceusinganalysisofelectricPDsignalsinthetimedomain Thesestepsaboveshouldberepeatedatthefollowingtestvoltagelevels: AttheinceptionvoltageofthePDsource AttheextinctionvoltageofthePDsource Atdifferenttestvoltagelevelsuptotherequiredtestvoltagelevel Asafunctionofthetimeoftheappliedvoltage The analysis of the results is mainly based on comparing the real PD signal behavior with the characteristic behavior of the specific insulating system. The characteristic behavior of the insulating system of the transformerundertestmustbedefinedbyaspecialcalibratingprocedure. An example of the characteristics of a transformer using a conventional calibrator for PD measurements is showninfigure9.14: Frequencyspectraateachbushing(spectrumanalyzerworksinfullspan,seefigure9.14a). Sensitivity(inpC)ofthemeasuringcircuitateachbushing(spectrumanalyzerworksinspanzero),see figure9.14b(bandpassfilter). RegistrationofthesensitivityinpCateachbushingwithICMsystem(videooutsignalfromthe spectrumanalyzer),seefigure9.14c(PDpattern). Crosscouplingofcalibratingsignalsinthefrequencydomain,seefigure9.14d(localizationofPD source). Crosscouplingofcalibratingsignalsinthetimedomain,seefigure9.14e(localizationofPDsource). Forthecrosscouplingcharacteristicsoftheinsulatingsystem,acalibratingsignalof1000pCisusuallyinjected at one specific bushing and the response is measured at all other bushings (multiterminal method). This procedureisrepeatedforeachbushing(timeneededforathreephasetransformerisabout6hours).
Figure9.14a:Characterizationofthetransformer;calibrationinthefrequencydomain.
Figure9.14b:Characteristicsofthetransformer,calibrationinpC(spectrumanalyzerasabandpassfilter)
Figure9.14c:Characteristicsofthetransformer,calibrationinpC(ICMrecordofcalibratingimpulse)
Figure9.14d:Characteristicsofthetransformer;crosscouplinginthefrequencydomain
Localization
LocalizationofthePDsourcesisbasedonthefollowingtheory: Electric PD signals (PD current impulses) propagate from the PD source through the RLCM network of the transformer, see clause A 9.7. The response of this network to excitation by a PD current impulse at any locationintheinsulatingsystemcanonlybedetectedatthebushings.ThemeasuredrealPDcurrentimpulses at the bushings are compared with the characteristic values obtained during the calibrating procedure described above, both in the frequency domain and the time domain, see figure 9.14. The theory of propagationofelectricPDsignalsthroughthetransformerRLCMnetworkisdiscussedinclauseA9.7.
Figure9.14e:Characteristicsofthetransformer;crosscouplinginthetimedomain.
AnalysisofPDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomain[216],[219]
In order to define the background noise condition of the entire test circuit (background frequency spectrum) the first data registration when taking the PD measurement is performed using a spectrum analyzer at about 10%Uratallbushings. The background frequency spectra serve as the basis for unambiguous identification of repeated PD activity detectedatthespecificbushing. For each subsequent test voltage level, frequency spectra are checked and compared with the background frequency spectrum at each bushing. Any PD activity in the test circuit generates a change in the background frequencyspectrum(visualinterpretation). PDsignalsclosetothebushinggenerateafrequencyspectrumsimilartothecalibratingsignal,seefigure9.15 (1U).
PD signals transferred to the bushing via the RLCM network of the transformer insulating system generate a spectrumwithdefinedresonances,seefigure9.15(1V).
1U=PDsourceclosetothebushing 1V=PDsignalcoupledfromthephaseU 1W=backgroundnoise Figure9.15:RealPDsignalinthefrequencydomaindetectedatdifferentbushings. Thebasicfrequencyspectracharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare: AmplitudeofthepowerspectrumindBm Frequencyrangeofthepowerspectrum Typicalresonances Reproducibilityofpowerspectra Comparison of the PD signal frequency spectra with the results of the characterization of the transformer givesthefirstindicationofthelocationofthePDsource.
Note:
Analysis of the PD signals in frequency domain can only be performed for repetitive PD signals. Sporadic PD signalscanonlyberegisteredwithapeakdetector(conventionaloradvancedPDmeasuringsystems)
AnalysisofPDcurrentsinthetimedomain[214]
Besides analyzing the PD signals in the frequency domain (spectrum analyzer), the PD current impulses are also analyzed in the time domain (oscilloscope). The highest PD current amplitude is used as a trigger signal for the oscilloscope (channel, HV) and the response of the RLCM network at all other bushings is usually systematicallyanalyzedatthesecondchannel(NT),seefigure9.16.Additionalsimultaneousrecordingoffour specificchannelsmaybeusedtoconfirmpreviousresults. Recorded PD current signals in the time domain are again compared with the calibrating signals (visual interpretation). PDsignalsclosetothebushinggenerateatimeresolvedsignalsimilartothecalibratingsignal,seefigure9.16 (HV). PD signals transferred to the bushing via the RLCM network of the transformer insulating system generate a timeresolvedsignalthatiscomparablewiththeresponseofaRLCfilter,seefigure9.16(NT).
HV=PDsourceclosetotheHVbushing NT=PDsignalcoupledtotheneutralterminal Figure9.16:RealPDsignalinthetimedomain.
BasictimeresolvedPDsignalcharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare: MaximumamplitudeofthePDcurrentsignalinmV RisetimeofthePDcurrentsignal PDcurrentsignaloscillations ReproducibilityofthePDcurrentsignals A comparison of the PD signals recorded in the time domain with the results of the characterization of the transformergivesthesecondindicationofthelocationofthePDsource.
Note:
IntheeventofsuperimposedPDsources,itispossibletodistinguishbetweentwodifferentPDcurrentsignals byvaryingthetriggerlevel.WhileattemptingtolocalizethePDsource,thetypeofthePDactivity(PDpattern) iscontinuouslyanalyzedinthesamewayasdescribedinsection9.7
9.9.2Finalanalysisoftheresults
Allresultsrecordedduringthedetailedinvestigationofthe PDsourceunderdifferenttestconditionsmust be analyzed (an experienced person takes at least 4 hours) before making any decisions regarding the next steps in the investigation procedure. In depth analysis of all results will reliably identify the type of PD source (PD pattern), give information about the location of the PD defect and provide a basic idea of how dangerous the PDsourceisforthetransformerinsulatingsystem. ThebehaviorofthePDsourceduringtheinvestigationprocedureallowsustodistinguishbetweendangerous PD sources and nondangerous PD sources. The amplitude of the apparent charge is not always a meaningful criterionforthisdecision,seeclauseA9.3. DangerousPDsourcesforthetransformerinsulatingsystemare: PDsourcewithinceptionvoltagebelow100%Ur
PDsourcewithextinctionvoltagebelow100%Ur PDsourcehiddeninthesolidinsulation PDsourcewithcontinuouschangeinPDpattern PDsourcewheretheamplitudeoftheapparentchargeincreaseswiththetimeofappliedvoltage PDsourcewherethenumberofPDsignalspercycleincreaseswiththetimeofappliedvoltage.
LessdangerousPDsourcesforthetransformerinsulatingsystemare: PDsourcewithinceptionvoltageabovetheprotectionlevel(externalsurgearresters)inthesupply PDsourcewithextinctionvoltageabove100%Ur Gasbubblesintheoil PDsourcewithaconstantPDpattern PDsourcewherethenumberofPDsignalspercycledecreaseswiththetimeofappliedvoltage Successful resolution of the PD problem can be finally reached by discussing the results with the design engineers to mutually find the real cause of the PD source. Depending on the results of the discussion, the nextstepsintheproceduremaybe: Additionalcalibration AdditionalinvestigationofthePDsourceinHVlaboratory ConditioningthePDsource Redryingthetransformerinsulation Modifyingtheidentifiedweakregion(causeofPDdefect) Disassemblingthetransformer
Setupforthreephaseinducedtestincludingpartialdischargemeasurement.

9.10Measuringuncertainty
67 The calibrated values for measurement of apparent charge in pC and of RIVvalues inV are only valid for PD defectsclosetothebushings.ForallPDdefectsfarfromthebushing,theuncertaintymaybemorethan50%, seeclauseA9.3. Since the resonance phenomena of the PD detection circuit (bushing, measuring impedance, measuring cable andbandpassfilterofthePDmeasuringsystem)arenotknown,theRIVsystemmaydeliverconfusingresults ifthecenterfrequencyofthenarrowbandpassfilter(usually1MHz)isthesameastheresonancefrequency ofthespecificPDdetectioncircuit,seeclauseA9.2. Exact conversion of the measured interference voltage in V to a corresponding apparent charge is only possibleincertaincases,seeclauseA9.2.
AppendixA9
PartialDischargeMeasurement
A9.1Physicsofpartialdischarge
Partialdischarge(PD)isanelectricbreakdownintheweakregionofanextendedinsulatingsystem,seefigure 9.17.
PR=pressring BI=barrierinsulation LV=lowvoltage HV=highvoltage RW=regulationwinding
Figure9.17:PDsourceininsulatingsystemofthetransformer. An electric breakdown of the insulating material between two electrodes means generally that the distance betweenthemhasbeenbridgedbyelectriccharges(highohmresistancehaschangedtolowohmresistance). Electricbreakdownoccursifthefollowingconditionsarefulfilled:
LocalelectricfieldEinkV/mmisgreaterthanthebreakdownfieldstrengthEbinkV/mmof thespecificinsulatingmaterial(differentvaluesfordifferentinsulatingmaterials) 68 Startingelectronsareavailable. Forahomogeneouselectricfield(maininsulationbetweenthewindings;seefigure9.17)the breakdownfield strengthEbisdefinedas:
where: Eb=breakdownfieldstrengthinkV/mm Vb=breakdownvoltageinkV d=distancebetweentwoelectrodesinmm
Note:
Therearemanyplacesinthetransformerinsulatingsystem,wheretheelectricfieldisnonhomogeneous,see figure 9.17. At these locations, the calculated homogeneous electric field must be multiplied by the electrode shape factor to estimate the maximum electric field. When designing a transformer, the maximum electric fieldstrengthofcriticallocationsmustbecalculatedusingafieldprogram. Thefollowingphysicalmechanismsdescribetheelectricbreakdownbetweentwoelectrodes[111]and[220]: Generationofprimaryelectronstostarttheelectricbreakdown Chargemultiplicationandtransportphenomenatobridgethedistancebetweenelectrodes Chargestoragephenomenatosupportthenextelectricbreakdown(memoryeffectofthe PDsource)
Generationofprimaryelectrons
Generationofprimaryelectronsdependson: MaximumelectricfieldEmax. Electrodematerial(conducting,nonconducting) Electrodeshape(homogeneousornonhomogeneouselectricfield) Electrodesurfacecondition(uncovered,orcoveredwithinsulatingmaterial) Smoothnessofthesurface(microtipelectrodes) Thebestconditionforgeneratingstartingelectronsoccursforanuncoveredmetallictipelectrodeasshownin figure 9.18. Starting electrons are generated by field emission from the surface if the magnitude of the local electric field E exceeds the field emission values of the specific material. PD activity appears as soon as the localinceptionelectricfieldisreached.
E=electricalfield[kV/cm] x=distancebetweentheelectrodes[cm].
Figure9.18:Chargedistribution(uppergraph)andelectricfielddistribution(lowergraph)fornegativetip electrode(upperfigure,a)andpositivetipelectrode(lowerfigureb). The most difficult location for generating a starting electron is a weak region without contact to the metallic electrodes, as shown in figure 9.19. In this situation the starting electrons are generated by radioactive ionization (cosmic, Xray, etc.). Due to the lack of starting electrons, there is a delay before the PDactivity starts(uptoseveralminutes),evenifthelocalelectricfieldexceedstheinceptionvalue.
E=localelectricfield E0=electricfield =dielectricpermitivityofthematerial Figure9.19:PDdefectwithoutmetallicelectrodes

Note:
ForPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystemtheelectrodematerialcanbeeitheraninterfacebetween 70 different insulating materials (for example, solid insulation with a gas bubble) or a conducting material (for examplecoppercoveredwithpaperinsulation).
Chargemultiplicationandtransportation
Charge multiplication and transport processes, see figure 9.20, are based on an avalanche mechanism describedbytheequation:
where: n=numberofelectronsatdistanced d=distancebetweenelectrodes n0=numberofavailablestartingelectrons ed=electronavalanche
An electron avalanche can only cause an electric breakdown (bridging of the distance between electrodes) if thefollowingconditionisfulfilled: where: =factorwhichisafunctionofthelocalelectricfieldE d=distancebetweentheelectrodes.
d=distancebetweenelectrodes Figure9.20:Developmentofelectricbreakdown Both physical processes described above take time to develop (breakdown delay), see figure 9.21. During this time the applied voltage (i.e. the local electric field) must be constant. The limiting parameters for PD activity intheweakregionoftheinsulatingsystemare: LocalelectricfieldEexceedsthedesignrating(factor) Sizeoftheweakregion(bubble)issufficient(distancebetweenelectrodesintheweakregion) Durationoftheappliedvoltage(localelectricfield)islongenoughtodevelopthedischargeprocesses
T=totaltimedelay tS=startingelectrons tA=avalanches Ud=statisticalvoltagebreakdown Figure9.21:Timedelayofelectricbreakdown.
Chargestorage
Charge storage mechanisms are important for the weak regions with no contact to conducting electrodes (bubblesininsulatingsystem),seefigure9.22.Chargestorageanddetrappingmechanismsstronglyinfluence successive electric breakdowns in the weak region. The repetition rate of the PD impulses and the type of PDpattern (PDtype pattern type 5 in Table 3) are permanently changing. The physical phenomena caused by the charge storage mechanism can be observed by the recorded PD patterns during a long duration test (several hours at a constant value of the test voltage). An increasing repetition rate in the PD impulses indicatescontinuousdamagetotheinsulatingsysteminthevicinityofthePDsource.
q=charge E=localelectricfield PD=partialdischarge E0=electricfield 1,2=dielectricpermittivityofthemolecules Figure9.22:Schematicpresentationofchargestorage
Note:
This short introduction into the physics of partial discharge has shown that electric breakdown in insulating 72 materials is strongly influenced by the statistical behavior of the discharge mechanisms. To interpret PD results, it is necessary not only to consider the amplitude of the apparent charge, but also to analyze the statistical behavior of the PD source. Statistical analysis of PD activity is performed using an advanced PD system(PhaseResolvingPartialDischargeAnalyser,seeclauseA9.5).
A9.2Principleofquasiintegration
APDsignalisalwaysdetectedasacurrentimpulsei(t)viaameasuringimpedenceZm[212],seefigure9.23.
Ct=testobjectcapacitance CK=couplingcapacitance G=voltagesource i(t)=PDcurrentimpulses i~k,~t=displacementcurrents Z=voltagesourceconnection q=transferredcharge Ut=voltageatparallelconnectedcapacitor Figure9.23:EquivalentcircuitforPDmeasurement
Internationalstandards(IEC60270)[26]requirethatapparentchargeshouldbemeasured:
where: q=apparentchargeinpC i(t)=PDcurrentsignal
Integration of the PD current impulses can be performed either in the time domain (digital oscilloscope) or in the frequency domain (bandpass filter). Most PD systems available on the market, perform a quasi integrationofthePDcurrentimpulsesinthefrequencydomainusingawidebandornarrowbandfilter. The following assumption is made when nonperiodic PD current impulses in the frequency domain are integratedusingabandpassfilter,seefigure9.24[109]:
where: q=apparentcharge F(0)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatfrequencyf=0Hz F(f)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatfrequencyfHz
Thelimitingfrequencyforconstantspectralamplitudedensity,i.e.foracorrectintegrationofthePDimpulses inthefrequencydomain,dependsonthepulseshapeofthePDimpulseasshowninfigure9.24[109]. ForaPDimpulsewithrisetimeT1=1sandhalfvaluetimeT2=5s,thelimitingfrequencyforF(f)=F(0)is about 5 kHz. For PD systems that are based on quasiintegration of the PD impulses, the lower cutoff frequency f1 should therefore be sufficiently low (kHz range), otherwise correct measurements are not possible. AwidebandPDmeasuringsystemconsistsofabandpassfilterwithloweranduppercutofffrequenciesf1 andf2,seefigure9.25[212].RecommendedvaluesinIEC60270[26]areforf1=50kHzandforf2=150400 kHz. The amplitude smax of the wideband filter response to excitation by a PD current impulse is proportional to the apparent charge q if the center frequency f0 of the filter corresponds to the frequency range of the currentimpulsewhereF(f)=F(0),seefigure9.24. Typicalwidebandfilterresponseispresentedinfigure9.26[109].Fortheamplitudeisvalid: where: smax=amplitudeoffilterresponse q=apparentcharge F(0)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatthefrequencyf=0Hz
a)IdealizedPDcurrentimpulse i(t)=PDpulses T1=timetomaximumImax T2=halfvaluetime

b)Normalizedspectralamplitudedensity 1=T1/T2=1s/5s 2=T1/5T2=5ns/50ns 3=T1/5T2=5ns/15ns F(0)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatthefrequencyf=0Hz F(f)=amplitudefrequencyspectrumatfrequencyfHz Figure9.24:QuasiintegrationofPDimpulses Forthecenterfrequencyisvalid:
where: f0=centerfrequencyofthebandpassfilter f1=lowercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter f2=uppercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter AdvantagesofawidebandPDsystem: distinguishpositiveandnegativepolarityofPDcurrentimpulses highresolutioncapacityforrepetitivePDimpulses,withtypicalfilterresponsedurationbetween2s and5saPDimpulserepetitionfrequencyof100kHzcanstillberesolved DisadvantageofthewidebandPDsystem: Sensitivetoexternalnoise(notsuitableforunshieldedHVlaboratories)
Z=voltagesourceconnectionsFigure9.25:Widebandpassfilter Ck=couplingcapacitor Ct=testobjektcapacitance Zm=measuringimpedance(R,L,Ctype) Cc=capacitanceofthemeasuringcable i(t)=PDcurrentimpulse u1(t)=responseofthemeasuringimpedanceZm u2(t)=responseofthebandpassfilter f1=lowercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter f2=uppercutofffrequencyofthebandpassfilter f0=centerfrequencyofthebandpassfilter
smax=maximumamplitude~q =impulseduration(responseofthefilter) Figure9.26:Typicalresponseofthewidebandpassfilter
A narrowband PD measuring system, see figure 9.27 [212], consists of a bandpass filter with variable center frequency f0 and narrow bandwidth f (between 3 kHz and 30 kHz). Values accepted by IEEE C57.12.90.1999[51]are: Centerfrequencyf0between0,85MHzand1,15MHz(recommended1MHz) Bandwidthfbetween3kHzand10kHz(9kHzrecommended) Theamplitudesmax,seefigure9.28,ofthenarrowbandfilterresponsetoexcitationbyaPDcurrentimpulseis proportional to the apparent charge q if the variable center frequency f0 of the filter corresponds to the frequencyrangeofthecurrentimpulsewhereF(f)=F(0),seefigure9.24. Typicalnarrowbandfilterresponseispresentedinfigure9.28[109]. AdvantageofthenarrowbandPDsystem: LesssensitivetoexternalPDsources(successfullyusedinunshieldedHVlaboratories) DisadvantagesofthenarrowbandPDsystem: NotpossibletodistinguishthepolarityofthePDimpulses(signaloscillationwiththecenterfrequencyf0) LowresolutioncapacityforrepetitivePDimpulses,withtypicalfilterresponseduration~200saPD impulserepetitionfrequencyof4kHzcanonlyberesolved. TheresponsedurationofanarrowbandfiltertothePDcurrentimpulseinputcanbeestimatedas:
where: =impulseduration(responseofthefilter) f=bandwidthofthefilter.
Z=voltagesourceconnections Ck=couplingcapacitor Ct=testobjectcapacitance Zm=measuringimpedance(R,Ltype) Cc=capacitanceofthemeasuringcable i(t)=PDcurrentimpulse u1(t)=responseofthemeasuringimpedanceZm u2(t)=responseofthebandpassfilter f0=centerfrequencyofthebandpassfilter=fm(variable) Figure9.27:Narrowbandpassfilter The RIVPD system (radio noise or field strength meter = RIVmeter) recommended by IEEE Standard C57.12.90.1999 [51] is a narrowband pass filter, which includes the CISPR weighting circuit (nonlinear psophometric curve, see figure 9.29) to quantify the magnitudes of the repeated impulses. The readings on thistypeofinstrumentdependnotonlyontheamplitudeofapparentchargebutalsoontherepetitionrateof thePDimpulses. For a given constant PD impulse amplitude with a variable repetition rate, the reading on the RIVmeter with the CISPRweighting circuit will increase linearly with an increasing repetition rate up to n = 100 impulses per second,seefigure9.29[109].Forapulserepetitionratehigherthan4000persecond,whichcorrespondstoa narrowbandfilterpulseresolutiontimeof=220swithf=10kHz,thereadingbecomesuseless. Because of the CISPR weighting circuit, there is no relationship between the pC and the Vreading. Only if equally large impulses occur on the positive and the negative half cycles a conversion can be made. With a repetitionrateoftwiceacycle(n=100ina50Hzsystem)andameasuringimpedanceof60therelationship 1V=2.6PCholds.
smax=maximumamplitude~q =impulseduration(responseofthefilter) Figure9.28:Typicalresponseofthenarrowbandpassfilter.
Note:
ForPDsourcesinthetransformerinsulatingsystemfarfromthebushings(forexampleinthemaininsulation), thePDcurrentimpulsesareheavilyattenuatedbytheRLCMnetworkofthetransformer.SuchattenuatedPD impulses may be outside the range of the PD system if the lower cutoff frequency f1 of the wideband filter (recommended50kHz)orthecenterfrequencyofthenarrowbandfilterf0(recommended1MHz)arehigher than the limiting frequency of the attenuated PDimpulses F(f) = F(0), see figure 9.24. In this case the quasi integrationisnotcorrectandtheamplitudeofapparentchargenolongercorrespondstosmax.
f(N)=variationofmeterreading[V] N=pulserepetitionrate Figure9.29:CISPRweightingcharacteristicforperiodicpulsesequencewithconstantamplitude.
A9.3Truecharge,apparentchargeandmeasurablecharge
Apartialdischargecanbeinterpretedasarapidmovementofanelectricchargefromonepositiontoanother. For very fast changes, or during the first instant after charge movement, the individual insulation links in a series of connected links between two line terminals can be regarded as a number of series connected capacitors. If the two line terminals are connected together via an external capacitance Ck the charge movements within the series connected insulation links (capacitances) will also be reflected in the charge of externalcapacitanceCk. Thechargemovementscanbedetectedascirculatingcurrentimpulsesintheequivalentcircuit,viameasuring impedanceZm,seefigure9.23. Infigure9.30aschematicdrawingofthePDsource(capacitanceC1)intheinsulatingsystem(capacitancesC2 andC3)andthecorrespondingequivalentcircuitarepresented[212]. IfthePDsourceisassumedtobeasmallcavityinthesolidinsulation,thefollowingratioexistsbetweenthe capacitances Theelectricbreakdowninthecavity(capacitanceC1)isrepresentedbythesparkgapFandresistanceR1.
The electric breakdown in the cavity generates a PD current i1(t), which is a local current and cannot be 78 measuredatthebushings. Voltage drop U1 across the cavity is caused by discharge current i1(t) and releases a charge q1 = true charge.
q1=U1C1
The discharge of C1 causes a rapid charge transfer in capacitances C2 and C3. This charge transfer causes a measurablevoltagedropUtatthetestobjectcapacitanceCt(atthewindingbushingconnection).
Assuming:
Thetheoreticallymeasurablechargeqtis:
qtq3 q3=U3Ct UtU3

BU=bushing HV=highvoltage NT=neutralterminal C1=weakregion Ct=testobjectcapacitances(C2andC3) Ut=testvoltage F=simulationofthePDsource R1=dampingresistance U1=internalvoltagedropcausedbyPD Ut=voltagedropmeasurableatthebushing i1(t)=localPDcurrentimpulse
Figure9.30:DetectablePDsignals a)schematicrepresentationofapartofthetransformerinsulation b)equivalentcircuitforPDdefectininsulatingsystem InanextendedinsulatingsystemtheUtvaluesareinthemillivoltrange,whilethemagnitudeofU1(atthe PDsource)maybeinthekilovoltrange.Thetheoreticallymeasurablechargeqtislinkedtotruechargeq1via capacitances C1 and C2 and is defined as apparent charge. Because the location of the PD source is not known, capacitances C1 and C2 cannot be estimated. The apparent charge (theoretically measurable charge qtatthebushing)canthereforenotbederivedfromthetruechargeq1atthelocationofthePDsource.
Sensitivityofthemeasurement:
In any PD test circuit, the real measurable charge qm (integral of the circulating PD current i(t)), is dependent 80 ontheratioofcouplingcapacitanceCktotestobjectcapacitanceCt,seefigure9.31. The charge transfer processes between capacitances Ct and Ck cause a residual voltage dropUres. If there is PD activity in the test object (Ct ), the real measurable charge qm released by coupling capacitance Ck is estimatedas:
qm=CkUres
Apparentchargeqtis:
qt=CtUt=(Ct+Ck)Ures
The ratio of the real measurable charge qm and apparent charge qt (theoretically measurable charge) is definedas:
To improve PD measurement sensitivity, a sufficiently large coupling capacitance Ck should be installed, see figure9.31[212].InpowertransformerPDcircuitsthecouplingcapacitancevalueisdeterminedbythetypeof bushing(from200to600pF).ThesensitivityofeachPDcircuitisdefinedbythecalibrationprocedure.
q=apparentcharge qm=measurablecharge
Figure9.31:InfluenceofcouplingcapacitorCkonthemeasuringsensitivityqm/q The maximum sensitivity for detection of a compensating PD currentimpulse i(t) is reached for Ck >> Ct (Ck = 100 Ct, see figure 9.31). As the value of coupling capacitance Ck decreases, the sensitivity of the PD circuit is reducedduetothelowercompensatingcurrenti(t). The minimum coupling capacitance of any PD test circuit is the stray capacitance Cs of the HV potential electrodestoground.APDcircuitusingCsasacouplingcapacitancehasaverylow sensitivitybecauseCs<<Ct. Theoretically a RIVsystem without CISPR weighting circuit delivers the same amplitude of measurable charge qm as a narrowband filter (quasiintegration of circulating PD current i(t)), except that the reading is calibratedinmicrovolt. ForanyRIVsystemwithaweightingcircuit,noconversionispossiblebetweenpCandV.
A9.4Typicalexternalnoisesources
A sensitive PD system connected to an extended test circuit for PD measurements on HV transformers is able todetectallhighfrequencyimpulsesinthetestcircuit.ThePDsystemcannotdistinguishbetweentherealPD impulse and external noise. If PD activity is detected, the possibility of an external source must be investigated.AnoverviewofexternalPDsourcesisgiveninfigure9.32[212].
1,2=lowvoltagepowersupply 3=highvoltagesource 4=HVfilter 5=connectionsandelectrodes 6=Ck=couplingcapacitor 7=conductingobject 8=pulseshapedinterferences 9=harmonicinterferences 10=interferencecurrentsintheearthingsystem 11=lowvoltagepowersupply Figure9.32:Typicalnoisesources(seetextforexplanation)
Lowvoltagepowersupply(1,2,11)
Noise such as thyristor pulses or harmonics from the low voltage power supply, may especially influence a sensitive PD system which is directly connected to the power line. If these are present, a lowpass filter or insulatingtransformershouldbeused.Duetothefilteringeffectofthestepuptransformer(3)andoftheHV filter (4) in the connection to the test object, the noise from the lowvoltage power line is usually sufficiently suppressed. If there is a noise problem, a second stepup transformer may be used as an additional filter or a PDsystemwithanarrowbandfiltercouldbeused(f0>1MHz).
Highvoltagesource(3)
An HV source must generally be PDfree. If there is a problem, the coupling capacitor Ck can be connected directlytothesource(withoutthetestobject)toeasilychecktheHVsource.
HVfilter(4)
Indifficultcases,aPDfreeHVfilter(lowpass)mustsometimesbeused.
Connectionsinthetestcircuitandelectrodes(5)
All bushing tops (even earthed bushings) and sharp metallic parts on top of the transformer (especially close to the bushings) should be shielded; see clause A 9.8. All connections should be PDfree (sufficient radius). All 82 measuringimpedancesZmmusthaveagoodconnectiontoearth. Ifthereisaproblemanultrasonicdetector (coronagun)maybeusedtodetectanexternalPDsource.ThePDtypecanbedeterminedfromthestatistical analysisofthePDsignals(typicalPDpattern,seeTable3).
Couplingcapacitor(6)
The coupling capacitor must be PDfree. If there is a problem, the coupling capacitor must be measured separately.
Conductiveobjectsclosetothetransformerundertest(7)
Unearthed conductive objects close to the transformer under test are charged to a high potential due to the electric field. If the breakdown field value is reached, a pulselike discharge occurs. These PD impulses are coupled to the PD test circuit and detected at the measuring impedances, and normally exhibit a very high apparent charge amplitude. This PD source can be recognized by comparing it with typical PD patterns, by visualobservationinthelaboratory,orbyusinganultrasonicdetector.
Interferenceinnonshieldedlaboratories(8,9)
Pulseshaped interferences (switching phenomena) or harmonic interferences (radio transmitters) heavily influence the sensitivity of the PD system. In these cases a narrowband filter with variable center frequency shouldbeused,seeclauseA9.2,tosuppresstheambientinterference.Thebestwaytosuppresstheeffectof suchexternalinterferencesistoapplyanadvancedPDsystem,whichusesaspectrumanalyzerasafrontend, see clause 9.9. Repetitive external sources like thyristor pulses can be gated out. A gating function is available on several PD systems. The final possibility for suppressing these electromagnetic waves is the constructionofashieldedHVlaboratory(Faradaycage).
Note:
Measuring impedance Zm (lower cutoff frequency at 10 kHz) normally suppresses the power frequency displacement currents at capacitances Ck and Ct . If the power frequency current limit for the specific impedanceZmisexceeded,suppressionofpowerfrequencycurrentislost.Beforeapplyingatestvoltage,the maximum power frequency current in the test circuit, which is dependent on capacitances Ck and Ct in the testcircuit,shouldbecalculated.Themaximumpowerfrequencycurrentinthecapacitanceisdefinedby:
A9.5AdvancedPDsystem
TheICMsys8,(manufacturedbyPowerDiagnostixSystemsGmbH,Germany)isaspeciallydesignedmodernPD system to meet the requirements of partial discharge measurements on power transformers. The ICMsys8 uses wideband filters for both digital data acquisition and further data processing of conventionally detected PDsignals,seeclauseA9.2. True parallel acquisition of PD impulse currents on eight channels is achieved by using eight individual amplifiers (wideband filters) connected to eight measuring impedances at the bushings via eight pre amplifiers. The PD activity is detected simultaneously on all eight channels and processed in the controller unit, see figure 9.33a. PD readings can be weighted according to IEC in pC or according to IEEE inV (analog interfaceforRIVmeter).TypicalresultoftheICMsys8isshowninfigure9.33b.
In addition to PD signal detection, the ICMsys8 offers eight independent channels for voltage measurements 83 viaaseparatetapateachmeasuringimpedanceZm.
Figure9.33a:AdvancedPDsystemICMsys8
Besides conventional PD signal detection of the apparentcharge values, the ICMsys8 is capable of performing astatisticalanalysisofthedetectedPDactivity(i.e.phaseresolvingpartialdischarge analysis(PDpattern)atthespecificchannel,seefigure9.33b. The principle of a PhaseResolving Partial Discharge Analyzer (PRPDAsystem, ICM systems) is shown in figure 9.34[215]. A PRPDAsystem produces a two or threedimensional PD pattern (phase angle, discharge magnitude and number of events are obtained; see figure 9.35). For twodimensional PD patterns the third dimension (numberofcountsperchannel)isindicatedbythecolorcode.
PD pattern reflects the sum of all PD impulses collected during a specific measuring time (for example, a presettimeof60secondscorrespondsto3000cyclesfora50Hztestvoltagepowerfrequency). PD pattern can be regarded as a fingerprint of the partial discharge activity of a specific defect in the test object. Both the phase resolution and the amplitude resolution are 8bit (256 channels for the phase and 256 levels fortheamplitudeoftheapparentcharge). The main difference between a conventional and a modern digital PD system is the ability to perform a statisticalanalysisofthedetectedPDcurrentimpulses(PDpattern).AconventionalPDsystemdelivers phaseresolvedinformationaboutthePDactivityforonlyonecycle,seefigure9.8b.
Figure9.34:PrinciplePhaseResolvingPartialDischargeAnalyser(PRPDAsystem)
Figure9.35:RegistrationofPDimpulses(bubblesandsurfacedischarge);advancedPDsystem(statistical analysisofPDimpulses) A phaseresolving partial discharge analysis is important for identification of the type of PD source for the followingreasons: PDpatternsidentifyaspecifictypeofPDsource(imageofthephysicalprocess;seeTables3 and4andclauseA9.1) PDpatternsarenotinfluencedbythesignaltransferfunctionoftheextendedinsulatingsystem (statisticalbehaviordoesnotchange) PDpatternscanbeusedtodistinguishbetweensuperimposedPDdefectsonthebasisof differentstatisticalbehavior
A9.6DetectionofacousticPDsignals
AnacousticPDsignalisamechanicalvibrationcharacterizedbyitsfrequencyf. Theoretically, the PD source acts as a point source of acoustic waves. The intensity of the emitted acoustic wavesisproportionaltotheenergyreleasedduringthedischarge.
W1=q1U1
where: W1=locallyreleasedenergy q1=localcharge U1=localvoltagedrop
Acoustic wave propagation occurs only if the wavelength is small compared with the length of the 86 propagationpath. Inaspecificmediumthewavelengthisgivenby:
where: =wavelength v=soundvelocityinaspecificmedium(1400m/sinoil) f=frequencyofmechanicalvibration(acousticwave)
Oil would be a perfect medium for the propagation of acoustic waves, with no attenuation or dispersion occurring. In the transformers, acoustic waves propagation is heavily influenced by the complicated structure of the insulating system (winding barriers, core, and tank walls). In a complicated structure, both the amplitude (attenuation) and the signalshape (absorption, dispersion) of the acoustic signal emitted by a PD sourcechangealongitspropagationpath[217]. Besides the absorption and dispersion phenomena, the multitude of wave types complicate the analysis of acoustic PD signals detected in a multimaterial structure. Two types of waves must generally be considered fortheanalysisofacousticsignals,seefigure9.36.
Figure9.36:Schematicpresentationoftwotypesofacousticwaves.
Transversalwaves;attenuationisdependentonwallthickness Longitudinalwaves;highervelocitythantransversalwaves(approximatelyafactoroftwo) Possible propagation paths of acoustic waves from a PD source to the transformer tank wall are shown schematicallyinfigure9.37.Thetwowaves(superimposed)arecreatedataninterface,eitherbyincidenceor reflection, see figure 9.37. An acoustic sensor positioned at a defined location on the tank wall detects both, directly propagated waves and wallpropagated waves. The two wave types have different propagation velocities.
v1=velocityofdirectwave v2=velocityofwallwave =incidentangle Z=distanceofthePDsourcetothewall h=thicknessofthewall Figure9.37:Possibleacousticwavesatthesensor
In order to localize the PD sources by analyzing the time difference between the electric and acoustic PD signals, there must be a possibility to distinguish between directly propagated and wallpropagated waves. This information is theoretically hidden in the wave front of the acoustic signal that is detected at the sensor onthetankwall,seefigure9.38.
Note:
Thefastestpropagationpathisnotthedirectpath,butthepathwithanincidentangle,seefigure9.37:
where: v1=velocityinmedium1(forexampleinoil) v2=velocityinmedium2(forexampleinthetankwall)
Figure9.38:AnalysisofacousticwavesofPDsources a)Detectionofdirect(throughtheoil)acousticwave b)Detectionofreflectedacousticwaveorwavepropagatedthroughdifferentmedia
Advanceddetectionsystem: ThreeTransducerDetector(TTD)
A minimum of three acoustic sensors (piezoelectric transducers) and a fourchannel digital oscilloscope are theoretically required to localize PD sources using the time difference between electric and acoustic signals. An advanced detection system, ThreeTransducer Detector (TTD) is used in ABB factories, see figure 9.39 [218].
Note:
Thissystemisnotmanufacturedanymore,butisstillinuse.Thethreetransducers(piezoelectriccrystals)are placed close to one another (equilateral triangle with L = 0,15m) so that the propagation path of the acoustic waves from the PD source is nearly the same. TTD defines its own x, y and z coordinate system (normalized vectors). The normalized coordinates (x, y, z) give the direction to the source and depend only on time differences in the TTD system, see figure 9.39c. It is assumed that the distance between the transducers L is considerably less than the distance d of the TTDsensors to the PDsource when deriving the localization formulas,seefigure9.39c.
Figure9.39a:MaincomponentsoftheTTDsystem
AtypicalresultobtainedbytheTTDsystemisshowninfigure9.40. TheprocedureforlocalizingthePDsourceusingtheTTDresultsisgiveninthefollowingandwillbeexplained furtherusinganexample: Adecisionismadewhetheradirectwaveorawallwavewasdetectedbyanalyzingthe shapeofthedetectedsignal Theapparentvelocity,vappiscalculatedbyapproximateexpressiontodistinguishbetween directwaveandwallwave
where: L=distancebetweentransducers t1,t2,t3=timedifferencebetweenelectricandacousticsignalsforthethreetransducers theapparentvelocityvappiscomparedwithsoundvelocitiesinmaterialsrelevantforthe transformerinsulatingsystem,seeTable5. adecisionismadeaboutthetypeofwave(directorwallwave) thecoordinatesx,y,zofthePDsourcearecalculatedusingTTDsoftwareforthespecificwave (directorwallwave)
Figure9.39c:Normalizedcoordinates Therearethreedifferentconditionsforthecalculatedapparentvelocityvapp. vapp>vtransversal>directincidentwavewithshallowangle vappvtransversal>transversalwave vapp<vtransversal>shouldnothappen(possiblyinthinwalls)
Note:
Apparentvelocityvappisalwayshigherthanvoil(1400m/s). Table5:Exampleofsoundvelocities
Example
CalculationofthePDsourcelocationusingtheresultspresentedinfigure9.40. Theshapeofthedetectedacousticsignalindicatesawallwave(superimposedlongitudinaland transversalwaves) Apparentvelocityvapp=3417m/sforalongitudinalwave,calculatedvaluesforalongitudinalwave(t1L~ 336s,t2L~363s,t3L~320s)donotclearlyindicatealongitudinalwave
Figure9.40:TypicalTTDsystemresult
apparentvelocityvapp=3236m/sforatransversalwave,calculatedvaluesforatransversalwave(t1T~382 s,t2T~418s,t3T~375s)indicateawallwave(3200m/s=velocityoftransversalwaveforsteelplate) calculatedpositionofthePDsourceforwallwave(TTDsoftware) x=+0.19,y=0.52,z=+0.34m
Note:
DuetothedifferentpathsofelectricandacousticPDsignalsthroughtheinsulatingsystemofthetransformer, there is no simple relationship between the amplitude of apparent charge and the amplitude of acoustic waves. Knowledge of the transformer insulating system and experience in the analysis of the results are needed to localizePDsourcesbyanalyzingacousticPDsignals.
A9.7LocalizationofthePDsourceusinganalysisoftheelectricsignals
Electric PD signals (PD current impulses) propagate from the PD source through the RLCMnetwork of the transformer, see figure 9.42. The response of this network to excitation by a PD current impulse at any location in the insulating system can only be detected at the bushings. All information available in the detectedsignalmustthereforebeanalyzed.[214,219] Allsignalsinthetimedomain(recordedusinganoscilloscope)andinthefrequencydomain(recordedusinga spectrumanalyzer)aregenerallylinkedviaFouriertransformation,seefigure9.41.[121] For a given nonperiodic PD current impulse i(t), the complex frequency spectrum I(j) is obtained from the Fourierintegral:
Allthough the PD current signal is the same, the data recorded in the time domain and in the frequency domaincontaindifferentinformation,whichisimportantforlocalizationofthePDsource. 92 Theoretically a specific response of the RLCM network exists for any type of PD pulse and for any location of thePDsourceintheinsulatingsystem,andmaybedetectedatthetransformerbushings. A time consuming characterization of the transformer RLCM network is generally necessary to be able to analyze real PD signals in the time and frequency domains. A calibrating signal (usually 1000 pC) is injected at one specific bushing and crosscouplings are successively recorded at all other bushings. This procedure is repeatedforeachbushing,seeclause9.9.
A=amplitude f=frequency t=time Figure9.41:Signalpresentationintimedomainandfrequencydomain

A9.7.1AnalysisofPDsignalsinthetimedomain[214]
ThePDcurrentimpulseinthetimedomaindetectedatthebushingcanbecharacterizedbythree components,seefigure9.43: Capacitivecomponentcausedbytransmissionthroughthecapacitiveladdernetwork Travelingwavecomponentcausedbyelectromagneticwavetransmission OscillatingcomponentdeterminedbytheresonancefrequencyoftheLCcircuit BasictimeresolvedPDsignalcharacteristicsthatshouldbeanalyzedare: MaximumamplitudeofthePDcurrentsignal(mV) RisetimeofthePDcurrentsignal OscillationsofthePDcurrentsignal ReproducibilityofPDcurrentsignals
Figure9.43:PDsignalanalysisintimedomain An indication about the location of the PD source is given by comparing the recorded PD signals in the time domainwiththeresultsofthecharacterizationofthetransformer.
A9.7.2AnalysisofPDsignalsinthefrequencydomain[216]
ThePDcurrentimpulseinfrequencydomaindetectedatthebushingcanbecharacterizedbytwotypical frequencyspectra,seefigure9.44: TypicalfrequencyspectrumgeneratedbyveryfastPDsignals(closetothemeasuringtap) TypicalfrequencyspectrumgeneratedbyattenuatedPDsignals(insidetheinsulatingsystem)
Y1=closetothemeasuringtop X1=couplingviaRLCMnetwork Figure9.44:PDsignalanalysisinfrequencydomain Basicfrequencyspectrafeaturesthatshouldbeanalyzedare: Amplitudeofthepowerspectrum(dBm) Frequencyrangeofthepowerspectrum Typicalresonances Reproducibilityofpowerspectra TheindicationaboutthelocationofthePDsourceisfoundbycomparingthePDsignalfrequencyspectrawith theresultsofthecharacterizationofthetransformer.
Note:
All the theoretical components of the signals in the frequency domain as well as in the time domain are strongly dependent on the design of the transformer (size, type of windings), on the true location of the PD defect with respect to the terminal where the PD signal was detected and on the original shape of the PD signal(dischargeingas,oil,orsolidmaterial).Knowledgeofthetransformerinsulatingsystemandexperience intheanalysisoftheresultsarerequiredtolocalizePDsourcesusingtheanalysisoftheelectricPDsignals.

A9.8Coronashielding
Externaldischarge(corona)canbepreventedbyshielding.Aguidelineforshieldingisgiveninfigure9.45.The graphshowspermissiblevoltageontheshieldwithoutgivingrisetocorona.
Figure9.45:Shieldingdimensionstoeliminatecorona

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M MTEKP RO

POWE ER TRA ANSFOR RMER TESTIN NG

MTEKP PROTechnologiesPvt.Ltd,NewDelh hi- 110048

m[Ty ype text]

Power Transformer Testing 2

Power Transformer Testing 3

Power Transformer Testing 4

Power Transformer Testing 5

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1.3Polaritytest 1.3.1Polaritytestusingvoltmeters Singlephasetransformers

Power Transformer Testing 6

Power Transformer Testing

Power Transformer Testing 8

Testingof PowerTransformers 2.WindingResistance Measurement.

Power Transformer Testing 9

Windingresistanceservesanumberofimportantfunctionslike: Providingabasevaluetoestablishloadloss. ProvidingabasisforanindirectmethodtoestablishwindingtemperatureandTemperaturerise withinawinding. Inclusionaspartofaninhousequalityassuranceprogram,likeverifyingelectriccontinuitywithina winding.

C+2 R2=R1 C+1

Power Transformer Testing

Power Transformer Testing 11

Power Transformer Testing 12

Testingof PowerTransformers 3.MagneticBalanceand MagnetisingCurrent Measurement.

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Power Transformer Testing 13

Centralphase BN 180V 230V 180V

Rightsidephase CN 50V 115V 230V

AN 230V 115V 50V

Power Transformer Testing 14

Power Transformer Testing 15

Testingof PowerTransformers 4.MEASUREMENTOFSHORT CIRCUITIMPEDANCE

Power Transformer Testing 16

Where: Vtest=Testvoltage Vrated=Ratedvoltage Itest=Testcurrent Irated=Ratedcurrent ft=Testfrequency fr=Ratedfrequency

Power Transformer Testing 17

Testingof PowerTransformers 5.Measurementofdissipation factor(tan)oftheinsulation systemcapacitances.

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Power Transformer Testing Measurementofdissipationfactor(tan)oftheinsulationsystemcapacitances 18 Thepurposeofthemeasurement

Power Transformer Testing 19

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Power Transformer Testing 20

Power Transformer Testing

HVtoGround GSTg LV1toGround GSTg LV2toGround GSTg

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Power Transformer Testing

HVIV/LV+G HVIV/LV withGuard

CHL +CHG CHG

LV leadoftest kitto HV/IV bushings of transformer HVleadoftestkittoLV bushingoftransformer

LV/ HVIV withGuard

Power Transformer Testing 23

PowerTransformers 6.Measurement InsulationResistance.

Power Transformer Testing

Power Transformer Testing

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Power Transformer Testing 26

PI=R10/R1(dimensionless), WherePIisPolarisationIndexandRisresistance Thefollowingareguidelinesforevaluatingtransformerinsulationusingpolarizationindexvalues:

Power Transformer Testing

Testingof PowerTransformers 7.CHECKLISTFORENERGISATION OFTRANSFORMER.

Power Transformer Testing 28

beforeenergisation. 11.ChecktheoilofOLTCchamber,ifnotgood,drainandfillwithfilteredoiluptodesiredlevel. 12CheckthatequalisinglinkbetweenOLTCtankandMaintankisremoved 13Extraneousmaterialsliketools,earthingrods,piecesofclothes,wasteetc.shouldberemovedbefore energisation.

Power Transformer Testing 29

Power Transformer Testing

Power Transformer Testing 31

PowerTransformers 8.PRECOMMISSIONINGCHECKS /TESTSFORTRANSFORMERS.

Power Transformer Testing 32